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Who directed The Big Sleep and Gentlemen Prefer Blondes?
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"The Big Sleep is a 1946 film noir directed by Howard Hawks, the first film version of Raymond Chandler's 1939 novel of the same name. The movie stars Humphrey Bogart as private detective Philip Marlowe and Lauren Bacall as Vivian Rutledge in a story about the \"process of a criminal investigation, not its results.\" William Faulkner, Leigh Brackett, and Jules Furthman co-wrote the screenplay.\n\nIn 1997, the U.S. Library of Congress deemed the film \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant,\" and added it to the National Film Registry.\n\nPlot\n\nPrivate detective Philip Marlowe (Humphrey Bogart) is summoned to the mansion of his new client General Sternwood (Charles Waldron). The wealthy retired general wants to resolve gambling debts his daughter, Carmen Sternwood (Martha Vickers), owes to bookseller Arthur Gwynn Geiger. As Marlowe is leaving, General Sternwood's older daughter, Mrs. Vivian Rutledge (Lauren Bacall), stops him. She suspects her father's true motive for calling in a detective is to find his young friend Sean Regan, who had mysteriously disappeared a month earlier.\n\nMarlowe goes to Geiger's rare book shop. Agnes Louzier (Sonia Darrin), Geiger's assistant, minds the shop, which is the front for an illegal operation. Marlowe follows Geiger to his house, where he hears a gunshot and a woman scream. Breaking in, he finds Geiger's body and a drugged Carmen, as well as a hidden camera with an empty cartridge. Marlowe picks up Carmen and takes her home. He goes back to the house, but discovers the body is no longer there. Marlowe later learns that the Sternwoods' driver (Owen Taylor) has been found dead, with his car driven off a pier.\n\nVivian comes to Marlowe's office the next morning with scandalous pictures of Carmen she received with a blackmail demand for the negatives. Marlowe returns to Geiger's bookstore, where they are packing up the store. Marlowe follows a car to the apartment of Joe Brody (Louis Jean Heydt), a gambler who previously blackmailed General Sternwood. He returns to Geiger's house and finds Carmen there. She initially claims ignorance about the murder, then insists Brody killed Geiger. They are interrupted by the owner of the home, small-time gangster Eddie Mars (John Ridgely).\n\nMarlowe follows Vivian to the apartment of Joe Brody, where he finds Brody armed, and Agnes and Vivian initially hiding. They are interrupted by Carmen, who wants her photos. Marlowe keeps the pictures and sends Vivian and Carmen home. Brody admits he was blackmailing both General Sternwood and Vivian, then he is suddenly shot and killed; the assailant flees. Marlowe chases and apprehends Carol Lundgren, Geiger's former driver, who has killed Brody in revenge for Geiger's death, not knowing the chauffeur killed Geiger. He takes Lundgren back to Geiger's house, where Lundgren has returned the body. He calls the police to the house to clear up both the Geiger and Brody murders. \n\nMarlowe visits Mars' casino, where he asks about Regan, who is supposed to have run off with Mars' wife. Mars is evasive and tells Marlowe that Vivian is running up gambling debts. Vivian wins a big wager and then wants Marlowe to take her home. A stooge of Mars' attempts to rob Vivian, but Marlowe intervenes and knocks him out.\n\nWhile driving home, Marlowe unsuccessfully presses Vivian on her connection with Mars, saying he knew the money she won and subsequent robbery were staged for Marlowe's benefit. Vivian admits to nothing. Marlowe returns home to find a flirtatious Carmen waiting for him. She admits she did not like Regan and mentions that Mars calls Vivian frequently. She attempts to seduce Marlowe, who throws her out of his apartment. The next day, Vivian tells him he can stop looking for Regan; he has been found in Mexico, and she is going to see him. Mars has Marlowe beaten up to emphasize the point.\n\nHarry Jones (Cook), an associate of Brody's who wants to marry Agnes, conveys an offer from her to reveal the location of Mars' wife for $200. When Marlowe goes to meet Jones, Canino, a killer hired by Mars, is there attempting to find Agnes himself. Canino poisons Jones after he discloses Agnes' location (which turns out to be false). Agnes telephones the office where Jones was killed while Marlowe is still there. He arranges to meet her anyway.\n\nAgnes reveals that she has seen Mona Mars near a town called Realito behind an auto repair shop. When he gets there, Marlowe is attacked by Canino. He wakes to find himself tied up, with Mona watching over him. Vivian then comes in. Mona angrily leaves after Marlowe tells her that Mars is a gangster and a killer. Vivian fears for Marlowe's life and frees him, allowing him to get to his car and his gun. She distracts Canino, who is shot by Marlowe. During the drive back to Geiger's bungalow, Vivian unconvincingly tries to claim she killed Sean Regan.\n\nWhen they arrive, Marlowe calls Mars and lies that he is still in Realito. They arrange to meet at Geiger's house, giving Marlowe ten minutes to prepare. Mars arrives with four men, who set up an ambush outside. Mars enters and is surprised by Marlowe, who holds him at gunpoint. Marlowe reveals he has discerned the truth: Mars has been blackmailing Vivian, claiming that her sister Carmen had killed Regan. As soon as Mars threatens Marlowe with his men outside, Marlowe retaliates by firing shots that just miss Mars, causing him to run outside, where he is mistakenly shot by his own men.\n\nMarlowe then calls the police, telling them that Mars is the one who killed Regan. In the process, he tells them that Vivian helped him with Eddie Mars, exempting her from criminal prosecution, and tells Vivian that her sister Carmen needs psychiatric care.\n\nCast\n\n* Humphrey Bogart as Philip Marlowe\n* Lauren Bacall as Vivian Sternwood Rutledge\n* John Ridgely as Eddie Mars\n* Martha Vickers as Carmen Sternwood\n* Dorothy Malone as Acme Bookstore proprietress\n* Pat Clark as Mona Mars [1945 version only]\n* Peggy Knudsen as Mona Mars [1946 version only]\n* Regis Toomey as Chief Inspector Bernie Ohls\n* Charles Waldron as General Sternwood\n* Charles D. Brown as Norris\n* Bob Steele as Lash Canino\n* Elisha Cook, Jr. as Harry Jones\n* Louis Jean Heydt as Joe Brody\n\nUncredited Cast\n* Sonia Darrin as Agnes Lowzier, the salesgirl at A.J. Geiger bookstore\n* Ben Welden as Pete, Mars' flunky\n* Tom Fadden as Sidney, Mars' flunky\n* Trevor Bardette as Art Huck\n* Theodore von Eltz as Arthur Gwynn Geiger\n* James Flavin as Captain Cronjager [1945 version only]\n* Thomas E. Jackson as District Attorney Wilde [1945 version only]\n* Tommy Rafferty as Carol Lundgren \n* Dan Wallace as Owen Taylor \n* Joseph Crehan as Medical Examiner\n* Joy Barlowe as Cab Driver \n\nProduction and release\n\nThe Big Sleep is known for its convoluted plot. During filming, allegedly neither the director nor the screenwriters knew whether chauffeur Owen Taylor was murdered or had killed himself. They sent a cable to Chandler, who told a friend in a later letter: \"They sent me a wire ... asking me, and dammit I didn't know either\". \n\nAfter its completion, Warner Bros. did not release The Big Sleep until they had turned out a backlog of war-related films. Because the war was ending, the studio feared the public might lose interest in the films, while The Big Sleeps subject was not time-sensitive. Attentive observers will note indications of the film's wartime production, such as period dialogue, pictures of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and a woman taxi driver, who says to Bogart, \"I'm your girl.\" Wartime rationing influences the film: dead bodies are called \"red points\", which referred to wartime meat rationing, and Marlowe's car has a \"B\" gasoline rationing sticker in the lower passenger-side window, indicating he was essential to the war effort and therefore allowed eight gallons of gasoline per week.\n\nThe \"Bogie and Bacall\" phenomenon, a fascination with the couple that had begun with To Have and Have Not, and that grew during their subsequent marriage, was in full swing by the end of the war. Bacall's agent, Charles K. Feldman, asked that portions of the film be re-shot to capitalize on their chemistry and counteract the negative press Bacall had received for her 1945 performance in Confidential Agent. Producer Jack L. Warner agreed, and new scenes, such as the sexually suggestive racehorse dialogue, were added (scripted by an uncredited Julius Epstein). The re-shot ending featured Peggy Knudsen as Mona Mars because Pat Clark, the originally cast actress, was unavailable. Furthermore, the parts of James Flavin and Thomas E. Jackson were completely eliminated. Because of the two versions created by the re-shooting, there is a substantial difference in content of some twenty minutes between them, although the difference in running time is two minutes. The re-shot, revised The Big Sleep was released on 23 August 1946.\n\nThe cinematic release of The Big Sleep is regarded as more successful than the 1945 pre-release version (see below), even though it is confusing and difficult to follow. This may be due in part to the omission of a long conversation between Marlowe and the Los Angeles District Attorney where the facts of the case, thus far, are laid out. Yet movie-star aficionados prefer the film noir version because they consider the Bogart-Bacall appearances more important than a well-told story. For an example of this point of view, see Roger Ebert's The Great Movies essay on the film. \n\nNovelist Raymond Chandler said Martha Vickers (Carmen) overshadowed Lauren Bacall (Vivian) in their scenes together, which led the producers to delete much of Vickers' performance to enhance Bacall's. \n\nEffects of the Hays Code\n\nSexuality\n\nA primary focus of the Hays Office censorship policies was to heavily restrict sexual themes.[http://www.artsreformation.com/a001/hays-code.html The Motion Picture Production Code of 1930 (Hays Code)] In the novel, Geiger is selling pornography, then illegal and associated with organized crime, and is also a homosexual having a relationship with Lundgren. Likewise, Carmen is described as being nude in Geiger's house, and later nude and in Marlowe's bed. To ensure the film would be approved by the Hays Office, changes had to be made. Carmen had to be fully dressed, and the pornographic elements could only be alluded to with cryptic references to photographs of Carmen wearing a \"Chinese dress\" and sitting in a \"Chinese chair\". The sexual orientation of Geiger and Lundgren goes unmentioned in the film because references to homosexuality were prohibited. The scene of Carmen in Marlowe's bed was replaced with a scene in which she appears, fully dressed, sitting in Marlowe's apartment, when he promptly kicks her out. The scene, shot in 1944, was entirely omitted in the 1945 cut but restored for the 1946 version.\n\nReception\n\nCritical response\n\n1946 version\n\nAt the time of its 1946 release, Bosley Crowther said the film leaves the viewer \"confused and dissatisfied\", points out that Bacall is a \"dangerous looking female\" ...\"who still hasn't learned to act\" and notes: \nThe Big Sleep is one of those pictures in which so many cryptic things occur amid so much involved and devious plotting that the mind becomes utterly confused. And, to make it more aggravating, the brilliant detective in the case is continuously making shrewd deductions which he stubbornly keeps to himself. What with two interlocking mysteries and a great many characters involved, the complex of blackmail and murder soon becomes a web of utter bafflement. Unfortunately, the cunning script-writers have done little to clear it at the end.\n\nTime called the film \"wakeful fare for folks who don't care what is going on, or why, so long as the talk is hard and the action harder\" but insists that \"the plot's crazily mystifying, nightmare blur is an asset, and only one of many\"; it calls Bogart \"by far the strongest\" of its assets and says Hawks, \"even on the chaste screen...manages to get down a good deal of the glamorous tawdriness of big-city low life, discreetly laced with hints of dope addiction, voyeurism and fornication.\" \n\n1997 release of the 1945 original cut\n\nIn the late 1990s, a pre-release version—director Hawks's original cut—was found in the UCLA Film and Television Archive. That version had been released to the military to play to troops in the South Pacific. Benefactors, led by American magazine publisher Hugh Hefner, raised the money to pay for its restoration, and the original version of The Big Sleep was released in art-house cinemas in 1997 for a short exhibition run, along with a comparative documentary about the cinematic and content differences between Hawks's film noir and the Warner Brothers \"movie star\" version.\n\nFilm critic Roger Ebert, who included the film in his list of \"Great Movies\", praises the film's writing:\n\nWorking from Chandler's original words and adding spins of their own, the writers (William Faulkner, Jules Furthman and Leigh Brackett) wrote one of the most quotable of screenplays: it's unusual to find yourself laughing in a movie not because something is funny but because it's so wickedly clever.\n\nNote that the above quote is not specific to the 1945 version but, rather, is in reference to both films. In fact, Ebert preferred the 1946 version. He stated:\nThe new scenes [of the 1946 version] add a charge to the film that was missing in the 1945 version; this is a case where \"studio interference\" was exactly the right thing. The only reason to see the earlier version is to go behind the scenes, to learn how the tone and impact of a movie can be altered with just a few scenes... As for the 1946 version that we have been watching all of these years, it is one of the great films noir, a black-and-white symphony that exactly reproduces Chandler's ability, on the page, to find a tone of voice that keeps its distance, and yet is wry and humorous and cares. \n\nIn a 1997 review, Eric Brace of The Washington Post wrote that the 1945 original had a \"slightly slower pace than the one released a year later, and a touch less zingy interplay between Bogart and Bacall, but it’s still an unqualified masterpiece.\" \n\nAccolades\n\nIn 2003, AFI named protagonist Philip Marlowe the 32nd greatest hero in film. Empire magazine added The Big Sleep to their Masterpiece collection in the October 2007 issue.\n\nHome media\n\nA region-1 (U.S. and Canada) DVD version of The Big Sleep was released in 2000. It is a double-sided, single-layer disc; with the 1946 theatrical version on side-A (114 m), and the 1945 version (116 m) on side-B. The 1946 opening credits appear on both versions, including Peggy Knudsen, who never appears in the original version. Nowhere is the original actress, Pat Clark, ever credited. The DVD also contains a 16-minute, edited version of the 1997 documentary comparing the two versions that is narrated by Robert Gitt, who worked on the restoration of the 1945 version. Film critic Walter Chaw writes of the DVD releases of The Big Sleep and To Have and Have Not (1944), \"The fullscreen transfer of The Big Sleep is generally good but, again, not crystalline, though the grain that afflicts the earlier picture is blissfully absent. Shadow detail is strong—important given that The Big Sleep is oneiric—and while the brightness seems uneven, it's not enough to be terribly distracting. The DD 1.0 audio is just fine.\" \n\nA Blu-ray DVD was released by Warner Bros. in 2015. It \"includes the 1945 cut of the film that was screened for overseas servicemen, running two minutes longer and containing scenes not used in the official release.\" \n\n1978 remake\n\nA remake starring Robert Mitchum as Philip Marlowe was released in 1978. This was the second movie in three years featuring Mitchum as Marlowe. Many have noted that while it was more faithful to the novel, due to lack of restrictions on what could be portrayed on screen, it was far less successful than the original 1946 version with Bogart and Bacall.",
"Gentlemen Prefer Blondes is a 1953 American film adaptation of the 1949 stage musical, released by 20th Century Fox, directed by Howard Hawks, and starring Jane Russell and Marilyn Monroe with Charles Coburn, Elliott Reid, Tommy Noonan, George Winslow, Taylor Holmes and Norma Varden in supporting roles.\n\nThe screenplay by Charles Lederer was based on the 1949 Broadway musical of the same name, directed by John C. Wilson, with Carol Channing as Lorelei Lee, which was written by Anita Loos and Joseph Fields. The stage musical was based on Gentlemen Prefer Blondes: The Intimate Diary of a Professional Lady, a 1925 novel by Anita Loos. It was adapted for the stage in 1926, and then a 1928 silent movie, starring Ruth Taylor, Alice White, Ford Sterling and Mack Swain, which is now lost.\n\nWhile Russell's down-to-earth, sharp wit has been noted by most critics, it is Monroe's turn as the gold-digging Lorelei Lee for which the film is often remembered. Monroe's rendition of the song \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\" and her pink dress are considered iconic, and the performance has inspired homages by Madonna, Geri Halliwell, Kylie Minogue, Nicole Kidman, Anna Nicole Smith, Christina Aguilera and James Franco.\n\nThe movie is filled with comedic gags and musical numbers, choreographed by Jack Cole, while the music was written by songwriting teams Hoagy Carmichael & Harold Adamson and Jule Styne & Leo Robin. The songs by Styne and Robin are from the Broadway show, while the songs by Carmichael and Adamson were written especially for the film.\n\nPlot\n\nLorelei Lee (Marilyn Monroe) and Dorothy Shaw (Jane Russell) are American showgirls and best friends. Lorelei has a passion for diamonds, believing that attracting a rich husband is one of the few ways a woman can succeed economically. She is engaged to Gus Esmond (Tommy Noonan), a naïve nerd willing to do or buy anything for her. However, Gus is under the control of his wealthy, upper-class father. Dorothy, on the other hand, is looking for a different kind of love, attracted only to men who are good-looking and fit.\n\nLorelei plans to wed Gus in France, but Esmond, Sr. stops his son from sailing, believing that Lorelei is bad for him. Although Lorelei's job requires that she travel to France with or without Gus, before she leaves, Gus gives her a letter of credit to cover expenses upon her arrival, and promises to later meet her in France. However, he also warns her to behave, noting that his father will prohibit their marriage if rumors of misdeeds make their way to Esmond, Sr. Unbeknownst to both of them, Esmond, Sr. has hired a private detective, Ernie Malone (Elliott Reid), to spy on Lorelei.\n\nDuring the Atlantic crossing, Malone immediately falls in love with Dorothy, but Dorothy has already been drawn to the members of the (male-only) Olympic athletics team. Lorelei meets the rich and foolish Sir Francis \"Piggy\" Beekman (Charles Coburn), the owner of a diamond mine, and is attracted by his wealth; although Piggy is married, Lorelei naively returns his geriatric flirtations, which annoys his wife, Lady Beekman (Norma Varden).\n\nLorelei invites Piggy to the cabin she shares with Dorothy, whereupon he recounts his travels to Africa. While Piggy demonstrates how a python squeezes a goat by hugging Lorelei, Malone spies on them through the window and takes pictures of the two, but is caught by Dorothy as he walks away nonchalantly. She tells Lorelei, who fears for her reputation. They come up with a scheme to intoxicate Malone and then search him to recover the incriminating film while he is unconscious. They find the film in his pants, and Lorelei promptly prints and hides the negatives. Revealing her success to Piggy, she persuades him to give her Lady Beekman's tiara as a thank you gift. However, Malone reveals he had planted a recording device in Lorelei's cabin, and has heard her discussion with Piggy about the pictures and the tiara. Malone implies that Lorelei is a golddigger and, when Dorothy scolds him for his actions, admits that he himself is a liar. However, Dorothy reveals to Lorelei she is falling for Malone, after which Lorelei chastises her for choosing a poor man when she could easily have a rich man.\n\nThe ship arrives in France, and Lorelei and Dorothy spend time shopping. However, the pair are then kicked out of their hotel and discover Lorelei's letter of credit has been cancelled due to the information Malone shared with Esmond, Sr. When Gus shows up at their show, Lorelei rebuffs him, after which she performs Diamonds are a Girl's Best Friend, the musical number whose lyrics explain why and how women need to pursue men with money. Meanwhile, Lady Beekman has filed charges regarding her missing tiara, and Lorelei is charged with theft. Dorothy persuades Lorelei to return the tiara, but the pair discover it is missing from her jewelry box. Piggy tries to weasel out of his part in the affair when Malone catches him at the airport.\n\nDorothy stalls for time in court by pretending to be Lorelei, disguised in a blonde wig and mimicking her friend's breathy voice and mannerisms. When Malone appears in court and is about to unmask \"Lorelei\" as Dorothy, she reveals to Malone in covert language that she, Dorothy, loves him but would never forgive him if he were to do anything to hurt her best friend, Lorelei. Malone withdraws his comments, but then reveals Piggy has the tiara, exonerating Lorelei.\n\nBack at the nightclub, Lorelei impresses Esmond, Sr. with a speech on the subject of paternal money, and also makes an argument that if Esmond, Sr. had a daughter instead of a son, he would want the best for her, to which he agrees and consents to his son's marriage to Lorelei. The film closes with a double wedding for Lorelei and Dorothy, who marry Esmond and Malone, respectively.\n\nCast\n\n* Jane Russell as Dorothy Shaw\n* Marilyn Monroe as Lorelei Lee (singing voice on high notes was dubbed by Marni Nixon)\n* Charles Coburn as Sir Francis \"Piggy\" Beekman\n* Elliott Reid as Ernie Malone\n* Tommy Noonan as Gus Esmond\n* Taylor Holmes as Mr. Esmond Sr.\n* Norma Varden as Lady Beekman\n* George Winslow as Henry Spofford III\n\nReception\n\nUpon release in July 1953, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes was greeted with rave reviews by both the critics and audiences. The film earned 5.3 million dollars at the box office worldwide, 5.1 million in North America, and was the ninth highest-grossing film of 1953, whereas Monroe's next feature How to Marry a Millionaire was the fourth. Monroe and Russell were both praised for their performances as Lorelei and Dorothy; and, as a result, the characters have become extremely popular in pop culture. \n\nRotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected 37 reviews, and gave the film a score of 97%, while German film director Rainer Werner Fassbinder declared it one of the ten best films ever made. \n\nAward nominations\n\nAccolades\n\n \nMonroe and Russell were accorded the honor of putting their hand and foot prints in cement in the forecourt of Grauman's Chinese Theatre, a spectacle that got a lot of publicity for both actresses and for the film. \n\nGentlemen Marry Brunettes \n\nLoos wrote a sequel to her novel entitled But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes, with further adventures of Lorelei and Dorothy. The 1955 Gentlemen Marry Brunettes musical film used only the book's name and starred Russell and Jeanne Crain playing completely new characters."
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"Howard Hawks, Director: The Big Sleep. ... To Have and Have Not (1944), The Big Sleep (1946), Red River (1948) Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) and ... 1946 The Big Sleep.",
"... The Big Sleep, Red River and Rio Bravo was also the director of Gentleman Prefer Blondes? ... Gentlemen Prefer Blondes is a triumph of a film, ...",
"Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) Directed by ... Though I don’t think I could sleep in ... a part made famous by the late blonde bombshell, in a Big Apple ...",
"... he directed the classic ... such as Hawks’ adaptation of Raymond Chandler’s pulp novel The Big Sleep brought a ... Gentlemen Prefer Blondes is ...",
"DVD Review The second of ... The Big Sleep, ... Gentlemen Prefer Blondes is definitely a memorable piece of American Film entertainment.",
"... and buy Gentlemen Prefer Blondes directed by Howard Hawks for $9.99. ... Gentlemen Prefer Blondes ... The Big Sleep (1946)"
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"Howard Hawks - IMDb\nIMDb\n17 January 2017 4:34 PM, UTC\nNEWS\na list of 40 people\ncreated 09 Dec 2010\na list of 30 people\ncreated 31 Mar 2011\na list of 23 people\ncreated 13 Oct 2012\na list of 41 people\ncreated 16 Apr 2014\na list of 21 people\ncreated 09 Oct 2015\nDo you have a demo reel?\nAdd it to your IMDbPage\nHow much of Howard Hawks's work have you seen?\nUser Polls\nNominated for 1 Oscar. Another 4 wins & 7 nominations. See more awards »\nKnown For\n | Edit\nFilmography\n 1925 The Light of Western Stars (production manager - uncredited)\n 1925 Adventure (production manager - uncredited)\n 1924 Open All Night (production manager - uncredited)\nHide \n 2014/II Dark Hearts (special thanks)\n 2003 The Dreamers (acknowledgment: director of \"Scarface\" (1932)\n 1980 Hollywood (TV Mini-Series documentary)\nHimself\n 1977 Hollywood Greats (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 1970 Plimpton! Shoot-Out at Rio Lobo (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 1967 Cinema (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 1925 1925 Studio Tour (Documentary short)\nHimself - a Writer\n 2009 1939: Hollywood's Greatest Year (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 2001-2008 American Masters (TV Series documentary)\nHimself / Himself - Interviewee\n 2003 Cary Grant and Howard Hawks (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 1993-2001 Biography (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 1997 Howard Hawks: American Artist (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 1967 The Great Professional: Howard Hawks (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\nPersonal Details\nOther Works:\nStory: \"The Chariot of the Gods\" (filmed as The Road to Glory (1926), The Road to Glory (1936)) See more »\nPublicity Listings:\n4 Biographical Movies | 10 Print Biographies | 5 Portrayals | 6 Articles | 2 Pictorials | See more »\nHeight:",
"The DVD Journal | Quick Reviews: Gentlemen Prefer Blondes\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes\nThere's No Business Like Show Business\nWho would imagine that the same man responsible for To Have and Have Not, The Big Sleep, Red River and Rio Bravo was also the director of Gentleman Prefer Blondes? But let's not forget the estimable Mr. Howard Hawks also directed Bringing Up Baby, His Girl Friday and the hilarious Ball of Fire with Gary Cooper and Barbara Stanwyck Hawks knew how to direct women, and he sure knew comedy. Gentlemen Prefer Blondes is a triumph of a film, blatantly and unapologetically about sex, romance and savvy dames with phenomenal bodies who can sing and dance. Nightclub singers Dorothy Shaw and Lorelei Lee (Jane Russell and Marilyn Monroe) are \"Just Two Little Girls From Little Rock,\" as the song says, on a luxury cruise to Europe, paid for by gold digger Lorelei's wealthy beau. Dorothy falls for the private detective who's secretly spying on Lorelei, and some messiness about possible stolen diamonds ensue. The plot is secondary to the joys of watching the delicious Russell and Monroe together Russell as the smart, street-wise Dorothy who's holding out for true love, and Monroe as the smart dumb blonde who knows how to get what she wants. The musical numbers are sexy, funny and brilliantly executed the frankly homoerotic \"Ain't Anyone Here For Love?\" features Russell cavorting with a group of gymnast/dancers in revealing, flesh-colored swim trunks, thrusting muscled legs and tight butts akimbo, and Marilyn's classic turn in \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\" still shows what a cut-rate poseur that Madonna person is. Watch this movie often it will make you happy. Fox's DVD release of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes is clean and beautiful, with all that rich Technicolor restored in a new print (the original 1.33:1), while audio is crisp in remastered Dolby stereo, along with the original mono. Includes the Movietone newsreel footage of Marilyn and Jane pressing their body parts into the cement at Grauman's Chinese Theater and trailers for all films in The Diamond Collection. Keep-case.\nDawn Taylor",
"Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) - News\nNEWS\n2016 | 2015 | 2014 | 2013 | 2012 | 2011 | 2010 | 2009 | 2007 | 2003 | 2001\n21-40 of 48 items from 2012 « Prev | Next »\n25 July 2012 11:51 AM, PDT | Thompson on Hollywood | See recent Thompson on Hollywood news »\nIn celebration of the Venice Film Festival's 80th anniversary, the fest will screen a program of restored classic films, titled \"Venezia Classici.\" Included in the cinephile-dream lineup is Orson Welles ' seldom-seen \" Chimes at Midnight ,\" Ingmar Bergman 's \" Fanny and Alexander ,\" Howard Hawks ' \" Gentlemen Prefer Blondes ,\" Roberto Rosselini's \"Stromboli\" and the restored version of Michael Cimino 's \" Heaven's Gate ,\" which Cimino will accompany (the epic failure, as described in Steven Bach 's must-read \" Final Cut ,\" brought down United Artists ). The program's mission statement shows an admirable embrace of both the preservation of invaluable film heritage and the new digital age: Although relatively recent, the promotion of access to and appreciation of the vast heritage represented by classic films is now a phenomenon of international significance. Until the end of the »\n- Beth Hanna\n25 July 2012 11:47 AM, PDT | We Got This Covered | See recent We Got This Covered news »\nWhile the official competition line up for the 69th Venice Film Festival will be released tomorrow, the festival organisers have announced today the list of classic films which will be screened at the Lido. Like Cannes, every year Venice dedicates a section of its programme to screening important works of world cinema.\nAmong this year’s list will be Billy Wilder ’s Sunset Boulevard , Ingmar Bergman ’s Fanny & Alexander and Howard Hawks ’ Gentlemen Prefer Blondes . But, the big news is that Criterion have provided a restoration of the legendary and infamous Heaven’s Gate from director Michael Cimino .\nNow, chances are if you are a movie enthusiast then you will have heard of Heaven’s Gate but probably won’t have seen it. The film is regarded as the biggest flop in cinema history, it is a film so notorious that other flops since have been labelled with a Heaven’s Gate type pun. »\n- Will Chadwick\nMarking the 50th anniversary of the Hollywood legend’s passing, the Forever Marilyn Collection is a four disc set showcasing some of the most treasured cinematic moments of Marilyn Monroe ’s career with Gentlemen Prefer Blondes , How to Marry a Millionaire , The Seven Year Itch , and Some Like It Hot .\nFrom some of Monroe’s earlier films playing the iconic sex symbol that she was known for, to the film where she broke out of her limitations and began showing a stronger talent that she fought to be recognised, this collection really captures the beauty of a star who will forever be remembered.\n \nGentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953)\nDirected by Howard Hawks , the collection opens with Gentlemen Prefer Blondes which follows best friends Lorelei Lee and Dorothy Shaw (Monroe and Jane Russell) as two showgirls who set a course for love on board a luxury liner sailing to France. Pursued by a »\n- Charlie Derry\nGiorgio Moroder Presents: Metropolis\nSince its release in 1927, Fritz Lang 's Metropolis has not only influenced any film-maker who wanted to create a futuristic city, it's also had a strong link with music. Indeed, plenty of performers with a strong eye for visuals – from Kraftwerk and Queen to Madonna and Janelle Monáe – have plundered the film's still-impressive imagery for their videos and artwork.\nPerhaps the oddest and least cherished of these Metropolis and music crossovers is this 1984 version, overseen by Giorgio Moroder . Tinting it with colour, adding subtitles and sound effects, music and songs, Moroder made the film seem a little less black and white, slightly less German and a lot less silent.\nHis intention, if misguided, was more honourable than heretical. Even though this cut is shorter than usual, it does include footage that was previously thought lost, while missing scenes are recreated with photographs and illustrations.\nUnfortunately, the »\n4 June 2012 11:50 AM, PDT | WeAreMovieGeeks.com | See recent WeAreMovieGeeks.com news »\nCelebrate the life, the legend and the beauty of Marilyn Monroe . The iconic blonde bombshell shines in high definition in Forever Marilyn: The Blu-ray Collection. With classics like The Misfits and Some Like It Hot as well as new-to-Blu-ray titles How to Marry A Millionaire , Gentlemen Prefer Blondes , Seven Year Itch, There.s No Business Like Show Business and River of No Return this unique set of films, those that made Marilyn a star, is a collector.s dream. Marking the 50th anniversary of the passing of this Hollywood legend, the seven disc collection will be available as a Blu-ray set and individual titles beginning July 20th Internationally (Germany) and on July 31st in North America from Twentieth Century Fox Home Entertainment . Marilyn fans around the world can pre-order the Collection with online retailers.\nA sexy divorcée falls for an over-the-hill cowboy who is struggling to maintain his »\n- Michelle McCue\n30 May 2012 9:44 AM, PDT | JustPressPlay.net | See recent JustPressPlay news »\nEntertainment legends come and grace audiences with their mesmerizing looks as well as with their incredible talent. It takes a lot to achieve this status but when these special performers do reach that mark, it is up to the audience to accept this truly wonderful gift. One such gift is wrapped in the timeless package that is Carol Channing . She is a musical theater icon and a true Broadway legend. A new documentary is out chronicling her career called Carol Channing: Larger Than Life and it is definitely worth checking out.\nKnown for her star-making roles as Lorelei Lee in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes and as Dolly Gallagher Levi in Hello, Dolly!, these two roles skyrocketed Channing into superstardom. Her unique look and style made her stand out among many other lovely actresses of her time. Tall, thin, with a big smile, a raspy yet charming voice and a quirky yet attractive way about her, »\n- Randall Unger\n29 May 2012 5:00 AM, PDT | ScifiMafia | See recent ScifiMafia news »\nAs you may know, the house featured in last year’s amazing first season of American Horror Story has gone up for sale. What is new is that Syfy‘s Hollywood Treasure will be featuring it in tonight’s new installment. Though I don’t think I could sleep in the house, let alone afford it, I’ll definitely be a looky loo tonight.\nThe House From American Horror Story Set To Sell For $12,000,000.00 After Its Appearance On Syfy’s “Hollywood Treasure”\nThe Episode Airs This Tuesday Night May 29 At 10Pm Et/Pt\nOn The Syfy Channel\nLos Angeles- May 25- The house from American Horror Story will be featured on the upcoming episode of Syfy’s Hollywood Treasure. American Horror Story developed a tremendous cult following during its premiere season and the whole series was centered around the house which is now going onthe market. The house became as »\n- Erin Willard\n22 May 2012 2:47 PM, PDT | www.culturecatch.com | See recent CultureCatch news »\nI probably speak for most theater fans in saying I was excited when I read about Smash before its premiere on NBC in February. The idea of a weekly network series depicting the development of a new Broadway musical was irresistible. The fact that so many theater people -- both on and off camera -- were involved in the show added to the anticipation. Executive producers included Craig Zadan and Neil Meron who, among other things, have produced film versions of Broadway hits Chicago and Hairspray , along with television movie adaptations of The Music Man , Annie , and Gypsy. Original songs were written by the team of Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman , who won the Tony award for their Hairspray score, and also wrote the fine score for last year's Catch Me If You Can . Michael Mayer (Spring Awakening and American Idiot) directed the pilot. And, while not a theater name, »\n- James Miller\n10 May 2012 2:44 PM, PDT | The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News | See recent The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News news »\nNew York – While Megan Hilty ’s character is still scheming to play Marilyn Monroe in the bio-musical at the center of NBC’s Smash , she’s wiggling her voluptuous way through one of the star’s most iconic screen roles with gusto in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes . Playing just seven performances as part of the annual Encores! series of semi-staged vintage musicals, John Rando’s sparkling production is sheer enjoyment, with some of the most exhilarating jazz vocal harmonies and time-traveling dance breaks to be found anywhere near Broadway. But Hilty’s bombshell is the prize. Photos: ' Smash ' First Look: Ryan Tedder , Katharine McPhee Get 'Touch'-y The\nread more\n10 May 2012 5:06 AM, PDT | WENN | See recent WENN news »\nActress Megan Hilty is set to follow in Marilyn Monroe 's footsteps by playing Lorelei Lee in an upcoming Broadway production of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes .\nHilty currently stars in hit U.S. TV series Smash as an aspiring actress tasked with portraying Monroe in a new musical, and life has now imitated art for the 31 year old after she signed up to portray Lee, a part made famous by the late blonde bombshell, in a Big Apple theatre show.\nThe production will be directed by Tony Award-winning John Rando and the actress insists she is already having fun in rehearsals.\nShe tells Playbill.com, \"I'm having the time of my life. John Rando is a genius, and I feel like we're having so much fun putting this play on. And, the whole cast is so fun. All the voices are amazing, and everybody is hilarious. I think it's going to be a really good show.\"\nHilty will hit the stage at The New York City Center for a limited-run, beginning on Wednesday. »\n9 May 2012 4:05 PM, PDT | The Guardian - Film News | See recent The Guardian - Film News news »\nThe Cannes film festival kicks off next week, and this shot of Marilyn Monroe will feature on all its official posters. Does it matter that she never went?\nShe is a perennially fascinating screen actress, the incidental subject of new TV drama Smash – and from next week she will be pouting down at us from every street corner in Cannes, the face of the official film festival poster. The photograph shows the beautiful, beguiling, funny leading lady of such pictures as Gentlemen Prefer Blondes and Some Like It Hot blowing out the candle on her 30th birthday cake, giving a seductive air-kiss to the lens. In a press release, the festival organisers explain: \"The poster captures Marilyn by surprise in an intimate moment where myth meets reality – a moving tribute to the anniversary of her passing, which coincides with the festival anniversary [Cannes turns 65 this year] … Their coming together symbolises the ideal of simplicity and elegance. »\n- Peter Bradshaw\n9 May 2012 6:16 AM, PDT | Deadline TV | See recent Deadline TV news »\nBeverly Hills, Calif., May 9, 2012 — Netflix, Inc. (Nasdaq: Nflx) and Twentieth Century Fox Television Distribution, today announced a multi-year licensing agreement that will soon make a host of great TV series and films available for Netflix members to instantly watch in Latin America and Brazil. All past seasons of 24, Prison Break , The X-Files and Arrested Development will be available for viewing beginning July 15, as well as current and past seasons of How I Met Your Mother , Glee and Bones. In addition, Twentieth Century Fox classic films including Gentlemen Prefer Blondes , Wall Street and Office Space , will come to Netflix on July 1, with more films and TV series to be added over the next few years. “We are thrilled to be bringing such favorites as How I Met Your Mother and Glee to our members in Latin America and Brazil,” said Jason Ropell, Netflix Vice President of Content Acquisition. “Our partnership with »\n- THE DEADLINE TEAM\n23 April 2012 8:30 AM, PDT | Vulture | See recent Vulture news »\nThe premiere season of Smash has been a divisive one for viewers, but if there's one thing everyone can agree on, it's that Megan Hilty is fantastic on TV. The Broadway vet (she was the second actress to follow Kristin Chenoweth in Wicked) is now returning to the stage to play Lorelei Lee in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes . It's one of Monroe's iconic roles — although Hilty, unlike Marilyn, won't be needing someone to dub her voice in the tricky parts. We spoke to Hilty about her character's casting-couch and prescription-drug problems, her hopes for season two, and whether Smash jibes with her real-life Broadway experience.I’m totally Team Ivy. I actually get upset when other actresses are playing Marilyn on the show.Yay, thank you! That said, can you play devil’s advocate and defend Team Karen [Katharine McPhee] to me?Oh, absolutely. I mean, everybody has to start somewhere. And just »\n- Gwynne Watkins\n26 March 2012 5:20 AM, PDT | The Backlot | See recent The Backlot news »\nThe relationship between Ivy ( Megan Hilty , r) and her Mama ( Bernadette Peters ) is not an easy one.\nAfter last week's episode of NBC’s musical drama Smash , when Broadway legend Bernadette Peters turned up playing, well, a Broadway legend who also happens to be the prickly mother to Ivy ( Megan Hilty ), the drama and the multiple conflicts (and tattletale Ellis) reached new heights. But tonight's \"The Coup\" brings in potential backstabbing when snarky director Derek ( Jack Davenport ) enlists naive Karen ( Katharine McPhee ) to make a play to steal the Marilyn musical from Tom ( Christian Borle ) and Julia ( Debra Messing ). And what about Ivy? Now that the workshop is over, she's still sitting on pins and needles waiting to see if she's in or out as Marilyn.\nTo find out some inside scoop about the series, which just got the green light for a second season, AfterElton checked in with Megan Hilty »\n- nyjimmy67\n13 March 2012 9:01 AM, PDT | WENN | See recent WENN news »\nMarilyn Monroe 's iconic screen dresses are the main attraction at a British exhibition marking the 50th anniversary of her death.\nEntitled simply Marilyn, the collection features rarely seen pictures and a dozen original costumes - including the famous red gown she wore in 1953 movie Gentlemen Prefer Blondes .\nThe dresses were loaned by U.S. collector David Gainsborough Roberts and are believed to form the largest Monroe collection in the world.\nLondon's Getty Images Gallery director Louise Garczewska says, \"(It's) a perfect tribute to one of Hollywood's all-time greats. We are extremely excited to present our Marilyn exhibition, offering unparalleled and rare access to her life.\" »\n27 February 2012 1:56 AM, PST | The Guardian - Film News | See recent The Guardian - Film News news »\nThe screen icon and two-time Oscar winner heads the list of stars who died this year in the Academy's traditional rememberance\nElizabeth Taylor featured prominently in the In Memoriam section of the Academy Award ceremony currently taking place at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood. The Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf actor died in March 2011 aged 79, and was one of the most prominent figures of Hollywood glamour through the 1950s and 60s. She is especially well remembered for her multiple marriages, including two to fellow actor Richard Burton .\nAlso remembered were actors Jane Russell , best known for starring opposite Marilyn Monroe in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes ; Farley Granger , the star of two Hitchcock masterpieces, Rope and Strangers on a Train ; and Michael Gough , the veteran British character actor who had a late flowering as the butler Alfred in the Batman films in the 90s.\nBehind the camera, mentions were made of director Sidney Lumet , »\n12 February 2012 9:06 PM, PST | TVfanatic | See recent TVfanatic news »\n\"Romantic Languages\" was the lost episode of Pan Am that let us in on a lot of little secrets heretofore unknown.\nLooking back, it did seem like there was a jump in time, but I didn't realize how much the story was affected until watching tonight. It would have been nice if they had shown this episode in order because it felt like we were living a dream. That this happened to the the installment before what could very well be the series finale is a bit disappointing.\nExample: So that's how Dean and Ginny ended things. He broke up with her thinking they were just having a good time. I thought she just walked into the sunset with Mr. Pan Am executive, but she was an absolutely crazy nut. She followed Dean around the world and even smashed her own forehead into a window to try to show him »\n- [email protected] (Carissa Pavlica)",
"Gentlemen Prefer Blondes: A Practice Round in Subversion | Precious Bodily Fluids\n»\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes: A Practice Round in Subversion\nHoward Hawks is noteworthy in cinema for lots of reasons; he’s infamous for just a few. Among them is Hawks’ history of battling the censors. Before the Hays Code came into official effect, he directed the classic Scarface, that great old violent mobster movie that shook things up long before Brian DePalma and Al Pacino whipped out their little friend and added some ultraviolence. Other films, such as Hawks’ adaptation of Raymond Chandler’s pulp novel The Big Sleep brought a strongly homoerotic element into film noir that added increased anxiety to an already-anxiety-driven genre of American cinema. Once Marilyn Monroe entered the movie world in the late 40s, it was only a matter of time before directors like Hawks and Billy Wilder would take advantage of her voluptuous image to mix things up a little on the screen.\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes is great for functioning both as classic, textbook Laura Mulvey material and also playing with, or possibly even undermining, the Mulveyan notion of narrative cinema as geared for a male viewing audience. In a quick review, Mulvey’s argument in her seminal “Visual Pleasure in Narrative Cinema” sets forth that conventional narrative film form has built into it the assumption of an active male viewer bound by a scopohilic gaze on the passive, objectified woman on screen. Two types of scopophila (the pleasure of looking) are at work: fetishistic scopophilia – in which the woman on screen is fetishized through the male viewer’s castration anxiety – and narcissistic scopophilia – in which the male viewer identifies actively with the on-screen male who is also defined by his gaze upon the passive woman. The purpose of fetishistic scopophilia is to negotiate the male’s fear of the woman (on account of her castration, and therefore the threat of castration to him, too); the purpose of narcissistic scopophilia is to narrow the viewing gap between the male spectator and the woman (who is “to-be-looked-at”) while still keeping her at arm’s length. By narrowing the gap, the male viewer comes under the false impression that the image is mediated neither by the camera filming it nor by the falseness of the image (not the “real thing” but rather bright light projecting stained celluloid). Still, by narcissistically identifying with the diegetic male character, the male viewer’s castration anxiety is slightly alleviated by proxy. As a result of narcissistic scopophilia, the male viewer turns the image of woman into a fetish object, desiring both to punish and to idealize her. As for the female viewer, she is excluded; narrative cinema’s classic form does not take her into account. (Discussions of things like “chick flicks” are not inconsistent with this notion but will have to wait til another day.)\nWho, us?!\nThe opening scene of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes features the two women, Lorelei (Marilyn) and Dorothy (Jane Russell), singing and dancing on stage while looking directly at the camera. Interesting, the film’s opening credits interrupt the routine, which then resumes after Howard Hawks’ name gets the directorial credit. It’s only after some time has passed that we finally get a reverse shot of the audience, which focuses on Gus, Lorelei’s decidedly castrated fiancée. This cut comes not a moment too soon. Finally, the viewer can breathe a sigh of relief through the acknowledgment by the cinema screen itself that this is, in fact, cinema. Until the reverse shot takes place, we seem to be watching a filmed stage performance, un-mediated and unadulterated. In Mulveyan terms, castration anxiety is in full effect. Once the reverse shot gives us the image of a rather pathetic looking man, narrative significance is finally given to what was strictly non-narrative before. The song-and-dance routines freeze the narrative from progressing and offer only a one-way gaze by the male viewer of the women on screen. The reverse shot of Gus only hints at the narrative, but it is not the reverse shot with which a male viewer wants to identify; Gus is not the way the male viewer sees himself looking at the ladies, although perhaps Gus is all-too telling of the male viewer’s anxiety.\nHeehee!\nOnce the girls exit the stage, their dialogue offers further evidence of what their lyrics already suggested: they have it all quite figured out. They know what they want, and make no mistake, they want a lot. Their cleverness lies in their clear understanding that the men want them a lot, a fact that they use throughout the film as a bargaining tool. Lorelei obviously is interested in diamonds, classic commodities that, she admits, “are a girl’s best friend.” There’s no surprise here, based on the old cliché. What is a little surprising is how the camera seems to side with Lorelei at a number of points. Perhaps most significantly, there’s the scene when Lorelei discovers that “Piggy” owns a diamond mine in Africa. From her POV, we see Piggy’s head become overlaid with a large diamond, overtly symbolizing all that Lorelei sees in him. While this may not seem terribly significant, it’s the fact that Lorelei, a woman, is not only objectifying a man, but the viewer also does so through her. We are given the point of view of a woman’s desiring gaze, seeing a man not “as he is” but as a means to an end. Lorelei does something similar after their first performance when she remarks provocatively to Dorothy that she saw a large “bulge” in Gus’ pocket, which she can’t wait to get her hands on. She then remarks that it must be a diamond ring.\nObjectified\nOn a superficial level, Dorothy is seemingly set apart from Lorelei. For one thing, she’s brunette while Lorelei is the titular blonde, already implying that she is less preferable in comparison. On another obvious level, she’s simply not Marilyn Monroe. Already in 1952, Marilyn’s iconic status was becoming firm; nothing wrong with Jane Russell, but Marilyn she was not. On top of this, Dorothy seems to carry herself in a more masculine way than Lorelei. She is less desired by men (as evidenced by Gus’ entrance into their dressing room), and she seems unaffected by the fact. She’s at least as clever as Lorelei, and she knows what she wants just as much, but she’s more willing to go and actively get it. Lorelei, on the other hand, knows how to be passive in just the right way in order to get that one rich man to come knocking on her door. When they prepare to board the ship going to France, Dorothy establishes herself as Lorelei’s chaperone. Dorothy makes it just as clear, however, that the chaperone is the one who’s allowed to have fun. She says this as she discovers that the U.S. Olympic team will be on board for the voyage. The athletes are of no interest to Lorelei, since they certainly don’t own any diamond mines. Dorothy, on the other hand, communicates plenty of interest in the strong-bodied men.\nMm. Curvy.\nThe musical number that follows shortly thereafter is staged at a pool where the men are presumably practicing. Lorelei is absent; this one belongs to Dorothy. She’s dressed in strapless black while all the male athletes surrounding her are clad only in flesh-toned swim shorts. When the men are dancing around Dorothy, at times it’s hard to tell if they’re wearing anything at all. The scene identifies Dorothy as the woman who desires the male body – and not only in the singular. She’s surrounded by strong, male bodies, and she swoons over all of them. Adding a little here and there between lyrics, she says, “Doubles, anyone? This court’s open.” So while Dorothy seems to set herself apart from Lorelei by desiring love from a man rather than riches, it turns out that Dorothy is actually interested in the male body, another means to an end. While the two women appear to be different, they are fundamentally the same. The film turns the tables on traditional males-objectifying-females and allows the opposite to take place. It’s a comedy, of course, so the idea isn’t being taken all that seriously, but it’s still present.\nThe film comes closest to subverting conventional male-female stereotypes by making it clear toward the end that the women really are the intelligent ones. Gus’ rich father chastises his son for pursuing such a class-less woman and accuses Lorelei of wanting Gus only for his money. Lorelei responds insistently that she actually wants Gus for his father’s money. When the father tries to rebuke Lorelei for such shallow affection, she articulates the film’s most effective point against men. She points out that any man wants his daughter to marry a financially secure man, for her own safety and comfort in life. Furthermore, no man is ever attacked for wanting to marry a beautiful woman, so why can’t a woman want to marry a wealthy man? Each has his/her commodity in the exchange; each has something to offer the other. The point is well made and silences Gus’ father, although it officially removes the notion of “true love” from the film entirely. Lorelei is the proverbial gold digger, and Dorothy is the sex-hungry woman. One is more “female” in traditional terms and the other more “male,” but nothing particularly negative can be said about them that can’t be said at some level about men, too.\nIn the end, Hawks gives an expected wink to the suggestion present throughout the film of the two women actually desiring one another. In the early dressing room scene, Lorelei tells Dorothy that she and Gus are getting married. Dorothy responds incredulously, “To each other?” Dorothy, who knows Lorelei through and through, find the idea of Lorelei marrying Gus rather ridiculous and possibly hurtful. On the trans-Atlantic cruise, Dorothy is often seen spying on Lorelei and other men – usually Gus or Piggie. Finally, the concluding shot of the film at the double wedding features Dorothy and Lorelei in the middle of the aisle with their grooms on either side of them. The camera zooms in just enough to cut the men out of the frame and ends with the two women smiling at each other. Certainly, the two women have gotten what they set out for. Certainly, it’s a cute way to end the film. But it’s also suggestive that the two women can’t let go of one another, and the fact that it’s suggested front and center at a wedding at least continues Hawks’ pattern of homoerotic hints, if not more than that. In the end it seems unlikely that Gentlemen Prefer Blondes actually subverts traditional cinema, at least in Mulveyan terms. The film is set up for the visual pleasure of male viewers, even if it toys with flipping traditional notions on their heads. In a statement about the film, Hawks himself noted that he had the women continue to walk up and down the stairs during dance numbers simply because the men on the set enjoyed watching them do so. The title, in addition, insinuates class elitism, racism, and sexism; as if only “gentleman” have good taste and white “blondes” are the only thing worth tasting. The fact that we’re talking about the 50s, though, means that the film deserves a lot of credit for at the very least pointing out the one-sided nature of conventional cinema and the fact that the tables can be turned.\nI do.",
"dOc DVD Review: Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953)\n20th Century Fox presents\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953)\n\"Because, if a girl is spending all of her time worrying about the money that she doesn't have... how is she going to have time for being in love? I want you to find happiness and stop having fun.\"\n- Lorelei Lee (Marilyn Monroe)\nStars: Marilyn Monroe, Jane Russell\nOther Stars: Charles Coburn, Elliot Reid, Tommy Noonan\nDirector: Howard Hawks\nMPAA Rating: Not Rated for (nothing objectionable)\nRun Time: 01h:31m:18s\nRelease Date: May 29, 2001\nUPC: 024543014249\nC-\nDVD Review\nThe second of Marilyn Monroe's 1953 triple play that made her a star, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, is a much loved musical in which she co-stars as the irrepressible Lorelei Lee with Jane Russell, who plays the sensible Dorothy Shaw. This film is pure entertainment, mostly singing and dancing riding along atop a fairly uncomplicated plot line.\nMonroe's Lorelei is engaged to the son of a rich man, Gus Esmond, and the plan is to be married in Paris after a transatlantic ocean voyage. But Esmond's father changes the plan so that Lorelei will make the trip accompanied by her friend and singing partner Dorothy, as a sort of test of her suitability for his son. Marilyn is very attractive in this lightweight role, the character by which ultimately she is defined in many people's minds. It remains one of the most memorable of her portrayals, and the sequence of her performance of Diamonds are a Girl's Best Friend is embedded in the pop culture of our country.\nElliot Reed plays Detective Malone, whose job is to get whatever goods on Lorelei that he can, so that the father of Esmond can prevent the marriage between her and his son. He proceeds by romancing Dorothy, and ultimately snaps a compromising photo of Lorelei and Lord Francis \"Piggy\" Beakman, who attracted her attention when it is revealed that he is the owner of a diamond mine.\nDorothy is played by Jane Russell, who made her film debut in the notorious Howard Hughes project The Outlaw in 1943. It is interesting how many actresses of that era had such large star reputations built on such flimsy filmic resumes. Russell made very few major films in her career; mostly Bob Hope vehicles. She appeared in the sequel to Gentlemen Prefer Blondes in 1955 called Gentlemen Marry Brunettes. Here she shows off her significant star power, and among some very good numbers, particularly interesting is her take-off on Marilyn's Diamonds are a Girl's Best Friend in a trial sequence.\nThe somewhat overly cutesy story is really just a vehicle for the two female stars to preen and pose between musical numbers, but these production numbers are great fun and very enjoyable for any fan of musicals. The original novel and play was written by Anita Loos and was first brought the screen in a silent version in 1928. The story definitely seems to be a dated curio in our era, and probably was a little creaky for the audience of the 1950s.\nThis film was directed by the respected Howard Hawks, who, besides the aforementioned Outlaw, directed other well-regarded American films such as Red River, The Big Sleep, His Girl Friday and Sergeant York. Hawk directed Monroe in two small parts just prior to Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, including a cameo in O. Henry's Full House, and her memorable supporting role in Monkey Business. Hawks and Marilyn locked horns in this production. After dealing with Marilyn's request for retakes, Hawks reportedly told Fox executives how production could be sped up: \"three wonderful ideas: Replace Marilyn, rewrite the script and make it shorter, and get a new director.\"\nRating for Style: B-\nOne Sheet Post Card\nOne Sheet\nExtras Review: The extras are limited on Gentlemen Prefer Blondes with a Movietone News clip: Marilyn Monroe and Jane Russell in Cement (48s) showing the two stars adding their impressions to the Graumann's Chinese Theater. Alebit short, it is, however, a sweet bit of Hollywood Americana. Additionally, there is a post card and one sheet in the souvenirs on this disc.\nExtras Grade: C-\n \nFinal Comments\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes is definitely a memorable piece of American Film entertainment. Not a particularly great film, and not even a particularly great musical, it still contains a spunky performance by Jane Russell and an effervescent performance by Marilyn Monroe. Not the centerpiece of The Diamond Collection, but a worthy addition nonetheless.",
"Gentlemen Prefer Blondes on iTunes\nAverage Rating: 7.8/10\nTop Critics' Reviews\nFresh: There is that about Miss Russell and also about Miss Monroe that keeps you looking at them even when they have little or nothing to do. Call it inherent magnetism. Call it luxurious coquetry. Call it whatever you fancy. – Bosley Crowther, New York Times, Mar 16, 2016\nFresh: A strong play to the sophisticated dialog and situations is given by Howard Hawks' direction and he maintains the racy air that brings the musical off excellently at a pace that helps cloak the fact that it's rather lightweight, but sexy, stuff. – William Brogdon, Variety, Jul 7, 2010\nFresh: There's more warmth in [Russell's] fondly bemused looks at Monroe, whose friendship is a front-row ticket to the best show in town. – Nick Pinkerton, Village Voice, Aug 3, 2010\nFresh: Howard Hawks adds sly sexual insinuation to the blatantly sexual antics of Marilyn Monroe and Jane Russell in this scintillating 1953 adaptation of the stage musical based on Anita Loos's novel. – Richard Brody, New Yorker, Jan 25, 2016"
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"A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900, but decades passed before sound motion pictures were made commercially practical. Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound-on-disc systems, and amplification and recording quality were also inadequate. Innovations in sound-on-film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology, which took place in 1923.\n\nThe primary steps in the commercialization of sound cinema were taken in the mid- to late 1920s. At first, the sound films incorporating synchronized dialogue—known as \"talking pictures\", or \"talkies\"—were exclusively shorts; the earliest feature-length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects. The first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer, released in October 1927. A major hit, it was made with Vitaphone, which was at the time the leading brand of sound-on-disc technology. Sound-on-film, however, would soon become the standard for talking pictures.\n\nBy the early 1930s, the talkies were a global phenomenon. In the United States, they helped secure Hollywood's position as one of the world's most powerful cultural/commercial systems (see Cinema of the United States). In Europe (and, to a lesser degree, elsewhere), the new development was treated with suspicion by many filmmakers and critics, who worried that a focus on dialogue would subvert the unique aesthetic virtues of soundless cinema. In Japan, where the popular film tradition integrated silent movie and live vocal performance, talking pictures were slow to take root. In India, sound was the transformative element that led to the rapid expansion of the nation's film industry.\n\nHistory \n\nEarly steps \n\nThe idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27, 1888, a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison, the two inventors privately met. Muybridge later claimed that on this occasion, six years before the first commercial motion picture exhibition, he proposed a scheme for sound cinema that would combine his image-casting zoopraxiscope with Edison's recorded-sound technology. No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope, essentially a \"peep-show\" system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph. The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection. In 1899, a projected sound-film system known as Cinemacrophonograph or Phonorama, based primarily on the work of Swiss-born inventor François Dussaud, was exhibited in Paris; similar to the Kinetophone, the system required individual use of earphones. An improved cylinder-based system, Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre, was developed by Clément-Maurice Gratioulet and Henri Lioret of France, allowing short films of theater, opera, and ballet excerpts to be presented at the Paris Exposition in 1900. These appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound. Phonorama and yet another sound-film system—Théâtroscope—were also presented at the Exposition. \n\nThree major problems persisted, leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation. The primary issue was synchronization: pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices, which were difficult to start and maintain in tandem.Sound engineer Mark Ulano, in [http://www.filmsound.org/ulano/talkies2.htm \"The Movies Are Born a Child of the Phonograph\"] (part 2 of his essay \"Moving Pictures That Talk\"), describes the Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre version of synchronized sound cinema:\n\nThis system used an operator adjusted non-linkage form of primitive synchronization. The scenes to be shown were first filmed, and then the performers recorded their dialogue or songs on the Lioretograph (usually a Le Éclat concert cylinder format phonograph) trying to match tempo with the projected filmed performance. In showing the films, synchronization of sorts was achieved by adjusting the hand cranked film projector's speed to match the phonograph. the projectionist was equipped with a telephone through which he listened to the phonograph which was located in the orchestra pit.\n Sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve. While motion picture projectors soon allowed film to be shown to large theater audiences, audio technology before the development of electric amplification could not project satisfactorily to fill large spaces. Finally, there was the challenge of recording fidelity. The primitive systems of the era produced sound of very low quality unless the performers were stationed directly in front of the cumbersome recording devices (acoustical horns, for the most part), imposing severe limits on the sort of films that could be created with live-recorded sound. \n\nCinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways. An increasing number of motion picture systems relied on gramophone records—known as sound-on-disc technology; the records themselves were often referred to as \"Berliner discs\", after one of the primary inventors in the field, German-American Emile Berliner. In 1902, Léon Gaumont demonstrated his sound-on-disc Chronophone, involving an electrical connection he had recently patented, to the French Photographic Society. Four years later, Gaumont introduced the Elgéphone, a compressed-air amplification system based on the Auxetophone, developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons. Despite\nhigh expectations, Gaumont's sound innovations had only limited commercial success—though improvements, they still did not satisfactorily address the three basic issues with sound film and were expensive as well. For some years, American inventor E. E. Norton's Cameraphone was the primary competitor to the Gaumont system (sources differ on whether the Cameraphone was disc- or cylinder-based); it ultimately failed for many of the same reasons that held back the Chronophone.Altman (2005), pp. 158–65; Altman (1995).\n\nIn 1913, Edison introduced a new cylinder-based synch-sound apparatus known, just like his 1895 system, as the Kinetophone; instead of films being shown to individual viewers in the Kinetoscope cabinet, they were now projected onto a screen. The phonograph was connected by an intricate arrangement of pulleys to the film projector, allowing—under ideal conditions—for synchronization. However, conditions were rarely ideal, and the new, improved Kinetophone was retired after little more than a year. By the mid-1910s, the groundswell in commercial sound motion picture exhibition had subsided. Beginning in 1914, The Photo-Drama of Creation, promoting Jehovah's Witnesses' conception of mankind's genesis, was screened around the United States: eight hours worth of projected visuals involving both slides and live action were synchronized with separately recorded lectures and musical performances played back on phonograph. \n\nMeanwhile, innovations continued on another significant front. In 1907, French-born, London-based Eugene Lauste—who had worked at Edison's lab between 1886 and 1892—was awarded the first patent for sound-on-film technology, involving the transformation of sound into light waves that are photographically recorded direct onto celluloid. As described by historian Scott Eyman,\n\nIt was a double system, that is, the sound was on a different piece of film from the picture.... In essence, the sound was captured by a microphone and translated into light waves via a light valve, a thin ribbon of sensitive metal over a tiny slit. The sound reaching this ribbon would be converted into light by the shivering of the diaphragm, focusing the resulting light waves through the slit, where it would be photographed on the side of the film, on a strip about a tenth of an inch wide. \n\nThough sound-on-film would eventually become the universal standard for synchronized sound cinema, Lauste never successfully exploited his innovations, which came to an effective dead end. In 1914, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt was granted German patent 309,536 for his sound-on-film work; that same year, he apparently demonstrated a film made with the process to an audience of scientists in Berlin. Hungarian engineer Denes Mihaly submitted his sound-on-film Projectofon concept to the Royal Hungarian Patent Court in 1918; the patent award was published four years later. Whether sound was captured on cylinder, disc, or film, none of the available technology was adequate for big-league commercial purposes, and for many years the heads of the major Hollywood film studios saw little benefit in producing sound motion pictures. \n\nCrucial innovations \n\nA number of technological developments contributed to making sound cinema commercially viable by the late 1920s. Two involved contrasting approaches to synchronized sound reproduction, or playback:\n\nAdvanced sound-on-film \n\nIn 1919, American inventor Lee De Forest was awarded several patents that would lead to the first optical sound-on-film technology with commercial application. In De Forest's system, the sound track was photographically recorded onto the side of the strip of motion picture film to create a composite, or \"married\", print. If proper synchronization of sound and picture was achieved in recording, it could be absolutely counted on in playback. Over the next four years, he improved his system with the help of equipment and patents licensed from another American inventor in the field, Theodore Case. \n\nAt the University of Illinois, Polish-born research engineer Joseph Tykociński-Tykociner was working independently on a similar process. On June 9, 1922, he gave the first reported U.S. demonstration of a sound-on-film motion picture to members of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. As with Lauste and Tigerstedt, Tykociner's system would never be taken advantage of commercially; however, De Forest's soon would.\n\nOn April 15, 1923, at New York City's Rivoli Theater, came the first commercial screening of motion pictures with sound-on-film, the future standard: a set of shorts under the banner of De Forest Phonofilms, accompanying a silent feature. That June, De Forest entered into an extended legal battle with an employee, Freeman Harrison Owens, for title to one of the crucial Phonofilm patents. Although De Forest ultimately won the case in the courts, Owens is today recognized as a central innovator in the field. The following year, De Forest's studio released the first commercial dramatic film shot as a talking picture—the two-reeler Love's Old Sweet Song, directed by J. Searle Dawley and featuring Una Merkel. However, phonofilm's stock in trade was not original dramas but celebrity documentaries, popular music acts, and comedy performances. President Calvin Coolidge, opera singer Abbie Mitchell, and vaudeville stars such as Phil Baker, Ben Bernie, Eddie Cantor and Oscar Levant appeared in the firm's pictures. Hollywood remained suspicious, even fearful, of the new technology. As Photoplay editor James Quirk put it in March 1924, \"Talking pictures are perfected, says Dr. Lee De Forest. So is castor oil.\" De Forest's process continued to be used through 1927 in the United States for dozens of short Phonofilms; in the UK it was employed a few years longer for both shorts and features by British Sound Film Productions, a subsidiary of British Talking Pictures, which purchased the primary Phonofilm assets. By the end of 1930, the Phonofilm business would be liquidated. \n\nIn Europe, others were also working on the development of sound-on-film. In 1919, the same year that DeForest received his first patents in the field, three German inventors patented the Tri-Ergon sound system. On September 17, 1922, the Tri-Ergon group gave a public screening of sound-on-film productions—including a dramatic talkie, Der Brandstifter (The Arsonist) —before an invited audience at the Alhambra Kino in Berlin. By the end of the decade, Tri-Ergon would be the dominant European sound system. In 1923, two Danish engineers, Axel Petersen and Arnold Poulsen, patented a system that recorded sound on a separate filmstrip running parallel with the image reel. Gaumont licensed the technology and briefly put it to commercial use under the name Cinéphone. \n\nDomestic competition, however, eclipsed Phonofilm. By September 1925, De Forest and Case's working arrangement had fallen through. The following July, Case joined Fox Film, Hollywood's third largest studio, to found the Fox-Case Corporation. The system developed by Case and his assistant, Earl Sponable, given the name Movietone, thus became the first viable sound-on-film technology controlled by a Hollywood movie studio. The following year, Fox purchased the North American rights to the Tri-Ergon system, though the company found it inferior to Movietone and virtually impossible to integrate the two different systems to advantage. In 1927, as well, Fox retained the services of Freeman Owens, who had particular expertise in constructing cameras for synch-sound film. \n\nAdvanced sound-on-disc \n\nParallel with improvements in sound-on-film technology, a number of companies were making progress with systems that recorded movie sound on phonograph discs. In sound-on-disc technology from the era, a phonograph turntable is connected by a mechanical interlock to a specially modified film projector, allowing for synchronization. In 1921, the Photokinema sound-on-disc system developed by Orlando Kellum was employed to add synchronized sound sequences to D. W. Griffith's failed silent film Dream Street. A love song, performed by star Ralph Graves, was recorded, as was a sequence of live vocal effects. Apparently, dialogue scenes were also recorded, but the results were unsatisfactory and the film was never publicly screened incorporating them. On May 1, 1921, Dream Street was re-released, with love song added, at New York City's Town Hall theater, qualifying it—however haphazardly—as the first feature-length film with a live-recorded vocal sequence. There would be no others for more than six years.\n\nIn 1925, Sam Warner of Warner Bros., then a small Hollywood studio with big ambitions, saw a demonstration of the Western Electric sound-on-disc system and was sufficiently impressed to persuade his brothers to agree to experiment with using this system at New York's Vitagraph Studios, which they had recently purchased. The tests were convincing to the Warner Brothers, if not to the executives of some other picture companies who witnessed them. Consequently, in April 1926 the Western Electric Company entered into a contract with Warner Brothers and W. J. Rich, a financier, giving them an exclusive license for recording and reproducing sound pictures under the Western Electric system. To exploit this license the Vitaphone Corporation was organized with Samuel L. Warner as its president. \nVitaphone, as this system was now called, was publicly introduced on August 6, 1926, with the premiere of the nearly three-hour-long Don Juan; the first feature-length movie to employ a synchronized sound system of any type throughout, its soundtrack contained a musical score and added sound effects, but no recorded dialogue—in other words, it had been staged and shot as a silent film. Accompanying Don Juan, however, were eight shorts of musical performances, mostly classical, as well as a four-minute filmed introduction by Will H. Hays, president of the Motion Picture Association of America, all with live-recorded sound. These were the first true sound films exhibited by a Hollywood studio. Warner Bros.' The Better 'Ole, technically similar to Don Juan, followed in October. \n\nSound-on-film would ultimately win out over sound-on-disc because of a number of fundamental technical advantages:\n* Synchronization: no interlock system was completely reliable, and sound could fall out of synch due to disc skipping or minute changes in film speed, requiring constant supervision and frequent manual adjustment\n* Editing: discs could not be directly edited, severely limiting the ability to make alterations in their accompanying films after the original release cut\n* Distribution: phonograph discs added expense and complication to film distribution\n* Wear and tear: the physical process of playing the discs degraded them, requiring their replacement after approximately twenty screenings \n\nNonetheless, in the early years, sound-on-disc had the edge over sound-on-film in two substantial ways:\n* Production and capital cost: it was generally less expensive to record sound onto disc than onto film and the exhibition systems—turntable/interlock/projector—were cheaper to manufacture than the complex image-and-audio-pattern-reading projectors required by sound-on-film\n* Audio quality: phonograph discs, Vitaphone's in particular, had superior dynamic range to most sound-on-film processes of the day, at least during the first few playings; while sound-on-film tended to have better frequency response, this was outweighed by greater distortion and noise \n\nAs sound-on-film technology improved, both of these disadvantages were overcome.\n\nThe third crucial set of innovations marked a major step forward in both the live recording of sound and its effective playback:\n\nFidelity electronic recording and amplification \n\nIn 1913, Western Electric, the manufacturing division of AT&T, acquired the rights to the de Forest audion, the forerunner of the triode vacuum tube. Over the next few years they developed it into a predictable and reliable device that made electronic amplification possible for the first time. Western Electric then branched-out into developing uses for the vacuum tube including public address systems and an electrical recording system for the recording industry. Beginning in 1922, the research branch of Western Electric began working intensively on recording technology for both sound-on-disc and sound-on film synchronised sound systems for motion-pictures.\n\nThe engineers working on the sound-on-disc system were able to draw on expertise that Western Electric already had in electrical disc recording and were thus able to make faster initial progress. The main change required was to increase the playing time of the disc so that it could match that of a standard 1000 ft reel of 35 mm film. The chosen design used a disc measuring 16 in rotating at 33 1/3 rpm. This could play for 11 minutes, the running time of 1000 ft of film at 90 ft/min (24 frames/s). Because of the larger diameter the minimum groove velocity of 70 ft/min (14 inches or 356 mm/s) was only slightly less than that of a standard 10-inch 78 rpm commercial disc.\nIn 1925, the company publicly introduced a greatly improved system of electronic audio, including sensitive condenser microphones and rubber-line recorders (named after the use of a rubber damping band for recording with better frequency response onto a wax master disk ). That May, the company licensed entrepreneur Walter J. Rich to exploit the system for commercial motion pictures; he founded Vitagraph, in which Warner Bros. acquired a half interest, just one month later. In April 1926, Warners signed a contract with AT&T for exclusive use of its film sound technology for the redubbed Vitaphone operation, leading to the production of Don Juan and its accompanying shorts over the following months. During the period when Vitaphone had exclusive access to the patents, the fidelity of recordings made for Warners films was markedly superior to those made for the company's sound-on-film competitors. Meanwhile, Bell Labs—the new name for the AT&T research operation—was working at a furious pace on sophisticated sound amplification technology that would allow recordings to be played back over loudspeakers at theater-filling volume. The new moving-coil speaker system was installed in New York's Warners Theatre at the end of July and its patent submission, for what Western Electric called the No. 555 Receiver, was filed on August 4, just two days before the premiere of Don Juan. \n\nLate in the year, AT&T/Western Electric created a licensing division, Electrical Research Products Inc. (ERPI), to handle rights to the company's film-related audio technology. Vitaphone still had legal exclusivity, but having lapsed in its royalty payments, effective control of the rights was in ERPI's hands. On December 31, 1926, Warners granted Fox-Case a sublicense for the use of the Western Electric system; in exchange for the sublicense, both Warners and ERPI received a share of Fox's related revenues. The patents of all three concerns were cross-licensed. Superior recording and amplification technology was now available to two Hollywood studios, pursuing two very different methods of sound reproduction. The new year would finally see the emergence of sound cinema as a significant commercial medium.\n\nTriumph of the \"talkies\" \n\nIn February 1927, an agreement was signed by five leading Hollywood movie companies: Famous Players Lasky (soon to be part of Paramount), Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Universal, First National, and Cecil B. DeMille's small but prestigious Producers Distributing Corporation (PDC). The five studios agreed to collectively select just one provider for sound conversion. The alliance then sat back and waited to see what sort of results the forerunners came up with. In May, Warner Bros. sold back its exclusivity rights to ERPI (along with the Fox-Case sublicense) and signed a new royalty contract similar to Fox's for use of Western Electric technology. As Fox and Warners pressed forward with sound cinema in different directions, both technologically and commercially—Fox with newsreels and then scored dramas, Warners with talking features—so did ERPI, which sought to corner the market by signing up the five allied studios. \n\nThe big sound film sensations of the year all took advantage of preexisting celebrity. On May 20, 1927, at New York's Roxy Theater, Fox Movietone presented a sound film of the takeoff of Charles Lindbergh's celebrated flight to Paris, recorded earlier that day. In June, a Fox sound newsreel depicting his return welcomes in New York and Washington, D.C., was shown. These were the two most acclaimed sound motion pictures to date. In May, as well, Fox had released the first Hollywood fiction film with synchronized dialogue: the short They're Coming to Get Me, starring comedian Chic Sale. After rereleasing a few silent feature hits, such as Seventh Heaven, with recorded music, Fox came out with its first original Movietone feature on September 23: Sunrise, by acclaimed German director F. W. Murnau. As with Don Juan, the film's soundtrack consisted of a musical score and sound effects (including, in a couple of crowd scenes, \"wild\", nonspecific vocals). \n\nThen, on October 6, 1927, Warner Bros.' The Jazz Singer premiered. It was a smash box office success for the mid-level studio, earning a total of $2.625 million in the United States and abroad, almost a million dollars more than the previous record for a Warners film. Produced with the Vitaphone system, most of the film does not contain live-recorded audio, relying, like Sunrise and Don Juan, on a score and effects. When the movie's star, Al Jolson, sings, however, the film shifts to sound recorded on the set, including both his musical performances and two scenes with ad-libbed speech—one of Jolson's character, Jakie Rabinowitz (Jack Robin), addressing a cabaret audience; the other an exchange between him and his mother. The \"natural\" sounds of the settings were also audible. Though the success of The Jazz Singer was due largely to Jolson, already established as one of America's biggest music stars, and its limited use of synchronized sound hardly qualified it as an innovative sound film (let alone the \"first\"), the movie's profits were proof enough to the industry that the technology was worth investing in. \n\nThe development of commercial sound cinema had proceeded in fits and starts before The Jazz Singer, and the film's success did not change things overnight. Not until May 1928 did the group of four big studios (PDC had dropped out of the alliance), along with United Artists and others, sign with ERPI for conversion of production facilities and theaters for sound film. Initially, all ERPI-wired theaters were made Vitaphone-compatible; most were equipped to project Movietone reels as well. However, even with access to both technologies, most of the Hollywood companies remained slow to produce talking features of their own. No studio besides Warner Bros. released even a part-talking feature until the low-budget-oriented Film Booking Offices of America (FBO) premiered The Perfect Crime on June 17, 1928, eight months after The Jazz Singer. FBO had come under the effective control of a Western Electric competitor, General Electric's RCA division, which was looking to market its new sound-on-film system, Photophone. Unlike Fox-Case's Movietone and De Forest's Phonofilm, which were variable-density systems, Photophone was a variable-area system—a refinement in the way the audio signal was inscribed on film that would ultimately become the standard. (In both sorts of systems, a specially-designed lamp, whose exposure to the film is determined by the audio input, is used to record sound photographically as a series of minuscule lines. In a variable-density process, the lines are of varying darkness; in a variable-area process, the lines are of varying width.) By October, the FBO-RCA alliance would lead to the creation of Hollywood's newest major studio, RKO Pictures.\n\nMeanwhile, Warner Bros. had released three more talkies, all profitable, if not at the level of The Jazz Singer: In March, Tenderloin appeared; it was billed by Warners as the first feature in which characters spoke their parts, though only 15 of its 88 minutes had dialogue. Glorious Betsy followed in April, and The Lion and the Mouse (31 minutes of dialogue) in May. On July 6, 1928, the first all-talking feature, Lights of New York, premiered. The film cost Warner Bros. only $23,000 to produce, but grossed $1.252 million, a record rate of return surpassing 5,000%. In September, the studio released another Al Jolson part-talking picture, The Singing Fool, which more than doubled The Jazz Singers earnings record for a Warners movie. This second Jolson screen smash demonstrated the movie musical's ability to turn a song into a national hit: inside of nine months, the Jolson number \"Sonny Boy\" had racked up 2 million record and 1.25 million sheet music sales. September 1928 also saw the release of Paul Terry's Dinner Time, among the first animated cartoons produced with synchronized sound. Soon after he saw it, Walt Disney released his first sound picture, the Mickey Mouse short Steamboat Willie. \n\nOver the course of 1928, as Warner Bros. began to rake in huge profits due to the popularity of its sound films, the other studios quickened the pace of their conversion to the new technology. Paramount, the industry leader, put out its first talkie in late September, Beggars of Life; though it had just a few lines of dialogue, it demonstrated the studio's recognition of the new medium's power. Interference, Paramount's first all-talker, debuted in November. The process known as \"goat glanding\" briefly became widespread: soundtracks, sometimes including a smatter of post-dubbed dialogue or song, were added to movies that had been shot, and in some cases released, as silents. A few minutes of singing could qualify such a newly endowed film as a \"musical.\" (Griffith's Dream Street had essentially been a \"goat gland.\") Expectations swiftly changed, and the sound \"fad\" of 1927 became standard procedure by 1929. In February 1929, sixteen months after The Jazz Singers debut, Columbia Pictures became the last of the eight studios that would be known as \"majors\" during Hollywood's Golden Age to release its first part-talking feature, Lone Wolf's Daughter. In late May, the first all-color, all-talking feature, Warner Bros.' On with the Show!, premiered. \n\nYet most American movie theaters, especially outside of urban areas, were still not equipped for sound: while the number of sound cinemas grew from 100 to 800 between 1928 and 1929, they were still vastly outnumbered by silent theaters, which had actually grown in number as well, from 22,204 to 22,544. The studios, in parallel, were still not entirely convinced of the talkies' universal appeal—through mid-1930, the majority of Hollywood movies were produced in dual versions, silent as well as talking. Though few in the industry predicted it, silent film as a viable commercial medium in the United States would soon be little more than a memory. Points West, a Hoot Gibson Western released by Universal Pictures in August 1929, was the last purely silent mainstream feature put out by a major Hollywood studio. \n\nTransition: Europe \n\nThe Jazz Singer had its European sound premiere at the Piccadilly Theatre in London on September 27, 1928. According to film historian Rachael Low, \"Many in the industry realized at once that a change to sound production was inevitable.\" On January 16, 1929, the first European feature film with a synchronized vocal performance and recorded score premiered: the German production Ich küsse Ihre Hand, Madame (I Kiss Your Hand, Madame). Dialogueless, it contains only a few songs performed by Richard Tauber. The movie was made with the sound-on-film system controlled by the German-Dutch firm Tobis, corporate heirs to the Tri-Ergon concern. With an eye toward commanding the emerging European market for sound film, Tobis entered into a compact with its chief competitor, Klangfilm, a joint subsidiary of Germany's two leading electrical manufacturers. Early in 1929, Tobis and Klangfilm began comarketing their recording and playback technologies. As ERPI began to wire theaters around Europe, Tobis-Klangfilm claimed that the Western Electric system infringed on the Tri-Ergon patents, stalling the introduction of American technology in many places. Just as RCA had entered the movie business to maximize its recording system's value, Tobis also established its own production operations. \n\nDuring 1929, most of the major European filmmaking countries began joining Hollywood in the changeover to sound. Many of the trend-setting European talkies were shot abroad as production companies leased studios while their own were being converted or as they deliberately targeted markets speaking different languages. One of Europe's first two feature-length dramatic talkies was created in still a different sort of twist on multinational moviemaking: The Crimson Circle was a coproduction between director Friedrich Zelnik's Efzet-Film company and British Sound Film Productions (BSFP). In 1928, the film had been released as the silent Der Rote Kreis in Germany, where it was shot; English dialogue was apparently dubbed in much later using the De Forest Phonofilm process controlled by BSFP's corporate parent. It was given a British trade screening in March 1929, as was a part-talking film made entirely in the UK: The Clue of the New Pin, a British Lion production using the sound-on-disc British Photophone system. In May, Black Waters, a British and Dominions Film Corporation promoted as the first UK all-talker, received its initial trade screening; it had been shot completely in Hollywood with a Western Electric sound-on-film system. None of these pictures made much impact. \n\nThe first successful European dramatic talkie was the all-British Blackmail. Directed by twenty-nine-year-old Alfred Hitchcock, the movie had its London debut June 21, 1929. Originally shot as a silent, Blackmail was restaged to include dialogue sequences, along with a score and sound effects, before its premiere. A British International Pictures (BIP) production, it was recorded on RCA Photophone, General Electric having bought a share of AEG so they could access the Tobis-Klangfilm markets. Blackmail was a substantial hit; critical response was also positive—notorious curmudgeon Hugh Castle, for example, called it \"perhaps the most intelligent mixture of sound and silence we have yet seen.\" \n\nOn August 23, the modest-sized Austrian film industry came out with a talkie: G’schichten aus der Steiermark (Stories from Styria), an Eagle Film–Ottoton Film production. On September 30, the first entirely German-made feature-length dramatic talkie, Das Land ohne Frauen (Land Without Women), premiered. A Tobis Filmkunst production, about one-quarter of the movie contained dialogue, which was strictly segregated from the special effects and music. The response was underwhelming. Sweden's first talkie, Konstgjorda Svensson (Artificial Svensson), premiered on October 14. Eight days later, Aubert Franco-Film came out with Le Collier de la reine (The Queen's Necklace), shot at the Épinay studio near Paris. Conceived as a silent film, it was given a Tobis-recorded score and a single talking sequence—the first dialogue scene in a French feature. On October 31, Les Trois masques debuted; a Pathé-Natan film, it is generally regarded as the initial French feature talkie, though it was shot, like Blackmail, at the Elstree studio, just outside London. The production company had contracted with RCA Photophone and Britain then had the nearest facility with the system. The Braunberger-Richebé talkie La Route est belle, also shot at Elstree, followed a few weeks later. \n\nBefore the Paris studios were fully sound-equipped—a process that stretched well into 1930—a number of other early French talkies were shot in Germany. The first all-talking German feature, Atlantik, had premiered in Berlin on October 28. Yet another Elstree-made movie, it was rather less German at heart than Les Trois masques and La Route est belle were French; a BIP production with a British scenarist and German director, it was also shot in English as Atlantic. The entirely German Aafa-Film production It's You I Have Loved (Dich hab ich geliebt) opened three-and-a-half weeks later. It was not \"Germany's First Talking Film\", as the marketing had it, but it was the first to be released in the United States. \n\nIn 1930, the first Polish talkies premiered, using sound-on-disc systems: Moralność pani Dulskiej (The Morality of Mrs. Dulska) in March and the all-talking Niebezpieczny romans (Dangerous Love Affair) in October. In Italy, whose once vibrant film industry had become moribund by the late 1920s, the first talkie, La Canzone dell'amore (The Song of Love), also came out in October; within two years, Italian cinema would be enjoying a revival. The first movie spoken in Czech debuted in 1930 as well, Tonka Šibenice (Tonka of the Gallows). Several European nations with minor positions in the field also produced their first talking pictures—Belgium (in French), Denmark, Greece, and Romania. The Soviet Union's robust film industry came out with its first sound features in December 1930: Dziga Vertov's nonfiction Entuziazm had an experimental, dialogueless soundtrack; Abram Room's documentary Plan velikikh rabot (The Plan of the Great Works) had music and spoken voiceovers. Both were made with locally developed sound-on-film systems, two of the two hundred or so movie sound systems then available somewhere in the world. In June 1931, the Nikolai Ekk drama Putevka v zhizn (The Road to Life or A Start in Life), premiered as the Soviet Union's first true talking picture. \n\nThroughout much of Europe, conversion of exhibition venues lagged well behind production capacity, requiring talkies to be produced in parallel silent versions or simply shown without sound in many places. While the pace of conversion was relatively swift in Britain—with over 60 percent of theaters equipped for sound by the end of 1930, similar to the U.S. figure—in France, by contrast, more than half of theaters nationwide were still projecting in silence by late 1932. According to scholar Colin G. Crisp, \"Anxiety about resuscitating the flow of silent films was frequently expressed in the [French] industrial press, and a large section of the industry still saw the silent as a viable artistic and commercial prospect till about 1935.\" The situation was particularly acute in the Soviet Union; as of May 1933, fewer than one out of every hundred film projectors in the country was as yet equipped for sound. \n\nTransition: Asia \n\nDuring the 1920s and 1930s, Japan was one of the world's two largest producers of motion pictures, along with the United States. Though the country's film industry was among the first to produce both sound and talking features, the full changeover to sound proceeded much more slowly than in the West. It appears that the first Japanese sound film, Reimai (Dawn), was made in 1926 with the De Forest Phonofilm system. Using the sound-on-disc Minatoki system, the leading Nikkatsu studio produced a pair of talkies in 1929: Taii no musume (The Captain's Daughter) and Furusato (Hometown), the latter directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. The rival Shochiku studio began the successful production of sound-on-film talkies in 1931 using a variable-density process called Tsuchibashi. Two years later, however, more than 80 percent of movies made in the country were still silents.Freiberg (1987), p. 76. Two of the country's leading directors, Mikio Naruse and Yasujiro Ozu, did not make their first sound films until 1935 and 1936, respectively. As late as 1938, over a third of all movies produced in Japan were shot without dialogue.\n\nThe enduring popularity of the silent medium in Japanese cinema owed in great part to the tradition of the benshi, a live narrator who performed as accompaniment to a film screening. As director Akira Kurosawa later described, the benshi \"not only recounted the plot of the films, they enhanced the emotional content by performing the voices and sound effects and providing evocative descriptions of events and images on the screen.... The most popular narrators were stars in their own right, solely responsible for the patronage of a particular theatre.\" Film historian Mariann Lewinsky argues,\n\nThe end of silent film in the West and in Japan was imposed by the industry and the market, not by any inner need or natural evolution.... Silent cinema was a highly pleasurable and fully mature form. It didn't lack anything, least in Japan, where there was always the human voice doing the dialogues and the commentary. Sound films were not better, just more economical. As a cinema owner you didn't have to pay the wages of musicians and benshi any more. And a good benshi was a star demanding star payment. \n\nBy the same token, the viability of the benshi system facilitated a gradual transition to sound—allowing the studios to spread out the capital costs of conversion and their directors and technical crews time to become familiar with the new technology. \n\nThe Mandarin-language Gēnǚ hóng mǔdān (, Singsong Girl Red Peony), starring Butterfly Wu, premiered as China's first feature talkie in 1930. By February of that year, production was apparently completed on a sound version of The Devil's Playground, arguably qualifying it as the first Australian talking motion picture; however, the May press screening of Commonwealth Film Contest prizewinner Fellers is the first verifiable public exhibition of an Australian talkie. In September 1930, a song performed by Indian star Sulochana, excerpted from the silent feature Madhuri (1928), was released as a synchronized-sound short, the country's first. The following year, Ardeshir Irani directed the first Indian talking feature, the Hindi-Urdu Alam Ara, and produced Kalidas, primarily in Tamil with some Telugu. Nineteen-thirty-one also saw the first Bengali-language film, Jamai Sasthi, and the first movie fully spoken in Telugu, Bhakta Prahlada. In 1932, Ayodhyecha Raja became the first movie in which Marathi was spoken to be released (though Sant Tukaram was the first to go through the official censorship process); the first Gujarati-language film, Narsimha Mehta, and all-Tamil talkie, Kalava, debuted as well. The next year, Ardeshir Irani produced the first Persian-language talkie, Dukhtar-e-loor. Also in 1933, the first Cantonese-language films were produced in Hong Kong—Sha zai dongfang (The Idiot's Wedding Night) and Liang xing (Conscience); within two years, the local film industry had fully converted to sound. Korea, where pyonsa (or byun-sa) held a role and status similar to that of the Japanese benshi, in 1935 became the last country with a significant film industry to produce its first talking picture: Chunhyangjeon (/) is based on the seventeenth-century pansori folktale \"Chunhyangga\", of which as many as fifteen film versions have been made through 2009. \n\nConsequences \n\nTechnology \n\nIn the short term, the introduction of live sound recording caused major difficulties in production. Cameras were noisy, so a soundproofed cabinet was used in many of the earliest talkies to isolate the loud equipment from the actors, at the expense of a drastic reduction in the ability to move the camera. For a time, multiple-camera shooting was used to compensate for the loss of mobility and innovative studio technicians could often find ways to liberate the camera for particular shots. The necessity of staying within range of still microphones meant that actors also often had to limit their movements unnaturally. Show Girl in Hollywood (1930), from First National Pictures (which Warner Bros. had taken control of thanks to its profitable adventure into sound), gives a behind-the-scenes look at some of the techniques involved in shooting early talkies. Several of the fundamental problems caused by the transition to sound were soon solved with new camera casings, known as \"blimps\", designed to suppress noise and boom microphones that could be held just out of frame and moved with the actors. In 1931, a major improvement in playback fidelity was introduced: three-way speaker systems in which sound was separated into low, medium, and high frequencies and sent respectively to a large bass \"woofer\", a midrange driver, and a treble \"tweeter.\" \n\nThere were consequences, as well, for other technological aspects of the cinema. Proper recording and playback of sound required exact standardization of camera and projector speed. Before sound, 16 frames per second (fps) was the supposed norm, but practice varied widely. Cameras were often undercranked or overcranked to improve exposures or for dramatic effect. Projectors were commonly run too fast to shorten running time and squeeze in extra shows. Variable frame rate, however, made sound unlistenable, and a new, strict standard of 24 fps was soon established. Sound also forced the abandonment of the noisy arc lights used for filming in studio interiors. The switch to quiet incandescent illumination in turn required a switch to more expensive film stock. The sensitivity of the new panchromatic film delivered superior image tonal quality and gave directors the freedom to shoot scenes at lower light levels than was previously practical.\n\nAs David Bordwell describes, technological improvements continued at a swift pace: \"Between 1932 and 1935, [Western Electric and RCA] created directional microphones, increased the frequency range of film recording, reduced ground noise ... and extended the volume range.\" These technical advances often meant new aesthetic opportunities: \"Increasing the fidelity of recording ... heightened the dramatic possibilities of vocal timbre, pitch, and loudness.\" Another basic problem—famously spoofed in the 1952 film Singin' in the Rain—was that some silent-era actors simply did not have attractive voices; though this issue was frequently overstated, there were related concerns about general vocal quality and the casting of performers for their dramatic skills in roles also requiring singing talent beyond their own. By 1935, rerecording of vocals by the original or different actors in postproduction, a process known as \"looping\", had become practical. The ultraviolet recording system introduced by RCA in 1936 improved the reproduction of sibilants and high notes. \n\nWith Hollywood's wholesale adoption of the talkies, the competition between the two fundamental approaches to sound-film production was soon resolved. Over the course of 1930–31, the only major players using sound-on-disc, Warner Bros. and First National, changed over to sound-on-film recording. Vitaphone's dominating presence in sound-equipped theaters, however, meant that for years to come all of the Hollywood studios pressed and distributed sound-on-disc versions of their films alongside the sound-on-film prints. Fox Movietone soon followed Vitaphone into disuse as a recording and reproduction method, leaving two major American systems: the variable-area RCA Photophone and Western Electric's own variable-density process, a substantial improvement on the cross-licensed Movietone. Under RCA's instigation, the two parent companies made their projection equipment compatible, meaning films shot with one system could be screened in theaters equipped for the other. This left one big issue—the Tobis-Klangfilm challenge. In May 1930, Western Electric won an Austrian lawsuit that voided protection for certain Tri-Ergon patents, helping bring Tobis-Klangfilm to the negotiating table. The following month an accord was reached on patent cross-licensing, full playback compatibility, and the division of the world into three parts for the provision of equipment. As a contemporary report describes:\n\nTobis-Klangfilm has the exclusive rights to provide equipment for: Germany, Danzig, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, Holland, the Dutch Indies, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Finland. The Americans have the exclusive rights for the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and Russia. All other countries, among them Italy, France, and England, are open to both parties. \n\nThe agreement did not resolve all the patent disputes, and further negotiations were undertaken and concords signed over the course of the 1930s. During these years, as well, the American studios began abandoning the Western Electric system for RCA Photophone's variable-area approach—by the end of 1936, only Paramount, MGM, and United Artists still had contracts with ERPI. \n\nLabor \n\nWhile the introduction of sound led to a boom in the motion picture industry, it had an adverse effect on the employability of a host of Hollywood actors of the time. Suddenly those without stage experience were regarded as suspect by the studios; as suggested above, those whose heavy accents or otherwise discordant voices had previously been concealed were particularly at risk. The career of major silent star Norma Talmadge effectively came to an end in this way. The celebrated German actor Emil Jannings returned to Europe. Moviegoers found John Gilbert's voice an awkward match with his swashbuckling persona, and his star also faded. Audiences now seemed to perceive certain silent-era stars as old-fashioned, even those who had the talent to succeed in the sound era. The career of Harold Lloyd, one of the top screen comedians of the 1920s, declined precipitously. Lillian Gish departed, back to the stage, and other leading figures soon left acting entirely: Colleen Moore, Gloria Swanson, and Hollywood's most famous performing couple, Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford. As actress Louise Brooks suggested, there were other issues as well:\n\nStudio heads, now forced into unprecedented decisions, decided to begin with the actors, the least palatable, the most vulnerable part of movie production. It was such a splendid opportunity, anyhow, for breaking contracts, cutting salaries, and taming the stars.... Me, they gave the salary treatment. I could stay on without the raise my contract called for, or quit, [Paramount studio chief B. P.] Schulberg said, using the questionable dodge of whether I'd be good for the talkies. Questionable, I say, because I spoke decent English in a decent voice and came from the theater. So without hesitation I quit. \n\nSimilarly, Clara Bow's speaking voice was sometimes blamed for the demise of her Hollywood career, though the real issues involved her clashes with studio executives and what film historian David Thomson describes as the \"backlash of bourgeois hypocrisy\" against a lifestyle that would have been unremarkable for a male star. Buster Keaton was eager to explore the new medium, but when his studio, MGM, made the changeover to sound, he was quickly stripped of creative control. Though a number of Keaton's early talkies made impressive profits, they were artistically dismal. \n\nSeveral of the new medium's biggest attractions came from vaudeville and the musical theater, where performers such as Jolson, Eddie Cantor, Jeanette MacDonald, and the Marx Brothers were accustomed to the demands of both dialogue and song. James Cagney and Joan Blondell, who had teamed on Broadway, were brought west together by Warner Bros. in 1930. A few actors were major stars during both the silent and the sound eras: Richard Barthelmess, Clive Brook, Bebe Daniels, Norma Shearer, the comedy team of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy, and the incomparable Charlie Chaplin, whose City Lights (1931) and Modern Times (1936) employed sound almost exclusively for music and effects. Janet Gaynor became a top star with the synch-sound but dialogueless Seventh Heaven and Sunrise, as did Joan Crawford with the technologically similar Our Dancing Daughters (1928). Greta Garbo was the one non–native English speaker to retain Hollywood stardom on both sides of the great sound divide. The new emphasis on speech also caused producers to hire many novelists, journalists, and playwrights with experience writing good dialogue. Among those who became Hollywood scriptwriters during the 1930s were Nathanael West, William Faulkner, Robert Sherwood, Aldous Huxley, and Dorothy Parker. \n\nAs talking pictures emerged, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work. More than just their position as film accompanists was usurped; according to historian Preston J. Hubbard, \"During the 1920s live musical performances at first-run theaters became an exceedingly important aspect of the American cinema.\" With the coming of the talkies, those featured performances—usually staged as preludes—were largely eliminated as well. The American Federation of Musicians took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled \"Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever\" and reads in part:\n\nCanned Music on Trial\nThis is the case of Art vs. Mechanical Music in theatres. The defendant stands accused in front of the American people of attempted corruption of musical appreciation and discouragement of musical education. Theatres in many cities are offering synchronised mechanical music as a substitute for Real Music. If the theatre-going public accepts this vitiation of its entertainment program a deplorable decline in the Art of Music is inevitable. Musical authorities know that the soul of the Art is lost in mechanisation. It cannot be otherwise because the quality of music is dependent on the mood of the artist, upon the human contact, without which the essence of intellectual stimulation and emotional rapture is lost. The text of the ad continues:\n\nIs Music Worth Saving? No great volume of evidence is required to answer this question. Music is a well-nigh universally beloved art. From the beginning of history, men have turned to musical expression to lighten the burdens of life, to make them happier. Aborigines, lowest in the scale of savagery, chant their song to tribal gods and play upon pipes and shark-skin drums. Musical development has kept pace with good taste and ethics throughout the ages, and has influenced the gentler nature of man more powerfully perhaps than any other factor. Has it remained for the Great Age of Science to snub the Art by setting up in its place a pale and feeble shadow of itself?\n\nBy the following year, a reported 22,000 U.S. moviehouse musicians had lost their jobs. \n\nCommerce \n\nIn September 1926, Jack L. Warner, head of Warner Bros., was quoted to the effect that talking pictures would never be viable: \"They fail to take into account the international language of the silent pictures, and the unconscious share of each onlooker in creating the play, the action, the plot, and the imagined dialogue for himself.\" Much to his company's benefit, he would be proven very wrong—between the 1927–28 and 1928–29 fiscal years, Warners' profits surged from $2 million to $14 million. Sound film, in fact, was a clear boon to all the major players in the industry. During that same twelve-month span, Paramount's profits rose by $7 million, Fox's by $3.5 million, and Loew's/MGM's by $3 million. RKO, which hadn't even existed in September 1928 and whose parent production company, FBO, was in the Hollywood minor leagues, by the end of 1929 was established as one of America's leading entertainment businesses. Fueling the boom was the emergence of an important new cinematic genre made possible by sound: the musical. Over sixty Hollywood musicals were released in 1929, and more than eighty the following year. \n\nEven as the Wall Street crash of October 1929 helped plunge the United States and ultimately the global economy into depression, the popularity of the talkies at first seemed to keep Hollywood immune. The 1929–30 exhibition season was even better for the motion picture industry than the previous, with ticket sales and overall profits hitting new highs. Reality finally struck later in 1930, but sound had clearly secured Hollywood's position as one of the most important industrial fields, both commercially and culturally, in the United States. In 1929, film box-office receipts comprised 16.6 percent of total spending by Americans on recreation; by 1931, the figure had reached 21.8 percent. The motion picture business would command similar figures for the next decade and a half. Hollywood ruled on the larger stage, as well. The American movie industry—already the world's most powerful—set an export record in 1929 that, by the applied measure of total feet of exposed film, was 27 percent higher than the year before. Concerns that language differences would hamper U.S. film exports turned out to be largely unfounded. In fact, the expense of sound conversion was a major obstacle to many overseas producers, relatively undercapitalized by Hollywood standards. The production of multiple versions of export-bound talkies in different languages (known as \"Foreign Language Version\"), as well as the production of the cheaper \"International Sound Version\", a common approach at first, largely ceased by mid-1931, replaced by post-dubbing and subtitling. Despite trade restrictions imposed in most foreign markets, by 1937, American films commanded about 70 percent of screen time around the globe. \n\nJust as the leading Hollywood studios gained from sound in relation to their foreign competitors, they did the same at home. As historian Richard B. Jewell describes, \"The sound revolution crushed many small film companies and producers who were unable to meet the financial demands of sound conversion.\" The combination of sound and the Great Depression led to a wholesale shakeout in the business, resulting in the hierarchy of the Big Five integrated companies (MGM, Paramount, Fox, Warners, RKO) and the three smaller studios also called \"majors\" (Columbia, Universal, United Artists) that would predominate through the 1950s. Historian Thomas Schatz describes the ancillary effects:\n\nBecause the studios were forced to streamline operations and rely on their own resources, their individual house styles and corporate personalities came into much sharper focus. Thus the watershed period from the coming of sound into the early Depression saw the studio system finally coalesce, with the individual studios coming to terms with their own identities and their respective positions within the industry. \n\nThe other country in which sound cinema had an immediate major commercial impact was India. As one distributor of the period said, \"With the coming of the talkies, the Indian motion picture came into its own as a definite and distinctive piece of creation. This was achieved by music.\" From its earliest days, Indian sound cinema has been defined by the musical—Alam Ara featured seven songs; a year later, Indrasabha would feature seventy. While the European film industries fought an endless battle against the popularity and economic muscle of Hollywood, ten years after the debut of Alam Ara, over 90 percent of the films showing on Indian screens were made within the country. \n\nMost of India's early talkies were shot in Bombay, which remains the leading production center, but sound filmmaking soon spread across the multilingual nation. Within just a few weeks of Alam Aras March 1931 premiere, the Calcutta-based Madan Pictures had released both the Hindi Shirin Farhad and the Bengali Jamai Sasthi. The Hindustani Heer Ranjha was produced in Lahore, Punjab, the following year. In 1934, Sati Sulochana, the first Kannada talking picture to be released, was shot in Kolhapur, Maharashtra; Srinivasa Kalyanam became the first Tamil talkie actually shot in Tamil Nadu. Once the first talkie features appeared, the conversion to full sound production happened as rapidly in India as it did in the United States. Already by 1932, the majority of feature productions were in sound; two years later, 164 of the 172 Indian feature films were talking pictures. Since 1934, with the sole exception of 1952, India has been among the top three movie-producing countries in the world every single year. \n\nAesthetic quality \n\nIn the first, 1930 edition of his global survey The Film Till Now, British cinema pundit Paul Rotha declared, \"A film in which the speech and sound effects are perfectly synchronised and coincide with their visual image on the screen is absolutely contrary to the aims of cinema. It is a degenerate and misguided attempt to destroy the real use of the film and cannot be accepted as coming within the true boundaries of the cinema.\" Such opinions were not rare among those who cared about cinema as an art form; Alfred Hitchcock, though he directed the first commercially successful talkie produced in Europe, held that \"the silent pictures were the purest form of cinema\" and scoffed at many early sound films as delivering little beside \"photographs of people talking\". In Germany, Max Reinhardt, stage producer and movie director, expressed the belief that the talkies, \"bringing to the screen stage plays ... tend to make this independent art a subsidiary of the theater and really make it only a substitute for the theater instead of an art in itself ... like reproductions of paintings.\" \n\nIn the opinion of many film historians and aficionados, both at the time and subsequently, silent film had reached an aesthetic peak by the late 1920s and the early years of sound cinema delivered little that was comparable to the best of the silents. For instance, despite fading into relative obscurity once its era had passed, silent cinema is represented by eleven films in Time Outs Centenary of Cinema Top One Hundred poll, held in 1995. The first year in which sound film production predominated over silent film—not only in the United States, but also in the West as a whole—was 1929; yet the years 1929 through 1933 are represented by three dialogueless pictures (Pandora's Box [1929], Zemlya [1930], City Lights [1931]) and zero talkies in the Time Out poll. (City Lights, like Sunrise, was released with a recorded score and sound effects, but is now customarily referred to by historians and industry professionals as a \"silent\"—spoken dialogue regarded as the crucial distinguishing factor between silent and sound dramatic cinema.) The earliest sound film to place is the French L'Atalante (1934), directed by Jean Vigo; the earliest Hollywood sound film to qualify is Bringing Up Baby (1938), directed by Howard Hawks. \n\nThe first sound feature film to receive near-universal critical approbation was Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel); premiering on April 1, 1930, it was directed by Josef von Sternberg in both German and English versions for Berlin's UFA studio. The first American talkie to be widely honored was All Quiet on the Western Front, directed by Lewis Milestone, which premiered April 21. The other internationally acclaimed sound drama of the year was Westfront 1918, directed by G. W. Pabst for Nero-Film of Berlin. Historian Anton Kaes points to it as an example of \"the new verisimilitude [that] rendered silent cinema's former emphasis on the hypnotic gaze and the symbolism of light and shadow, as well as its preference for allegorical characters, anachronistic.\"Kaes (2009), p. 212. Cultural historians consider the French L'Âge d'Or, directed by Luis Buñuel, which appeared late in 1930, to be of great aesthetic import; at the time, its erotic, blasphemous, anti-bourgeois content caused a scandal. Swiftly banned by Paris police chief Jean Chiappe, it was unavailable for fifty years. The earliest sound movie now acknowledged by most film historians as a masterpiece is Nero-Film's M, directed by Fritz Lang, which premiered May 11, 1931. As described by Roger Ebert, \"Many early talkies felt they had to talk all the time, but Lang allows his camera to prowl through the streets and dives, providing a rat's-eye view.\" \n\nCinematic form \n\n\"Talking film is as little needed as a singing book.\" Such was the blunt proclamation of critic Viktor Shklovsky, one of the leaders of the Russian formalist movement, in 1927. While some regarded sound as irreconcilable with film art, others saw it as opening a new field of creative opportunity. The following year, a group of Soviet filmmakers, including Sergei Eisenstein, proclaimed that the use of image and sound in juxtaposition, the so-called contrapuntal method, would raise the cinema to \"...unprecedented power and cultural height. Such a method for constructing the sound-film will not confine it to a national market, as must happen with the photographing of plays, but will give a greater possibility than ever before for the circulation throughout the world of a filmically expressed idea.\" So far as one segment of the audience was concerned, however, the introduction of sound brought a virtual end to such circulation: Elizabeth C. Hamilton writes, \"Silent films offered people who were deaf a rare opportunity to participate in a public discourse, cinema, on equal terms with hearing people. The emergence of sound film effectively separated deaf from hearing audience members once again.\" \n\nOn March 12, 1929, the first feature-length talking picture made in Germany had its premiere. The inaugural Tobis Filmkunst production, it was not a drama, but a documentary sponsored by a shipping line: Melodie der Welt (Melody of the World), directed by Walter Ruttmann. This was also perhaps the first feature film anywhere to significantly explore the artistic possibilities of joining the motion picture with recorded sound. As described by scholar William Moritz, the movie is \"intricate, dynamic, fast-paced ... juxtapos[ing] similar cultural habits from countries around the world, with a superb orchestral score ... and many synchronized sound effects.\" Composer Lou Lichtveld was among a number of contemporary artists struck by the film: \"Melodie der Welt became the first important sound documentary, the first in which musical and unmusical sounds were composed into a single unit and in which image and sound are controlled by one and the same impulse.\" Melodie der Welt was a direct influence on the industrial film Philips Radio (1931), directed by Dutch avant-garde filmmaker Joris Ivens and scored by Lichtveld, who described its audiovisual aims:\n\nTo render the half-musical impressions of factory sounds in a complex audio world that moved from absolute music to the purely documentary noises of nature. In this film every intermediate stage can be found: such as the movement of the machine interpreted by the music, the noises of the machine dominating the musical background, the music itself is the documentary, and those scenes where the pure sound of the machine goes solo. \n\nMany similar experiments were pursued by Dziga Vertov in his 1931 Entuziazm and by Chaplin in Modern Times, a half-decade later.\n\nA few innovative commercial directors immediately saw the ways in which sound could be employed as an integral part of cinematic storytelling, beyond the obvious function of recording speech. In Blackmail, Hitchcock manipulated the reproduction of a character's monologue so the word \"knife\" would leap out from a blurry stream of sound, reflecting the subjective impression of the protagonist, who is desperate to conceal her involvement in a fatal stabbing. In his first film, the Paramount Applause (1929), Rouben Mamoulian created the illusion of acoustic depth by varying the volume of ambient sound in proportion to the distance of shots. At a certain point, Mamoulian wanted the audience to hear one character singing at the same time as another prays; according to the director, \"They said we couldn't record the two things—the song and the prayer—on one mike and one channel. So I said to the sound man, 'Why not use two mikes and two channels and combine the two tracks in printing?'\" Such methods would eventually become standard procedure in popular filmmaking.\n\nOne of the first commercial films to take full advantage of the new opportunities provided by recorded sound was Le Million, directed by René Clair and produced by Tobis's French division. Premiering in Paris in April 1931 and New York a month later, the picture was both a critical and popular success. A musical comedy with a barebones plot, it is memorable for its formal accomplishments, in particular, its emphatically artificial treatment of sound. As described by scholar Donald Crafton,\n\nLe Million never lets us forget that the acoustic component is as much a construction as the whitewashed sets. [It] replaced dialogue with actors singing and talking in rhyming couplets. Clair created teasing confusions between on- and off-screen sound. He also experimented with asynchronous audio tricks, as in the famous scene in which a chase after a coat is synched to the cheers of an invisible football (or rugby) crowd. \n\nThese and similar techniques became part of the vocabulary of the sound comedy film, though as special effects and \"color\", not as the basis for the kind of comprehensive, non-naturalistic design achieved by Clair. Outside of the comedic field, the sort of bold play with sound exemplified by Melodie der Welt and Le Million would be pursued very rarely in commercial production. Hollywood, in particular, incorporated sound into a reliable system of genre-based moviemaking, in which the formal possibilities of the new medium were subordinated to the traditional goals of star affirmation and straightforward storytelling. As accurately predicted in 1928 by Frank Woods, secretary of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, \"The talking pictures of the future will follow the general line of treatment heretofore developed by the silent drama.... The talking scenes will require different handling, but the general construction of the story will be much the same.\"",
"Jazz is a music genre that originated from African American communities of New Orleans in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It emerged in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of African American and European American musical parentage with a performance orientation. Jazz spans a period of over a hundred years, encompassing a very wide range of music, making it difficult to define. Jazz makes heavy use of improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation and the swing note, as well as aspects of European harmony, American popular music, the brass band tradition, and African musical elements such as blue notes and African-American styles such as ragtime. Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the black experience of the United States, different cultures have contributed their own experience and styles to the art form as well. Intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as \"one of America's original art forms\". \n\nAs jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to many distinctive styles. New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz, a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style and Gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes) were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging \"musician's music\" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.\n\nThe 1950s saw the emergence of free jazz, which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures, and in the mid-1950s, hard bop emerged, which introduced influences from rhythm and blues, gospel, and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock music's rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound. In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful, garnering significant radio airplay. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as Latin and Afro-Cuban jazz.\n\nEtymology and definition\n\nThe question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning \"pep, energy.\" The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the Los Angeles Times in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a jazz ball \"because it wobbles and you simply can’t do anything with it.\" \n\nThe use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune. Archived at Observatoire Musical Français, Paris-Sorbonne University. Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916 Times-Picayune article about \"jas bands.\" In an interview with NPR, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the original slang connotations of the term, saying: \"When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z.. It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S.' That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies.\" The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century. \n\nJazz has proved to be very difficult to define, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, from ragtime to the 2010-era rock-infused fusion. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic Joachim-Ernst Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader, defining jazz as a \"form of art music which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music\" and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a \"special relationship to time defined as 'swing'\", involves \"a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role\" and contains a \"sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician\". In the opinion of Robert Christgau, \"most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz.\" \n \nA broader definition that encompasses all of the radically different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson: \"it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities\". Krin Gibbard has provided an overview of the discussion on definitions, arguing that \"jazz is a construct\" that, while artificial, still is useful to designate \"a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition\". In contrast to the efforts of commentators and enthusiasts of certain types of jazz, who have argued for narrower definitions that exclude other types, the musicians themselves are often reluctant to define the music they play. As Duke Ellington, one of jazz's most famous figures, said: \"It's all music\". \n\nElements and issues\n\nImprovisation\n\nAlthough jazz is considered highly difficult to define, at least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres, improvisation is consistently regarded as being one of its key elements. The centrality of improvisation in jazz is attributed to influential earlier forms of music: the early blues, a form of folk music which arose in part from the work songs and field hollers of the African-American slaves on plantations. These were commonly structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, but early blues was also highly improvisational. European classical music performance is evaluated by its fidelity to the musical score, with much less discretion over interpretation, ornamentation and accompaniment: the classical performer's primary goal is to play a composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized as the product of group creativity, interaction, and collaboration, which places varying degrees of value on the contributions of composer (if there is one) and performers. In jazz, the skilled performer will interpret a tune in very individual ways, never playing the same composition the same way twice; depending on the performer's mood and personal experience, interactions with other musicians, or even members of the audience, a jazz musician may alter melodies, harmonies or time signature at will. \n\nThe approach to improvisation has developed enormously over the history of the music. In early New Orleans and Dixieland jazz, performers took turns playing the melody, while others improvised countermelodies. By the swing era, big bands were coming to rely more on arranged music: arrangements were either written or learned by ear and memorized, while individual soloists would improvise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the focus shifted back toward small groups and minimal arrangements; the melody would be stated briefly at the start and end of a piece, but the core of the performance would be the series of improvisations. Later styles such as modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord progression, allowing the individual musicians to improvise even more freely within the context of a given scale or mode. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is often supported by a rhythm section consisting of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar, etc.), double bass playing the basslines and drum kit. These performers provide accompaniment by playing chords and rhythms that outline the song structure and complement the soloist. In avant-garde and free jazz idioms, the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales and rhythmic meters.\n\nTradition and race\n\nSince at least the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized by purists. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a \"tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form\". Traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, the 1970s jazz fusion era and much else as periods of debasement of the music and betrayals of the tradition. An alternative viewpoint is that jazz is able to absorb and transform influences from diverse musical styles, and that, by avoiding the creation of 'norms', other newer, avant-garde forms of jazz will be free to emerge.\n\nTo some African Americans, jazz has highlighted their contribution to American society and helped bring attention to black history and culture, but for others, the music and term \"jazz\" are reminders of \"an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions\". Amiri Baraka argues that there is a distinct \"white jazz\" music genre expressive of whiteness. White jazz musicians appeared in the early 1920s in the Midwestern United States, as well as other areas. Bix Beiderbecke was one of the most prominent white jazz musicians. An influential style referred to as the Chicago School (or Chicago Style) was developed by white musicians including Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland. Frank Teschemacher, Dave Tough, and Eddie Condon. Others from Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa became leading members of big-band swing during the 1930s. \n\nRole of women\n\nWomen jazz performers and composers have contributed throughout jazz history. While women such as Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald, Dinah Washington, Ethel Waters, Betty Carter, Adelaide Hall, Abbey Lincoln, and Anita O'Day are famous for their jazz singing, women have achieved much less recognition for their contributions as composers, bandleaders, and instrumental performers. Other notable jazz women include piano player Lil Hardin Armstrong and jazz songwriters Irene Higginbotham (1918-1988) and Dorothy Fields (1905-1974). Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, with the piano being one of the earliest instruments used which allowed female artists a degree of social acceptance. Some well known artists of the time include Sweet Emma Barrett, Mary Lou Williams, Billie Pierce, Jeanette Kimball and Lovie Austin.\n\nWhen the men were drafted for WWII, many all-women big band jazz bands took over. The International Sweethearts of Rhythm (founded 1937) was a well-known jazz group of this era, becoming the first all-women integrated band in the U.S., touring Europe in 1945 and becoming the first black women to travel with the USO. The dress codes of the era required women to wear strapless dresses and high heeled shoes, which was somewhat of a hindrance to the integration of women into the big bands of suit-wearing men. Nevertheless, women were hired into many of the big-league big bands such as Woody Herman and Gerald Wilson.\n\nHistory\n\nJazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as interpretations of American and European classical music entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture. Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.\n\nOrigins\n\nBlended African and European music sensibilities\n\nBy 1866, the Atlantic slave trade had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America. The slaves came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo River basin, and brought strong musical traditions with them. The African traditions primarily make use of a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, and the rhythms have a counter-metric structure and reflect African speech patterns.\n\nLavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo Square, in New Orleans until 1843. There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States. Robert Palmer said of percussive slave music:\n\nUsually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered \"gumbo box\", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion. There are quite a few [accounts] from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850. Some of the earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War. \n\nAnother influence came from the harmonic style of hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as spirituals. The origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz \"was largely based on concepts of heterophony.\" \n\nDuring the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In turn, European-American minstrel show performers in blackface popularized the music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cultures.\n\nAfrican rhythmic retention\n\nThe \"Black Codes\" outlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through \"body rhythms\" such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba. \n\nIn the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was \"Afro-Latin music\", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time. A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Orleans Congo Square and Gottschalk's compositions (for example \"Souvenirs From Havana\" (1859)). Tresillo is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the music of the African Diaspora. \n\nTresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present. \"By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions,\" the Jazz historian Gunther Schuller observed. \"Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed.\" \n\nIn the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures. This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. \"The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms,\" observed the writer Robert Palmer (writer), speculating that \"this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured.\" \n\n\"Spanish tinge\"—the Afro-Cuban rhythmic influence\n\nAfrican-American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century, when the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international popularity. Musicians from Havana and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts states that the musical genre habanera \"reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published.\" For the more than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime, and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music. \n\nHabaneras were widely available as sheet music, and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803), From the perspective of African-American music, the habanera rhythm (also known as congo, tango-congo, or tango. ) can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat. The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States, and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.\n\nNew Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's piano piece \"Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)\" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand. In Gottschalk's symphonic work \"A Night in the Tropics\" (1859), the tresillo variant cinquillo appears extensively. The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers.\n\nComparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New Orleans \"clave\", a Spanish word meaning 'code' or 'key', as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery. Although technically the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the guide-pattern of New Orleans music. Jelly Roll Morton called the rhythmic figure the Spanish tinge, and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz. \n\n1890s–1910s\n\nRagtime\n\nThe abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, during which time many marching bands were formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs and brothels, as ragtime developed. \n\nRagtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895. Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo known as \"Rag Time Medley\". Also in 1897, the white composer William H. Krell published his \"Mississippi Rag\" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom Turpin published his \"Harlem Rag\", the first rag published by an African-American.\n\nThe classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his \"Original Rags\" in 1898, and in 1899 had an international hit with \"Maple Leaf Rag\", a multi-strain ragtime march with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious seventh chords. Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and the syncopations in the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time. \n\nAfrican-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin, Turpin, and others. Joplin's \"Solace\" (1909) is generally considered to be within the habanera genre: both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm. Ned Sublette postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm \"found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,\" whilst Roberts suggests that \"the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass.\" \n\nBlues\n\nAfrican genesis\n\nBlues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre, which originated in African-American communities of primarily the \"Deep South\" of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts and chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads. \n\nThe African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of blue notes in blues and jazz. As Kubik explains:\nMany of the rural blues of the Deep South are stylistically an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt:\n* A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among the Hausa. It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice.\n* An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents (1999: 94). \n\nW. C. Handy: early published blues\n\nW. C. Handy became intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep South whilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another \"voice\". Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format, and arrange them in a popular music form.\n\nHandy wrote about his adopting of the blues:\n\nThe primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same. Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major ..., and I carried this device into my melody as well. \n\nThe publication of his \"Memphis Blues\" sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but \"more like a cakewalk\" ). This composition, as well as his later \"St. Louis Blues\" and others, included the habanera rhythm,W. C. Handy, Father of the Blues: An Autobiography, edited by Arna Bontemps: foreword by Abbe Niles. Macmillan Company, New York; (1941), pp. 99, 100 (no ISBN in this first printing). and would become jazz standards. Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era, and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music.\n\nWithin the context of Western harmony\n\nThe blues form which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by specific chord progressions, of which the twelve-bar blues progression is the most common. An important part of the sound are the blue notes which, for expressive purposes, are sung or played flattened, or gradually bent (minor 3rd to major 3rd) in relation to the pitch of the major scale. The blues were the key that opened up an entirely new approach to Western harmony, ultimately leading to a high level of harmonic complexity in jazz.\n\nNew Orleans\n\nThe music of New Orleans had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. Many early jazz performers played in venues throughout the city, such as the brothels and bars of the red-light district around Basin Street, known as \"Storyville\". In addition to dance bands, there were numerous marching bands who played at lavish funerals (later called jazz funerals), which were arranged by the African-American and European American communities. The instruments used in marching bands and dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass, reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale, and drums. Small bands which mixed self-taught and well educated African-American musicians, many of whom came from the funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, played a seminal role in the development and dissemination of early jazz. These bands travelled throughout Black communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914 onwards, Afro-Creole and African-American musicians played in vaudeville shows which took jazz to western and northern US cities.\n\nIn New Orleans, a white marching band leader named Papa Jack Laine integrated blacks and whites in his marching band. Laine was known as \"the father of white jazz\" because of the many top players who passed through his bands (including George Brunies, Sharkey Bonano and the future members of the Original Dixieland Jass Band). Laine was a good talent scout. During the early 1900s jazz was mostly done in the African-American and mulatto communities, due to segregation laws. The red light district of Storyville, New Orleans was crucial in bringing jazz music to a wider audience via tourists who came to the port city. Many jazz musicians from the African-American communities were hired to perform live music in brothels and bars, including many early jazz pioneers such as Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton, in addition to those from New Orleans other communities such as Lorenzo Tio and Alcide Nunez. Louis Armstrong also got his start in Storyville and would later find success in Chicago (along with others from New Orleans) after the United States government shut down Storyville in 1917. \n\nSyncopation\n\nThe cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band who are often mentioned as one of the prime originators of the style later to be called \"jazz\". He played in New Orleans around 1895–1906, before developing a mental illness; there are no recordings of him playing. Bolden's band is credited with creating the big four, the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march. As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.\n\nAfro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New York. In 1905 he composed his \"Jelly Roll Blues\", which on its publication in 1915 became the first jazz arrangement in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orleans style. \n\nMorton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz. In his own words: Now in one of my earliest tunes, \"New Orleans Blues,\" you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.\n\nMorton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the Library of Congress, in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles. Morton's solos however were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz; but his use of the blues was of equal importance.\n\nSwing\n\nMorton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing feeling. Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: \"if you don't feel it, you'll never know it.\" The New Harvard Dictionary of Music states that swing is: \"An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments.\" The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions: swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions. This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse \"grids\". \n\nNew Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans' Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz, and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary. \n\nThe Original Dixieland Jass Band made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their \"Livery Stable Blues\" became the earliest released jazz record. That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring \"jazz\" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War I, James Reese Europe's \"Hellfighters\" infantry band took ragtime to Europe, then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including \"Darktown Strutters' Ball\".\n\nOther regions\n\nIn the northeastern United States, a \"hot\" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York, which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912. The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake influenced James P. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline. \n\nIn Ohio and elsewhere in the midwest the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class. \n\n1920s and 1930s\n\nJazz Age\n\n From 1920 to 1933 Prohibition in the United States banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the \"Jazz Age\", hosting popular music including current dance songs, novelty songs and show tunes. Jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of the Roaring 20s. Professor Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote: \"... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion.\" The media too began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times used stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare off bears, when in fact they had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz. \n\nIn 1919 Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings. That year also saw the first recording by Bessie Smith, the most famous of the 1920s blues singers. Chicago meanwhile was the main center developing the new \"Hot Jazz\", where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.\n\nDespite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918 Paul Whiteman and his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco, California, signing with Victor Talking Machine Company in 1920 and becoming the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving \"hot jazz\" a white component, hiring white musicians including Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Frankie Trumbauer, and Joe Venuti. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which was premiered by his orchestra. After the band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, including Fred Waring, Jean Goldkette, and Nathaniel Shilkret. Whiteman's success was based on a \"rhetoric of domestication\" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read \"white\") a previously inchoate (read \"black\") kind of music. \n\nWhiteman's success caused blacks to follow suit, including Earl Hines (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), Duke Ellington (who opened at the Cotton Club in Harlem in 1927), Lionel Hampton, Fletcher Henderson, Claude Hopkins, and Don Redman, with Henderson and Redman developing the \"talking to one another\" formula for \"hot\" Swing music. \n\nIn 1924 Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded \"stiff, stodgy,\" with \"jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality.\" The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of \"Mandy, Make Up Your Mind\" by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924). (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as it doesn't convey his use of swing.)\n\nAlso in the 1920s Skiffle, jazz played with homemade instruments such as washboard, jugs, musical saw, kazoos, etc. began to be recorded in Chicago, Ill., later merging with country music.\n\nArmstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot Five band, where he popularized scat singing. \n\nJelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers.\n\nBy 1930 the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world. \n\nSwing\n\nThe 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the \"big\" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Glenn Miller, Artie Shaw, Harry James, and Jimmie Lunceford. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to \"solo\" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be very complex \"important\" music.\n\nSwing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the radio \"live\" nightly across America for many years, especially by Earl Hines and his Grand Terrace Cafe Orchestra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago (well placed for \"live\" US time-zones).\n\nOver time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young (inventor of much of hipster jargon) marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as \"jumping the blues\" or jump blues used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s.\n\nBeginnings of European jazz\n\nAs only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time. The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.\n\nBritish jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919. In 1926 Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.\n\nThis distinct style entered full swing in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman, since his style was also a fusion of the two. Belgian guitar virtuoso Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall \"musette\" and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass, and solos pass from one player to another as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section. Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphia's Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti who pioneered the guitar-violin partnership typical of the genre, which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s. \n\n1940s and 1950s\n\n\"American music\"—the influence of Ellington\n\nBy the 1940s, Duke Ellington's music had transcended the bounds of swing, bridging jazz and art music in a natural synthesis. Ellington called his music \"American Music\" rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who impressed him as \"beyond category.\" These included many of the musicians who were members of his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most well-known jazz orchestral units in the history of jazz. He often composed specifically for the style and skills of these individuals, such as \"Jeep's Blues\" for Johnny Hodges, \"Concerto for Cootie\" for Cootie Williams (which later became \"Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me\" with Bob Russell's lyrics), and \"The Mooche\" for Tricky Sam Nanton and Bubber Miley. He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such as Juan Tizol's \"Caravan\" and \"Perdido\", which brought the \"Spanish Tinge\" to big-band jazz. Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades. The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity. \n\nBebop\n\nIn the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging \"musician's music.\" The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie and Clifford Brown, and drummer Max Roach. Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal.\n\nComposer Gunther Schuller wrote:\n ... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings. \n\nDizzy Gillespie wrote:\n ... People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here ... naturally each age has got its own shit. \n\nRhythm\n\nSince bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncopated linear rhythmic complexity. \n\nHarmony\n\nBebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note; bebop also uses \"passing\" chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. New forms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or \"flatted fifth\") interval became the \"most important interval of bebop\" Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era songs and reused with a new and more complex melody to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but infused with II-V motion) and 'rhythm changes' (I-VI-II-V) - the chords to the 1930s pop standard \"I Got Rhythm.\" Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes.\n\nThe harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing \"Cherokee\" at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, New York, in early 1942:\n I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used, ... and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else. I could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it.... I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive—Parker. \n\nGerhard Kubik postulates that the harmonic development in bebop sprang from the blues and other African-related tonal sensibilities, rather than 20th-century Western art music as some have suggested:\n Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in [Parker's] life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices. \n\nSamuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about three main developments:\n* A new harmonic conception, using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety.\n* A developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device.\n* The reestablishment of the blues as the music's primary organizing and functional principle.\n\nAs Kubik explained:\nWhile for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western \"serious\" music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold Schoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach. Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back to African-American music several structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions \n\nThese divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile, response among fans and fellow musicians, especially established swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be filled with \"racing, nervous phrases\". But despite the initial friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary.\n\nAfro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)\n\nMachito and Mario Bauza\n\nThe general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was \"Tanga\" (1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza and recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York City. \"Tanga\" began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top. \n\nThis was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clave brought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz. Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of African cross-rhythm. Within the context of jazz however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic \"one\" is always understood to be \"one\". If the progression begins on the \"three-side\" of clave, it is said to be in 3-2 clave. If the progression begins on the \"two-side\", its in 2-3 clave. \n\nBobby Sanabria mentions several innovations of Machito's Afro-Cubans, citing them as the first band: to wed big band jazz arranging techniques within an original composition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an authentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful manner; to explore modal harmony (a concept explored much later by Miles Davis and Gil Evans) from a jazz arranging perspective; and to overtly explore the concept of clave counterpoint from an arranging standpoint (the ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within the structure of a musical arrangement). They were also the first band in the United States to publicly utilize the term Afro-Cuban as the band's moniker, thus identifying itself and acknowledging the West African roots of the musical form they were playing. It forced New York City's Latino and African-American communities to deal with their common West African musical roots in a direct way, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly or not. \n\nDizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo\n\nIt was Mario Bauzá who introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to the Cuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo. Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. \"Manteca\" (1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge. Gillespie recounted: \"If I'd let it go like [Chano] wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge.\" The bridge gave \"Manteca\" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal \"Tanga\" of a few years earlier.\n\nGillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop, as it was called, also drew more directly from African rhythmic structures. Jazz arrangements with a \"Latin\" A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many \"Latin tunes\" of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of \"Manteca\", \"A Night in Tunisia\", \"Tin Tin Deo\", and \"On Green Dolphin Street\".\n\nAfrican cross-rhythm\n\nCuban percussionist Mongo Santamaria first recorded his composition \"Afro Blue\" in 1959. \n\"Afro Blue\" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) cross-rhythm, or hemiola. The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2). The following example shows the original ostinato \"Afro Blue\" bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your foot to \"keep time.\"\n\nWhen John Coltrane covered \"Afro Blue\" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a 3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). Originally a B pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of \"Afro Blue.\"\n\nPerhaps the most respected Afro-cuban jazz combo of the late 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band. Tjader had Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and Willie Bobo on his early recording dates.\n\nDixieland revival\n\nIn the late 1940s there was a revival of \"Dixieland\" music, harking back to the original contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of early jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as Bob Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and Wild Bill Davison. Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimball and his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.\n\nCool jazz and West Coast jazz\n\nIn 1944 jazz impresario Norman Granz organized the first Jazz at the Philharmonic concert in Los Angeles, which helped make a star of Nat \"King\" Cole and Les Paul. In 1946 he founded Clef Records, discovering Canadian jazz pianist Oscar Peterson in 1949, and merging Clef Records with his new label Verve Records in 1956, which advanced the career of Ella Fitzgerald et al.\n\nBy the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension of bebop was replaced with a tendency toward calm and smoothness with the sounds of cool jazz, which favored long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City, and dominated jazz in the first half of the 1950s. The starting point was a collection of 1949 and 1950 singles by a nonet led by Miles Davis, released as the Birth of the Cool (1957). Later cool jazz recordings by musicians such as Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Bill Evans, Gil Evans, Stan Getz, the Modern Jazz Quartet, and Gerry Mulligan usually had a \"lighter\" sound that avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic abstraction of bebop.\n\nCool jazz later became strongly identified with the West Coast jazz scene, as typified by singers Chet Baker, Mel Tormé, and Anita O'Day, but it also had a particular resonance in Europe, especially Scandinavia, where figures such as baritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist Bengt Hallberg emerged. The theoretical underpinnings of cool jazz were laid out by the Chicago pianist Lennie Tristano, and its influence stretches into such later developments as bossa nova, modal jazz, and even free jazz.\n\nHard bop\n\nHard bop is an extension of bebop (or \"bop\") music which incorporates influences from rhythm and blues, gospel music and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s, and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis' 1954 performance of \"Walkin'\" at the first Newport Jazz Festival announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey and featuring pianist Horace Silver and trumpeter Clifford Brown, were leaders in the hard bop movement along with Davis.\n\nModal jazz\n\nModal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a given chord progression, but with modal jazz the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody: \"Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale),\" explained pianist Mark Levine.\n\nThe modal theory stems from a work by George Russell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation, the entire Kind of Blue album was composed as a series of \"modal sketches\", in which each performer was given a set of scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style. \"I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,\" recalled Davis. The track \"So What\" has only two chords: D-7 and E-7. \n\nOther innovators in this style include Jackie McLean, and two of the musicians who had also played on Kind of Blue: John Coltrane and Bill Evans.\n\nBy the 1950s, Afro-Cuban jazz had been using modes for at least a decade, as much of it borrowed from Cuban popular dance forms which are structured around multiple ostinatos with only a few chords. A case in point is Mario Bauza's \"Tanga\" (1943), the first Afro-Cuban jazz piece. Machito's Afro-Cubans recorded modal tunes in the 1940s, featuring jazz soloists such as Howard McGhee, Brew Moore, Charlie Parker and Flip Phillips. However, there is no evidence that Davis or other mainstream jazz musicians were influenced by the use of modes in Afro-Cuban jazz, or other branches of Latin jazz.\n\nFree jazz\n\nFree jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz broke through into an open space of \"free tonality\" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of World music from India, Africa and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing. While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres.\n\nThe first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work of Ornette Coleman (whose 1960 album Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation coined the term) and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s exponents included Albert Ayler, Gato Barbieri, Carla Bley, Don Cherry, Larry Coryell, John Coltrane, Bill Dixon, Jimmy Giuffre, Steve Lacy, Michael Mantler, Sun Ra, Roswell Rudd, Pharoah Sanders, and John Tchicai. In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil Taylor as leader. In November 1961 Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic Chasin' the 'Trane, which Down Beat magazine panned as \"Anti-Jazz\". On his 1961 tour of France he was booed, but persevered, signing with the new Impulse! Records in 1960 and turning it into \"the house that Trane built\", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp, who often played with trumpeter Bill Dixon, who organized the 4-day \"October Revolution in Jazz\" in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival.\n\nA series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane's sheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom. The group's evolution can be traced through the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays, Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thing at Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965) and First Meditations (September 1965).\n\nIn June 1965 Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded Ascension, a 40-minute long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avante-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos. Dave Liebman later called it \"the torch that lit the free jazz thing.\". After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument.\n\nFree jazz in Europe\n\nFree jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe, in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and Eric Dolphy spent extended periods there, and European musicians Michael Mantler, John Tchicai et al. traveled to the U.S. to learn it firsthand. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating elements of free jazz but not limited to it) also flourished because of the emergence of European musicians such as Peter Brötzmann, John Surman, Zbigniew Namysłowski, Albert Mangelsdorff, Kenny Wheeler, and Mike Westbrook, who were anxious to develop new approaches reflecting their national and regional musical cultures and contexts. Since the 1960s various creative centers of jazz have developed in Europe, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Following the work of veteran drummer Han Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians started to explore free music by collectively improvising until a certain form (melody, rhythm, or even famous song) is found by the band. Jazz critic Kevin Whitehead documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his book New Dutch Swing. Since the 1990s Keith Jarrett has been prominent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalists.\n\n1960s and 1970s\n\nLatin jazz\n\nLatin jazz is the term used to describe jazz which employs Latin American rhythms, and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz, as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa, or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are Afro-Cuban jazz and Brazilian jazz.\n\nIn the 1960s and 1970s many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as \"Latin tunes\", with no distinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazilian bossa nova. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley's Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a \"Latin bass figure.\" It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such as \"Manteca\", \"On Green Dolphin Street\" and \"Song for My Father\" have a \"Latin\" A section and a swung B section. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth \"Latin\" feel in the A section of the head, and swing throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like Cal Tjader tended to be the exception. For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of \"A Night in Tunisia\", pianist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form over an authentic mambo. \n\nAfro-Cuban jazz\n\nAfro-Cuban jazz often uses Afro-Cuban instruments such as congas, timbales, güiro and claves, combined with piano, double bass, etc. Afro-Cuban jazz began with Machito's Afro-Cubans in the early 1940s, but took off and entered the mainstream in the late 1940s when bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor began experimenting with Cuban rhythms. Mongo Santamaria and Cal Tjader further refined the genre in the late 1950s.\n\nAlthough a great deal of Cuban-based Latin jazz is modal, Latin jazz is not always modal: it can be as harmonically expansive as post-bop jazz. For example, Tito Puente recorded an arrangement of \"Giant Steps\" done to an Afro-Cuban guaguancó. A Latin jazz piece may momentarily contract harmonically, as in the case of a percussion solo over a one or two-chord piano guajeo.\n\nGuajeos\n\nGuajeo is the name for the typical Afro-Cuban ostinato melodies which are commonly used motifs in Latin jazz compositions. They originated in the genre known as son. Guajeos provide a rhythmic and melodic framework that may be varied within certain parameters, whilst still maintaining a repetitive - and thus \"danceable\" - structure. Most guajeos are rhythmically based on clave (rhythm).\n\nGuajeos are one of the most important elements of the vocabulary of Afro-Cuban descarga (jazz-inspired instrumental jams), providing a means of tension and resolution and a sense of forward momentum, within a relatively simple harmonic structure. The use of multiple, contrapuntal guajeos in Latin jazz facilitates simultaneous collective improvisation based on theme variation. In a way, this polyphonic texture is reminiscent of the original New Orleans style of jazz.\n\nAfro-Cuban jazz renaissance\n\nFor most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of the 1970s a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in both salsa dance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass). During 1974-1976 they were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.\n\nThis occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba The first Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. Their \"Chékere-son\" (1976) introduced a style of \"Cubanized\" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was based on Charlie Parker's composition \"Billie's Bounce\", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines. In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz, and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known as timba.\n\nAfro-Brazilian jazz\n\nBrazilian jazz such as bossa nova is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst he related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of street samba into jazz.\n\nThe bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim, and was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of \"Chega de Saudade\" on the Canção do Amor Demais LP. Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 film Black Orpheus, achieved significant popularity in Latin America; this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963's Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank Sinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music.\n\nBrazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and Naná Vasconcelos also influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them. \n\nPost-bop\n\nPost-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from earlier bop styles. The genre's origins lie in seminal work by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, Wayne Shorter and Herbie Hancock. Generally, the term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties onwards that assimilates influences from hard bop, modal jazz, the avant-garde and free jazz, without necessarily being immediately identifiable as any of the above.\n\nMuch post-bop was recorded for Blue Note Records. Key albums include Speak No Evil by Shorter; The Real McCoy by McCoy Tyner; Maiden Voyage by Hancock; Miles Smiles by Davis; and Search for the New Land by Lee Morgan (an artist who is not typically associated with the post-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in other genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with the later hard bop.\n\nSoul jazz\n\nSoul jazz was a development of hard bop which incorporated strong influences from blues, gospel and rhythm and blues to create music for small groups, often the organ trio of Hammond organ, drummer and tenor saxophonist. Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally emphasized repetitive grooves and melodic hooks, and improvisations were often less complex than in other jazz styles. It often had a steadier \"funk\" style groove, which was different from the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop.\n\nHorace Silver had a large influence on the soul jazz style, with songs that used funky and often gospel-based piano vamps. Important soul jazz organists included Jimmy McGriff, Jimmy Smith and Johnny Hammond Smith, and influential tenor saxophone players included Eddie \"Lockjaw\" Davis and Stanley Turrentine.\n\nAfrican-inspired\n\nThemes\n\nThere was a resurgence of interest in jazz and other forms of African-American cultural expression during the Black Arts Movement and Black nationalist period of the 1960s and 1970s. African themes became popular, and many new jazz compositions were given African-related titles: \"Black Nile\" (Wayne Shorter), \"Blue Nile\" (Alice Coltrane), \"Obirin African\" (Art Blakey), \"Zambia\" (Lee Morgan), \"Appointment in Ghana\" (Jackie McLean), \"Marabi\" (Cannonball Adderley), \"Yoruba\" (Hubert Laws), and many more. Pianist Randy Weston's music incorporated African elements, such as in the large-scale suite \"Uhuru Africa\" (with the participation of poet Langston Hughes) and \"Highlife: Music From the New African Nations.\" Both Weston and saxophonist Stanley Turrentine covered the Nigerian Bobby Benson's piece \"Niger Mambo\", which features Afro-Caribbean and jazz elements within a West African Highlife style. Some musicians, including Pharoah Sanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter, began using African instruments such as kalimbas, bells, beaded gourds and other instruments which were not traditional to jazz.\n\nRhythm\n\nDuring this period there was an increased use of the typical African 12/8 cross-rhythmic structure in jazz. Herbie Hancock's \"Succotash\" on Inventions and Dimensions (1963) is an open-ended modal 12/8 improvised jam, in which Hancock's pattern of attack-points, rather than the pattern of pitches, is the primary focus of his improvisations, accompanied by Paul Chambers on bass, percussionist Osvaldo Martinez playing a traditional Afro-Cuban chekeré part and Willie Bobo playing an Abakuá bell pattern on a snare drum with brushes.\n\nThe first jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to use an overt African 12/8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorter's \"Footprints\" (1967). On the version recorded on Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4/4 tresillo figure at 2:20. \"Footprints\" is not, however, a Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly by Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. In the example below, the main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads, which do not indicate bass notes.\n\nPentatonic scales\n\nThe use of pentatonic scales was another trend associated with Africa. The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years. \n\nMcCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos, and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa. \n\nThe minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Henderson on Horace Silver's \"African Queen\" (1965). \n\nJazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as the V pentatonic scale. \n\nLevine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression. This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' \"Tune Up.\" The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression. \n\nAccordingly, John Coltrane's \"Giant Steps\" (1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky's Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of \"Giant Steps\". The harmonic complexity of \"Giant Steps\" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music. Superimposing the pentatonic scale over \"Giant Steps\" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of \"Africanizing\" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional \"playing the changes\", pentatonic scales provide \"structure and a feeling of increased space.\" \n\nJazz fusion\n\nIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords and harmonies.\n\nAccording to AllMusic:\n...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with hard bop and did not want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.\" \n\nMiles Davis' new directions\n\nIn 1969 Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with In a Silent Way, which can be considered his first fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development of ambient music.\n\nAs Davis recalls:\nThe music I was really listening to in 1968 was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi Hendrix, and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, \"Dance to the Music\", Sly and the Family Stone... I wanted to make it more like rock. When we recorded In a Silent Way I just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that.\" \n\nTwo contributors to In a Silent Way also joined organist Larry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums: Emergency! by The Tony Williams Lifetime.\n\nPsychedelic-jazz\n\nBitches Brew\n\nDavis' Bitches Brew (1970) album was his most successful of this era. Although inspired by rock and funk, Davis' fusion creations were original, and brought about a new type of avant-garde, electronic, psychedelic-jazz, as far from pop music as any other Davis work.\n\nHerbie Hancock\n\nPianist Herbie Hancock (a Davis alumnus) released four albums in the short-lived (1970–1973) psychedelic-jazz subgenre: Mwandishi (1972), Crossings (1973) and Sextant (1973). The rhythmic background was a mix of rock, funk, and African-type textures.\n\nMusicians who had previously worked with Davis formed the four most influential fusion groups: Weather Report and Mahavishnu Orchestra emerged in 1971, and were soon followed by Return to Forever and The Headhunters.\n\nWeather Report\n\nWeather Report's self-titled electronic and psychedelic Weather Report debut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodox approach to music. The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing soprano saxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis on Bitches Brew, including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favour of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further. To emphasise the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece \"Milky Way\", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedalled the instrument. Down Beat described the album as \"music beyond category\", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year.\n\nWeather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works. \n\nJazz-rock\n\nAlthough some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification, \"fuzz\" pedals, wah-wah pedals and other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, Eddie Harris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer Tony Williams (drummer), violinist Jean-Luc Ponty, guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopea released over thirty fusion albums.\n\nAccording to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, \"just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same\" with albums such as Williams' Emergency! (1970) and Davis' Agharta (1975), which Nicholson said \"suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before.\" This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre \"mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio\" at the end of the 1970s. \n\nJazz-funk\n\nBy the mid-1970s the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong back beat (groove), electrified sounds and, often, the presence of electronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston bandleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. The integration of funk, soul and R&B music into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.\n\nEarly examples are Herbie Hancock's Headhunters band and Miles Davis' On the Corner album, which in 1972 began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk. While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the musique concrète approach that Davis and producer Teo Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s.\n\nOther trends\n\nJazz continued to expand and change, influenced by other types of music such as world music, avant garde classical music and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to improvise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (Alice Coltrane), the electrically amplified and wah-wah pedaled jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty) and the bagpipes (Rufus Harley). In 1966 jazz trumpeter Don Ellis and Indian sitar player Harihar Rao founded the Hindustani Jazz Sextet. In 1971 guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Orchestra began playing a mix of rock and jazz infused with East Indian influences. In the 1970s the ECM record label began in Germany with artists including Keith Jarrett, Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, Ralph Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman, and Eberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber music aesthetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occasionally incorporating elements of world music and folk.\n\n1980s\n\nIn 1987, the United States House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative John Conyers, Jr. to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating:\n... that jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated.\nIt passed in the House of Representatives on September 23, 1987 and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.HR-57 Center [http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues, with the six-point mandate.]\n\nResurgence of traditionalism\n\nThe 1980s saw something of a reaction against the Fusion and Free Jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well as the hard bop of the 1950s. It's debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly Modal Jazz and Post-Bop); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if Fusion and Free Jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.\n\nFor example, several musicians who had been prominent in the fusion genre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock. Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s, for example Bill Evans, Joe Henderson and Stan Getz. Even the 1980s music of Miles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognisably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach.\n\nThe emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community. In the 1970s, the groups of Betty Carter and Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers retained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz- rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such as hard bop and bebop. In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur. This movement included musicians such as Valery Ponomarev and Bobby Watson, Dennis Irwin and James Williams.\nIn the 1980s, in addition to Wynton and Branford Marsalis, the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as Donald Brown, Mulgrew Miller, and later, Benny Green, bassists such as Charles Fambrough, Lonnie Plaxico (and later, Peter Washington and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as Bill Pierce, Donald Harrison and later Javon Jackson and Terence Blanchard emerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in later 1990s and 2000s jazz music. \n\n[http://www.jazzdiscography.com/Artists/Blakey/chron.htmJ Drummerworld: Art Blakey].\n\nThe young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, including Roy Hargrove, Marcus Roberts, Wallace Roney and Mark Whitfield were also influenced by Wynton Marsalis's emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk and early recordings of the first Miles Davis quintet. This group of \"Young Lions\" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of European classical music.\n \n\nIn addition, Betty Carter's rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers. Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni Benny Green, Branford Marsalis and Ralph Peterson, Jr., as well as Kenny Washington, Lewis Nash, Curtis Lundy, Cyrus Chestnut, Mark Shim, Craig Handy, Greg Hutchinson and Marc Cary, Taurus Mateen and Geri Allen. \n\nBlue Note Records's O.T.B. ensemble featured a rotation of young jazz musicians such as Kenny Garrett, Steve Wilson, Kenny Davis, Renee Rosnes, Ralph Peterson, Jr., Billy Drummond and Robert Hurst.\n \n\nA similar reaction took place against free jazz. According to Ted Gioia:\n\nthe very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of Free Jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording standards over familiar chord changes. Cecil Taylor played duets in concert with Mary Lou Williams, and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as David Murray or Don Pullen may have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit. \n\nPianist Keith Jarrett — whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements — established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s.\n\nSmooth jazz\n\nIn the early 1980s a commercial form of jazz fusion called \"pop fusion\" or \"smooth jazz\" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in \"quiet storm\" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S. This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan and Sade, as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington, Jr., Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James and David Sanborn. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105 beats per minute), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar are popular).\n\nIn his Newsweek article \"The Problem With Jazz Criticism\", Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:\nI challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception. \n\nAcid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap\n\nAcid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including Sampling (music) or a live DJ cutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Jazz-funk musicians such as Roy Ayers and Donald Byrd are often credited as the forerunners of acid jazz. \n\nNu jazz is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as exemplified by St Germain, Jazzanova and Fila Brazillia) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol and the Norwegian \"future jazz\" style pioneered by Bugge Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist and Nils Petter Molvær).\n\nJazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and incorporates jazz influences into hip hop. In 1988, Gang Starr released the debut single \"Words I Manifest\", which sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 \"Night in Tunisia\", and Stetsasonic released \"Talkin' All That Jazz\", which sampled Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starr's debut LP No More Mr. Nice Guy (1989) and their 1990 track \"Jazz Thing\" sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. The groups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tended toward jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (1988), and A Tribe Called Quest's People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm (1990) and The Low End Theory (1991). Rap duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother. Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993, using jazz musicians during the studio recordings.\n\nThough jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final album Doo-Bop (released posthumously in 1992) was based around hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis' ex-bandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album Dis Is Da Drum in 1994.\n\nPunk jazz and jazzcore\n\nThe relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with post-punk in London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz. In London, the Pop Group began to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock. In New York, No Wave took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam,Bangs, Lester. \"Free Jazz / Punk Rock\". Musician Magazine, 1979. [http://www.notbored.org/bangs.html] Access date: July 20, 2008. Gray, the work of James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soul with free jazz and punk) and the Lounge Lizards (the first group to call themselves \"punk jazz\").\n\nJohn Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the Spy vs. Spy album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Coleman tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style. In the same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, Bill Laswell and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the first album under the name Last Exit (free jazz band), a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz. These developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of free jazz with hardcore punk.\n\nM-Base\n\nThe M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving sound.\n\nIn the 1990s most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept. Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, both in terms of music technique and of the music's meaning. Hence, M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman \"school\", with a much advanced but already originally implied concept. Steve Coleman's music and M-Base concept gained recognition as \"next logical step\" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane and Ornette Coleman. \n\n1990s–2010s\n\nSince the 1990s jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of active styles and genres are popular. Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and power trio The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework.\n\nOn the other side, even a singer like Harry Connick, Jr. (who has ten number-1 US jazz albums) is sometimes called a jazz musician, although there are only a few elements from jazz history in his mainly pop oriented music. Other recent vocalists have achieved popularity with a mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms, such as Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling and Jamie Cullum.\n\nA number of players who usually perform in largely straight-ahead settings have emerged since the 1990s, including pianists Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman, clarinetist Ken Peplowski and bassist Christian McBride.\n\nAlthough jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scofield and the Swedish group e.s.t.\n\nIn 2001 Ken Burns's documentary Jazz was premiered on PBS, featuring Wynton Marsalis and other experts reviewing the entire history of jazz to that time.",
"The Jazz Singer is a 1927 American musical film. The first feature-length motion picture with synchronized dialogue sequences, its release heralded the commercial ascendance of the \"talkies\" and the decline of the silent film era. Directed by Alan Crosland and produced by Warner Bros. with its Vitaphone sound-on-disc system, the film, featuring six songs performed by Al Jolson, is based on \na play of the same name by Samson Raphaelson, adapted from one of his short stories \"The Day of Atonement\".\n\nThe film depicts the fictional story of Jakie Rabinowitz, a young man who defies the traditions of his devout Jewish family. After singing popular tunes in a beer garden he is punished by his father, a cantor, prompting Jakie to run away from home. Some years later, now calling himself Jack Robin, he has become a talented jazz singer. He attempts to build a career as an entertainer but his professional ambitions ultimately come into conflict with the demands of his home and heritage.\n\nDarryl F. Zanuck won the Special Academy Award for producing the film, and it was also nominated for\nBest Adapted Screenplay and Best Engineering Effects. In 1996, The Jazz Singer was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of \"culturally, historically or aesthetically significant\" motion pictures. In 1998, the film was chosen in voting conducted by the American Film Institute as one of the best American films of all time, ranking at number ninety.\n\nPlot\n\nCantor Rabinowitz wants his son to carry on the generations-old family tradition and become a cantor at the synagogue in the Jewish ghetto of Manhattan's Lower East Side. But down at the beer garden, thirteen-year-old Jakie Rabinowitz is performing so-called jazz tunes. Moisha Yudelson spots the boy and tells Jakie's father, who drags him home. Jakie clings to his mother, Sara, as his father declares, \"I'll teach him better than to debase the voice God gave him!\" Jakie threatens: \"If you whip me again, I'll run away — and never come back!\" After the whipping, Jakie kisses his mother goodbye and, true to his word, runs away. At the Yom Kippur service, Rabinowitz mournfully tells a fellow celebrant, \"My son was to stand at my side and sing tonight – but now I have no son.\" As the sacred Kol Nidre is sung, Jakie sneaks back home to retrieve a picture of his loving mother.\n\nAbout 10 years later, Jakie has changed his name to the more assimilated Jack Robin. Jack is called up from his table at a cabaret to perform on stage.\n\nJack wows the crowd with his energized rendition. Afterward, he is introduced to the beautiful Mary Dale, a musical theater dancer. \"There are lots of jazz singers, but you have a tear in your voice,\" she says, offering to help with his budding career. With her help, Jack eventually gets his big break: a leading part in the new musical April Follies.\n\nBack at the family home Jack left long ago, the elder Rabinowitz instructs a young student in the traditional cantorial art. Jack appears and tries to explain his point of view, and his love of modern music, but the appalled cantor banishes him: \"I never want to see you again — you jazz singer!\" As he leaves, Jack makes a prediction: \"I came home with a heart full of love, but you don't want to understand. Some day you'll understand, the same as Mama does.\"\n\nTwo weeks after Jack's expulsion from the family home and 24 hours before opening night of April Follies on Broadway, Jack's father falls gravely ill. Jack is asked to choose between the show and duty to his family and faith: in order to sing the Kol Nidre for Yom Kippur in his father's place, he will have to miss the big premiere.\n\nThat evening, the eve of Yom Kippur, Yudleson tells the Jewish elders, \"For the first time, we have no Cantor on the Day of Atonement.\" Lying in his bed, weak and gaunt, Cantor Rabinowitz tells Sara that he cannot perform on the most sacred of holy days: \"My son came to me in my dreams—he sang Kol Nidre so beautifully. If he would only sing like that tonight—surely he would be forgiven.\"\n\nAs Jack prepares for a dress rehearsal by applying blackface makeup, he and Mary discuss his career aspirations and the family pressures they agree he must resist. Sara and Yudleson come to Jack's dressing room to plea for him to come to his father and sing in his stead. Jack is torn. He delivers his blackface performance (\"Mother of Mine, I Still Have You\"), and Sara sees her son onstage for the first time. She has a tearful revelation: \"Here he belongs. If God wanted him in His house, He would have kept him there. He's not my boy anymore—he belongs to the whole world now.\"\n\nAfterward, Jack returns to the Rabinowitz home. He kneels at his father's bedside and the two converse fondly: \"My son—I love you.\" Sara suggests that it may help heal his father if Jack takes his place at the Yom Kippur service. Mary arrives with the producer, who warns Jack that he'll never work on Broadway again if he fails to appear on opening night. Jack can't decide. Mary challenges him: \"Were you lying when you said your career came before everything?\" Jack is unsure if he even can replace his father: \"I haven't sung Kol Nidre since I was a little boy.\" His mother tells him, \"Do what is in your heart, Jakie—if you sing and God is not in your voice — your father will know.\" The producer cajoles Jack: \"You're a jazz singer at heart!\"\n\nAt the theater, the opening night audience is told that there will be no performance. Jack sings the Kol Nidre in his father's place. His father listens from his deathbed to the nearby ceremony and speaks his last, forgiving words: \"Mama, we have our son again.\" The spirit of Jack's father is shown at his side in the synagogue. Mary has come to listen. She sees how Jack has reconciled the division in his soul: \"a jazz singer—singing to his God.\"\n\n\"The season passes—and time heals—the show goes on.\" Jack, as \"The Jazz Singer,\" is now appearing at the Winter Garden theater, apparently as the featured performer opening for a show called Back Room. In the front row of the packed theater, his mother sits alongside Yudleson. Jack, in blackface, performs the song \"My Mammy\" for her and for the world.\n\nCast\n\n*Al Jolson as Jakie Rabinowitz (Jack Robin)\n*Warner Oland as Cantor Rabinowitz\n*Eugenie Besserer as Sara Rabinowitz\n*May McAvoy as Mary Dale\n*Otto Lederer as Moisha Yudelson\n*Richard Tucker as Harry Lee\n*Yossele Rosenblatt as himself\n*Bobby Gordon as Jakie Rabinowitz (age 13)\n\nSongs\n\n* \"My Gal Sal\" (music and lyrics by Paul Dresser; dubbed by unknown singer with Bobby Gordon onscreen)Bradley (2004), p. 7.\n* \"Waiting for the Robert E. Lee\" (music by Lewis F. Muir and lyrics by L. Wolfe Gilbert; dubbed by unknown singer with Bobby Gordon onscreen)\n* \"Kol Nidre\" (traditional; dubbed by Joseph Diskay with Warner Oland onscreen; sung also by Al Jolson)\n* \"Dirty Hands, Dirty Face\" (music by James V. Monaco and lyrics by Edgar Leslie and Grant Clarke; sung by Al Jolson)\n* \"Toot, Toot, Tootsie (Goo' Bye)\" (music and lyrics by Gus Kahn, Ernie Erdman, and Dan Russo [title orthography and songwriting credits per original sheet music cover; some other sources do not mention Russo and some also name either or both Ted Fio Rito and Robert A. King]; sung by Al Jolson)\n* \"Kaddish\" (traditional; sung by Cantor Yossele Rosenblatt)\n* \"Blue Skies\" (music and lyrics by Irving Berlin; sung by Al Jolson)\n* \"Mother of Mine, I Still Have You\" (music by Louis Silvers and lyrics by Grant Clarke [Jolson also credited by some sources]; sung by Al Jolson)\n* \"My Mammy\" (music by Walter Donaldson and lyrics by Sam M. Lewis and Joe Young; sung by Al Jolson)\n\nBackground and production\n\nFrom concept to choosing a star\n\nOn April 25, 1917, Samson Raphaelson, a native of New York City's Lower East Side and a University of Illinois undergraduate, attended a performance of the musical Robinson Crusoe, Jr. in Champaign, Illinois. The star of the show was a thirty-year-old singer, Al Jolson, a Russian-born Jew who performed in blackface.Carringer (1979), p. 11; Eyman (1997), p. 129. In a 1927 interview, Raphaelson described the experience: \"I shall never forget the first five minutes of Jolson—his velocity, the amazing fluidity with which he shifted from a tremendous absorption in his audience to a tremendous absorption in his song.\" He explained that he had seen emotional intensity like Jolson's only among synagogue cantors.\n\nA few years later, pursuing a professional literary career, Raphaelson wrote \"The Day of Atonement\", a short story about a young Jew named Jakie Rabinowitz, based on Jolson's real life. The story was published in January 1922 in Everybody's Magazine. Raphaelson later adapted the story into a stage play, The Jazz Singer. A straight drama, all the singing in Raphaelson's version takes place offstage. With George Jessel in the lead role, the show premiered at the Warner Theatre in Times Square on September 1925 and became a hit. Warner Bros. acquired the movie rights to the play on June 4, 1926, and signed Jessel to a contract.Bradley (2004), p. 6. Moving Picture World published a story in February 1927 announcing that production on the film would begin with Jessel on May 1. \n\nBut the plans to make the film with Jessel would fall through, for multiple reasons. Jessel's contract with Warner Bros. had not anticipated that the movie they had particularly signed him for would be made with sound (he'd made a modestly budgeted, silent comedy in the interim). When Warners had hits with two Vitaphone, though dialogue-less, features in late 1926, The Jazz Singer production had been reconceived. Jessel asked for a bonus or a new contract, but was rebuffed. According to Jessel's description in his autobiography, Harry Warner \"was having a tough time with the financing of the company.... He talked about taking care of me if the picture was a success. I did not feel that was enough.\" In fact, around the beginning of 1927, Harry Warner—the eldest of the brothers who ran the eponymous studio—had sold $4 million (US$ in dollars) of his personal stock to keep the studio solvent. Then came another major issue. According to Jessel, a first read of screenwriter Alfred A. Cohn's adaptation \"threw me into a fit. Instead of the boy's leaving the theatre and following the traditions of his father by singing in the synagogue, as in the play, the picture scenario had him return to the Winter Garden as a blackface comedian, with his mother wildly applauding in the box. I raised hell. Money or no money, I would not do this.\" \n\nAccording to performer Eddie Cantor, as negotiations between Warner Bros. and Jessel floundered, Jack L. Warner and the studio's production chief, Darryl Zanuck, called to see if he was interested in the part. Cantor, a friend of Jessel's, responded that he was sure any differences with the actor could be worked out and offered his assistance. Cantor was not invited to participate in the Jessel talks; instead, the role was then offered to Jolson, who had inspired it in the first place. Describing Jolson as the production's best choice for its star, film historian Donald Crafton wrote, \"The entertainer, who sang jazzed-up minstrel numbers in blackface, was at the height of his phenomenal popularity. Anticipating the later stardom of crooners and rock stars, Jolson electrified audiences with the vitality and sex appeal of his songs and gestures, which owed much to African-American sources.\" As described by historian Robert L. Carringer, \"Jessel was a vaudeville comedian and master of ceremonies with one successful play and one modestly successful film to his credit. Jolson was a superstar.\" Jolson took the part, signing a $75,000 (US$ in dollars) contract on May 26, 1927, for eight weeks of services beginning in July. There have been several claims but no proof that Jolson invested some of his own money in the film. Jessel and Jolson, also friends, did not speak for some time after—on the one hand, Jessel had been confiding his problems with the Warners to Jolson; on the other, Jolson had signed with them without telling Jessel of his plans. In his autobiography, Jessel wrote that, in the end, Jolson \"must not be blamed, as the Warners had definitely decided that I was out.\" \n\nIntroduction of sound\n\nWhile many earlier sound films had dialogue, all were short subjects. D. W. Griffith's feature Dream Street (1921) was shown in New York with a single singing sequence and crowd noises, using the sound-on-disc system Photokinema. The film was preceded by a program of sound shorts, including a sequence with Griffith speaking directly to the audience, but the feature itself had no talking scenes. On April 15, 1923, Lee De Forest introduced the sound-on-film system Phonofilm, which had synchronized sound and dialogue, but the sound quality was poor, and the films produced in this process were short films only.\n\nThe first Warner Bros. Vitaphone features, Don Juan (premiered August 1926) and The Better 'Ole (premiered October 1926), like three more that followed in early 1927 (When a Man Loves, Old San Francisco and The First Auto), had only a synchronized instrumental score and sound effects. The Jazz Singer contains those, as well as numerous synchronized singing sequences and some synchronized speech: Two popular tunes are performed by the young Jakie Rabinowitz, the future Jazz Singer; his father, a cantor, performs the devotional Kol Nidre; the famous cantor Yossele Rosenblatt, appearing as himself, sings another religious melody, Kaddish. As the adult Jack Robin, Jolson performs six songs, five popular \"jazz\" tunes and the Kol Nidre. The sound for the film was recorded by British-born George Groves, who had also worked on Don Juan. To direct, the studio chose Alan Crosland, who already had two Vitaphone films to his credit: Don Juan and Old San Francisco, which opened while The Jazz Singer was in production.\n\nJolson's first vocal performance, about fifteen minutes into the picture, is of \"Dirty Hands, Dirty Face,\" with music by James V. Monaco and lyrics by Edgar Leslie and Grant Clarke. The first synchronized speech, uttered by Jack to a cabaret crowd and to the piano player in the band that accompanies him, occurs directly after that performance, beginning at the 17:25 mark of the film. Jack's first spoken words—\"Wait a minute, wait a minute, you ain't heard nothin' yet\"—were well-established stage patter of Jolson's. He had even spoken very similar lines in a 1926 short, Al Jolson in \"A Plantation Act.\" The line had developed as something of an in-joke. In November 1918, during a gala concert celebrating the end of World War I, Jolson ran onstage amid the applause for the preceding performer, the great operatic tenor Enrico Caruso, and exclaimed, \"Folks, you ain't heard nothin' yet.\" The following year, he recorded the song \"You Ain't Heard Nothin' Yet\". In a later scene, Jack talks with his mother, played by Eugenie Besserer, in the family parlor; his father enters and pronounces one very conclusive word.\n\nIn total, the movie contains barely two minutes worth of synchronized talking, much or all of it improvised. The rest of the dialogue is presented through the caption cards, or intertitles, standard in silent movies of the era; as was common, those titles were composed not by the film's scenarist, Alfred Cohn, but by another writer – in this case, Jack Jarmuth.\n\nWhile Jolson was touring with a stage show during June 1927, production on The Jazz Singer began with the shooting of exterior scenes by the second unit. In late June, Alan Crosland headed to New York City to shoot the Lower East Side and Winter Garden exteriors on location. Jolson joined the production in mid-July (his contract specified July 11). Filming with Jolson began with his silent scenes; the more complex Vitaphone sequences were primarily done in late August. Both Jolson and Zanuck would later take credit for thinking up the ad-libbed dialogue sequence between Jack and his mother; another story had it that Sam Warner was impressed by Jolson's brief ad-libbing in the cabaret scene and had Cohn come up with some lines on the spot.Crafton (1999), p. 110. On September 23, Motion Picture News reported that production on the film had been completed. \n\nThe production cost for The Jazz Singer was $422,000Crafton (1999), p. 111. (approximately US$5.76 million in 2015 dollars)—a large sum, especially for Warner Bros., which rarely spent more than $250,000. It was by no means a record for the studio, however; two features starring John Barrymore had been costlier: The Sea Beast (1926), a loose and entirely silent adaptation of Moby-Dick, at $503,000 and Don Juan at $546,000. Nonetheless, the outlay constituted a major gamble in light of the studio's financial straits: while The Jazz Singer was in production, Harry Warner stopped taking a salary, pawned jewelry belonging to his wife, and moved his family into a smaller apartment. \n\nPremiere and reception\n\nThe premiere was set for October 6, 1927, at Warner Bros.' flagship theater in New York City. The choice of date was pure show business—it was chosen to coincide with Yom Kippur, the Jewish holiday around which much of the movie's plot revolves. The buildup to the premiere was tense. Besides Warner Bros.' precarious financial position, the physical presentation of the film itself was remarkably complex: Each of Jolson's musical numbers was mounted on a separate reel with a separate accompanying sound disc. Even though the film was only eighty-nine minutes long...there were fifteen reels and fifteen discs to manage, and the projectionist had to be able to thread the film and cue up the Vitaphone records very quickly. The least stumble, hesitation, or human error would result in public and financial humiliation for the company.Eyman (1997), p. 140. None of the four Warner brothers were able to attend: Sam Warner—among them, the strongest advocate for Vitaphone—had died the previous day of pneumonia, and the surviving brothers had returned to California for his funeral.\n\nAccording to Doris Warner, who was in attendance, about halfway through the film she began to feel that something exceptional was taking place. Jolson's \"Wait a minute\" line had prompted a loud, positive response from the audience. Applause followed each of his songs. Excitement built, and when Jolson and Eugenie Besserer began their dialogue scene, \"the audience became hysterical.\" After the show, the audience turned into a \"milling, battling, mob\", in one journalist's description, chanting \"Jolson, Jolson, Jolson!\" Among those who reviewed the film, the critic who foresaw most clearly what it presaged for the future of cinema was Life magazine's Robert E. Sherwood. He described the spoken dialogue scene between Jolson and Besserer as \"fraught with tremendous significance.... I for one suddenly realized that the end of the silent drama is in sight\".Eyman (1997), p. 141.\n\nCritical reaction was generally, though far from universally, positive. New York Times critic Mordaunt Hall, reviewing the film's premiere, declared that\n\nnot since the first presentation of Vitaphone features, more than a year ago [i.e., Don Juan], has anything like the ovation been heard in a motion-picture theatre.... The Vitaphoned songs and some dialogue have been introduced most adroitly. This in itself is an ambitious move, for in the expression of song the Vitaphone vitalizes the production enormously. The dialogue is not so effective, for it does not always catch the nuances of speech or inflections of the voice so that one is not aware of the mechanical features. \n\nVariety called it \"[u]ndoubtedly the best thing Vitaphone has ever put on the screen...[with] abundant power and appeal.\" Richard Watts, Jr. of the New York Herald Tribune called it a \"pleasantly sentimental orgy dealing with a struggle between religion and art.... [T]his is not essentially a motion picture, but rather a chance to capture for comparative immortality the sight and sound of a great performer.\" The Exhibitors Heralds take was virtually identical: \"scarcely a motion picture. It should be more properly labeled an enlarged Vitaphone record of Al Jolson in half a dozen songs.\" The film received favorable reviews in both the Jewish press and in African American newspapers such as the Baltimore Afro-American, the New York Amsterdam News, and the Pittsburgh Courier. The headline of the Los Angeles Times review told a somewhat different story: \"'Jazz Singer' Scores a Hit—Vitaphone and Al Jolson Responsible, Picture Itself Second Rate.\" Photoplay dismissed Jolson as \"no movie actor. Without his Broadway reputation he wouldn't rate as a minor player.\"\n\nCommercial impact and industrial influence\n\nThe film developed into a major hit, demonstrating the profit potential of feature-length \"talkies\", but Donald Crafton has shown that the reputation the film later acquired for being one of Hollywood's most enormous successes to date was inflated. The movie did well, but not astonishingly so, in the major cities where it was first released, garnering much of its impressive profits with long, steady runs in population centers large and small all around the country. As conversion of movie theaters to sound was still in its early stages, the film actually arrived at many of those secondary venues in a silent version. On the other hand, Crafton's statement that The Jazz Singer \"was in a distinct second or third tier of attractions compared to the most popular films of the day and even other Vitaphone talkies\" is also incorrect. In fact, the film was easily the biggest earner in Warner Bros. history, and would remain so until it was surpassed a year later by The Singing Fool, another Jolson feature. In the larger scope of Hollywood, among films originally released in 1927, available evidence suggests that The Jazz Singer was among the three biggest box office hits, trailing only Wings and, perhaps, The King of Kings. Industry scholars Alex Ben Block and Lucy Autrey Wilson, for instance, estimate that The Jazz Singer grossed $3.9 million (US$126 million in 2005 dollars) at the domestic box office, while Wings, made for five times the cost, took in $4.3 million (US$138 million in 2005 dollars). The Jazz Singer ultimately returned a worldwide theatrical gross rental of approximately $2.6 million (the studio's share of the box office gross), making a profit of $1,196,750.Block and Wilson (2010), pp. 110–113.\n\nOne of the keys to the film's success was an innovative marketing scheme conceived by Sam Morris, Warner Bros.' sales manager. In Crafton's description:\n\n[A] special clause in Warners' Vitaphone exhibition contract virtually guaranteed long runs. Theaters had to book The Jazz Singer for full rather than split weeks. Instead of the traditional flat rental fee, Warners took a percentage of the gate. A sliding scale meant that the exhibitor's take increased the longer the film was held over. The signing of this contract by the greater New York Fox Theatres circuit was regarded as a headline-making precedent.\n\nSimilar arrangements, based on a percentage of the gross rather than flat rental fees, would soon become standard for the U.S. film industry's high-end or \"A\" product.\n\nThough in retrospect, the success of The Jazz Singer signaled the end of the silent motion picture era, this was not immediately apparent. Mordaunt Hall, for example, praised Warner Bros. for \"astutely realiz[ing] that a film conception of The Jazz Singer was one of the few subjects that would lend itself to the use of the Vitaphone.\" In historian Richard Koszarski's words, \"Silent films did not disappear overnight, nor did talking films immediately flood the theaters.... Nevertheless, 1927 remains the year that Warner Bros. moved to close the book on the history of silent pictures, even if their original goal had been somewhat more modest.\" \n\nThe film had other effects that were more immediate. George Jessel, who was in his third season touring with the stage production of The Jazz Singer, later described what happened to his show—perhaps anticipating how sound would soon cement Hollywood's dominance of the American entertainment industry: \"A week or two after the Washington engagement the sound-and-picture version of The Jazz Singer with Al Jolson was sweeping the country, and I was swept out of business. I couldn't compete with a picture theatre across the street showing the first great sound picture in the world...for fifty cents, while the price at my theatre was $3.00.\" \n\nAs the truly pivotal event, Crafton points to the national release of the film's sound version in early 1928—he dates it to January, Block and Wilson to February 4. In March, Warners announced that The Jazz Singer was playing at a record 235 theaters (though many could still show it only silently). In May, a consortium including the leading Hollywood studios signed up with Western Electric's licensing division, ERPI, for sound conversion. In July, Warner Bros. released the first all-talking feature, Lights of New York, a musical crime melodrama. On September 27, The Jazz Singer became the first feature-length talking picture to be shown in Europe when it premiered at London's Piccadilly Theatre. The movie \"created a sensation\", according to British film historian Rachael Low. \"The Jazz Singer was a turning point [for the introduction of sound]. The Bioscope greeted it with, 'We are inclined to wonder why we ever called them Living Pictures.'\" The Paris sound premiere followed in January 1929. \n\nBefore the 1st Academy Awards ceremony was held in May 1929, honoring films released between August 1927 and July 1928, The Jazz Singer was ruled ineligible for the two top prizes—the Outstanding Picture, Production and the Unique and Artistic Production—on the basis that it would have been unfair competition for the silent pictures under consideration. By mid-1929, Hollywood was producing almost exclusively sound films; by the end of the following year, the same was true in much of Western Europe. Jolson went on to make a series of movies for Warners, including The Singing Fool, a part-talkie, and the all-talking features Say It with Songs (1929), Mammy (1930), and Big Boy (1930).\n\nCritical analysis\n\nJack Robin's use of blackface in his Broadway stage act – a common practice at the time, which is now widely considered to be racist – is the primary focus of many Jazz Singer studies. Its crucial and unusual role is described by scholar Corin Willis:\n\nIn contrast to the racial jokes and innuendo brought out in its subsequent persistence in early sound film, blackface imagery in The Jazz Singer is at the core of the film's central theme, an expressive and artistic exploration of the notion of duplicity and ethnic hybridity within American identity. Of the more than seventy examples of blackface in early sound film 1927–53 that I have viewed (including the nine blackface appearances Jolson subsequently made), The Jazz Singer is unique in that it is the only film where blackface is central to the narrative development and thematic expression. \n\nThe function and meaning of blackface in the film is intimately involved with Jack's own Jewish heritage and his desire to make his mark in mass American culture—much as the ethnically Jewish Jolson and the Warner brothers were doing themselves. Jack Robin \"compounds both tradition and stardom. The Warner Brothers thesis is that, really to succeed, a man must first acknowledge his ethnic self,\" argues W. T. Lhamon. \"[T]he whole film builds toward the blacking-up scene at the dress rehearsal. Jack Robin needs the blackface mask as the agency of his compounded identity. Blackface will hold all the identities together without freezing them in a singular relationship or replacing their parts.\" \n\nSeymour Stark's view is less sanguine. In describing Jolson's extensive experience performing in blackface in stage musicals, he asserts, \"The immigrant Jew as Broadway star...works within a blackface minstrel tradition that obscures his Jewish pedigree, but proclaims his white identity. Jolson's slight Yiddish accent was hidden by a Southern veneer.\" Arguing that The Jazz Singer actually avoids honestly dealing with the tension between American assimilation and Jewish identity, he claims that its \"covert message...is that the symbol of blackface provides the Jewish immigrant with the same rights and privileges accorded to earlier generations of European immigrants initiated into the rituals of the minstrel show.\" \n\nLisa Silberman Brenner contradicts this view. She returns to the intentions expressed by Samson Raphaelson, on whose play the film's script was closely based: \"For Raphaelson, jazz is prayer, American style, and the blackface minstrel the new Jewish cantor. Based on the author's own words, the play is not about blackface as a means for Jews to become White, but about blackface as a means for Jews to express a new kind of Jewishness, that of the modern American Jew.\" She observes that during the same period, the Jewish press was noting with pride that Jewish performers were adopting aspects of African American music.\n\nAccording to Scott Eyman, the film \"marks one of the few times Hollywood Jews allowed themselves to contemplate their own central cultural myth, and the conundrums that go with it. The Jazz Singer implicitly celebrates the ambition and drive needed to escape the shtetls of Europe and the ghettos of New York, and the attendant hunger for recognition. Jack, Sam, and Harry [Warner] let Jack Robin have it all: the satisfaction of taking his father's place and of conquering the Winter Garden. They were, perhaps unwittingly, dramatizing some of their own ambivalence about the debt first-generation Americans owed their parents.\" \n\nLegacy\n\nThree subsequent screen versions of The Jazz Singer have been produced: a 1952 remake, starring Danny Thomas and Peggy Lee; a 1959 television remake, starring Jerry Lewis; and a 1980 remake starring Neil Diamond, Lucie Arnaz, and Laurence Olivier. The Jazz Singer was adapted as a one-hour radio play on two broadcasts of Lux Radio Theater, both starring Al Jolson, reprising his screen role. The first aired August 10, 1936; the second on June 2, 1947. \n\nThe Jazz Singer was parodied as early as 1936, in the Warner Bros. cartoon I Love to Singa, directed by Tex Avery. Its hero is \"Owl Jolson\", a young owl who croons popular ditties, such as the title song, against the wishes of his father, a classical music teacher. Among the many references to The Jazz Singer in popular culture, perhaps the most notable is that of the classic MGM musical Singin' in the Rain (1952). The story, set in 1927, revolves around efforts to change a silent film production, The Dueling Cavalier, into a talking picture in response to The Jazz Singers success. The plot of the Simpsons episode \"Like Father, Like Clown\" (1991) parallels the tale of Jakie Rabinowitz/Jack Robin. Krusty the Clown's rabbi father disapproves of his son's choice to be a comedian, telling him, \"You have brought shame on our family! Oh, if you were a musician or a jazz singer, this I could forgive.\" The Jazz Singers story continues to be evoked in pictures such as Warner Bros.' animated Happy Feet (2006). \n\nAccording to film historian Krin Gabbard, The Jazz Singer \"provides the basic narrative for the lives of jazz and popular musicians in the movies. If this argument means that sometime after 1959 the narrative must belong to pop rockers, it only proves the power of the original 1927 film to determine how Hollywood tells the stories of popular musicians.\" More broadly, he also suggests that this \"seemingly unique film\" has \"become a paradigm for American success stories.\" More specifically, he examines a cycle of biopics of white jazz musicians stretching from The Birth of the Blues (1941) to The Five Pennies (1959) that trace their roots to The Jazz Singer. \n\nIn 1996, The Jazz Singer was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of \"culturally, historically or aesthetically significant\" motion pictures. In 1998, the film was chosen in voting conducted by the American Film Institute as one of the best American films of all time, ranking at number ninety. In 2007, a three-disc deluxe DVD edition of the film was released. The supplemental material includes Jolson's 1926 Vitaphone short, A Plantation Act.\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nAwards\n*Special Academy Award to Warner Bros. production chief Darryl F. Zanuck \"for producing The Jazz Singer, the pioneer outstanding talking picture, which has revolutionized the industry\"\n\nNominations \n*Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay — Alfred A. Cohn\n*Academy Award for Engineering Effects — Nugent Slaughter"
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"Jazz Singer Movie - The First Talkie\nBy Jennifer Rosenberg\nUpdated November 22, 2015.\nWhen The Jazz Singer, starring Al Jolson, was released as a feature-length movie on October 6, 1927, it was the first movie that included dialogue and music on the filmstrip itself.\nAdding Sounds to Film\nBefore The Jazz Singer, there were silent films. Despite their name, these films were not silent for they were accompanied by music. Often, these films were accompanied by a live orchestra in the theater and from as early as 1900, films were often synchronized with musical scores that were played on amplified record players.\nThe technology advanced in the 1920s, when Bell Laboratories developed a way to allow an audio track to be placed on the film itself. This technology, called Vitaphone, was first used as a musical track in a film titled Don Juan in 1926. Although Don Juan had music and sound effects, there were no spoken words in the film.\nActors Talking on Film\nWhen Sam Warner of the Warner Brothers planned The Jazz Singer, he anticipated that the film would use silent periods to tell the story and the Vitaphone technology would be used for the singing of music, just as the new technology had been used in Don Juan.\ncontinue reading below our video\n4 Tips for Improving Test Performance\nHowever, during the filming of The Jazz Singer, superstar of the time Al Jolson ad-libbed dialogue in two different scenes and Warner liked the end result.\nThus, when The Jazz Singer was released on October 6, 1927 it became the first feature-length film (89 minutes long) to include dialogue on the filmstrip itself. The Jazz Singer made way for the future of \"talkies,\" which is what movies with audio soundtracks were called.\nSo What Did Al Jolson Actually Say?\nThe first words Jolson recites are: “Wait a minute! Wait a minute! You ain’t heard nothin’ yet!” Jolson spoke 60 words in one scene and 294 words in another.\nThe rest of the film is silent, with words written on black, title cards just like in silent movies. The only sound (besides the few words by Jolson) are the songs.\nThe Storyline of the Jazz Singer\nThe Jazz Singer is a movie about Jakie Rabinowitz, the son of a Jewish cantor who wants to be a jazz singer but is pressured by his father to use his God-given voice to sing as a cantor. With five generations of Rabinowitz men as cantors, Jakie's father (played by Warner Oland) is adamant that Jakie has no choice in the matter.\nJakie, however, has other plans. After being caught singing \"raggy time songs\" at a beer garden, Cantor Rabinowitz gives Jakie a belt whipping. That's the last straw for Jakie; he runs away from home.\nAfter setting off on his own, adult Jakie (played by Al Jolson) works hard to become a success in the field of jazz. He meets a girl, Mary Dale (played by May McAvoy), and she helps him improve his act.\nAs Jakie, now known as Jack Robin, becomes increasingly successful, he continues to crave the support and love of his family. His mother (played by Eugenie Besserer) supports him, but his father is disgusted that his son wants to be a jazz singer.\nThe climax of the movie revolves around a dilemma. Jakie must choose between starring in a Broadway show or returning to his deathly ill father and singing Kol Nidre at the synagogue. Both occur on the very same night. As Jakie says in the film (on a title card), \"It's a choice between giving up the biggest chance of my life -- and breaking my mother's heart.\"\nThis dilemma resonated with audiences for the 1920s were full of such decisions. With the older generation holding tight to tradition, the newer generation were rebelling, becoming flappers , listening to jazz , and dancing the Charleston .\nUltimately, Jakie couldn't break his mother's heart and so he sang Kol Nidre that night. The Broadway show was cancelled. There is a happy ending though -- we see Jakie starring in his own show just a few months later.\nBlackface\nIn the first of two scenes where Jakie is struggling with his choice, we see Al Jolson applying black makeup all over his face (except for near his lips) and then covering his hair with a wig. Although unacceptable today, the concept of blackface was popular at the time.\nThe movie ends with Jolson again in blackface, singing \"My Mammy.\"",
"Talking Motion Pictures\nTalking Motion Pictures\n\"The advent of American talking movies is beyond comparison the fastest and most amazing revolution the whole history of industrial revolutions.\" --Fortune Magazine, October, 1930\nA Brief History of Talking Pictures\n Until the late 1920's, motion pictures were silent except for the musical accompaniment provided by theatre owners in the form of live orchestras. Up to this point, movies had enjoyed a wide degree of popularity, but they still remained a secondary form of entertainment, largely due to their lack of sound. As evidence of this fact, many silent films were originally used as \"chasers\" in the more popular vaudeville shows.\n \n All of this changed in 1926 when Warner Brothers, in conjunction with Western Electric, introduced a new sound-on-disc system. In this system, sound effects and music were recorded on a wax record that would later be synchronized with the film projector. In order to exhibit this new technology, Warner Brothers released \"Don Juan\", the first motion picture to have a pre-recorded score and synchronized sound effects. Although \"Don Juan\" proved to be a box-office hit, many movie studios still refused to adapt to talking picture technology, believeing that \"talkies\" would never replace silent pictures. However, the premiere of \"The Jazz Singer\" in October of 1927 changed these opinions, and in doing so, changed the history of motion pictures forever.\nJohn Barrymore and Mary\nAstor in \"Don Juan\", 1926\n\"The Jazz Singer\"\n \"The Jazz Singer\" triggered the talking-picture revolution. Based on Alfred Cohn's story \"The Day of Atonement,\" and Samson Raphaelson's popular Broadway play of the same name, the film starred Al Jolson as a Jewish boy who attempts to become a Broadway star. Even though \"The Jazz Singer\" was not the first film to use sound, it proved to be the first one to use spoken dialogue as part of the dramatic action. The combination of Jolson, America's most popular singer, and the new medium of sound helped to produce a profit of $3.5 million, causing Warner Bros. to begin its rule as one of Hollywood's top studios. When Warners Bros follow-up sound films, such as \"The Lights of New York\" also became box-office hits, the rest of Hollywood switched to sound with startling speed, hoping to adapt to the new technology. A year after its release, Hollywood recognized the importance of \"The Jazz Singer\" with regard to motion picture history by honoring the film with a special Academy Award.\nThe Implications of Talking Motion Pictures\n While the introduction of sound greatly benefitted the motion picture industry, talking pictures proved to be disastrous for vaudeville . Vaudeville performances could not compete with the technology of the talkies and many of its actors were unable to adapt to the format of sound motion pictures. Talking films also hurt the careers of the many orchestra musicians who provided the live score to many of the original silent movies. The speech and voices of certain actors also proved to be a difficult hurdle for many studios to overcome. This problem particularly plagued foreign actors whose accents were thought to disrupt the American idiom.\n \n Sound also influenced the behavior of movie patrons. During the silent film era, it was considered acceptable to talk while the movies played. Because people were allowed to voice their responses to the film, a common bond was forged among the audience when many patron expressed a shared reply. With talking pictures, however, audiences concentrated on hearing the movie, rather than those seated around them, leading many patrons to look down upon talking while the movie was playing. As Robert Sklar said in his book Movie Made America, \"talking audiences for silent pictures became a silent audience for talking pictures\" (53).\n Throughout the silent movie era, many conservative members of the American middle class campaigned for the censorship of many films. These campaings suffered an enormous blow due to the introduction of talking pictures for two reasons. one, it was now much harder to tamper with the film disks due to the new technology of talking pictures. Secondly, civil libertarians were now ready to debate whether talking pictures were protected by the First Amendment.\n Finally, because sound came from outside industries, it linked the motion picture industry to other businesses, setting up long term and lucretive partnerships. For example, for many of its films, Warner Bros. attained their Vitaphone sound system from Western Electric, a financial enterprise that greatly benefitted both companies.\nWhy We're Looking at Talking Movies\n The movies listed on the advertisement are some of the very first attempts by Fox Studios to incorporate sound into their films. Like many movie moguls of his time, William Fox was reluctant to embark on the switch from silent pictures to talkies, especially because of the great financial success silents had brought him. However, the box office success of his talking films convinced Fox that the switch to talkies could be quite lucrative. Following this revelation, Fox increased the production of sound pictures, and as a result, his studio became one of the most powerful in the film industry.",
"Talkies | Silent Films Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nFile:DicksonExpSoundFilm.jpg\nThe idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27 , 1888 , a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison , the two inventors privately met. Muybridge later claimed that on this occasion, six years before the first commercial motion picture exhibition, he proposed a scheme for sound cinema that would combine his image-casting zoopraxiscope with Edison's recorded-sound technology. [1] No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope , essentially a \"peep-show\" system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph . The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection. [2] In 1899, a projected sound-film system known as Cinemacrophonograph or Phonorama, based primarily on the work of Swiss-born inventor François Dussaud, was exhibited in Paris; similar to the Kinetophone, the system required individual use of earphones. [3] An improved cylinder-based system, Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre, was developed by Clément-Maurice Gratioulet and Henri Lioret of France, allowing short films of theater, opera, and ballet excerpts to be presented at the Paris Exposition in 1900. These appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound.\nThree major problems persisted, leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation:\nSynchronization – The pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices, which were difficult to start and maintain in synchronization. [4]\nPlayback volume – While motion picture projectors soon allowed film to be shown to large theater audiences, audio technology before the development of electric amplification could not project to satisfactorily fill large spaces.\nRecording fidelity – The primitive systems of the era produced sound of very low quality unless the performers were stationed directly in front of the cumbersome recording devices (acoustical horns, for the most part), imposing severe limits on the sort of films that could be created with live-recorded sound.\nFile:DeForestScreenShot.jpg\nAdvanced sound-on-film – In 1919, American inventor Lee De Forest was awarded several patents that would lead to the first sound-on-film technology with commercial application. In De Forest's system, the sound track was photographically recorded on to the side of the strip of motion picture film to create a composite, or \"married,\" print. If proper synchronization of sound and picture was achieved in recording, it could be absolutely counted on in playback. Over the next four years, he improved his system with the help of equipment and patents licensed from another American inventor in the field, Theodore Case . [10]\nAt the University of Illinois , Polish-born research engineer Joseph Tykociński-Tykociner was working independently on a similar process. On June 9 , 1922 , he gave the first reported U.S. demonstration of a sound-on-film motion picture to members of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers . [11] As with Lauste and Tigerstedt, Tykociner's system would never be taken advantage of commercially; De Forest's, however, soon would.\nOn April 15 , 1923 , at New York City's Rivoli Theater, came the first commercial screening of motion pictures with sound-on-film, the future standard: a set of shorts under the banner of De Forest Phonofilms , accompanying a silent feature. [12] That June, De Forest entered into an extended legal battle with an employee, Freeman Harrison Owens , for title to one of the crucial Phonofilm patents. Although De Forest ultimately won the case in the courts, Owens is today recognized as a central innovator in the field. The following year, De Forest's studio released the first commercial dramatic film shot as a talking picture—the two-reeler Love's Old Sweet Song, directed by J. Searle Dawley and featuring Una Merkel . [13] Phonofilms' stock in trade, however, was not original dramas but celebrity documentaries, popular music acts, and comedy performances. President Calvin Coolidge , opera singer Abbie Mitchell , and vaudeville stars such as Phil Baker , Ben Bernie , Eddie Cantor , and Oscar Levant appeared in the firm's pictures. Hollywood remained suspicious, even fearful, of the new technology. As Photoplay editor James Quirk put it in March 1924, \"Talking pictures are perfected, says Dr. Lee De Forest. So is castor oil.\" [14] De Forest's process continued to be used through 1927 in the United States for dozens of short Phonofilms; in the UK it was employed a few years longer for both shorts and features by British Sound Film Productions, a subsidiary of British Talking Pictures, which purchased the primary Phonofilm assets. By the end of 1930, the Phonofilm business would be liquidated. [15]\nIn Europe, others were also working on the development of sound-on-film. In 1919, the same year that DeForest received his first patents in the field, three German inventors patented the Tri-Ergon sound system. On September 17 , 1922 , the Tri-Ergon group gave a public screening of sound-on-film productions—including a dramatic talkie, Der Brandstifter (The Arsonist)—before an invited audience at the Alhambra Kino in Berlin. By the end of the decade, Tri-Ergon would be the dominant European sound system. In 1923, two Danish engineers, Axel Petersen and Arnold Poulsen, patented a system in which sound was recorded on a separate filmstrip running parallel with the image reel. Gaumont would license and briefly put the technology to commercial use under the name Cinéphone. [16]\nIt was domestic competition, however, that would lead to Phonofilms' eclipse. By September 1925, De Forest and Case's working arrangement had fallen through. The following July, Case joined with Fox Film , Hollywood's third largest studio , to found the Fox-Case Corporation. The system developed by Case and his assistant, Earl Sponable, given the name Movietone , thus became the first viable sound-on-film technology controlled by a Hollywood movie studio. The following year, Fox purchased the North American rights to the Tri-Ergon system, though the company found it inferior to Movietone and virtually impossible to integrate the two different systems to advantage. [17] In 1927, as well, Fox retained the services of Freeman Owens, who had particular expertise in constructing cameras for synch-sound film. [18]\nAdvanced sound-on-disc – Parallel with improvements in sound-on-film technology, a number of companies were making progress with systems in which movie sound was recorded onto phonograph discs. In sound-on-disc technology from the era, a phonograph turntable is connected by a mechanical interlock to a specially modified film projector , allowing for synchronization. In 1921, the Photokinema sound-on-disc system developed by Orlando Kellum was employed to add synchronized sound sequences to D. W. Griffith 's failed silent film Dream Street. A love song, performed by star Ralph Graves, was recorded, as was a sequence of live vocal effects. Apparently, dialogue scenes were also recorded, but the results were unsatisfactory and the film was never publicly screened incorporating them. On May 1 , 1921 , Dream Street was rereleased, with love song added, at New York City's Town Hall theater, qualifying it—however haphazardly—as the first feature-length film with a live-recorded vocal sequence. [19] There would be no others for more than six years.\nFile:DonJuanPoster2.jpg\nIn 1925, Warner Bros. , then a small Hollywood studio with big ambitions, began experimenting with sound-on-disc systems at New York's Vitagraph Studios , which it had recently purchased. The Warner Bros. technology, named Vitaphone , was publicly introduced on August 6 , 1926 , with the premiere of the nearly three-hour-long Don Juan ; the first feature-length movie to employ a synchronized sound system of any type throughout, its soundtrack contained a musical score and sound effects , but no recorded dialogue—in other words, it had been staged and shot as a silent film. Accompanying Don Juan, however, were eight shorts of musical performances, mostly classical, as well as a four-minute filmed introduction by Will H. Hays , president of the Motion Picture Association of America , all with live-recorded sound. These were the first true sound films exhibited by a Hollywood studio. [20] Don Juan would not go into general release until February of the following year, making the technically similar The Better 'Ole, put out by Warner Bros. in October 1926, the first feature film with synchronized playback throughout to show to a broad audience.\nSound-on-film would ultimately win out over sound-on-disc because of a number of fundamental technical advantages:\nSynchronization: no interlock system was completely reliable, and sound could fall out of synch due to disc skipping or minute changes in film speed, requiring constant supervision and frequent manual adjustment\nEditing: discs could not be directly edited, severely limiting the ability to make alterations in their accompanying films after the original release cut\nDistribution: phonograph discs added extra expense and complication to film distribution\nWear and tear: the physical process of playing the discs degraded them, requiring their replacement after approximately twenty screenings\nNonetheless, in the early years, sound-on-disc had the edge over sound-on-film in two substantial ways:\nProduction and capital cost: it was generally less expensive to record sound onto disc than onto film and the central exhibition systems—turntable/interlock/projector—were cheaper to manufacture than the complex image-and-audio-pattern-reading projectors required by sound-on-film\nAudio quality: phonograph discs, Vitaphone's in particular, had superior dynamic range to most sound-on-film processes of the day, at least during the first few playings—while sound-on-film tended to have better frequency response , this was outweighed by greater distortion and noise\nAs sound-on-film technology improved, both of these disadvantages were overcome.\nThe third crucial set of innovations marked a major step forward in both the live recording of sound and its effective playback:\nFile:VitaphoneDemo.jpg\nFidelity electronic recording and amplification – Beginning in 1922, the research branch of AT&T 's Western Electric manufacturing division began working intensively on recording technology for both sound-on-disc and sound-on film. In 1925, the company publicly introduced a greatly improved system of electronic audio, including sensitive condenser microphones and rubber-line recorders. That May, the company licensed entrepreneur Walter J. Rich to exploit the system for commercial motion pictures; he founded Vitagraph, which Warner Bros. acquired a half interest in just one month later. In April 1926, Warners signed a contract with AT&T for exclusive use of its film sound technology for the redubbed Vitaphone operation, leading to the production of Don Juan and its accompanying shorts over the following months. During the period when Vitaphone had exclusive access to the patents, the fidelity of recordings made for Warners films was markedly superior to those made for the company's sound-on-film competitors. Meanwhile, Bell Labs —the new name for the AT&T research operation—was working at a furious pace on sophisticated sound amplification technology that would allow recordings to be played back over loudspeakers at theater-filling volume. The new moving-coil speaker system was installed in New York's Warners Theatre at the end of July and its patent submission, for what Western Electric called the No. 555 Receiver, was filed on August 4 , just two days before the premiere of Don Juan. [21]\nLate in the year, AT&T/Western Electric created a licensing division, Electrical Research Products Inc. (ERPI), to handle rights to the company's film-related audio technology. Vitaphone still had legal exclusivity, but having lapsed in its royalty payments, effective control of the rights was in ERPI's hands. On December 31 , 1926 , Warners granted Fox-Case a sublicense for the use of the Western Electric system in exchange for a share of revenues that would go directly to ERPI. [22] The patents of all three concerns were cross-licensed. Superior recording and amplification technology was now available to two Hollywood studios, pursuing two very different methods of sound reproduction. The new year would finally see the emergence of sound cinema as a significant commercial medium.\nTriumph of the \"talkies\"\nEdit\nIn February 1927, an agreement was signed by five leading Hollywood movie companies: the so-called Big Two— Paramount and MGM —a pair of studios in the next rank— Universal and the fading First National —and Cecil B. DeMille 's small but prestigious Producers Distributing Corporation (PDC). The five studios agreed to collectively select just one provider for sound conversion. The alliance then sat back and waited to see what sort of results the forerunners came up with. In May, Warner Bros. sold back its exclusivity rights to ERPI (along with the Fox-Case sublicense) and signed a new royalty contract similar to Fox's for use of Western Electric technology. As Fox and Warners pressed forward with sound cinema in different directions, both technologically and commercially—Fox with newsreels and then scored dramas, Warners with talking features—so did ERPI, which sought to corner the market by signing up the five allied studios.\nFile:JazzSingerAndFox.jpg\nThe big sound film sensations of the year all took advantage of pre-existing celebrity. On May 20 , 1927 , at New York's Roxy Theater , Fox Movietone presented a sound film of the takeoff of Charles Lindbergh 's celebrated flight to Paris, recorded earlier that day. In June, a Fox sound newsreel depicting his return welcomes in New York and Washington, D.C., was shown. These were the two most acclaimed sound motion pictures to date. [23] In May, as well, Fox had released the first Hollywood fiction film with synchronized dialogue: the short They're Coming to Get Me, starring comedian Chic Sale . [24] After rereleasing a few silent feature hits, such as Seventh Heaven , with recorded music, Fox came out with its first original Movietone feature on September 23 : Sunrise , by acclaimed German director F. W. Murnau . As with Don Juan, the film's soundtrack was comprised of a musical score and sound effects (including, in a couple of crowd scenes, \"wild\", nonspecific vocals). Then, on October 6 , 1927 , Warner Bros.' The Jazz Singer premiered. It was a smash box office success for the mid-level studio, earning a total of $2.625 million in the U.S. and abroad, almost a million dollars more than the previous record for a Warners film. [25] Produced with the Vitaphone system, most of the film does not contain live-recorded audio, relying, like Sunrise and Don Juan, on a score and effects. When the movie's star, Al Jolson , sings, however, the film shifts to sound recorded on the set, including both his musical performances and two scenes with ad-libbed speech—one of Jolson's character, Jakie Rabinowitz (Jack Robin), addressing a cabaret audience; the other an exchange between him and his mother. Though the success of The Jazz Singer was due largely to Jolson, already established as one of America's biggest music stars, and its limited use of synchronized sound hardly qualified it as an innovative sound film (let alone the \"first\"), the movie's handsome profits were proof enough to the industry that the technology was worth investing in.\nThe development of commercial sound cinema had proceeded in fits and starts before The Jazz Singer, and the film's success did not change things overnight. Not till May 1928 did the group of four big studios (PDC had dropped out of the alliance), along with United Artists and others, sign with ERPI for conversion of production facilities and theaters for sound film. Initially, all ERPI-wired theaters were made Vitaphone-compatible; most were equipped to project Movietone reels as well. [26] Even with access to both technologies, however, most of the Hollywood companies remained slow to produce talking features of their own. No studio beside Warner Bros. released even a part-talking feature until the low-budget-oriented Film Booking Offices of America (FBO) premiered The Perfect Crime on June 17 , 1928 , eight months after The Jazz Singer. [27] FBO had come under the effective control of a Western Electric competitor, General Electric 's RCA division, which was looking to market its new sound-on-film system, Photophone . Unlike Fox-Case's Movietone and De Forest's Phonofilm, which were variable-density systems, Photophone was a variable-area system—a refinement in the way the audio signal was inscribed on film that would ultimately become the rule. (In both sorts of system, a specially designed lamp, whose exposure to the film is determined by the audio input, is used to record sound photographically as a series of minuscule lines. In a variable-density process, the lines are of varying darkness; in a variable-area process, the lines are of varying width.) By October, the FBO-RCA alliance would lead to the creation of Hollywood's newest major studio, RKO Pictures .\nFile:BarkerMackaillSills.jpg\nMeanwhile, Warner Bros. had released three more talkies in the spring, all profitable, if not at the level of the The Jazz Singer: In March, The Tenderloin appeared; it was billed by Warners as the first feature in which characters spoke their parts, though only 15 of its 88 minutes had dialogue. Glorious Betsy followed in April, and The Lion and the Mouse (31 minutes of dialogue) in May. [28] On July 6 , 1928 , the first all-talking feature, Lights of New York , premiered. The film cost Warner Bros. only $23,000 to produce, but grossed $1.252 million, a record rate of return surpassing 5,000%. In September, the studio released another Al Jolson part-talking picture, The Singing Fool , which more than doubled The Jazz Singer's earnings record for a Warners movie. [29] This second Jolson screen smash demonstrated the movie musical's ability to turn a song into a national hit: by the following summer, the Jolson number \"Sonny Boy\" had racked up 2 million record and 1.25 million sheet music sales. [30] September 1928 also saw the release of Paul Terry 's Dinner Time , among the first animated cartoons produced with synchronized sound. After seeing it, Walt Disney decided to make one of his Mickey Mouse shorts , Steamboat Willie , with sound as well.\nOver the course of 1928, as Warner Bros. began to rake in huge profits due to the popularity of its sound films, the other studios quickened the pace of their conversion to the new technology. Paramount, the industry leader, put out its first talkie in late September, Beggars of Life; though it had just a few lines of dialogue, it demonstrated the studio's recognition of the new medium's power. Interference, Paramount's first all-talker, debuted in November. The process known as \"goat glanding\" briefly became widespread: soundtracks, sometimes including a smatter of post-dubbed dialogue or song, were added to movies that had been shot, and in some cases released, as silents. [31] A few minutes of singing could qualify such a newly endowed film as a \"musical.\" (Griffith's Dream Street had essentially been a \"goat gland.\") Expectations swiftly changed, and the sound \"fad\" of 1927 became standard procedure by 1929. In February 1929, sixteen months after The Jazz Singer's debut, Columbia Pictures became the last of the eight studios that would be known as \" majors \" during Hollywood's Golden Age to release its first part-talking feature, Lone Wolf's Daughter. [32] Most American movie theaters, especially outside of urban areas, were still not equipped for sound and the studios were not entirely convinced of the talkies' universal appeal—through mid-1930, the majority of Hollywood movies were produced in dual versions, silent as well as talking. [33] Though few in the industry predicted it, silent film as a viable commercial medium in the United States would soon be little more than a memory. The final mainstream purely silent feature put out by a major Hollywood studio was the Hoot Gibson oater Points West, released by Universal Pictures in August 1929. [34] One month earlier, the first all-color, all-talking feature had gone into general release: Warner Bros.' On with the Show!\nThe transition: Europe\nFile:DietrichIKIHM.jpg\nThe Jazz Singer had its European sound premiere at the Piccadilly Theatre in London on September 27 , 1928 . [35] According to film historian Rachael Low, \"Many in the industry realized at once that a change to sound production was inevitable.\" [36] On January 16 , 1929 , the first European feature film with a synchronized vocal performance and recorded score premiered: the German production Ich küsse Ihre Hand, Madame (I Kiss Your Hand, Madame). [37] A dialogueless film that contains only a few minutes of singing by star Richard Tauber , it may be thought of as the Old World's combination Dream Street and Don Juan. The movie was made with the sound-on-film system controlled by the German-Dutch firm Tobis, corporate heirs to the Tri-Ergon concern. With an eye toward commanding the emerging European market for sound film, Tobis entered into a compact with its chief competitor, Klangfilm, a subsidiary of Allgemeine Elektrizitäts Gesellschaft (AEG). Early in 1929, the two businesses began comarketing their recording and playback technologies. As ERPI began to wire theaters around Europe, Tobis-Klangfilm claimed that the Western Electric system infringed on the Tri-Ergon patents, stalling the introduction of American technology in many places. Just as RCA had entered the movie business to maximize the value of its recording system, Tobis also established its own production houses, led by Germany's Tobis Filmkunst.\nFile:BlackmailStill.jpg\nOver the course of 1929, most of the major European filmmaking countries began joining Hollywood in the changeover to sound. Many of the trend-setting European talkies were shot abroad as production companies leased studios while their own were being converted or as they deliberately targeted markets speaking different languages. One of Europe's first two feature-length dramatic talkies was created in still a different sort of twist on multinational moviemaking: The Crimson Circle was a coproduction between director Friedrich Zelnik's Efzet-Film company and British Sound Film Productions (BSFP). In 1928, the film had been released as the silent Der Rote Kreis in Germany, where it was shot; English dialogue was apparently dubbed in much later using the De Forest Phonofilm process controlled by BSFP's corporate parent. It was given a British trade screening in March 1929, as was a part-talking film made entirely in the UK: The Clue of the New Pin, a British Lion production using the sound-on-disc British Photophone system. In May, Black Waters, a British and Dominions Film Corporation promoted as the first UK all-talker, received its initial trade screening; it had been shot completely in Hollywood with a Western Electric sound-on-film system. None of these pictures made much impact. [38] The first successful European dramatic talkie was the all-British Blackmail . Directed by twenty-nine-year-old Alfred Hitchcock , the movie had its London debut June 21 , 1929 . Originally shot as a silent, Blackmail was restaged to include dialogue sequences, along with a score and sound effects, before its premiere. A British International Pictures (BIP) production, it was recorded on RCA Photophone, General Electric having bought a share of AEG in order to gain access to the Tobis-Klangfilm markets. Blackmail was a substantial hit; critical response was also positive—notorious curmudgeon Hugh Castle, for example, called it \"perhaps the most intelligent mixture of sound and silence we have yet seen.\" [39]\nOn August 23 , the modest-sized Austrian film industry came out with a talkie: G’schichten aus der Steiermark (Stories from Styria), an Eagle Film–Ottoton Film production. [40] On September 30 , the first entirely German-made feature-length dramatic talkie, Das Land ohne Frauen (Land Without Women), premiered. A Tobis Filmkunst production, about one-quarter of the movie contained dialogue, which was strictly segregated from the special effects and music. The response was underwhelming. [41] Sweden's first talkie, Konstgjorda Svensson (Artificial Svensson), premiered on October 14 . Eight days later, Aubert Franco-Film came out with Le Collier de la reine (The Queen's Necklace), shot at the Epinay studio near Paris. Conceived as a silent film, it was given a Tobis-recorded score and a single talking sequence—the first dialogue scene in a French feature. On October 31 , Les Trois masques debuted; a Pathé -Natan film, it is generally regarded as the initial French feature talkie, though it was shot, like Blackmail, at the Elstree studio , just outside of London. The production company had contracted with RCA Photophone and Britain then had the nearest facility with the system. The Braunberger-Richebé talkie La Route est belle, also shot at Elstree, followed a few weeks later. [42] Before the Paris studios were fully sound-equipped—a process that stretched well into 1930—a number of other early French talkies were shot in Germany. [43] The first all-talking German feature, Atlantik, had premiered in Berlin on October 28 . Yet another Elstree-made movie, it was rather less German at heart than Les Trois masques and La Route est belle were French; a BIP production with a British scenarist and German director, it was also shot in English as Atlantic. [44] The entirely German Aafa-Film production Dich hab ich geliebt (Because I Loved You) opened three-and-a-half weeks later. It was not \"Germany's First Talking Film\", as the marketing had it, but it was the first to be released in the United States. [45]\nFile:Putevka v zhisn poster.jpg\nIn 1930, the first Polish talkies premiered, using sound-on-disc systems: Moralność pani Dulskiej (The Morality of Mrs. Dulska) in March and the all-talking Niebezpieczny romans (Dangerous Love Affair) in October. [47] In Italy, whose once vibrant film industry had become moribund by the late 1920s, the first talkie, La Canzone dell'amore (The Song of Love), also came out in October; within two years, Italian cinema would be enjoying a revival. [48] The first movie spoken in Czech debuted in 1930 as well, Tonka Šibenice (Gallows Toni). [49] Several European nations with minor positions in the field also produced their first talking pictures—Belgium (in French), Denmark, Greece, and Romania. [50] The Soviet Union's robust film industry came out with its first sound features in 1931: Dziga Vertov 's nonfiction Entuziazm, with an experimental, dialogueless soundtrack, was released in the spring. [51] In the fall, the Nikolai Ekk drama Putyovka v zhizn (The Road to Life), premiered as the state's first talking picture.\nThroughout much of Europe, conversion of exhibition venues lagged well behind production capacity, requiring talkies to be produced in parallel silent versions or simply shown without sound in many places. While the pace of conversion was relatively swift in Britain—with over 60 percent of theaters equipped for sound by the end of 1930, similar to the U.S. figure—in France, by contrast, more than half of theaters nationwide were still projecting in silence by late 1932. [52] According to scholar Colin G. Crisp, \"Anxiety about resuscitating the flow of silent films was frequently expressed in the [French] industrial press, and a large section of the industry still saw the silent as a viable artistic and commercial prospect till about 1935.\" [53] The situation was particularly acute in the Soviet Union; as of spring 1933, fewer than one out of every hundred film projectors in the country was as yet equipped for sound. [54]\nThe transition: Asia\nFile:AlamAra.jpg\nThe Mandarin-language Gēnǚ hóng mǔdān ( Template:Linktext , Singsong Girl Red Peony), starring Butterfly Wu, premiered as China's first feature talkie in 1930. By February of that year, production was apparently completed on a sound version of The Devil's Playground, arguably qualifying it as the first Australian talking motion picture; however, the May press screening of Commonwealth Film Contest prizewinner Fellers is the first verifiable public exhibition of an Australian talkie. [62] In September 1930, a song performed by Indian star Sulochana , excerpted from the silent feature Madhuri (1928), was released as a synchronized-sound short, making it that nation's mini–Dream Street. [63] The following year, Ardeshir Irani directed the first Indian talking feature, the Hindi-Urdu Alam Ara , and produced Kalidas, primarily in Tamil with some Telugu. Nineteen-thirty-one also saw the first Bengali-language film, Jamai Sasthi, and the first movie fully spoken in Telugu, Bhakta Prahlada. [64] In 1932, Ayodhyecha Raja became the first movie in which Marathi was spoken to be released (though Sant Tukaram was the first to go through the official censorship process); the first Gujarati-language film, Narsimha Mehta, and all-Tamil talkie, Kalava, debuted as well. The next year, Ardeshir Irani produced the first Persian-language talkie, Dukhtar-e-loor. [65] Also in 1933, the first Cantonese-language films were produced in Hong Kong—Sha zai dongfang (The Idiot's Wedding Night) and Liang xing (Conscience); within two years, the local film industry had fully converted to sound. [66] Korea , where byeonsa held a role and status similar to that of the Japanese benshi, in 1935 became the last country with a significant film industry to produce its first talking picture: Chunhyangjeon ( Template:Lang / Template:Lang ) is based on the seventeenth-century pansori folktale \" Chunhyangga ,\" of which as many as fourteen film versions have been made to date. [67]\nConsequences\nFile:BroadwayMelodyPoster.jpg\nIn September 1926, Jack Warner , head of Warner Bros., was quoted to the effect that talking pictures would never be viable: \"They fail to take into account the international language of the silent pictures, and the unconscious share of each onlooker in creating the play, the action, the plot, and the imagined dialogue for himself.\" [84] Much to his company's benefit, he would be proven very wrong—between the 1927–28 and 1928–29 fiscal years, Warners' profits surged from $2 million to $14 million. Sound film, in fact, was a clear boon to all the major players in the industry. During that same twelve-month span, Paramount's profits rose by $7 million, Fox's by $3.5 million, and Loew's/MGM's by $3 million. [85] RKO, which hadn't even existed in September 1928 and whose parent production company, FBO, was in the Hollywood minor leagues, by the end of 1929 was established as one of America's leading entertainment businesses.\nEven as the Wall Street crash of October 1929 helped plunge the United States and ultimately the global economy into depression , the popularity of the talkies at first seemed to keep Hollywood immune. The 1929–30 exhibition season was even better for the motion picture industry than the previous, with ticket sales and overall profits hitting new highs. Reality finally struck later in 1930, but sound had clearly secured Hollywood's position as one of the most important industrial fields, both commercially and culturally, in the United States. In 1929, film box-office receipts comprised 16.6 percent of total spending by Americans on recreation; by 1931, the figure had reached 21.8 percent. The motion picture business would command similar figures for the next decade and a half. [86] Hollywood ruled on the larger stage, as well. The American movie industry—already the world's most powerful—set an export record in 1929 that, by the applied measure of total feet of exposed film, was 27 percent higher than the year before. [87] Concerns that language differences would hamper U.S. film exports turned out to be largely unfounded. In fact, the expense of sound conversion was a major obstacle to many overseas producers, relatively undercapitalized by Hollywood standards. The production of multiple versions of export-bound talkies in different languages, a common approach at first, largely ceased by mid-1931, replaced by post-dubbing and subtitling. Despite trade restrictions imposed in most foreign markets, by 1937, American films commanded about 70 percent of screen time around the globe. [88]\nJust as the leading Hollywood studios gained from sound in relation to their foreign competitors, they did the same at home. As historian Richard B. Jewell describes, \"The sound revolution crushed many small film companies and producers who were unable to meet the financial demands of sound conversion.\" [89] The combination of sound and the Great Depression led to a wholesale shakeout in the business, resulting in the hierarchy of the Big Five integrated companies (MGM, Paramount, Fox, Warners, RKO) and the three smaller studios also called \"majors\" (Columbia, Universal, United Artists) that would predominate through the 1950s. Historian Thomas Schatz describes the ancillary effects:\n[B]ecause the studios were forced to streamline operations and rely on their own resources, their individual house styles and corporate personalities came into much sharper focus. Thus the watershed period from the coming of sound into the early Depression saw the studio system finally coalesce, with the individual studios coming to terms with their own identities and their respective positions within the industry. [90]\nThe other country in which sound cinema had an immediate major commercial impact was India. As one distributor of the period said, \"With the coming of the talkies, the Indian motion picture came into its own as a definite and distinctive piece of creation. This was achieved by music.\" [91] From its earliest days, Indian sound cinema has been defined by the musical—Alam Ara featured seven songs; a year later, Indrasabha would feature seventy. While the European film industries fought an endless battle against the popularity and economic muscle of Hollywood, ten years after the debut of Alam Ara, over 90 percent of the films showing on Indian screens were made within the country. [92] Most of India's early talkies were shot in Bombay , which remains the leading production center, but sound filmmaking soon spread across the multilingual nation. Within just a few weeks of Alam Ara's March 1931 premiere, the Calcutta -based Madan Pictures had released both the Hindi Shirin Farhad and the Bengali Jamai Sasthi. [93] The Hindustani Heer Ranjha was produced in Lahore , Punjab , the following year. In 1934, Sati Sulochana , the first Kannada talking picture to be released, was shot in Kolhapur , Maharashtra ; Srinivasa Kalyanam became the first Tamil talkie actually shot in Tamil Nadu . [94] Once the first talkie features appeared, the conversion to full sound production happened as rapidly in India as it did in the United States. Already by 1932, the majority of feature productions were in sound; two years later, 164 of the 172 Indian feature films were talking pictures. [95] From 1934 through the present, with the sole exception of 1952, India has been among the top three movie-producing countries in the world every single year.\nAesthetic quality\nFile:LAtalantePoster.jpg\nIn the first, 1930 edition of his global survey The Film Till Now, cinema pundit Paul Rotha declared, \"A film in which the speech and sound effects are perfectly synchronised and coincide with their visual image on the screen is absolutely contrary to the aims of cinema. It is a degenerate and misguided attempt to destroy the real use of the film and cannot be accepted as coming within the true boundaries of the cinema.\" [96] Such opinions were not rare among those who cared about cinema as an art form; Alfred Hitchcock, though he directed the first commercially successful talkie produced in Europe, held that \"the silent pictures were the purest form of cinema\" and scoffed at many early sound films as delivering little beside \"photographs of people talking.\" [97]\nMost latter-day film historians and aficionados agree that silent film had reached an aesthetic peak by the late 1920s and that the early years of sound cinema delivered little that was comparable to the best of the silents. For instance, despite fading into relative obscurity once its era had passed, silent cinema is represented by eleven films in Time Out 's Centenary of Cinema Top One Hundred poll, held in 1995. The earliest sound film to place is the French L'Atalante (1934), directed by Jean Vigo ; the earliest Hollywood sound film to qualify is Bringing Up Baby (1938), directed by Howard Hawks . The first year in which sound film production predominated over silent film—not only in the United States, but also in the West considered as a whole—was 1929; yet the years 1929 through 1931 (for that matter, 1929 through 1933) are represented by three dialogueless pictures ( Pandora's Box [1929; often misdated 1928], Zemlya [1930], City Lights [1931]) and zero talkies in the Time Out poll.\nSound's short-term effect on cinematic art may be gauged in more detail by considering those movies from the transition period—the last years of commercial silent film production and the first years of talking pictures—in the West that are widely cited as masterpieces, as recorded in recent major media polls of all-time best international movies (though some listed as silent films, like Sunrise and City Lights, premiered with recorded scores and sound effects, they are now customarily referred to by historians and industry professionals as \"silents\"—spoken dialogue regarded as the crucial distinguishing factor between silent and sound dramatic cinema). From the six-year period 1927–32, eleven silent films are broadly recognized as masterpieces and only one talkie (TO= Time Out; VV= Village Voice ; S&S= Sight & Sound ): [98]\nSilent films\n1927: The General (U.S.; VV 01, S&S 02), Metropolis (Germany; VV 01, S&S 02), Napoléon (France; TO 95), October (USSR; VV 01); Sunrise (U.S.; TO 95, VV 01, S&S 02)\n1931: M (Germany; VV 01, S&S 02)\n1932: none\nThe first sound feature film to receive near-universal critical approbation was Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel); premiering on April 1 , 1930 , it was directed by Josef von Sternberg in both German and English versions for Berlin's UFA studio. The first American talkie to be widely honored was All Quiet on the Western Front , directed by Lewis Milestone , which premiered April 21 . The other internationally acclaimed sound drama of the year was Westfront 1918 , directed by G. W. Pabst for Nero-Film of Berlin. Cultural historians consider the French L'Âge d'or , directed by Luis Buñuel , which appeared in October 1930, to be of great aesthetic import, though more as a signal expression of the surrealist movement than as cinema per se. The earliest sound movie now acknowledged by most film historians as a masterpiece is Nero-Film's M , directed by Fritz Lang , which premiered May 11 , 1931 .\nCinematic form",
"The Jazz Singer (1927) - IMDb\nIMDb\nThere was an error trying to load your rating for this title.\nSome parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later.\nX Beta I'm Watching This!\nKeep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.\nError\nThe son of a Jewish Cantor must defy the traditions of his religious father in order to pursue his dream of becoming a jazz singer.\nDirector:\nFrom $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video\nON DISC\na list of 32 titles\ncreated 28 Feb 2012\na list of 41 titles\ncreated 21 Jan 2013\na list of 46 titles\ncreated 11 months ago\na list of 24 titles\ncreated 9 months ago\na list of 44 titles\ncreated 7 months ago\nTitle: The Jazz Singer (1927)\n6.8/10\nWant to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.\nYou must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.\nNominated for 1 Oscar. Another 2 wins. See more awards »\nPhotos\nThe Stoneman family finds its friendship with the Camerons affected by the Civil War, both fighting in opposite armies. The development of the war in their lives plays through to Lincoln's assassination and the birth of the Ku Klux Klan.\nDirector: D.W. Griffith\nThe life of a man and woman together in a large, impersonal metropolis through their hopes, struggles and downfalls.\nDirector: King Vidor\nThe son of a Jewish Cantor must defy the traditions of his religious father in order to pursue his dream of being a popular singer.\nDirector: Richard Fleischer\nTwo young men, one rich, one middle class, who are in love with the same woman, become fighter pilots in World War I.\nDirectors: William A. Wellman, Harry d'Abbadie d'Arrast\nStars: Clara Bow, Charles 'Buddy' Rogers, Richard Arlen\nDirectors: Rupert Julian, Lon Chaney, and 2 more credits »\nStars: Lon Chaney, Mary Philbin, Norman Kerry\nAn allegorical tale about a man fighting the good and evil within him. Both sides are made flesh - one a sophisticated woman he is attracted to and the other his wife.\nDirector: F.W. Murnau\nIn documentary style, events in Petrograd are re-enacted from the end of the monarchy in February of 1917 to the end of the provisional government and the decrees of peace and of land in ... See full summary »\nDirectors: Grigori Aleksandrov, Sergei M. Eisenstein\nStars: Boris Livanov, Nikolay Popov, Vasili Nikandrov\nAfter killing a man in self-defence, a young woman is blackmailed by a witness to the killing.\nDirector: Alfred Hitchcock\nA group of bandits stage a brazen train hold-up, only to find a determined posse hot on their heels.\nDirector: Edwin S. Porter\nA small-time criminal moves to a big city to seek bigger fortune.\nDirector: Mervyn LeRoy\nThe story of a poor young woman, separated by prejudice from her husband and baby, is interwoven with tales of intolerance from throughout history.\nDirector: D.W. Griffith\nDressed in overalls and wearing black-face makeup, Jolson sings three of his hit songs. For the complete list, follow the soundtrack link.\nDirector: Philip Roscoe\nEdit\nStoryline\nCantor Rabinowitz is concerned and upset because his son Jakie shows so little interest in carrying on the family's traditions and heritage. For five generations, men in the family have been cantors in the synagogue, but Jakie is more interested in jazz and ragtime music. One day, they have such a bitter argument that Jakie leaves home for good. After a few years on his own, now calling himself Jack Robin, he gets an important opportunity through the help of well-known stage performer Mary Dale. But Jakie finds that in order to balance his career, his relationship with Mary, and his memories of his family, he will be forced to make some difficult choices. Written by Snow Leopard\nMAMMY! (original print ad - all caps) See more »\nGenres:\n6 October 1927 (USA) See more »\nAlso Known As:\nDid You Know?\nTrivia\nThe movie's opening line and quote, \"Wait a minute, wait a minute. You ain't heard nothing yet\" was voted as the #71 movie quote by the American Film Institute (out of 100), and as #57 of \"The 100 Greatest Movie Lines\" by Premiere in 2007. See more »\nGoofs\nMary recieves a telegram dated August 8, 1927. Later in the film, Jack is seen writing a letter to Mary, dating it August 7, 1927. See more »\nQuotes\nMary Dale : [Listening to Jakie cantoring at Yom Kippur services after the death of his father] A jazz singer...singing to his God!\n(United States) – See all my reviews\nThere are so many stupid comments expressed in the reviews of this film that it boggles the mind. This film, good or bad, is not about race, racism, attitudes towards black Americans, nor is the character in the film a \"minstrel.\" Holy cow, did anybody actually SEE THE MOVIE? Does anyone know who Al Jolson was and what he accomplished? what he stood for regarding black Americans? what blackface meant in 1920?\nGood Lord. Such myopic political correctness distorts history, reality, and finds fault where there is none. The Amsterdam News, the leading newspaper of Harlem in the 20's lauded Jolson's performance as one \"every black man should be proud of.\" Attitudes, beliefs, values CHANGE OVER TIME...HELLOOOO!!! The fact that Jolson wore blackface says NOTHING about his, the audiences, the producers, actors, or, song writers atttituds toward race. How dumb have we become?\nPeople under the age of five should NOT be allowed to post opinions on this forum.\n154 of 184 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you?\nYes",
"The Jazz Singer (1927)\nPages: ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 )\nBackground\nWarner Bros.' and director Alan Crosland's The Jazz Singer (1927) is an historic milestone film and cinematic landmark. [Most people associate this film with the advent of sound pictures, although Don Juan (1926), a John Barrymore silent film, also had a synchronized musical score performed by the New York Philharmonic and sound effects using Vitaphone's system.] It should be made clear that this film was not the first sound film, nor the first 'talkie' film or the first movie musical.\nThe wildly successful \"photo-dramatic production\" was based upon Samson Raphaelson's 1921 short story \"The Day of Atonement\" (also the basis for Raphaelson's popular 1926 Broadway play of the same name), and adapted for the screen by Alfred A. Cohn.\nIn 1926, Warners' risky investment of a half million dollars with Western Electric in the Vitaphone sound system brought profits of $3.5 million at the box-office with this landmark talkie. It was a huge success, responsible for transforming Warners into Hollywood's hottest film factory. The commercialization of sound-on-film, and the transformation of the industry from silent films to talkies became a reality with the success of this film.\nAlthough it was not the first Vitaphone (sound-on-disk) feature, it was the first feature-length Hollywood \"talkie\" film in which spoken dialogue was used as part of the dramatic action. It is, however, only part-talkie (25%) with sound-synchronized, vocal musical numbers and accompaniment. [The first \"all-talking\" (or all-dialogue) feature-length picture was Warners' experimental entry - the gangster film Lights of New York (1928).] There are only a few scenes, besides the songs, where dialogue is spoken synchronously. A musical score (composed of a potpourri of melodies including sources such as Tchaikovsky, traditional Hebrew music and popular ballads) and musical sound effects accompany the action and title/subtitle cards throughout the entire film. The characters are given individual musical themes.\nSam Warner, co-founder of the studio, died at the premature age of 40 - one day before the film's New York City world premiere on October 6, 1927. Jolson was given the lead after Eddie Cantor and George Jessel denied Warners' offer to play the title role. Audiences were wildly enthusiastic when America's favorite jazz singer and superstar Al Jolson (born Asa Yoelson in 1886, not the first choice for the role, and played onstage by George Jessel) broke into song, ad-libbed extemporaneously with his mother at the piano, and proclaimed the famous line to introduce a musical number:\nWait a minute, wait a minute. You ain't heard nothin' yet!\n[Jolson was actually promoting the title of one of his songs, You Ain't Heard Nothin' Yet (written by Gus Kahn and Buddy de Sylva), that he had recorded in 1919.] In fact, Jolson's next part-talkie follow-up film, Warners' and director Lloyd Bacon's The Singing Fool (1928), was an even greater hit and a superior film. This next film contained the first hit song from a talking movie, Jolson's Sonny Boy. A Jolson biopic from director Alfred E. Green was titled The Jolson Story (1946), starring Oscar-nominated Larry Parks as the wildly-popular entertainer (rather than Jolson, who also auditioned to play himself). Star Parks received the nomination, although Jolson did the actual singing for the part. And then there was a sequel, Jolson Sings Again (1949).\nAlthough the film was ruled ineligible in the Best Picture category (it was thought unfair for a sound film to compete with silents), Warner Bros.' production head Darryl F. Zanuck was presented with a special Oscar at the very first Academy Awards ceremony in May of 1929, \"for producing The Jazz Singer, the pioneer outstanding talking picture, which has revolutionized the industry.\" The film had two nominations in two other categories: Best Writing Adaptation (Alfred Cohn), and Best Engineering Effects (Nugent Slaughter), but didn't win.\nThe film was remade twice: Warners' and director Michael Curtiz' The Jazz Singer (1952) with Danny Thomas (as Jerry Golding) and Peggy Lee (as Judy Lane), and director Richard Fleischer's The Jazz Singer (1980) with singer-songwriter Neil Diamond in the lead role as the cantor's son with legendary co-star Laurence Olivier as his father.\nThe Story\nThe opening title card: \"In every living soul, a spirit cries for expression - - perhaps this plaintive, wailing song of Jazz is, after all, the misunderstood utterance of a prayer.\" The opening scene is described by another title card:\nThe New York Ghetto, throbbing to that rhythm of music which is older than civilization.\nImmigrant life in the lower East Side of the New York Ghetto is seen on location around Hester and Orchard Streets. Bearded Jewish Cantor Rabinowitz (Warner Oland) wishes his son to continue in the five-generation family tradition and become a cantor (a leader of chants and songs during Jewish religious services) at the Orchard Street synagogue: \"Cantor Rabinowitz, chanter of hymns in the synagogue, stubbornly held to the ancient traditions of his race.\" But he cannot locate his young son: \"Tonight Jakie is to sing Kol Nidre. He should be here!\" His mother, Sara Rabinowitz (Eugenie Besserer): \"God made her a Woman and Love made her a Mother,\" is more sympathetic: \"Maybe our boy doesn't want to be a Cantor, Papa - \" Cantor Rabinowitz can't believe that his boy would turn his back on family traditions: \"What has he to say? For five generations a Rabinowitz has been a Cantor - - he must be one!\"\nYoung Jakie Rabinowitz (Bobby Gordon as a 13 year old boy) has forsaken the ways of his fathers to try out show business. This results in conflict between devotion to his family and his deep love for worldly jazz music. Inside Muller's bar-cafe, young Jakie prefers singing popular songs of the day, and is introduced by the piano player: \"Ragtime Jakie is with us - give him a break.\"\nIn the first actual synchronized sound heard in the film (not by Al Jolson!, but by young Bobby Gordon), Jakie entertains the cafe audience by singing 'My Gal Sal.' From the beer-garden area of Muller's, \"Moisha Yudleson (Otto Lederer), rigidly orthodox and a power in the affairs of the Ghetto\" spots the young Jewish boy singing, and runs to tell Jakie's father. In the Rabinowitz home, Sara is told by her husband: \"I have taught him all the hymns and prayers - - he knows them as well as I do.\" Sara understands where the boy's heart lies: \"Yes Papa - he knows all the songs - he has them in his head - - but not in his heart.\" Jakie's father points to his watch: \"He will start the fasting of Yom Kippur without supper.\"\nYudleson brings the news: \"In a saloon, who do you think I saw singing raggy time songs? - your son Jakie!\" His father is furious to find his son in the beer-garden performing 'Waiting for the Robert E. Lee,' rather than in the synagogue. He snatches the squirming boy from the stage to drag him home by the scruff of the neck. Jakie hugs and embraces his mother for protection from his threatening father: \"I'll teach him better than to debase the voice God gave him!\" Sarah tries to reason: \"But Papa - our boy, he does not think like we do.\" Papa wishes to teach the boy a lesson: \"First he will get a whipping!\"\nJakie's stern father prepares for the whipping by removing his belt, despite protestations from Sara. Jakie threatens: \"If you whip me again, I'll run away - - and never come back!\" Outside the door, Sara reacts horribly to the sounds of her beloved boy being brutally whipped in the bedroom. With one last embrace and kiss from his mother, Jakie carries through on his threat, rebelling against his father's wishes and running away from home. Even though he has lost his son, Cantor Rabinowitz prepares for the evening's service: \"It is time to prepare for the services, Mama.\" Mama is distraught: \"Our boy has gone, and he is never coming back.\"\nAt the synagogue on Yom Kippur, Rabinowitz tells another Jewish cantor: \"My son was to stand at my side and sing tonight - but now I have no son.\" The Kol Nidre is sung in the synagogue, during which time Jakie sneaks back into his home and retrieves a picture of his loving mother.\nThe scene shifts to \"Years later - - and three thousand miles from home\" to a popular San Francisco nightspot and showcase for amateur performers called Coffee Dan's. Approximately ten years later, Jakie has changed his name to Jack Robin (Al Jolson), an anglicized name that represents a rejection of his Jewish faith:\nJakie Rabinowitz had become Jack Robin - - the Cantor's son, a jazz singer. But fame was still an uncaptured bubble - - ... Al Jolson.\nJack is invited to perform in the nightclub and is introduced to the crowd: \"Jack Robin will sing 'Dirty Hands, Dirty Face.' They say he's good - we shall see.\" Jack tells his table companion: \"Wish me luck, Pal - I'll certainly need it.\"",
"On This Day: “The Jazz Singer” Released\nAl Jolson in “The Jazz Singer.”\nOn This Day: “The Jazz Singer” Released\nOctober 06, 2011 06:00 AM\n“The Jazz Singer” Breaks New Ground\nWhen Thomas Edison conceived of moving pictures , he always planned there to be sound as well. Inventors spent the next few decades searching for a technology to synchronize sound with image. Meanwhile, the era of the silent film was in full swing.\nIn 1925, Warner Bros. recorded a film, “Don Juan,” with music and sound effects using a system called the Vitaphone. The studio released it in 1926 along with a series of shorts with sound.\nStudio executive Jack Warner remained unconvinced of the technology’s promise : “They fail to take into account the international language of the silent pictures, and the unconscious share of each onlooker in creating the play, the action, the plot and the imagined dialogue for himself.”\nNevertheless, the studio chose to produce a second film, “The Jazz Singer,” with a recorded soundtrack. Al Jolson was hired only to sing for the film, but he improvised several lines that comprised fewer than 300 words.\n“Wait a minute, wait a minute, you ain’t heard nothin' yet,” Jolson called to the orchestra in his most famous line.\nDuring the 88-minute film, which debuted Oct. 6, 1927, at the Warner Brothers New York Theater, Jolson captivated the audience in his role as Jakie Rabinowitz , singing six tunes and speaking for several minutes.\nAlthough it wasn’t the first time sound was synchronized with film, nor was it the first film with speaking throughout—that came a year later—“The Jazz Singer” broke new ground with the way it captured the attention of the movie industry and got producers to focus on sound in films.",
"1927- The Jazz Singer - YouTube\n1927- The Jazz Singer\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on Sep 1, 2010\nThe notorious blackface conclusion to the first \"talkie,\" the Jazz Singer. In the effort to accept blame for producing the film but avoid negative backlash of its overt racism, the studio who owns the intellectual property has allowed the visual but disabled the audio.\nCategory",
"Film History of the 1920s\nFilm History of the 1920s\n1970s | 1980s | 1990s | 2000s | 2010s\nGriffith, Vidor, and Gish:\nIn 1919, the population of Hollywood was 35,000, but by 1925, had swelled to 130,000. The Hollywood sign (originally advertising and spelling out HOLLYWOODLAND) was built above the Hollywood Hills in 1923 for $21,000 by a real estate developer. It was not an advertisement to promote the major film studios, but was actually put up to advertise a local real estate development in nearby Beachwood Canyon - and was only supposed to be installed for 18 months. The sign lost its suffix \"LAND\" in 1949 when the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce began a contract with the City of LA Parks Department to repair and rebuild the sign.\n[After being declared an historic landmark in 1973, it was rebuilt in the late 70s by funds established by singer/cowboy Gene Autry, rocker Alice Cooper, and Playboy head Hugh Hefner.]\nD. W. Griffith continued to be successful (his earlier Birth of a Nation (1915) remained the most popular film until another war saga Gone with the Wind (1939) was filmed at the end of the 30s). One of Griffith's last commercial blockbusters, his classic melodrama of a morally-ostracized young woman, Way Down East (1920) , was famous for its daring sequence of Lillian Gish in a blizzard and on a floating ice, rescued at the last minute by Richard Barthelmess. Griffith's next film, Orphans of the Storm (1922), starred sisters Dorothy and Lillian Gish in a semi-factual drama of the French Revolution.\nThe largest grossing silent film up to its time was King Vidor's WWI tale - an epic, anti-war film and romance story from MGM The Big Parade (1925) , starring matinee idol John Gilbert. Vidor's enduring classic silent film of Everyman, The Crowd (1928) , a realistic \"slice-of-life\" tale of a faceless, underpaid, hard-working clerk who never seemed to get ahead in the big city of New York during the Jazz Age, was under-appreciated at the time of its release. Lillian Gish collaborated with Swedish director Victor Seastrom for two films: Nathaniel Hawthorne's classic The Scarlet Letter (1926) and The Wind (1928), one of the last great silent films.\nExpensive Epics and Cecil B. DeMille:\nInterestingly, some of the biggest successes of the 1920s were similar to the wide-screen epics of the 50s, such as:\nRex Ingram's The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921) (that launched Valentino's career as a star)\nmaster showman Cecil B. DeMille's Joan the Woman (1916), The Ten Commandments (1923) and The King of Kings (1927)\nthe expensive spectacle of MGM's and Fred Niblo's colossal Ben-Hur (1926)\nAll of these lavish and grand films foreshadowed their epic remakes during the mid-fifties and early sixties and in later years. The silent era Ben-Hur (1925) was the greatest and most legendary spectacular of its kind, budgeted at a record $3.9 million - the most expensive silent film ever (it made $9 million at the box-office) and the most expensive film made in the 1920s. Hollywood experimented with an early form of Technicolor for some color sequences in DeMille's big-budget, $1 million epic The Ten Commandments (1923) and also in Ben-Hur (1925).\nAlways noted as a showman, Cecil B. DeMille's name was forever associated with extravagant production values and biblical spectacles (with rich doses of orgies and bathing scenes) that he first filmed in the 1920s. He also adapted to the times with patriotic war-time films, such as Till I Come Back to You (1918), sophisticated romantic comedies such as Old Wives For New (1918) and the racy romantic farce Don't Change Your Husband (1919) with Gloria Swanson, and sexy melodramas such as the risque The Affairs of Anatol (1921).\nWesterns and Prototypes of Other Genres:\nThe western film genre was uniquely American and became popular in the early days of the cinema. The first major Western, a landmark film, was director James Cruze's epic pioneer saga filmed on-location, The Covered Wagon (1923), an authentic-looking 83 minute film advertised as \"the biggest thing the screen has had since The Birth of a Nation.\" Legendary director John Ford directed his first major film, a seminal Western titled The Iron Horse (1924), the sweeping tale of the construction of the first transcontinental railroad. The last film the old rugged Western hero, William S. Hart, appeared in was King Baggot's Tumbleweeds (1925). Famed cowboy actors, in addition to William S. Hart, included Tom Mix and Harry Carey.\nOther prototypical films were also released in the 1920s. The first science-fiction film (with early examples of stop-motion special effects) about prehistoric dinosaurs in a remote South American jungle The Lost World (1925), adapted from Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's tale, premiered during the silent era. Willis O'Brien, who would later be responsible for the success of King Kong (1933) , came of age as a stop-motion animator for this film. [In 1925, Imperial Airways presented it as the first in-flight movie on a flight from London to Europe.]\nThe prototype standard for later spooky, haunted \"old dark house\" mysteries was The Cat and the Canary (1927), a film re-made numerous times in future years. And one of the first in the gangster film genre was Josef von Sternberg's Prohibition-era Underworld (1927). Famous American movie dog, German shepherd Rin Tin Tin starred in over 20 films during the 20s silent era, including Warners' Rinty of the Desert (1928) and the transitional talkie-film Frozen River (1929). Detective Charlie Chan's introduction (as portrayed by Japanese actor George Kuwa) was in the 10-part serial House Without a Key (1926).\nThe Birth of the Talkies:\nBy the late 1920s, the art of silent film had become remarkably mature. Although called silents, they were never really silent but accompanied by sound organs, gramophone discs, musicians, sound effects specialists, live actors who delivered dialogue, and even full-scale orchestras. There would be two competing sound or recording systems developed during the early 'talkie' period: sound-on-disc, and sound-on-film.\nIn 1925-26, America technologically revolutionized the entire industry, with the formation of the Vitaphone Company (a subsidiary created by Warner Bros. and Western Electric). Warner Bros. launched sound and talking pictures, with Bell Telephone Laboratory researchers, by developing a revolutionary synchronized sound system called Vitaphone (a short-lived sound-on-disc process developed in 1925 that quickly became obsolete by 1931). This process allowed sound to be recorded on a phonograph record that was electronically linked and synchronized with the film projector - but it was destined to be faulty due to inherent synchronization problems. Originally, Warner Bros. intended to use the system to record only music and sound effects - not dialogue. The process was first used for short one- and two-reel films, mostly comedies and vaudeville acts.\nThe first feature-length film with synchronized Vitaphone sound effects and musical soundtrack (canned music and sound effects recorded on large wax discs), but without spoken dialogue, was Warner Bros.' romantic swashbuckler adventure Don Juan (1926). The prestigious production was premiered in New York on August 6, 1926, and starred John Barrymore (nicknamed \"The Great Profile\") as the hand-kissing womanizer (the number of kisses in the film set a record). Director Alan Crosland's expensive film failed to create the sensation that Warners had hoped for. The second Vitaphone production was The Better 'Ole (1926), featuring musical comedy and recording star Al Jolson, among others.\nMost of the studios started to convert from silent to sound film production - a tremendous capital investment. Thousands of existing theaters had to be rewired for sound at great expense. In the mid 1920s, Warners invested over $3 million in outfitting its 'picture palaces' to show Vitaphone films, and went into debt because of it.\nIn 1926, William Fox of the Fox Film Corporation responded to Warners' success with its own similar and competing, advanced Movietone system - the first commercially successful sound-on-film process developed in conjunction with General Electric. It added a 'soundtrack' directly onto the strip of film and would eventually become the predominant sound technology. [This system would soon replace the inflexible Vitaphone system because it was easier to synchronize the sound.]\nThe first feature film released using the new Fox Movietone system was Sunrise (1927) , directed by F. W. Murnau -- the first professionally-produced feature film with an actual soundtrack. Fox's Movietone system was also premiered in early 1927 with the showing of director Raoul Walsh's 12-reel comedy-drama war film What Price Glory? (1926) (originally released in November, 1926, and then re-released in January, 1927 with synchronized music and sound effects). They also released a Fox-Movietone News newsreel of the Lindbergh takeoff on May 20, 1927 from New York for his flight across the Atlantic toward Paris - the first sound news film. The first talking picture made in Hollywood was a Fox-Movietone 5-minute short titled They're Coming to Get Me (1927).\nThe Jazz Singer: The World's First 'Talkie'\nIn April, 1927, Warners built the first sound studio to produce a feature film with sound. Another sound feature released on October 6, 1927, and directed by Alan Crosland for Warner Bros. revolutionized motion pictures forever. Producer Sam Warner died one day before the film's premiere at Warners' Theatre in New York City. It was the first feature-length talkie (and first musical), The Jazz Singer (1927) , adapted from Samson Raphaelson's successful 1925-26 musical stage play (that starred George Jessel in the Broadway role). It was also the most expensive film in the studio's history, at a budget of about $500,000. Here was a revolutionary film that was mostly silent - with only about 350 'spontaneously spoken' words, but with six songs (in the film's partly-synchronized musical soundtrack). The film was about an aspiring Jewish cantor's son who wanted to become a jazz singer rather than a cantor in the synagogue.\nThe sound era was officially inaugurated when audiences saw Russian-born American vaudeville star Al Jolson, and first heard him improvise a song's introduction: \"Wait a minute! Wait a minute! You ain't heard nothin' yet,\" after the film's first musical interlude - a song called Dirty Hands, Dirty Face. Jolson proved his boast by continuing to sing Toot, Toot, Tootsie. They were further astonished by his talking to his mother (Eugenie Besserer) in an extemporaneous way after singing Blue Skies, and the film's final song Mammy. Jolson was chosen for the role (after it was turned down by Eddie Cantor) since he had already performed three songs in Warners' experimental short film April Showers (1926), and because he was, in real-life, a cantor's son who had first sung in a synagogue as a child.\nThe other major film studios (Paramount, Loew's, First National and UA) realized the expensive and challenging ramifications of the sound revolution that was dawning, and that talkie films would be the wave of the future. In May 1928, to avoid an inevitable patent war, they signed an agreement with Western Electric to analyze the competing sound systems within the next year and jointly choose a single, standardized sound system.\nFilm History of the 1920s",
"Francesca Elizabeth Miller\nFrom the early 1920s to the end of that decade, taking in a movie was a unique and wondrous experience. Going to the picture show became a regular ritual for many Americans who went to the cinema three or four times a week. Radio was still going through growing pains and television, digital gaming and the Internet were years away.\nFor those who lived in large American cities, twenty-five cents was a magic carpet that transported them from their dreary lives to a world of unparalleled opulence, the movie palace. The furnishings in these temples of excess were as sumptuous as those in the court of the Czar. Everywhere one turned were crystal chandeliers, marble fountains, gilt inlay and richly upholstered seats. The ushers wore smart uniforms and there was often a live musical prelude accompanied by the theater’s orchestra. Movie actors had dropped the histrionics of old for a subtle pantomime and the camera moved with amazing fluidity. This was the film experience at its best.\nThe term ‘silent film’ is a misnomer; silent films were never silent. The grander palaces used full symphonic orchestras to accompany their movies. Film historians like Preston J. Hubbard have written extensively about the impact live musical performances had on American cinema in the 1920s. For theaters that couldn’t afford an orchestra, the mighty Wurlitzer organ became a staple and made every sound effect under the sun. Smaller movies houses accompanied their silent dramas with pianos. In areas with large immigrant populations, young girls would translate the title cards into Yiddish, Italian or Russian as a piano accompanied them. In Japan, an actor called a benshi would narrate the film with a group of musicians playing under him. \nIn October 6, 1927, the success of The Jazz Singer, a Warner Brother’s a half-silent, half-talking musical signaled the beginning of the end of silent films and that wonderful experience - but just how rapid was that transition?\nDonald Crafton began his book, The Talkies: American Cinema’s Transition to Sound, 1926 - 1931, by addressing the biggest misconception of the transition to sound, namely that it was rapid and completely disrupted the movie making process. Nothing could be further from the truth. The transition took years to take effect and was a much slower process than many film historians have suggested.\nCrafton opened The Talkies with an in-depth critique of the one film that tackled the changeover from silent films to talking pictures, 1952’s musical classic, Singing In the Rain. Singing In the Rain presented a whimsical vision of the transition. The movie is set in Hollywood in the late 1920s, during the time of flappers, the Charleston and prohibition. The Jazz Singer creates a worldwide sensation and within a couple of weeks the fictional studio, Monumental Pictures, easily converts their stages to accommodate sound. Miraculously, producers are able to deliver talking pictures to theaters around the country despite the fact most were not yet wired for sound. The director of the Dancing Cavalier, the film within the film, effortlessly shoots a motion picture with the same grace and fluidity as a silent drama. While everything works out beautifully in Singing in the Rain, the reality of the conversion to sound was far more complex. It was a matter of years rather than weeks. \nOne of the early issues with talking dramas was the question of what method would be used to deliver sound to movies. Like the early battles in video, BETA verses VHS, there were two competing sound technologies, both from upstart studios; Warner Brothers had Vitaphone and the Fox Film Corporation had Movietone. Though Jack, Albert, Sam and Harry Warner didn’t realize it, their process, Vitaphone was doomed from the start. Vitaphone recorded the sound on a separate wax disc and left it to the projectionist to synchronize the sound with the film. That was a formidable enough task, but there were other problems. The discs would break, scratch, were often misplaced and most importantly, were unusable after twenty screenings, effective making the movie a silent drama. Since the sound was already pre-recorded, local censors couldn’t cut out offensive dialogue which was problematic since many early talkies were peppered with saucy dialogue.\nThe other process, Movietone, recorded the sound directly to the strip of film used to make the motion picture. By 1928, Movietone became the preferred method but the changeover to talking pictures created a host of other problems. \nWhile many in the audience were enamored with the thought of finally hearing the voices of their favorite actors, a large portion of the movie going audience loved the silent film experience, the live music, subtle acting and agile camera work and weren’t really interested in talkies.\nRKO Radio Pictures made talking pictures from their inception in 1928, the Fox Film Corporation and Warner Brothers had vested interest in pushing their own sound technologies; however, the bosses at Paramount Picture Corporation, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and the “little three”, Columbia, Universal and United Artists, were certain that this new technology was just another way to deliver motion pictures. They all assumed that talking pictures would co-exist as a separate medium from silent dramas, i.e. talkies would be used to for musicals and stage plays and silent dramas for everything else. In fact, in the final quarter of the 1928-1929, of the 200 films released, the majority, 114 in total, were silent dramas. MGM decided to let everyone else take the plunge and delayed sound conversion until other studios had ironed out the kinks. \nAnother interesting creation, the hybrid film, would eventually bite the dust. Hybrids were odd ducks; some, like The Jazz Singer were half-talkie and half-silent. Others, including classics like Wings and Seventh Heaven, were silent films with synchronized effects and music. In a process known as ‘goat glanding’, previously filmed silent dramas were given new life with sound effects and a smattering of dialogue in some key scenes. In 1930, Universal re-released The Phantom of the Opera, re-shot scenes with the same cast as the 1925 original and added bits of dialogue and music. Lon Chaney’s silent footage from the original was used because he was negotiating his contract at MGM and wasn’t available. \nAfter the novelty of talking films began to wear off, audiences tired of the hybrid. Except for some notable exceptions like Al Jolson’s The Singing Fool that held the box office record until Gone with the Wind and Charlie Chaplin’s City Lights, the hybrid eventually went the way of the dodo.\nThe most common way to capture the movie audience was to make dual versions of one film - a talkie for theaters that were wired for sound, and a silent version of the same film for those theaters that weren’t. Large numbers of movies houses in rural areas and small towns throughout the country had not yet been prepared for sound. It was a costly process especially during the years of the Great Depression and many independent movie houses went under because they simply couldn’t afford the expense. In 1929, MGM announced that Greta Garbo’s The Kiss was their last silent but the studio continued making silent versions of talking films possibly as late as 1931.\nFilm historian, David B. Pearson, creator of www.silent-movies.com noted that modern film historians tend to exaggerate the number of theaters owned by the biggest of the big five studios, MGM. Paramount owned more movie houses and in some cities, Paramount actually co-owned some of MGM’s palaces. While MGM may have had the most square footage, the real power of a studio was ownership of the means of production, distribution and exhibition by the same company, also know as vertical integration.\nVertical integration began in the earliest days of cinema. The French film company, Pathé Frères, opened its first theater in Paris in 1906 and by 1909, owned and operated over 200. In the United States, vertical integration continued until late 1940’s, when a federal anti-trust suit forced studios to divest themselves of their theaters.\nProbably the most vivid description of the transition to talkies can be found in David Stenn’s biography of Clara Bow, Runnin’ Wild. Bow was Paramount’s biggest star and Stenn wrote extensively about her baptism by fire into the world of talking pictures; however, he didn’t note that her early talkies had silent versions, many of which were superior to the talking original.\nEven musicals like Showboat, Montana Moon, The Jazz Singer and The Singing Fool had silent versions. Garbo may have talked in Anna Christie, but it’s probable that there was a silent version of the film floating around. According to David B. Pearson, as late as 1930, the vast majority of talking films had silent versions.\n1931 was probably the last year that silent dramas were produced en masse by major American studios but smaller, “Poverty Row” houses continued filming silent dramas for theaters that couldn’t afford to wire for sound. A silent version of Universal’s 1931 hit, Dracula was released in the spring of 1931. Though there is no mention of a silent copy of Frankenstein, a film released in the fall of 1931, it is probable that one existed since Universal catered to smaller movie houses. Pearson noted that Douglas Fairbanks filmed a part-talking hybrid called Mr. Robinson Crusoe in 1932 and also provided a completely silent version in the same year.\nThe creation of silent versions of talkies may have continued for considerably longer since European cinemas weren’t fully wired for sound until well into the 30s. The silent film tradition continued in Japan as late as 1935. The Warner Brothers musical, Footlight Parade, begins with an electric billboard circling a Manhattan building with the announcement that silent films were finally dead. Footlight Parade was released in October, 1933, a date that suggests silent dramas took a very long time to die.\nFilm historians have detailed the destruction of the careers of actors who didn’t make the transition to talkies but there were other behind the camera casualties. With the coming of the talkies, live performances called preludes, the major plotline of Footlight Parade, were pretty much eliminated too. There were other casualties. The members of American Federation of Musicians took out newspaper advertisements across the country protesting the replacement of live musicians with canned music. Scores of virtuoso muscians lost their livelihood in the transition.\nDirectors of silent films spoke continually as they guided an actor’s on-screen movements, gently coaxing out a performance. There were many silent directors who, after attempts at talkies, couldn’t or wouldn’t make the adjustment, D.W. Griffith being the most notable but there were others: Rex Ingram, actor/directors like Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton and Victor Sjöström being the most notable cases. The early sound technicians were tyrants on the set and in the early days of talkies, it was the sound technicians who yelled, “cut” not the director.\nWhen studios stopped making dual versions of films, writers of title cards, the method used for years to tell the story and deliver dialogue, found their art to be obsolete. Featherweight Bell & Howell cameras used in silent dramas were replaced by bulky Mitchell sound cameras. Arc lights became obsolete because of their faint hiss and were replaced by silent tungsten lighting. Even the make-up used in film changed. After 1927, panchromatic film became the standard and Max Factor had to devise a different type of make-up that worked with sound lighting. \nTalking pictures emerged as the dominant celluloid art form and went through their own painful growing pains with static scenes and stagy acting until 1932 when the movies finally moved again.\nThank you David B. Pearson for sharing of your knowledge of the transition to talkies with me. I found the following books helpful in writing this page: Donald Crafton, The Talkies: American cinema’s Transition to sound, 1926 - 1931, Donald Stenn, Clara Bow: Running Wild, Fred E. Basten, Max Factor: the Man Who Changed the Faces of the World, Mark E. Vieira, Hollywood Dreams Made Real, Irving Thalberg and the Rise of M-G-M.\nLinks\nwww.silent-movies.com - one of the best resources on the web with new information added regularly.\nwww.georgegroves.org.uk - This site is dedicated to the creator of Vitaphone, George Grove.\nwww.midnightpalace.com - A great resource to find out more about Hollywood’s Golden Age, a term I don’t use lightly. 60 to 70% of the population went to the movies regularly as opposed to 9% now. It truly was golden.\nwww.goldensilents.com - A must for anyone interested in the silent era.\nwww.thestarlightstudio.com - A stunning site that features the photography of movie historian Mark A Vieira, the acknowledged expert on Irving Thalberg and M.G.M."
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"title": [
"Jazz Singer Movie - The First Talkie - About.com Education",
"Talking Motion Pictures - University of Virginia",
"Talkies - Silent Films Wiki - Wikia",
"The Jazz Singer (1927) - IMDb",
"The Jazz Singer (1927) - Filmsite.org",
"On This Day: “The Jazz Singer” Released - findingDulcinea",
"1927- The Jazz Singer - YouTube",
"Film History of the 1920s - Filmsite.org",
"Talkies - Francesca Elizabeth Miller"
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Alborg Roedslet international airport is in which country?
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tc_750
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Aalborg, also spelled Ålborg, is an industrial and university city in the North of Jutland, Denmark. It has an urban population of 112,194, making it the fourth most populous city in Denmark. With a population of 210,316 (), the Municipality of Aalborg is the third most populous in the country after Copenhagen and Aarhus. By road Aalborg is 64 km southwest of Frederikshavn, and 118 km north of Aarhus.\n\nThe earliest settlements date to around AD 700. Aalborg's position at the narrowest point on the Limfjord made it an important harbour during the Middle Ages, and later a large industrial centre. Architecturally, the city is known for its half-timbered mansions built by its prosperous merchants. Budolfi Church, now a cathedral, dates from the end of the 14th century and Aalborghus Castle, a royal residence, was built in 1550. Today, Aalborg is a city in transition from a working-class industrial area to a knowledge-based community. A major exporter of grain, cement, and spirits, its thriving business interests include Siemens Wind Power, Aalborg Industries, and Aalborg Portland. These companies have become global producers of wind turbine rotors, marine boilers and cement.\n\nWith its theatres, symphony orchestra, opera company, performance venues, and museums such as Aalborg Historical Museum and the Aalborg Museum of Modern Art, Aalborg is an important cultural hub. The Aalborg Carnival, held at the end of May, is one of the largest festivals in Scandinavia, attracting some 100,000 people annually. The major university is the University of Aalborg, founded in 1974, which has more than 17,000 students. The University College of Northern Denmark is one of seven new regional organisations while the Royal School of Library and Information Science (RSLIS) provides higher education in library and information science. Trænregimentet, the Danish regiment for army supply and emergency medical personnel, is also in Aalborg. Aalborg University Hospital, the largest in the north of Jutland, was founded in 1881.\n\nThe football club Aalborg BK, established in 1885 and based at Nordjyske Arena, won the Danish Superliga in the 1994–95 season, the 1998–99 season, the 2007–08 season and the 2013–14 season. Other sports associations include the women's handball club Aalborg DH, the rugby club Aalborg RK, and Aalborg Cricket Club. Aalborg Railway Station, on John F. Kennedys Plads has connected the city to Randers and the south since 1869. Aalborg Airport is just 6 km northwest of the city centre, and the E45, a European route from Karesuando, Sweden, to Gela, Italy, passes through Aalborg.\n\nThe European Commission has concluded that the citizens of Aalborg are the most satisfied people in Europe with their city. \n\nHistory\n\nThe area around the narrowest point on the Limfjord attracted settlements as far back as the Iron Age leading to a thriving Viking community until around the year 1000 in what has now become Aalborg. In the Middle Ages, royal trading privileges, a natural harbour and a thriving herring fishing industry contributed to the town's growth. Despite the difficulties it experienced over the centuries, the city began to prosper once again towards the end of the 19th century when a bridge was built over Limfjord and the railway arrived. Aalborg's initial growth relied on heavy industry but its current development focuses on culture and education.\n\nBeginnings\n\nAalborg traces its history back over a thousand years. It was originally settled as a trading post because of its position on the Limfjord. The sites of what were two settlements and a burial ground can be seen on Lindholm Høje, a hill overlooking the city. These large settlements, one from the 6th-century Germanic Iron Age, the other from the Viking Age in the 9th to 11th centuries, evolved at the narrowest point on Limfjord as a result of the traffic between Himmerland to the south and Vendsyssel to the north.\n\nThe first mention of Aalborg under its original name Alabu or Alabur is found on coins from c. 1040, the period when King Harthacnut (Hardeknud) settled in the area. In c. 1075, Adam of Bremen reported that Alaburg, as he called it in German, was an important harbour for ships sailing to Norway. In Valdemar's Danish Census Book from 1231 it was called Aleburgh, possibly meaning \"the fort by the stream\" as in Old Norse all meant a stream or current and bur or burgh a fort or a castle. \nThe Church of Our Lady in Aalborg was originally built in the early 12th century but was demolished during the Reformation. Grey Friar Convent, on the east side of Østerå, was probably built around 1240; it was documented in 1268 when it was a Franciscan Convent of the Order of Friars Minor, but like many other Roman Catholic monasteries and convents was shut down in 1530 as a result of the Reformation.\n\nMiddle Ages\n\nAalborg's earliest trading privileges date from 1342, when King Valdemar IV received the town as part of his huge dowry on marrying Helvig of Schleswig. The privileges were extended by Eric of Pomerania in 1430 and by Christopher of Bavaria in 1441. The town prospered, becoming one of the largest communities in Denmark. Its prosperity increased when the merchant- and trade association Guds Legems Laug was established in 1481, facilitating trade with the Hanseatic League, \nespecially from 1516 when Christian II granted it a monopoly in salting Limfjord's herring. The king frequently visited the town, where he held court and stayed in the old Aalborghus. The herring fishery linked Aalborg to the East coast of England, across the North Sea, both in commercial competition and cultural exchange. During the Middle Ages a number of important institutions were established in Aalborg, including Budolfi Cathedral in the late 14th century and the Hospital of the Holy Ghost, a monastery and nunnery founded in 1451 to help those in need. It was converted into a hospital during the Reformation and is still in use today as a nursing home for the elderly.\n\nIn 1530 a large part of the town was destroyed by fire, and in December 1534 it was stormed and plundered by the king's troops after a peasants' revolt known as the Count's Feud led by Skipper Clement. It resulted in the death of up to 2,000 people. The Reformation in 1536 brought about the demolition of the town's two monasteries. As a result of the Reformation, Aalborg became a Lutheran bishopric in 1554.\n\n17th to 19th centuries\n\nFrom the 1550s to the 1640s, as a result of increased foreign trade, Aalborg enjoyed great prosperity, second only to that of Copenhagen. The population grew in parallel with the development of many fine buildings in the city as merchants benefitted from their shipping routes from Norway to Portugal. In 1663, the city suffered yet another serious fire, which destroyed the tower of Budolfi Church. \n\nDuring the second half of the 18th century, Aalborg entered a further period of prosperity. In Erik Pontoppidan's Danske Atlas (Danish Atlas) it was described as \"after Copenhagen, the best and most prosperous market town in Denmark\". The population grew from 4,160 in 1769 to 5,579 in 1801. In 1767, the second newspaper ever published in Denmark appeared in the city.\n\nAfter Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden in 1814, Aalborg lost its important role as the country's centre for Norwegian trade. Its former prosperity also suffered as a result of difficulties with the herring industry as the fish disappeared after the sea breached the Agger Tange (which had linked Thy with the rest of Jutland at the western end of Limfjord) in the 1825 North Sea storm. The after effects of the state bankruptcy in 1813 also contributed to widespread poverty in the city. In the mid-19th-century, Aalborg was overtaken by Aarhus as the largest city in Jutland. Towards the end of the 19th century there was however an upturn. In 1865, the pontoon bridge over Limfjord was completed, and in 1869, the railway reached the city with a railway bridge over the sound to Vendsyssel three years later. The harbour facilities were also improved, making Aalborg Denmark's second port. Aalborg became the country's main producer of tobacco products and spirits, followed in the 1890s by fertilisers and cement. By 1901, the population had increased to almost 31,500.\n\n20th century industrialisation\n\nAround the beginning of the 20th century, as a result of decisions taken by the municipality, many of the city's half-timbered houses were torn down. They were replaced by hundreds of modern buildings, completely changing the look of the city. Factories with smoking chimneys became ever more prevalent in the outskirts. Among the most important were De Danske Spritfabrikker (spirits and liquors), De forenede Textilfabrikker (textiles), the East Asiatic Company (trading), Dansk Eternit (building materials) and C.W. Obel's tobacco factory (established in 1787). Aalborg Portland run by F.L. Smidth was one of several cement factories operating in 1913, together employing some 800 workers. By the 1930s, Aalborg was being promoted as \"Denmark's new centre for industry and workers\". Replanning continued with additional thoroughfares cutting through the city. The port facilities were also improved with the help of a dredger and the opening of new docks. In 1933, Christian X inaugurated a new bridge over Limfjord to replace the fragile pontoon crossing.\n\nAalborg Airport, officially opened in 1938 because of the success of the cement industry, had in fact operated flights to Copenhagen since 1936. During the German invasion of Denmark in 1940, the airport was captured by German paratroopers on the night of the 21 April as a base for German aircraft flying to Norway. On 13 August 1940, a dozen Bristol Blenheim bombers of No. 82 Squadron RAF were launched against the Luftwaffe airfield during one of the most disastrous Royal Air Force raids of the war. One turned back because of fuel problems, but all of the remaining 11 were shot down by enemy fighters and/or flak batteries within 20 minutes. After the war, the Royal Air Force destroyed all the German facilities including planes, hangars and equipment but left the passenger facilities intact.\n\nBy 1960, Aalborg had become known as the \"city of smoking chimneys\" with half of the inhabitants working in industry or manufacturing. Ten years later, Aalborg's population had grown to around 97,000 inhabitants.\n\nRecent history\n\nThe significance of Aalborg's industry began to decline in the 1970s, precipitating a fall in the city's population until about 1990 when it again began to increase. By the year 2000, the service and education sectors accounted for about 60 percent of the workforce, partly as a result of the founding of Aalborg University in 1974. Since 1970, Aalborg and the northern suburb of Nørresundby have become a major administrative centre, thanks in part to the offices of the Region Nordjylland established in the east of the city. In addition to large industrial companies including Aalborg Portland, the only cement-producing company in the country, and the building products company Eternit, many small and medium-sized enterprises have been established. The telecommunications and information technology sector has developed with the support of Aalborg University and the North Jutland knowledge park NOVI.\n\nThe First European Conference on Sustainable Cities and Towns took place in Aalborg in 1994. It adopted the Aalborg Charter, which provides a framework for the delivery of local sustainable development and calls on local authorities to engage in Local Agenda 21 processes. The Fourth European Sustainable Cities and Towns Conference, held in Aalborg in 2004, adopted the more binding Aalborg Commitments on local sustainable development. The commitments have now been signed by 650 local authorities while over 2,500 have signed the earlier Aalborg Charter. \n\nGeography\n\nAalborg is in North Jutland (northwestern Denmark), at the narrowest point of the Limfjord, a shallow sound that separates North Jutlandic Island (Vendsyssel-Thy) from the rest of the Jutland Peninsula and connects Aalborg to the Kattegat about 35 km to the east. Aalborg is 118 km north of Aarhus, 82 km north of Randers, and 64 km southwest of Frederikshavn. It is 414 km by Great Belt Fixed Link to Copenhagen, 150 km by the Frederikshavn-Göteborg ferry to Gothenburg in Sweden, and 363 km by the Frederikshavn-Oslo ferry to Oslo in Norway.\n\nThe area close to the waterfront is low-lying, with an elevation averaging about 5 m, but there are many hills in and around city, some reaching over 60 m.[http://www.climbs.dk/aalborg.htm \"Aalborg - Nørresundby: Bakker\"], Danmarks største bakker. Retrieved 4 September 2013. Nørresundby, on the northern side of the sound, is also a hilly area. Villages to the south of Aalborg from west to east include Frejlev, Svenstrup, and Gistrup (which contains extensive woodland to the south as well as a golf club). Klarup and Storvorde lie to the southeast along the 595 road, which, flanking a stretch of the Limfjord known as Langerak, leads to the town of Hals. Nibe, with a harbour on the Limfjord, is 21 km to the southwest, past the village of Frejlev. The Nibe Broads (Nibe Bredning) in the Limfjord not only has the largest eelgrass belts in Danish waters but is an important sanctuary for thousands of migratory birds. To the north of the city, villages include Vadum, Aabybro, Vestbjerg, Sulsted, Tylstrup, Vodskov, and Hjallerup. There is an extensive plantation, Branths Plantage - Møgelbjerg, immediately north of Vodskov.\n\nThe Himmerland region to the south still has a number of moors which once formed a vast area of heathland extending 35 km to the Rold Forest near Arden. Rebild Hills in the Rold Forest stretch over 425 acres of rolling heath country about 30 km south of Aalborg. Lille Vildmose, to the southeast, is reported to be the largest high moor in north-western Europe.\n\nThe city\n\nThe city centre, dating from the Middle Ages, lies on a series of clay banks between the former streams of Vesterå and Lilleå, which used to run into the sound. Despite effective drainage, the main streets, including Algade, still run east to west while the side streets run north to south. The Budolfi Church and the old town hall line Gammeltorv, the old market square. The main shopping streets are Algade and Bispengade, the latter lying inbetween the modern Vesterbro thoroughfare and Nytorv square. Østerågade, once the old harbor, is noted for its merchants' mansions.\n\nThe city cemetery, the Kilden park and the modern art museum, Kunsten, are in the modern commercial and administrative area around the railway station to the west. Beyond this, Hasseris has become a residential district with a number of large villas and detached houses. The city's main development area is now to the east of the centre although in addition to the university and new areas of housing, it still contains the shipping harbor, Østhavnen, and the cement factory. The waterfront to the northeast of the centre is being transformed from a harbour into a recreational area with the Utzon Center and Musikkens Hus.\n\nEgholm\n\nOff the northwestern side of the city in the sound is the island of Egholm, reached via ferry. The island, with a population of 55 , covers an area of and consists mainly of farmland although there are still a few untilled areas of salt marshes and woodland. Dikes have been built along the coastline to protect the island from flooding. The Kronborg Forest on the island, covering an area of 17 ha, was acquired by the municipal government in 1945. A restaurant in the vicinity was established in 1918 but rebuilt in 1946 following a fire. To the west of Egholm is the smaller uninhabited Fruensholm, and there are also three small islands to the north.\n\nLakes and chalk deposits\n\nThere are several man-made lakes nearby: Lindholm Kridtgrav lies to the northwest of Skanse Park on the northern side of Limfjord, while Nordens Kridtgrav to the northwest of Mølleparken is on the southern side. The Aalborg area is one of three in Denmark where chalk deposits are found (the others being Møns Klint and Stevns). The largest quarry is at Rørdal in Øster Sundby (6 km to the east of the city centre), while Vokslev (20 km to the west) has also provided chalk. Clay is also quarried in Østerådalen in the southern outskirts, making the area ideal for cement production. \n\nParks and green spaces\n\nThe Østre Anlæg park is one of the oldest in Aalborg, visited by up to 175,000 people a year. It was used as a dumping ground in the 1920s before being cleaned up and made into a recreational area in the 1930s and 1940s. It contains lawns, flowers, tall trees, bushes, and a lake, overlooked by St. Mark's Church on the eastern side. Fifty-one species of bird have been recorded in the park.\n\nLindholm Fjordpark, to the south of the Lindholm's industrial park, forms part of the green sector of the city known as 'Ryåkilen' along the coast of the sound, covering roughly 50 ha. Like Østre Anlæg, it once served as a waste site with landfill, and a housing estate was built on its northeastern side. Its use as a landfill site was gradually discontinued in the 1990s, and in 1996, extensive restoration work began. Today it has woodlands and open areas with grass and herbaceous vegetation, notably buckthorn. It is also a habitat for many species of migratory birds such as light-bellied brent geese, curlews, and songbirds. The park is also used by the Nordjysk Windsurfing Club and has a six-hole golf course.\n\nAalborg has a number of additional civic parks and recreational facilities. Among them are Kildeparken, which hosts the annual Aalborg Carnival, Mølleparken, which contains a pond, statues, an outdoor exercise facility, and a 2.5 kilometre (1.6 mi) jogging trail (within the trail lies the Lysløjpen, a 45 metre [148 ft] gradient), Sohngårdsholmpark, a wooded area containing trails for both walking/jogging and biking and a six-hole golf course (free to the public), the Aalborg Open Air Swimming Pool, also free to the public, Bundgårdsparken, and Lindholm Strandpark. \n\nThe Aalborg Zoo was opened in 1935 and typically houses 1,300 animals from 138 different species, including tigers, chimpanzees, zebra, elephants, giraffes, penguins and polar bears. It is one of the area's major tourist attractions with over 300,000 visitors a year. Within the zoo an African savannah has been created where exotic animals are housed.\n\nAalborg was home to an amusement park, Karolinelund, founded in 1946. In 2005, still owned by the founding family, it was sold to an entrepreneur who resold it to the city the following year. When the park closed in 2010, it was home to 17 attractions. Recently, the city has reopened the park to volunteers who wish to return it to operating status. The park is once again open to the public as a leisure facility but without rides and attractions. The association, Platform4, a non-profit user-driven project-oriented venue that experiments with technology (electronics) in combination with artistic genres is now located in the park. Volunteers frequently arrange seminars, exhibitions, films, music concerts, and more which are open to the public.\n\nClimate\n\nAalborg is cool most of the year, with average high temperatures of around 20 °C and lows of 11 °C during the summer, and average temperatures of during the coldest months of January and February, rarely dropping below . The warmest months are typically July and August, with an average temperature of 16 °C, but by October the temperature averages 9 °C. June has the highest number of hours of sunshine on average at 218, closely followed by May and July. Precipitation is rather evenly distributed all year around, with an average of 76 mm during October, normally the wettest month with an average 14 days with rainfall, and an average of 35 mm during February, normally the driest month with an average of eight days of precipitation, closely followed by April.\n\nPolitics and government\n\nHenning G. Jensen, a Social Democrat, was the long-serving Mayor of Aalborg from 1998 until 2013. He was succeeded by Thomas Kastrup-Larsen, also a Social Democrat, who was elected to the City Council in 1998. \n\nThe civic government in Aalborg consists of seven departments: the Mayor's Department (responsible for the titular position, the four Citizen Service Centres in Aalborg, the Financial Services division, the Commercial Services division, the General Services division, and the Fire and Rescue Centre); the Technical and Environmental Department (responsible for urban planning, transportation oversight, the Parks and Nature division, and the Environmental Division); the Department of Family and Employment (responsible for Children and Family services, social services, and the city's \"Job Centre\"); the Department of Care of the Elderly and Disabled (responsible for social benefits, senior citizen care, and disabled citizen care); the Department of Education and Cultural Affairs (responsible for the municipal schools, the public libraries, the Cultural Affairs division, and the city archives); the Health and Sustainable Development Department (responsible for public health, the Occupational Health and Safety Division, the Public Transportation division, and the Sustainable Development division); and the Utilities Department (responsible for gas, heating, water, sewage, and refuse collection). \n\nAalborg City Council consists of 31 members, including a mayor. As of September 2013, 11 of the council seats are held by the Social Democratic Party, nine by Venstre, three by the Socialist People's Party, two by the Danish People's Party, and two by the Conservative People's Party, while three members are professed independents. The council is mandated to hold a minimum of two meetings per month, with meetings of a public forum format. \n\nDemographics\n\nAalborg was the largest city in Jutland until it was surpassed by Aarhus in the mid-19th century. In 1672, it had 4,181 inhabitants, growing slowly during the 18th century, with 4,425 in 1769, 4,866 in 1787 and 5,579 by 1801. By 1845, there were 7,477 inhabitants, increasing to 10,069 by 1860. Dramatic growth began in the late 19th century, with an increase from 14,152 in 1880 to 31,457 in 1901. By 1930, the population had grown to 59,091, although the figure was boosted by the merging of Nørre Tranders, Rørdal Fabriksby, Øster Sundby and Øster Uttrup into Aalborg. In 1950, it reached 87,883, which grew to 100,587 by 1970.\nThere was a temporary decline in population to 94,994 in 1976 but in 1981, following the incorporation of Nørresundby, it grew to 114,302. The population has increased steadily since then; according to the census of 1 January 2009, Aalborg had a total of 122,461 inhabitants, 101,497 of them living in the city and 20,964 in the independent suburb of Nørresundby. , the city has a total of 132,578 inhabitants (110,495 in the city proper and 22,083 in Nørresundby) making it the fourth most populous in Denmark after Copenhagen, Aarhus and Odense. Statistics for 2016 showed there were 210,316 people living in the Municipality of Aalborg.\n\nEconomy\n\nAalborg is North Jutland's major industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain, cement, and spirits. Heavy industry was behind the city's prosperity until fairly recently. Many of the factories have now closed, to be replaced by developments in the knowledge-based and green-energy sectors. Mobile and wireless communications industries have grown substantially since the 1990s, as has rotor production for wind turbines.\n\nIn January 2011, there were some 9,200 enterprises in Aalborg, employing around 109,000 people or approximately 35% of the workforce of the Northern Region. In the 2010s, the city is set on increasing its participation in the global economy through both existing companies and new entrants. Its efforts are focused on four areas: energy and environment, information technology, health support systems and \"Arctic business\". The latter covers trade with Greenland as Aalborg handles over 60% of all goods shipped to Greenland. Four harbours dot the waterfront, Marina Fjordparken, Skudehavnen, Vestre Badehavn, and Østre Havn. Tourism is also growing, with a considerable rise in the number of passengers at Aalborg Airport. Aalborg Municipality has Denmark's second highest revenue from tourism and is the only municipality in the north of Denmark where overnight stays are increasing. \n\nMajor private companies\n\nTelenor Denmark, part of the Norwegian Telenor telecommunications and mobile phone company, has a workforce of about 1,100 in Aalborg, making it one of the city's largest new employers. Siemens Wind Power has rotor-blade production and testing facilities in Aaborg. In 2012 and 2013, there were additions in both areas. The new testing plant is the world's largest research test centre for wind turbine technology. In 2012, the company shipped a record 570 wind turbine blades from the Port of Aalborg, mainly to England and Ireland, up 45% on the previous year. \n\nAalborg was home to De Danske Spritfabrikker or Danish Distillers (now owned by the Norwegian company Arcus), which produces numerous brands of akvavit, until 2014. The company is the world's largest akvavit producer and exporter. \nAalborg Industries, the world's largest manufacturer of marine boilers, has been established in Aalborg since the 1920s. It has recently expanded into floating production systems for the offshore market. Employing 2,600 people, in December 2010 it was acquired by the Swedish Alfa Laval, also a specialist in the area. Aalborg Portland, a subsidiary of the Italian Cementir since 2004, was founded in 1889 with the support of FLSmidth. Able to draw on the chalk deposits from Rørdal to the east of the city, it rapidly became a major cement producer. Today it is the world's largest supplier of white cement, which it exports around the globe. \n\nFacilities\n\nAalborg has a wide selection of shops and restaurants. In the city centre, there are both large department stores and smaller speciality shops. One of the largest shopping malls in Denmark, the Aalborg Storcenter, is to the south of the city in Skalborg. It has about 75 stores, including a large Bilka supermarket. The city has over 300 restaurants, catering in Danish, European and Asian dishes. Notable establishments include Fusion on the waterfront, Mortens Kro, run by celebrity chef Morten Nielsen, and Irish House, a pub in the 17th-century Jens Olufsen's House. While Aalborg is renowned for its alcohol and nightlife, there are also a number of coffee shops. \n\nAalborg has 12 large hotels, most within walking distance of the city centre. The Helnan Phønix Hotel is the largest, occupying what was originally built as a lavish private residence in 1783 for a Danish brigadier. It was converted into a hotel in 1853, and in 2011 had 210 rooms, furnished with dark oak. The Chagall was established in the 1950s and has reproductions of Marc Chagall paintings in the rooms. Radisson Blu Limfjord Hotel, operated by the Radisson Hotels chain, contains 188 rooms and has the Italian restaurant Vero Gusto. The Park Hotel, opposite the railway station, was established in 1917. Other hotels include Cabinn Aalborg, Hotel Hvide Hus, Hotel Krogen and Prinsen Hotel. Several banks including Danske Bank, Forex, Jyske Bank, Spar Nord and Nordea have branches in Aalborg.\n\nLandmarks\n\nDespite its industrial background and the factories along its waterfront, the city has gained popularity for tourism in recent years, offering a wide variety of attractions and historic buildings in addition to its museums, churches and parks. See the religion section for details on churches.\n\nHistoric buildings\n\nJens Bang's House (), on Østerågade near the old town hall, is one of Denmark's best examples of 17th-century domestic architecture. Built in 1624 by the Aalborg merchant Jens Bang in the Dutch Renaissance style, the four-story sandstone building is noted for its rising gables and sculpted auricular window decorations. For over 300 years, it has housed the city's oldest pharmacy. \n\nJørgen Olufsen's House (Jørgen Olufsens Gård) on Østerågade is Denmark's best preserved merchant's mansion in the Renaissance style. Built mainly of sandstone in 1616, it also has a half-timbered section. The style is reminiscent of similar buildings in the north of Germany and in the Netherlands. Olufsen, Jens Bang's half brother, was not only a successful merchant but also mayor of Aalborg. When it was built, the residence with its integrated warehouse was on the Østerå, an inlet from the sound with access for barges. The old iron bar with a hook for scales can be seen in the portico. \n\nAalborghus Castle (Aalborghus Slot) is a half-timbered building with red-painted woodwork and whitewashed wall panels. It was built in the mid-16th century by King Christian III for his vassals who collected taxes and is the only remaining example of its kind in the country. The park, dungeon and casemates, but not the castle itself, are open to the public in the summer months. In the 1950s, the castle was converted into administrative offices.\n\nAalborg's old city hall in Gammeltorv, in service until 1912, was built in 1762. It is now only used for ceremonial and representative purposes. Designed in the Late Baroque style, the building with its black-glazed tile roof consists of two storeys and a cellar. The yellow-washed façade is decorated with white pilasters and a frontispiece featuring the Danish coat of arms and a bust of King Frederick V. His motto, Prudentia et Constantia, is also seen above the main entrance. The well-preserved door is an example of the Rococo style. The building was listed by the Danish Heritage Agency in 1918. \n\nAnother old building of note is the half-timbered Håndværkerhuset (at Kattesunded 20) from c. 1625, which originally housed a number of warehouses. It is now used as a centre for arts and crafts. Finally, the headquarters of Danish Distillers (De Danske Spritfabrikker), to the west of the Limfjord Bridge, is noted for its Neoclassical appearance. Completed in 1931 by the architect Alf Cock-Clausen, it combines functionality with decorative classical symbolism. Considered a masterpiece of Danish factory design, it is now a Danish National Heritage site. When the factory closed in 2014, was the area bought by an investor, who will use the buildings to create an international culture city with museums, theatres, apartments etc.\n\nOther landmarks\n\nJomfru Ane Gade (literally Virgin Anne's Street) is one of the most famous streets in Aalborg if not in Denmark. Popular for its cafés and restaurants during the day, it is even busier at night with its clubs, discos and bars. During the 1990s, the street was infamously a 'hang out' of two biker gangs who were at war for some years all over Scandinavia. As the bikers disappeared it became increasingly popular for people of all ages.[http://www.visitaalborg.dk/denmark/jomfru-ane-gade-gdk596155 \"Jomfru Ane Gade\"], VisitAalborg. Retrieved 21 August 2013. The pedestrian hubs of Nytorv Square and John F. Kennedy Square in the central city area are also part of the cityscape.\n\nAalborgtårnet is a tripod tower erected in 1933 with a restaurant on the top. The tower itself is 55 m high; but as it stands on the top of the Skovbakken hill, it reaches a total height of 105 m above sea level, providing a view over the sound and the city. Designed by Carlo Odgård, it was erected in 1933 in connection with the North Jutland Fair. \n\nIn 2008, the Utzon Center, its art, architecture and design credited to the noted architect Jørn Utzon, is also dedicated to him. It was built next to the Limfjord at the central harbour front in Aalborg. Born in Copenhagen, Utzon grew up in Aalborg. The centre contains an exhibition on Utzon's work, which includes the Sydney Opera House, as well as educational displays on architecture and design. The centre consists of several individual buildings creating a special place around a courtyard on a platform. The tall sculptural roofs of the auditorium and the boat-hall, both on the harbour front, and the library facing the park area and the city are set off by the lower roofs of the exhibition and workshop areas inside the complex. \n\nCulture\n\nThe annual Aalborg Carnival usually takes place in the last weekend of May. It consists of three events: the children's carnival (Børnekarneval), the battle of carnival bands, and the carnival proper. Attracting about 100,000 visitors, it is the biggest carnival in Scandinavia and one of the largest in northern Europe. Hjallerup Market in Hjallerup, about 20 km northeast of Aalborg is one of the oldest and largest markets in Denmark and is the largest horse market in Europe. Held for three days in the beginning of June, it annually attracts more than 200,000 people and 1200 horses.\n\nIn 1999 Aalborg was for the first time one of the four host ports in The Tall Ships Race (then Cutty Sark Tall Ships Race) of that year. The city hosted the world's largest event for sailing vessels again in 2004 and 2010, and will do so for the fourth time in less than two decades when The Tall Ships Races visits Aalborg in early August 2015.\n\nMajor venues\n\nAalborgs Kongres & Kultur Center, designed in a functional style by Otto Frankild, was completed in 1952. The centre's main component, the Aalborg Hall, can be divided into sections. The complex also contains a hotel, restaurant, bowling alley, and a number of meeting rooms. The smaller Europahallen was added in 1991, making the centre the largest in Scandinavia. With over 100 theatrical and musical presentations per year, it offers international stars, opera, ballet, musicals, classical concerts, productions for children as well as pop and rock concerts. It can accommodate audiences of up to 2,500. \nAalborg Teater, built in 1878 and subsequently modified by Julius Petersen, seats 870 in the main auditorium. First privately owned, the theatre is now controlled and owned by the Danish Ministry of Culture. While most productions are housed in the main hall, the building can accommodate up to four shows at once in halls of varying sizes. Over the years, the theatre has produced a wide selection of drama and musicals. \n\nNordkraft is a cultural centre in a former power plant near the harbour. It has theatres, a cinema, and concert facilities. Kunsthal Nord, established in the centre in 2009, arranges up to five exhibitions a year of all forms of contemporary art, especially of local origin but also from other parts of Denmark and beyond. It serves as the exhibition centre for KunstVærket, the North Jutland centre for the arts, and also works in collaboration with the modern art museum Kunsten designed by the Finnish architect Alvar Aalto. \n\nIn the same neighbourhood, a huge concert hall, Musikkens Hus, designed by Coop Himmelb(l)au, opened in 2014. It is Aalborg's most ambitious construction project in recent years. \n\nThe city also has a wide selection of galleries and arts and crafts outlets operated by local artists. The Academy of Music also has a presence in Aarhus. There are several glass workshops; others produce jewelry, sculptures or exhibit paintings. \n\nMuseums\n\nThere are various museums in the city. The Aalborg Historical Museum was established in 1863, making it one of the earliest provincial museums in the country. The North Jutland Historical Museum conducted a series of archaeological excavations in the 1950s at Lindholm Høje, revealing ancient burial sites. In 1992, the Lindholm Høje Museum was opened there and extended in 2008. In 1994 and 1995, excavations at the site of the Greyfriars Monastery resulted in the creation of the underground Gråbrødrekloster Museum in the city centre. Several organisations now collaborate under the leadership of the North Jutland Historical Museum. The Springeren - Marine Experience Center is a marine museum on the city's wharf with a wide range of exhibits including \"Springeren\", an old Danish submarine, whence its name. The Aalborg Defence and Garrison Museum documents Danish defences during the Second World War as well as the history of Aaborg's garrison since 1779. The KUNSTEN Museum of Modern Art Aalborg was built from 1958 to 1972; the collection consists of around 1,500 art objects, including paintings, sculptures and other media. \n\nMusic\n\nThe Aalborg Symphony Orchestra (Aalborg Symfoniorkester) founded in 1943 presents about 150 concerts a year, frequently playing in the Musikkens Hus. It also plays for the Jutland opera company (Den Jyske Opera, also based in Aalborg), and at the Royal Danish Theatre in Copenhagen. It is one of the main organisers of the 10-day Aalborg Opera Festival held every March. Aalborg has the jazz club Jazzclub Satchmo and an annual jazz and blues festival (Den Blå Festival), also known as the Mini New Orleans Festival. Over four days in mid-August, concerts are performed on squares, in the streets, and in cafés and restaurants. Since 2012, the Egholm Festival, a small music festival on the island of Egholm near Aalborg has been organized in the first weekend of August. It features relatively unknown upcoming pop, rock and hip-hop artists. The festival has two stage areas and was organized by the Musical Association Aalborg (MUSAM) and Aalborg Events.\n\nReligion\n\nLutheranism\n\nThe principal religion in Aalborg as in the rest of Denmark is Christianity. Aalborg is the seat of a bishop within the Lutheran State Church of Denmark. The cathedral of this bishopric is the Budolfi Church, originally built no later than 1132 by Viborg's Bishop Eskil. This church was considerably smaller than the current one, as it was merely a parish church. The existing structure was completed in the late 14th century, on the grounds of the former church, and was listed for the first time in the Atlas of Denmark in 1399. The church was named after St Botolph, an English abbot and saint. The church is constructed in the Gothic style. In 1554 Aalborg was made a diocese and, after consideration, St Budolfi Church was made the seat of the Bishop of Aalborg. Aalborg is also home to the former Catholic church, the Abbey of Our Lady, converted from a Benedictine nunnery. \n\nChurches\n\nThe present Budolfi Church, which has the status of a cathedral, dates from the end of the 14th century, although at least two earlier churches stood on the same spot. Built in the Gothic style, it consists of a nave flanked by two aisles, a tower, and a porch. After the original tower was destroyed by fire in 1663, the striking new Baroque tower, based on that of an earlier Copenhagen city hall, was completed in 1779. The church has 16th-century frescoes and an intricately carved early Baroque altarpiece from 1689 created by Lauridtz Jensen. \n\nAbbey of Our Lady (Vor Frue Kirke) was designed in 1878 by J.E. Gnudtzmann in the Neo-Romanesque style. The original Church of Our Lady from the early 12th century was pulled down after the Reformation because it was old and unstable, but the 12th-century tower and the original portal with sculpted decorations can still be seen. The carved pulpit dates to around 1581. \n\nAs a result of the considerable population increase from the end of the 19th century, a number of new churches were built in various styles. Next to Aalborg Hall, Ansgar's Church with its tall tower was built in 1929 to a design by Hother August Paludan in a modern Baroque style. St Mark's Church (Sankt Markus Kirke), completed in 1933, was designed by Einar Packness. Its tower is crowned by an imposing spire. The Biblical figures known as the Johannes Group (based on Christ's meeting with John the Baptist in Matthew, Chapter 3) sculpted by Bertel Thorvaldsen are displayed around the interior. The Margrethe Church with its steeply sloping roof reaching 22 m is the work of Carlo Odgaard and Aaby Sørensen. Bent Exner designed some of the artefacts in the church including the crucifix over the altar. \n\nCemeteries\n\nAalborg's cemeteries have a history dating to the end of the Middle Ages. Sankt Jørgens Kirkegård (St George's Cemetery) was on the corner of Hasserisgade and Kirkegårdsgade. The site was chosen in a district outside the city as it provided isolation for those affected by the plague, many of whom died in the neighbouring hospice, Sankt Jørgens Gårde. In 1794, a new cemetery was opened in Klostermarken, immediately to the south of Sankt Jørgens Kirkegård. It was further extended in 1804, 1820 and 1870. It is now known as Aalborgs Almen Kirkegård (meaning \"common cemetery\") and contains the graves of many of the city's most notable citizens. \n\nJudaism\n\nAalborg had a synagogue, built in 1854; and the Jewish rabbi Salomon Mielziner served it for 35 years. Services were no longer offered after Mielziner died, and in 1924 the synagogue was donated to the city government, which began using it to store the city archives (Stadsarkivet). It was burned down by the Schalburg Corps in April 1945 towards the end of World War II, destroying its centuries-old Torahs. Anti-semitism continues to exist in Denmark, and in 1999, an unlicensed Nazi radio station began operating from a neo-Nazi stronghold in Fynen, Nørresundby, within Aalborg municipality. The activity has been widely denounced with organized opposition in Aalborg and the rest of Denmark, and in February 1999, 12 anti-fascists were arrested for possession of explosives at their base in Fynen.\n\nEducation\n\nThe major university in Aalborg is the University of Aalborg, founded in 1974. It has more than 17,000 students and more than 3,000 employees. In 2012, 3,000 new students started at the university. In 1995 it merged with Esbjerg Engineering College. The university has attempted from the outset to \"develop a more “relevant” form of education than was then being offered by the established universities\". It has sought to develop what is known as \"contextual knowledge\", a form of problem-based learning based around the project work conducted by students, rather than the curriculum focusing on traditional academic disciplines.\n\nThe University College of Northern Denmark is one of seven new regional organisations (professionshøjskoler) of different study sites in Denmark offering courses normally at the bachelor level. The Royal School of Library and Information Science (RSLIS) provides higher education in library and information science; one of its two departments is in Aalborg. With about 4,500 students a year and 700 employees, Tech College Aalborg offers a wide spectrum of vocational training and runs Aalborg Tekniske Gymnasium. Aalborg Business College provides basic training in retail and trading for private enterprises and the public sector, with courses which cover information technology, economics, sales and communication, and languages. \n\nThe island of Egholm contains the former Egholm Skole, which was closed in 1972 when a ferry service to Aalborg was established and children on the island began attending the Vesterkæret Skole in Aalborg. Today the old school on Egholm is run as a school camp by the City of Aalborg, with 18 beds and facilities for 60 people. Skipper Clement International School is a private school for children between 6 and 16. The international department conducts its classes in English, the first to be established in the Jutland peninsula, but it does have department which educates in Danish, like the public schools in Denmark.\n\nSport\n\nThe city is home to Aalborg BK, established in 1885 and known as \"AaB\" for short. The club has won the Danish championship (Superliga) four times in recent years (1995, 1999, 2008, 2014). The team qualified for the group stages of the 1995–96 and 2008–09 UEFA Champions League seasons. Aalborg Chang is a Danish amateur association football club, previously known as FC Nordjylland.\n\nAalborg is also known for the women's handball club Aalborg DH, and the men's handball club Aalborg Håndbold. Established in 2001 and 2011, respectively, they both play their games in the Gigantium. Rugby in Aalborg is represented by Aalborg RK Lynet (Lightning), established in 1964. The city also has the Aalborg Cricket Club, which is part of the Danish Cricket League. They were established in 2000 and have players from various nations. \n\nAalborg Tennisklub is located along the Kastetvej road in the centre of Aalborg. About 10 km to the southwest of the city, near the hamlet of Restrup Enge, is Aalborg Golf Klub. Aalborg Golf Klub is the second oldest golf club in Denmark, and was originally established in 1908 in the eastern part of Aalborg. In 1929 it moved to Sohngaardsholm, but 30 years later the course had to again move because of developments with the university. The present course to the southwest of Aalborg was designed in 1968 by Graham Lockey and Commander John Harris as a 9-hole course, later expanded to 18 holes in 1976 and 27 in 2006. In 2010 the club hosted the European Girls Team Golf Championships. Another course, Ørnehoj Golfklub, is at the southeastern limits of the city, in the village of Gistrup. \n\nOn 11 September 1977, Aalbord hosted the Final of the Long Track World Championship for Motorcycle speedway. The Final was won by Swedish rider Anders Michanek. He defeated West Germany's Hans Seigl and Denmark's own speedway hero Ole Olsen.\n\nTransport\n\nOn the north side of the Limfjord is Nørresundby, connected to Aalborg by the Limfjordsbroen road bridge, which was inaugurated in 1933, replacing a pontoon bridge which dated to 1865. The iron Limfjord Railway Bridge, inaugurated in 1938, is a nine-span bascule bridge. It opens 4,000 times a year, allowing around 10,000 vessels to sail under it. Opening in 1969 as the first motorway tunnel to be built in Denmark, the Limfjord Tunnel is 582 m long and has three lanes in each direction. It forms part of the E45, stretching from Karesuando, Sweden, to Gela, Italy. \n\nAalborg Airport is 6 km northwest of the city centre. With its two runways, it has 20 direct routes to destinations in Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, the UK, Spain, and Turkey, along with seasonal flights to additional Spanish destinations and the Faroe Islands. Processing 1.4 million passengers a year, the airport is the third largest in Denmark. The Aalborg Air Base, an important Danish Air Force facility, occupies part of the extensive airport area. The Port of Aalborg is northern Denmark’s main import/export hub, operated by Aalborg Havn A/S on the Limfjord. Two additional private harbours serve the cement factory, Aalborg Portland A/S, and the power station, Vattenfall A/S.\n\nThe city's main train station, Aalborg Railway Station, is on John F. Kennedys Plads. It opened in 1869, when the Aalborg to Randers railway was inaugurated. The original station building was designed by N.P.C. Holsøe while the present building, which opened in 1902, was designed by Thomas Arboe. Aalborg Railway Station is operated by Banedanmark and DSB. Other rail stations in Aalborg are Skalborg Station, Aalborg Vestby Station and Lindholm Station. There are regular bus services covering the inner city as well as the wider urban area. \n\nCycling is also relatively popular in Aalborg. Statistics for 2012 indicate 44% of the population use their bicycles several times a week while 27% of the workforce cycle to work. The municipal authorities hope to increase the use of bicycles by providing better cycle tracks and parking facilities, as well as improved support services. City bikes are provided free of charge in Aalborg and Nørresundby from April to November with numerous stands throughout the area. \n\nHealthcare\n\nAalborg University Hospital, the largest in the north of Jutland, was founded in 1881. , it consists of two large buildings in Aalborg, the hospital in Dronninglund and smaller departments in Hobro and Hjørring. It is the largest employer in the area with around 6,500 on the payroll. The hospital has traditionally undertaken research but from the beginning of 2013 it has had a formal collaboration with Aalborg University. A new building, designed by schmidt hammer lassen architects and to be completed by 2020, will provide for hospital buildings and for the university's Faculty of Health. The Aalborg University Hospital, section south, is on Hobrovej and has a 24-hour emergency ward. The northern section is in Reberbanegade, which is in the western part of the city centre. Trænregimentet, the Danish regiment for army supply and emergency medical personnel, is also in Aalborg. \n\nMedia\n\nNordjyske Stiftstidende, published in Aalborg, is Denmark's second oldest newspaper founded in 1767 as Nyttige og fornøyelige Jydske Efterretninger. It was later known as Aalborg Stiftstidende (until 1999). In 1827, it merged with Aalborg's second newspaper Aalborgs Stifts Adresse-Avis. The paper now serves the whole of Vendsyssel and most of Himmerland and has local editions in Aalborg, Hjørring, Hobro, Frederikshavn, Fjerritslev, and Skagen and Brønderslev. \n\nANR (also Aalborg Nærradio and Alle Nordjyders Radio) is a local radio station operated by Nordjyske Medier, owner of Nordjyske Stiftstidende. The TV news channel, 24Nordjyske, is operated by the same firm. \n\nInternational relations\n\nTwin towns – sister cities\n\nAalborg maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with 33 cities around the globe, more than any other city in Denmark. Every four years Aalborg gathers young people from most of its twin cities for a week of sports, known as Ungdomslegene (Youth Games).\n\nNotable people\n\nAmong those who contributed to Aalborg's prosperity in the 19th century were Poul Pagh who significantly developed trade and shipping, and Christen Winther Obel who increased production at the C.W. Obel tobacco factory until it became the city's main employer. Another important figure of the times was Marie Rée who ran the local newspaper Aalborg Stiftstidende until 1900, often promoting women's rights. \n\nMore recently, the actor and script-writer Preben Kaas (1930–1981), who was born in Aalborg, starred in over 50 Danish films. Among the city's many sporting figures, Peter Gade (born 1976) stands out as one of the world's most successful badminton players. On the cultural side, Jørn Utzon (1918–2008), designer of the Sydney Opera House, grew up in Aalborg; the iconic Utzon Center which he inspired now serves as a museum for his architectural designs and offers courses of study based on his approach."
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"Cheap Car Rental Aalborg Airport from Per Day Prepay & Save Up to 20% ... Welcome to Aalborg Airport Sixt ... which exhibits Danish as well as international ...",
"Domestic connections in Denmark International connections to and from Denmark ... Their comfortable trains travel all over the country, ... Copenhagen to Alborg: 4hr ..."
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"Aalborg International Airport information. Flights and air companies flying to Aalborg International Airport in Aalborg, Denmark - Flight tickets, charter and private flights. - Flight tickets, charter and private flights - BulgariaFlights.com\nAirports\nAalborg\nAlborg Airport (IATA code AAL) is a civilian and military airport situated in Denmark. It is the third largest airport in the country and serves at about 1.4 million passengers each year. The airport works from 5 a.m. to 12 p.m. and has a duty free shop open to all passengers that depart from here. The Alborg Airport could be reached by bus, car and taxi. There are eight airlines that operate here, offering flights to total of seventeen airports Including domestic flights and international long-distance flights. The airport serves many charter airlines as well.",
"Denmark Train Travel & Things to Do in Denmark | Eurail.com\nThe national railway company of Denmark is called DSB (Danish State Railways - Danske Statsbaner)\n \nEurail Passes valid in Denmark are also valid on trains operated by the following railway companies: Arriva, DSB S-Tog and DSBFirst.\n \nHourly services of modern InterCity trains connect København (Copenhagen) and Zealand with the main towns. Furthermore a train leaves for Odense on the island Funen every half hour. The InterCityLyn trains reach Aarhus from København within 3 hours and Odense is only a 1 hour and 15 min's train journey away from København. InterCityLyn is a fast train with fewer stops.\n \nThe Denmark InterCity trains (day train) have 2 categories:\nBusiness (former 1st class)\n \nPrivate railway companies\nWith a Eurail Pass you also receive a 50% discount on travel with the private railway company Nordjyske Jernbaner for the following routes:\nHjørring – Hirtshals\nVisit the Nordjyske Jernbaner website to check the timetable ('rejseplan' in Danish).\n \nS-tog\nEurail passes are also valid on the S-tog or S-train, the suburban rail network of Copenhagen operated by DSB. It connects the city center with the inner suburbs of Copenhagen. The S-tog trains run partly underground. See Wikipedia for an overview of the rail network.\n \nInternational connections\nA tunnel / bridge link connects Copenhagen with Malmö in Sweden. Every 20 minutes a train service operates between Helsingør (Elsinore), Copenhagen and Malmö, and on the Swedish side of the Öresund, trains will go to Helsingborg and Kristianstad. As for connections to Gothenburg and Stockholm, there are direct trains from Copenhagen to Gothenburg. For Stockholm you have to change in Malmö.\n \nTravel advice for people going to Sweden\nSJ international trains depart from track 26, which is 15 minutes walking distance from the main platforms.\nYou should allow at least 30 minutes before your train leaves to complete the ID checking procedure.\n \nTraveling by night train one can use the return service from Denmark to Germany to the following stations:\nKöln / Dortmund (Germany)\n \nReservations\nA Eurail pass is valid on all domestic trains within Denmark. Seat reservation is not necessary, though advance reservation is recommended on the InterCity / InterCity Lyn trains if you want to be sure of a seat.\n \nSeat reservation is required for some international trains: the SJ High Speed train between Copenhagen and Stockholm (Sweden) and ICE International trains to various countries. See the reservation fees for international trains .\n \nFor night trains, a reservation is also compulsory. Prices depend on the type of sleeping accomodation.\n \nExtra info\nAirport-station link\nCopenhagen Kastrup airport has a train station situated at terminal 3. There are connections to København H (main train station of Copenhagen), Malmö (Sweden) and many other destinations.\n \nEurail aid office in Denmark\nFor questions about Eurail, you can go to the international ticket desk at Central Station København (Copenhagen). It is open daily from 09:30am to 06:00pm. See more Eurail aid offices in Europe .\n \nGeneral train travel information\nFor general information about train travel in Denmark, you can contact the DSB Customer Centre: by phone +45 70 13 14 15 (daily 08:00 - 20:00, English speaking staff) or by mail: [email protected] .\n \nSpelling of cities in Denmark\nOn Danish train timetables and at train stations in Denmark, you'll usually find the local spelling of Danish cities and stations.\nHere is the local spelling of some popular Danish cities:\nKøbenhavn = Copenhagen\nA step between two worlds\nThe main ‘peninsula’ connecting Denmark to Germany offers a wide variety of sights and styles. The northernmost tip (Grenen) allows you to – literally – put one foot in the North Sea, and the other foot in the Kattegat. Don’t miss Lønstrup Cliffs (Lønstrup Klint), and the fabulous shifting sand dunes of Råbjerg Mile. The capital of Jutland, Aarhus (Arhus) and the lively city of Alborg provides a taste of the modern life, while fabulous white sand beaches dot the western coast.\nThe spectacular Aarhus Old Town (Den Gamle By) is a 20-minute walk, or 8-minute bus ride, from central station Aarhus H.\nVikingships in Vikingmuseum, Ribe\nA walk through time\nBuilt around 700 A.D., Ribe’s ancient architecture, old-world charm, and well-maintained cobblestone streets give the town a unique feel. The town is a living museum – complete with its own Night Watchman, who strolls the town as evening falls. The Ribe Cathedral and St. Catharinæ Church & Abbey should certainly be on your list. But there is also plenty of art and history on display in Ribe’s many museums, like the fabulous Viking Museum.\nFrom the Ribe station, the Viking Museum is less than a 1-minute walk.\nLegoland, Billund\nBuilding blocks of fun\nUse your Eurail Denmark Pass to make your way to Billund, and discover Legoland: a theme park built with the famous, colorful interlocking plastic toy bricks. The adventure begins in Miniland, in the heart of the park, where you can see a mini Lego version of the world, including many famous landmarks, built from 20 million of the little bricks. There’s also a 4D Cinema, rides and games, and more.\nLegoland is in Billund, about 30 minutes southeast of Grindsted, in central Jutland. From Copenhagen, Billund is about 3 hours by train.\nNyhavn, Copenhagen\nColorful, cultural capital\nCopenhagen (København) is one of Europe's oldest capitals and features dozens of museums and shops, charming canals, colorful row houses, lush parks and tranquil lakes. Its nearly two million inhabitants have created a melting pot of culture that makes this city unlike any other in the world. Don’t miss the exciting Tivoli Gardens amusement park, and be sure to stroll the Strøget, the longest pedestrian street in Europe.\nCopenhagen Central Station (København H) is directly across from Tivoli Gardens.\nEgeskov castle",
"Denmark Airport Code, Denmark Codes | IATA 3 letter Lookup\n \nDenmark Airport Codes (Airport Code Lookup)\nAirports around the world are universally known by a unique three-letter code: the \"Location Identifier\" in aviation-speak. It's obviously much easier for pilots, controllers, travel agents, frequent flyers, computers and baggage handlers to say and write JFK than the John F Kennedy International Airport, Newyork.\nThe continued growth of aviation world-wide meant that three letter combinations were insufficient to identify every airport in the world. Eventually the system expanded, allowing numbers and four digit combinations; however, an airport served by scheduled route air-carrier or military airlift aircraft always has a code comprising of only three letter IATA code.\nFollowing are the Airport Codes of the major Cities in Denmark.\nCity / Airport",
"Car Rental in Aalborg Airport - Sixt rent a car\n24 h return\nWelcome to Aalborg Airport Sixt rent a car\nWe looking forward to welcoming you at Sixt Aalborg airport and assuring that you get underway fast in a brand new car.\nKarina M�ller ( Branch Manager )\nAalborg\nAalborg or �lborg is a city with 105,000 residents, making it the fourth largest city in Denmark. The city is believed to have been founded in the Viking era, but the area has been inhabited for far longer than that. Aalborg is located in the northern part of Himmerland, south of the Limfjord sound. The suburb of N�rresundby is located on the northern side of the sound. Aalborg has a rich and vibrant cultural scene.\nSixt rent a car Aalborg recommends that you visit KUNSTEN Museum of Modern Art, which exhibits Danish as well as international artist. Also noteworthy are the historical sites of Aalborg Kloster (Monastery), the under Gr�br�drekloster Museum, Budolfi church, Aalborghus Castle as well as Jens Bangs stone house. Additional attractions include the Utzon Center, Aalborg Symphony Orchestra, Aalborg Tower, Aalborg Zoo, Aalborg sea and maritime museum, Aalborg Defence and Garrison Museum, Lindholm H�je Viking Museum and Viking burial ground.\nLocation Details",
"Trains in Denmark | Denmark by Rail | Interrail.eu\nTrains in Denmark\nTrains in Denmark\nThe Danish State Railways (DSB) has a dense network of train services connecting Copenhagen, Arhus, Alborg and much more of Denmark. Trains are the fabulous way of exploring this fascinating country and its islands!\nSpelling of cities in Denmark\nTrain types in Denmark\nThe railway network in Denmark is run by DSB . You can access a great deal of the country using Denmark's trains. Meanwhile, comfortable international trains connect you to cities in Sweden and Germany.\nYou can find Danish train times in the Interrail timetable .\n \nRegional trains (RØ, RV, ØR, IR)\nRegional trains throughout Denmark\nInterCity and InterCity Lyn (IC, ICL)\nFaster than the regional trains\nVarious routes within Denmark\nConnects Copenhagen to Stockholm (Sweden)\n \nTravels to Berlin and other German cities\n \nTravels between Copenhagen and Hamburg\n \nFully included in your Interrail Pass\n \nNot included in your Interrail Pass\nWith your Pass, you get a 50% discount\n \nPrivate railway companies in Denmark\nMost are included in your Interrail Pass\n \nBicycles are permitted on the train upon purchase of a special bike ticket.\nFrom May to August bike space must be booked in advance for IC and ICL trains.\nReservations for trains in Denmark\nWhich trains in Denmark require reservations?\nSJ High-speed train: Approximately €7 (DKK 52) in 2nd class and €17 (DKK 126) in 1st class\n \nReservations recommended for long journeys\nInterCity (IC) and InterCityLyn (ICL): Approximately €4 (DKK 30)\nEurocity (EC): Approximately €4 (DKK 30)\nInterCityExpress (ICE): Approximately €4 (DKK 30)"
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What was Elton John's first US No 1 hit?
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"Sir Elton Hercules John, (born Reginald Kenneth Dwight; 25 March 1947), is an English pianist, singer-songwriter and composer. He has worked with lyricist Bernie Taupin as his songwriting partner since 1967; they have collaborated on more than 30 albums to date. In his five-decade career Elton John has sold more than 300million records, making him one of the best-selling music artists in the world. He has more than fifty Top 40 hits, including seven consecutive No. 1 US albums, 58 Billboard Top 40 singles, 27 Top 10, four No. 2 and nine No. 1. For 31 consecutive years (1970–2000) he had at least one song in the Billboard Hot 100. His single \"Candle in the Wind 1997\" sold over 33million copies worldwide and is the best-selling single in the history of the UK and US singles charts. See also: Guinness Book of Records, 2009 Edition, pages 14, 15 & 169 [http://img827.imageshack.us/img827/4387/guinness2009.pdf] He has also composed music, produced records, and has occasionally acted in films. John owned Watford Football Club from 1976 to 1987, and 1997 to 2002. He is an honorary Life President of the club, and in 2014 had a stand named after him at the club's home stadium.\n\nElton John was born Reginald Dwight in 1947, and raised in the Pinner area of London. He learned to play piano at an early age, and by 1962 had formed Bluesology. John met his songwriting partner, Bernie Taupin, in 1967, after they had both answered an advert for songwriters. For two years they wrote songs for other artists, including Roger Cook and Lulu, and John also worked as a session musician for artists such as the Hollies and the Scaffold. In 1969 his debut album, Empty Sky, was released. In 1970 a single, \"Your Song\", from his second album, Elton John, reached the top ten in the UK and the US, his first hit single.\n\nHe has received five Grammy Awards, five Brit Awards – winning two awards for Outstanding Contribution to Music and the first Brits Icon in 2013 for his \"lasting impact on British culture\", an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a Tony Award, a Disney Legend award, and the Kennedy Center Honors in 2004. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked him Number 49 on its list of 100 influential musicians of the rock and roll era. In 2013, Billboard ranked him the most successful male solo artist on the Billboard Hot 100 Top All-Time Artists (third overall behind the Beatles and Madonna). He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994, is an inductee into the Songwriter's Hall of Fame, and is a fellow of the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. Having been named a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1996, John was made a Knight Bachelor by Elizabeth II for \"services to music and charitable services\" in 1998. John has performed at a number of royal events, such as the funeral of Princess Diana at Westminster Abbey in 1997, the Party at the Palace in 2002 and the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Concert outside Buckingham Palace in 2012.\n\nHe has been heavily involved in the fight against AIDS since the late 1980s. In 1992, he established the Elton John AIDS Foundation and a year later began hosting the annual Academy Award Party, which has since become one of the highest-profile Oscar parties in the Hollywood film industry. Since its inception, the foundation has raised over . John, who announced he was bisexual in 1976 and has been openly gay since 1988, entered into a civil partnership with David Furnish on 21 December 2005, and after same-sex marriage became legal in England and Wales in 2014, wed Furnish on 21 December 2014. He continues to be a champion for LGBT social movements worldwide.\n\nLife and career \n\nEarly life \n\nElton John was born Reginald Kenneth Dwight on 25 March 1947, in Pinner, Middlesex, the eldest child of Stanley Dwight and only child of Sheila Eileen (née Harris), and was raised in a council house of his maternal grandparents, in Pinner. His parents did not marry until he was 6 years old, when the family moved to a nearby semi-detached house. He was educated at Pinner Wood Junior School, Reddiford School and Pinner County Grammar School, until age 17, when he left just prior to his A Level examinations to pursue a career in the music industry. \n\nWhen he began to seriously consider a career in music, Elton John's father, who served as a flight lieutenant in the Royal Air Force, tried to steer him toward a more conventional career, such as banking. John has stated that his wild stage costumes and performances were his way of letting go after such a restrictive childhood. Both of John's parents were musically inclined, his father having been a trumpet player with the Bob Millar Band, a semi-professional big band that played at military dances. The Dwights were keen record buyers, exposing John to the popular singers and musicians of the day, and John remembers being immediately hooked on rock and roll when his mother brought home records by Elvis Presley and Bill Haley & His Comets in 1956.\n\nElton John started playing the piano at the age of 3, and within a year, his mother heard him picking out Winifred Atwell's \"The Skater's Waltz\" by ear. After performing at parties and family gatherings, at the age of 7 he took up formal piano lessons. He showed musical aptitude at school, including the ability to compose melodies, and gained some notoriety by playing like Jerry Lee Lewis at school functions. At the age of 11, he won a junior scholarship to the Royal Academy of Music. According to one of his instructors, John promptly played back, like a \"gramophone record\", a four-page piece by Handel that he heard for the first time.\n\nFor the next five years, he attended Saturday classes at the Academy in central London, and has stated that he enjoyed playing Chopin and Bach and singing in the choir during Saturday classes, but that he was not otherwise a diligent classical student. \"I kind of resented going to the Academy\", he says. \"I was one of those children who could just about get away without practising and still pass, scrape through the grades.\" He even claims that he would sometimes skip classes and just ride around on the Tube. However, several instructors have testified that he was a \"model student\", and during the last few years he was taking lessons from a private tutor in addition to his classes at the Academy.\n\nElton John's mother, though also strict with her son, was more vivacious than her husband, and something of a free spirit. With Stanley Dwight uninterested in his son and often physically absent, John was raised primarily by his mother and maternal grandmother. When his father was home, the Dwights would have terrible arguments that greatly distressed their son. When John was 14, they divorced. His mother then married a local painter, Fred Farebrother, a caring and supportive stepfather whom John affectionately referred to as \"Derf\", his first name in reverse. They moved into flat No. 1A in an eight-unit apartment building called Frome Court, not far from both previous homes. It was there that John would write the songs that would launch his career as a rock star; he would live there until he had four albums simultaneously in the American Top 40. \n\nPub pianist to staff songwriter (1962–69) \n\nAt the age of 15, with the help of his mother and stepfather, Reginald Dwight became a weekend pianist at a nearby pub, the Northwood Hills Hotel, playing Thursday to Sunday nights. Known simply as \"Reggie\", he played a range of popular standards, including songs by Jim Reeves and Ray Charles, as well as songs he had written himself. A stint with a short-lived group called the Corvettes rounded out his time.\n\nIn 1962, Dwight and his friends formed a band called Bluesology. By day, he ran errands for a music publishing company; he divided his nights between solo gigs at a London hotel bar and working with Bluesology. By the mid-1960s, Bluesology was backing touring American soul and R&B musicians like the Isley Brothers, Major Lance and Patti LaBelle and the Bluebelles. In 1966, the band became musician Long John Baldry's supporting band, and played 16 times at the Marquee Club. \n\nIn 1967, Dwight answered an advertisement in the British magazine New Musical Express, placed by Ray Williams, then the A&R manager for Liberty Records. At their first meeting, Williams gave Dwight a stack of lyrics written by Bernie Taupin, who had answered the same ad. Dwight wrote music for the lyrics, and then mailed it to Taupin, beginning a partnership that . When the two first met in 1967 they recorded what would become the first Elton John/Bernie Taupin song: \"Scarecrow\". Six months later Dwight was going by the name \"Elton John\" in homage to Bluesology saxophonist Elton Dean and Long John Baldry.\n\nThe team of Elton John and Bernie Taupin joined Dick James's DJM Records as staff songwriters in 1968, and over the next two years wrote material for various artists, like Roger Cook and Lulu. Taupin would write a batch of lyrics in under an hour and give it to John, who would write music for them in half an hour, disposing of the lyrics if he couldn't come up with anything quickly. For two years, they wrote easy-listening tunes for James to peddle to singers. Their early output included a contender for the UK entry for the Eurovision Song Contest in 1969, for Lulu, called \"I Can't Go On (Living Without You)\". It came sixth of six songs. In 1969, John provided piano for Roger Hodgson on his first released single, \"Mr. Boyd\" by Argosy, a quartet that was completed by Caleb Quaye and Nigel Olsson. Elton John was also a session musician for other artists including playing piano on the Hollies' \"He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother\" and singing backing vocals for the Scaffold. \n\nDebut album to Goodbye Yellow Brick Road (1969–73) \n\nOn the advice of music publisher Steve Brown, John and Taupin started writing more complex songs for John to record for DJM. The first was the single \"I've Been Loving You\" (1968), produced by Caleb Quaye, former Bluesology guitarist. In 1969, with Quaye, drummer Roger Pope, and bassist Tony Murray, John recorded another single, \"Lady Samantha\", and an album, Empty Sky. For their follow-up album, Elton John, Elton John and Bernie Taupin enlisted Gus Dudgeon as producer and Paul Buckmaster as musical arranger. Elton John was released in April 1970 on DJM Records/Pye Records in the UK and Uni Records in the US, and established the formula for subsequent albums – gospel-chorded rockers and poignant ballads. The first single from the album, \"Border Song\", made into the US Top 100, peaking at Number 92. The second single, \"Your Song\", reached number seven in the UK Singles Chart and number eight in the US, becoming John's first hit single as a singer. The album soon became his first hit album, reaching number four on the US Billboard 200 and number five on the UK Albums Chart.\n\nBacked by former Spencer Davis Group drummer Nigel Olsson and bassist Dee Murray, Elton John's first American concert took place at the Troubadour in Los Angeles in August 1970, and was a success. The concept album Tumbleweed Connection was released in October 1970, and reached number two in the UK and number five in the US. The live album 17-11-70 (11–17–70 in the US) was recorded at a live show aired from A&R Studios on WABC-FM in New York City. Sales of the live album were heavily hit in the US when an east coast bootlegger released the performance several weeks before the official album, including all 60 minutes of the aircast, not just the 40 minutes selected by Dick James Music. \n\nJohn and Taupin then wrote the soundtrack to the obscure film Friends and then the album Madman Across the Water, the latter reaching number eight in the US and producing the hit songs, \"Levon\", and the album's opening track \"Tiny Dancer\". In 1972, Davey Johnstone joined the Elton John Band on guitar and backing vocals. Released in 1972, Honky Château became John's first US number one album, spending five weeks at the top of the Billboard 200, and began a streak of seven consecutive US number one albums. The album reached number two in the UK, and spawned the hit singles \"Rocket Man\" and \"Honky Cat\". both of which were recorded at Trident Studios in London.\n\nThe pop album Don't Shoot Me I'm Only the Piano Player came out at the start of 1973, and reached number one in the UK, the US, Australia among others. The album produced the hits \"Crocodile Rock\", his first US Billboard Hot 100 number one, and \"Daniel\"; number two US, number four UK. Both the album and \"Crocodile Rock\" were the first album and single, respectively on the consolidated MCA Records label in the US, replacing MCA's other labels including Uni. \n\nGoodbye Yellow Brick Road, released in October 1973, gained instant critical acclaim and topped the chart on both sides of the Atlantic, remaining at number one for two months. It also temporarily established John as a glam rock star. It contained the US number 1 \"Bennie and the Jets\", along with other hits, \"Goodbye Yellow Brick Road\", \"Candle in the Wind\", \"Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting\" and \"Funeral for a Friend/Love Lies Bleeding\". Goodbye Yellow Brick Road is included in the VH1 Classic Albums series, discussing the making, recording, and popularity of the album through concert and home video footage including interviews. \n\nThe Rocket Record Company to 21 at 33 (1974–79) \n\nJohn formed his own label named The Rocket Record Company (distributed in the US by MCA and initially by Island in the UK) and signed acts to it – notably Neil Sedaka (\"Bad Blood\", on which he sang background vocals) and Kiki Dee – with whom he took a personal interest. Instead of releasing his own records on Rocket, he opted for a dollar contract offered by MCA. When the contract was signed in 1974, MCA reportedly took out a insurance policy on John's life. In 1974, MCA released his Greatest Hits album, a UK and US number one which is certified Diamond by the RIAA for sales of 16million copies in the US. \n\nIn 1974, a collaboration with John Lennon took place, resulting in Lennon appearing on Elton John's single cover of the Beatles' \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\", the B-side of which was Lennon's \"One Day at a Time.\" In return, John was featured on \"Whatever Gets You thru the Night\" on Lennon's Walls and Bridges album. Later that year in what would be Lennon's last major live performance, the pair performed these two number 1 hits along with the Beatles classic \"I Saw Her Standing There\" at Madison Square Garden in New York. Lennon made the rare stage appearance with John and his band to keep the promise he made that he would appear on stage with him if \"Whatever Gets You Thru The Night\" became a US number one single. \n\nCaribou was released in 1974 and became John's third number one in the UK, and topped the charts in the US, Canada and Australia. Reportedly recorded in two weeks between live appearances, it featured \"The Bitch Is Back\" and the orchestrated \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\". \"Step into Christmas\" was released as a stand-alone single in November 1973, and appears in the album's 1995 remastered re-issue. \n\nPete Townshend of the Who asked John to play a character called the \"Local Lad\" in the film of the rock opera Tommy, and to perform the song \"Pinball Wizard\". Drawing on power chords, John's version was recorded and used for the movie release in 1975 and the single came out in 1976 (1975 in the US). The song charted at number 7 in the UK. Bally subsequently released a \"Captain Fantastic\" pinball machine featuring an illustration of John in his movie guise. \n\nThe 1975 autobiographical album Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy debuted at number one in the US, the first album ever to do so, and stayed at the top for seven weeks. Elton John revealed his previously ambiguous personality on the album, with Taupin's lyrics describing their early days as struggling songwriters and musicians in London. The lyrics and accompanying photo booklet are infused with a specific sense of place and time that is otherwise rare in his music. \"Someone Saved My Life Tonight\" was the hit single from this album and captured an early turning point in Elton John's life. The album's release signalled the end of the Elton John Band, as an unhappy and overworked John dismissed Olsson and Murray, two people who had contributed much of the band's signature sound and who had helped build his live following since the beginning.\n\nAccording to Circus Magazine, a spokesman for John Reid said the decision was reached mutually via phone while John was in Australia promoting Tommy.Circus Magazine, No 115, August 1975. Vol 2, No 8. K48002 pp14–15 She said there was no way Reid could have fired them \"because the band are not employed by John Reid, they're employed by Elton John.\" She went on to say Nigel would be going back to his solo work and Dee would do session work \"and possibly cut a solo album\".\n\nDavey Johnstone and Ray Cooper were retained, Quaye and Roger Pope returned, and the new bassist was Kenny Passarelli; this rhythm section provided a heavier-sounding backbeat. James Newton Howard joined to arrange in the studio and to play keyboards. In June 1975, John introduced the line-up before a crowd of 75,000 in London's Wembley Stadium. \n\nThe rock-oriented Rock of the Westies entered the US albums chart at number 1 like Captain Fantastic, a previously unattained feat. Elton John's stage wardrobe now included ostrich feathers, $5,000 spectacles that spelled his name in lights, and dressing up like the Statue of Liberty, Donald Duck, or Mozart, among others, at his concerts. In 1975, Elton received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. \n\nTo celebrate five years since he first appeared at the venue, in 1975 Elton John played a two-night, four-show stand at the Troubadour. With seating limited to under 500 per show, the chance to purchase tickets was determined by a postcard lottery, with each winner allowed two tickets. Everyone who attended the performances received a hardbound \"yearbook\" of the band's history. That year he also played piano on Kevin Ayers' Sweet Deceiver, and was among the first and few white artists to appear on the black music series Soul Train on American television. On 9 August 1975, John was named the outstanding rock personality of the year at the first annual Rock Music Awards at ceremonies held in Santa Monica, California. \n\nIn 1976, the live album Here and There was released in May, followed by the Blue Moves album in October, which contained the single \"Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word\". His biggest success in 1976 was \"Don't Go Breaking My Heart\", a duet with Kiki Dee that topped both the UK and US charts. Finally, in an interview with Rolling Stone that year entitled \"Elton's Frank Talk\", John stated that he was bisexual. \n\nBesides being the most commercially successful period, 1970–1976 is also held in the most regard critically. Within only a three-year span, between 1972 and 1975 John saw seven consecutive albums reach number one in the US, which had not been accomplished before. Of the six Elton John albums to make Rolling Stones list of \"The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\" in 2003, all are from this period, with Goodbye Yellow Brick Road ranked highest at number 91; similarly, the three Elton John albums given five stars by Allmusic (Tumbleweed Connection, Honky Château, and Captain Fantastic) are all from this period. \n\nDuring the same period, he made a guest appearance on the popular Morecambe and Wise Show on the BBC. The two comics spent the episode pointing him in the direction of everywhere except the stage to prevent him singing. \n\nIn November 1977, Elton John announced he was retiring from performing; Taupin began collaborating with others. Now only producing one album a year, John issued A Single Man in 1978, employing a new lyricist, Gary Osborne; the album produced no singles that made the top 20 in the US but the two singles from the album released in the UK, \"Part-Time Love\" and \"Song for Guy\", both made the top 20 in the UK with the latter reaching the top 5. In 1979, accompanied by Ray Cooper, Elton John became one of the first Western artists to tour the Soviet Union, as well as one of the first in Israel. John returned to the US top ten with \"Mama Can't Buy You Love\" (number 9), a song originally rejected in 1977 by MCA before being released, recorded in 1977 with Philadelphia soul producer Thom Bell. John reported that Thom Bell was the first person to give him voice lessons; Bell encouraged John to sing in a lower register. A disco-influenced album, Victim of Love, was poorly received. In 1979, John and Taupin reunited, though they did not collaborate on a full album until 1983's Too Low For Zero. 21 at 33, released the following year, was a significant career boost, aided by his biggest hit in four years, \"Little Jeannie\" (number 3 US), with the lyrics written by Gary Osborne. \n\n1980s: The Fox to Sleeping with the Past (1980–89) \n\nHis 1981 album, The Fox, was recorded during the same sessions as 21 at 33, and also included collaborations with Tom Robinson and Judie Tzuke. On 13 September 1980, Elton John, with Olsson and Murray back in the Elton John Band, performed a free concert to an estimated 400,000 fans on The Great Lawn in Central Park in New York. His 1982 hit \"Empty Garden (Hey Hey Johnny)\", came from his Jump Up! album, his second under a new US recording contract with Geffen Records.\n\nWith original band members Johnstone, Murray and Olsson together again, he was able to return to the charts with the 1983 hit album Too Low for Zero, which included \"I'm Still Standing\" (No. 4 UK) and \"I Guess That's Why They Call It the Blues\", the latter of which featured Stevie Wonder on harmonica and reached No. 4 in the US and No. 5 in the UK. In October 1983, Elton John caused controversy when he broke the United Nations' cultural boycott on apartheid-era South Africa by performing at the Sun City venue. He married his close friend and sound engineer, Renate Blauel, on Valentine's Day 1984 – the marriage lasted three years. \n\nIn 1985, he was one of the many performers at Live Aid held at Wembley Stadium. John played \"Bennie and the Jets\" and \"Rocket Man\"; then \"Don't Go Breaking My Heart\" with Kiki Dee for the first time since the Hammersmith Odeon on 24 December 1982; and introduced his friend George Michael, still then of Wham!, to sing \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\". In 1985 he released Breaking Hearts which featured the hit song \"Sad Songs (Say So Much)\", No. 5 in the US and No. 7 in the UK. Elton John also recorded material with Millie Jackson in 1985. In 1986, he played the piano on two tracks on the heavy metal band Saxon's album Rock the Nations. \n\nA Biography channel special detailed the loss of Elton's voice in 1986 while on tour in Australia. Shortly thereafter he underwent throat surgery, which permanently altered his voice. Several non-cancerous polyps were removed from his vocal cords, resulting in a change in his singing voice. In 1987 he won a libel case against The Sun which published false allegations of sex with rent boys. In 1988, he performed five sold-out shows at Madison Square Garden in New York, giving him 26 for his career. Netting over , 2,000 items of Elton John's memorabilia were auctioned off at Sotheby's in London. \n\nHe placed other hits throughout the 1980s, including \"Nikita\" which featured in a music video directed by Ken Russell, No. 3 in the UK and No. 7 in the US in 1986, a live orchestral version of \"Candle in the Wind\", No. 6 in the US, and \"I Don't Wanna Go on with You Like That\", No. 2 in the US in 1988. His highest-charting single was a collaboration with Dionne Warwick, Gladys Knight, and Stevie Wonder on \"That's What Friends Are For\" which reached No. 1 in the US in 1985; credited as Dionne and Friends, the song raised funds for AIDS research. His albums continued to sell, but of those released in the latter half of the 1980s, only Reg Strikes Back (number 16, 1988) placed in the top 20 in the US.\n\n1990s: \"Sacrifice\" to Aida (1990–99) \n\nIn 1990, he achieved his first solo UK number one hit single, with \"Sacrifice\" (coupled with \"Healing Hands\") from the previous year's album Sleeping with the Past; it would stay at the top spot for six weeks. The following year, John's \"Basque\" won the Grammy for Best Instrumental, and a guest concert appearance at Wembley Arena he had made on George Michael's cover of \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\" was released as a single and topped the charts in both the UK and the US. At the 1991 Brit Awards in London, Elton John won the award for Best British Male. \n\nIn 1992, he released the US number 8 album The One, featuring the hit song \"The One\". He also released \"Runaway Train\", a duet he recorded with his long-time friend Eric Clapton, and with whom he played on Clapton's World Tour. John and Taupin then signed a music publishing deal with Warner/Chappell Music for an estimated over 12 years, giving them the largest cash advance in music publishing history. In April 1992, John appeared at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert at Wembley Stadium, performing \"The Show Must Go On\" with the remaining members of Queen, and \"Bohemian Rhapsody\" with Axl Rose of Guns N' Roses and Queen. In September, John performed \"The One\" at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards, and closed the ceremony performing \"November Rain\" with Guns N' Roses. The following year, he released Duets, a collaboration with 15 artists including Tammy Wynette and RuPaul. This included a new collaboration with Kiki Dee, entitled \"True Love\", which reached the Top 10 of the UK charts. \n\nAlong with Tim Rice, Elton John wrote the songs for the 1994 Disney animated film The Lion King. At the 67th Academy Awards ceremony, The Lion King soundtrack provided three of the five nominees for the Academy Award for Best Song, which he won with \"Can You Feel the Love Tonight\". Both that and \"Circle of Life\" became hit songs for John. \"Can You Feel the Love Tonight\" would also win Elton John the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 37th Annual Grammy Awards. After the release of The Lion King soundtrack, the album remained at the top of Billboard 200 for nine weeks. On 10 November 1999, the RIAA certified The Lion King \"Diamond\" for selling 15million copies.\n\nIn 1994, Elton John was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Guns N' Roses frontman Axl Rose. In 1995 he released Made in England (number 3, 1995), which featured the single \"Believe\". John performed \"Believe\" at the 1995 Brit Awards, and picked up the prize for Outstanding Contribution to Music. A duet with Luciano Pavarotti, \"Live Like Horses\", reached number nine in the UK in December 1996. A compilation album called Love Songs was released in 1996. \n\nEarly in 1997, he held a 50th birthday party, costumed as Louis XIV, for 500 friends. He performed with the surviving members of Queen in Paris at the opening night (17 January 1997) of Le Presbytère N'a Rien Perdu De Son Charme Ni Le Jardin De Son Éclat, a work by French ballet legend Maurice Béjart which draws upon AIDS and the deaths of Freddie Mercury and the company's principal dancer Jorge Donn. Later in 1997, two close friends died: designer Gianni Versace was murdered; Diana, Princess of Wales died in a Paris car crash on 31 August. \n\nIn early September, he contacted his writing partner Bernie Taupin, asking him to revise the lyrics of his 1973 song \"Candle in the Wind\" to honour Diana, and Taupin rewrote the song accordingly. On 6 September 1997, John performed \"Candle in the Wind 1997\" at the funeral of Princess Diana in Westminster Abbey. The song became the fastest and biggest-selling single of all time, eventually selling over 33million copies worldwide, the best-selling single in UK Chart history, the best-selling single in Billboard history and the only single ever certified Diamond in the United States – the single sold over 11million copies in the US The Guinness World Records 2009 states that the song is \"the biggest-selling single since UK and US singles charts began in the 1950s, having accumulated worldwide sales of 33million copies\". The song proceeds of approximately £55million were donated to Diana's charities via the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund. It would win Elton John the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 40th Annual Grammy Awards in 1998.Miles, Barry [https://books.google.com/books?id-oBzTaoZciEC&pg\nPA207 Massive Music Moments] p.207. Anova Books, 2008 \"Something About the Way You Look Tonight\" was released as a double A-side. Elton John has publicly performed \"Candle in the Wind 1997\" only once, at Diana's funeral, vowing never to perform it again unless asked by Diana's sons. \n\nOn 15 September 1997, John appeared at the Music for Montserrat charity concert at the Royal Albert Hall, London, performing \"Your Song\", \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\" and \"Live Like Horses\" solo before finishing with \"Hey Jude\" alongside fellow English artists Paul McCartney, Eric Clapton, Phil Collins, Mark Knopfler and Sting. In November 1997, John performed in the BBC's Children in Need charity single \"Perfect Day\", which reached number one in the UK. \n\nIn the musical theatre world, The Lion King musical debuted on Broadway in 1997 and the West End in 1999. In 2014, it had grossed over $6 billion and became the top-earning title in box-office history for both stage productions and films, surpassing the record previously held by Andrew Lloyd Webber's 1986 musical The Phantom of the Opera. In addition to The Lion King, John also composed music for a Disney musical production of Aida in 1999 with lyricist Tim Rice, for which they received the Tony Award for Best Original Score at the 54th Tony Awards, and the Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album at the 43rd Annual Grammy Awards. The musical was given its world premiere in the Alliance Theatre in Atlanta and went on to Chicago and eventually Broadway. John released a live compilation album called Elton John One Night Only – The Greatest Hits from the show he did at Madison Square Garden in New York City that same year. A concept album from the musical titled Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida was also released and featured the duets, \"Written in the Stars\" with LeAnn Rimes, and \"I Know the Truth\" with Janet Jackson. \n\n2000s: Are You Ready for Love and 60th birthday (2000–09)\n\nIn 2000, he and Tim Rice teamed again to create songs for DreamWorks' animated film The Road to El Dorado. he released his 27th album, Songs from the West Coast, in October 2001. At this point, John disliked appearing in his own music videos; \"This Train Don't Stop There Anymore\" featured Justin Timberlake portraying a young Elton John, and \"I Want Love\" featured Robert Downey, Jr. lip-syncing the song. At the 2001 Grammy Awards, Elton performed \"Stan\" with Eminem. One month after the 11 September attacks, Elton John appeared at the Concert for New York City, performing \"I Want Love\" as well as \"Your Song\" in a duet with Billy Joel. \n\nIn August 2003, he scored his fifth UK number one single when \"Are You Ready for Love\" topped the charts. Returning to musical theatre, John composed music for a West End theatre production of Billy Elliot the Musical in 2005 with playwright Lee Hall. Opening to strong reviews, the West End production is scheduled to close on 9 April 2016, due to the theatre's refurbishment programme, after 4,600 performances. The show has been seen by over 5.25 million people in London and nearly 11 million people worldwide (on Broadway, in Sydney, Melbourne, Chicago, Toronto, Seoul, the Netherlands and São Paulo, Brazil etc.), has grossed over $800 million worldwide and is the winner of over 80 theatre awards internationally. His only theatrical project with Bernie Taupin is Lestat: The Musical, based on the Anne Rice vampire novels. However it received harsh reviews from critics and closed in May 2006 after 39 performances. Elton featured on rapper Tupac Shakur's posthumous single \"Ghetto Gospel\", which topped the UK charts in July 2005.\n\nIn October 2003, he announced that he had signed an exclusive agreement to perform 75 shows over three years at Caesars Palace on the Las Vegas Strip. The show, entitled The Red Piano, was a multimedia concert featuring massive props and video montages created by David LaChapelle. Effectively, he and Celine Dion shared performances at Caesars Palace throughout the year – while one performs, one rests. The first of these shows took place on 13 February 2004. In February 2006, Elton and Dion sang together at the venue to raise money for Harrah's Entertainment Inc. workers affected by the 2005 hurricanes, performing \"Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word\" and \"Saturday Night's Alright (for Fighting).\" \n\nElton John was named a Disney Legend for his contributions to Disney's films and theatrical works on 9 October 2006, by the Walt Disney Company. In 2006, he told Rolling Stone that he plans for his next record to be in the R&B and hip hop genre. \"I want to work with Pharrell Williams, Timbaland, Snoop [Lion], Kanye [West], Eminem and just see what happens.\"\n\nIn March 2007, he performed at Madison Square Garden for a record breaking 60th time for his 60th birthday, the concert was broadcast live and a DVD recording was released as Elton 60 – Live at Madison Square Garden; a greatest-hits compilation CD, Rocket Man – Number Ones, was released in 17 different versions worldwide, including a CD/DVD combo; and his back catalogue – almost 500 songs from 32 albums – became available for legal paid download. \n\nOn 1 July 2007, John appeared at the Concert for Diana held at Wembley Stadium, London in honour of the late Diana, Princess of Wales on what would have been her 46th birthday, with the proceeds from the concert going to Diana's charities as well as to charities of which her sons Princes William and Harry are patrons. John opened the concert with \"Your Song\", and then later closed it with \"Saturday Night's Alright For Fighting\", \"Tiny Dancer\", and \"Are You Ready For Love\". \n\nOn 21 June 2008, he performed his 200th show in Caesars Palace. A DVD/CD package of The Red Piano was released through Best Buy in November 2008. A two-year global tour was sandwiched between commitments in Las Vegas, Nevada, some of the venues of which were new to John. The Red Piano Tour closed in Las Vegas in April 2009. \n\nIn a September 2008 interview with GQ magazine, John said: \"I'm going on the road again with Billy Joel again next year\", referring to \"Face to Face\", a series of concerts featuring both musicians. The tour began in March and will continue for at least two more years. \n\n2010–present\n\nElton John performed a piano duet with Lady Gaga at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards. On 6 June 2010, John performed at the fourth wedding of conservative commentator Rush Limbaugh for a reported fee. Eleven days later, and 17 years to the day after his last previous performance in Israel, he performed at the Ramat Gan Stadium; this was significant because of other then-recent cancellations by other performers in the fallout surrounding an Israeli raid on Gaza Flotilla the month before. In his introduction to that concert, Elton John noted he and other musicians should not \"cherry-pick our conscience\", in reference to Elvis Costello, who was to have performed in Israel two weeks after John did, but cancelled in the wake of the aforementioned raid, citing his [Costello's] conscience. \n\nHe released The Union on 19 October 2010. John says his collaboration with American singer, songwriter and sideman Leon Russell marks a new chapter in his recording career, saying: \"I don't have to make pop records any more.\" \n\nHe began his new show The Million Dollar Piano at the Colosseum at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas on 28 September 2011. John performed the show at Caesars for the next three years. He performed his 3000th concert on Saturday 8 October 2011 at Caesars. In 2011, John performed vocals on Snowed in at Wheeler Street with Kate Bush for her 50 Words for Snow album. On 3 February 2012, Elton John visited Costa Rica for the first time when he performed at the recently built National Stadium. \n\nOn 4 June 2012, he performed at the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Concert at Buckingham Palace, performing a repertoire including \"Your Song\", \"Crocodile Rock\" and \"I'm Still Standing\". On 30 June, John performed in Kiev, Ukraine at a joint concert with Queen + Adam Lambert for the Elena Pinchuk ANTIAIDS Foundation. \n\nAn album containing remixes of songs that he recorded in the 1970s called Good Morning to the Night was released in July 2012. The remixes were conducted by Australian group Pnau and the album reached No. 1 in the UK. At the 2012 Pride of Britain Awards on 30 October, Elton John, along with Michael Caine, Richard Branson, Simon Cowell and Stephen Fry, recited Rudyard Kipling's poem \"If—\" in tribute to the 2012 British Olympic and Paralympics athletes. \n\nIn February 2013, John performed a duet with singer-songwriter Ed Sheeran at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards. Later in 2013 he collaborated with rock band Queens of the Stone Age on their sixth studio album ...Like Clockwork, contributing piano and vocals on the song \"Fairweather Friends\". He stated that he was a fan of frontman Josh Homme's side project, Them Crooked Vultures, and had contacted Homme via phone call, asking if he could perform on the album. \n\nIn September 2013, John received the first Brits Icon Award for his \"lasting impact\" on UK Culture. Rod Stewart presented him the award on stage at the London Palladium before the two performed a duet of \"Sad Songs (Say So Much)\". It had been announced in March 2012 that John had completed work on his thirty-first album, The Diving Board. The album was produced by T-Bone Burnett and was originally set for release in autumn 2012. The album's release date was pushed back multiple times, but on its release in September 2013 it reached No. 3 in the UK and No. 4 in the US. \n\nIn October 2015, it was announced Elton John would release his 32nd studio album, Wonderful Crazy Night, on 5 February 2016. As with his last album, it was produced by T-Bone Burnett. The album's first single, \"Looking Up\", was released that same month. This album marked John's first full album recorded with his touring band since 2006's The Captain & the Kid. John will play piano on \"Sick Love\", a song from the Red Hot Chili Peppers album, The Getaway, released in June 2016. He will also star in Kingsman: The Golden Circle, scheduled for a June 2017 release. \n\nMusicianship\n\nElton John has written with his songwriting partner Bernie Taupin since 1967 when he answered an advertisement for talent placed in the popular UK music publication, New Musical Express, by Liberty records A&R man Ray Williams. The pair have collaborated on more than 30 albums to date. The writing style that Elton John and Bernie Taupin use involves Taupin writing the lyrics on his own, and John then putting them to music, with the two never in the same room during the process. Taupin would write a set of lyrics, then mail them to John, wherever he was in the world, who would then lay down the music, arrange it, and record. \n\nIn 1992, John was inducted into the Songwriter's Hall of Fame. He is a fellow of the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA). His voice was once classed as tenor; it is now baritone. His piano playing is influenced by classical and gospel music. He used Paul Buckmaster to arrange the music on his studio albums during the 1970s. \n\nPersonal life\n\nSexuality and family\n\nIn the late 1960s, Elton John was engaged to be married to his first lover, secretary Linda Woodrow, who is mentioned in the song \"Someone Saved My Life Tonight\". He married German recording engineer Renate Blauel on 14 February 1984, in Darling Point, Sydney, with speculation that the marriage was a cover for his homosexuality. John came out as bisexual in a 1976 interview with Rolling Stone, but after his divorce from Blauel in 1988, he told the magazine that he was \"comfortable\" being gay. \n\nIn 1993, he began a relationship with David Furnish, a former advertising executive and now filmmaker originally from Toronto, Ontario, Canada. On 21 December 2005 (the day that the Civil Partnership Act came into force), John and Furnish were amongst the first couples in the UK to form a civil partnership, which was held at the Windsor Guildhall. After gay marriage became legal in England in March 2014, John and Furnish married in Windsor, Berkshire, on 21 December 2014, the ninth anniversary of their civil partnership. They have two sons. Their oldest, Zachary Jackson Levon Furnish-John, was born to a surrogate mother on 25 December 2010 in California. He also has ten godchildren, including Sean Lennon, David and Victoria Beckham's sons Brooklyn and Romeo, Elizabeth Hurley's son Damian, and the daughter of Seymour Stein. \n\nIn 2010, John was criticised by some Christian groups in the US after describing Jesus as a \"compassionate, super-intelligent gay man who understood human problems\". William Anthony Donohue, president of the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights and opponent of gay marriage, responded: \"To call Jesus a homosexual is to label him a sexual deviant. But what else would we expect from a man who previously said, 'From my point of view, I would ban religion completely.'\" \n\nIn 2008, John stated he preferred civil partnerships over marriage for gay people. But by 2012 John had changed his position and become a staunch supporter of same-sex marriage in the United Kingdom. He was quoted: \"There is a world of difference between calling someone your 'partner' and calling them your 'husband'. 'Partner' is a word that should be preserved for people you play tennis with, or work alongside in business. It doesn't come close to describing the love that I have for David, and he for me. In contrast, 'husband' does.\" In 2014, he claimed Jesus would have been in favour of same-sex marriage. \n\nIn 2013, Elton John resisted calls to boycott Russia in protest at the Russian LGBT propaganda law, but told fans at a Moscow concert that the Russian laws were \"inhumane and isolating\" and he was \"deeply saddened and shocked over the current legislation.\" In a January 2014 interview, Russian President Vladimir Putin spoke of John in an attempt to show that there was no gay discrimination in Russia, stating; \"Elton John – he's an extraordinary person, a distinguished musician, and millions of our people sincerely love him, regardless of his sexual orientation.\" John responded by offering to introduce the President to Russians abused under Russian legislation banning \"homosexual propaganda\". On 24 September 2015, the Associated Press reported that President Putin called John and invited him to meet in the future about LGBT issues in Russia. Putin's call came just a few days after two phone pranksters called Elton John, pretending to be Putin and his spokesman, and causing John to erroneously thank Putin for the call on the singer's Instagram account. \n\nWealth\n\nIn April 2009, the Sunday Times Rich List estimated John's wealth to be £175million (), and ranked him as the 322nd wealthiest person in Britain. John was estimated to have a fortune of £195million in the Sunday Times Rich List of 2011, making him one of the 10 wealthiest people in the British music industry. Aside from his main home \"Woodside\" in Old Windsor, Berkshire, John owns residences in Atlanta, Nice, London's Holland Park, and Venice. John's property in Nice is based on Mon Boron mountain. Elton John is an art collector, and is believed to have one of the largest private photography collections in the world. \n\nIn 2000, he admitted to spending £30million in just under two years—an average of £1.5million a month. Between January 1996 and September 1997, he spent more than £9.6m on property and £293,000 on flowers. In June 2001 John sold 20 of his cars at Christie's, saying he didn't get the chance to drive them because he was out of the country so often. The sale, which included a 1993 Jaguar XJ220, the most expensive at £234,750, and several Ferraris, Rolls-Royces, and Bentleys, raised nearly £2million. In 2003, John sold the contents of his Holland Park home—expected to fetch £800,000 at Sotheby's—to modernise the decoration and to display some of his contemporary art collection. Every year since 2004, John has opened a shop called \"Elton's Closet\" in which he sells his second-hand clothes. \n\nOther\n\nBy 1975, the pressures of stardom had begun to take a serious toll on him. During \"Elton Week\" in Los Angeles that year, he suffered a drug overdose. He also battled the eating disorder bulimia. In a CNN interview with Larry King in 2002, King asked if John knew of Diana, Princess of Wales' eating disorder. John replied, \"Yes, I did. We were both bulimic.\" \n\nA longtime tennis enthusiast, he wrote the song \"Philadelphia Freedom\" in tribute to long-time friend Billie Jean King and her World Team Tennis franchise of the same name. John and King also co-host an annual pro-am event to benefit AIDS charities, most notably Elton John's own Elton John AIDS Foundation, for which King is a chairwoman. John, who maintains a part-time residence in Atlanta, Georgia, became a fan of the Atlanta Braves baseball team when he moved there in 1991. In 2015, he was named one of GQ's 50 best dressed British men. \n\nWatford Football Club\n\nHaving supported Watford Football Club since growing up locally, Elton John became the club's chairman and director in 1976, appointing Graham Taylor as manager and investing large sums of money as the club rose three divisions into the English First Division. The pinnacle of the club's success was finishing runners up in the First Division to Liverpool F.C. in 1983 and reaching the FA Cup Final at Wembley Stadium in 1984. He sold the club to Jack Petchey in 1987, but remained president.\n\nIn 1997, he re-purchased the club from Petchey and once again became chairman. He stepped down in 2002 when the club needed a full-time chairman although he continued as president of the club. Although no longer the majority shareholder, he still holds a significant financial interest. In June 2005 he held a concert at Watford's home stadium, Vicarage Road, donating the funds to the club, and another concert in May 2010. He has remained friends with a number of high-profile players in football, including Pelé and David Beckham. For a time, from late 1975 until 1976, he was a part-owner of the Los Angeles Aztecs of the North American Soccer League. On 13 December 2014, he appeared at Watford's Vicarage Road with David Furnish, and his sons Zachary and Elijah for the opening of the \"Sir Elton John stand\". He described the occasion as \"one of the greatest days of my life\". \n\nAIDS Foundation\n\nJohn has said that he took risks with unprotected sex during the 1980s and considers himself lucky to have avoided the AIDS epidemic. In 1986 he joined with Dionne Warwick, Gladys Knight and Stevie Wonder to record the single \"That's What Friends Are For\", with all profits being donated to the American Foundation for AIDS Research. The song won John and the others the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. In April 1990, John performed his 1968 ballad \"Skyline Pigeon\" at the funeral of Ryan White, a teenage haemophiliac he had befriended. \n\nElton John became more closely associated with AIDS charities following the deaths of his friends Ryan White in 1990 and Freddie Mercury in 1991, raising large amounts of money and using his public profile to raise awareness of the disease. He founded the Elton John AIDS Foundation in 1992 as a charity to fund programmes for HIV/AIDS prevention, for the elimination of prejudice and discrimination against HIV/AIDS-affected individuals, and for providing services to people living with or at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. This cause continues to be one of his personal passions. In 1993, he began hosting his annual Academy Award Party, which has become one of the highest-profile Oscar parties in the Hollywood film industry, and has raised over . In early 2006, John donated the smaller of two bright-red Yamaha pianos from his Las Vegas, Nevada show to auction on eBay to raise public awareness and funds for the foundation.\n\nTo raise money for his AIDS charity, he annually hosts a glamorous White Tie & Tiara Ball in the grounds of his home in Old Windsor in Berkshire to which many famous celebrities are invited. On 28 June 2007, the 9th annual White Tie & Tiara Ball took place. The menu consisted of a truffle soufflé followed by Surf and Turf (filet mignon with Maine lobster tail) and a giant Knickerbocker glory ice cream. An auction followed the dinner held by Stephen Fry. A Rolls Royce 'Phantom' drophead coupe and a piece of Tracey Emin's artwork both raised £800,000 for the charity fund, with the total amount raised reaching £3.5million. Later, John sang \"Delilah\" with Tom Jones and \"Big Spender\" with Shirley Bassey. The 2011 guests included Sarah, Duchess of York, Elizabeth Hurley and George Michael (who performed \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\" in a duet with John), and the auction raised £5million, adding to the £45million the Balls have raised for the Elton John Aids Foundation.\n\nHonours and awards\n\nHe was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 1994. He and Bernie Taupin had previously been inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1992. John was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1995. For his charitable work, John was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II on 24 February 1998. In October 1975, John became the 1,662nd person to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\n\nHe was awarded Society of Singers Lifetime Achievement Award in 2005. He became a recipient of a Kennedy Center Honor in 2004, and a Disney Legends Award in 2006. In 2000 he was named the MusiCares Person of the Year for his artistic achievement in the music industry and dedication to philanthropy. In 2010, he was awarded with the PRS for Music Heritage Award, which was erected on The Namaste Lounge Pub in Northwood, London, where John performed his first ever gig. \n\nMusic awards include the Academy Award for Best Original Song for \"Can You Feel The Love Tonight\" from The Lion King (award shared with Tim Rice); the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song in 1994 for \"Can You Feel The Love Tonight\" from The Lion King (award shared with Tim Rice); and the Tony Award for Best Original Score in 2000 for Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida (award shared with Tim Rice). He has also received five Brit Awards, including the award for Best British Male in 1991, and awards for Outstanding Contribution to Music in 1986 and 1995. In 2013, John received the first Brits Icon award in recognition of his \"lasting impact\" on UK culture, which was presented to him by his close friend Rod Stewart. \n\nFilm awards\n\nAcademy Awards\n\n* 1995: Best Original Song (won) for Can You Feel the Love Tonight from The Lion King\n* 1995: Best Original Song (nominated) for Circle of Life from The Lion King\n* 1995: Best Original Song (nominated) for Hakuna Matata from The Lion King\n\nMusic awards\n\nGrammy Awards\n\n* 1971: Best New Artist (nominated)\n* 1971: Album of the Year (nominated) for Elton John\n* 1971: Best Contemporary Male Vocalist (nominated) for Elton John\n* 1972: Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture (nominated) for Friends\n* 1974: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (nominated) for \"Daniel\"\n* 1975: Album of the Year (nominated) for Caribou\n* 1975: Record of the Year (nominated) for \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\"\n* 1975: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (nominated) for \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\"\n* 1976: Album of the Year (nominated) for Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy\n* 1976: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (nominated) for Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy\n* 1977: Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal (nominated) for \"Don't Go Breaking My Heart\" with Kiki Dee\n* 1980: Best R&B Vocal Performance - Male (nominated) for \"Mama Can't Buy You Love\"\n* 1983: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (nominated) for \"Blue Eyes\"\n* 1985: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (nominated) for \"Restless\"\n* 1987: Record of the Year (nominated) for \"That's What Friends Are For\", performed by Dionne Warwick & Friends (award shared with Dionne Warwick, Gladys Knight & Stevie Wonder)\n* 1987: Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal (won) for \"That's What Friends Are For\", performed by Dionne Warwick & Friends (award shared with Dionne Warwick, Gladys Knight & Stevie Wonder)\n* 1988: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (nominated) for \"Candle in the Wind\" (live)\n* 1992: Best Instrumental Composition (won) for \"Basque\", performed by James Galway\n* 1993: Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal (nominated) for \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\" with George Michael\n* 1983: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (nominated) for \"The One\"\n* 1995: Song of the Year (nominated) for \"Can You Feel the Love Tonight\" from The Lion King\n* 1995: Song of the Year (nominated) for \"Circle of Life\" from The Lion King\n* 1995: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (won) for \"Can You Feel the Love Tonight\" from The Lion King\n* 1995: Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television (nominated) for \"Can You Feel the Love Tonight\" from The Lion King\n* 1995: Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television (nominated) for \"Circle of Life\" from The Lion King\n* 1996: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (nominated) for \"Believe\"\n* 1997: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (won) for \"Candle in the Wind 1997\"\n* 1999: Grammy Legend Award\n* 2001: Best Musical Show Album (won) for Elton John & Tim Rice's Aida (award shared with Guy Babylon, Paul Bogaev & Chris (producers), Tim Rice (lyricist) and the original Broadway cast with Heather Headley, Adam Pascal, and Sherie Rene Scott)\n* 2002: Best Pop Vocal Album (nominated) for Songs from the West Coast\n* 2002: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (nominated) for \"I Want Love\"\n* 2003: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance (nominated) for \"Original Sin\"\n* 2005: Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals (nominated) for \"Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word\" with Ray Charles\n* 2011: Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals (nominated) with Leon Russell for \"If It Wasn't for Bad\"\n\nTheatre awards \n\nTony Awards\n\n* 1998: Best Original Musical Score (nominated) for The Lion King\n* 2000: Best Original Musical Score (won) for Aida\n* 2009: Best Score (Music and/or Lyrics) (nominated) for Billy Elliot, The Musical\n* 2010: Best Play (nominated as producer) for Next Fall\n\nElton John Band \n\nElton John Band members\n\nCurrent members\n* Elton John – lead vocals, piano\n* Nigel Olsson – drums, vocals\n* Davey Johnstone – guitar, musical director, vocals\n* John Mahon – percussion, vocals\n* Kim Bullard – keyboards\n* Matt Bissonette – bass\n* Ray Cooper – percussion\n\nPrevious band members\n* Guy Babylon – keyboards\n* Bob Birch – bass guitar, vocals\n* Tom Costello – drums\n* David Hentschel – synthesiser\n* Tony Murray – bass\n* Roger Pope – drums, percussion\n* Fred Mandel – keyboards, guitars\n* Dee Murray – bass guitar, vocals\n* James Newton Howard – conductor, keyboards, orchestrations\n* Caleb Quaye – guitar, drums, percussion\n* Kenny Passarelli – bass, background vocals\n* Charlie Morgan – drums\n* John Jorgenson – guitars, saxophone, pedal steel, mandolin, vocals\n* David Paton – bass guitar, vocals\n* Tata Vega – lead backing vocals\n* Rose Stone – backing vocals\n* Lisa Stone – backing vocals\n* Jean Witherspoon – backing vocals\n\nOther notable contributors and guests\n* Leon Russell – piano, vocals\n* Gus Dudgeon – production\n* Paul Buckmaster – orchestrations\n* Lesley Duncan – acoustic guitar, vocals, background vocals\n* Dusty Springfield – background vocals\n* Rick Wakeman – organ\n* Jean-Luc Ponty – electric violin\n* Luther Vandross – vocals\n* Kiki Dee – background vocals\n* Bruce Johnston – vocals, background vocals\n* Carl Wilson – vocals, background vocals\n* Toni Tennille – vocals, background vocals\n* Tower of Power – horns\n* John Lennon (credited as Dr. Winston O' Boogie) – guitar\n* Labelle – vocals, background vocals\n* David Crosby – vocals, background vocals\n* Graham Nash – vocals, background vocals\n* London Symphony Orchestra\n* London Philharmonic Orchestra\n* Melbourne Symphony Orchestra\n* Royal Philharmonic Orchestra\n* David Sanborn – saxophone\n* David Paich – organ\n* Jeff Porcaro – drums\n* Pete Townshend – guitar\n* Stevie Wonder – harmonica\n* John Deacon – bass\n* Nik Kershaw – electric guitar\n* Freddie Hubbard – trumpet, flugelhorn\n* Eric Clapton – vocals\n* David Gilmour – guitar\n* k.d. lang – vocals\n* P.M. Dawn – vocals\n* Little Richard – vocals\n* Don Henley – vocals\n* Chris Rea – vocals\n* Tammy Wynette – vocals\n* Gladys Knight – vocals\n* Paul Young – vocals\n* Bonnie Raitt – vocals\n* Leonard Cohen – vocals\n* George Michael – vocals\n* Deon Estus – bass\n* Paul Carrack – organ\n* Ricky Molina – drums, percussion\n\nSince 1970, John's band, of which he is the pianist and lead singer, has been known as the Elton John Band. The band has had multiple line-up changes, but Nigel Olsson, Davey Johnstone, and Ray Cooper have been members (albeit non-consecutively) since 1969 (Olsson) and 1972 (Johnstone and Cooper). Olsson left the band in 1984 but rejoined in 2000. \nRay Cooper has worked on and off with the Elton John Band because he maintains obligations to other musicians as a session player and sideman as a road-tour percussionist.\n\nDiscography\n\nSolo studio albums\n* Empty Sky (1969)\n* Elton John (1970)\n* Tumbleweed Connection (1970)\n* Madman Across the Water (1971)\n* Honky Château (1972)\n* Don't Shoot Me I'm Only the Piano Player (1973)\n* Goodbye Yellow Brick Road (1973)\n* Caribou (1974)\n* Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy (1975)\n* Rock of the Westies (1975)\n* Blue Moves (1976)\n* A Single Man (1978)\n* Victim of Love (1979)\n* 21 at 33 (1980)\n* The Fox (1981)\n* Jump Up! (1982)\n* Too Low for Zero (1983)\n* Breaking Hearts (1984)\n* Ice on Fire (1985)\n* Leather Jackets (1986)\n* Reg Strikes Back (1988)\n* Sleeping with the Past (1989)\n* The One (1992)\n* Made in England (1995)\n* The Big Picture (1997)\n* Songs from the West Coast (2001)\n* Peachtree Road (2004)\n* The Captain & the Kid (2006)\n* The Diving Board (2013)\n* Wonderful Crazy Night (2016)\n\nCollaborative albums\n* Live in Australia with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra (1986)\n* Duets (1993)\n* The Union with Leon Russell (2010)\n* Good Morning to the Night with Pnau (2012)\n\nSoundtracks, scores, and theatre albums\n* Friends (1971)\n* The Lion King (1994)\n* Aida (1998)\n* Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida (1999)\n* The Muse (1999)\n* The Road to El Dorado (2000)\n* Billy Elliot (2005)\n* Lestat (2005)\n* Gnomeo & Juliet (2011)\n\nFilmography\n\n* Born to Boogie, US (1972) as himself with Marc Bolan and Ringo Starr\n* Tommy, UK (1975) as Pinball Wizard\n* Spice World, UK (1997) as himself\n* Elton John: Tantrums & Tiaras (1997) autobiography as himself\n* The Country Bears, US (2002) as himself\n* Elton John: Me, Myself & I (2007) autobiography as himself",
"Greatest Hits (often referred to as Elton John Greatest Hits in North America) is the eleventh official album release for Elton John, and the first compilation. Released in November 1974, it spans the years 1970 to 1974, compiling ten of John's singles, with one track variation for releases in North America and for Europe and Australia. It topped the album chart in both the United States and the United Kingdom, staying at number one for ten consecutive weeks in the former nation and eleven weeks in the latter. It is his best-selling album to date, being his first to have received an RIAA Diamond certification for US sales of more than 10 million copies – as of April 2016 the album has been certified as selling in excess of 17 million copies in the US.\n\nContents\n\nThe single \"Bennie and the Jets\", which had topped the charts in both the US and Canada but which had not been released a single in the United Kingdom at that point, appeared on the American and Canadian edition of the album. It was replaced by \"Candle in the Wind\" for the UK and Australian edition, having been a hit in both of those countries but never released as a single in the US and Canada. The 1992 reissue contains eleven tracks, with both songs included.\n\n\"Border Song,\" an album track on Elton John outside of the US and Canada, went to No. 92 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and to No. 34 on the Canadian RPM national singles chart as a single in 1970. All other songs made the Top 40 in the UK and the US, most also making the top ten, with \"Bennie and the Jets\" and \"Crocodile Rock\" topping the chart in the States. John would wait until 1976 to top the singles chart in the UK, via his duet with Kiki Dee, \"Don't Go Breaking My Heart.\"\n\nWith only ten tracks total, the compilers left off several other hit singles from the time period. \"Tiny Dancer\" and \"Levon\" from the Madman Across the Water album made it to No. 41 and No. 24 respectively as singles in the US, and \"The Bitch Is Back,\" his most recent single, was a No. 4 in the US and topped the chart in Canada. Although all of these charted higher than \"Border Song,\" it may have been included because it was the first Elton John single to chart in any market. Of the ten selections for the North American album, two (\"Crocodile Rock\" and \"Bennie and the Jets\") had been US No. 1 hits; in Canada, five (these two plus \"Daniel\", \"Goodbye Yellow Brick Road\" and \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\") had been chart-toppers. \n\nIn 2003, Greatest Hits was ranked at number 136 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.\n\nTrack listing\n\nAll music composed by Elton John, all lyrics written by Bernie Taupin. \n;Original North American version\n\n;Original international version\nOn the international releases, \"Bennie and the Jets\" was replaced by \"Candle in the Wind\" (3:41, taken from the album Goodbye Yellow Brick Road).\n\n;1992 Polydor Reissue\nThe compact disc version of Greatest Hits, issued in the 1990s, features both \"Bennie and the Jets\" (track 7) and \"Candle in the Wind\" (track 8).\n\n;1996 Japanese edition\nThe expanded edition released by Nippon PolyGram/Mercury Music Entertainment (subtitled Your Song) has a different running order, excluding \"Bennie and the Jets\" instead of five additional tracks. In 2000, Universal Music Japan reissued the album under the alternative title Goodbye Yellow Brick Road. The track listing is as follows:\n\nCharts\n\nWeekly charts\n\n;Original release\n\n;Reissues\n\nYear-end charts\n\nCertifications\n\n \n}"
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"To preview and buy music from Greatest Hits by Elton John, ... Elton John’s first best-of set covers all his early ’70s smashes, ... Follow us @iTunes and discover"
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"Elton John: 10 of the best | Music | The Guardian\n10 of the best\nElton John: 10 of the best\nFrom the gentle whimsy of Your Song to the R&B of Bennie and the Jets, Elton John was at his world-conquering best in the 1970s and 80s\nEye catching … Elton John in the 1970s. Photograph: BBC/Redferns\nWednesday 25 May 2016 07.17 EDT\nLast modified on Wednesday 25 May 2016 13.50 EDT\n1. Your Song\nSir Elton Hercules John might be considered a balladeer, but in 1970 there was surprise at his label, DJM, that his breakthrough song was a slow, whimsical serenade. Those who’d followed his fledgling career perceived the Elton John Band to be a rocking affair, incorporating gospel, honky-tonk and elements of psychedelic folk. In the US, the pretty Your Song, with a naively romantic lyric by Bernie Taupin, was the B-side to the more uptempo Take Me to the Pilot, but it was promoted to the lead track after radio stations persisted in plugging it. It made the Top 10 on both sides of the Atlantic, and was the beginning of a run of bestselling singles and superstardom (especially Stateside) that would make John the biggest pop star on the planet for five years. He went on to sell more than 100m singles, but his first hit is still one of his defining moments, and its opening line – “It’s a little bit funny / This feeling inside” – remains instantly recognisable.\n2. Rocket Man\nJohn’s 11th single, taken from the album Honky Château, is arguably his best-loved. The 1972 track didn’t quite make it to No 1 in the US – he’d have to wait until Crocodile Rock later that year for that – but it has endured as one of the key songs of the early 70s, thanks in part to its wonderful production. With Gus Dudgeon on board, it’s not hard to see where inspiration for the space epic might have come from. Dudgeon had produced Space Oddity by David Bowie in 1969. (Bowie’s regular producer Tony Visconti had refused to work on the track, calling it a “cheap shot”.) Dudgeon repeated the trick with John, imbuing a song about space travel with an otherworldly ambience. (There’s also a druggy subtext: lines include “And I’m gonna be high as a kite by then.”) Bowie and John might have seemed destined to become kindred spirits, but the former said they had little in common. In a Playboy interview, Bowie made some catty comments, referring to John as “the Liberace … the token queen of rock”, adding: “I’m responsible for a whole new school of pretension. They know who they are, don’t you, Elton?” John would bide his time before hitting back.\n3. Bennie and the Jets\nAs with Your Song, it was radio play that turned Bennie and the Jets into a smash hit – against John’s will (he thought the song was too strange to succeed). CKLW in Windsor, Ontario, aired it first, then Detroit radio stations and Top 40 stations across the US followed suit. Bennie (Benny on the single sleeve, Bennie on the album) was not only a No 1 in America, but it also became John’s first crossover hit, landing him on the R&B chart for the first time. An invitation to appear on Soul Train followed, and John became the first white British artist to be accepted on black radio a good year before Bowie and the Bee Gees. At this point in his career – the song came from the double album Goodbye Yellow Brick Road – John could do no wrong. Nor could his producer: Dudgeon bookended the track with whistles from a live concert and vocal loops to give it a vitality that still stands up. The slow staccato tension of the grand piano and Taupin’s bombastic lyric about a fictional glam-rock band combine to stunning effect on one of their most inspired collaborations.\n4. Philadelphia Freedom\nJohn needed a suitable number to back his performance of Bennie and the Jets on Soul Train in 1975. He opted to perform a song he hadn’t yet released. Philadelphia Freedom was inspired – in name at least – by Billie Jean King’s Philadelphia Freedoms tennis team, even if the Bernie Taupin lyric had little to do with tennis and everything to do with emancipation; there’s also a line about flag waving, which tapped into the US bicentennial celebrations. John – an avid record collector with a staggering library that he still maintains, apparently – has never been afraid to use contemporary musical trends in his music, so it wasn’t surprising that he set about re-creating the Philly soul sound. The song failed to reach the Top 10 in the UK, but it landed John his fourth No 1 in three years in the US.\n5. Dan Dare (Pilot of the Future)\nIn 1975, John was sitting on top of the world, becoming the first artist to have an album debut at No 1 on the Billboard 200 with Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy. Its follow-up, Rock of the Westies, was subpar, however, and John’s hot streak began to cool. But there was still room for another US No 1 single: the nauseatingly upbeat Island Girl, which reached only No 14 in the UK (a placing too generous by half). John had wanted to lead with the fabulously funky Elton John single-that-never-was, Dan Dare (Pilot of the Future), and in retrospect his instincts seem correct. Dan Dare is a cornucopia of vocoder, funky bass, honky tonk piano and irresistible slabs of Clavinova. John is at his best when he is consumed by a groove, and few tracks have more groove than Dan Dare. It may not be his best-known song, but it was used as the soundtrack for an animated film of the same name in 2001.\n6. Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word\nRelentless touring, substance abuse and the production of two albums a year were beginning to take their toll in the mid 1970s. Despite all of his success, John’s lifestyle was making him unhappy – a feeling manifested in the mood of his 1976 album Blue Moves, a funereal double record. After it was completed, he parted with Gus Dudgeon. (They would resume their working relationship a decade later.) The mood on Blue Moves might have been macabre, but the lead single Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word is a tour de force of raw, plaintive emotion and tender, deceptively clever keystrokes. In the video promo, a tearful-looking Elton sits at a giant white grand piano on an uncharacteristically nondescript set; gone are the wacky glasses and the hairpiece, the giant shoes and the Donald Duck costumes.\n7. Ego\nBy 1978, sales in the US had, relatively speaking, dropped off a cliff. Whether that was to do with an artistic slump or John’s admission to Playboy magazine that he was bisexual, or both, isn’t clear. Ego was infused with camp and a high-octane nervous energy, but it struggled to No 34 in the US and the UK. The disappointment for Elton was palpable, and the strain showed. He decided to retire from playing live – not for the last time – and his working relationship with best pal and lyricist Bernie Taupin was paused – at least until John signed a new deal with Geffen Records in the 80s and the label put the dream team back together. Ego was the last song the pair worked on before parting, and it’s a fitting conclusion to the first phase of John’s career, even if the public didn’t wholly agree. While Ego could easily be about Elton’s own megalomania, some listeners believed the track was aimed at David Bowie. According to biographer David Buckley, it apparently stuck in John’s craw that Bowie had come out as bisexual while in a heterosexual marriage, while he felt he’d had to conceal his sexuality. It also didn’t help that the critics fawned over Bowie’s art-school pretensions while John – the entertainer – was disparaged by many of the same tastemakers.\n8. Are You Ready for Love?\nThe late 70s were difficult; John wasn’t accepted by the punks, and his half-hearted bandwagon-jumping disco album Victim of Love was rightly panned by critics, disappearing without a trace. Intriguingly, he had recorded some more Philly soul-inspired numbers in 1977 with lyricist Gary Osborne and producer Thom Bell. (For some reason, MCA didn’t release the Thom Bell Sessions EP until 1979.) The public clearly weren’t ready for Are You Ready for Love? It was pushed on a B-side and largely forgotten until 2003, when an Ashley Beedle remix was used in an advert for the Premier League. Suddenly, a lost classic got its moment in the sun, and Are You Ready for Love? catapulted to No 1 in the UK. It would become Elton’s biggest hit since the revival of Candle in the Wind in 1997. Are You Ready was such an ebullient song that it’s hard to understand how it could have been so neglected in the first place.\n9. Nobody Wins\nLyricist Gary Osborne may not have written as many words that passed into pop’s vernacular as Bernie Taupin, but he had a special skill that came in very handy for 1981’s Nobody Wins. John heard Janic Prévost’s J’Veux d’la Tendresse in 1980, when he was living in France; falling in love with the track, he decided to record it himself. Osborne, it transpired, not only wrote his own words, but also translated songs from foreign languages, a talent that had kept him remunerated during his late teens. Jean-Paul Dréau’s original French lyric, about a once passionate but now loveless marriage, must have resonated with Elton. It epitomised his feelings about his own parents’ frosty relationship, something he wasn’t afraid to talk about in numerous interviews. Alas, it was perhaps too “European” for the UK market, charting outside the Top 40, which seems criminal in hindsight.\nPinterest\nJohn rediscovered commercial success in 1983, with tracks including I Guess That’s Why They Call It the Blues and I’m Still Standing reaching the Top 10 on both sides of the Atlantic. Where so many of his albums had begun to feature a few good singles and an awful lot of filler, his 17th LP, Too Low for Zero, became his most consistent offering since his 70s heyday. I’m Still Standing, in particular, was a bullish testament to survival, and one in the eye for those detractors who’d assumed Reg Dwight was finished. The song is an invigorating slab of high camp, and it was the one time John made an effort for the video, even pulling off a few choreographed moves. He would had further success in the 90s (including the bestselling single of all time), but the schmaltzy ballads he peddled then are more shadows compared with his greatest material. Nothing can touch the explosion of creativity that made him such a massive star in the early 70s.",
"Biography :EltonJohn.com\nBiography\nRocket Sports\nSir Elton Hercules John, CBE, is one of the most highly acclaimed and successful solo artists of all time. He has achieved 38 gold and 31 platinum or multi-platinum albums, has sold more than 250 million records worldwide, and holds the record for the biggest selling single of all time. Since launching his first tour in 1970, Elton has over 4,000 performances in more than 80 countries to his credit.\n2010s\nIntro\nElton is the third most successful artist in the history of the American charts, behind only Elvis Presley and the Beatles. He has had 56 top 40 singles in the United States, a total second only to Elvis Presley. He achieved seven #1 albums in the three-and-a-half-year period from 1972 to 1975 — a period of concentrated success surpassed only by the Beatles.\nElton was born on March 25, 1947, in Pinner, Middlesex, England, and given the name Reginald Kenneth Dwight. At the age of three he astonished his family by sitting at the piano and playing The Skater’s Waltz by ear. At the age of 11 he was awarded a scholarship as a Junior Exhibitor at the Royal Academy of Music and he attended the Academy on Saturday mornings for the next four years.\nElton in smart winter coat\nElton playing piano at age 6\nBesides his knighthood, Elton’s landmark awards include Best British Male Artist BRIT Award, 1991; Songwriters Hall of Fame (with Bernie Taupin), 1992; Officer of Arts & Letters (France) 1993; induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, 1994; Polar Music Prize, 1995; MusiCares Person of the Year, 2000; Kennedy Center Honor, 2004; Billboard Magazine Legend of Live Award, 2006; Songwriters Hall of Fame Johnny Mercer Award (with Bernie Taupin), 2013; BRITs Icon Award, 2013; Rockefeller Foundation Lifetime Achievement Award, 2013 and the Harvard School of Public Health AIDS Initiative Leadership Award, 2013. In 2002, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the Royal Academy of Music and in 2004 he became a Fellow of the British Academy of Songwriters and Composers.\nElton has won 12 Ivor Novello Awards between 1973 and 2000, been nominated for a Grammy Award 11 times (winning in 1986, 1991, 1994, 1997 and 2000), and received the Grammy Legend Award in 2001. Three of his albums have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, including his 1970 eponymous album. Elton has 3 Oscar Award nominations (winning in 1995), and a Tony Award (with 4 nominations) for Best Original Score for Elton John and Tim Rice’s Aida in 2000.\n1960s\nElton in 1969\nElton’s live performances began in 1962 when he played weekend pub piano at The Northwood Hills hotel and went on to join his first band, The Corvettes. A year later members of this band reformed as Bluesology. Between 1965 and 1967, Elton played keyboard with Bluesology as they gigged throughout the UK, often backing visiting American artists. Elton’s stage name, which became his legal name in 1967, was taken from the Bluesology saxophonist Elton Dean, and their lead singer, Long John Baldry.\nWriter Bernie Taupin was born in Lincolnshire, UK, on May 22, 1950. In 1967, both Bernie and Elton answered a “Talent Wanted” advert that was placed in the New Musical Express by Liberty Records. Ray Williams at Liberty Records put Elton in touch with Bernie, and they started to write songs together, initially corresponding by mail. They have maintained this method of songwriting throughout their career, and have still never written a song together in the same room. Most unusually, Bernie writes the lyrics first and Elton then composes the music.\nIn 1968, they became staff songwriters for Dick James’ DJM label. From the start Elton and Bernie were prolific songwriters, writing for other artists as well as creating and recording songs for Elton.\n1970s\nPublicity shot of Elton and Bernie Taupin, 1971\nElton’s touring career in Great Britain began in 1970 when he played clubs such as The Revolution, The Roundhouse, The Marquee and The Speakeasy in London, as well as Mothers in Birmingham and The Twisted Wheel in Manchester. On August 25, 1970, he played his debut concert in America, appearing at The Troubadour in Los Angeles, CA, with his band, which included Nigel Olsson on drums and Dee Murray on bass. The gig received ecstatic reviews and Elton became, literally, an overnight sensation. Since that day he has toured constantly all over North America and throughout the rest of the world.\nIn 1970, Elton’s self-titled breakthrough album and evergreen hit Your Song introduced him to an international stage, and in the period between 1970 and 1976, with producer Gus Dudgeon at the helm, Elton recorded an astonishing fourteen albums: Elton John; Tumbleweed Connection; 11-17-70; Friends Soundtrack; Madman Across The Water; Honky Chateau; Don’t Shoot Me, I’m Only The Piano Player; Goodbye Yellow Brick Road; Caribou; Greatest Hits; Captain Fantastic And The Brown Dirt Cowboy; Rock Of The Westies; Here And There and Blue Moves. Amongst these, Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy was the first album ever to enter the Billboard Chart at #1. Goodbye Yellow Brick Road, with its string of hit singles (Saturday Night’s Alright For Fighting, Goodbye Yellow Brick Road, Bennie And The Jets and Candle In The Wind), and unbroken two-month run at the top of the Billboard Top 100, became and remains an all-time classic.\nElton in feathered glasses, 1974\nMany — though certainly not all — of Elton’s greatest hit singles were released during the 1970s: Rocket Man, Honky Cat, Crocodile Rock, Daniel, Saturday Night’s Alright For Fighting, Goodbye Yellow Brick Road, Step Into Christmas, Bennie And The Jets, Don’t Let The Sun Go Down On Me, The Bitch Is Back, Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds, Philadelphia Freedom, Someone Saved My Life Tonight, Island Girl, Don’t Go Breaking My Heart (the duet with Kiki Dee) and Sorry Seems To Be The Hardest Word. In 1973, Elton founded The Rocket Record Company, and later left DJM to record on his own label.\nIn 1974, Elton performed on John Lennon’s comeback single Whatever Gets You Thru The Night, and later that year was joined by Lennon onstage at New York’s Madison Square Garden. This performance, always cited by Elton as one of the most memorable of his entire career, was to be John Lennon’s final concert.\nElton’s 1977 sessions with Philly Soul producer Thom Bell gave him with a #1 UK hit in 2003 with Are You Ready For Love, when it was re-released due to demand from influential British DJs.\n1980s & 1990s\nElton and Tim Rice with their Oscars for Can You Feel The Love Tonight, 1995\nIn the 1980s he had hits with the albums 21 At 33, Jump Up! (which included the smash single Blue Eyes and the much-loved Lennon tribute Empty Garden), and Too Low For Zero, the home of two of Elton’s live favourites, I Guess That’s Why They Call It The Blues and I’m Still Standing.\nIn 1992 in the US, and in 1993 in the UK, Elton established the Elton John AIDS Foundation , his pioneering charity dedicated to breakthrough work on behalf of those around the world suffering from HIV and related illnesses. Together, the two organizations have raised more than $300 million in support of worthy projects in 55 countries around the world.\n1993 saw the release of the double-platinum album The One. During the 1990s Elton collaborated with Tim Rice on music for Disney’s The Lion King , winning a Best Male Pop Grammy, and also his first Academy Award for Can You Feel The Love Tonight? Elton later worked with Tim Rice on the Broadway smash Aida. This musical, which opened in 2000 and gave 1,852 performances, earned four Tonys, including Best Musical Score. Billy Elliot The Musical , with music by Elton John and lyrics by Lee Hall, was launched on the London stage in 2005. It is staggeringly successful with audiences and critics on both sides of the Atlantic and has won multiple awards including 10 Tonys.\nOnly one artist can have the biggest selling single of all time, and since 1997 Elton has held that record. Candle in the Wind 1997, Elton and Bernie’s heartfelt tribute to the late Diana, Princess of Wales, has sold over 33,000,000 copies, and raised millions for the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund. In 1998, Elton received a knighthood from HM Queen Elizabeth II for “services to music and charitable services” and became Sir Elton Hercules John, CBE.\n2000s\nElton onstage at Barossa Arts and\nConvention Center, November 24, 2007\nThis millennium has seen Elton at the top of his game, continuing to play frequent, sell-out concerts all over the world. In 2004, Elton and the band began a residency with The Red Piano show at the Caesars Palace Colosseum in Las Vegas. Originally booked for 75 shows over three years, The Red Piano exceeded all expectations and proved so popular with audiences that Elton completed the original commitment in only 18 months, and the run was extended by an additional 166 shows to a final engagement total of 241, ending in April 2009.\nFive decades since the 1969 release of his first album, Empty Sky, Elton John continues to create superb music. The 2001 album Songs From The West Coast gave him another smash hit single with I Want Love, as well as the fan favourite, Original Sin. In 2005, following the release of the deluxe edition of Peachtree Road, which included three new songs from Billy Elliot The Musical, Elton achieved another hit single with the Billy Elliot song Electricity. The following year fans were delighted when Elton and Bernie at last wrote a sequel to Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy, the much-loved The Captain And The Kid.\nIn 2007, Elton released Rocket Man – The Definitive Hits, a single CD album that features 18 classic hit songs. Also in 2007, for the first time ever, Elton’s entire back catalogue of nearly 500 tracks (90 singles and 32 albums) became available to download legally. In 2010 he recorded a new studio album, The Union, in collaboration with his and Bernie’s musical hero Leon Russell, which was produced by T-Bone Burnett. This international hit album reached #3 in the Billboard Hot 100 album chart and was also voted #3 in Rolling Stone’s top albums of 2010. In April 2011, the Tribeca Film Festival opened with the world premiere of Cameron Crowe’s documentary, The Union, which captured, for the first time ever, the writing and recording of an Elton John album.\nThe release of Rocket Man marked a huge anniversary for Elton — on March 25, 2007, he celebrated his 60th birthday while breaking his own record with an unmatched 60th concert at the legendary Madison Square Garden in New York.\nElton entered into a civil partnership with David Furnish on December 21, 2005, the first day it was possible to do so in Britain.\n2010s\nElton in The Million Dollar Piano show, 2011\nElton and David’s first son, Zachary, was born by surrogacy on December 25, 2010, and their second son, Elijah, was born by surrogacy on January 11, 2013. Rocket Pictures, the film company headed up by David Furnish, is highly successful and in 2011 Elton and David were co-producers of the animated film Gnomeo & Juliet, with Elton writing the music. The film took nearly $200,000,000, and plans are now firmly under way for a sequel.\nElton remains committed to his music and has become more, rather than less, busy as time passes. In 2011, as well as touring in Europe, Australia and North America both solo and with his band, now augmented with Croatian duo 2CELLOS, Elton returned to The Colosseum, Caesars Palace, Las Vegas with his all-new show, The Million Dollar Piano . This production received fantastic reviews and included a welcome return to the show for Elton’s former percussionist Ray Cooper. In 2012 he toured North, Central and South America, before heading to Europe. 2012 also gave Elton a UK #1 album, his first in 22 years, with Good Morning To The Night, the remix project by Elton John versus Pnau. This album introduced Elton’s music to a new, young audience who sang along heartily to Your Song when Elton performed it at a summer festival in Ibiza. Elton’s summer tour of Europe included an unforgettable appearance at The Queen’s Diamond Jubilee concert at Buckingham Palace.\nElton and his band continued to tour throughout 2013, visiting South and North America, Europe, the UK (including a stellar performance at Bestival on the Isle of Wight) and Russia. He also made several television appearances in the US and UK, including the 2013 Grammy Awards — joining Ed Sheeran and a tribute to the late Levon Helm, the Lady Gaga & The Muppets’ Holiday Spectacular, and the BRITs Icon Award, of which he was the first recipient.\nIn September 2013, Elton released his 32nd studio album, The Diving Board, which entered the UK and US charts at #’s 3 and 4 respectively. Its first single, Home Again, entered the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart at #16, making it the 69th time an Elton song has thus appeared — a number that leads all other artists on that chart. The 15-song album, once again produced by T Bone Burnett, was met with great critical acclaim, as were Elton’s promotional appearances at the iTunes Festival in London, the iHeartRadio Music Festival in Las Vegas, and the 65th Annual Primetime Emmy Awards. In December, Elton played his 63rd and 64th concerts at New York City’s Madison Square Garden, adding to his incredible number of sold-out performances at that esteemed venue.\n2014 saw a Special Edition anniversary release of Elton’s 1973 album, Goodbye Yellow Brick Road, as well as the DVD and Blu-ray release of The Million Dollar Piano. Elton also appeared on 2014 releases by Smokey Robinson, Bright Light Bright Light, Engelbert Humperdinck and the BBC Music 2014 ensemble for God Only Knows. In addition, The Lion King stage musical, which Elton wrote the music for, was named the highest-grossing production in theater or cinema history.\nElton performed solo, with his band and as a guest artist at 105 concerts and private events during the year, starting with his Follow The Yellow Brick Road Tour show at the Covelli Centre in Youngstown, OH on February 1 and ending with a party-atmosphere concert on New Year’s Eve at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, NY. He played in 20 countries: Belarus, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Dominican Republic*, Ecuador*, England, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Monaco, Norway, Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the USA. (* These were Elton’s first performances in these countries.)\nSome of the many performance highlights in 2014 included his appearances at the Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival, the Ice Hall Palace in Saint Petersburg (where drummer Nigel Olsson marked his 2000th show with Elton), his duet with Ed Sheeran on Candle In The Wind at his Academy Awards Viewing Party at the Pacific Design Center and his duet with Sara Bareilles on her song Gravity at The Breast Cancer Research Foundation® Hot Pink Party in New York City.\nElton also had some marvelous personal moments during 2014. He and David Furnish got married on December 21 at their home in England and Elton had a stand named after him at his beloved Watford FC Vicarage Road stadium the same month.\nIn 2015, Elton recorded 14 songs for his next album (2016’s Wonderful Crazy Night) over 17 days during sessions in January and April at the Village studios in Los Angeles. That year he performed at 104 concerts and private events, starting with a band show at the Neal S. Blaisdell Arena in Honolulu, Hawaii on January 10 and ending with the closing concert at the venerable Qantas Credit Union Arena (formerly the Sydney Entertainment Centre) in Sydney, Australia. He and the band played in 20 countries in 2015, including his first-ever performance in Andorra, and along the way headlined the New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Festival, the Eden Project in Cornwall, England, and the Rock In Rio Music Festival in Brazil…all to thunderous crowds.\nTwo of Elton’s appearances in 2015 were as a surprise musical guest at a pair of Ed Sheehan concerts, one at London’s Wembley Stadium and one at Allianz Stadium in Sydney. Elton and Ed duetted on Elton’s 1975 #1 hit, Don’t Go Breaking My Heart, as well as Sheehan’s Afire Love. The Wembley appearance can be found on Sheeran’s DVD release, Jumping For Goalposts.\nElton released his 33rd studio album, Wonderful Crazy Night, on February 5, 2016. Co-produced by T Bone Burnett, it became Elton’s 31st top 10 charting album in the UK and his 19th in the US. Its first single, Looking Up, extended Elton’s record for most appearances on Billboard’s Adult Contemporary chart at 71.",
"Greatest Hits by Elton John on Apple Music\n11 Songs\niTunes Review\nElton John’s first best-of set covers all his early ’70s smashes, including thrilling yet heartstring-tugging pop ballads like “Rocket Man,” “Daniel,” and “Don’t Let the Sun Go Down Me,” as well as the gospel-shaded “Border Song” and his first hit single, the lovely piano-driven “Your Song.” “Bennie and the Jets” and “Saturday Night’s Alright for Fighting” are slinky, glitter-tinged rockers, and “Crocodile Rock” is pure ’50s-styled pop perfection. Each seamless hit is a mini epic highlighting Elton’s inexplicable ability to connect with everyone.\nCustomer Reviews\n \nby Golambo\nSir Elton John is definitely one of the best artists in the history of man kind, it seems as if he invented his own type of music to the way he likes it, and i do to. this album definitely has his greatest songs on it, but i think one more should be included (Levon). Rocket Man, Bennie and the Jets, Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting and Crocodile Rock have been favorites since i can remember. Sir Elton John is part of the best of the best and always will be.\nTwo Thumbs Up for Sir Elton John!\n \nby Neener Mac\nI've always been a fan of Elton John; his songs are great. This album really is perfect because a lot of his hits are all on one CD. So get it!! Also, if you like the song \"Rocket Man\" you HAVE to read the short story \"Rocket Man\" by Ray Bradbury on which the song was written after and inspired by. If you compare the two, you'll see what I mean.\na life-changing album\n \nby Terry212am\nQuite simply, this album changed my life. These days, I never listen to it because I own all the albums that these songs come from. If you're just starting to get into Elton John, though, this album covers his great years from 1970-76. These days, I don't really love \"Daniel\" or \"Crocodile Rock,\" but this album is just fantastic. EJ is a true original. He rocks well, but there's something beyond simple rock or simple ballads in his music. Tupac and Mary J Blige have had hits sampling him. He's played with every great rock artist. His music has the best of pop, rock, soul, and classical touches. And that voice. He taught me how to sing. The person that wrote that Elton John didn't write his own songs is misinformed. He co-writes with lyricists, but he writes the music and melodies for all of his songs. All of these songs are co-written (lyrically) by Bernie Taupin. So what? Brian Wilson (of the Beach Boys) had a lyric co-writer. Paul McCartney and John Lennon wrote songs together. What's the guy's point? Oh, and the person that said that Elton John doesn't stand the test of time??? Name an artist who had had as many hits over such a long period of time and is still recognized today? Sure, EJ isn't churning out hits like he used to, but he's still relevant enough to have collaborated with boy bands and Eminem. I'd love to hear someone name an artist with as much staying power as Elton John. Even more \"important\" bands folded DECADES before Elton hit harder times. EJ is about 60. He's entitled to slow down, and that doesn't invalidate any of his earlier work. Anyone who thinks that you should forget ALL music that's more than a few years old needs to get a bit older...we'll see if he holds on to that opinion when he's 30 or so.\nBiography\nBorn: March 25, 1947 in Pinner, Middlesex, England\nGenre: Pop\nYears Active: '60s, '70s, '80s, '90s, '00s, '10s\nElton John was the biggest pop star of the '70s, grabbing headlines and generating hits throughout the world. As it turned out, this was merely the first act in a remarkable career that kept him at the top of the charts for over 25 years. He charted a Top 40 hit single every year between 1970 and 1996, a sign that he knew how to both change with the times and mold the times to fit him. Initially marketed as a singer/songwriter, John soon revealed he could craft Beatlesque pop and pound out rockers...\nTop Albums and Songs by Elton John\n1."
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In which decade was the Oral Roberts University founded at Tulsa?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Oral Roberts University (ORU), based in Tulsa, Oklahoma, in the United States, is an interdenominational, Christian, comprehensive liberal arts university with an enrollment of about 3,661 students. Founded in 1963, the university is named after its late founder, evangelist Oral Roberts, and accredited by the Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools (NCA).\n\nThe school fronts on South Lewis Avenue between East 75th Street and East 81st Street in South Tulsa. Sitting on a 263 acre campus, ORU offers over 65 undergraduate degree programs along with a number of masters and doctoral degrees. ORU is classified as Master's University by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. ORU was also ranked as one of 123 institutions in the 2012 \"Best in the West\" regional list produced by The Princeton Review.\n\nEducation \n\nORU offers undergraduate programs in theology, business, music, communication arts, modern languages, behavioral sciences, graphics, education, biology, chemistry, computer science, mathematical science, engineering, physics, English, history, humanities, government and nursing. The university also has a graduate seminary and fully accredited graduate programs in Business and Education.\n\nStudents in the College of Science and Engineering with a GPA of 3.4 or higher have an 86% medical school acceptance rate and 75% dental school acceptance rate. ORU students have been accepted into more than 70 medical schools nationally, including Johns Hopkins University, Washington University, and Duke University. Because of the high acceptance rates for medicine, ORU signed an early assurance program with Oklahoma State University college of Osteopathic Medicine in 2011, allowing high achieving students to receive conditional admission to OSU's medical school program. ORU is also one of the few undergraduate colleges in the southwest to have a human cadaver dissection class. While ORU is considered a Christian University, the College of Science and Engineering does not ignore evolutionary theories to teach Creationism.\n\nORU is fully accredited by the Higher Learning Commission, one of two commission members of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools (NCA), which was founded in 1895 as one of six regional institutional accreditors in the United States. A major distinction of ORU is its high number of additional specialized program accreditations, especially for a university of its size. The following is a list of the academic colleges with the recognition of specialized accreditation, along with the name of the accrediting body.\n\nHistory \n\nThe university was founded by Oral Roberts in 1965 \"as a result of the evangelist Oral Roberts' obeying God’s mandate to build a university on God’s authority and the Holy Spirit. God’s commission to Oral Roberts was to 'Raise up your students to hear My voice, to go where My light is dim, where My voice is heard small, and My healing power is not known, even to the uttermost bounds of the earth. Their work will exceed yours, and in this I am well pleased'.\" The first students enrolled in 1965.\n\nThe school was accredited in 1971 by the Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. It is also accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada.[http://www.ats.edu/member_schools/oralrobt.asp Member Schools] Oral Roberts' son Richard Roberts was named president in 1993. In October 2007 Roberts took a leave of absence, citing a lawsuit filed by former ORU professors. Tulsa evangelist Billy Joe Daugherty and Oral Roberts were named executive regent and interim president of the university amid a widely publicized scandal and Richard Roberts resigned the following month.\n\nIn October 2007 the school was reportedly \"struggling financially\" with over $50 million in debt. ORU's operating budget for 2007-2008 was more than $82 million. However, in the second quarter of 2009, the university's debt was reduced to $720,000 as of result of a number of simultaneous efforts including a $70 million gift from the Mart Green family of Oklahoma City and the $25 Million Dollar Matching Campaign, a part of the university's Renewing the Vision effort. On September 23, 2009, it was announced at the end of the university's chapel service that all of the university's long-term debt obligations had been met and the school was debt-free. \n\nIn January 2009, the university's presidential search committee recommended Mark Rutland, President of Southeastern University of the Assemblies of God in Florida, to succeed Richard Roberts, which the Board of Trustees approved. Rutland took office on July 1, 2009 as the third president. \n\n1963–2007 \n\nGround was officially broken for Oral Roberts' university in 1962 in the southern part of the city of Tulsa, Oklahoma. The university received its charter the following year in 1963 from the State of Oklahoma and Oral Roberts University officially opened in 1965 with an enrollment of 300 students and with seven major completed buildings. Oral Roberts placed special importance on the Prayer Tower, even though the concept of a building specifically dedicated to prayer located at the center of the campus caused some considerable tension, as some academic leaders were afraid the school would be unable to receive accreditation with such a building. However, the tower, designed by architect Frank Wallace, was completed in 1967 at a cost of two million dollars, a further source of contention. After the tower's completion, Roberts called for a three-day period of prayer and fasting. At the university's dedication ceremony in 1967, the evangelist Billy Graham was the keynote speaker.\n\nThe first partial graduation took place in 1968 and the first full graduation in 1969. In 1971, Roberts announced to the student body that Oral Roberts University had been fully accredited for ten years by the North Central Association, to which the students responded by lifting Roberts off the stage and carrying him around the outdoor assembly amid the cheers of supporters.\n\nDuring the first decade of the school's existence, enrollment increased at a rapid pace; also during this time, many of the campus' iconic structures were completed, such as the Howard Auditorium, the Graduate Center, the Mabee Center, and Christ's Chapel among others.\n\nThe university built the City of Faith Medical and Research Center hospital, which opened in 1981, and started the Oral Roberts University School of Medicine in 1978, but severe financial difficulties with both of these institutions led to their closure in 1989.\n\nThe O. W. Coburn School of Law opened in 1979. In 1986 the university \"shut down its ailing law school and sent its library to Pat Robertson's Bible-based college in Virginia\", which subsequently founded the Regent University School of Law. \n\nGolden Eagle Broadcasting \n\nIn January 1996 Golden Eagle Broadcasting, a small digital satellite Christian and family programming television network owned and operated by Oral Roberts University, was founded. Programming includes the Oral Roberts University Chapel Service, called The Gathering, ORU sports, and other Christian programs not associated with ORU.\n\n2007 \n\nIn October 2007, a lawsuit was filed in Tulsa County by three former professors who claimed to have been wrongfully terminated. They also alleged university president Richard Roberts misused university assets and illegally ordered the university to participate in Republican candidate Randi Miller's political campaign for Tulsa mayor. This occurred while the tax-exempt university was working lawfully with the Republican National Committee on out-of-state projects as part of a long-standing, pre-approved curriculum which had been in place for several years. Other allegations against Roberts include claims he used university funds to pay for his daughter's trip to the Bahamas by providing the university jet and billing other costs to the school, maintains a stable of horses on campus and at university expense for the exclusive use of his children, regularly summons university and ministry staff to the Roberts house to do his daughters’ homework, has remodeled his house at university expense 11 times in the past 14 years, allowed the university to be billed both for damage done by his daughters to university-owned golf carts and for video-taped vandalism caused by one of his minor daughters and acquired a red Mercedes convertible and a white Lexus SUV for his wife Lindsay through ministry donors.\n\nLindsay Roberts, who is referred to in ORU publicity as the university's \"first lady,\" is accused of spending tens of thousands of dollars of university funds on clothes, awarding nonacademic scholarships to the children of family friends and sending text messages, mostly sent between 1 a.m. and 3 a.m., on university-issued cell phones to people described in the lawsuit as \"underage males.\" The lawsuit also alleges a longtime maintenance employee was fired for the purpose of giving the job to an underage male friend of Lindsay Roberts. \n\nRichard Roberts told students during his weekly chapel, \"This lawsuit ...is about intimidation, blackmail and extortion.\" Former ORU professor and lawsuit plaintiff Tim Brooker commented, \"All over that campus there are signs up that say, 'And God said, build me a university, build it on my authority, and build it on the Holy Spirit.' Unfortunately, ownership has shifted.\" \n\nUnited Church of Christ minister and former Church of God in Christ Bishop Carlton Pearson, a former protege of Oral Roberts, said Richard Roberts was \"born into privilege... What others may call extravagance he may not see it as extravagant.\" According to CNN, Pearson said he was disappointed but not surprised by the allegations, explaining, \"These kinds of things are common among family-owned and operated businesses and ministries. They don't cross every T and dot every I.\" \n\nOn October 12, the plaintiffs filed an amended lawsuit adding the university's Board of Regents (George Pearsons, Kenneth Copeland, Creflo Dollar, Michael A. Hammer, John Hagee, Marilyn Hickey, Oral Roberts, Richard L. Roberts, Jerry Savelle and\nCharles Watson)\nto the suit and alleging three days after the original lawsuit was filed, Roberts fired the university's financial comptroller (who had been employed by ORU for 26 years) and \"witnesses have reported voluminous materials and documents were shredded and destroyed, constituting spoilation of evidence.\" The filing also alleged Lindsay Roberts had spent at least nine nights in the ORU guest house with an underage 16-year-old male who also was allowed to live in the Roberts family residence on campus, a situation which made their oldest daughter so uncomfortable, she insisted deadbolt locks be installed on all bedroom doors in the house. \n\nIn a written response to the later allegations Lindsay Roberts said, \"I live my life in a morally upright manner and throughout my marriage have never, ever engaged in any sexual behavior with any man outside of my marriage as the accusations imply. Allegations against me in a lawsuit yesterday are not true. They sicken me to my soul.\" In a separate written statement the university denied \"purposely or improperly\" destroying documents. \n\nResignation of Richard Roberts \n\nOn October 17, Richard Roberts announced a \"temporary leave of absence\" as president of the university, citing the \"toll\" the lawsuit and attendant allegations have taken on him and his family. Billy Joe Daugherty of Victory Christian Center became Executive Regent of the Board of Regents and Interim President. Chairman of the Board George Pearsons noted the temporary resignation was not an admission of guilt. \n\nIn November 2007, former board of regents member Harry McNevin claimed that during the 1980s, the ORU Board of Regents \"rubber-stamped\" the \"use of millions in endowment money to buy a Beverly Hills property so Oral Roberts could have a West Coast office and house.\" McNevin also said a country club membership was purchased for Oral Roberts' home. \"His idea was if he could get on the golf course with these people, he could get donations for the university,\" said McNevin. These lavish expenses led McNevin to resign from the board in 1987.\n\nIn a wrongful termination lawsuit filed against the university on November 21, 2007, former ORU senior accountant Trent Huddleston claimed he had been ordered to help Roberts and his wife \"cook the books\" by misclassifying nearly $123,000 in funds allegedly spent by the university on remodeling the Roberts home. \n\nOn November 13, the tenured faculty of Oral Roberts University approved by a simple majority a non-binding vote of no confidence in Richard Roberts. \n\nRoberts tendered his letter of resignation to the university's board of regents on November 23, effective immediately. In a prepared email statement released by the university, he said, \"I love ORU with all my heart. I love the students, faculty, staff and administration and I want to see God's best for all of them.\" The regents said they would meet the following week to discuss the search for a new president. Executive regent Billy Joe Daugherty continued as interim president (working with chancellor Oral Roberts). \n\n\"You can't take the sacrifices of God's people and use them any old way,\" McNevin commented after Roberts' resignation. \"It's been 20 years that they've been doing the same things that I became aware of.\" \n\nAftermath \n\nOn November 27, Pearsons said the university planned to separate its finances and leadership from the Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association, to the apparent approval of many students and faculty members. On 10 January 2008 ORU settled with lawsuit plaintiff John Swails who was reinstated to his previous teaching position. The school also announced a formal search committee for a new president, to be headed by board of regents member and Tulsa resident Glenda Payas. \n\n2008–present \n\nOn January 14, 2008, Oral Roberts University’s board of regents voted unanimously to accept $62 million from the Mart Green family, founders of Hobby Lobby and Mardel educational and Christian supply stores. In late October, an ORU spokesman had said ORU was $52.5 million in debt and the school accepted an unconditional $8 million from the Greens in late November. ORU’s board of regents has been replaced with a 23-member board of trustees all initially named by the Greens, with Mart Green as chairman. Although Green said in November, two family members would sit on the board, he will reportedly be the only one. Green said he wanted to be involved in ORU because his family “felt like financial stewardship needed to be shored up.” \n\nCampus renovations and layoffs \n\nOf the $82 million given to Oral Roberts University, around half went toward eliminating the university's $52 million debt. The remaining $32 million was allocated to, \"campus renovations, technology upgrades, academic enhancement, financial aid for new and returning students, marketing and operations,\" according to the university website. During the summer of 2008, $10 million went toward campus upgrades and deferred maintenance. Many of the dormitories on campus received extensive renovations and most of the campus's other buildings received much needed restoration and upgrades. \n\nIn January 2009, the University began to implement the employment reduction plans announced in November 2008, laying off 53 employees and cutting about 40 unfilled positions. According to university sources, these layoffs come as the administration and Board of Trustees seeks long-term financial viability for the university. \n\nOn January 29, 2009, it was announced that the Green family would commit an additional $10.4 million to go toward additional campus renovations and upgrades to take place during summer 2009. About the gift, Mart Green, who is chair of ORU's board of trustees, said, \"This gift will help to improve the quality of education for students at the new ORU. Our family is excited to continue partnering with ORU financially to ensure this great university continues to provide an excellent, whole-person education.\" \n\nRenewing the Vision campaign \n\nFollowing Mart Green's contribution, the university's debt was reduced to $25 million. In February 2008, the Renewing the Vision campaign was initiated in an effort to erase this debt. To free the university from its burgeoning debt, the Board of Trustees announced plans for a $25 million matching campaign, in which the Board agreed that it would match dollar-for-dollar all that was donated to the university as part of the Renewing the Vision campaign, up to a maximum of $25 million. ORU Interim President Ralph Fagin stated, \"The goal is in one year to get the debt down. It is a pretty audacious goal. It is a faith goal.\" In addition to eliminating the debt, funds from the Renewing the Vision campaign contributed to the 2008 summer campus renovations as well as scholarships provided by the university. As of June 3, 2009, donations and pledges had reduced the university's original $50 million debt to $720,000. \n\nOn April 15, 2009, a $1 million donation was made to the school's Whole Person Scholarship fund by Chairman of the Armand Hammer Foundation and university trustee Michael Armand Hammer, son of Julian Armand Hammer and grandson of the late industrialist Armand Hammer. Hammer's donation will be matched twice and, in the end, will amount to a $4 million donation to the university. The donation will contribute to a new scholarship initiative that seeks to find potential students who are well-rounded and already exhibit the characteristics of a person who is spiritually alive, intellectually alert, physically disciplined, and socially adept. The Whole Person Scholarship provides scholarships that vary from full-tuition down to $2,500 to students who meet the aforementioned criteria. \n\nPresidential inauguration of Mark Rutland and debt-free status \n\nIn January 2009, it was reported that ORU had selected a new president: Mark Rutland, president of Southeastern University in Lakeland, Florida. On January 14, Rutland confirmed that he had been offered the position, and intended to accept it. Rutland was formally announced as the new president on January 28, 2009. He officially took office on July 1, 2009.\n\nOn September 23, 2009, at the university's twice-per-week chapel service, President Mark Rutland announced that all of the university's long-term debt obligations had been met and the school was now debt-free. Rutland had indicated in an interview earlier in the year that he had expected the announcement for quite some time and that he could have paid the debt down when he took office in July, \"But that's like making a hole in one with nobody on the golf course.\" He told the Associated Press, \"So, we're going to wait until school starts ... and then we'll have a 'ta-dah' moment.\"\n\nAbout the erasing of the university's debt, Chairman of the Board of Trustees Mart Green said, \"We are extremely thankful to all the donors who stepped up to support ORU. They know the value of this university and they can see the product that ORU produces – excellent, whole-person graduates who are valuable to this community and to the world.\" Donations from alumni contributed heavily to the university becoming free: prior to the 2007 scandal, less than 6 percent of alumni donated to the university; however, as a result of the Renewing the Vision campaign, donations from alumni rose from $763,000 in 2007 to $2.3 million in 2009.\n\nThe announcement was made two days before the September 25, 2009, inauguration ceremony for Rutland held at the Mabee Center on the university campus. The first ceremony of its kind in ORU's history, it was attended and addressed by many dignitaries and guests, among them Kathy Taylor, the mayor of Tulsa, and Marilyn Hickey, former member of the ORU Board of Regents. Governor Brad Henry declared September 25, 2009, \"Dr. Mark Rutland Day\". At the ceremony, Rutland received a blessing from the founder and chancellor of the university, Oral Roberts. \n\nIn December 2010, ORU announced that the Green family would make another $10 million gift in 2011, to be used for renovations and technology improvements. The gift raised the Greens' total donations to $110 million. \n\nOn January 31, 2013, ORU announced that William \"Billy\" Wilson, executive director of the International Center for Spiritual Renewal and vice-chair of the ORU board of trustees, had been selected to succeed Rutland as president, effective on July 1, 2013. A day earlier, the ORU student newspaper had briefly posted an erroneous report on its website, mistakenly identifying a different person as the new president. Rutland criticized the report at a student assembly and the newspaper's longtime faculty adviser left the school the next day. \n\nCampus life \n\nThe university's residential policy requires all unmarried undergraduate students who are younger than 25 to live on campus, although exceptions are made for those students who live with their parents within the Tulsa area. Men and women are housed in separate dormitory facilities on campus with student access to housing of the opposite sex largely restricted. In addition to having a chaplain on every \"wing\" of each dormitory, there are also Residential Advisers for each floor, who enforce curfew, take attendance at Chapel services, and serve as \"go-to persons\" for students living on their floors. As well, each floor has an Academic Peer Adviser (APA) who serves to offer or facilitate tutoring services to students who need assistance with their studies; the APA also keeps students informed of academic news and obligations. Every Monday night is a mandatory Hall Meeting at which announcements are made by dorm leadership. \n\nStudent codes \n\nAll students are required to sign a pledge stating they will live according to the university's honor code. Prohibited activities include lying, cursing, smoking, drinking, and a range of sexual acts including homosexual behavior and sex outside marriage. In early 2003, the student dress code was relaxed for the first time in 40 years and described as business casual. For most of the school's history, men were required to wear collared shirts and ties, while women were required to wear skirts (an exception for winter months was added in 2000). In 2006, campus-wide dress code rules were eased even further, allowing students to wear jeans to class and dress even more casually in non-academic settings. Since 2009, men are allowed to have neatly trimmed facial hair. There used to be restrictions on men concerning hair length, but these were relaxed in 2013. \n\nChapel \n\nThe university has bi-weekly chapel services in Christ's Chapel which are recorded and broadcast live through the university's television station and also via satellite. The television broadcast, called \"ORU Alive,\" is directed from the television studios in the Mabee Center while the cameras and sound equipment are manned by students.\n\nA typical chapel service features contemporary worship, a missions offering, special music, and a sermon, typically from the President of the University, Dr. William Wilson, as well as special guests, including some of the world's biggest and most well-known pastors, evangelists, and spiritual leaders. Attendance at Chapel is mandatory and attendance is taken by student leadership.\n\nFuturistic architecture \n\nThe campus was built beginning in 1963 with a noted futuristic look and architecture. Architects Stanfield, Imel & Walton of Tulsa designed the 1963 master plan but most of the buildings were designed by Tulsa architect Frank Wallace. Interviewed in 2010, Wallace characterized his ORU buildings as \"sculptures\", noting that an inspiration for his artistic sensibility was \"whittling since I was a kid\". It has also been suggested that the buildings may have been inspired by Tulsa's art deco architectural heritage along with Bruce Goff's individualistic style and creative use of new materials. By 2007 the campus was described as \"a perfect representation of the popular modernistic architecture of the time... the set of the The Jetsons\" but also \"shabby\" and \"dated, like Disney's Tomorrowland.\"Justin Juozapavicius, Associated Press, [http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5j9XJtq8scoszIFZLWUjrR8mPuBFQD8S38PR80 Scandal Brewing at Oral Roberts U.], 5 October 2007 retrieved 7 October 2007. Maintenance of the many unique but aging buildings, structures and architectural details on campus was cited as a growing problem for the university. In 2008, $10 million was set aside from Green family donations for long deferred maintenance on many campus buildings, along with the prayer tower. Another $10 million was donated by the Green family and budgeted for work during the summer of 2009. \n\nThe front entrance onto campus is a divided, landscaped roadway, originally called The Avenue of Flags and now renamed Billy Joe Daugherty circle, lined with lighted flags representing the more than 60 nations from which ORU students have been drawn.\n\nThe main academic building is the John D. Messick Learning Resource Center / Marajen Chinigo Graduate Center, an immense 900,000 square foot (80,000 m²) facility with many pylon-like columns, gold-tinted windows and a lozenge shaped footprint which university publicity says was styled after King Solomon's Temple. The Howard Auditorium is a gold, Buckminster Fuller style geodesic dome which is used for movies, theatre productions, classes and seminars. Bi-weekly university chapel services are held in Christ's Chapel, a 3,500 seat building constructed in drape-like fashion as an echo of Oral Roberts' early tent revivals. The Googie style Prayer Tower at the center of campus was intended to resemble \"an abstract cross and Crown of Thorns\" and also houses a visitor center. The Mabee Center is an 11,000 seat arena on the southwestern edge of campus and is used for basketball games, concerts, church services and satellite television productions. Timko-Barton Hall houses musical and theatrical performance halls as well as classrooms devoted to the university's programs in the performing arts. The building's performance halls are often the scene of concerts and recitals by performing arts students.\n\nThe Kenneth H. Cooper Aerobics Center houses basketball courts, an elevated running track, a free-weights and exercise room, a swimming pool and classrooms for students who are enrolled in health fitness courses (a requirement for all students). J.L. Johnson Stadium is a 2,200 seat baseball stadium located on the north of the campus.\n\nThe Armand Hammer Alumni-Student Center was designed by KSQ Architects, PC, and constructed and completed in 2013. It is the first building to be built on the ORU campus in decades. It totes the largest TV in Oklahoma, a \"living room\" for students, a gaming center equipped with Wii's and Xbox's, pool tables, ping pong, and more. The building is a modern design fitting for the campus. Students also enjoy addition restaurants and a coffee shop. The Armand Hammer Student-Alumni Center also houses student government offices as well as board rooms for special meetings. No classes meet in this building; it is strictly for the use and enjoyment of the student body.\n\nThe Hamill Student Center is located between Ellis Melvin Roberts and Claudius Priscilla Roberts Halls and houses restaurants on its lower level. Zoppelt Auditorium is located on the ground level and is often used as a lecture hall for classes, forums and special events. Campus Security and the \"Fireside Room\" are also on ground level with the university cafeteria (called \"Saga\" by students) on the upper level. \n\nHousing \n\nThere are eight dormitories on campus. Seven are in use.\n\n* Claudius Priscilla Roberts Hall is a seven-story building built in 1965 which can house up to 600 women. Called \"Claudius\" by students, the building is named after Oral Roberts' mother.\n* Ellis Melvin Roberts Hall is a seven-story building also built in 1967 which can house up to 600 men. Called \"EMR\" by campus residents, this dormitory is similar to Claudius Priscilla Roberts Hall but has some differences, notably walls made of concrete blocks rather than sheetrock, two elevators instead of one and laundry facilities located in the basement instead of every floor. According to the university, these two tri-winged buildings are meant to reflect the Trinity. \n\n* Frances Cardone Hall (originally named Ethel Hughes Hall) is a twelve-story building for housing up to 372 women. This is one of the four \"Towers\" dormitories, which are meant to represent the Star of David. The building is called \"Frances\" by university students.\n* Michael Cardone, Sr. Hall (originally named Edward Hughes Hall) is the twin dormitory to Frances and houses up to 372 men. It is linked to the three other Towers dormitories by a central hallway and the main lobby area, called the \"Fishbowl\" for its glass exterior walls.\n* Susie Vinson Hall is one of two shorter \"Towers\" housing 244 women on eight stories and known as \"Susie.\"\n* Wesley Leuhring Hall, called \"Wesley\" by students, is the twin dormitory of \"Susie\" and is much alike in both capacity and design.\n* Gabrielle Christian Salem Hall is a three-story split-level dormitory located west of Timko-Barton Hall and called \"Gabby\" by the students. It can house up to 240 women and has secured doors which open using university issued cards. There are in-room bathroom facilities on the first and second floors.\n\nThe university has strict guidelines concerning student access to the upper floors of residence halls by members of the opposite sex, which is limited to designated occasions called \"Open Dorms.\"\n\nCityPlex Towers \n\nIn 1981, the City of Faith Medical and Research Center opened. The buildings are south of the ORU campus, and were originally built as a 60-story clinic, a 30-story hospital, and a 20-story research center. The original tenants left in 1989 because of financial problems and a lack of demand for medical services. As of 2007, some floors (in the 20-story building) have never been leased. The facility is now mostly leased out as commercial office space under the name CityPlex Towers. A 60 ft (18.2 m), 30 ton bronze sculpture Praying Hands, by sculptor Leonard McMurray (cast in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico in 1980) and originally in front of the towers, was moved to the ORU campus entrance in the summer of 1991. \n\nAthletics \n\nOral Roberts University is a member of The Summit League after leaving its former conference home, Southland Conference, in July 2014. Its athletic programs include basketball, cross country, golf, soccer and tennis along with track and field for men and women. There is also a baseball program for men and volleyball for women.\n\nORU's early sports team nicknames were the Titans for men and the Lady Titans for women, adopted in 1965 by a vote of the student body. On April 30, 1993, all teams for both men and women became known as the Golden Eagles. ORU's current mascot is \"Eli\" the golden eagle, who hatched out of his papier-mâché egg on November 17, 1993 before the start of an exhibition basketball game as the official symbol of a new era in ORU athletics. The mascot's name is an acronym for education, lifeskills and integrity.\n\nThe men's basketball team coached by Scott Sutton went to three straight NCAA tournaments from 2006 to 2008. ORU's women's basketball team has appeared in four NCAA tournaments in the past eight seasons.\n\nThe ORU baseball team has played in 21 NCAA regional tournaments. ORU advanced to the College World Series in 1978. In 2006, ORU advanced to the NCAA Super Regional against Clemson. ORU baseball has won 12 consecutive conference championships and has played in 12 consecutive NCAA regional tournaments (1998 to 2009). \n\nControversy \n\nDoctrine \n\nORU has been criticized for endorsing unorthodox doctrines of faith. Critics cite Oral Roberts' connection with Word of Faith doctrine and how they believe this has been used for self-promotion and justification of economic materialism. Oral Roberts helped pioneer the concept of \"Seed Faith\", which associated acts of God with the results of an individual's previous investment into God's will, like a plant growing from the investment of a seed. Scriptural citations for the doctrine include Luke 6:38 \"Give, and it shall be given unto you, full measure pressed down shaken together and running over shall men give into your bosom; for what measure ye mete, it shall be measured unto you again\". Critics claim this is equivalent to believing miracles can be bought and makes God into a manipulable party.\n\nSome of the earliest criticisms of the Word of Faith movement came from ORU faculty members including Professor Charles Farah and one of his students, Daniel Ray McConnell. McConnell submitted a PhD thesis to the university detailing his assertion that the teachings of the movement are heretical. This was later published as A Different Gospel in 1988. \n\nRamadan disruption\n\nIn February 1997, on the 28th day of Ramadan, several students from Oral Roberts University reportedly disrupted services at a mosque in the city of Tulsa near the University of Tulsa. The students mistakenly thought it was the 27th night of Ramadan, which is the holiest night of the Muslim calendar. Mujeeb Cheema, the chairman of the Islamic Society of Tulsa at that time, told The New York Times that \"Some 20 Oral Roberts students put their hands on the exterior doors and walls of the mosque and prayed for the conversion of the Muslims.\" The students left after police had been summoned to the scene. \n\nA few days after the event, the society received a written apology from the Reverend Bill Shuler, who was the director of religious services on the ORU campus. A university spokesman indicated that the students would not be disciplined and that officials from the university were discussing with the students their accounts of the events, which differed from what was reported by the Muslims attending the religious services. Another Oral Roberts official, Jesse Pisors, further stated that despite the fact that students were praying for the conversion of Muslims, \"their purpose specifically was not to proselytize or to intimidate.\"\n\nLGBT acceptance \n\nCiting alleged discrimination against LGBT students at ORU, in 2006 Soulforce placed the university on its 2006 Equality Ride route and the rally took place on March 20, 2006. University administration refused the activists the right to enter the campus and several were arrested after they entered the campus in spite of the university administration's decision. Soulforce members object to the university's honor code pledge's ban on homosexual activity (i.e., homosexual intercourse). All students are required to sign and abide by the honor code which places the same restriction on all sexual activity performed outside of \"traditional marriage of one man and one woman.\" \n\nWhile homosexual activity is against the school's honor code, many LGBTQ students have still attended the school due to family or personal choice. Over time, ORU alumni have made groups such as ORU-OUT and gay-straight alliances to allow LGBTQ students and alumni to have social support groups. Alumni of the University have also dedicated Facebook groups and petitions to stand against harsh anti-gay laws in Uganda. \n\nReferences in popular culture \n\n*The Simpsons character Ned Flanders is an alumnus of Oral Roberts University. In the episode \"Dead Putting Society,\" Ned mentions his membership in a fraternity, although Oral Roberts University does not have formal fraternities. In another episode, \"I Love Lisa,\" Flanders' degree can be seen hanging on the wall of the Simpsons' home, as Homer scratches out the name \"Ned Flanders\" and scribbles in his own.\n*The musical artist MC 900 Ft. Jesus took his name from an Oral Roberts sermon.\n\nNotable alumni \n\nNotable faculty \n\n* Andrew S.I.D. Lang - mathematical physicist",
"Tulsa is the second-largest city in the state of Oklahoma and 47th-most populous city in the United States. As of July 2015, the population was 403,505, an increase of 11,599 over that reported in the 2010 Census. It is the principal municipality of the Tulsa Metropolitan Area, a region with 981,005 residents in the MSA and 1,151,172 in the CSA. The city serves as the county seat of Tulsa County, the most densely populated county in Oklahoma, with urban development extending into Osage, Rogers, and Wagoner counties.\n\nTulsa was settled between 1828 and 1836 by the Lochapoka Band of Creek Native American tribe. For most of the 20th century, the city held the nickname \"Oil Capital of the World\" and played a major role as one of the most important hubs for the American oil industry. \n\nOnce heavily dependent on the oil industry, economic downturn and subsequent diversification efforts created an economic base in the energy, finance, aviation, telecommunications and technology sectors. The Tulsa Port of Catoosa, at the head of the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System, is the most inland river port in the U.S. with access to international waterways. Two institutions of higher education within the city have sports teams at the NCAA Division I level, Oral Roberts University and the University of Tulsa.\n\nIt is situated on the Arkansas River at the foothills of the Ozark Mountains in northeast Oklahoma, a region of the state known as \"Green Country\". Considered the cultural and arts center of Oklahoma, Tulsa houses two world-renowned art museums, full-time professional opera and ballet companies, and one of the nation's largest concentrations of art deco architecture. The city has been called one of America's most livable large cities by Partners for Livable Communities, Forbes, and Relocate America. FDi Magazine in 2009 ranked the city no. 8 in the U.S. for cities of the future. In 2012, Tulsa was ranked among the top 50 best cities in the United States by BusinessWeek. People from Tulsa are called \"Tulsans\".\n\nHistory\n\n The area where Tulsa now exists was considered Indian Territory when it was first formally settled by the Lochapoka and Creek tribes in 1836. They established a home under the Creek Council Oak Tree at the present day intersection of Cheyenne Avenue and 18th Street, and named their new settlement Tallasi, meaning \"old town\" in the Creek language, which later became \"Tulsa\". The area around Tulsa was also settled by members of the other so-called \"Five Civilized Tribes\" who had relocated to Oklahoma from the Southern United States; most of modern Tulsa is located in the Creek Nation, with parts located in the Cherokee Nation and Osage Nation.\n\nAlthough Oklahoma was not yet a state during the Civil War, the Tulsa area did see its share of fighting. Battle of Chusto-Talasah took place on the north side of Tulsa and a number of battles and skirmishes took place in nearby counties.\n\nIncorporation and \"Oil Capital\" Prosperity\n\nOn January 18, 1898, Tulsa was officially incorporated and elected its first mayor, Edward Calkins. \n\nTulsa was a small town near the banks of the Arkansas River in 1901 when its first oil well, named Sue Bland No. 1, was established. Much of the oil was discovered on land whose mineral rights were owned by members of the Osage Nation under a system of headrights. By 1905, the discovery of the large Glenn Pool (located approximately 15 miles south of downtown Tulsa and site of the present-day town of Glenpool) prompted a rush of entrepreneurs to the area's growing number of oil fields; Tulsa's population swelled to over 140,000 between 1901 and 1930. By 1909, seven years after the discovery of oil in the area, Tulsa's population had sprouted to 180,000. Unlike the early settlers of Northeastern Oklahoma, who most frequently migrated from the South and Texas, many of these new oil-driven settlers came to Tulsa from the commercial centers of the East Coast and lower Midwest. This migration distinguished the city's demographics from neighboring communities (Tulsa has larger and more prominent Catholic and Jewish populations than most Oklahoma cities) and is reflected in the designs of early Tulsa's upscale neighborhoods.\n\nKnown as the \"Oil Capital of the World\" for most of the 20th century, the city's success in the energy industry prompted construction booms in the popular Art Deco style of the time. Profits from the oil industry continued through the Great Depression, helping the city's economy fare better than most in the United States during the 1930s. \n\nIn the early 20th century, Tulsa was home to the \"Black Wall Street\", one of the most prosperous black communities in the United States at the time. Located in the Greenwood neighborhood, it was the site of the Tulsa Race Riot, one of the nation's worst acts of racial violence and civil disorder, with whites attacking blacks. Sixteen hours of rioting on May 31 and June 1, 1921, was only ended when National Guardsmen were brought in by the Governor. An official report later claimed that 23 black and 16 white citizens were killed, but other estimates suggest as many as 300 people died, most of them black. Over 800 people were admitted to local hospitals with injuries, and an estimated 10,000 people were left homeless as 35 city blocks, composed of 1,256 residences, were destroyed by fire. Property damage was estimated at . Efforts to obtain reparations for survivors of the violence have been unsuccessful but the city and state re-examined the events in the early 21st century, acknowledging the terrible actions that had taken place. \n\nIn 1925, Tulsa businessman Cyrus Avery, known as the \"Father of Route 66,\" began his campaign to create a road linking Chicago to Los Angeles by establishing the U.S. Highway 66 Association in Tulsa, earning the city the nickname the \"Birthplace of Route 66\". Once completed, U.S. Route 66 took an important role in Tulsa's development as the city served as a popular rest stop for travelers, who were greeted by Route 66 icons such as the Meadow Gold Sign and the Blue Whale of Catoosa. During this period, Bob Wills and his group, The Texas Playboys, began their long performing stint at a small ballroom in downtown Tulsa. In 1935, Cain's Ballroom became the base for the group, which is largely credited for creating Western Swing music. The venue continued to attract famous musicians through its history, and is still in operation today.\n\nFor the remainder of the mid-20th century, the city had a master plan to construct parks, churches, museums, rose gardens, improved infrastructure, and increased national advertising. The Spavinaw Dam, built during this era to accommodate the city's water needs, was considered one of the largest public works projects of the era. In the 1950s, Time magazine dubbed Tulsa as \"America's Most Beautiful City.\"\n\nA national recession greatly affected the city's economy in 1982, as areas of Texas and Oklahoma heavily dependent on oil suffered the freefall in gas prices due to a glut, and a mass exodus of oil industries. Tulsa, heavily dependent on the oil industry, was one of the hardest hit cities by the fall of oil prices. By 1992, the state's economy had fully recovered, but leaders worked to expand into sectors unrelated to oil and energy.\n\nTulsa in the Twenty-first Century\n\nIn 2003, the \"Vision 2025\" program was approved by voters, to enhance and revitalize Tulsa's infrastructure and tourism industry. The keystone project of the initiative, the BOK Center, was designed to be a home for the city's minor league hockey and arena football teams, as well as a venue for major concerts and conventions. The multi-purpose arena, designed by famed architect Cesar Pelli, broke ground in 2005 and was opened on August 30, 2008. \n\nGeography\n\nTulsa is located in the northeastern corner of Oklahoma, 99 mi northeast of Oklahoma City; situated between the edge of the Great Plains and the foot of the Ozarks in a generally forested region of rolling hills. The city touches the eastern extent of the Cross Timbers, an ecoregion of forest and prairie transitioning from the drier plains of the west to the wetter forests of the east. With a wetter climate than points westward, Tulsa serves as a gateway to \"Green Country\", a popular and official designation for northeast Oklahoma that stems from the region's green vegetation and relatively large number of hills and lakes compared to central and western areas of Oklahoma, which lie largely in the drier Great Plains region of the Central United States. Located near the western edge of the U.S. Interior Highlands, northeastern Oklahoma is the most topographically diverse part of the state, containing seven of Oklahoma's 11 eco-regions and more than half of its state parks. The region encompasses 30 lakes or reservoirs and borders the neighboring states of Kansas, Missouri, and Arkansas. The geographic coordinates of the city of Tulsa are (36.131294, −95.937332), with an elevation of 700 ft above sea level.\n\nTopography\n\nThe city developed on both sides of the prominent Arkansas River, which flows in a wide, sandy-bottomed channel. Its flow through the Tulsa area is controlled by upstream flood control reservoirs, but its width and depth can vary widely throughout the year, such as during periods of high rainfall or severe drought. A low-water dam maintains a full channel at all times in the area adjacent to downtown Tulsa. This portion of the river is known as Zink Lake. \n\nHeavily wooded and with abundant parks and water areas, the city has several prominent hills, such as \"Shadow Mountain\" and \"Turkey Mountain\", which create varied terrain, especially in its southern portions. While its central and northern sections are generally flat to gently undulating, the Osage Hills extension into the northwestern part of the city further varies the landscape. Holmes Peak, north of the city, is the tallest point in the Tulsa Metro area at 1360 ft (415 m) According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which of it is land and of it (2.24%) is water.\n\nCityscape\n\nArchitecture\n\nA building boom in the early 20th century gave Tulsa one of the largest concentrations of art deco architecture in the United States. Most commonly in the zigzag and streamline styles, the city's art deco is dotted throughout its older neighborhoods, primarily in downtown and midtown. A collection of large art deco structures such as the Mid-Continent Tower, the Boston Avenue Methodist Church, and the Philtower, have attracted events promoting preservation and architectural interest. In 2001, Tulsa served as the host city for the International Art Deco Congress, a semiannual event designed to promote art deco architecture internationally. \n\nIn addition, the city's early prosperity funded the construction of a number of elegant Craftsman, Georgian, storybook, Tudor, Greek Revival, Italianate, Spanish revival, and colonial revival homes (many of which can be found in Tulsa's uptown and Midtown neighborhoods).\n\nBuilding booms in later half of the twentieth century gave the city a larger base of contemporary architectural styles, including a number of buildings by famed architect Bruce Goff, who lived in Tulsa. South, East and Midtown tulsa are also home to a number of ranch and Mid-Century Modern homes that reflect Tulsa's prosperous post-war period.\n\nThe BOK Tower, built during this period, is the 2nd tallest building in Oklahoma and the surrounding states of Missouri, New Mexico, Arkansas, and Kansas. Tulsa also has the third-, and fourth-tallest buildings in the state, including the Cityplex Tower, which is located in South Tulsa across from Oral Roberts University, far from downtown. One of the area's unique architectural complexes, Oral Roberts University, is built in a Post-Modern Futuristic style, incorporating bright gold structures with sharp, jetting edges and clear geometric shapes. The BOK Center, Tulsa's new arena, incorporates many of the city's most prominent themes, including Native American, art deco, and contemporary architectural styles. Intended to be an architectural icon, the building was designed by César Pelli, the architect of the Petronas Towers in Malaysia.\n\nNeighborhoods\n\nDowntown Tulsa is an area of approximately surrounded by an inner-dispersal loop created by Interstate 244, Highway 64, and Highway 75. The area serves as Tulsa's financial and business district, and is the focus of a large initiative to draw tourism, which includes plans to capitalize on the area's historic architecture. Much of Tulsa's convention space is located in downtown, such as the Tulsa Performing Arts Center, the Tulsa Convention Center, and the BOK Center. Prominent downtown sub-districts include the Blue Dome District, the Brady Arts district, the \"Oil Capital Historic District\", the Greenwood Historical District, Owen Park Historical Neighborhood, and the site of ONEOK Field, a baseball stadium for the Tulsa Drillers opened in 2010. \n\nThe city's historical residential core lies in an area known as Midtown, containing upscale neighborhoods built in the early 20th century with architecture ranging from art deco to Greek Revival. The University of Tulsa, the Swan Lake neighborhood, Philbrook Museum, and the upscale shopping districts of Utica Square, Cherry Street, and Brookside are located in this region. A large portion of the city's southern half has developed since the 1970s, containing low density housing and retail developments. This region, marked by secluded homes and suburban neighborhoods, contains one of the state's largest shopping malls, Woodland Hills Mall, as well as Southern Hills Country Club, and Oral Roberts University.\nEast of Highway 169 and north of 61st street, a diverse racial makeup marks the eastern portions of the city, with large Asian and Mexican communities and much of the city's manufacturing industry.\n\nAreas of Tulsa west of the Arkansas River are called West Tulsa, and are marked by large parks, wilderness reserves, and large oil refineries. The northern tier of the city is home to OSU-Tulsa, Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa International Airport, the Tulsa Zoo, the Tulsa Air and Space Museum, and the nation's third-largest municipal park, Mohawk Park. \n\nWalkability\n\nA 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Tulsa 32nd most walkable of fifty largest U.S. cities. \n\nClimate\n\nTulsa has a temperate climate of the humid subtropical variety (Köppen Cfa) with a yearly average temperature of and an average precipitation of . As is typical of temperate zones, weather patterns vary by season with occasional extremes in temperature and rainfall.\n\nPrimarily in the spring and early summer months, the city is subjected to severe thunderstorms containing large hail, damaging winds, and, occasionally, tornadoes, providing the area with a disproportionate share of its annual rainfall. Severe weather is not limited to this season, however. For instance, on December 5, 1975, and on December 24, 1982, Tulsa experienced tornadoes. Due to its potential for major flooding events, the city has developed one of the most extensive flood control systems in the nation. A comprehensive flood management plan was developed in 1984 following a severe flood caused by a stalled weather front that dropped 15 in of rain overnight, killing 14, injuring 288, and destroying 7,000 buildings totaling in damage. In the early 1990s and again in 2000, the Federal Emergency Management Agency honored Tulsa as leading the nation in flood plain management.\n\nOn average, May is the wettest month, averaging 5.9 inches of rainfall. Triple-digit temperatures (≥38 °C) are observed on average 11 days per year, sometimes exceeding 105 °F from July to early September, usually accompanied by high humidity brought in by southerly winds; The highest recorded temperature recorded was 115 °F on August 10, 1936. Lack of air circulation due to heat and humidity during the summer months leads to higher concentrations of ozone, prompting the city to release \"Ozone Alerts\", encouraging all parties to do their part in complying with the Clean Air Act and United States Environmental Protection Agency standards. The autumn season is usually short, consisting of pleasant, sunny days followed by cool nights. Winter temperatures, while generally mild, dip below 10 °F on 3 nights, and occasionally below 0 °F, the most recent such occurrence being a reading on January 6, 2014. Seasonal snowfall averages , and, , only three winters on record have officially recorded a trace or no snow, the most recent being 1910–11. The lowest recorded temperature was on January 22, 1930.\n\nDemographics\n\nAccording to the 2010 Census, Tulsa had a population of 391,906 and the racial and ethnic composition was as follows:\n\n* White American: 62.6% (57.9% Non-Hispanic Whites, down from 85.7% in 1970) \n* African American: 15.6%\n* Hispanic or Latino (of any race): 14.1% (11.5% Mexican, 0.4% Puerto Rican, 0.3% Guatemalan, 0.2% Spanish, 0.2% Honduran, 0.2% Salvadoran)\n* Some other race: 8.0%\n* Two or more races: 5.9%\n* Native American: 5.3%\n* Asian American: 2.3% (0.5% Indian, 0.4% Vietnamese, 0.3% Chinese, 0.2% Hmong, 0.2% Korean, 0.2% Burmese)\n* Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 0.1%\n\nAs of the 2010 census, there were 391,906 people, 163,975 households, and 95,246 families residing in the city, with a population density of . There were 185,127 housing units at an average density of 982.3 per square mile (379.2/km2). Of 163,975 households, 27% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.2% were married couples living together, 14.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.9% were non-families. Of all households, 34.5% are made up of only one person, and 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 people and the average family size was 3.04.\n\nIn the city proper, the age distribution was 24.8% of the population under the age of 18, 10.9% from 18 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 12.9% who were 65 years of age or older, while the median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 93.5 males, while for every 100 females over the age of 17 there were 90.4 males. In 2011, the median income for a household in the city was $40,268 and the median income for a family was $51,977. The per capita income for the city was $26,727. About 19.4% of the population were below the poverty line. Of the city's population over the age of 25, 29.8% holds a bachelor's degree or higher, and 86.5% have a high school diploma or equivalent. \n\nMetropolitan area\n\nThe Tulsa Metropolitan Area, or the region immediately surrounding Tulsa with strong social and economic ties to the city, occupies a large portion of the state's northeastern quadrant. It is informally known as \"Green Country\", a longstanding name adopted the state's official tourism designation for all of northeastern Oklahoma (its usage in relation to the Tulsa Metropolitan Area can be traced to the early part of the 20th century). \n\nThe Census Bureau defines the sphere of the city's influence as the Tulsa Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), spanning seven counties: Tulsa, Rogers, Osage, Wagoner, Okmulgee, Pawnee, and Creek. The 2015 U.S. Census estimate shows the Tulsa MSA to have 981,005 residents In 2015, U.S. Census estimates show the Tulsa-Muscogee-Bartlesville CMSA to have 1,151,172 residents. \n\nEconomy\n\nEnergy industry's legacy and resurgence\n\nTraditionally, Tulsa's economy has been led by the energy industry. The United States Oil and Gas Association, formerly the Mid-Continent Oil and Gas Association, was founded in Tulsa on October 13, 1917, six months after the entry of the United States into World War I. At the time Tulsa called itself \"The Oil Capital of the World\". At its creation, the association worked to provide petroleum to the Allied forces. In the decades since its establishment, the association is recognized as a leading advocate for producers of domestic oil and gas. \n\nOver the city's history many large oil companies have been headquartered in the city, including Warren Petroleum (which merged with Gulf Oil in what was then the largest merger in the energy industry), Skelly Oil, Getty Oil and CITGO. In addition, ConocoPhillips was headquartered in nearby Bartlesville. Industry consolidation and increased offshore drilling threatened Tulsa's status as an oil capital, but new drilling techniques and the rise of natural gas has buoyed the growth of the city's energy sector.\n\nToday, Tulsa is again home to the headquarters of many international oil and gas-related companies, including Williams Companies, SemGroup, ONE Gas, Syntroleum, ONEOK, Laredo Petroleum, Samson Resources, Helmerich & Payne, Magellan Midstream Partners, WPX Energy, and Excel Energy.\n\nDiversification and emerging industries\n\nTulsa has diversified to capitalize on its status as a regional hub with substantial innovation assets. Products from Tulsa manufacturers account for about 60% of Oklahoma's exports, and in 2001, the city's total gross product was in the top one-third of metropolitan areas, states, and countries, with more than in total goods, growing at a rate of each year. In 2006, Forbes magazine rated Tulsa as second in the nation in income growth, and one of the best cities in the country to do business with. Usually among the lowest in the nation in terms of cost of doing business, the Tulsa Metropolitan Area in 2005 was rated among the five lowest metropolitan areas in the United States for that category. \n\nA number of large financial corporations are headquartered in Tulsa, the largest being the BOK Financial Corporation. They include energy trading operations, asset management firms as well as a range of commercial banks.\n\nThe national convenience store chain QuikTrip, fast-casual restaurant chain Camille's Sidewalk Cafe, and pizza chain Mazzio's are all headquartered in Tulsa, as is Southern regional BBQ restaurant Rib Crib. Tulsa is also home to the Marshall Brewing Company.\n\nTulsa is also home to a burgeoning media industry, including PennWell, video game developers 2015, Inc., Stephens Media Group, This Land Press, Educational Development Corporation (the parent publisher of Kane/Miller), GEB America, Blooming Twig Books, and a full range of local media outlets including such as Tulsa World and local magazines, radio and television.\n\nTulsa is also a hub for national construction and engineering companies including Manhattan Construction Company and Flintco.\n\nTulsa's primary employer's are small and medium-sized businesses: there are 30 companies in Tulsa that employ more than 1,000 people locally, and small businesses make up more than 80% of the city's companies. \n\nDuring a national recession from 2001 to 2003, the city lost 28,000 jobs. In response, a development initiative, Vision 2025, promised to incite economic growth and recreate lost jobs. Projects spurred by the initiative promised urban revitalization, infrastructure improvement, tourism development, riverfront retail development, and further diversification of the economy. As of 2007, employment levels have surpassed pre-recession heights and the city is in a significant economic development and investment surge. This economic improvement is also seen in Tulsa's housing trends which show an average of a 6% increase in rent in 2010. Since 2006, more than 28,000 jobs have been added to the city. The unemployment rate of Tulsa in August 2014 was 4.5%. \n\nAs the second largest metropolitan area in Oklahoma and a hub for the growing Northeastern Oklahoma-Northwest Arkansas-Southwestern Missouri corridor, city is also home to a number of the region's most sophisticated law, accounting and medical practices.\n\nThough the oil industry has historically dominated Tulsa's economy, efforts in economic diversification have created a base in the sectors of aerospace, finance, technology, telecommunications, high tech, and manufacturing. The Tulsa International Airport (TUL) and the Tulsa Port of Catoosa, the nation's most inland seaport, connect the region with international trade and transportation.\n\nTulsa's aerospace industry is substantial and growing. An American Airlines maintenance base at Tulsa International Airport is the city's largest employer and the largest maintenance facility in the world, serving as the airline's global maintenance and engineering headquarters, while the Tulsa Port of Catoosa and the Tulsa International Airport house extensive transit-focused industrial parks. Tulsa is also home to a division of Lufthansa, the headquarters of Omni Air International, and the Spartan School of Aeronautics.\n\nTulsa is also part of the Oklahoma-South Kansas unmanned aerial systems (drone) industry cluster, a region which awarded funding by the U.S. Small Business Administration to build on its progress as a hub this emerging industry. \n\nCulture\n\nThough Oklahoma is placed entirely in the Southern United States by the United States Census Bureau, Tulsa is influenced by the nearby Southwest, Midwest, and Southern cultural regions, as well as a historical Native American presence. These influences are expressed in the city's museums, cultural centers, performing arts venues, ethnic festivals, park systems, zoos, wildlife preserves, and large and growing collections of public sculptures, monuments, and artwork. \n\nMuseums and visual culture\n\nTulsa is home to several internationally renowned museums. Located in the former villa of oil pioneer Waite Phillips in Midtown Tulsa, the Philbrook Museum of Art is considered one of the top 50 fine art museums in the United States, and is one of only five to offer a combination of a historic home, formal gardens, and an art collection. The Museum's expansive collection includes work by a diverse group of artists including Pablo Picasso, Andrew Wyeth, Giovanni Bellini, Domenico di Pace Beccafumi, Willem de Kooning, William Merritt Chase, Auguste Rodin and Georgia O'Keeffe. Philbrook also maintains a satellite campus in downtown Tulsa.\n\nIn the Osage Hills of Northwest Tulsa, the Gilcrease Museum holds the world's largest, most comprehensive collection of art and artifacts of the American West,. The museum includes the extensive collection of Native American oilman and famed art collector Thomas Gilcrease with numerous works by Frederic Remington, Thomas Moran, Albert Bierstadt and John James Audubon among the many displayed.\n\nIn addition, the city hosts a number of galleries, experimental art-spaces, smaller museums and display spaces located throughout the city (clustered mostly in downtown, Brookside and the Pearl District). Living Arts of Tulsa, in downtown Tulsa, is among the organizations dedicated to promoting and sustaining an active arts scene in the city.\n\nOpened in April 2013, the Woody Guthrie Center in the Brady Arts District is Tulsa's newest museum. In addition to interactive state-of-the-art museum displays, the Woody Guthrie Center also houses the Woody Guthrie Archives, containing thousands of Guthrie's personal items, sheet music, manuscripts, books, photos, periodicals, and other items associated with the iconic Oklahoma native. The archives of Guthrie protégé, singer-songwriter Bob Dylan will also be displayed in Tulsa when a new facility is completed.\n\nWith remnants of the Holocaust and artifacts relevant to Judaism in Oklahoma, the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art preserves the largest collection of Judaica in the Southwestern and South-Central United States. Other museums, such as the Tulsa Historical Society,the Tulsa Air and Space Museum & Planetarium, the Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame, and the Tulsa Geosciences Center, document histories of the region, while the Greenwood Cultural Center preserves the culture of the city's African American heritage, housing a collection of artifacts and photography that document the history of the Black Wall Street prior to the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. \n\nSince 1969, public displays of artwork in Tulsa have been funded by one percent of its annual city budget. Each year, a sculpture from a local artist is installed along the Arkansas River trail system, while other sculptures stand at local parks, such as an enlarged version of Cyrus Dallin's Appeal to the Great Spirit sculpture at Woodward Park. At the entrance to Oral Roberts University stands a large statue of praying hands, which, at 60 ft high, is the largest bronze sculpture in the world. As a testament to the city's oil heritage, the 76 ft Golden Driller guards the front entrance to the Tulsa County Fairgrounds.\n\nPerforming arts, film and cultural venues\n\nTulsa contains several permanent dance, theater, and concert groups, including the Tulsa Ballet, the Tulsa Opera, the Tulsa Symphony Orchestra, Light Opera Oklahoma, Signature Symphony at TCC, the Tulsa Youth Symphony, the Heller Theatre, American Theatre Company, which is a member of the Theatre Communications Group and Oklahoma's oldest resident professional theatre, and Theatre Tulsa, the oldest continuously operating community theatre company west of the Mississippi River. Tulsa also houses the Tulsa Spotlight Theater at Riverside Studio, which shows the longest-running play in America (The Drunkard) every Saturday night. Many of the world's best choreographers have worked with Tulsa Ballet including: Leonide Massine, Antony Tudor, Jerome Robbins, George Balanchine, Paul Taylor, Kurt Jooss, Nacho Duato (ten works), Val Caniparoli who is its resident choreographer (with seven works and four world premieres), Stanton Welch, Young Soon Hue, Ma Cong, Twyla Tharp and many others. \nIn its first international tour in 2002, Tulsa Ballet was declared by the Portuguese national magazine Semanario \"One of the best in the world.\" The company has received two feature articles in Dance Magazine during the past seven years, has been featured in the New York Times, Pointe Magazine and Dance Europe among others. In March 2008, Tulsa Ballet was featured on the cover of Pointe magazine- a distinction given to only one ballet company each year. In April 2008, Tulsa Ballet completed an ambitious $17.3 million integrated campaign, which was celebrated at the opening of the brand new Studio K; an on-site, three hundred-seat performance space dedicated to the creation of new works.\n\nTulsa's music scene is also famous for the eponymous \"Tulsa Sound\" which blends rockabilly, country, rock 'n' roll, and blues and has inspired local artists like J.J. Cale and Leon Russell as well as international superstars like Eric Clapton.\n\nA number of concert venues, dance halls and bars gave rise to the Tulsa Sound but Cain's Ballroom might be the best known. Cain's is considered the birthplace of Western Swing, housed the performance headquarters of Bob Wills and the Texas Playboys during the 1930s. The centerpiece of the downtown Brady Arts District, the Brady Theater, is the largest of the city's five operating performing arts venues that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Its design features extensive contributions by American architect Bruce Goff.\n\nLarge performing arts complexes include the Tulsa Performing Arts Center, which was designed by World Trade Center architect Minoru Yamasaki, the Cox Business Center, the art deco Expo Square Pavilion, the Mabee Center, the Tulsa Performing Arts Center for Education, and the River Parks Amphitheater and Tulsa's largest venue, the BOK Center. Ten miles west of the city, an outdoor amphitheater called \"Discoveryland!\" holds the official title of the world performance headquarters for the musical Oklahoma!.\n\nThe city's film community hosts annual festivals such as the Tulsa United Film Festival and Tulsa Overground Film and Music Festival.\n\nFestivals and cultural events\n\nIn addition to the film and music festivals mentioned above, Tulsa is home to a number of cultural events and festivals around the year including Mayfest, the Blue Dome Arts Festival, Tulsa Bluesfest, Juneteenth Blues and Jazz Festival, Jazz on Greenwood Festival, Center of the Universe Festival, Bluegrass and Chili Festival, Tulsa Greek Holiday, Shalomfest, Oktoberfest, Tokyo in Tulsa, Reggaefest, the Oklahoma Scottish Games and more.\n\nThe famous literary prize the Helmerich Award is also awarded in Tulsa by members of the Tulsa Library Trust. Famous winners include John Updike, Toni Morrison, Neil Simon, Saul Bellow, Joyce Carol Oates, Michael Chabon and Norman Mailer.\n\nOutdoor attractions\n\nThe city's zoo, the Tulsa Zoo, was voted \"America's Favorite Zoo\" in 2005 by Microsoft Game Studios in connection with a national promotion of its Zoo Tycoon 2 computer game. The zoo encompasses a total of 84 acre with over 2,600 animals representing 400 species. The zoo is located in 2820 acre Mohawk Park (the third largest municipal park in the United States) which also contains the 745 acre Oxley Nature Center. On the west bank of the Arkansas River in the suburb of Jenks, the Oklahoma Aquarium is the state's only freestanding aquarium, containing over 200 exhibits, including a shark tank. \n\nThe Tulsa State Fair, operating in late September and early October, attracts over one million people during its 10-day run, and the city's Oktoberfest celebration was named one of the top 10 in the world by USA Today and one of the top German food festivals in the nation by Bon Appetit magazine. \nA number of other cultural heritage festivals are held in the city throughout the year, including the Intertribal Indian Club Powwow of Champions in August; Scotstfest, India Fest, Greek Festival, and Festival Viva Mexico in September; ShalomFest in October; Dia de Los Muertos Art Festival in November; and the Asian-American Festival in May. The annual Mayfest arts and crafts festival held downtown was estimated to have drawn more than 365,000 people in its four-day run in 2012. On a smaller scale, the city hosts block parties during a city-wide \"Block Party Day\" each year, with festivals varying in size throughout city neighborhoods. Tulsa has one major amusement park attraction, Big Splash Water Park, featuring multi-story water slides and large wave pools. Until 2006, the city also hosted Bell's Amusement Park, which closed after Tulsa County officials declined to renew its lease agreement. \n\nSports\n\nTulsa supports a wide array of sports at the professional and collegiate levels. The city hosts two NCAA Division I colleges and multiple professional minor league sports teams in basketball, baseball, football, hockey, and soccer. \n\nThe city also contains one of the nation's top rated golf courses, Southern Hills Country Club, which is one of only two courses that have hosted seven men's major championships: three U.S. Opens and four PGA Championships, the most recent in 2007. The course has held five amateur championships and from 2001 to 2008 the LPGA had a regular tour stop, latterly known as the SemGroup Championship at Cedar Ridge Country Club. In addition, Tulsa has two golf courses designed by famed golf course architect A.W. Tillinghast: the Oaks Country Club and Tulsa Country Club.\n\nThe 19,199-seat BOK Center is the centerpiece of the Vision 2025 projects and was completed in August 2008; the BOK Center was in the top ten among indoor arenas worldwide in ticket sales for the first quarter of 2009 when it was the home for the city's WNBA, arena football, and hockey teams. From 1978 to 1984, the city hosted the Tulsa Roughnecks, who played in the now-defunct North American Soccer League and won that league's championship in 1983. Also in 1984, the city hosted the Oklahoma Outlaws of the now-defunct United States Football League for a single season. \n\nTulsa has two universities that compete at the NCAA Division I level: the University of Tulsa Golden Hurricane, and the Oral Roberts University Golden Eagles. The University of Tulsa's men's basketball program has reached the Sweet Sixteen three times, made an appearance in the Elite Eight in 2000, won the NIT championship in 1981 and 2001, and won the inaugural College Basketball Invitational in 2008. The Tulsa football team has played in 16 bowl games, including the Sugar Bowl (twice) and the Orange Bowl. Oral Roberts University's men's basketball team reached the Elite Eight in 1974 and won the Mid-Continent Conference title three straight years, from 2005 to 2007. \n\nThe University of Tulsa also boasts one of the nation's top tennis facilities, the Michael D. Case Tennis Center, which was host to the 2004 and 2008 NCAA tennis championships.The Golden Hurricane Tennis program has string of success, including men's Missouri Valley championships in 1995 and 1996, men's Conference USA championships in 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2011 and women's Conference USA championships in 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2011. In 2007, Tulsa's top-ranked player Arnau Brugués-Davi ranked as high as #1 in the nation and a four time All-American, advanced to the quarterfinals of the singles competition at the NCAA Men's Tennis Championship, improving on his 2006 round of sixteen appearance.\n\nAt the secondary level, the Tulsa area is home to several high school athletic programs that are frequently ranked among the best nationally, particularly in football (e.g. Jenks High School). \n\nIn 2008 Tulsa funded 39.2 million to build a new ballpark in the Greenwood District near downtown for its Class AA Texas League baseball team, the Tulsa Drillers. The ground breaking was held on December 19, 2008. ONEOK bought the naming rights for for the next 25 years. The first game at ONEOK Field was held on April 8, 2010. Country music star Tim McGraw threw out the first pitch.\n\nThe city's running and cycling communities support events such as the Tulsa Tough cycling race, the Route 66 Marathon, and the Tulsa Run, which features over 8000 participants annually. Gambling is supported by a community of Indian gaming venues that have been allowed to expand gambling options. In 2005, compacts between the state and various tribes allowed facilities to offer table card games and slot machines. Another popular gambling draw, Horse racing events are housed by the Fair Meadows Race Track and Will Rogers Downs in nearby Claremore.\n\nIn motor sports, Tulsa annually hosts the Chili Bowl indoor race at the Tulsa Expo Center. It is the largest event of its kind worldwide.\n\nCurrent metro area teams\n\nMetro area collegiate teams\n\nParks\n\nThe city of Tulsa manages 135 parks spread over 6000 acre. Woodward Park, a 45 acre tract located in midtown Tulsa, doubles as a botanical gardens featuring the Tulsa Municipal Rose Garden, with more than 6,000 rose plants in 250 varieties, and the Linnaeus Teaching Gardens, which demonstrate the latest and most successful techniques for growing vegetables, annuals, perennials, woody plants and groundcovers. Tulsa River Parks is a series of linear parks that run adjacent to the Arkansas River for about 10 mi from downtown to the Jenks bridge. Since 2007 a significant portion of the River Parks area has been renovated with new trails, landscaping and playground equipment. The River Parks Turkey Mountain Urban Wilderness Area on the west side of the Arkansas River in south Tulsa is a 300-acre area that contains over 45 miles of dirt trails available for hiking, trail running, mountain biking and horseback riding.\n\nGovernment\n\nA mayor-council government has been in place in Tulsa since 1989 when the city converted from a city commission government deemed wasteful and less efficient. Since the change, Tulsa mayors have been given more power in accordance with a strong mayoral system and have greater control of a more consolidated array of governmental branches. Plurality voting is used to elect mayors, who serve a term in office of four years. The present mayor of Tulsa is Republican Dewey F. Bartlett, Jr. who won the 2009 election and took office on December 7, 2009. Another Tulsa political figure, Jim Inhofe, who now represents Oklahoma in the United States Senate, served as the mayor of Tulsa early in his political career. \n\nA city councilor from each of the city's nine council districts is elected every two years, each serving a term of two years. Councilors are elected from their own respective districts based on a plurality voting system, and serve on the Tulsa City Council. As a whole, the council acts as the legislative body of city government, which aims to pass laws, approve the city budget, and manage efficiency in city government. In accordance with the mayor-council form of government, the Tulsa City Council and the office of the Mayor coordinate in city government operations. A third body of the government, the city auditor, is elected independently of the city council and mayor to ensure that the auditor can act in an objective manner. The auditor is elected for a term of two years. Phil Wood, a Democrat, held the position for 21 years before being defeated by Republican Preston Doerflinger in the 2009 election. The city serves as the seat of county government for Tulsa County, and lies mostly within Oklahoma's 1st congressional district, with its far northwestern areas in southern Osage County in Oklahoma's 3rd congressional district. Municipal and State laws are enforced in Tulsa by the Tulsa Police Department, an organization of 781 officers as of 2012. \n\nCrime rate\n\nIn 2012, Tulsa's crime rate were 46 murders, 1,106 robberies, and 6,045 burglaries, which was a 2% crime rate. It was reported that Tulsa was ranked highest for some of the most mixed crimes in the state of Oklahoma, although annually Oklahoma City has the highest crimes in the state. According to local Tulsa Police there are reported to be at least 5,000 residents connected with local gang ties. \n\nEducation\n\nK-12 education\n\nThe Presbyterian Church (PCUSA) established the Presbyterian Mission Day School, a one-story building at what would become 4th Street and Boston Avenue in 1884. A second story was soon added to accommodate the number of children who were to attend. This school operated until 1889. When Tulsa incorporated in 1899, it took over the school and became the first public school. James M. Hall and three other men bought the property with their own funds and held the title until the city could reimburse them. \n\nTulsa built its first two public schools in 1905. Construction of more schools began accelerating in 1906. In December 1907, control of the public schools passed from the city government to the Tulsa Board of Education.\n\nTulsa High School opened in 1906 on the same block formerly occupied by the Presbyterian mission school, which had been razed. The new school was a three-story cream colored brick building with a dome. The school was accredited by the North Central Association of Schools and Colleges in 1913. It proved too small by 1916, when Tulsa voters approved a bond issue to construct a new high school at Sixth Street and Cincinnati Avenue, which was renamed Central High School. The north half of this facility opened in 1917, while the south half opened in 1922. This building remained in this service until 1976, when it was replaced by a new building on West Edison Street. The old building was taken over by the Public Service Company of Oklahoma.\n\nThere are three primary public school districts in the city of Tulsa. Tulsa Public Schools, with nine high schools and over 41,000 students, is the second-largest school district in Oklahoma and includes Booker T. Washington High School, a magnet school judged to be the 65th best high school in the United States by Newsweek Magazine in 2008. Each with one upper high school, Jenks and Union schools are the city's two other primary districts, covering the southern portion of the city near the towns of Jenks and Broken Arrow. In 2006, there were more than 90,000 students attending Tulsa County's public schools. \n\nA variety of independent and sectarian schools exist in Tulsa, also. Most, but not all, of the private schools have religious affiliations with various Christian, Jewish or Muslim denominations. The Catholic Diocese of Tulsa supports a system of parochial and diocesan schools, including Bishop Kelley High School, administered by the LaSallians (French Christian Brothers). Another Catholic high school, Cascia Hall Preparatory School, is administered by Augustinians. Holland Hall School is independent but historically affiliated with the Episcopal Church. Riverfield Country Day School is non-sectarian.\n\nPublic libraries\n\nThe largest library system in the Tulsa Metropolitan Area, the Tulsa City-County Library, contains over volumes in 25 library facilities. The library is active in the community, holding events and programs at most branches, including free computer classes, children's storytimes, business and job assistance, and scholarly databases with information on a variety of topics. The McFarlin Library at the University of Tulsa is a federal depository library holding over three million items. Founded in 1930, the library is known for its collection of Native American works and the original works of Irish author James Joyce. The Tulsa City-County Library and the University of Tulsa's Law Library are also federal depository libraries, making Tulsa the only city in Oklahoma with more than two federal depository libraries. The Tulsa City County Library is under renovation. The temporary Librarium in downtown is taking its place until construction is complete.\n\nHigher education\n\nThe first institute of higher education was established in Tulsa when Kendall College, a Presbyterian school, moved from Muskogee to Tulsa in 1907. In 1920, the school merged with a proposed McFarlin College to become the University of Tulsa (abbreviated as TU). The McFarlin library of TU was named for the principal donor of the proposed college, oilman Robert M. McFarlin.\n\nTulsa has 15 institutions of higher education, including two private universities: the University of Tulsa, a school founded in 1894, and Oral Roberts University, a school founded by evangelist Oral Roberts in 1963.\n\nThe University of Tulsa has an enrollment of 4,192 undergraduate and graduate students and is ranked 83rd among national doctoral universities in U.S. News and World Reports 2009 edition of America's Best Colleges and among the best 123 Western Colleges by the Princeton Review in 2007, which also ranks it in the top ten schools nationally for quality of life, overall happiness of students, and relationship with the community. In addition to doctoral and masters programs, TU is home to the University of Tulsa College of Law and the Collins College of Business. TU also manages the famous Gilcrease Museum in northwest Tulsa and hosts the Alexandre Hogue Gallery on its main campus.\n\nOral Roberts University, a charismatic Christian institution with an enrollment of 5,109 undergraduate and graduate students, was rated in 2007 by the Princeton Review one of the 123 best in the Western United States and among the West's top 50 Master's Universities by U.S. News and World Report in 2005. Prominent ORU alumni include Kathie Lee Gifford, Joel Osteen and Ryan Tedder.\n\nBoth of the state's flagship research universities have campuses in Tulsa:\n* Oklahoma State University houses three campuses in the city, the OSU Center for Health Sciences, the OSU College of Osteopathic Medicine, and OSU – Tulsa, accommodating upper-level undergraduate and graduate courses. OSU-Tulsa has an advanced materials research facility and is home to the Oklahoma Center for Poets and Writers. \n* The University of Oklahoma operates what is known as the OU-Tulsa Schusterman Center, offering bachelors, master's and doctoral degree programs in conjunction with the main campus in Norman and the OU Health Sciences Center in Oklahoma City. The OU-Tulsa Schusterman Center also houses the OU School of Community Medicine, the first medical school of its kind in the United States.\n\nRogers State University is the Tulsa area's only public, undergraduate-focused four-year university, though Tulsa Community College has a partnership allowing students to complete four-year bachelor's degrees through OU-Tulsa, OSU-Tulsa, LU-Tulsa and NSU-Broken Arrow. The largest community college in Oklahoma, Tulsa Community College (TCC) operates four campuses spread across the area as well as a conference center in Midtown. Tulsa also has a Tulsa branch of Langston University, the only historically black college or university in the state, founded in 1897. Tulsa also has a branch campus of St. Gregory's University, a Catholic university with its main campus in Shawnee, Oklahoma.\n\nThe Spartan School of Aeronautics enrolls 1,500 students at its flight programs near Tulsa International Airport and the city's vocational education is headed by Tulsa Technology Center, the oldest and largest vocational technology institution in the state. Virginia College is a school focusing on career training in Business and office, Health and Medical and Network Engineering and has a campus in Tulsa. The college offers day and night classes, several of which are available online. \n\nTrade schools located in Tulsa include Vatterott College, Oklahoma Technical college, and Tulsa Tech. \n\nMedia and communications\n\nTulsa's leading newspaper is the daily Tulsa World, the second most widely circulated newspaper in Oklahoma with a Sunday circulation of 189,789. Urban Tulsa, another large publication, is a weekly newspaper covering entertainment and cultural events. Covering primarily economic events and stocks, the Tulsa Business Journal caters to Tulsa's business sector. Other publications include the Oklahoma Indian Times, the Tulsa Daily Commerce and Legal News, the Tulsa Beacon, This Land Press, and the Tulsa Free Press. Until 1992, the Tulsa Tribune served as a daily major newspaper competing with the Tulsa World. The paper was acquired by the Tulsa World that year. Tulsa is also served by television and radio broadcasting networks. All major U.S. television networks are represented in Tulsa. Cable television service in the area is provided by Cox Communications. As in most major American cities, local radio stations in the Tulsa area are controlled by a small handful of large broadcasting companies. The late radio personality Paul Harvey was born in Tulsa and worked at local radio station KVOO in his early career.\n\nWestern Swing, a musical genre with roots in Country Music, was made popular at Tulsa's Cain's Ballroom. The Tulsa Sound, a variation of Rockabilly, Blues, and Rock 'n' Roll, was started and largely developed by local musicians J. J. Cale and Leon Russell in the 1960s and 1970s. The Tulsa Sound heavily influenced musicians Eric Clapton and Jimmy Markham. \nMusicians from Tulsa or that started their musical careers in Tulsa include Garth Brooks, The Gap Band, Hanson, Caroline's Spine, Ronnie Dunn, Gene Autry, David Gates, Jamie Oldaker, Jim Keltner, Bob Wills, David Cook, Broncho, Tyson Meade, The Damn Quails, and JD McPherson. In 2012, Tulsa was ranked as having one of the best music scenes outside of New York, Los Angeles and Nashville. \n\nInfrastructure\n\nTransportation\n\nTransportation in Tulsa is aided by Tulsa Transit's bus network of 97 vehicles and two primary airports, while the Tulsa Port of Catoosa provides transportation of goods and industry through international trade routes. Though internal transportation is largely dependent on automobiles, the city is consistently ranked in the five lowest metropolitan areas for average price of gas at the pump. \n\nHighways\n\nTulsa has an extensive highway system that connects drivers to many cities in the region such as Joplin, Missouri on the Will Rogers Turnpike and Oklahoma City on the Turner Turnpike. Most commuters use the highway system in Tulsa to get to and from work. Highways that run through Tulsa are I-44, I-244, US-412, US-169, OK-66, US-64, US-75, OK-11, OK-51, Creek Turnpike, and Gilcrease Expressway. In 2011, the Oklahoma Department of Transportation reported that Tulsa's busiest freeway was US-169 with about 121,500 vehicles daily between 51st and 61st Streets, and its second busiest freeway was OK-51 with about 104,200 vehicles between Memorial and I-44. Surrounding Downtown is the Inner Dispersal Loop (sometimes called the \"I-D-L\"), which connects Downtown with almost all the highways in Tulsa.\n\nBuses\n\nTulsa Transit, the city's bus operator, runs 97 buses on 19 different routes across Tulsa and in surrounding suburbs such as Broken Arrow, Sand Springs, and Jenks. Tulsa Transit has two stations: one in Midtown Tulsa, and another across from the BOK Center in Downtown. Most routes go through one or both of these stations, facilitating the commute to work and events in downtown or midtown. Buses stop at specific stops such as TCC, OSU-Tulsa, Cityplex Tower, Cox Communications, Hillcrest Medical Center, and many shopping destinations, hotels, and schools. The bus schedules are periodically changed; votes are taken by Tulsa Transit to help decide what are the best specifics for certain routes. \n\nAirports\n\nThe Tulsa International Airport, (which is home to six commercial airlines, four cargo carriers, and one charter airline) serves more than three million travelers annually with almost 63 departures every day, contributing nearly to the economy. In 2007, the airport completed most of an expansion project, which included larger terminal sizes and the addition of restaurants and shops. In 2011, the airport opened the newly renovated Concourse B complete with skylights, open gate holds, an average of 76 ways to charge a device per gate, and many more. Concourse A is under renovation. Riverside-Jones airport, a general aviation airport in West Tulsa, saw 335,826 takeoffs and landings in 2008, making it the busiest airport in Oklahoma and fifth busiest general aviation airport in the entire nation. Its operations contribute over to the economy annually.\n\nRailways\n\nThere are no mass transit rail lines in Tulsa, though the prospect of passenger rail lines from downtown Tulsa to the suburb of Broken Arrow is being studied. Freight railways bisect the city in every direction, and include BNSF, Union Pacific Railroad, South Kansas and Oklahoma Railroad, and OSRR rail lines. Long distance passenger rail transportation serves Tulsa only through Greyhound bus lines, which provide bus connections to nearby cities with Amtrak stations. \n\nStarting in February 2014, a limited number of test trips of the Eastern Flyer began to run, connecting the Tulsa and Oklahoma City metros via train on Sundays. This private operation by the Iowa Pacific was at one point scheduled to begin regular daily operations in May 2014, but the same had not started as of August 2015.\n\nTulsa has two static displays of old steam railroad locomotives for free public viewing: the 1917 wood-burning Dierks Forest 207, a 2-6-2 Prairie-type located at the Tulsa State Fairgrounds; and, the 1942 oil-burning Frisco Meteor 4500, a Baldwin 4-8-4 Northern-type at the Route 66 Historical Village. \n\nPort of Catoosa\n\nAt the head of the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System, the Tulsa Port of Catoosa is the most inland ocean-going port in the United States and connects barge traffic from Tulsa to the Mississippi River via the Verdigris and Arkansas rivers. The facility is one of the largest riverports in the United States and contributes to one of the busiest waterways in the world via its course to the Gulf of Mexico. \n\nMedical facilities\n\nThe Saint Francis Health System owns several hospitals with a central location at Saint Francis Hospital in the southern part of the city. The facility contains 700 doctors and 918 beds, and with more than 7,000 employees, the network is the second largest healthcare employer in the state. The health system also operates a heart hospital, which was named by General Electric in 2004 one of the most advanced heart hospitals in the nation. St. John Medical Center, located in an 11-story midtown center, employs nearly 700 doctors. Other networks, such as Hillcrest Health System, operate a number of facilities in varying sizes. Beginning in 2007, the city elected to renew a five-year contract with EMSA for ambulance service after a period of consideration to switch to the Tulsa Fire Department for providing such services. \n\nNotable people\n\nSister cities\n\nIn accordance with the Tulsa Global Alliance, which operates in conjunction with Sister Cities International, an organization that began under President Dwight Eisenhower in 1956, Tulsa has been given eight international sister cities in an attempt to foster cross-cultural understanding: \n\n* Beihai, Guangxi, People's Republic of China\n* Celle, Germany \n* Amiens, France\n\n* San Luis Potosí, Mexico\n* Tiberias, Israel\n* Utsunomiya, Japan\n\n* Zelenograd, Russia\n* Kaohsiung, Taiwan"
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"Oral Roberts | Wheaton\nOral Roberts\nJohn Wimber\n(Granville) Oral Roberts (1918- 2009), healing evangelist and televangelist, was born in Pontonoc County, Oklahoma, the son of a poor farmer and itinerant preacher in the Pentecostal Holiness denomination. At the age of seventeen Roberts believed he had been miraculously healed of tuberculosis and a speech impediment. At age eighteen he received the baptism of the Holy Spirit and was ordained into the Pentecostal Holiness ministry.\nBy the mid-1940s he was serving as the pastor of a church in Enid, Oklahoma, but left to undertake a full-time healing revival ministry in 1947. Based in Tulsa, Roberts became the most successful of the healing evangelists of the 1950s. He founded his own magazine, Abundant Life, and cobbled together a radio network of over 500 stations. It was in television, however, that Roberts truly found his calling, beginning weekly broadcasts from his crusades in 1955. Buoyed by the financial gifts of his Pentecostal followers, Roberts was able to maintain and grow his own independent network of television stations which reached every part of the United States. The impact of Roberts’s broadcasts on the burgeoning charismatic movement among mainline Protestants and Catholics in the 1960s cannot be overestimated. Such was his success that by 1965 he was able to open his own four year-liberal arts college, Oral Roberts University (ORU) in Tulsa.\n1968 marked a watershed year in Roberts’s career. Sensing the “moving of the Spirit” within mainline denominations, Roberts startled both his friends and foes as he discontinued his crusades and television broadcasts. Giving up his ordination in the Pentecostal Holiness Church, he sought ordination in, and joined, the Methodist Church. In 1969 he vaulted back into television with a series of hour-long, prime-time specials featuring celebrity guests, a variety show format, and a talented musical ensemble all under the seasoned eye of a top-flight Hollywood producer. Over the next decade, these specials attracted comparatively huge audiences for religious television and made Roberts a household name. Financially they proved a boon and jump-started his vision to expand ORU with a law school and a medical school replete with its own hospital, clinic, and research center–”The City of Faith.” This marked the beginning of a new phase of escalating financial burdens, aggressive fundraising campaigns, and virulent criticism from the medical, legal, and academic establishments. Coming as it did in the midst of media publicity surrounding a growing corpus of financial and sexual misdeeds among other televangelists, Roberts’ ministry and image began to suffer. The subsequent sexual indiscretions of his son and televangelist heir, Richard, only served to further erode Roberts’s image.\nIn the early 1990s Roberts was forced to sell his City of Faith and his law school, although ORU remained as a stable Christian liberal arts college. Overall, the thrust of Roberts’s overall career made a great impact upon the evangelical subculture, raising the image and self-respect of Pentecostals, enabling the spread of the charismatic movement, and leaving a lasting legacy in evangelical media and education.\nFor further reading see David Edwin Harrell, Jr., Oral Roberts: An American Life (Indiana, 1985), and Oral Roberts, Expect a Miracle: My Life and Ministry (Nelson, 1995).",
"Project MUSE - An Architecture for the Electronic Church: Oral Roberts University in Tulsa, Oklahoma\nAn Architecture for the Electronic Church\nOral Roberts University in Tulsa, Oklahoma\nMargaret M. Grubiak (bio)\nABSTRACT\nMore than a university, Oral Roberts University in Tulsa, Oklahoma, was also the headquarters for evangelist Oral Roberts’s electronic church. The electronic church in America, dominated by Christian evangelicals, used technology to spread the Gospel over radio airways and television signals to a dispersed audience. Yet evangelicals like Roberts also constructed ambitious campuses in real space and time. The architecture of Oral Roberts University visualized a modern and “populuxe” image for the electronic church in the 1960s and 1970s. The university’s Prayer Tower purposely alluded to the Seattle Space Needle, aligning religion and the Space Age, and the campus’s white, gold, and black color palette on late modern buildings created an image of aspirational luxury, conveying Roberts’s health and wealth gospel. Oral Roberts University served as a sound stage for Roberts’s radio and television shows, a pilgrimage point for his audience, and a university dedicated to training evangelicals in the electronic church.\nFor the opening of a 1969 religious television special broadcast live from the campus of Oral Roberts University in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the camera panned to the Prayer Tower as a voiceover proclaimed it to be “a beacon of a focusing of faith” ( fig. 1 ). After lingering on the eternal flame representing the Holy Spirit at the top of the tower and announcing “a bold and imaginative hour of words and music to live by,” the program cut to an indoor studio located on the campus. There, the announcer introduced the World Action Singers, composed of university students; soloist Richard Roberts, son of Oral; special guest, singer and actress Dale Evans, wife of cowboy entertainer Roy Rogers; and then preacher, healer, and university president Oral Roberts himself as students and faculty applauded in the [End Page 380] audience. 1 Roberts’s Contact television specials including this 1969 broadcast aired on prime-time national television four times a year. These specials intertwined the word of God with celebrities like Johnny Cash and Jerry Lewis to capture an audience numbering more than 37 million by 1973. 2 Roberts also filmed his weekly Sunday morning television programs on campus. The Oral Roberts University campus, valued at over $150 million in the late 1970s, was, in the words of Roberts’s Hollywood producer, “the world’s most expensive [television] set.” 3 Oral Roberts University served multiple and reinforcing purposes that went well beyond the traditional conception of a university. Its campus was simultaneously a sound stage for Roberts’s radio and television programs, a pilgrimage point for the believers he garnered over the airways, and a place to educate future evangelists in using technological communication to spread God’s word to the world.\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 1.\nPrayer Tower (center) and John D. Messick Learning Resources Center (left), Oral Roberts University, Tulsa, Oklahoma, ca. 1960s. (Source: Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society, Tulsa, Oklahoma.)\nThe architecture of Oral Roberts University reified the so-called electronic church in America—the collection of religious radio, television, and now online ministries dominated by Christian evangelicals. While the electronic church ostensibly existed in radio waves and satellite transmissions, radio evangelists and televangelists in the 1960s through the 1980s realized [End Page 381] ambitious architectural programs—including Robert Schuller’s Crystal Cathedral in California, Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker’s Heritage USA theme park in South Carolina, and Pat Robertson’s Regent University in Virginia—that located the electronic church in real space. 4 Oral Roberts University was a particularly successful realization of the electronic church in two principal ways. First, the campus was the site of the very production of Roberts’s electronic ministries, providing interior studio space and exterior stage sets. Second, the architecture of the campus itself symbolized the technological production and transmission of Roberts’s evangelical message.\nThe architectural image that Oral Roberts University employed to make the electronic church real reveled in fantasy. In 1973, the New York Times called the campus “an educational and spiritual Disneyland” for its world’s fair–like buildings imbued with overt religious imagery. 5 The 200-foot Prayer Tower, described by the university itself as a “twentieth-century cross” with a metal “crown of thorns,” also purposefully alluded to the Seattle Space Needle, trafficking in the architectural language of the Space Age in a frank alignment of technology and religion. 6 The other nearly twenty buildings of the campus constructed in the 1960s and 1970s (the campus is remarkable for few later constructions) were unified in their white, gold, and black palette 7 ( fig. 2 ). The campus architecture evoked a kind of popular luxury that was aspirational and reflective of Roberts’s health and wealth gospel.\nThe architectural press largely ignored the Oral Roberts University campus at the time of its construction, and the campus continues to elude critical inquiry. While David Edwin Harrell Jr.’s masterful 1985 biography of Oral Roberts—written, importantly, with access to primary sources and archival information—includes a brief history of the campus’s development, the archives of both Oral Roberts and Oral Roberts University are currently closed to scholars, which has stymied attempts to further understand its architectural program. 8 I cannot document Roberts’s original sources and rationale for the university’s architecture, nor that of his architects, first Cecil Stanfield and more substantially Frank Wallace. I propose here instead an analytical framework that contextualizes a campus built as both a university and radio and television studio. The significance of the [End Page 382] Oral Roberts University campus resides not in the originality of its architecture (indeed, architect Wallace drew freely on other sources) but rather what its architecture has to say about the possibility of religion and modernity coexisting and thriving together, an idea that challenges the secularization narrative that contends religion and modernity are at odds. I argue that the architecture of Oral Roberts University created a cogent visual language for the electronic church. In its futuristic buildings, the campus expressed the optimistic alliance between technology and religion in the modern era; in its opulent image, it realized Oral Roberts’s promise of an abundant life lived with Christ.\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 2.\nOral Roberts University campus on dedication day, 2 April 1967. Clockwise from top: Prayer Tower, Learning Resources Center, Timko-Barton Hall, Roberts Hall dormitory, and the dome of the Health and Physical Education Center. (Source: Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society, Tulsa, Oklahoma.)\nOral Roberts and the Electronic Church\nGranville Oral Roberts (1918–2009) was one of the preeminent televangelists in American history. His call to evangelization was rooted in a miraculous experience in rural, Depression-era Oklahoma. In 1935, at the age of seventeen and suffering severely from tuberculosis, Roberts was taken by his brother Elmer to a religious revival in the nearby town of Ada. [End Page 383] As evangelist George Moncey prayed over Oral in the tent, Roberts felt “the healing power of the Lord” as something “like electricity” went through his body. 9 In that moment, Roberts believed he was healed from both his tuberculosis and his stutter. The son of a Pentecostal preacher, he felt called to his own ministry first as a preacher for the Pentecostal Holiness Church (which had historic ties to the Methodist Church), then as a popular itinerant faith healer conducting tent crusades, and ultimately as a Methodist televangelist with national and world notoriety. In each phase of his ministry, the power of prayer and the Holy Spirit remained fundamental to Roberts.\nRoberts came of age in the midst of an ascendant evangelical revival in the postwar era that drew large audiences in live religious crusades and over radio and television broadcasts. 10 Billy Graham’s 1949 Los Angeles crusade, visited by 350,000 people over eight weeks, announced evangelical Christianity’s entrance onto the national stage. Yet within the evangelical movement there were distinct differences in theologies and personalities. Ordained as a Southern Baptist in North Carolina, Graham—called by Roberts the “number one” evangelist to Roberts’s self-declared secondary status—emerged as the popular and respected face of evangelism. 11 Graham sought consensus among Christian denominations and employed a moderate, inclusive message focused on the opportunity to be born again in Christ. 12 Jerry Falwell, a Southern Baptist preacher who televised The Old-Time Gospel Hour from his church in Lynchburg, Virginia, advocated a harder, fundamentalist line in the fire-and-brimstone tradition. With the creation of the Moral Majority in 1979 and other Christian Right initiatives, Falwell engaged directly in American political life in ways that Roberts did not. 13 While Graham, Falwell, and other well-known Protestant evangelists in this period focused on the divine word, Roberts focused on divine healing. As one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit central to Pentecostal theology (including also prophecy and speaking in tongues), divine healing was subject to widespread skepticism. Roberts spent much of his life in a long-term public relations campaign to overcome his reputation as a suspect faith healer.\nThe evangelical movement coincided with a golden era of broadcast communication; the two together gave rise to the electronic church in the United States. Quentin Schultze identifies the “mythos of the electronic church” as being “grounded in the idea of Christian progress” and “grafted [End Page 384] to American optimism about technology.” 14 As theologian Joseph Kim argues, evangelicals saw “technology as God’s providential gift to the church for the accomplishment of its mission.” 15 Technology made possible a new and alternative model for religion, one dislocated from physical place, whose admission was through the radio speaker and television screen. The electronic church in the United States began with religious radio broadcasts in the 1920s and grew to include religious television programming in the 1950s. By the 1970s and 1980s, the electronic church became specifically associated with American Protestants, particularly evangelicals and Pentecostals. Marred by financial and sexual scandals, the electronic church in America also gained criticism for failing to effectively convert people to Christianity, presenting a dumbed-down theology for easy sound bites, and substituting a serious study of the Bible with entertainment. Martin Marty called the electronic church the “invisible religion,” where people could worship in private without having to engage physically in the congregation of worshippers—the traditional meaning of “church” and the cornerstone of community membership. 16 In spite of these challenges, the electronic church has played a large and persistent role in American mass media and popular culture. 17\nOral Roberts’s ministry participated in the electronic church both in radio and television formats at an early stage. By the early 1950s, his half-hour daily religious radio programs were heard on 300 to 500 stations in North America, including the American Broadcasting Company’s network, and 40 international stations by the 1960s. 18 Quickly, however, Roberts’s television ministry, begun in 1954, eclipsed his radio ministry. In 1959, the Roberts ministry quantified “souls won” in the past year by its electronic outreach efforts: 364,228 by radio compared to 532,880 by television. 19 The radio programs—which included listener testimonials, a short sermon by Roberts, and Roberts’s healing prayer—paled in comparison to the vividness of his televised tent revivals filmed in the mid- to late 1950s. The camera more faithfully conveyed Roberts’s charismatic persona, and he thrived on the interaction with an audience at times reaching [End Page 385] 15,000 people. These early black-and-white broadcasts featured Roberts’s sermons and the altar call for those wanting to accept Christ in their lives, but the most anticipated moment was the famed prayer line, where Roberts would lay his right hand on people and pray for God’s healing ( fig. 3 ). The ability to actually see Roberts’s physical touch in prayer generated belief in ways more powerful than radio could provide. 20\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 3.\nGranville Oral Roberts, laying on hands at a crusade in Salem, Oregon, 1963. (Source: Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society, Tulsa, Oklahoma.)\nAs successful as these early television programs were, Roberts understood that they did not take full advantage of the possibilities of television to reach the vast audiences who needed salvation. In the 1960s, he discarded the conventional tent revival in favor of a brand new format that fused Hollywood and religion and trod the line between secular and religious content. He created entertainment-driven, full-color programs filmed in a studio with stage sets and a live studio audience. Critics argued that the celebrities, entertainers, music, and choreography that created a lively and popular program—one of his specials even received Emmy nominations for art direction and production—crowded out Roberts’s own religious preaching, a point Roberts acknowledged but defended as strategy. He first needed to produce shows that the networks would broadcast, [End Page 386] and once he had proven the success of these shows he then devoted more time to his religious message. 21 Roberts’s frank use of Hollywood tactics strongly recalled those of Aimee Semple McPherson in 1920s Los Angeles, another Pentecostal evangelist well known for her sermons illustrated with props such as motorcycles and live animals. As Matthew Avery Sutton claimed, “McPherson found no contradiction between her rejection of Hollywood values and her use of show business techniques.” 22 Oral Roberts, too, made use of entertainment and theatricality in the service of saving souls, especially those of a younger generation.\nRoberts’s entertainment-heavy format transformed televangelism. Harrell identifies the revamped Oral Roberts television programs of the late 1960s and early 1970s that infused religious broadcasts with entertainment and celebrity as the invention of the modern electronic church. 23 Importantly, these specials were televised in prime time to escape the “Sunday morning ghetto” of religious programming and to bring religion to a realm that had previously been reserved for secular entertainment. While very expensive to produce and air, Roberts’s television programs were quickly supported by mailed-in funds from viewers. Their popularity increased Roberts’s national notoriety and created dividends for other parts of his ministry. Roberts did not push inventions in broadcast technology itself—he bought airtime on existing networks, in contrast, for example, to Jim Bakker and Pat Robertson, who created the PTL (Praise the Lord) Television Network and Christian Broadcasting Network, respectively—but what he did do was pioneer the most popular format of televangelism and become one of its most prominent figures.\nOral Roberts University: Headquarters of Oral Roberts’s Electronic Church\nWhen Roberts established his eponymous university in 1963 and opened its doors in 1965, it was more than a university—it was the physical realization and headquarters of Roberts’s electronic church. He established the university just as he was scaling back his traveling crusades. As one account put it, Roberts’s “traveling crusade tent has been folded away in favor of the television sound stage.” 24 That television sound stage was the university, conceived as another facet of Roberts’s ministry. Roberts himself explained that “Oral Roberts University comes from, is a part of, and continues to grow from ministry roots.” 25 The creation of an entirely [End Page 387] new university was an audacious and financially risky undertaking. Roberts employed a “pay-as-you-go” approach to constructing the campus, raising money—early loans and large donations—from his “prayer partners” and from the Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association. 26 The founding of the university was part of his larger move toward mainstream legitimization, including his acceptance into the Methodist Church in 1968. 27\nOral Roberts University appealed to academic tradition and conventional hallmarks in order to establish itself as a mainstream institution. It was a point of pride how quickly the university received its accreditation in 1971. In choosing the motto “Educating the Whole Man” (now “Person”)—meaning wholeness in mind, body, and spirit, as the university seal recounts—it aligned itself with a longstanding tradition of teaching the whole student, stemming from the perceived ideals of Oxford and Cambridge Universities in England. Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and other universities had embraced the same pedagogical notion in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 28 In further signposts of legitimacy, Oral Roberts University advertised that half of its professors held a Ph.D. 29 Understanding athletics “as a means of witnessing about our faith,” the university also established a basketball team to gain national name recognition and to engender loyalty and fandom. 30\nEven as it positioned itself within traditional academic ideals, the school identified strongly as a conservative Christian university with a central evangelical mission. Roberts was inspired to establish the university by his own son’s secularized experience at Stanford University. 31 Evangelist Billy Graham framed the genesis of the university this way: While many American colleges and universities had become places where “religion and God are foreign,” “[w]e see rising up in this country schools like Oral Roberts University and men like Oral Roberts, who are not ashamed to say ‘I believe in the Bible, in Christ, and in the supernatural.’” 32 The university required attendance at chapel twice weekly, though students could attend local churches of their choice and denomination on Sundays. Students also had to adhere to strict conduct and dress codes as well as physical fitness standards. 33 The school was distinctive for how strongly it was tied to its religious founder and namesake. President Roberts—who himself never [End Page 388] earned a college degree—was a constant presence on campus and exerted control over students and faculty in a “semitheocracy.” 34\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 4.\nOral Roberts University Mabee Center (right) and the “Baby Mabee” broadcast center (left). The City of Faith central tower is visible at center left. (Photograph by Margaret M. Grubiak.)\nThe campus served as the interior and exterior stage for Roberts’s electronic church. In his reworked television programs of the 1960s, he filmed the first ones on the campus in 1969, then moved production to Hollywood, and in 1973 moved production back to the campus where Roberts felt more comfortable performing in front of a familiar audience often composed of university members. 35 Roberts initially filmed these Contact quarterly television specials and his weekly Sunday programs in the campus’s multipurpose auditorium, the Mabee Center (1970–72) ( fig. 4 ). The exterior of this elliptical-shaped building with its wide gold cornice, dark glass, and white vertical supports played on the imagery of a revival tent. In the late 1970s, an addition called the Baby Mabee—the Mabee Center’s architectural miniature—was constructed to hold a sophisticated television studio with state-of-the-art equipment, including a color camera named Evelyn II after Roberts’s wife (see figure 4 ). 36 Dick Ross, the Hollywood [End Page 389] producer who orchestrated the Oral Roberts specials, characterized the facilities as “the finest equipped television stage between New York and the West Coast.” 37\nWhile the interiors of the Mabee Center and Baby Mabee were the primary settings for Roberts’s television programs, the larger campus also played an important role in the visualization of Roberts’s electronic church. In addition to the 1969 program that opened with views toward the university’s Prayer Tower and Learning Resources Center, a 1974 special introducing the home states of the World Action Singers placed the singers against exterior views of university dorms, the student center, and the Prayer Tower. 38 While it is unknown how often the campus appeared on Roberts’s television programs, its use as a backdrop explicitly tied the campus to the Roberts ministry and provided key publicity for the university. As Harrell reported, within one year of Roberts’s televised specials beginning in 1969, interest by prospective students wishing to enroll doubled. 39\nThe Prayer Tower was a microcosm of Roberts’s ministry, including his electronic outreach. Students and visitors reached the entrance at the base of the tower through lush sunken gardens, recalling a Garden of Eden seemingly out of place in the harsh Oklahoma climate. Inside, visitors found exhibits on the ground floor explaining the “whole person” mission of the university overlaid on an image of the world map. 40 Roberts also had displayed a simple and well-worn folded chair he used in his tent revivals as a historic artifact or even religious relic. 41 The lower level housed prayer rooms, available to all. For views of the Oklahoma landscape, visitors could ride the elevator up 100 feet to the observation level, which included Roberts’s own private prayer room. In his ambitious fund drive for the City of Faith medical complex (1977–81) constructed adjacent to the university campus, Roberts stayed in this prayer room until $8 million was raised, claiming that failure would mean the “Lord would call him home.” 42 The ultimate success of that fund drive served as more evidence of the power of prayer. Also located on this level were the offices of the Abundant Life Prayer Group’s 24-hour prayer line, the electronic version of the famed prayer line in Roberts’s tent revivals. The prayer group received phone calls from people around the world wanting to talk, pray, and receive counseling. During these calls, people were able to have a personal experience with a “prayer partner,” a surrogate for the laying on of hands by Oral Roberts himself ( fig. 5 ). The prayer line, which received nearly half-a-million calls [End Page 390] annually by 1977, spoke to the worldwide outreach of the Roberts ministry made possible through electronic communication. 43\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 5.\nA “prayer partner” speaking with a caller in the Abundant Life Prayer Group headquarters in the Prayer Tower. (Source: Perihelion (yearbook), 1967, 203. Image courtesy of Tulsa City-County Library, Tulsa, Oklahoma; used with permission from Oral Roberts University.)\nThe university’s non-profit KORU radio station was also on the Prayer Tower’s observation level 44 ( fig. 6 ). While Roberts’s radio shows were distributed nationally and internationally by a network of radio stations, KORU served a regional area of Oklahoma, Kansas, Arkansas, and Texas. The station broadcast Roberts’s Sunday half-hour radio program, but it also filled its more than twelve hours of daily airtime with a mixture of classical, contemporary, and religious music along with some talk shows in an effort to evangelize in a different way. The target audience was “the non-Christian public.” As the station manager said in 1969, “Christian radio needs to stop being broadcast only to the three or four per cent of the public [End Page 391] who want strictly religious programming. … You can have the world’s greatest message, but if nobody hears it—if you can’t get anybody to listen to it … so what?” The station included short “fish hook” spots focusing on life’s meaning with a call to consider the role of Christ and God. This kind of “subliminal broadcasting” sought to “slip past the conscious mind and lodge persuasion in the subconscious.” 45 This fusion of secular and religious programming echoed the approach of Roberts’s television programs of the late 1960s and the 1970s. In its inclusion of the KORU radio station, the Prayer Tower further located the production and distribution of Roberts’s electronic message in real space and time.\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 6.\nInterior of KORU radio station headquarters in the Prayer Tower. (Source: Perihelion (yearbook), 1967, 48. Image courtesy of Tulsa City-County Library, Tulsa, Oklahoma; used with permission from Oral Roberts University.)\nThe focus on electronic media such as those located in the Mabee Center, [End Page 392] Baby Mabee, and the Prayer Tower pervaded the university as a whole. A primary selling point for the school in its promotional literature was its advanced electronic capabilities. The Learning Resources Center, which was on axis with the Prayer Tower, boasted a powerful “dial-a-lesson” computer called the Dial Access Information Retrieval System that allowed professors to record video lectures and students to view these lectures at any time, including when streamed into their dorm rooms on provided televisions. This early “electronic textbook,” also advertised as “homework via television,” enabled students to learn introductory concepts so professors could go into greater depth during class time. 46 The library itself was framed as an “electronic library,” and it also hosted television production studios. 47 The New York Times described the campus as having “probably the most sophisticated technology of any liberal-arts college in the country.” 48 Technology was viewed as an integral aspect of education, just as it was seen as essential to the overall ministry of Oral Roberts.\nStudents were also expected to participate in the electronic church. The World Action Singers who performed on the Roberts television ministry were selected from university students in an attempt to appeal to a younger audience. Students and faculty were also invited to be the audience for Roberts’s television shows. Students gained experience with technology in the service of evangelization by working at the KORU radio station, and this technological teaching was also codified in the curriculum. Roberts’s University of Evangelism, the predecessor to Oral Roberts University, trained students in the use of “radio, television, films and other modern methods to win souls”; one of the courses offered at Oral Roberts University was “Contemporary Methods in Evangelization.” 49 A key purpose of the university was to train future evangelists for the electronic church.\nThe university’s focus on technology identified it as a technologically progressive and forward-looking institution. In its own promotional literature, it used the descriptors “futuristic” and “ultramodern,” advertising that every dorm room had a television and air conditioning and that the student dining commons had state-of-the-art microwave ovens. 50 Amid the university dedication events in 1967, Billy Graham stressed the electronic leaning of the university: “Dr. Roberts has given Tulsa and America a university and an institution of and for tomorrow. He has taken all that modern science can give, including computers and electronics and used [End Page 393] them in the best way to mold students.” 51 While an operating, degree-granting institution, Oral Roberts University was, and remains, heavily invested in the modern electronic church.\nArchitecture for the Electronic Church\nThe power of the electronic church resided in its ability to transcend space and time to reach millions of potential believers through the airwaves. Even though these consumers of the electronic church may have felt a personal connection with radio preachers and televangelists whose voices they heard and whose visages they saw, the very nature of the electronic church dislocated its believers from real space and real presence. The most immediate point of contact was the radio or television set itself. Art historian David Morgan recounts that Oral Roberts “asked his listeners to place their hands on their radio sets as they listened from afar in their parlours to pray with him and receive a special blessing which he sent by touching the microphone through which he broadcast his sermon.” 52 Roberts would also ask his believers to touch their television sets as a way to emulate a personal connection. 53 Given that the desire for the in-person encounter between preacher and believer persisted, architecture provided a means to locate the electronic church in real space and enable a distant and dispersed church body to visualize a house of worship. It also offered a permanent locus for pilgrimage. Oral Roberts University was not the first to establish an architecture for the electronic church; it had important predecessors.\nThe early radio church of the 1920s had two remarkable architectural realizations: Aimee Semple McPherson’s Angelus Temple in Los Angeles and Father Charles Coughlin’s Shrine of the Little Flower church near Detroit. McPherson, considered a key founder of modern Pentecostalism, grew her International Church of the Foursquare Gospel as a powerful female evangelist who gained followers through her tent revivals and radio broadcasts on her own KSFG radio station, with a reach extending to Canada, Hawaii, and Mexico. 54 Through a successful fundraising campaign, McPherson was able to build the 5,300-seat Angelus Temple (1923), a white, domed auditorium that played on the visual language of theater—fitting the nature of her dramatic services—with its marquee-like signage and interior stage. The building also directly communicated McPherson’s radio ministry: atop the temple’s dome rose two tall metal radio towers, an [End Page 394] electronic substitute for traditional steeples 55 ( fig. 7 ). The red radio call letters and moniker “Angelus” later added to the towers, as well as a red cross on the dome’s roof, were illuminated to be visible in the night sky. McPherson later constructed a school, the Angelus Temple Evangelistic and Missionary Training Institute, next to the temple, as well as a 24-hour prayer tower, anticipating Oral Roberts’s own university and prayer tower.\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 7.\nA 1936 view of Aimee Semple McPherson’s Angelus Temple (1923) in Los Angeles, showing the KFSG radio towers. (Source: Photograph by Burton O. Burt, Los Angeles Public Library Photo Collection, Los Angeles Public Library.)\nLike McPherson’s Angelus Temple, Father Charles Coughlin’s Shrine of the Little Flower also fused a real place of worship with a locus of electronic religious broadcasting. Funds from Coughlin’s Roman Catholic radio program, begun in 1926 and attracting as many as thirty million listeners, helped the construction of the church outside Detroit in 1931. The octagonal art deco church included a tower carved with a crucifix out of which Coughlin recorded his broadcasts. 56 Towers have a long, deep history in ecclesiastical architecture—they are a key architectural component for visibility and the aural experience of ringing bells. Yet the notion that towers, in both the traditional form of the Little Flower church and the unconventional form of McPherson’s broadcast towers, became the locus [End Page 395] of radio broadcasts in the early years of the electronic church marks a novel irruption of the technological age into sacred space.\nClick for larger view\nFig 8.\nRex Humbard’s Cathedral of Tomorrow, Akron, Ohio, 1958. (Source: Personal collection of Margaret M. Grubiak.)\nWhen television emerged as the new medium through which to save souls, evangelist Rex Humbard, a friend of Oral Roberts, constructed the Cathedral of Tomorrow in Akron, Ohio, in 1958 with the purpose of producing and broadcasting televised religious services. After seeing one of the first-ever television broadcasts, Humbard wrote in his memoir, “I was impressed with the power and magnitude of this new invention, television, as it reached those of us gathered in front of that window. … At that moment, God placed upon my heart a burden to build a church known as the Cathedral of Tomorrow.” 57 In designing the church, Humbard created a huge domed auditorium with a seating capacity of 5,400 and a revolving stage ( fig. 8 ). The Cathedral of Tomorrow’s size and purpose presaged the later American megachurch, which relies heavily on technology to convey its message. 58\nA more complex relationship between technology, architecture, and the experience of the electronic church played out in the drive-in church designed in 1961 by Richard Neutra for Rev. Robert Schuller’s Garden Grove Community Church in Southern California ( fig. 9 ). Schuller became a major American televangelist famous for his Hour of Power Sunday [End Page 396]\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 9.\nGarden Grove Community Church, architect Richard Neutra, Garden Grove, California, 1961. (Source: Photograph by Julius Shulman, 1963; ©J. Paul Getty Trust, Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles [2004.R.10].)\nbroadcasts. For Schuller, architecture orchestrated the auditory and visual spectacle of the service. Neutra designed a walk-in and drive-in church that could accommodate those who wished for the traditional experience of a church and those who wished to experience it from the privacy and convenience of their cars. In the glazed, rectangular structure of the church, Neutra oriented the pews conventionally toward an elevated stage and pulpit, reached by a tall staircase, for Reverend Schuller and the choir. The church’s glass walls allowed those in parked cars surrounding the building to gaze into the church as if it were a kind of movie screen while they listened to Schuller’s sermons through individual speakers. In a dramatic touch, Neutra designed the eastern glass elevation as a series of large windows that could be pulled back to open the nave to an outside terrace, in effect dissolving the screen so that Schuller could connect with the crowd in the “pews of Detroit” more directly. 59 This multi-modal architecture aligned religion with the popular culture of drive-in theaters and cars. It also trafficked in an electronic understanding—both aurally and visually—of church participation. Schuller further exploited this experience of church in his later Crystal Cathedral (1977–80) by architect Philip Johnson, [End Page 397] which was the centerpiece of Schuller’s televangelist empire on the same campus as the drive-in church.\nThe radio tower church, television studio church, and drive-in church began the visualization of the electronic church. When Roberts laid out his plans for a university in Tulsa, Oklahoma, in the 1960s, he envisioned a space for an evangelical mission unapologetically dependent on technological communication. First employing architect Cecil Stanfield and then architect Frank Wallace, Roberts crafted a cohesive vision of the electronic church, the centerpiece of which was both literally and metaphorically the Prayer Tower.\nPrayer Tower and Space Needle\nThe iconic structure of Oral Roberts University is the 200-foot Prayer Tower (1966–67), what Roberts called “the logo for the university” 60 ( fig. 10 ). Designed by Wallace, the tower reminded students, visitors, and Roberts’s television audience alike “that prayer and the power of God are central to all we do” within Roberts’s ministry and the university. 61 Its embedded symbolism worked toward this reminder. The Prayer Tower was constructed on a spiraling steel frame, meant to realize the spiritual journey and ascent. From afar, the tower’s form looked like a cross. Up close, those looking up at the tower saw a symmetrical web of steel that was to recall Jesus’s crown of thorns. To stress this analogy, the tips of steel in the crown were colored red to symbolize the blood of Christ. From above, this crown of thorns also appeared as the Star of David. At the very top of the tower was an eternal flame, representing the Holy Spirit. Furthering the assertion of religion on the campus, a carillon on the Prayer Tower played hymns three times a day. In these visual and auditory cues, the Prayer Tower asserted Christ in the daily experience of the campus and presented the mission of the Roberts ministry visually and explicitly.\nIn addition to this overt religious symbolism, the Prayer Tower also trafficked in Space Age symbolism to create a futuristic vision for evangelical religion. The New York Times described the campus, including its Prayer Tower, as “right out of ‘2001,’” a reference to Stanley Kubrick’s landmark 1968 film, 2001: A Space Odyssey. 62 In 1978, architect Peter Papademetriou in the journal Progressive Architecture—one of the few articles to critically examine Oral Roberts University’s architecture—linked the school’s architecture to the 1962 Seattle World’s Fair. Referencing architect Minoru Yamasaki, who had designed the popular U.S. Science Pavilion for the Seattle fair, and Oscar Niemeyer, architect of Brazil’s modernist capital Brasilia from the 1950s, Papademetriou described the Oral [End Page 398] Roberts University campus “looking as if it crystallizes the dream of a Yamasaki designing Brasilia after he had seen the Seattle World’s Fair.” 63\nClick for larger view\nFig 10.\nPrayer Tower, Oral Roberts University, architect Frank Wallace, 1966–67. (Source: Photograph by Margaret M. Grubiak.)\nPapademetriou’s comparison of Oral Roberts University’s architecture to the Seattle World’s Fair was particularly on point. In May 1963, less than seven months after the fair closed, Roberts conducted a crusade on the Seattle fairgrounds. 64 During this visit, he would have seen the Space Needle and walked around the grounds, perhaps visiting the U.S. Science Pavilion science exhibition buildings designed by Yamasaki (now called the Pacific Science Center) ( figs. 11 and 12 ). Roberts was immersed in this environment just as he was thinking through the plans for his own university, then under construction. His experience at Seattle is significant because he had an active role in directing the design of the Oral Roberts University campus. As architect Wallace recounted, Roberts talked twice a [End Page 399]\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 12.\nView of the Century 21 Exposition, Seattle, Washington, 1962, with the U.S. Science Pavilion by architect Minoru Yamasaki, and the Christian Witness Pavilion (right). (Source: Photograph by Max R. Jensen, published by C. P. Johnston Co.; personal collection of Margaret M. Grubiak.)\n[End Page 400]\nweek with Wallace when Roberts was in Tulsa. 65 The forward-looking architecture Roberts observed in Seattle would ultimately be reflected in his campus in Tulsa.\nThe Prayer Tower in Tulsa parroted the Space Needle and U.S. Science Pavilion in Seattle in its designs. In 1962, when Stanfield was the architect for the campus, Oral Roberts University published a campus master plan with a central structure in a triangular, sail-like shape. 66 The design changed dramatically after Roberts visited Seattle in 1963 and changed his architect to Wallace. In a second scheme published in 1964, Wallace transformed the central structure, now named the Prayer Tower, into an open cylinder with lancet arches and an open crown 67 ( fig. 13 ). This design borrowed much formal language from Yamasaki’s so-called “space Gothic” arches on the Seattle fairgrounds.\nThe final design of the Prayer Tower, constructed in 1967, more directly referenced the Seattle Space Needle. The Space Needle itself has its own source in a radio and television tower in Stuttgart, Germany, notable for its rotating restaurant. One of the Seattle fair organizers who had visited the Stuttgart tower suggested that the fair have a similar structure with a similar rotating feature. Architect John Graham Jr. crafted a 608-foot structure elegant in shape: a tripod-like supporting structure pinched near the top supporting a gleaming round saucer holding a rotating restaurant (see figure 11 ). 68 The Space Needle did not have radio or television broadcasting capabilities, but during the world’s fair it did host a carillon, which the Prayer Tower emulated. From afar, the effect of the Space Needle evoked Space Age imagery in its metallic materials and soaring form.\nWhile not a literal copy, the Oral Roberts University Prayer Tower trafficked in the same futuristic language as the Space Needle. Its mirrored gold, blue, and white surfaces gleamed in the Tulsa landscape (see figure 10 ). Although a third of the height of the Space Needle and with a different supporting structure, the Prayer Tower also showcased a saucer-like observation level that compared closely to the Space Needle. In the press, the Prayer Tower was described as “a space needle” with the nearby dome of the university’s Health and Physical Education Center “resembling a giant flying saucer that has just landed.” 69\nThe Oral Roberts University campus also mimicked the Seattle World’s [End Page 401] Fair in its broader alignment of religious and technological ideals. The world’s fair was originally conceived as a regional event, a “Festival of the West” intended to revitalize downtown Seattle, but it evolved into “America’s Space Age Fair,” known officially as the “Century 21 Exposition.” Spurring the change in focus was the launching of Russia’s Sputnik 1 in 1957 while the fair was in the planning stages, attracting the involvement of the federal government. By the time the fair opened in 1962, the focus shifted away from cold war propaganda to popularizing science to a public wary of the technologies and weapons science had produced. 70 The federally sponsored U.S. Science Pavilion, the most popular exhibit of the fair, framed science as an avenue for an optimistic future and a tool compatible with traditional values like the arts and religion. The fair’s Space Needle, with its metallic materials and soaring form, became an icon of the Space Age.\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 13.\nSuccessive schemes for the Oral Roberts University Prayer Tower by architects Cecil Stanfield (left) and Frank Wallace (center and right). (Source: “The Way We Weren’t,” Perihelion (yearbook), 1967, 86. Image courtesy of Tulsa City-County Library, Tulsa, Oklahoma; used with permission from Oral Roberts University.)\nReligion stood prominently alongside science in the imagined Century 21. Three pavilions on the fairgrounds hosted religious themes: the Christian Witness Pavilion; the Sermons from Science exhibit; and the Christian Science Pavilion. Christian Witness housed Christian exhibits and a chapel, and screened a Christian film. Sermons from Science showcased films produced by the Moody Institute of Science, an evangelical Christian group that stressed the compatibility of religion and science. In addition to the religious exhibits themselves, the fair hosted religious-focused events, including Bible Week, Liturgical Week, and a visit by Billy Graham. 71 The fair was an opportunity for evangelization, especially as [End Page 402] only a reported 30 percent of residents in the Northwest belonged to a church, and for imagining the twenty-first century with God very much present. 72 Significantly, the fair organizers placed the Christian Witness Pavilion immediately next to the U.S. Science Pavilion (see figure 12 ). The Christian Witness group stated that the building was to be “a witness in its very location that God’s image, and that of Jesus Christ, stands before man’s technological and scientific achievements.” 73\nThe “spiritual-industrial complex,” named by Jonathan Herzog and evident in the Seattle fair, harnessed religion to imbue the cold war with higher ideals and aims. 74 Billy Graham, historian Andrew Preston claimed, “explicitly linked the cause of Christ with the cause of America, of Christianity’s struggle against Satan with America’s struggle against communism,” an example of how evangelists framed religion’s role within the cold war. 75 This Christian struggle was also linked directly to America’s space race efforts. David Noble noted that U.S. astronauts identified publically as “devout Protestants” to counter Soviet “godless communism.” 76 At the Seattle fair, as historian John Findlay has argued, the terms in which science and space were portrayed “had taken on a less earthly and more religious significance” in a fair imbued with religious imagery and language. 77 “At the Seattle World’s Fair,” Findlay reasoned, “science did not so much supplant religion as people’s preferred faith as supplement it by offering a new means to achieve traditional Judeo-Christian ends.” 78 The architecture of the fair, particularly Yamasaki’s U.S. Science Pavilion, imaged this comingling of science and religion. Strikingly, in the middle of the Science Pavilion structures, Yamasaki designed five white, freestanding towers formed from pointed, “space Gothic” arches (see figure 12 ). Fairgoers understood this religious imagery, including one critic who described Yamasaki’s buildings as possessing a “religious” character. 79 This fusion of religion and the Space Age era inspired Oral Roberts in the shaping of his university.\nIn a final example of his imitation of the Seattle fair, Roberts shaped his university campus as his own version of a world’s fair, one with an even more explicit religious message. As a locus of evangelization, the Oral Roberts University campus drew visitors from around the world. The carefully ordered grounds of the campus—the lavish sunken gardens, the inscribed geometries, and the unified buildings radiating out from the Prayer Tower—read not just as a college campus but also as fairgrounds. (Not coincidentally, Tulsa is also home to the annual Tulsa State Fair first opened in [End Page 403] 1961, one of two state fairs in Oklahoma located less than ten miles from Oral Roberts University.) The colorful Prayer Tower, offering rides to an observation deck much like the Space Needle and Philip Johnson’s New York State Pavilion for the 1964 New York World’s Fair, was an amusement-like attraction. The Avenue of Flags at the campus entrance showcasing the countries of Oral Roberts University students added to the sense of a fair, further increased by the addition of a giant, 60-foot-tall Praying Hands statue originally commissioned for the City of Faith complex in 1980 and moved to the campus entrance ten years later. These allusions to world’s fairs and amusement parks prompted the descriptions of the campus as a “spiritual Disneyland” and “Six Flags over Jesus.” 80 In 1978, Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker more literally constructed an evangelical campus as fairgrounds and amusement park in their Heritage USA theme park in Fort Mill, South Carolina. The Bakkers’ Heritage USA included a water park, its own version of Disneyland’s Main Street, hotel and conference facilities, an evangelical school, and studios for their PTL satellite network. The visual language of world’s fairs, amusement parks, and the Space Age was enticing for an electronic church deeply engaged in American popular culture and mass media.\nThe “Populuxe” Oral Roberts University Campus\nA profile of architect Frank Wallace recounted a story about visitors on the Oral Roberts University campus tour who, when asked who the architect of the campus was, guessed architects Yamasaki and I.M. Pei. Their answers were revealing for two reasons. First, Wallace was not a household name, and he remains little known or studied. Like Oral Roberts, he was an Oklahoma native. He attended architecture school at the University of Arkansas, the same school where Edward Durell Stone—remembered for his designs for the John F. Kennedy Center (1959–71) in Washington, D.C., and the U.S. Embassy (1954) in New Delhi, India, among others—also studied and taught. Rather than seek an elite architect with a national reputation, Roberts consciously chose an architect from his own community to execute his vision. The Oral Roberts University campus was the greatest architectural commission of Wallace’s career. 81\nSecond, the visitors’ guess of Yamasaki and Pei also revealed just how derivative Wallace’s architecture was. Wallace, who counted Yamasaki and Frank Lloyd Wright among his architectural heroes, crafted an image for Oral Roberts University that echoed the work of Yamasaki, Wright, Stone, Eero Saarinen, and other architects working in the 1950s and 1960s. 82 This [End Page 404] softened version of modernism eschewed the stark modernist box in favor of graceful lines and luxurious aesthetic. This style appealed to a wider audience, and it became a symbol of good taste for its time. Cultural historian Thomas Hine has named this mid-century style “populuxe.” The populuxe Oral Roberts University campus presented a luxurious, aspirational image that embodied Roberts’s belief that Christ wants his followers to have material as well as spiritual wealth.\nThe populuxe style of the university was signaled in earlier buildings by Roberts’s first architect, Cecil Stanfield. Born in Oklahoma, Stanfield earned his architecture degree from Oklahoma State University and became president of the firm Stanfield, Elliott and Associates in Tulsa. Like Wallace, Stanfield received his most important architectural commissions from Oral Roberts. Roberts commissioned Stanfield to design the Abundant Life Building (1957–59) near downtown Tulsa, which served as headquarters for the Roberts ministry before the construction of the university. The box-like Abundant Life Building was lavish in its white marble cladding, textured walls, gold accents, and dramatic lighting, including a spotlight on Roberts’s office chair because, according to Stanfield, “Roberts feels he should be at the center of interest here.” 83 Stanfield also designed the first buildings, including what is now named Timko-Barton Hall (1962–64), on what became the Oral Roberts University campus (see figure 2 ).\nWhen Roberts replaced Stanfield with architect Frank Wallace, Wallace continued in the style Stanfield established while playing with more diverse forms and more explicit references to Roberts’s Pentecostal theology. A palette of white, gold, and black (only the Prayer Tower had more color) unified the buildings while mirrored glass, honeycomb brise soleil screens, and concrete-blasted panels provided textural interest. Many of the buildings, which Wallace designed “without fronts or backs,” followed triangular shapes both for architectural dynamism and for religious symbolism. 84 The triangular structures of the 3,500-seat Christ’s Chapel (1971–73) monumentalized Roberts’s tent revival structures, symbolized “praying hands,” and made present the Holy Trinity, as a stylized gold dove on the chapel’s foyer ceiling represented the descent of the Holy Spirit ( fig. 14 ). The triangular-shaped Learning Resources Center (1964)—whose graceful white colonnade, recalling the work of Yamasaki and Stone, screened black concrete panels arranged in a three-dimensional chevron pattern—evoked the Holy Trinity while its twelve-notched fountain referenced the twelve apostles 85 ( fig. 15 ). [End Page 405]\nClick for larger view\nView full resolution\nFig 15.\nDetail of the John D. Messick Learning Resources Center, Oral Roberts University, architect Frank Wallace, 1964–65. (Source: Photograph by Magaret M. Grubiak.)\n[End Page 406]\nView full resolution\nFig 16.\nHamill Student Center (1968–69), with view of the Quad Towers dormitories (1972) to right and left, Oral Roberts University, architect Frank Wallace. (Source: Photograph by Margaret M. Grubiak.)\nElsewhere, Wallace contrasted quirky angularity, as in the harsh forms of the Hamill Student Center (1968–69), with softened elliptical and circular forms of the Mabee Center and Quad Towers dormitories (1972) ( fig. 16 ). In the form and siting of the buildings, Wallace constructed a dynamic, active architecture. The buildings’ religious symbolism, including the crown of thorns on the Prayer Tower, visualized the mission of the university and its identity as an extension of Roberts’s ministry.\nWallace’s designs for Oral Roberts University were rife with references to iconic forms in contemporary American and collegiate architecture. The gold, geodesic-domed Howard Auditorium (1972) echoed the dome of Eero Saarinen’s Kresge Auditorium (1955) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, even if structurally they were not the same ( fig. 17 ). The triangular forms of Christ’s Chapel evoked Wright’s Taliesin West (begun 1937) in Scottsdale, Arizona, and Walter Netsch’s U.S. Air Force Academy Cadet Chapel (1959–62) in Colorado Springs. As a cohesive scheme, the Oral Roberts University campus recalled another Methodist-affiliated institution, Wright’s Florida Southern College (1941–58) in Lakeland, as well as Stone’s State University of New York at Albany (1961–64), especially with its carillon tower at the center of campus. These architectural references were most likely the result of visits to “other leading universities throughout the world” made by Wallace along with head of construction Bill Roberts and Dean of Academics John D. Messick as the [End Page 407] university was being formed, although it is unclear exactly which institutions they visited. 86\nClick for larger view\nFig 17.\nHoward Auditorium, Oral Roberts University, architect Frank Wallace, 1972. (Source: Photograph by Margaret M. Grubiak.)\nThe futuristic architecture of Oral Roberts University was also a product of its regional context. Tulsa proved fertile ground for experimentation in art deco and modern architecture. In 1968, Roberts and his wife joined the Boston Avenue Methodist Church in Tulsa, an important art deco church designed by Oklahoma architect Bruce Goff in 1926. In Bartlesville, Oklahoma, some fifty miles north of Tulsa, was another key architectural landmark: Wright’s Price Tower (1952–56), one of his only realized tall buildings and part of his imagined Broadacre City, a proposed plan for the development of the United States. In downtown Tulsa in 1975, Yamasaki designed the skyscraper One Williams Center (now BOK Tower), though this was nearly a decade after Wallace’s Prayer Tower for Oral Roberts University influenced by Yamasaki’s U.S. Science Pavilion for the Seattle fair. The context of the Midwest freed Roberts from the Colonial Revival style that dominated conservative Christian colleges on the East Coast, including Jerry Falwell’s Liberty University (founded 1971), Pat Robertson’s Regent University (founded 1978), and the more recent Patrick Henry College (founded 2000), all located in Virginia. Unlike Falwell and Robertson, Roberts did not need to rely on architectural revivalism to express his religious and social conservatism; rather, the populuxe aesthetic aligned Roberts with the modern era and spoke to the realization of God’s great wealth. [End Page 408]\nPerhaps due to Wallace’s derivative designs, the university’s Christian identity, and its location in middle America, the Oral Roberts University campus was snubbed by the architectural press in its early years, though it was discussed often in profiles of Roberts himself. When the campus did receive attention from critics, they framed its architecture as rather pedestrian. The 1978 assessment published in Progressive Architecture claimed that Oral Roberts University represented “a kind of popular understanding of modern architecture” tinged with an idea of luxury:\nThe aesthetic reflects that of a new middle class whose aspirations are toward elegance—an elegance that is somewhat standardized and perhaps a bit gaudy to ensure that the point not be missed. It is designed to be impressive, in other words. Yet the impressiveness is as comfortably predictable as one would expect in a good motel; it is slightly overpriced “Ramada-mentality.”\nProgressive Architecture also stated that this version of modernism “lost something along the way” as it “trickled down … from the professional taste elite to the larger audience.” Nonetheless the campus became a highly successful marketing tool appealing to students from a mostly white, Protestant middle class. 87 The suburban campus of elegant, modern architecture, which was “a reinforcing symbol of the taste of its users,” made them feel at home. 88\nThis appeal to modernism and luxury is captured in the idea of “populuxe” coined by Hine in 1986. In the book of the same name, Hine explored the decade between 1954 and 1964 that relished consuming on a mass scale the new and the luxurious in a material “golden age.” 89 Hine contends that populuxe designs were “symbols of achievement, affirmations that their owners had achieved a life of convenience and prosperity that their parents could have only dreamed of.” Populuxe design was popular taste, not academic or high-minded taste sanctioned by the Museum of Modern Art and other artistic and architectural elites. Rather, it strayed toward the fantastic, as in the hotel designs of Morris Lapidus in Florida. “People wanted to be known for their good taste,” Hine wrote, “but they also wanted to have great showy things that demonstrated that they had arrived.” 90\nThe image of Oral Roberts University was crafted to show that Roberts and his followers had indeed arrived. At the time of the school’s opening, Roberts was moving from the cultural fringe as a suspect faith healer into the American mainstream with an immensely popular television ministry [End Page 409] and a brand new university. One profile of Roberts noted he had become a respected Tulsa citizen with a country club membership, expensive suits, and a Cadillac—a far cry from his impoverished upbringing. 91 The architecture he and Wallace created for Oral Roberts University was of a piece with this idea of social arrival. The architectural image of the campus, evocative of middle-class taste, was the material manifestation of what Roberts’s electronic ministry promised: good health and great wealth with a true faith in Jesus Christ.\nConclusion\nThe architecture of Oral Roberts University in Tulsa, Oklahoma, reified the American electronic church of the 1960s and 1970s. It crafted a futuristic and luxurious image that spoke to technological optimism and material wealth embedded within the American evangelical tradition. Roberts created an institution that made real what was otherwise a disembodied experience of church over the airways, offering a pilgrimage point for the millions that his ministry reached. In 1969, a Kentucky steel mill worker and his wife drove to Tulsa specifically to visit the university. A chance encounter with Roberts himself on the campus became “the thrill of their vacation.” 92 By 1970, more than 100,000 people visited Oral Roberts University annually, making it the most visited tourist site in Tulsa. 93 Influenced by the Seattle World’s Fair, Roberts created a permanent religious fair, one that showcased what belief in Christ could mean.\nOral Roberts conceived of his university with technology at the forefront. Technology was a key component in the education of Oral Roberts University students—from the computers that played their professors’ lectures to the microwave ovens that warmed their food—and future evangelists here were trained in the most modern radio and television tools. The campus also served as sound stage for the very production of Robert’s radio and television programs. Understanding Oral Roberts University means understanding that it was, and is, more than our traditional conception of a university. It is the realization of Roberts’s entire ministry, one invested heavily in the American electronic church. [End Page 410]\nMargaret M. Grubiak\nMargaret M. Grubiak is associate professor of architectural history at Villanova University and author of White Elephants on Campus: The Decline of the University Chapel in America, 1920–1960 (2014). She wishes to thank the anonymous reviewers and Barbara Hahn for helping to shape this article, as well as the Tulsa City-County Library for its generous assistance and Oral Roberts University for permission to use images.\nBibliography\nArmstrong, Ben. The Electronic Church. New York: Thomas Nelson, 1979.\nBalmer, Randall. Blessed Assurance: A History of Evangelicalism in America. Boston: Beacon Press, 1999.\nBarfoot, Chas. H. Aimee Semple McPherson and the Making of Modern Pentecostalism 1890–1926. London: Equinox Publishing, 2011.\nBerger, Knute. Space Needle: The Spirit of Seattle. Seattle: Documentary Media, 2012.\nBowler, Kate. Blessed: A History of the American Prosperity Gospel. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.\nBriggs, Kenneth A. “Of Evangelism and Architecture and a Wave of Heady Spending.” New York Times, 3 June 1978, 21–22.\nDuke, Alex. Importing Oxbridge: English Residential Colleges and American Universities. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996.\nElvy, Peter. Buying Time: The Foundations of the Electronic Church. Mystic, CT: Twenty-third Publications, 1987.\nFindlay, John M. Magic Lands: Western Cityscapes and American Culture after 1940. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.\nFiske, Edward B. “The Oral Roberts Empire.” New York Times Magazine, 22 April 1973, 14–26.\nFore, William F. Television and Religion: The Shaping of Faith, Values, and Culture. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1987.\nFrankl, Razelle. Televangelism: The Marketing of Popular Religion. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987.\nGilbert, James. Redeeming Culture: American Religion in an Age of Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.\nHarrell Jr., David Edwin. Oral Roberts: An American Life. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985.\nHerzog, Jonathan P. The Spiritual-Industrial Complex: America’s Religious Battle against Communism in the Early Cold War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.\nHine, Thomas. Populuxe. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984.\nHoover, Stewart M. Mass Media Religion: The Social Sources of the Electronic Church. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988.\nJacobs, Karrie. “Would We Take the Space Needle Seriously if It Had Been Designed by Buckminster Fuller?” Metropolis (May 1991): 118. [End Page 411]\nKilde, Jeanne Halgren. “Reading Megachurches: Investigating the Religious and Cultural Work of Church Architecture.” In American Sanctuary: Understanding Sacred Space, edited by Louis P. Nelson, 225–49. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.\nKim, Joseph. “The Myth of the Electronic Church: Evangelical Appropriations of the Technological Sublime.” Cultural Encounters: A Journal for the Theology of Culture 8, no. 1 (2012): 69–82.\nKyle, Richard G. “The Electronic Church: An Echo of American Culture.” Directions: A Mennonite Brethren Forum 39, no. 2 (fall 2010): 162–76.\nLavin, Sylvia. “Richard Neutra and the Psychology of the American Spectator.” Grey Room no. 1 (fall 2000): 42–63.\nMarsden, George. Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1990.\nMarty, Martin. “The Invisible Religion.” Presbyterian Survey 69 (May 1979): 13.\nMorgan, David. The Lure of Images: A History of Religion and Visual Media in America. New York: Routledge, 2007.\nMugglebee, Ruth. Father Coughlin, the Radio Priest, of the Shrine of the Little Flower: An Account of the Life, Work and Message of Reverend Charles E. Coughlin. Garden City, NY: Garden City Publishing Corporation, 1933.\nNoble, David F. The Religion of Technology: The Divinity of Man and the Spirit of Invention. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998.\nOral Roberts Association. Contact. July 1969. YouTube video, 1:45. Posted by Richard Roberts, 24 February 2010. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zpVjp_BgPBc (accessed 13 June 2014).\n“Oral Roberts to Open Crusade.” Seattle Times, 7 May 1963, 12.\nPapademetriou, Peter C. “O.R.U. Architecture?” Progressive Architecture 59, no. 6 (June 1978): 52–55.\nPollak, Michael. “Rex Humbard, 88, Dies; Pioneer of TV Evangelism.” New York Times, 23 September 2007, 41.\nPreston, Andrew. Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012.\nRoberts, Granville Oral. Oral Roberts University, 1965–1983, “True to a Heavenly Vision.” New York: Newcomen Society of the United States, 1983.\nSchultze, Quentin J. “The Mythos of the Electronic Church.” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 4, no. 3 (1987): 245–61.\n_____. “Electronic Church.” In Dictionary of Christianity in America, edited by David G. Reid, 385–86. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 1990.\n_____, ed., American Evangelicals and the Mass Media: Perspectives on the Relationship between American Evangelicals and the Mass Media (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Corporation, 1990). [End Page 412]\n_____. Televangelism and American Culture: The Business of Popular Religion. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1991.\nSheldon, Marcus. Father Coughlin: The Tumultuous Life of the Priest of the Little Flower. Boston: Little, Brown, 1973.\n“‘States Medley’ from Oral Roberts ‘Harvest Festival,’ 1973.” YouTube video, 5:18. Posted by lhelmle, 30 August 2010. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nsl_ghHhShM (accessed 13 June 2014).\nSutton, Matthew Avery. Aimee Semple McPherson and the Resurrection of Christian America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.\n“The Way We Weren’t.” Perihelion. Oral Roberts University yearbook, 1976, 86–87.\nvan Dyne, Larry. “God and Man at Oral Roberts.” Chronicle of Higher Education, 8 December 1975, 3–4.\nWilliams, Daniel K. God’s Own Party: The Making of the Christian Right. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. [End Page 413]\nFootnotes"
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In which English city is the Burrows Toy Museum?
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"Burrows Toy Museum .; UNKNOWN,. Offered ... Author: UNKNOWN, Title: Burrows Toy Museum ... Booklet shows fashion dolls of about 1870 made of bisque with their bodies ...",
"Explore > Museums: Coburger ... The Toy Museum in the Old City Hall Tower brings ... permanent exhibition entitled \"All the Toys of Yesteryear,\" available in English, ..."
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"Burrows Toy Museum. - UNKNOWN,\nAuthor: UNKNOWN,\nTitle: Burrows Toy Museum.\nDescription: London, Unichrome (BATH) Limited, nd. VG PB. Booklet shows fashion dolls of about 1870 made of bisque with their bodies covered in kid and toys in different settings.\nKeywords:",
"Doll & Toy Museums of Europe\nCoburger Puppenmuseum\nCoburg was, and still is, the center of German doll production. More than 900 dolls from the classical doll manufacturing era of Germany, along with a wonderful collection of half-dolls and rare French dolls, are exhibited with period doll furniture, clothing and accessories in the Coburg Doll Museum. Fifty miniature rooms and doll-sized Dresden china will take your breath away. The museum shop offers dolls, miniatures, and doll books.\nDeutsches Knopfmuseum\nThousands of buttons made by hand and by machine of 26 different materials over a span of four centuries are exhibited in the Deutsches Knopfmuseum. Machinery and works displays examine the rich history of buttons in Bärnau, still a center of world button production.\nSchuhmuseum\nOver 15,000 artifacts are exhibited in the Shoe Museum within the German Leather Museum. In addition to representing international costume history over seven millennia, the collection allows a view into humankind's intellectual and cultural history. 3500-year-old sandals from Egyptian mummy burials, pre-Christian boot amulets, bead-embroidered moccasins from the Great Plains, chopines of the Italian Renaissance, Chinese gin lien, plateau sandals from an Ottoman harem, the silk boots of Empress Sissi, and Joschka Fischer's trainers, have earned the museum a world-class position. Several hundred images of shoemakers and their products form the bridge to the Shoe Museum's gallery. Here one can see how intensely the human foot and its covering (or exposing) has inspired and still inspires the creativity of designers and artists.\nDeutsches Spielzeugmuseum\nThe German Toy Museum is the oldest toy museum in the now-united Germany. Its many treasures include an incredible array of salesmen's samples, shoes, wigs, and Sonneberg dolls of wood, papier mâhé, china and bisque. Dioramas depict daily life in a Sonneberg doll-making family. A special exhibit coincides with the annual Neustadter Puppenfestival. Various gift items, postcards, dolls, plush animals, and books are offered in the museum shop.\nDeutsches Weihnachtsmuseum\nEnter the German Christmas Museum through Käthe Wohlfahrt's Weihnachtsdorf (Christmas Village), a 16,000-square-foot Christmas market that is a feast for the eyes and ears – and you need not brave the German winter to see it because it is open year-round! Built around a model of a Franconian market square with half-timbered houses, snow-covered roofs, and an eighteen-foot revolving white Christmas tree, the Christmas Village offers more than 30,000 different Christmas decorations including smokers, nutcrackers, pyramids, and tree ornaments that reflect valued German Christmas traditions.\nErzgebirgisches Freilichtmuseum\nThe Erzgebirgisches Freilichtmuseum (Ore Mountains Open-Air Museum), a part of the Erzgebirge Toy Museum of Seiffen since 1973, is an historical folklore museum reflecting the daily life and culture of the people of the Erzgebirge from the mid-nineteenth through the early twentieth century. Valuable examples of traditional folk culture that would otherwise be lost in the process of remodeling homes and modernizing workshops, are instead moved to the Erzgebirgisches Freilichtmuseum. The buildings, with all their authentic period furnishings, document the real world of the inhabitants. Central to the landscape of this Erzgebirge village are the homes, workshops, and communal buildings of a \"Streusiedlung\" (a scattered settlement) dominated by the toymaker and other craftspeople associated with woodworking. A main feature of the museum is a water-powered wood turning workshop, the last of the village's eighteen water-powered workshops still in its original form. Also to be seen are the homes of the miner, the log-driver, the toymaker, the basketmaker, the woodcutter, the wheelwright, and the farmer; a water-powered sawmill; a fire house; and a transformer station. The Historic Handcrafts Days Festival in May and September allow the visitor a fascinating first-hand experience of life and work in nineteenth-century Seiffen.\nErzgebirgisches Spielzeugmuseum\nThe Toy Museum of the Ore Mountains displays more than 3,000 colorful examples of lathe-turned, wooden folk art objects, including toys, Christmas ornaments, nutcrackers, chandeliers and miniatures. Beginning with the decline of the tin mining industry, texts and photographs illustrate important social, cultural and economic conditions which developed the village of Seiffen into a toy center. Workshop exhibits offer a glimpse into the toymaker's life. A variety of books on the region and its toy industry are offered in the gift shop.\nPalazzo Pitti Firenze\nThe first state-operated museum dedicated entirely to study and preservation of costumes, accessories, and fabrics, the Costume Gallery was created in 1983 under the direction of Kirsten Aschengreen Piacenti. Its prestigious headquarters is the neoclassical Palazzina della Meridiana ordered built by Duke Pietro Leopoldo of Lorraine in 1776 on the south side of Palazzo Pitti. Today, the museum storage rooms preserve a collection of more than 6,000 items of great documentary value, including ancient and modern garments, accessories, and costumes for the theater and the cinema. It is a unique gallery whose center is the famous Medici collection, among the world's oldest, made up of the burial clothes worn by Cosimo I Grand Duke of Tuscany, his wife Eleonora de Toledo, and their son Don Garzia, all restored in the museum's own restoration shops. A significant place is also reserved for contemporary costume, with selected nuclei representing the greatest protagonists of international high fashion and prêt-&gravea;-porter, such as Worth, Poiret, Vionnet, Capucci, Missoni, Valentino, Pucci, Ferré, and Yves Saint Laurent, to name only a few. Most of the acquisitions come from public and private donations, and often the wardrobes of famous personalities, either of historic importance or known for their influence on aesthetics in a given era, like the Sicilian noblewoman Franca Florio and Eleonora Duse; or from collections patiently and carefully put together by such figures as Umberto Tirelli, founder of one of Italy's most prestigious and internationally-famous theatrical and cinematographic costume houses. Due to their extreme organic fragility, the exhibits are alternated in two-year cycles according to a thematic and chronological exhibition scheme that runs from the 18th to the 20th centuries. At the same time, the Gallery holds important monographic exhibitions in specific rooms, clear testimonies to the progress made in the study of costume and fashion that are closely linked to this extraordinary collection.\nHessisches Puppenmuseum\nChildren, by imitating grown-ups in their play, learn about becoming adults - the theme of the Hessian Doll Museum. Every facet of daily life is portrayed through dolls, dolls' clothing and accessories, and a complement of doll-scale toys, in a lovely, arcaded building overlooking the beautiful park of Wilhelmsbad spa. The development of the European doll from pre-history to the present is presented in both permanent exhibits and special exhibits that change three times a year. Postcards, books and gift items are offered in the museum shop.\nHistorisches Weihnachtsmuseum\nThe Historical Christmas Museum exhibits more than 20,000 beloved German Christmas objects spanning two centuries. It is under one roof with Inge-Glas' Christmas Wonderland, which features a Christmas shop, glassblower's workshop, antique center with 25 traders, Teddy Bear Paradise, four seasons gift shop, and a bistro.\nKäthe Kruse Puppenmuseum\nKäthe Kruse, who gave up an acting career to become a wife and mother of eight, began to produce cloth dolls for her children in 1905. When she took part in the Berlin exhibition of \"Self-Made Toys\" in 1910, her dolls were an overnight sensation. The Käthe Kruse Doll Museum is housed in an old Capuchin Monastery. 130 dolls, life-like shop window mannequins, dollhouses, and an old doll factory are exhibited.\nKronberger Haus\nPorcelain-lovers flock to the Kronberger House, a special exhibition presented by the Frankfurt Historic Museum. It houses two collections: Höchst Porcelain from the original factory and the magnificent Kurt Bechtold collection, a private collection that was donated to the museum, considered to contain some of the most ornate and exquisite porcelain ever produced. The house displays what one would expect of a porcelain collection: many maids-a-milking and children playing in fields, as well as numerous tea set collections, presented in the fashion of their day.\nLes Secrets du Chocolat\nIn The Secrets of Chocolate, Marquise de Sévigné offers visitors an extraordinary museum voyage into the universe of chocolate. 800 square meters of exhibition space trace cocoa through the ages and civilizations, from its origins in South America to its huge popularity with the aristocracy in the 18th century and its present-day importance in world trade. The voyage continues through the harvesting of the cocoa broad bean to the manufacture of seductive chocolates. The facility also offers a Tea Room, where you can sample original recipes containing chocolate, and a Boutique, where you can purchase unusual chocolate products from around the world. You receive 100 grams of Marquise de Sévigné chocolate with your admission!\nMärklin Museum\nThe Märklin Museum was originally a sample room for dealers to examine toys and trains, and make their orders. Historic models from the company's 150-year history are exhibited. In the Museum Shop, models that are available only in the museum in a one-time series are a big attraction.\nMeissener Porzellan Museum\nThere are more than 20,000 original Meissen pieces in the Staatliche Porzellan Manufaktur's (formerly KPM) porcelain collection, providing superb examples on which reproductions are based. About 3,000 items are selected each year from this huge treasure trove and put on display in the Museum. The exhibition is never quite the same from one year to the next. The objects are of every imaginable size, from thimbles and large animal sculptures, to dinner and tea sets, candelabra and vases almost seven feet high. The manufactory outlet shop is full of tantalizing porcelain delights.\nSchloßmuseum\n\"Mon Plaisir\" is certain to be your delight! Created over several decades by Princess Dorothea of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt and her countless helpers, \"Mon Plaisir\" is a baroque village in miniature. It consists of several houses, 82 rooms, and more than 400 dolls, and provides an intimate view of bustling 18th-century life in Augustenburg near Arnstadt. Posters, postcards, and booklets are available for purchase.\nPuppentheater-Museum\nMunich's Municipal Museum houses the largest permanent collection of puppets in the world over 5,000 of them. The comical and grotesque figures include both marionettes and hand puppets. The collection also includes detailed puppet theaters and miniature scenery, a Lilliputian version of the world of the stage. The truly remarkable collection shares the third floor with an exhibit of fairground art, including carousel animals, shooting galleries, roller-coaster models, and wax and museum figures. The museum's most important exhibit is its Moriskentanzer (Morris dancers) on the ground floor ten figures, each 60cm (24 inches) tall, carved in wood, and painted in bright colors by Erasmus Grasser in 1480, are among the best examples of secular Gothic art in Germany. In the large Gothic hall on the ground floor one can admire a collection of armor and weapons from the 14th to the 18th centuries; the second-floor photo museum traces the early history of the camera back to 1839; and the collection of musical instruments on the fourth floor is one of the greatest of its kind in the world.\nMusée Animé du Jouet et Petit Trains\nThe Animated Museum of Toys and Miniature Trains is based on the private collection of George Trincot, a painter of international fame. The museum is situated in a renovated theater. Over 2,000 antique toys are exhibited on three floors. Featured is a splendid collection of trains, like the marvelous brass \"Britannia\" 140 cm long and weighing 35 kg. A museum catalog and postcards are available for purchase.\nMusée de la Poterie\nThe history of pottery in Bettschdorf begins in the 18th century with immigrant potters from the Rhineland. They brought with them the original, 13th-century techinique of making hard pottery (stoneware) with salt glazing. Betschdorf is synonymous with the distinctive grey and blue ceramic. There are currently no more than a dozen artisan potteries in the town. The best place to start your Betschdorf visit is in the local Pottery Museum an old half-timbered house offers the perfect setting for its collection of rare antique and contemporary Betschdorf pottery.\nMusée de la Poupée\nMore than 500 stunning French dolls from 1800 to 2000, cleverly displayed with their furniture, accessories and toys, are on permanent exhibition in the little Paris Museum of the Doll. Temporary exhibitions change 2 or 3 times a year. The museum draws from the private collection of Guido and Samy Odin. The museum offers a doll hospital as well as a gift shop where postcards, dolls, posters, and an extensive selection of doll books can be purchased.\nMusée des Arts Décoratifs\nThe Musée des Arts Décoratifs, located in the northwest wing of the Louvre's Pavillon de Marsan, is a museum devoted to interior design, furniture, objets d'arts, wallpaper, tapestries, ceramics, glassware, and toys from the Middle Ages to the present day. Notable on the first floor are the 1920s art deco boudoir, bath, and bedroom of courturier Jeanne Lanvin by designer Rateau. Decorative art from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance is on the second floor; rich collections from the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries occupy the third and fourth floors. The fifth has centers on wallpaper and drawings and documentary centers detailing fashion, textiles, toys, crafts, and glass trends. The newer addition is a Musee de la Publicité (Museum of Advertising), with advertising posters from the 18th century and film, TV, and radio commercials from the 1930s to today. Architect Jean Nouvel designed a cutting edge interior that also displays avant-garde video techniques.\nMusée de la Mode et du Textile\nThe collection of the Museum Fashion and Textiles is one of the most important in the world, ranking with the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. With a collection of roughly 30,000 costumes from the 18th century to the present, it is a unique museum in France. The clothing gallery, with a surface area of 1500 square meters and permanent, modern showcases, changes its exhibit twice a year. Various aspects of fashion and textiles are highlighted throughout the museum.\nMusée des Tissus\nThe Textile Museum is quartered in the 18th century mansion of Villeroy. Structured around the history of silk manufacture in Lyon from the Renaissance to the present, it also illustrates the most important stages of textile history illustrated with Persian carpets, Coptic tapestries, and silks from Spain, Sicily, Italy, the Middle East, and the Far East.\nMusée du Chapeau\nThe Museum of the Hat resides in 1500 square meters of the old Jules Blanchard hat manufactory. This museum not only exhibits an exceptional collection of hats from the 18th century to the present, but documents, with video and live demonstrations, the process of transforming rabbit fur into luxury hats. The museum boutique offers books, gift items, and hats in all shapes and sizes - including doll sizes!\nMusée du Jouet\nInstalled in a modernized 14th-century priory of Poissy, the Museum of the Toy exhibits French toys dating from 1850 to 1930, an era of prolific production that was rich with new inventions. Among its more important services, the Museum offers researchers access to its Documentation Center, which is rivaled by none. Catalogs of both permanent and temporary exhibitions, past and present, are available for purchase in the museum shop, along with post cards, posters, and replicas of small, antique toys.\nThéâtre Musée des Capucines\nThe Perfume Museum, which opened in 1983, occupies a very lovely Napoleon III town house built in 1860 by Lesoufaché, a student of Garnier. The decoration is entirely of that period. Here you can discover a wonderful collection of perfumery objects from the ages. The Theater Museum of Capucines, first opened in 1900 and fully renovated in 1993, offers a unique exploration of the world of perfume. A miniature factory composed of 19th-century copper distilling apparatus demonstrates methods for extracting raw materials. An exquisite collection of perfume bottles from the 17th century to the 20th century tells the story of 3000 years of perfume-making. You can buy Fragonard perfume in the boutiques. Both museums are accessible by Métro: Opéra station, lines 3, 7, and 8.\nMuseo del Giocattolo e del Bambino\nMuseo del Giocattolo e del Bambino presents one of the most important collections of European vintage toys, the fruit of more than half a century of dedicated research. Thousands of pieces are displayed in rotation, following chronological and thematic paths. Three centuries of toys – strictly original and fully functional – investigate every aspect of play: dolls and toy soldiers, models of all kinds, street games and board games, books and comics.\nMuseo della Bambola e del Giocattolo\nThe imposing medieval hilltop fortress of Rocca Borromeo, overlooking Italy's breathtakingly picturesque Lago Maggiore, houses the Museum of Dolls and Toys, displaying the Borromeo family's priceless collection of dolls. Founded in 1988 by Princess Bona Borromeo Arese, twelve rooms of the Viscontea and Borromea wings have exhibited the extraordinary collection of dolls, toys, books, dolls' furniture, and table and board games, which constitute one of the most important museums of its kind in Europe. There are wooden dolls from the 18th century, French closed-mouth dolls, German dolls, and \"bébé Caractères\" made of wax, papier-màché, porcelain, fabric, celluloid, and plastic, illustrating the historical and cultural evolution of this quite extraordinary object, which has always been an important protagonist of childhood. The exhibition includes the collection of the Petit Musée du Costume de Tours, collected by Giséle Pesché, consisting of extraordinary French and German automatons of the nineteenth century. The museum has well-documented didactic information, which accompanies visitors on a fascinating journey through time to discover the fundamental gift of play. Audio headsets can be rented, which guide visitors through the collection in a variety of languages.\nMuseo Internazionale delle Marionette Antonio Pasqualino\nFounded in 1975 by the Association for the Preservation of Local Traditions, the Museo Internazionale delle Marionette Antonio Pasqualino has taken inspiration from modern and contemporary museology, and associated theatrical activity. The structure houses a collection of 3,500 pieces from around the world. The adjoining library of Giuseppe Leggio contains 3,000 books on puppetry and folk traditions, including a video library with materials related to theatrical performances in different traditions and cultures. Among several initiatives, particular attention is given to the production of theatrical performances with the aim of promoting the innovative work of traditional puppet shows. The Museum is named after to Antonio Pasqualino, an archaeologist in the field of folk traditions.\nMuseum der Deutschen Spielzeugindustrie\nHave you ever wondered just how composition doll bodies, eyes, wigs, and other dolly things were made? These and many other questions about turn-of-the-century doll, teddy bear, and toy manufacture are answered in detailed exhibits and workshop displays. Also on display are more than 800 costume dolls representing the people of more than 100 nations; and dioramas depicting Santa's workshop, scenes from fairy tales, and the antics of Max and Moritz. A special exhibit of exquisite, modern artist-dolls coincides with the Neustadter Puppenfestival, during which the prestigious Max-Oscar-Arnold Prize is awarded. Puppenfestival souvenir dolls - which must be reserved in advance - are available in the museum shop as are gift items and postcards.\nMuseum of Childhood\nWith 6,000 objects spanning 400 years of childhood, the Museum of Childhood exhibits one of the largest and oldest collections of childhood items in the world, ranging from swaddling bands of the 16th century, dolls of the 17th century, games of the 18th century, toy theatres of the 19th century, and model trains of the 20th century! The highlight of the dolls' house collection on the ground floor is the Nürnberg Dolls House, made in 1673, and the only example of its type to be found outside Germany. The Museum also has the finest collection of children's costume in the country. The best of it is exhibited with a fascinating display of nursery and baby equipment. The museum gift shop offers an extensive collection of replica toys, paper dolls, postcards, and books.\nOberammergau Museum\nThe Oberammergau Museum showcases the rich tradition of the Oberammergau woodcarvers with creches, crucifixes, reliquary crosses, saint figurines, finely carved needle cases, paperweights, and toys, dating from the mid-18th century to the end of the 19th century. A creche from the Oberammergau parish church is the highlight of the enormous nativity collection situated on the ground floor 129 carved and clothed jointed dolls and 80 animals depict different Christmas scenarios and the Wedding at Cana. The first floor is colorfully furnished with dolls and doll's heads, soldiers and movable fortresses, wagons and carts, stables and Noah's arks with all sorts of animals, mail coach drivers and travelers, coachmen and riders, horizontal bar artists and jumping jacks.\nSpielzeug Welten Museum\nThe Toy World Museum has several floors stuffed with 18th- and 19th-century toys and classic miniature toy furnishings. The main stars are themselves stuffed – more than 2,000 teddy bears are exhibited in perhaps the world's most complete collection representing major manufacturers. The museum's collections are organized not by toy type, but by themes – don't be surprised to see a Steiff bear racing a model Formula-1 race car, cheered on by a crowd of other bears and dolls of every manufacture! The museum shop offers postcards, miniatures, and an outstanding catalog of the museum's collections in several languages, including English, on CD.\nMünchner Stadtmuseum\nMunich's Municipal Museum houses the largest permanent collection of puppets in the world over 5,000 of them. The comical and grotesque figures include both marionettes and hand puppets. The collection also includes detailed puppet theaters and miniature scenery, a Lilliputian version of the world of the stage. The truly remarkable collection shares the third floor with an exhibit of fairground art, including carousel animals, shooting galleries, roller-coaster models, and wax and museum figures. The museum's most important exhibit is its Moriskentanzer (Morris dancers) on the ground floor ten figures, each 60cm (24 inches) tall, carved in wood, and painted in bright colors by Erasmus Grasser in 1480, are among the best examples of secular Gothic art in Germany. In the large Gothic hall on the ground floor one can admire a collection of armor and weapons from the 14th to the 18th centuries; the second-floor photo museum traces the early history of the camera back to 1839; and the collection of musical instruments on the fourth floor is one of the greatest of its kind in the world.\nQueen Mary's Dolls' House\nWindsor Castle, a royal palace and fortress for over 900 years, is an official residence of The Queen and remains a working palace today. The State Apartments, the Drawings Gallery, St. George's Chapel, Albert Memorial Chapel, and Queen Mary's Dolls' House, are open to visitors for most of the year. A palace in miniature, Queen Mary's Dolls' House is the most famous dolls? house in the world. Built to a scale of 1:12 by master craftsmen in the 1920s, everything in the house is absolute perfection. The mechanical and engineering equipment ? water system, electric lighting, and elevators ? actually work! The gramophone plays, the wine bottles in the cellar contain genuine vintage wines, and there are more than 200 miniature volumes of books by famous authors of the day, some in their own hand, in the library. The Jumeau dolls of the Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret, with complete wardrobes and every imaginable accessory, are exhibited with the dolls' house. A video and several books about the dolls' house are offered in various shop locations throughout the castle grounds.\nÖsterreichisches Theatermuseum\nRichard Teschner set new standards in the realm of rod puppets. One of the most remarkable proponents of the Viennese Jugendstil movement, Teschner was extraordinarily gifted in many respects: he was a painter, graphic artist, sculptor, puppeteer and more. He created a complete artistic theatrical world including stage techniques and musical accompaniment. Using the Java rod puppet as his point of departure, he developed a new, expressive puppet style for his pantomime performances. Having risen above the conventional diorama visualization, he revolutionized puppet theater and created the unique Figurenspiegel, with images of great beauty and suggestive power. The exhibit is filled with Teschner's remarkable puppets. Arrangements must be made in advance for a puppet show.\nSchildkröt Puppenmuseum\nCelluloid dolls are taken for granted as cheap, mass-produced toys, but we urge a careful look at the more than 900 dolls representing 100 years of production under the mark of the turtle, exhibited in the Schildkröt Doll Museum. It is a remarkable collection. Many models are rare.\nSiegfried's Mechanisches Musikkabinett\nSiegfried's Mechanisches Musikkabinett offers one of the largest and most beautiful collections of mechanical music boxes in Germany. There are approximately 350 exhibits of mechanical instruments dating from the 18th to the 20th centuries – from delicate musical boxes to a gigantic piano-orchestrion. The museum also includes tools and machines for manufacturing barrel organs, cardboard music, piano rolls and musical box plates.\nPuppenhausmuseum\nThe Toy World Museum has several floors stuffed with 18th- and 19th-century toys and classic miniature toy furnishings. The main stars are themselves stuffed – more than 2,000 teddy bears are exhibited in perhaps the world's most complete collection representing major manufacturers. The museum's collections are organized not by toy type, but by themes – don't be surprised to see a Steiff bear racing a model Formula-1 race car, cheered on by a crowd of other bears and dolls of every manufacture! The museum shop offers postcards, miniatures, and an outstanding catalog of the museum's collections in several languages, including English, on CD.\nSpielzeugmuseum im Alten Rathausturm\nThe Toy Museum in the Old City Hall Tower brings children's dreams back to life. The collection of European and American toys includes dolls and dolls' houses, model railways, planes, teddy bears, carousels, and zoos with animals. Endearing treasures from the pre-Gameboy era adorn all four floors of the tower. The Munich museum is based on the collection of Ivan Steiger Family. The little museum shop offers books, postcards and toys.\nSpielzeugmuseum im Wettsteinhaus\nThe historical Wettsteinhaus offers an attractive setting for the Toy Museum which possesses one of the most important collections of European toys in the world. Each chapter of a superb summary guide to the permanent exhibition entitled \"All the Toys of Yesteryear,\" available in English, corresponds to each of the seventeen rooms and is a must for any serious doll and toy collector. The museum's boutique offers a variety of gift items, replicas of antique toys, and books.\nSpielzeugmuseum Lydia Bayer\nThe Spielzeugmuseum holds the largest and most varied toy collection in the world. Changing exhibits feature doll antiquities, wax dolls, wood dolls, china dolls, bisque dolls, celluloid dolls, costume dolls, doll rooms, doll stores, tin toys, toy railroads, wood toys, children's books, and more. The museum shop offers a variety of toys, posters, and postcards.\nSpielzeugmuseum Trier\nThe Toy Museum, located in the heart of Trier on the beautiful Hauptmarkt, is based on the collection of Rolf and Heidi Scheurich. More than 5,000 exhibits are distributed over 500 square meters on two floors sheet metal toys, trains, dolls, Laterna Magicas, tin figures, Steiff animals, zoos, and more!\nSteiff Museum\nVisitors learn about the 125-year history of Margarete Steiff GmbH and see its fascinating and unique variety of products. More than 2,000 enchanting Steiff animals have a home in 2,400 square meters of exhibition space on the grounds of the Margarete Steiff GmbH headquarters. In the manufacturing demonstration set up especially for the Adventure Museum, visitors see how an original Steiff animal is crafted by hand, step by step, and with great attention to detail. The museum, which was dramatically improved in 2005, also has a bistro with seating for 70 people inside and out, and an attractive outlet shop.\nStruwwelpeter Museum\nStruwwelpeter (pronounced STROO-velpayter), or Slovenly Peter, is the most famous character created by world-renowned physician, author, and lifelong citizen of Frankfurt Heinrich Hoffman. Hoffman began sketching for children to ease their nerves while visiting his doctor?s office, and eventually wrote Struwwelpeter as a gift for his three-year-old son in 1884. It and many other stories quickly became classic cautionary tales worldwide. Der Stuwwelpeter can be found in scores of languages Mark Twain did one translation. The small museum gallery contains a collection of original artwork created by Hoffman, editions and parodies of Struwwelpeter from the 19th and 20th centuries, and other paraphernalia of Hoffman's life and work as an author and a psychiatric innovator.\nVictoria & Albert Museum Dress Collection\nThe Victoria & Albert Museum is the world's largest museum of the decorative arts and is home to 145 galleries, including national collections of sculpture, furniture, fashion, and photographs. The Dress Collection covers over 400 years of European fashionable dress, from the mid-16th century to the present day. Nowhere else can such a parade of fashion be experienced, from the ornate embroidered suit worn by the future King James II at his wedding in 1673 to the cool sophistication of twentieth century haute couture. The museum's shop offers a wide range of gifts and books.\nZürcher Spielzeugmusum\nSmall, but first-rate! This collection of European playthings from the 18th to the beginning of the 20th century is found in one of the oldest corners of Zurich. Toys that mirror in miniature life in different eras of history: Trains and steam engines bear witness to the technical revolution, dolls and their costumes illustrate fashion trends, and dolls' houses show the domestic life of earlier generations. Pewter figures, antique games, wooden toys, children's books, and stoves are also to be found here."
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On which label did the Beach boys record most of their 60s hits?
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"The Beach Boys are an American rock band formed in Hawthorne, California in 1961. The group's original lineup consisted of brothers Brian, Dennis, and Carl Wilson, their cousin Mike Love, and their friend Al Jardine. They emerged at the vanguard of the \"California Sound\", initially performing original surf songs that gained international popularity for their distinct vocal harmonies and lyrics reflecting a southern California youth culture of surfing, cars, and romance. Rooted in jazz-based vocal groups, 1950s rock and roll, and doo-wop, Brian led the band in devising novel approaches to music production, arranging his compositions for studio orchestras, and experimenting with several genres ranging from pop ballads to psychedelic and baroque.\n\nThe group began as a garage band managed by the Wilsons' father Murry, with Brian's creative ambitions and sophisticated songwriting abilities dominating the group's musical direction. After 1964, their albums took a different stylistic path that featured more personal lyrics, multi-layered sounds, and recording experiments. In 1966, the Pet Sounds album and \"Good Vibrations\" single vaulted the group to the top level of rock innovators and established the band as symbols of the nascent counterculture era. Following Smiles dissolution, Brian gradually ceded control to the rest of the band, reducing his input because of mental health and substance abuse issues. Though the more democratic incarnation of the Beach Boys recorded a string of albums in various music styles, the group's public image faltered, and they struggled to reclaim their commercial momentum in America. The continued success of their greatest hits albums during the mid 1970s precipitated the band's transition into an oldies act, a move that was denigrated by fans and critics. Since the 1980s, much-publicized legal wrangling over royalties, songwriting credits and use of the band's name transpired. \n\nDennis drowned in 1983 and Carl died of lung cancer in 1998. After Carl's death, many live configurations of the band fronted by Mike Love and Bruce Johnston continued to tour into the 2000s while other members pursued solo projects. For the band's 50th anniversary, all the current surviving members briefly reunited for a new studio album and world tour. Even though Wilson and Jardine do not perform with Love and Johnston's band, they remain a part of the Beach Boys' corporation, Brother Records Inc.\n\nThe Beach Boys are regarded as the most iconic American band and one of the most critically acclaimed, commercially successful, and widely influential bands of all time, while AllMusic stated that their \"unerring ability... made them America's first, best rock band.\" The group had over eighty songs chart worldwide, thirty-six of them US Top 40 hits (the most by an American rock band), four reaching number-one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The Beach Boys have sold in excess of 100 million records worldwide, making them one of the world's best-selling bands of all time and are listed at number 12 on Rolling Stone magazine's 2004 list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\". They have received one Grammy Award for The Smile Sessions (2011). The core quintet of the three Wilsons, Love and Jardine were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988.\n\n1958–66: Brian Wilson era \n\nFormation \n\nAt the time of his sixteenth birthday on June 20, 1958, Brian Wilson shared a bedroom with his brothers, Dennis and Carl – aged thirteen and eleven, respectively – in their family home in Hawthorne. He had watched his father, Murry Wilson, play piano, and had listened intently to the harmonies of vocal groups such as the Four Freshmen. After dissecting songs such as \"Ivory Tower\" and \"Good News\", Brian would teach family members how to sing the background harmonies. For his birthday that year, Brian received a reel-to-reel tape recorder. He learned how to overdub, using his vocals and those of Carl and their mother. Brian played piano with Carl and David Marks, an eleven-year-old longtime neighbor, playing guitars they had each received as Christmas presents.\n\nSoon Brian and Carl were avidly listening to Johnny Otis' KFOX radio show. Inspired by the simple structure and vocals of the rhythm and blues songs he heard, Brian changed his piano-playing style and started writing songs. His enthusiasm interfered with his music studies at school. Family gatherings brought the Wilsons in contact with cousin Mike Love. Brian taught Love's sister Maureen and a friend harmonies. Later, Brian, Mike Love and two friends performed at Hawthorne High School. Brian also knew Al Jardine, a high school classmate who had already played guitar in a folk group called the Islanders. Brian suggested to Jardine that they team up with his cousin and brother Carl. Love gave the fledgling band its name: \"The Pendletones\", a portmanteau of \"Pendleton\", a style of woolen shirt popular at the time and \"tone\", the musical term. Though surfing motifs were prominent in their early songs, Dennis was the only avid surfer in the group. He suggested that the group compose songs that celebrated the sport and the lifestyle that it had inspired in Southern California.\n\nJardine and a singer friend, Gary Winfrey, went to Brian to see if he could help out with a version of a folk song they wanted to record—\"Sloop John B\". In Brian's absence, the two spoke with their father, a music industry veteran of modest success. Murry arranged for the Pendletones to meet his publisher, Hite Morgan. The group performed a slower ballad, \"Their Hearts Were Full of Spring\", but failed to impress Morgan. After an awkward pause, Dennis mentioned they had an original song, \"Surfin'\". Brian finished the song, and together with Mike Love, wrote \"Surfin' Safari\". The group rented guitars, drums, amplifiers and microphones, and practiced for three days while the Wilsons' parents were on a short vacation.\n\nIn October 1961, the Pendletones recorded the two surfing song demos in twelve takes at Keen Recording Studio. Murry brought the demos to Herb Newman, owner of Candix Records and Era Records, and he signed the group on December 8, 1961. When the boys eagerly unpacked the first box of singles – released both under the Candix label, and also as a promo issue under X Records (Morgan's label) – they were shocked to see their band had been renamed as the Beach Boys. Murry Wilson called Morgan and learned that Candix wanted to name the group the Surfers to directly associate them with the increasingly popular teen sport. But Russ Regan, a young promoter with Era Records – who later became president of 20th Century Fox Records – noted that there already existed a group by that name, and he suggested calling them the Beach Boys.\n\nBeach-themed period \n\nReleased in December 1961, \"Surfin'\" soon aired on KFWB and KRLA, two of Los Angeles' most influential teen radio stations. It was a hit on the West Coast, going to number three in Southern California, and peaked at number 75 on the national pop charts. By the final weeks of 1961 \"Surfin'\" had sold more than 40,000 copies. By this time, the de facto manager of the Beach Boys, Murry Wilson landed the group's first paying gig (for which they earned $300) on New Year's Eve, 1961, at the Ritchie Valens Memorial Dance in Long Beach, headlined by Ike & Tina Turner. In their earliest public appearances, the band wore heavy wool jacket-like shirts that local surfers favored before switching to their trademark striped shirts and white pants. Murry effectively seized managerial control of the band, and Brian acknowledged that he \"deserves credit for getting us off the ground ... he hounded us mercilessly ... [but] also worked hard himself.\"\n\nIn the first half of February 1962, Jardine left the band and was replaced by Marks. The band recorded two more originals on April 19 at Western Studios, Los Angeles: \"Lonely Sea\" and \"409\". They also re-recorded \"Surfin' Safari\". During early 1962, Morgan requested that some of the members add vocals to a couple of instrumental tracks that he had recorded with other musicians. This led to the creation of the short-lived group Kenny & the Cadets, which Brian led under the pseudonym \"Kenny\". The other members were Carl, Jardine, and the Wilsons' mother Audree.\n\nOn June 4, the Beach Boys released their second single \"Surfin' Safari\" backed with \"409\". The release prompted national coverage in the June 9 issue of Billboard. The magazine praised Love's lead vocal and said the song had strong hit potential. On July 16, 1962—after being turned down by Dot and Liberty—the Beach Boys signed a seven-year contract with Capitol Records, based on the strength of the June demo session. This was at the urging of Capitol exec Nick Venet who signed the group, seeing them as the \"teenage gold\" he had been scouting for. By November, their first album was ready—Surfin' Safari, which reached 32 on the US Billboard charts. Their song output continued along the same commercial line, focusing on California youth lifestyle.\n\nIn January 1963, three months after the release of their debut album, the band began recording their sophomore effort, Surfin' U.S.A., a breakthrough for Brian, who began asserting himself as songwriter and arranger. The LP was the start of Brian's penchant for doubletracking vocals, a pioneering innovation. Released on March 25, 1963, Surfin' U.S.A., met a more enthusiastic reception, reaching number two on the Billboard charts. This propelled the band into a nationwide spotlight, and was vital to launching surf music as a national craze. Five days prior to the release of Surfin' U.S.A., Brian produced \"Surf City\", a song he had written for Jan and Dean. \"Surf City\" hit number one on the Billboard charts in July 1963, a development that pleased Brian but angered Murry, who felt his son had \"given away\" what should have been the Beach Boys' first chart-topper.\n\nAt the beginning of a tour of the Mid-West in April 1963, Jardine rejoined the Beach Boys at Brian's request. As he began playing live gigs again, Brian left the road to focus on writing and recording. The result of this arrangement produced the albums Surfer Girl, released on September 16, 1963 and Little Deuce Coupe, released less than a month later on October 7, 1963. This sextet incarnation of the Beach Boys did not extend beyond these two albums, as Marks officially left the band in early October because of conflict with manager Murry, pulling Brian back into touring. \n\nAround this time, Brian began using members of the Wrecking Crew to augment his increasingly demanding studio arrangements. Session musicians that participated on Wilson's productions were said to have been awestruck by his musical abilities. For composer Frank Zappa, the most exciting thing to him in \"white-person-music\" was when the Beach Boys used the progression V–II on \"Little Deuce Coupe\", calling it \"an important step forward by going backward.\" The band released a standalone Christmas-themed single, \"Little Saint Nick\", in December 1963, backed with an a capella rendition of the scriptural song \"The Lord's Prayer\". The A-side peaked at number 3 on the US Billboard Christmas chart.\n\nFollowing a successful Australasian tour in January and February 1964, the band returned home to face the British Invasion through the Beatles appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show. Also representing the Beatles, Capitol support for the Beach Boys immediately began waning. This caused Murry to fight for the band at the label more than before, often visiting their offices without warning to \"twist executive arms.\" Brian reacted to the Beatles bemusedly: \"I was flipping out. I couldn't understand how a group could be just yelled and screamed at. The music they made, 'I Want to Hold Your Hand' for example, wasn't even that great a record, but they just screamed at it. ... It got us off our asses in the studio. We started cutting – we said 'look, don't worry about the Beatles, we'll cut our own stuff.\" Reportedly, Brian wanted more time to complete their next album, yet Capitol insisted they finish recording swiftly to avoid being forgotten in the throes of the impending invasion. Satisfying these demands, the band hastily finished the sessions on February 20, 1964 and titled the album Shut Down Volume 2. \"Fun, Fun, Fun\" was released as a single from the album (backed with \"Why Do Fools Fall in Love\") and was a major hit. The LP, while containing several filler tracks, was propelled by other songs such as the melancholic \"The Warmth of the Sun\" and the advanced production style of \"Don't Worry Baby\".\n\nBrian soon wrote his last surf song in April 1964. That month, during recording of the single \"I Get Around\", Murry was relieved of his duties as manager. Brian reflected, \"We love the family thing – y'know: three brothers, a cousin and a friend is a really beautiful way to have a group – but the extra generation can become a hang-up.\" When the single was released in May of that year, it would climb to number one, their first single to do so, proving that the Beach Boys could compete with contemporaneous British pop groups. Two months later, the album that the song appeared on, All Summer Long, reached number four on the Billboard 200 charts. All Summer Long introduced exotic textures to the Beach Boys' sound exemplified by the piccolos and xylophones of its title track. The album was a swan-song to the surf and car music the Beach Boys built their commercial standing upon. Later albums took a different stylistic and lyrical path. Before this, a live album, Beach Boys Concert, was released in October to a four-week chart stay at number one, containing a setlist of previously recorded hits and covers that they had not yet recorded. It was the first live album that ever topped pop music record charts.\n\nToday! and Summer Days \n\nIn June 1964, Brian began recording the bulk of The Beach Boys' Christmas Album with a forty-one-piece studio orchestra in collaboration with Four Freshmen arranger Dick Reynolds. Released in December, it was divided between five new, original Christmas-themed songs, and seven reinterpretations of traditional Christmas songs. It would be regarded as one of the finest holiday albums of the rock era. One single from the album, \"The Man with All the Toys\", was released, peaking at number 6 on the US Billboard Christmas chart. On October 29, the Beach Boys performed for The T.A.M.I. Show, a concert film intended to bring together a wide range of hit-making musicians for a one-off performance. The result was released to movie theaters one month later.\n\nBy the end of the year, the stress of road travel, composing, producing and maintaining a high level of creativity became too much for Brian. On December 23, while on a flight from Los Angeles to Houston, he suffered a panic attack only hours after performing with the Beach Boys on the musical variety series Shindig!. In January 1965, he announced his withdrawal from touring to concentrate entirely on songwriting and record production. For the rest of 1964 and into 1965, Glen Campbell served as Wilson's temporary replacement in concert, until his own career success pulled him from the group in April 1965. Bruce Johnston was asked to locate a replacement for Campbell; having failed to find one, Johnston himself became a full-time member of the band on May 19, 1965, first replacing Brian on the road and later contributing in the studio, beginning with the vocal sessions for \"California Girls\" on June 4, 1965. \n\nAfter Brian stopped touring in 1965, he became a full-time studio artist, showcasing a great leap forward with The Beach Boys Today!, an album containing a suite-like structure divided by songs and ballads, and portended the Album Era with its cohesive artistic statement. During the recording sessions for Today!, Love told Melody Maker that he and the band wanted to look beyond surf rock and to avoid living in the past or resting on their laurels. The resulting LP had largely guitar-oriented pop songs such as \"Dance, Dance, Dance\" and \"Good to My Baby\" on side A with B-side ballads such as \"Please Let Me Wonder\" and \"She Knows Me Too Well\". \n\nToday! established the Beach Boys as album artists and marked a maturation in their lyric content by abandoning themes related to surfing, cars, or teenage love. Some love songs remained, but with a marked increase in depth, along with introspective tracks accompanied by adventurous and distinct arrangements. While the band's contemporaries grew more intellectually aware, Capitol continued to bill them as \"America’s Top Surfin' Group!\" expecting Brian to write more surfing material for the yearly summer markets despite his disinterest.\n\nIn June 1965, the band released Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!). The album included a reworked arrangement of \"Help Me, Rhonda\" which became the band's second number one single in the spring of 1965, displacing the Beatles' \"Ticket to Ride\". \"Let Him Run Wild\" tapped into the youthful angst that later pervaded their music. In November 1965, the group followed their US number-three-charting \"California Girls\" from Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) with another top-twenty single, \"The Little Girl I Once Knew\". It was considered the band's most experimental statement thus far, using silence as a pre-chorus, clashing keyboards, moody brass and vocal tics. The single continued Brian's ambitions for daring arrangements, featuring unexpected tempo changes and numerous false endings. Perhaps too extreme an arrangement to go much higher than its number 20 peak, it was the band's second single not to reach the top ten since their 1962 breakthrough.\n\nCapitol demanded a Beach Boys LP for the 1965 Christmas season, and to appease them, Brian conceived Beach Boys' Party!, a live-in-the-studio album consisting mostly of acoustic covers of 1950s rock and R&B songs, in addition to covers of three Beatles songs, Bob Dylan's \"The Times They Are a-Changin'\", and idiosyncratic rerecordings of the group's earlier hits. In December they scored an unexpected number two hit (number three in the UK) with \"Barbara Ann\", which Capitol released as a single with no band input. Originally by the Regents, it became one of the Beach Boys' most recognized hits.\n\nPet Sounds \n\nIn 1966, the Beach Boys formally established their use of unconventional instruments and elaborate layers of vocal harmonies on their album Pet Sounds. It is considered Brian's most concise demonstration of his production and songwriting expertise. With songs such as \"Wouldn't It Be Nice\" and \"Sloop John B\", the album's innovative soundscape incorporates elements of jazz, classical, pop, exotica, and the avant-garde. The instrumentation combines found sounds such as bicycle bells and dog whistles with classically inspired orchestrations and the usual rock set-up of drums and guitars; among others, silverware, accordions, plucked piano strings, barking dogs, and plastic water jugs. For the basic rhythmic feel for \"God Only Knows\", harpsichord, piano with slapback echo, sleigh bells, and strings spilled into each other to create a rich blanket of sound.\n\nReleased in May, Pet Sounds eventually peaked at number eleven in the US and number two in the UK. This helped the Beach Boys become the strongest selling album act in the UK for the final quarter of 1966, dethroning the three-year reign of native bands such as the Beatles. Met with a lukewarm critical reception in the US, Pet Sounds was indifferently promoted by Capitol and failed to become the major hit Wilson had hoped it would be. Its failure to gain a wider recognition in the US combined with Capitol's decision to issue Best of The Beach Boys in July dispirited Brian, who considered Pet Sounds an extremely personal work. Some assumed that the label considered the album a risk, appealing more to an older demographic than the younger, female audience the Beach Boys built their commercial standing on. Pet Sounds sales numbered approximately 500,000 units, a significant drop-off from the chain of million-selling albums that immediately preceded it. Best of The Beach Boys was quickly certified Gold by the RIAA.\n\nPet Sounds is considered by some as a Brian Wilson solo album in all but name, as other members contributed relatively little to the compositions or recordings. Influenced by psychedelic drugs, Brian turned inward and probed his deep-seated self-doubts and emotional longings; the piece did not address the problems in the world around them, unlike other psychedelic rock groups. As Jim Miller wrote of the album's tone, \"[It] vented Wilson's obsession with isolation cataloging a forlorn quest for security. The whole enterprise, which smacked of song cycle pretensions, was streaked with regret and romantic languor.\" According to Brian, the album was designed as a collection of art pieces that belong together yet could stand alone. In a 1972 retrospective review of the album, music journalist Stephen Davis wrote: \"From first cut to last we were treated to an intense, linear personal vision of the vagaries of a love affair and the painful, introverted anxieties that are the wrenching precipitates of the unstable chemistry of any love relationship. This trenchant cycle of love songs has the emotional impact of a shatteringly evocative novel ... nobody was prepared for anything so soulful, so lovely, something one had to think about so much.\" \n\nPet Sounds was massively influential upon its release, vaunting the band to the top level of rock innovators. It is one of the earliest rock concept albums, one of the earliest concept albums of the counterculture era, and an early album in the emerging psychedelic rock style, signaling a turning point wherein rock, which previously had been considered dance music, became music that was made for listening to. In 2016, The Guardians Barbara Ellen reflected that the album was \"hailed as a revolution in harmonies and production techniques ... Wilson single-handedly reinvented the album as the in-depth illumination of an artist’s soul, kicking open a creative fire-door, liberating the album to exist as a self-contained art form on a par with literature, theatre, art, cinema, dance… anything the artist desired.\" Reflecting on the album on its 50th anniversary, PopMatters Danilo Castro added:\n\nIn The Album: A Guide to Pop Music's Most Provocative, Influential, and Important Creations, author James Perone championed the album for its complex orchestrations, sophisticated compositions, and varied tone colors, calling it a remove from \"just about anything else that was going on in 1966 pop music.\" In 1976, journalist Robin Denselow wrote: \"With the 1966 Pet Sounds album ... Wilson had become America's equivalent of the Beatles with his ability to expand the limits of popular taste.\" Paul McCartney named it one of his favorite albums of all time on multiple occasions, calling it the primary impetus for the Beatles' album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967). In 2003, Pet Sounds was ranked second in \"The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\" list selected by Rolling Stone, behind only Sgt. Pepper. In 2004, the album was acknowledged as an important historical and cultural work by the Library of Congress.\n\n\"Good Vibrations\" and Smile \n\nSeeking to expand on Pet Sounds advances, Wilson began an even more ambitious project: \"Good Vibrations\". Like Pet Sounds, Brian opted for an eclectic array of instruments rarely heard in pop music. Described by Brian as a \"pocket symphony\", it contains a mixture of classical, rock, and exotic instruments structured around a cut-up mosaic of musical sections represented by several discordant key and modal shifts. It became the Beach Boys' biggest hit to date, and a US and UK number one single in 1966. Coming at a time when pop singles were usually made in under two hours, it was one of the most complex pop productions ever undertaken, and the most expensive single ever recorded to that point. The production costs were estimated between $50,000 and $75,000 ($ and $ today) with sessions for the song stretching over several months in at least four major studios. According to Domenic Priore, the making of \"Good Vibrations\" was unlike anything previous in the realms of classical, jazz, international, soundtrack, or any other kind of recording.\n\nThe single was an unequivocal milestone in studio productions, and continued in establishing Brian as an extender of popular tastes. To the counterculture of the 1960s, \"Good Vibrations\" served as an anthem. Rock critic Gene Sculatti prophesied in 1968, \"[It] may yet prove to be the most significantly revolutionary piece of the current rock renaissance.\" Its instrumentation included Paul Tanner's Electro-Theremin, a manually-operated oscillator with a sound similar to a theremin, which helped the Beach Boys claim a new hippie audience. Upon release, the single prompted an unexpected revival in theremins while increasing awareness of analog synthesizers, leading Moog Music to produce their own brand of ribbon-controlled instruments. Reflecting on this period in 1971, Cue magazine wrote: \"In the year and a half that followed Pet Sounds, the Beach Boys were among the vanguard in practically every aspect of the counter culture – psychedelia, art rock, a return to roots, ecology, organic food, the cooled-out sound – anticipating changes that rock didn't accomplish until 1969–1970.\" \nThe group established a short-lived film production company, called Home Movies, during this time. It was supposed to have created live action film and television properties starring the Beach Boys. However, the company completed only one music video, for \"Good Vibrations\", though various other psychedelic sequences and segments exist.\n\nBrian met lyricist and musician Van Dyke Parks while working on Pet Sounds. A year later, while in the midst of recording \"Good Vibrations\", the duo began an intense collaboration that resulted in a suite of challenging new songs for the Beach Boys forthcoming album Smile, intended to surpass Pet Sounds. Recording for the album spanned about a year, from 1966 to 1967. Wilson and Parks intended Smile to be a continuous suite of songs that were linked both thematically and musically, with the main songs being linked together by small vocal pieces and instrumental segments that elaborated upon the musical themes of the major songs. Surviving recordings have shown that the music incorporated chanting, cowboy songs, explorations in Indian and Hawaiian music, jazz, tone poems with classical elements, cartoon sound effects, musique concrète, and yodeling. \n\nIn October 1966 interviews, Brian touted the album \"a teenage symphony to God\". His spiritual aims were made explicit in the album's musical contents and lyrics, which also included existential angst, the exploration of human innocence, and the philosophy of childlikeness. Parks has stated: he and Brian were conscious of the counterculture, and the two had felt estranged from it, but it was necessary to adhere to because of a willingness to \"get out of the Eisenhower mindset.\" Parks stresses, \"At the same time, he didn't want to lose that kind of gauche sensibility that he had. He was doing stuff that nobody would dream of doing,\" citing an instance when Brian instructed a banjo player to play only one string, a \"gauche\" style of playing that \"just wasn't done.\"\n\nSmile would go on to become the most legendary unreleased album in the history of popular music. In the decades following its non-release, it became the subject of intense speculation and mystique. Many believe that, had the album been released, it would have substantially altered the group's direction and established them at the vanguard of rock innovators. Writing about the album for the 33⅓ book series, Luis Sanchez stated: \"If Brian Wilson and the Beach Boys were going to survive as the defining force of American pop music they were, Smile was a conscious attempt to rediscover the impulses and ideas that power American consciousness from the inside out. It was a collaboration that led to some incredible music, which, if it had been completed as an album and delivered to the public in 1966, might have had an incredible impact.\"\n\nIf released when intended, composer Frank Oteri believes the album would have been the first piece of album-oriented rock. Its cover artwork, now considered iconic, depicted an illustration of a store selling smiles, also would have been among the earliest covers by a popular music group to feature original, specifically commissioned artwork rather than a photograph of the performers. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, bootlegs from its recording sessions leaked, inspiring many attempts to reassemble the album, and ultimately becoming a progenitor for indie rock.\n\nMany factors combined to put intense pressure on Brian Wilson as Smile neared completion: his mental instability, the pressure to create despite fierce internal opposition to his new music, the relatively unenthusiastic response to Pet Sounds in the United States, Carl Wilson's draft resistance, and a major dispute with Capitol Records. Furthermore, Wilson's reliance on both prescription drugs and amphetamines exacerbated his underlying mental health problems. Comparable to Brian Jones and Syd Barrett, Brian Wilson's use of psychedelic drugs—especially LSD—led to a nervous breakdown in the late-1960s. As his legend grew, the Smile period came to be seen as the pivotal episode in his decline, and he became tagged as a drug casualty.\n\n1967–77: fluctuating leadership \n\nSmiley Smile and Wild Honey \n\nSome Smile tracks were salvaged and re-recorded in scaled-down versions at Brian's new home studio. Along with the single version of \"Good Vibrations\", these tracks were released on the September 1967 album Smiley Smile, which elicited positive critical and commercial response abroad, but was the first real commercial failure for the group in the United States. Compounding the group's recent setbacks, their public image took a cataclysmic hit following their withdrawal from the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival for the reason that they had no new material to play while their forthcoming single and album lay in limbo. Their cancellation was seen as \"...a damning admission that they were washed up [and] unable to compete with the new music.\" This notion was exacerbated by Rolling Stone writer Jann Wenner, who in contemporary publications criticized Brian Wilson for his oft-repeated \"genius\" label, which he called a \"promotional shuck\" and an attempt to compare him with the Beatles.\n\nWhile being interviewed in August 1967 for the aborted live album Lei'd in Hawaii, Brian stated: \"I think rock n' roll–the pop scene–is happening. It’s great. But I think basically, the Beach Boys are squares. We’re not happening.\" Former band publicist Derek Taylor later recalled a conversation with Brian and Dennis where they denied that the group had ever written surf music or songs about cars, and that the Beach Boys had never been involved with the surf and hot rod fads, as Taylor claimed, \"...they would not concede.\" As a result of their initial target demographic and subsequent failures to blend with the hippie movement, the group was viewed as unhip relics, even though they had once been, as biographer Peter Ames Carlin wrote, \"the absolute center of the American rock ’n’ roll scene,\" a time when they had ushered the psychedelic era. In early 1969, Brian proposed that the group change their name from \"the Beach Boys\" to \"the Beach\", reasoning that the band members were now grown men. Going to the effort of acquiring a contract that would declare a five-way agreement to officially rename the group, Stephen Desper reported, \"They all just kind of shrugged and said, 'Aw, come on, Brian, we don't wanna do that. That's how the public knows us, man. And that was it. He put the paper on the piano and it stayed there until I picked it up and took it away.\"\n\nIn 1966, the group had filed a lawsuit in the Los Angeles Superior Court against Capitol Records for over two million dollars, which briefly severed their relationship with the label. At this time the Beach Boys' management (Nick Grillo and David Anderle) created the band's own record label, Brother. One of the first labels owned by a rock group Brother Records was intended for releases of Beach Boys side projects, and as an invitation to new talent. The initial output of the label, however, was limited to Smiley Smile and two resulting singles from the album. The failure of \"Gettin' Hungry\" caused the band to shelve Brother until 1970.\n\nAfter the cancellation of Smile, some of its tracks continued to trickle out in later albums often as filler songs to offset Brian's unwillingness to contribute. Smiley Smile was followed up three months later with Wild Honey, featuring mostly new songs written by Wilson and Love, including the number 19 single \"Darlin'\". The album fared better than its predecessor, reaching number 24 in the US. Wenner responded to the new album with more optimism, remarking two months later that \"[in] any case it's good to see that the Beach Boys are getting their heads straight once again\". \n\nFriends and 20/20 \n\nAfter meeting Maharishi Mahesh Yogi at a UNICEF Variety Gala in Paris, France on December 15, 1967, Love, along with other high-profile celebrities such as Donovan and the Beatles traveled to Rishikesh in India during February and March 1968. The following Beach Boys album Friends (1968) had songs influenced by the Transcendental Meditation taught by the Maharishi. The album reached number 13 in the UK and 126 in the US, the title track placing at number 25 in the UK and number 47 in the US, the band's lowest singles peak since 1962. In support of the Friends album, Love had arranged for the Beach Boys to tour with the Maharishi in the US, which has been called \"one of the more bizarre entertainments of the era.\" Starting on May 3, 1968, the tour lasted five shows and was cancelled when the Maharishi had to withdraw to fulfill film contracts. Because of disappointing audience numbers and the Maharishi's withdrawal, twenty-four tour dates were subsequently cancelled at a cost estimated at US$250,000 (approximately US$ today) for the band. This tour was followed by the release of \"Do It Again\", a single that critics described as an update of the Beach Boys' surf rock past in a late 1960s style. The single went to the top of the Australian and UK single charts in 1968 and was moderately successful in the US, peaking at number 20.\n\nFor a short time in mid-1968, Brian Wilson sought psychological treatment in hospital. During his absence, other members began writing and producing material themselves. To complete their contract with Capitol, they produced one more album. 20/20 (1969) was one of the group's most stylistically diverse albums, including hard rock songs such as \"All I Want to Do\", the waltz-based \"Time to Get Alone\", and a cover of the Ronettes' \"I Can Hear Music\". The diversity of genres have been described as an indicator that the group was trying to establish an updated identity. The album performed strongly in the UK, reaching number three on the charts. In the US, the album reached a modest 68.\n\nIn spring 1968, Dennis began a strained relationship with musician Charles Manson, which persisted for several months afterward. Dennis bought him time at Brian's home studio where recording sessions were attempted while Brian stayed in his room. Dennis then proposed that Manson be signed to Brother Records. Brian reportedly disliked Charlie, and so a deal was never made. Without Manson's involvement, the Beach Boys did record one song penned by Manson: \"Cease to Exist\", rewritten as \"Never Learn Not to Love\". The idea of the Beach Boys recording one of his songs reportedly thrilled Manson, and it was released as a Beach Boys single. After accruing a large monetary debt to the group, Dennis deliberately omitted Manson's credit on its release while also altering the song's arrangement and lyrics. This greatly angered Manson. Growing fearful, Dennis gradually distanced himself from Manson, whose family had taken over his home. He was eventually convicted for murder conspiracy; from there on, Dennis was too afraid of the Manson family to ever speak publicly on his relationship, let alone testify against him.\n\nOn April 12, 1969, the band revisited their 1967 lawsuit against Capitol Records after they alleged an audit undertaken revealed the band were owed over US$2,000,000 (US$ today) for unpaid royalties and production duties. The band's contract with Capitol Records expired on June 30, 1969, after which Capitol Records deleted the Beach Boys' catalog from print, effectively cutting off their royalty flow. In November 1969, Murry Wilson sold Sea of Tunes, the Beach Boys' catalog, to Irving Almo Music, a decision that, according to Marilyn Wilson, devastated Brian. In late 1969, the Beach Boys reactivated their Brother label and signed with Reprise. Around this time, the band commenced recording a new album. By the time the Beach Boys tenure ended with Capitol in 1969, they had sold 65 million records worldwide, closing the decade as the most commercially successful American group in popular music. \n\nSunflower, Surf's Up, So Tough, and Holland \n\nIn 1970, armed with the new Reprise contract, the band appeared rejuvenated, releasing the album Sunflower to critical acclaim in the UK but indifference in the US. The album features a strong group presence with significant writing contributions from all band members. Brian was active during this period, writing or co-writing seven of the twelve songs on Sunflower and performing at half of the band's domestic concerts in 1970. Sunflower reached number 29 in the UK and number 151 in the US, the band's lowest domestic chart showing to that point. A version of \"Cottonfields\" arranged by Al Jardine appeared on European releases of Sunflower and as a single, reached number one in Australia, Norway, South Africa and Sweden and the top-five in six other countries, including the UK.\n\nAfter Sunflower, the band hired Jack Rieley as their manager. Under Rieley's management, the group's music began emphasizing political and social awareness. During this time, Carl Wilson gradually assumed leadership of the band and Rieley contributed lyrics. On August 30, 1971 the band released Surf's Up, named after the Brian Wilson/Van Dyke Parks composition \"Surf's Up\". The album was moderately successful, reaching the US top 30, a marked improvement over their recent releases. While the record charted, the Beach Boys added to their renewed fame by performing a near-sellout set at Carnegie Hall, followed by an appearance with the Grateful Dead at Fillmore East on April 27, 1971. The live shows during this era included reworked arrangements of many of the band's previous songs. A large portion of their set lists culled from Pet Sounds and Smile, as author Domenic Priore observes, \"They basically played what they could have played at the Monterey Pop Festival in the summer of 1967.\"\n\nJohnston ended his first stint with the band shortly after Surf's Ups release, reportedly because of friction with Rieley. At Carl's suggestion, the addition of Ricky Fataar and Blondie Chaplin in February 1972 led to a dramatic restructuring in the band's sound. The album Carl and the Passions – \"So Tough\" was an uncharacteristic mix that included two songs written by Fataar and Chaplin.\n\nFor their next project the band, their families, assorted associates and technicians moved to the Netherlands for the summer of 1972. They rented a farmhouse to convert into a makeshift studio where recording sessions for the new project would take place. By the end of their sessions, the band felt they had produced one of their strongest efforts yet. Reprise, however, felt that the album required a strong single. This resulted in the song \"Sail On, Sailor\", a collaboration between Brian Wilson, Tandyn Almer, Ray Kennedy, Jack Rieley and Van Dyke Parks featuring a soulful lead vocal by Chaplin. Reprise subsequently approved and the resulting album, Holland, was released early in 1973, peaking at number 37. Brian's musical children story, Mount Vernon and Fairway (A Fairy Tale), narrated by Rieley and strongly influenced by Randy Newman's Sail Away (1972), was included as a bonus EP. Despite indifference from Reprise, the band's concert audience started to grow.\n\nThe Beach Boys in Concert, a double album documenting the 1972 and 1973 US tours, was another top-30 album and became the band's first gold record under Reprise. During this period the band established itself as one of America's most popular live acts. Chaplin and Fataar helped organize the concerts to obtain a high quality live performance, playing material off Surf's Up, Carl and the Passions and Holland and adding songs from their older catalog. This concert arrangement lifted them back into American public prominence. In late 1973, the 41-song soundtrack to American Graffiti was released including the band's early songs \"Surfin' Safari\" and \"All Summer Long\". The album was a catalyst in creating a wave of nostalgia that reintroduced the Beach Boys into contemporary American consciousness. In 1974, Capitol Records issued Endless Summer, the band's first major pre-Pet Sounds greatest hits package. The compilation surged to the top of the Billboard album charts and was the group's first multi-million selling record since \"Good Vibrations\". It remained on the charts for two years. Capitol followed with a second compilation, Spirit of America, which also sold well. With these compilations, the Beach Boys became one of the most popular acts in rock, propelling themselves from opening for Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young to headliners selling out basketball arenas in a matter of weeks. Rolling Stone named the Beach Boys the \"Band of the Year\" for 1974, solely on the basis of their juggernaut touring schedule and material written over a decade earlier.\n\nRieley, who remained in the Netherlands after Hollands release, was relieved of his managerial duties in late 1973. Chaplin also left in late 1973 after an argument with Steve Love, the band's business manager (and Mike's brother). Fataar remained until 1974, when he was offered a chance to join a new group led by future Eagles member Joe Walsh. Chaplin's replacement, James William Guercio, started offering the group career advice that resulted in his becoming their new manager. Under Guercio, the Beach Boys staged a highly successful 1975 joint concert tour with Chicago, with each group performing some of the other's songs, including their previous year's collaboration on Chicago's hit \"Wishing You Were Here\". Beach Boys vocals were also heard on Elton John's 1974 hit \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\". Nostalgia had settled into the Beach Boys' hype; the group had not officially released any new material since 1973's Holland. While their concerts continuously sold out, the stage act slowly changed from a contemporary presentation followed by oldies encores to an entire show made up of mostly pre-1967 music.\n\n15 Big Ones and Love You \n\nRecorded in the wake of California Music's demise, a supergroup that would have involved Brian Wilson, Bruce Johnston, and record producer Terry Melcher, 15 Big Ones (1976) marked Brian's return as a major force in the group. The album included new songs by Brian, as well as cover versions of oldies such as \"Rock and Roll Music\", \"Blueberry Hill\", and \"In the Still of the Night\". \"Rock and Roll Music\" peaked at number 5 in the US. Brian and Love's \"It's O.K.\" was in the vein of their early sixties style, and was a moderate hit. The album was publicized by an August 1976 NBC-TV special, simply titled The Beach Boys. The special, produced by Saturday Night Live (SNL) creator Lorne Michaels, featured appearances by SNL cast members John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd.\n\nThe album was generally disliked by fans and critics upon release. During its sessions, Brian's production role was belittled as group members overdubbed and remixed tracks to fight against his desire for a rough, unfinished sound. Carl and Dennis disparaged the album to the press while Brian admitted, \"[Undoubtedly] the new album is nothing too deep\", but remained hopeful that their next release would be on par with the group's \"Good Vibrations\".\n\nFor the remainder of 1976 to early 1977, Brian spent his time making sporadic public appearances and producing the band's next album Love You (1977), a quirky collection of 14 songs mostly written, arranged and produced by Brian. Brian revealed to Peter Ames Carlin that Love You is one of his favorite Beach Boys releases, telling him \"That's when it all happened for me. That's where my heart lies.\" Love You peaked at number 28 in the UK and number 53 in the US and developed a cult following; regarded as one of the band's best albums by fans and critics alike, and an early work of synthpop.\n\nReferring to \"naysayers\" of the album, the underground fanzine Scram wrote, \"Fuck [them] ... [the album showcases] a truly original mix of humor and sadness. The original numbers always dance just a step away from the cliché, dealing with simple lyrical themes that make you wonder why they had never been explored before.\" The A.V. Club – considering the album in \"the same vein\" as Tonight's the Night (1975), Pussy Cats (1974), The Madcap Laughs (1970), and Barrett (1970) – described Love You as: \"something almost desperately optimistic ... Wilson sings frayed songs about roller-skating, road-tripping, and Johnny Carson—like a frazzled man sitting in a corner chanting 'calm blue ocean' over and over. It’s a beautiful, noisy, funny, heartbreaking work of art—one not for everybody, yet vital for anyone who wants to understand Wilson’s overall worldview.\"\n\nAfter Love You was released, Brian began to record and assemble Adult/Child, an unreleased effort largely consisting of songs written by Wilson from 1976 and 1977 with select big band arrangements by Dick Reynolds. Though publicized as the Beach Boys' next release, Adult/Child caused tension within the group and was ultimately shelved. Following this period, his concert appearances with the band gradually diminished and their performances were occasionally erratic.\n\n1978–present \n\nInternal divisions and personal struggles \n\nThe internal wrangling came to a head after a show at Central Park on September 1, 1977, when the band effectively split into two camps; Dennis and Carl Wilson on one side, Mike Love and Al Jardine on the other with Brian remaining neutral. Following a confrontation on an airport tarmac, Dennis declared to Rolling Stone on September 3 that he had left the band: \"It was Al Jardine who really knifed me in the heart when he said they didn't need me. That was the clincher. And all I told him was that he couldn't play more than four chords. They kept telling me I had my solo album now [Pacific Ocean Blue], like I should go off in a corner and leave the Beach Boys to them. The album really bothers them. They don't like to admit it's doing so well; they never even acknowledge it in interviews.\"\n\nThe band broke up for two and a half weeks, until a meeting on September 17 at Brian's house. In light of a potential new Caribou Records contract the parties negotiated a settlement resulting in Love gaining control of Brian's vote in the group, allowing Love and Jardine to outvote Carl and Dennis Wilson on any matter. \n\nDennis withdrew from the group to focus on his second solo album entitled Bambu. The album was shelved just as alcoholism and marital problems overcame all three Wilson brothers. Carl appeared intoxicated during concerts (especially at appearances for their 1978 Australia tour) and Brian gradually slid back into addiction and an unhealthy lifestyle. Love remembered: \"We were in Australia, and the Wilsons were upset that some of us were not trying heroin with them. That was a division. ... Brian, Carl and Dennis were into one lifestyle, whereas myself and Al Jardine and Bruce Johnston were not.\" \n\nThe Beach Boys' last album for Reprise, M.I.U. Album (1978), was recorded at Maharishi International University in Iowa at the suggestion of Love. Dennis and Carl made limited contributions; the album was mostly produced by Jardine and Ron Altbach, with Brian credited as \"executive producer\". M.I.U. was largely a contractual obligation to finish out their association with Reprise, who likewise did not promote the result. The record cemented the divisions in the group. Love and Jardine focused on rock and roll-oriented material while Carl and Dennis chose the progressive focus they had established with the albums Carl and the Passions and Holland.\n\nAfter departing Reprise, the Beach Boys signed with CBS Records. They received a substantial advance and were paid $1 million per album even as CBS deemed their preliminary review of the band's first product, L.A. (Light Album) as unsatisfactory. Faced with the realization that Brian was unable to contribute, the band recruited Johnston as producer. The result paid off, as \"Good Timin'\" became a top 40 single. The group enjoyed moderate success with a disco reworking of the Wild Honey song \"Here Comes the Night\", followed by their highest charting UK single in nine years: Jardine's \"Lady Lynda\" peaked at number 6 in the UK Singles Chart. The album was followed in 1980 by Keepin' the Summer Alive, with Johnston once again producing. Barring an appearance on percussion on the closing track, \"Endless Harmony\", Dennis was absent from this album.\n\nIn 1981, Carl quit the group because of unhappiness with the band's nostalgia format and lackluster live performances, subsequently pursuing a solo career. He returned in May 1982 – after approximately 14 months of being away—on the condition that the group reconsider their rehearsal and touring policies and refrain from \"Las Vegas-type\" engagements.\n\nFrom 1980 through 1982, the Beach Boys and The Grass Roots performed Independence Day concerts at the National Mall in Washington, D.C., attracting large crowds. Phil McCombs, \"Watt Outlaws Rock Music on Mall for July 4\", The Washington Post, Washington, D.C., April 6, 1983, p. A1; Phil McCombs and Richard Harrington, \"Watt Sets Off Uproar with Music Ban\", The Washington Post, Washington, D.C., April 7, 1983, pp. A1, A17. However, in April 1983, James G. Watt, President Ronald Reagan's Secretary of the Interior, banned Independence Day concerts on the Mall by such groups. Watt said that \"rock bands\" that had performed on the Mall on Independence Day in 1981 and 1982 had encouraged drug use and alcoholism and had attracted \"the wrong element\", who would steal from attendees. During the ensuing uproar, which included over 40,000 complaints to the Department of the Interior, the Beach Boys stated that the Soviet Union, which had invited them to perform in Leningrad in 1978, \"...obviously ... did not feel that the group attracted the wrong element.\" Vice President George H. W. Bush said of the Beach Boys, \"They're my friends and I like their music\". Watt later apologized to the band after learning that President Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan were fans. White House staff presented Watt with a plaster foot with a hole in it, showing that he had \"shot himself in the foot\". The band returned to D.C. for Independence Day in 1984 and performed to a crowd of 750,000 people. \n\nDeaths of Dennis and Carl \n\nIn 1983, Dennis was fired by the group due to his unreliability and bizarre onstage behavior fueled by alcohol abuse. Tensions between Dennis and Love were so high that each obtained a restraining order against the other. Dennis' alcoholism continued to escalate, and on December 28, 1983, he drowned in Marina del Rey while diving from a friend's boat trying to recover items he had previously thrown overboard in fits of rage. Despite his death, the Beach Boys continued as a successful touring act.\n\nOn July 4, 1985, the Beach Boys played to an afternoon crowd of one million in Philadelphia and the same evening they performed for over 750,000 people on the Mall in Washington. They also appeared nine days later at the Live Aid concert. That year, they released the eponymous album The Beach Boys and enjoyed a resurgence of interest later in the 1980s, assisted by tributes such as David Lee Roth's hit version of \"California Girls\". \"Getcha Back\", released from the album, gave the group a number 26 single in the US. Following this, the group put out \"Rock 'n' Roll to the Rescue\" (US, number 68) and a cover of the Mamas & the Papas' \"California Dreamin'\" (US, number 57). In 1987, they played with the rap group The Fat Boys, performing the song \"Wipe Out\" and filming a music video. It was a number 12 single in the US. and a number two rank in the UK. \n\nBy 1988, Brian had drifted from the Beach Boys and released his first solo album, Brian Wilson, which received critical acclaim. During this period the band unexpectedly claimed their first US number one hit single in 22 years with \"Kokomo\", which had appeared in the movie Cocktail, and soon became the band's largest selling single of all time. Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame earlier in the year, the group became the second artist after Aretha Franklin to hit number one in the US after their induction. They released the album Still Cruisin, which went gold in the US and gave them their best chart showing since 1976. In 1990, the band gathered several studio musicians and recorded the Melcher-produced title track of the comedy Problem Child. The album Summer in Paradise, having no new contributions from Brian because of interference from caretaker Eugene Landy, was released two years later to a poor critical reception, and was a commercial disaster.\n\nA lawsuit was filed by Brian in 1989 to reclaim the rights to his songs and the group's publishing company, Sea of Tunes, which he had supposedly signed away to his father Murry in 1969. He successfully argued that he had not been mentally fit to make an informed decision and that his father had potentially forged his signature. While Wilson failed to regain his copyrights, he was awarded $25 million for unpaid royalties. Soon after Wilson won his case, Love discovered that Murry Wilson had not properly credited him as co-writer on 79 Beach Boys songs. With Love and Brian unable to determine exactly what Love was properly owed, Love sued Brian in 1992, winning $13 million in 1994 for lost royalties. 35 of the group's songs were then amended to credit Love. \n\nIn 1993, the band appeared in Michael Feeney Callan's film The Beach Boys Today, which included in-depth interviews with all members except Brian. Carl confided to Callan that Brian would record again with the band at some point in the near future. A few Beach Boys sessions devoted to new Brian Wilson compositions occurred during the mid-1990s, but they remain largely unreleased, and the album was quickly cancelled because of personal conflicts. In February 1996, the Beach Boys guested with Status Quo on a re-recording of \"Fun, Fun, Fun\", which became a British Top-30 hit. In June, the group worked with comedian Jeff Foxworthy on the recording Howdy From Maui, and eventually released Stars and Stripes Vol. 1 in August 1996. The album consisted of country renditions of several Beach Boys hits, performed by popular country artists such as Toby Keith and Willie Nelson. Brian, who was in a better mental state at the time, acted as co-producer.\n\nIn early 1997, Carl was diagnosed with lung cancer and brain cancer after years of heavy smoking. Despite his terminal condition, Carl continued to perform with the band on its 1997 summer tour while undergoing chemotherapy. During performances, he sat on a stool and needed oxygen after every song. However, Carl was able to stand when he played on \"God Only Knows\". Carl died on February 6, 1998, two months after the death of the Wilsons' mother, Audree, leaving Brian, Jardine and Love as the three remaining original members.\n\nBand split and name conflicts \n\nFollowing Carl's death, the remaining members splintered. Love, Johnston and former guitarist Marks continued to tour without Jardine, initially as \"America's Band\", but following several cancelled bookings under that name, they sought authorization through Brother Records Inc. (BRI) to tour as \"The Beach Boys\" and secured the necessary license. In turn, Jardine began to tour regularly with his band dubbed \"Beach Boys: Family & Friends\" until he ran into legal issues for using the name without license. Meanwhile, Jardine sued Love and Brian, claiming that he had been excluded from their concerts. BRI, through its longtime attorney, Ed McPherson, sued Jardine in Federal Court. Jardine, in turn, counter-claimed against BRI for wrongful termination. BRI ultimately prevailed after several years. Love was allowed to continue to tour as \"The Beach Boys\", while Jardine was prohibited from touring using any form of the name.\n\nReleased from Landy's control, Brian Wilson sought different treatments for his illnesses that aided him in his solo career. He toured regularly with his backing band consisting of members of Wondermints and other LA/Chicago musicians. Marks also maintained a solo career. Their tours remained reliable draws, with Wilson and Jardine both remaining legal members of the Beach Boys organization and BRI. The surviving group members appeared as themselves for the 1998 documentary film Endless Harmony: The Beach Boys Story, directed by Alan Boyd. Following the success of 1997's The Pet Sounds Sessions, many compilations were then issued by Capitol containing new archival material: Endless Harmony Soundtrack (1998), Ultimate Christmas (1998), and Hawthorne, CA (2001).\n\nIn 2004, Wilson recorded and released his solo album Brian Wilson Presents Smile, a reinterpretation of the Smile project that he initiated with the Beach Boys thirty-six years earlier. That September, Wilson issued a free CD through the Mail On Sunday that included Beach Boys songs he had recently rerecorded, five of which he co-authored with Love. The 10 track compilation had 2.6 million copies distributed and prompted Love to file a lawsuit in November 2005; he claimed the promotion hurt the sales of the original recordings. Love's suit was dismissed in 2007 when a judge determined that there were no triable issues. \n\nOn June 13, 2006, the five surviving Beach Boys (Wilson, Love, Jardine, Johnston, and Marks) appeared together for the celebration of the 40th anniversary of Pet Sounds and the double-platinum certification of their greatest hits compilation, Sounds of Summer: The Very Best of The Beach Boys, in a ceremony atop the Capitol Records building in Hollywood. Plaques were awarded for their efforts, with Wilson accepting on behalf of Dennis and Carl. Throughout the year, it was rumored that the band would reform to perform the Pet Sounds album live in its entirety in November. Ultimately, Wilson began a brief Pet Sounds tour with Jardine and no other group members. \n\n50th year reunion celebration \n\nOn October 31, 2011, the Beach Boys released surviving 1960s recordings from Smile in the form of The Smile Sessions. The album—even in its incomplete form—garnered universal critical acclaim and experienced popular success, charting in both the Billboard US and UK Top 30. The band was rewarded with glowing reviews, including inclusion in Rolling Stone's Top 500 album list at number 381. The Smile Sessions went on to win Best Historical Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards.\n\nIn February 2011, the Beach Boys released \"Don't Fight the Sea\", a charity single to aid the victims of the 2011 Japan earthquake. The single, released on Jardine's 2011 album A Postcard From California featured Jardine, Wilson, Love and Johnston, with prerecorded vocals by Carl Wilson. Rumors then circulated regarding a potential 50th anniversary band reunion.\n\nOn December 16, 2011, it was announced that Wilson, Love, Jardine, Johnston and Marks would reunite for a new album and 50th anniversary tour in 2012 to include a performance at the New Orleans Jazz Festival in April 2012. On February 12, 2012, the Beach Boys performed at the 2012 Grammy Awards, in what was billed as a \"special performance\" by organizers. It marked the group's first live performance to include Brian since 1996. The Beach Boys then appeared at the April 10, 2012, season opener for the Los Angeles Dodgers and performed \"Surfer Girl\" and \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". In April, the new album's title was revealed as That's Why God Made the Radio. The first single from the album, the title track, made its national radio debut April 25, 2012, on ESPN's Mike and Mike in the Morning and was released on iTunes and other digital platforms on April 26. That's Why God Made the Radio debuted at number three on US charts, making US chart history by expanding the group's span of Billboard 200 top ten albums across 49 years and one week, passing the Beatles with 47 years of top ten albums. \n\nLater in 2012, the group released the Fifty Big Ones and Greatest Hits compilations along with reissues of 12 of their albums. The next year, the group released Live – The 50th Anniversary Tour a 41 song, 2-CD set documenting their 50th Anniversary Tour. While there were no definite plans, Brian stated that he would like to make another Beach Boys album following the world tour. In August 2013, the group released Made in California, a six disc collection featuring more than seven and a half hours of music, including more than 60 previously unreleased tracks, and concluding the Beach Boys' 50th anniversary campaign.\n\nResumed band split \n\nIn June 2012, Love announced additional touring dates that would not feature Wilson. Wilson then denied knowledge of these new dates. \nOn October 5, Love announced in a self-written press release to the LA Times that the band would return to its pre-50th Reunion Tour lineup with him and Johnston touring as the Beach Boys without Wilson, Jardine, and Marks:\n\nFour days later, Wilson and Jardine submitted a written response to the rumors stating: \"After Mike booked a couple of shows with Bruce, Al and I were, of course, disappointed. Then there was confusion in some markets when photos of me, Al and David and the 50th reunion band appeared on websites advertising his shows ... I was completely blindsided by his press release ... We hadn't even discussed as a band what we were going to do with all the offers that were coming in for more 50th shows.\" Love accused Wilson's statements in this press release to be falsified by his agents, again affirming that the presupposed agreements were \"well-documented\", and that Wilson had halted further touring dates. On December 13, Wilson and Jardine played a Christmas show at which they performed the Beach Boys Christmas songs. Following this appearance, Wilson announced concert dates featuring himself, Jardine and Marks. Love and Johnston continued to perform under the Beach Boys name, while Wilson, Jardine, and Marks continued to tour as a trio, and a subsequent tour with guitarist Jeff Beck also included former Beach Boy Blondie Chaplin at select dates. Reflecting upon the band's reunion in 2013, Love stated: \"I had a wonderful experience being in the studio together. Brian has lost none of his ability to structure those melodies and chord progressions, and when we heard us singing together coming back over the speakers it sounded like 1965 again. Touring was more for the fans. ... It was a great experience, it had a term to it, and now everyone's going on with their ways of doing things.\" \n\nJardine, Marks, Johnston and Love appeared together at the 2014 Ella Awards Ceremony, where Love was honored for his work as a singer. Marks sang \"409\" in honor of Love, and Jardine performed \"Help Me Rhonda\". They closed the show with \"Fun, Fun, Fun\". Wilson's long time band associate Jeff Foskett also appeared, but not Wilson. On May 15, 2014 the touring Beach Boys (Love and Johnston) announced a tour celebrating \"50 Years of 'Fun Fun Fun, named for their 1964 single. The tour featured the addition of Foskett, who replaced Mike's son Christian. Foskett left Wilson's band because of encumbering responsibilities, and hopes that Wilson and Love's band would someday converge, believing that the two Beach Boys do not \"personally have a problem with each other.\" As of September 2014, Jardine has maintained that a continued reunion with the Beach Boys is \"really up to him [Love] ... He claims he didn't, that he fired us after the reunion ... He’s a brilliant songwriter, and unfortunately he has brilliant lawyers. We wish him all the best, but doggonit, you know, we’d like to be Beach Boys, too. There you go.\" As Jardine restates \"[Love] doesn’t really want to work with us\", biographer Jon Stebbins speculated that Love declined to continue working with the group because of the lesser control he had over the touring process, coupled with the lower financial gain, noting: \"Night after night after night after night, Mike is making less money getting reminded that Brian is more popular than him. And he has to answer to people instead of calling all the shots himself.\" \n\nIn 2015, Soundstage aired an episode featuring Wilson performing with Jardine and former Beach Boys Blondie Chaplin and Ricky Fataar at The Venetian in Las Vegas. In April 2015, when asked if he was interested in making music with Love again, Wilson replied: \"I don’t think so, no,\" later adding in July that he \"doesn't talk to the Beach Boys [or] Mike Love.\" On July 25, Love said: \"If you get Brian and I, we might go to the piano. But with every band there are cliques that are formed with management, wives, agents, publicists — and the tendency is with some people is they tend to lionize or make one person more important than the others. ... the Beach Boys and all these bands that ever existed are a team. I learned as captain of my cross country team that you don't put a person down to get their best efforts, you encourage them.\" \n\nMusical style and development \n\nIn Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis, music theorist Daniel Harrison summarizes:\n\nThe Beach Boys began as a garage band playing 1950s style rock and roll, reassembling styles of music such as surf to include vocal jazz harmony, which created their unique sound. In addition, they introduced their signature approach to common genres such as the pop ballad by applying harmonic or formal twists not native to rock and roll. Early on, Love sang lead vocals in the rock-oriented songs, while Carl contributed crisp guitar lines on the group's ballads. Miller observed, \"On straight rockers they sang tight harmonies behind Love's lead ... on ballads, Brian played his falsetto off against lush, jazz-tinged voicings, often using (for rock) unorthodox harmonic structures.\" Harrison adds, \"But even the least distinguished of the Beach Boys' early uptempo rock 'n' roll songs show traces of structural complexity at some level; Brian was simply too curious and experimental to leave convention alone.\" This new sound was quickly associated with the Modernism movement blooming in the Los Angeles music scene. Among the distinct elements of the Beach Boys' style were the nasal quality of their singing voices, their use of a falsetto harmony over a driving, locomotive-like melody, and the sudden chiming in of the whole group on a key line. \n\nDuring their early years, the Beach Boys released music that displayed an increasing level of sophistication, a period where Brian Wilson consistently acted as the group's primary bandleader, songwriter, producer, and arranger for the group's most commercially and critically successful work. Brian is quoted saying: \"Everyone contributed something. Carl kept us hip to the latest tunes, Al taught us his repertoire of folk songs, and Dennis, though he didn't [initially] play anything, added a combustible spark just by his presence.\" In a 1966 article that asks \"Do the Beach Boys rely too much on sound genius Brian?\" Carl responded that every member of the group contributes ideas, but admitted that Brian was majorly responsible for their music. In 1967, Dennis was cited as \"the closest to brother Brian's own musical ideals ... He always emphasises the fusion, in their work, of pop and classical music.\"\n\nIn early 1964, Brian began his breakaway from beach-themed music. Later in November of the same year, the group expressed desires to advance from the surf rock style for which they initially became known for. New York magazine would later refer to the albums Pet Sounds and Smiley Smile as their \"experimental pop phase\". The band went on to incorporate many more genres, from baroque pop to psychedelia and synthpop. \n\nInfluences \n\nThe band's earliest influences came primarily from the work of Chuck Berry and the Four Freshmen. Performed by the Four Freshmen, \"Their Hearts Were Full of Spring\" (1961) was a particular favorite of the group. By deconstructing their arrangements of pop standards, Brian educated himself on jazz harmony. Taking this into mind, Philip Lambert noted, \"If Bob Flanigan helped teach Brian how to sing, then Gershwin, Kern, Porter, and the other members of this pantheon helped him learn how to craft a song.\" Other general influences on the group included the Hi-Los, the Penguins, the Robins, Bill Haley & His Comets, Otis Williams, the Cadets, the Everly Brothers, the Shirelles, the Regents, and the Crystals.\n\nGeoffrey Himes wrote: \"Though the Beach Boys are often caricatured as the ultimate white, suburban act, black R&B was crucial to their sound.\" Carl remembers: \"Most of [Mike's] classmates were black. He was the only white guy on his track team. He was really immersed in doo-wop and that music and I think he influenced Brian to listen to it. The black artists were so much better in terms of rock records in those days that the white records almost sounded like put-ons.\" Their eclectic mix of white and black vocal groups – ranging from the rock and roll of Berry, the jazz harmonies of the Four Freshmen, the pop of the Four Preps, the folk of the Kingston Trio, the R&B of groups like the Coasters and the Five Satins, and the doo wop of Dion and the Belmonts – helped contribute to the Beach Boys' uniqueness in American popular music.\n\nWhile the Beach Boys are not often associated with blues, Brian has called this a misapprehension, citing Smokey Robinson and Stevie Wonder as influences. Regarding surf rock pioneer Dick Dale, Brian clarified that his influence on the group was limited to Carl and his style of guitar playing. Carl himself named Berry, the Ventures, and John Walker for shaping his guitar style, and that the Beach Boys had learned to play all of the Ventures' songs by ear early in their career. On Jimi Hendrix and \"heavy\" music, Brian said he felt no pressure to go in that direction: \"We never got into the heavy musical level trip. We never needed to. It's already been done.\"\n\nThe influence of the Beach Boys' peers combined with Brian's competitive nature drove him to reach higher creative peaks. Sometime around late 1963, he heard the song \"Be My Baby\" (1963) by the Ronettes for the first time, revamping his creative interests and songwriting. \"Be My Baby\" is considered the epitome of Phil Spector's Wall of Sound production technique, a recording method that fascinated Wilson for the next several decades. Brian later reflected: \"I was unable to really think as a producer up until the time where I really got familiar with Phil Spector's work. That was when I started to design the experience to be a record rather than just a song.\" Other prominent inspirations for Brian included Gershwin's \"Rhapsody in Blue\" (1924), the Beatles' Rubber Soul (1965), and composer Burt Bacharach. Brian is quoted: \"Burt Bacharach and Hal David are more like me. They’re also the best pop team – per se – today. As a producer, Bacharach has a very fresh, new approach.\"\n\nExperimentation with psychotropic substances proved pivotal to the group's development as artists. In December 1964, Brian was introduced to cannabis before quickly progressing to LSD in early 1965. Of his first acid trip, Brian recalled that the drug had subjected him to \"a very religious experience\" which enlightened him to indescribable philosophies. The music for \"California Girls\" (the first Beach Boys song Bruce Johnston participated in) came from this first LSD experience, as did much of the group's subsequent work where they would partake in drug use during recording sessions.\n\nSpirituality \n\nThe band members often reflected on the spiritual nature of their music (and music in general), particularly for the recording of Pet Sounds and Smile. Even though the Wilson family did not grow up in a particularly religious household, Carl was described as \"the most truly religious person I know\" by Brian, and Carl was forthcoming about the group's spiritual beliefs stating: \"We believe in God as a kind of universal consciousness. God is love. God is you. God is me. God is everything right here in this room. It's a spiritual concept which inspires a great deal of our music.\" Carl told Rave magazine in 1967 that the group's influences are of a \"religious nature\", but not any religion in specific, only \"an idea based upon that of Universal Consciousness. ... The spiritual concept of happiness and doing good to others is extremely important to the lyric of our songs, and the religious element of some of the better church music is also contained within some of our new work.\"\n\nBrian is quoted during the Smile era: \"I'm very religious. Not in the sense of churches, going to church; but like the essence of all religion.\" During the recording of Pet Sounds, Brian held prayer meetings, later reflecting that \"God was with us the whole time we were doing [the] album ... I could feel that feeling in my brain.\" In 1966, he explained that he wanted to move into a white spiritual sound, and predicted that the rest of the music industry would follow suit. In 2011, Brian maintained the spirituality was important to his music, and that he did not follow any particular religion. \n\nThe Beach Boys included an interpretation of \"The Lord's Prayer\" as the B-side to their 1963 \"Little Saint Nick\" single. Brian expressed apprehensiveness over naming his song \"God Only Knows\" because, in the 1960s, references to God in pop music were largely unheard of. Carl said that Smile was chosen as an album title because of its connection to the group's spiritual beliefs. Brian referred to Smile as his \"teenage symphony to God\", composing a hymn, \"Our Prayer\", as the album's opening spiritual invocation. He spoke of his LSD trips as a \"religious experience\", and during a session for \"Our Prayer\", Brian can be heard asking the other Beach Boys: \"Do you guys feel any acid yet?\". In 1968, Mike Love's interest in transcendental meditation led the Beach Boys to record the original song \"Transcendental Meditation\".\n\nVocal ability \n\nBrian identified each member individually for their vocal range, once detailing the ranges for Carl, Dennis, Jardine (\"[they] progress upwards through G, A, and B\"), Love (\"can go from bass to the E above middle C\"), and himself (\"I can take the second D in the treble clef\"). He declared in 1966 that his greatest interest was to expand modern vocal harmony, owing his fascination with voice to the Four Freshmen, which he considered a \"groovy sectional sound.\" He added, \"The harmonies that we are able to produce give us a uniqueness which is really the only important thing you can put into records – some quality that no one else has got. I love peaks in a song – and enhancing them on the control panel. Most of all, I love the human voice for its own sake.\" For a period, Brian avoided singing falsetto for the group, saying \"I thought people thought I was a fairy. ... The band told me, 'If that's the way you sing, don't worry about it.'\"\n\nRock critic Erik Davis wrote, \"The 'purity' of tone and genetic proximity that smoothed their voices was almost creepy, pseudo-castrato, [and] a 'barbershop' sound.\" According to Brian: \"Jack Good once told us, 'You sing like eunuchs in a Sistine Chapel,' which was a pretty good quote.\" Writer Richard Goldstein reported that, according to a fellow journalist who asked Brian about the black roots of his music, Brian's response was: \"We're white and we sing white.\" Goldstein added that when he asked where his approach to vocal harmonies had derived from, Wilson answered: \"Barbershop.\" On the group's blend, Carl said: \"Michael has a beautifully rich, very full-sounding bass voice. Yet his lead singing is real nasal, real punk. Alan’s voice has a bright timbre to it; it really cuts. My voice has a kind of calm sound. We’re big oooh-ers; we love to oooh. It’s a big, full sound, that’s very pleasing to us; it opens up the heart.\"\n\nFrom lowest intervals to highest, the group's vocal harmony stack usually began with Love or Dennis, followed by Jardine or Carl, and finally Brian on top, according to Jardine, while Carl said that the blend was Love on bottom, Carl above, followed by Dennis or Jardine, and then Brian on top. Jardine explains, \"We always sang the same vocal intervals. ... As soon as we heard the chords on the piano we’d figure it out pretty easily. If there was a vocal move [Brian] envisioned, he’d show that particular singer that move. We had somewhat photographic memory as far as the vocal parts were concerned so that [was] never a problem for us.\"\n\nStriving for absolute perfection, Brian's intricate vocal arrangements exercised the group's calculated blend of intonation, attack, phrasing, and expression. Sometimes, he would sing each vocal harmony part alone through multi-track tape. Jimmy Webb has said, \"They used very little vibrato and sing in very straight tones. The voices all lie down beside each other very easily – there's no bumping between them because the pitch is very precise.\"\n\nAs instrumentalists \n\nThe group's instrumental combo initially involved Brian on bass guitar and keyboards, Carl on guitar, and Dennis on drums. Nine months after forming, they acquired national success, and demand for their personal appearance skyrocketed. Biographer James Murphy said, \"By most contemporary accounts, they were not a very good live band when they started. ... The Beach Boys learned to play as a band in front of live audiences\", but asserted that they eventually became \"one of the best and enduring live bands\".\n\nFor the recording of the Beach Boys' instrumental tracks, Brian arranged many of his compositions for a conglomerate of session musicians informally known as the Wrecking Crew. Their assistance was needed because of the increasingly complicated nature of the material. As a result, a number of songs do not credit the Beach Boys as instrumentalists, but nearly invariably as lead, harmony, or backing vocalists. It's the belief of Richie Unterberger that, \"Before session musicians took over most of the parts, the Beach Boys could play respectably gutsy surf rock as a self-contained unit.\"\n\nCarl continued to play beside these musicians whenever he was available to attend sessions. In archivist Craig Slowinski's view, \"One should not sell short Carl's own contributions; the youngest Wilson had developed as a musician sufficiently to play alongside the horde of high-dollar session pros that big brother was now bringing into the studio. Carl's guitar playing [was] a key ingredient.\" \n\nIt is often erroneously stated that Dennis' drumming in the Beach Boys' recordings was filled in exclusively by studio musicians. His drumming is documented on a number of the group's singles, including \"I Get Around\", \"Fun, Fun Fun\", and \"Don't Worry Baby\". \n\nSongwriting and production \n\nBrian's experiments with his Wollensak tape recorder provide early examples of his flair for exotica and unusual percussive patterns and arranging ideas that he would recycle in later prominent work. Through attending Phil Spector's sessions sporadically, Brian learned how to act as a producer for records while being educated on the Wall of Sound process. From then on, Brian received some production advice from Jan Berry. As they collaborated on several hit singles written and produced for other artists, they recorded what would later be regarded the California Sound. The positive commercial response to Brian's structurally irregular and harmonically varied pop compositions gave him the prestige, resources, and courage to further his creative aspirations. He proceeded to explore many unusual combinations of instruments while emphasizing inventive percussion and progressively ambitious lyricism.\n\nAlthough he was often dubbed a perfectionist, Brian was an inexperienced musician, and his understanding was mostly self-taught. He handled most stages of the group's recording process from the beginning, despite Nik Venet being credited for producing their early recordings. At the lyric stage, Brian usually worked with bandmate Mike Love, whose assertive persona provided youthful swagger that contrasted Brian's explorations in romanticism and sensitivity. Luis Sanchez noted a pattern where Brian would spare surfing imagery when working with collaborators outside of his band's circle, in the examples \"Lonely Sea\" and \"In My Room\".\n\nAfter 1967 \n\nForeshadowed by Beach Boys' Party! (1965), much of the group's recordings from 1967 to 1970 displayed sparse instrumentation, a more relaxed ensemble, and a seeming inattention to production quality. Brian briefly experimented with musique concrete and minimalist rock approaches to music before retreating to his home recording studio to record \"manic\" material in the 1970s, enacting syncopated exercises and counterpoints layered on jittery eighth note tone clusters and loping shuffle grooves. During the infancy of Brian's home studio, the group was forced to improvise many technical aspects of recording. In one instance, they used an empty swimming pool as an echo chamber.\n\nWhen Brian abdicated from the group, the other members were forced to take a more active production role. This is believed to have faltered the quality of their music. Richie Unterberger believes that after the December 1967 release of Wild Honey, \"the Beach Boys were revealed as a group that, although capable of producing some fine and interesting music, were no longer innovators on the level of the Beatles and other figureheads.\" The album marked the beginning of Carl's increased role as producer, who described it as \"music for Brian to cool out by\", signaling a mellower approach that pervaded into the 1970s. In 1968, Dennis contributed original songs to Friends, revealing himself as a broodingly soulful songwriter and singer, while Bruce Johnston devised a moody instrumental, \"The Nearest Faraway Place\", for 20/20 the following year.\n\nSunflower (1970) marked an end to the experimental songwriting and production phase initiated by Smiley Smile (1967). Of the albums between Surf's Up (1971) and Holland (1973), Daniel Harrison wrote that they \"contain a mixture of middle-of-the-road music entirely consonant with pop style during the early 1970s with a few oddities that proved that the desire to push beyond conventional boundaries was not dead.\" While Harrison adamantly states \"1974 is the year in which the Beach Boys ceased to be a rock 'n' roll act and became an oldies act,\" Love You (1977) is perceived by some as an oddity that sounds like no other record in their catalog with synthesizer-laden arrangements played almost entirely by Brian.\n\nLegacy \n\nCultural impact and influence \n\nRegarded by some critics as one of the greatest American rock groups and an important catalyst in the evolution of popular music, the Beach Boys are one of the most critically acclaimed, commercially successful, and widely influential bands of all time. The Beach Boys' sales estimates range from 100 to 350 million records worldwide, and have influenced artists spanning many genres and decades. The group's early songs made them major pop stars in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and other countries, having seven top 10 singles between April 1963 and November 1964. They were one of the few American bands formed prior to the 1964 British Invasion to continue their success. Among artists of the 1960s, they are one of few central figures in the histories of rock.\n\nAwards and honors \n\nThe group routinely appears in the upper reaches of ranked lists such as \"The Top 1000 Albums of All Time.\" Many of the group's songs and albums including The Beach Boys Today! (1965), Smiley Smile (1967), Sunflower (1970), and Surf's Up (1971) are featured in several lists devoted to the greatest of all time. The 1966 releases Pet Sounds and Good Vibrations frequently rank among the top of critics' lists of the greatest albums and singles of all time. In 2004, Pet Sounds was preserved in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being \"culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant.\" Their recordings of \"In My Room\", \"Good Vibrations\", \"California Girls\" and the entire Pet Sounds album have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. On Acclaimed Music, \"Good Vibrations\" is ranked the third best song of all time, while \"God Only Knows\" is ranked twenty-first; the group itself is ranked eleven in its 1000 most recommended artists of all time.\n\nIn 1966 and 1967, reader polls conducted by the UK magazine NME crowned the Beach Boys as the world's number one vocal group, ahead of the Beatles and the Rolling Stones. In 1974, the Beach Boys were awarded \"Band of the Year\" by Rolling Stone. On December 30, 1980, the Beach Boys were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 1500 Vine Street. The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988. Ten years later they were selected for the Vocal Group Hall of Fame. In 2001, the group received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the Beach Boys number 12 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. Brian Wilson was inducted into the UK Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in November 2006. \n\nThe Wilsons' California house, where the Wilson brothers grew up and the group began, was demolished in 1986 to make way for Interstate 105, the Century Freeway. A Beach Boys Historic Landmark (California Landmark No. 1041 at 3701 West 119th Street), dedicated on May 20, 2005, marks the location.\n\nDiscography \n\n;Studio albums\n\n;See also\n*Brian Wilson discography\n*Dennis Wilson discography\n*Carl Wilson discography\n*Mike Love discography\n*Al Jardine discography\n*Bruce Johnston discography\n\nSelected filmography \n\n*1976: The Beach Boys: Good Vibrations Tour\n*1985: The Beach Boys: An American Band\n*1996: The Beach Boys: Nashville Sounds\n*1998: Endless Harmony: The Beach Boys Story\n*2002: Good Timin': Live at Knebworth England 1980\n*2003: The Beach Boys: The Lost Concert 1964\n*2006: The Beach Boys: In London 1966\n*2012: The Beach Boys: Chronicles\n*2012: The 50th Reunion Tour\n\nThe Beach Boys appear as performers in the beach party films The Girls on the Beach (1965) and The Monkey's Uncle (1965). They have also made cameo appearances in the television series Full House (1988–1992), Home Improvement (1993), and Baywatch (1995).\n\nThe life of the Beach Boys is the subject of two made-for-television films: Summer Dreams: The Story of the Beach Boys (1990) and The Beach Boys: An American Family (2000). Love & Mercy is a 2014 biopic that dramatizes Brian Wilson during his time with the Beach Boys."
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"The Official 60's Site-The Beach Boys\n \n \nThe Beach Boys were inducted into the Rock 'n Roll Hall of Fame in 1988. This American sold more singles and LPs then any other American band in history. They placed 36 hits in the Top 40, more than any other American band and had a total of 56 songs make the Hot 100 hits, once again more than any other American band.\n \n \nBrian Wilson was born in Hawthorne, California in 1942. At the age of sixteen, Brian shared a bedroom with his two brothers, Dennis and Carl. He watched his father, Murry Wilson, play piano and listened intently to the harmonies of vocal groups like The Four Freshmen. One night he taught his brothers a song called \"Ivory Tower\" and how to sing the background harmonies. \"We practiced night after night, singing softly, hoping we wouldn't wake our Dad.\" For his sixteenth birthday, Brian had received a reel-to-reel tape recorder. He learned how to overdub, using his vocals and those of Carl and his mother. He would play piano and later added Carl playing the Rickenbacker guitar he got as a Christmas present.\n \nSoon Brian was avidly listening to Johnny Otis on his KFOX radio show, a favorite station of Carl's. Inspired by the simple structure and vocals of the rhythm and blues songs he heard, he changed his piano-playing style and started writing songs. His enthusiasm interfered with his music studies at school. He failed to complete a twelfth-grade piano sonata, but did submit an original composition, called \"Surfin'\".\n \nFamily gatherings brought the Wilsons in contact with cousin Mike Love. Brian taught Love's sister Maureen and a friend harmonies. Later, Brian, Mike and two friends performed at Hawthorne High School (Hawthorne, California), drawing tremendous applause for their version of The Olympics' (doo-wop group) \"Hully Gully\". Brian also knew Al Jardine, a high school classmate, who had already played guitar in a folk group called The Islanders. One day, on the spur of the moment, they asked a couple of football players in the school training room to learn harmony parts, but it wasn't a success — the bass singer was flat.\n \nBrian suggested to Jardine that they team up with his cousin and brother Carl. It was at these sessions, held in Brian's bedroom, that \"the Beach Boys sound\" began to form. Brian says: \"Everyone contributed something. Carl kept us hip to the latest tunes, Al taught us his repertoire of folk songs, and Dennis, though he didn't play anything, added a combustible spark just by his presence.\" It was Love who encouraged Brian to write songs and he also gave the fledgling band its first name: The Pendletones.\n \nThe Pendletones name was derived from the Pendleton woolen shirts popular at that time. In their earliest performances, the band wore the heavy wool jacket-like shirts, which were favored by surfers in the South Bay. In 1962, the Beach Boys began wearing blue/gray-striped button-down shirts tucked into white pants as their touring \"uniforms.\" This was the band's signature look through to 1966.\n \nAlthough surfing motifs were very prominent in their early songs, Dennis was the only member of the group who surfed. He suggested that his brothers compose some songs celebrating his hobby and the lifestyle which had developed around it in Southern California.\n \nJardine and a singer friend, Gary Winfrey, went to Brian's to see if he could help out with a version of a folk song they wanted to record - \"Sloop John B.\" In Brian's absence, the two spoke with his father, Murry, who was a music industry veteran of modest success. In September 1961, Murry arranged for The Pendletones to meet publishers Hite and Dorinda Morgan at Stereo Masters in Hollywood. The group performed a straightforward rendition of \"Sloop John B.\", but failed to impress the Morgans. After an awkward pause, Dennis mentioned they had an original song, called \"Surfin'\". Brian was taken aback — he had not finished writing the song — but Hite Morgan was interested and asked them to call back when the song was complete. With help from Mike, Brian finished the song and the group rented guitars, drums, amplifiers and microphones. They practiced for three days while the Wilsons' parents were on a short vacation. A few days later they auditioned for the Morgans again and Hite Morgan declared: \"That's a smash!\"\n \nOn October 3, 1961, The Pendletones recorded twelve takes of \"Surfin'\" in the Morgans' cramped offices (Dennis was deemed not yet good enough to play drums, much to his chagrin). A small quantity of singles was pressed. When the boys eagerly unpacked the first box of singles, on the Candix Records label, they were surprised and angered to see their band name had been changed to \"Beach Boys\". Murry Wilson, now intimately involved with the band's fortunes, called the Morgans. Apparently a young promotion worker, Russ Regan, had decided on the change to more obviously tie the group in with other surf bands of the time (his original name for the band was The Surfers). The limited budget meant the labels could not be reprinted.\n \nReleased mid-November, 1961, \"Surfin'\" was soon aired on KFWB and KDAY, two of Los Angeles' most influential radio stations. It was a hit on the West Coast, and peaked at #75 on the national pop charts.\n \nAs an eight-year-old, Brian Wilson says his \"young life was already being shaped and influenced by music... None affected me more than the music I heard when my father played the family piano... I watched how his fingers made chords and memorized the positions\".\n \nMurry had limited success as a songwriter, peaking with \"Two Step Side Step\" when it was recorded for a Bachelors album in 1952. Despite his musical ability and any wish to educate Brian in particular, Murry \"was a tyrant\", quick to offer discouraging criticism and who \"abused his sons psychologically and physically, creating wounds that never healed.\" Carl found comfort in food and Dennis rebelled against the world to express his anger. Brian would immerse himself in music to cope, but though he longed to learn piano as a child, he was too frightened to ask and even too scared to press the keys when his father was at work.\n \nEventually Brian surprised his parents by showing he had learned how to play the piano by watching his father. Thereafter, \"playing the piano... literally saved my ass. I recall playing one time while my dad flung Dennis against the wall... That was just one of many incidents when I didn't miss a note, supplying background music to the hell that often substituted for a family life...\"\n \nAt first, Murry steered the Beach Boys' career, engineering their signing with Capitol Records in 1962. In 1964, Brian ousted his father after a violent confrontation in the studio. Over the next few years, they became increasingly estranged; when Murry died of a heart attack in 1973, Brian and Dennis did not attend the funeral.\n \nOn July 16, on the strength of the June demo session, the Beach Boys were signed to Capitol Records. By November, their first album was ready - \"Surfin' Safari\". Their song output continued along the same commercial line, focusing on California youth lifestyle. The early Beach Boys’ hits helped raise both the profile of the state of California and of surfing. The group also celebrated the Golden State’s obsession with hot-rod racing (\"Shut Down,\" \"409,\" \"Little Deuce Coupe\") and the pursuit of happiness by carefree teens in less complicated times (\"Be True to Your School,\" \"Fun, Fun, Fun,\" \"I Get Around\"). From 1962-65 they had sixteen hit singles during a period of time that included both a very competitive Top Forty but also saw the start of the British Invasion.\n \nAlthough their music was bright and accessible, these early works belied a sophistication that would emerge more forcefully in the coming years. During this period, Brian Wilson rapidly progressed to become a melodist, arranger and producer of world-renowned stature. Their early hits made them major pop stars in the United States, the United Kingdom, and other countries, although their status as America's top pop group was soon challenged in 1964 by the emergence of The Beatles, who quickly became the Beach Boys' major creative, financial, and Top Forty rival.\n \nApart from the Wilsons' father and the close vocal harmonies of Brian's favorite groups, early inspiration came from the driving rock and roll sound of Chuck Berry and Phil Spector's Wall of Sound. Some of Brian's songs were modeled after other songs; most famously \"Surfer Girl\" shares its rhythmic melody with \"When You Wish Upon a Star\". In his autobiography, Brian states that the melody of \"God Only Knows\" was inspired by a John Sebastian record.\n \nhe stress of road travel, composing, producing and maintaining a high level of creativity was too much for Brian Wilson to bear. On December 23, 1964, while on a flight to Houston, Brian suffered from an anxiety attack and left the tour. Shortly afterward, he announced his withdrawal from touring to concentrate entirely on songwriting and record production. This wasn't the first time Brian had stopped touring. In 1963, when Al Jardine returned, Brian left the road; but when David Marks quit, Brian had to return in his place. For the rest of 1964 and into 1965, Glen Campbell served as Wilson's replacement in concert, until his own career success required him to leave the group. Bruce Johnston was asked to locate a replacement for Campbell; having failed to find one, Johnston subsequently became a full-time member of the band, first replacing Wilson on the road and later contributing his own talents in the studio beginning with the sessions for \"California Girls.\"\n \nJan & Dean, close friends with the band and opening act for them in concert in 1963 and 1964, encouraged Brian to use session musicians in the studio. This, along with Brian's withdrawal from touring, permitted him to expand his role as a producer. Wilson also wrote \"Surf City\" for his opening act. The Jan & Dean recording hit #1 on the U.S. charts in the summer of 1963, a development that pleased Brian but angered father/manager Murry, who felt his son had \"given away\" what should have been the Beach Boys' first chart-topper. A year later, the Beach Boys would notch their first #1 single with \"I Get Around.\"\n \nBy 1964, traces of Brian Wilson's increasing studio productivity and ideas were noticeable: \"Drive-In,\" an album track from All Summer Long features bars of silence between two verses while \"Denny's Drums,\" the last track on Shut Down, Vol. II, is a two-minute drum solo. As Wilson's musical efforts became more ambitious, the group relied more on nimble session players, on tracks such as \"I Get Around\" and \"When I Grow Up (To Be a Man).\" \"Help Me, Rhonda\" became the band's second #1 single in the spring of 1965.\n \n1965 led to greater experimentation behind the soundboard with Wilson. The album Today! featured less focus on guitars, more emphasis on keyboards and percussion, as well as volume experiments and increased lyrical maturity. Side A of the album was devoted to sunny pop tunes, with darker ballads on the reverse side. In November 1965 the group followed up their #3 summer smash \"California Girls,\" with another top 20 single, \"The Little Girl I Once Knew.\" It is considered to be the band's most experimental statement prior to Pet Sounds, using silence as a pre-chorus, clashing keyboards, moody brass, and vocal tics. Perhaps too extreme an arrangement to go much higher than its modest #20 peak, it was only the band's second single not to reach the top 10 since their 1962 breakthrough. In December they would score an unexpected #2 hit (#3 in the UK) with the single \"Barbara Ann\", which Capitol Records released as a single without input from any of the Beach Boys. It has become one of their most recognized hits over the years and was a cover of a 1961 song by The Regents.\n \nIt was during this time that the Beatles' Rubber Soul came out, and Brian Wilson was enthralled with it. Until then, each Beach Boys album (and most pop albums of the day) contained a few \"filler tracks\" like cover songs or even stitched-together comedy bits. Brian found Rubber Soul filled with all-original songs and, more importantly, all good ones, none of them filler. Inspired, he rushed to his wife and proclaimed, \"Marilyn, I'm gonna make the greatest album! The greatest rock album ever made!\"\n \nWilson's growing mastery of studio recording and his increasingly sophisticated songs and complex arrangements would reach a creative peak with the acclaimed LP Pet Sounds (1966). Pet Sounds is regarded as one of the finest albums of all time and is on many music lists as one of the of greatest albums of all time, including TIME, Rolling Stone, New Musical Express, Mojo, and The Times. According to Acclaimedmusic.net, Pet Sounds is the most acclaimed album of all time by music journalists.. Among other accolades, Paul McCartney has named it one of his favorite albums of all time (with \"God Only Knows\" as his all-time favorite song). McCartney has frequently said that it was the inspiration behind the seminal Beatles' album, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.\n \nThe album's meticulously layered harmonies and inventive instrumentation (performed by the cream of Los Angeles session musicians known among themselves as The Wrecking Crew) set a new standard for popular music. It remains one of the more evocative releases of the decade, with distinctive strains of lushness, melancholy, and nostalgia for youth. The tracks \"Wouldn't It Be Nice\" and \"God Only Knows\", showcased Wilson's growing mastery as a composer, arranger and producer. \"Caroline, No,\" also taken from Pet Sounds, was issued as a Brian Wilson solo single, the only time Brian was credited as a solo artist during the early Capitol years. The album also included two sophisticated instrumental tracks, the quiet and wistful \"Let's Go Away for Awhile\" and the brittle brassy surf of the title track, \"Pet Sounds\". Despite the critical praise it received, the album was indifferently promoted by Capitol Records and failed to become the major hit Brian had hoped it would be (only reaching #10). Its failure to gain wider recognition hurt him deeply.\n \nBecause of his withdrawal from touring, Wilson was able to complete almost all the backing tracks for the album while the Beach Boys were on tour in Japan. They returned to find a substantially complete album, requiring only their vocals to finish it off. There was some resistance from within the band to this new direction. Lead singer Mike Love is reported to have been strongly opposed to it, calling it \"Brian's ego music,\" and warning the composer not to \"fuck with the formula.\" Other group members also fretted that the band would lose its core audience if they changed their successful musical blueprint. At Love's insistence, Brian changed the title of one song from \"Hang On to Your Ego\" to \"I Know There's an Answer.\" Another likely factor in Love's antipathy to Pet Sounds was that Wilson worked extensively on it with outside lyricist Tony Asher rather than with Love, even though Love had co-written the lyrics for many of their earlier songs and was the lead vocalist on most of their early hits.\n \nSeeking to expand on the advances made on Pet Sounds, Wilson began an even more ambitious project, originally dubbed Dumb Angel. Its first fruit was \"Good Vibrations,\" which Brian described as \"a pocket symphony\". The song became the Beach Boys' biggest hit to date and a U.S. and U.K. No. 1 single in 1966 — many critics consider it to be one of the best rock singles of all time. In 1997, it was named the \"Greatest Single of All Time\" by Mojo music magazine. In 2000, VH1 placed it at number 8 on their \"100 Greatest Rock Songs\" list, and in late 2004, Rolling Stone magazine placed it at number 6 on their \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\" list. It was also one of the more complex pop productions ever undertaken, and was reputed to have been the most expensive American single ever recorded at that time. Costing a reported $16,000, more than most pop albums, sessions for the song stretched over several months in at least three major studios.\n \nIn contrast to his work on Pet Sounds, Wilson adopted a modular approach to \"Good Vibrations\" — he broke the song into sections and taped multiple versions of each at different studios to take advantage of the different sound and ambience of each facility. He then assembled his favorite sections into a master backing track and added vocals. The song's innovative instrumentation included drums, organ, piano, tack piano, two basses, guitars, electro-theremin, harmonica, and cello. The group members recall the \"Good Vibrations\" vocal sessions as among the most demanding of their career.\n \nEven as his personal life deteriorated, Wilson's musical output remained remarkable. The exact nature of his mental problems was a topic of much speculation. He abused drugs heavily, gained an enormous amount of weight, suffered long bouts of depression, and became paranoid. Several biographies have suggested that his father may have had bipolar disorder and after years of suffering, Wilson's own condition was eventually diagnosed as schizoaffective disorder\nIn 1980, the Beach Boys played a Fourth of July concert on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. before a large crowd. This gig was repeated in the next two years, but in 1983 Secretary of the Interior James Watt banned the group from playing on the Mall, saying that rock concerts drew \"an undesirable element.\"[40] This drew howls of outrage from the many of the Beach Boys' American fans, who stated that the Beach Boys sound was a very desirable part of the American cultural fabric. President and First Lady Nancy Reagan spoke up for the group, and President Reagan presented Watt with a bronze sculpture of a foot that had a bullet wound, indicating that he had shot himself in the foot with the decision. In 1984 the group appeared on the Mall again. Love and Johnston most recently appeared on the Mall in 2005 for the Fourth of July concert.\nMeanwhile, Dennis Wilson's personal problems continued to escalate, and on December 28, 1983 he drowned while diving from a friend's boat, trying to recover items he had previously thrown overboard in fits of rage.\nDespite Dennis's death, the Beach Boys soldiered on as a successful touring act. On July 4, 1985, the Beach Boys played to an afternoon crowd of one million in Philadelphia and the same evening they performed for over 750,000 people on the Mall in Washington (the day's historic achievement was recorded in the Guinness Book of World Records). They also appeared nine days later at the Live Aid concert. That year, they released an eponymous album and enjoyed a resurgence of interest later in the 1980s, assisted by tributes such as David Lee Roth's hit version of \"California Girls.\" In 1987, they played with the rap group The Fat Boys, performing the song \"Wipe Out\" and filming a video for it.\nIn 1988, they unexpectedly scored their first #1 hit in 22 years with the song \"Kokomo\" which was written for the movie Cocktail, becoming their biggest-selling hit ever. It was written by John Phillips, Scott McKenzie, Mike Love, and Terry Melcher. As well as producing and co-writing several of the band's later songs and albums, Melcher was a long-time friend of Bruce Johnston, and the duo recorded together as Bruce & Terry and The Rip Chords, both surf acts with a very similar California sound, before Johnston formally joined The Beach Boys. Riding on \"Kokomo\"'s steam, the Beach Boys quickly put out the album Still Cruisin', which went gold in the U.S. and gave them their best chart showing since 1976. In 1990, the band, featuring John Stamos on drums, recorded the title track of the comedy Problem Child. Stamos later appeared singing lead vocals on the song \"Forever\" (written by Dennis Wilson) on their 1992 album Summer in Paradise.\nMembers of the band appeared on television shows such as Full House, Home Improvement, and Baywatch in the late 1980s and 1990s, as well as touring regularly. In 1995, Brian Wilson appeared in the critically acclaimed documentary I Just Wasn't Made for These Times, which saw him performing for the first time with his now-adult daughters, Wendy and Carnie of the group Wilson Phillips. The documentary also included glowing tributes to his talents from a host of major music stars of the '60s, '70s and '80s. In 1996, the Beach Boys guested with Status Quo on a re-recording of \"Fun, Fun, Fun,\" which was a British Top 30 hit.\nAfter years of heavy smoking, Carl Wilson succumbed to lung cancer on February 6, 1998 after a long battle with the disease. Although Love and Johnston continued to tour as the Beach Boys, Jardine did not participate and no other original members accompanied them. Their tours remained reliable draws, even as they came to be viewed as a nostalgia act. Meanwhile, Brian Wilson and Al Jardine (both still legally members of the Beach Boys organization) each pursued solo careers with their new bands.\nOn June 13, 2006, the major surviving Beach Boys (Brian Wilson, Mike Love, Al Jardine, Bruce Johnston, and David Marks) all set aside their differences and reunited for a celebration of the 40th anniversary of the album Pet Sounds and the double-platinum certification of their greatest hits compilation, Sounds of Summer: The Very Best of the Beach Boys, in a ceremony atop the Capitol Records building in Hollywood. Plaques were awarded for their efforts to all major members, with Brian Wilson accepting for his late brothers Carl and Dennis. Wilson himself implied there was a chance that all the living members (not having performed together since September 1996) would reunite again.",
"The Beach Boys | Biography & History | AllMusic\ngoogle+\nArtist Biography by John Bush\nBeginning their career as the most popular surf band in the nation, the Beach Boys finally emerged by 1966 as America's preeminent pop group, the only act able to challenge (for a brief time) the overarching success of the Beatles with both mainstream listeners and the critical community. From their 1961 debut with the regional hit \"Surfin',\" the three Wilson brothers -- Brian , Dennis , and Carl -- plus cousin Mike Love and friend Al Jardine constructed the most intricate, gorgeous harmonies ever heard from a pop band. With Brian 's studio proficiency growing by leaps and bounds during the mid-'60s, the Beach Boys also proved one of the best-produced groups of the '60s, exemplified by their 1966 peak with the Pet Sounds LP and the number one single \"Good Vibrations.\" Though Brian 's escalating drug use and obsessive desire to trump the Beatles (by recording the perfect LP statement) eventually led to a nervous breakdown after he heard Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band , the group soldiered on long into the '70s and '80s, with Brian only an inconsistent participant. The band's post-1966 material is often maligned (if it's recognized at all), but the truth is the Beach Boys continued to make great music well into the '70s. Displayed best on 1970's Sunflower , each member revealed individual talents never fully developed during the mid-'60s -- Carl became a solid, distinctive producer and Brian 's replacement as nominal bandleader, Mike continued to provide a visual focus as the frontman for live shows, and Dennis developed his own notable songwriting talents. Though legal wranglings and marginal oldies tours during the '90s often obscured what made the Beach Boys great, the band's unerring ability to surf the waves of commercial success and artistic development during the '60s made them America's first, best rock band.\nThe origins of the group lie in Hawthorne, California, a southern suburb of Los Angeles situated close to the Pacific coast. The three sons of a part-time song plugger and occasionally abusive father, Brian , Dennis , and Carl grew up a just few miles from the ocean -- though only Dennis had any interest in surfing itself. The three often harmonized together as youths, spurred on by Brian 's fascination with '50s vocal acts like the Four Freshmen and the Hi-Lo's . Their cousin Mike Love often joined in on the impromptu sessions, and the group gained a fifth with the addition of Brian 's high-school football teammate Al Jardine . His parents helped rent instruments (with Brian on bass, Carl on guitar, and Dennis on drums) and studio time to record \"Surfin',\" a novelty number written by Brian and Mike . The single, initially released in 1961 on Candix and billed to \"the Pendletones\" (a musical paraphrase of the popular Pendleton shirt), prompted a little national chart action and gained the renamed Beach Boys a contract with Capitol. The group's negotiator with the label, the Wilsons' father, Murray , also took over as manager for the band. Before the release of any material for Capitol, however, Jardine left the band to attend college in the Midwest. A friend of the Wilsons, David Marks , replaced him.\nFinally, in mid-1962 the Beach Boys released their major-label debut, Surfin' Safari . The title track, a more accomplished novelty single than its predecessor, hit the Top 20 and helped launch the surf rock craze just beginning to blossom around Southern California (thanks to artists like Dick Dale , Jan & Dean , the Chantays , and dozens more). A similarly themed follow-up, Surfin' U.S.A. , hit the Top Ten in early 1963 before Jardine returned from school and resumed his place in the group. By that time, the Beach Boys had recorded their first two albums, a pair of 12-track collections that added a few novelty songs to the hits they were packaged around. Though Capitol policy required the group to work with a studio producer, Brian quickly took over the sessions and began expanding the group's range beyond simple surf rock.\nBy the end of 1963, the Beach Boys had recorded three full LPs, hit the Top Ten as many times, and toured incessantly. Also, Brian began to grow as a producer, best documented on the third Beach Boys LP, Surfer Girl . Though surf songs still dominated the album, \"Catch a Wave,\" the title track, and especially \"In My Room\" presented a giant leap in songwriting, production, and group harmony -- especially astonishing considering the band had been recording for barely two years. Brian 's intense scrutiny of Phil Spector 's famous Wall of Sound productions was paying quick dividends and revealed his intuitive, unerring depths of musical knowledge.\nThe following year, \"I Get Around\" became the first number one hit for the Beach Boys . Riding a crest of popularity, the late-1964 LP Beach Boys Concert spent four weeks at the top of the album charts, just one of five Beach Boys LPs simultaneously on the charts. The group also undertook promotional tours of Europe, but the pressures and time constraints proved too much for Brian . At the end of the year, he decided to quit the touring band and concentrate on studio productions. ( Glen Campbell toured with the group briefly, then friend and colleague Bruce Johnston became Brian 's permanent replacement.)\nWith the Beach Boys as his musical messengers to the world, Brian began working full-time in the studio, writing songs and enlisting the cream of Los Angeles session players to record instrumental backing tracks before Carl , Dennis , Mike , and Al returned to add vocals. The single \"Help Me, Rhonda\" became the Beach Boys ' second chart-topper in early 1965. On the group's seventh studio LP, The Beach Boys Today! , Brian 's production skills hit another level entirely. In the rock era's first flirtation with an extended album-length statement, side two of the record presented a series of downtempo ballads, arranged into a suite that stretched the group's lyrical concerns beyond youthful infatuation and into more adult notions of love.\nTwo more LPs followed in 1965, Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) and Beach Boys' Party . The first featured \"California Girls,\" one of the best fusions of Brian 's production mastery, infectious melodies, and gorgeous close harmonies (it's still his personal favorite song). However, dragging down those few moments of brilliance were novelty tracks like \"Amusement Parks USA,\" \"Salt Lake City,\" and \"I'm Bugged at My Old Man\" that appeared to be a step back from Today . When Capitol asked for a Beach Boys record to sell at Christmas, the live-in-the-studio vocal jam session Beach Boys' Party resulted, and sold incredibly well after the single \"Barbara Ann\" became a surprise hit. In a larger sense though, both of these LPs were stopgaps as Brian prepared for production on what he hoped would be the Beach Boys ' most effective musical statement yet.\nIn late 1965, the Beatles released Rubber Soul . Amazed at the high song quality and overall cohesiveness of the album, Brian began writing songs -- with help from lyricist Tony Asher -- and producing sessions for a song suite charting a young man's growth to emotional maturity. Though Capitol was resistant to an album with few obvious hits, the group spent more time working on the vocals and harmonies than any other previous project. The result, released in May 1966 as Pet Sounds , more than justified the effort. It's still one of the best-produced and most influential rock LPs ever released, the culmination of years of Brian 's perfectionist productions and songwriting. Critics praised Pet Sounds , but the new direction failed to impress American audiences. Though it reached the Top Ten, Pet Sounds missed a gold certificate (the first to do so since the group's debut LP). Conversely, worldwide reaction was not just positive but jubilant. In England, the album hit number two and earned the Beach Boys honors for best group in year-end polls by NME -- above even the Beatles , hardly slouches themselves with the releases of \"Paperback Writer\"/\"Rain\" and Revolver .\nThe Beach Boys' next single, \"Good Vibrations,\" had originally been written for the Pet Sounds sessions, though Brian removed it from the song list to give himself more time for production. He resumed working on it after the completion of Pet Sounds , eventually devoting up to six months (and three different studios) to the single. Released in October 1966, \"Good Vibrations\" capped off the year as the group's third number one single and still stands as one of the best singles of all time. Throughout late 1966 and early 1967, Brian worked feverishly on the next Beach Boys LP -- a project named Dumb Angel, but later titled SMiLE , that promised to be as great an artistic leap beyond Pet Sounds as that album had been from Today . He drafted Van Dyke Parks , an eccentric lyricist and session man, as his songwriting partner, and recorded reams of tape containing increasingly fragmented tracks that grew ever more speculative as the months wore on. Already wary of Brian 's increasingly artistic leanings and drug experimentation, the other Beach Boys grew hostile when called in to the studio to add vocals for Parks lyrics like, \"A blind class aristocracy/Back through the opera glass you see/The pit and the pendulum drawn/Columnaded ruins domino/Canvas the town and brush the backdrop\" (from \"Surf's Up\"). A rift soon formed between the band and Brian ; they felt his intake of marijuana and LSD had clouded his judgment, while he felt they were holding him back from the coming psychedelic era.\nAs recording for SMiLE dragged on into spring 1967, Brian began working fewer hours. For the first time in the Beach Boys ' career, he appeared unsure of his direction. If SMiLE ever appeared salvageable, those hopes were dashed in May, when Brian officially canceled the project -- just a few weeks before the release of the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band . In August, the group finally released a new single, \"Heroes and Villains.\" Very similar to the fragmentary style of \"Good Vibrations,\" though a distinctly inferior follow-up, it missed the Top Ten. That fall, the group convened at Brian 's Bel Air mansion-turned-studio and recorded new versions of several SMiLE songs plus a few new recordings and re-emerged with Smiley Smile . Carl summed up the LP as \"a bunt instead of a grand slam,\" and its near-complete lack of cohesiveness all but destroyed the group's reputation for forward-thinking pop.\nAs the Beatles were ushering in the psychedelic age, the Beach Boys stalled with the all-important teen crowd, who quickly began to see the group as conservative, establishment throwbacks. The perfect chance to stem the tide, a headlining spot at the pioneering Monterey Pop Festival in summer 1967, was squandered. Though the Beach Boys regrouped quickly -- the back-to-basics Wild Honey LP appeared before the end of 1967 -- their hopes of becoming the world's preeminent pop group with both hippies and critics had fizzled in a matter of months.\nAll this incredible promise wasted made fans, critics, and radio programmers undeniably bitter toward future product. Predictably, both Wild Honey and 1968's Friends suffered with all three audiences. They survive as interesting records nevertheless; deliberately under-produced, with song fragments and recording-session detritus often left in the mix; the skeletal blue-eyed soul of Wild Honey and the laid-back orchestral pop of Friends made them favorites only after fans realized the Beach Boys were a radically different group in 1968 than in 1966. Sparked by the Top 20 hit \"Do It Again\" -- a song that saw the first shades of the group as an oldies act -- 1969's 20/20 did marginally better. Still, Capitol dropped the band soon after. One year later, the Beach Boys signed to Reprise.\nThe first LP for Brother/Reprise was 1970's Sunflower , a surprisingly strong album featuring a return to the gorgeous harmonies of the mid-'60s and many songs written by different members of the band. Surf's Up , titled after a reworked song originally intended for SMiLE , followed in 1971. Though frequently lovable, the wide range of material on Surf's Up displayed not a band but a conglomeration of individual interests. During sessions for the album, Dennis put his hand through a plate glass window and was unable to play drums. Early in 1972, the band hired drummer Ricky Fataar and guitarist Blondie Chaplin , two members of a South African rock band named the Flame ( Carl had produced their self-titled debut for Brother Records the previous year).\nCarl and the Passions: So Tough , the first album released with Fataar and Chaplin in the band, descended into lame early-'70s AOR. For the first time, a Beach Boys album retained nothing of their classic sound. Brian 's mental stability wavered from year to year, and he spent much time in his mansion with no wish to even contact the outside world. He occasionally contributed to the songwriting and session load, but was by no means a member of the band anymore (he rarely even appeared on album covers or promotional shots). Though it's unclear why Reprise felt ready to take such a big risk, the label authorized a large recording budget for the next Beach Boys album. After shipping most of the group's family and entourage (plus an entire studio) over to Amsterdam, the Beach Boys re-emerged in 1973 with Holland . The LP scraped the bottom rungs of the Top 40, and the single \"Sail on, Sailor\" (with vocals by Chaplin ) did receive some FM radio airplay. Still, Holland 's muddy sound did nothing for the aging band, and it earned scathing reviews.\nPerhaps a bit gun-shy, the Beach Boys essentially retired from recording during the mid-'70s. Instead, the band concentrated on grooming their live act, which quickly grew to become an incredible experience. It was a good move, considering the Beach Boys could lay claim to more hits than any other '60s rock act on the road. The Beach Boys in Concert , their third live album in total, appeared in 1973.\nThen, in mid-1974, Capitol Records went to the vaults and issued a repackaged hits collection, Endless Summer . Both band and label watched, dumbfounded, as the double LP hit number one, spent almost three years on the charts, and went gold. Endless Summer capitalized on a growing fascination with oldies rock that had made Sha Na Na , American Graffiti, and Happy Days big hits. Rolling Stone, never the most friendly magazine to the group, named the Beach Boys its Band of the Year at the end of the year. Another collection, Spirit of America , hit the Top Ten in 1974, and the Beach Boys were hustled into the studio to begin new recordings.\nTrumpeted by the barely true marketing campaign \"Brian's Back!,\" 1976's 15 Big Ones balanced a couple of '50s oldies with some justifiably exciting Brian Wilson oddities like \"Had to Phone Ya.\" It also hit the Top Ten and went gold, despite many critical misgivings. Brian took a much more involved position for the following year's The Beach Boys Love You (it was almost titled Brian Loves You and released as a solo album). In marked contrast to the fatalistic early-'70s pop of \"Til I Die\" and others, Brian sounded positively jubilant on gruff proto-synth pop numbers like \"Let Us Go on This Way\" and \"Mona.\" However idiosyncratic compared to what oldies fans expected of the Beach Boys , Love You was the group's best album in years. (A suite of beautiful, tender ballads on side two was quite reminiscent of 1965's Today .)\nAfter 1979's M.I.U. Album , the group signed a large contract with CBS that stipulated Brian 's involvement on each album. However, his brief return to the spotlight ended with two dismal efforts, L.A. (Light Album) and Keepin' the Summer Alive . The Beach Boys began splintering by the end of the decade, with financial mismanagement by Mike Love 's brothers Stan and Steve fostering tension between him and the Wilsons. By 1980, both Dennis and Carl had left the Beach Boys for solo careers. ( Dennis had already released his first album, Pacific Ocean Blue , in 1977, and Carl released his eponymous debut in 1981.) Brian was removed from the group in 1982 after his weight ballooned to over 300 pounds, though the tragic drowning death of Dennis in 1983 helped bring the group back together. In 1985, the Beach Boys released a self-titled album that returned them to the Top 40 with \"Getcha Back.\" It would be the last proper Beach Boys album of the '80s, however.\nBrian had been steadily improving in both mind and body during the mid-'80s, though the rest of the group grew suspicious of his mentor, Dr. Eugene Landy . Landy was a dodgy psychiatrist who reportedly worked wonders with the easily impressionable Brian but also practically took over his life. He collaborated with Brian on the autobiography Wouldn't It Be Nice and wrote lyrics for Brian 's first solo album, 1988's Brian Wilson . Critics and fans enjoyed Wilson 's return to the studio, but the charts were unforgiving, especially with attention focused on the Beach Boys once more. The single \"Kokomo,\" from the soundtrack to Cocktail , hit number one in the U.S. late that year, prompting a haphazard collection named Still Cruisin' . The group also sued Brian , more to force Landy out of the picture than anything, and Mike Love later sued Brian for songwriting royalties ( Brian had frequently admitted Love 's involvement on most of them).\nDespite the many quarrels, the Beach Boys kept touring during the early '90s, and Mike and Brian actually began writing songs together in 1995. Instead of a new album, though, the Beach Boys returned with Stars and Stripes, Vol. 1 , a collection of remade hits with country stars singing lead and the group adding backing vocals. Also, a Brian Wilson documentary titled I Just Wasn't Made for These Times aired on the Disney Channel, with an accompanying soundtrack featuring spare renditions of Beach Boys classics by Brian himself. Just as the band appeared to be pulling together for a proper studio album, though, Carl died of cancer in 1998.\nTen years after his first solo album, Brian became aware of his immense influence on the alternative rock community; he worked with biggest fans Sean O'Hagan (of the High Llamas ) and Andy Paley on a series of recordings. Again, good intentions failed to carry through as the recordings were ditched in favor of another overly produced, mainstream-slanted work, Imagination . By early 1999, no less than three Beach Boys -connected units were touring the country -- a Brian Wilson solo tour, the \"official\" Beach Boys led by Mike Love , and the \"Beach Boys Family\" led by Al Jardine .\nIn 2000, Capitol instituted a long-promised reissue campaign, focusing on the group's long out of print '70s LPs, and updated remastering of the '60s LPs followed soon after. Brian Wilson continued his solo career into the 2000s with a string of popular albums, including a live run-though of Pet Sounds ( Pet Sounds Live ) and, in 2004, a concert tour as well as a re-recording around SMiLE . The surviving members next united in 2006 to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Pet Sounds . Two years later, however, Jardine was forced to settle a lawsuit brought by Love and Carl Wilson 's estate over the use of the Beach Boys ' name in his touring band (which was renamed the Endless Summer Band).\nRegardless of legal actions and strained relations, all of the band's surviving members were on hand in June 2011 for a special announcement: forthcoming were new live dates, reissues (including the first-ever release of The Smile Sessions ; it appeared at the end of 2011), new recordings, and a spate of planned releases for 2012 that would feature all of the surviving members of the band who contributed the most to their '60s prime: Brian Wilson , Mike Love , Al Jardine , Bruce Johnston , and even David Marks . The new recordings included a version of their 1968 hit \"Do It Again\" and, by June 2012, a full album, including 12 original songs produced by Wilson and given the title of its first single, That's Why God Made the Radio ; the album generated generally positive reviews and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200. Just before their 50th anniversary tour ended, in late September, Love announced that additional tour dates for the rest of 2012 would not include Brian Wilson , Jardine , or Marks . The brief reunion was commemorated on the May 2013 live album The Beach Boys Live: The 50th Anniversary Tour . Three years later a couple of archival releases appeared: a 50th anniversary reissue of Pet Sounds and a compilation of their earliest recordings called Becoming the Beach Boys: The Complete Hite & Dorinda Morgan Sessions .",
"The Beach Boys on Apple Music\nTo preview a song, mouse over the title and click Play. Open iTunes to buy and download music.\nBiography\nBeginning their career as the most popular surf band in the nation, the Beach Boys finally emerged by 1966 as America's preeminent pop group, the only act able to challenge (for a brief time) the overarching success of the Beatles with both mainstream listeners and the critical community. From their 1961 debut with the regional hit \"Surfin',\" the three Wilson brothers -- Brian, Dennis, and Carl -- plus cousin Mike Love and friend Al Jardine constructed the most intricate, gorgeous harmonies ever heard from a pop band. With Brian's studio proficiency growing by leaps and bounds during the mid-'60s, the Beach Boys also proved one of the best-produced groups of the '60s, exemplified by their 1966 peak with the Pet Sounds LP and the number one single \"Good Vibrations.\" Though Brian's escalating drug use and obsessive desire to trump the Beatles (by recording the perfect LP statement) eventually led to a nervous breakdown after he heard Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, the group soldiered on long into the '70s and '80s, with Brian only an inconsistent participant. The band's post-1966 material is often maligned (if it's recognized at all), but the truth is the Beach Boys continued to make great music well into the '70s. Displayed best on 1970's Sunflower, each member revealed individual talents never fully developed during the mid-'60s -- Carl became a solid, distinctive producer and Brian's replacement as nominal bandleader, Mike continued to provide a visual focus as the frontman for live shows, and Dennis developed his own notable songwriting talents. Though legal wranglings and marginal oldies tours during the '90s often obscured what made the Beach Boys great, the band's unerring ability to surf the waves of commercial success and artistic development during the '60s made them America's first, best rock band. The origins of the group lie in Hawthorne, California, a southern suburb of Los Angeles situated close to the Pacific coast. The three sons of a part-time song plugger and occasionally abusive father, Brian, Dennis, and Carl grew up a just few miles from the ocean -- though only Dennis had any interest in surfing itself. The three often harmonized together as youths, spurred on by Brian's fascination with '50s vocal acts like the Four Freshmen and the Hi-Lo's. Their cousin Mike Love often joined in on the impromptu sessions, and the group gained a fifth with the addition of Brian's high-school football teammate Al Jardine. His parents helped rent instruments (with Brian on bass, Carl on guitar, and Dennis on drums) and studio time to record \"Surfin',\" a novelty number written by Brian and Mike. The single, initially released in 1961 on Candix and billed to \"the Pendletones\" (a musical paraphrase of the popular Pendleton shirt), prompted a little national chart action and gained the renamed Beach Boys a contract with Capitol. The group's negotiator with the label, the Wilsons' father, Murray, also took over as manager for the band. Before the release of any material for Capitol, however, Jardine left the band to attend college in the Midwest. A friend of the Wilsons, David Marks, replaced him. Finally, in mid-1962 the Beach Boys released their major-label debut, Surfin' Safari. The title track, a more accomplished novelty single than its predecessor, hit the Top 20 and helped launch the surf rock craze just beginning to blossom around Southern California (thanks to artists like Dick Dale, Jan & Dean, the Chantays, and dozens more). A similarly themed follow-up, Surfin' U.S.A., hit the Top Ten in early 1963 before Jardine returned from school and resumed his place in the group. By that time, the Beach Boys had recorded their first two albums, a pair of 12-track collections that added a few novelty songs to the hits they were packaged around. Though Capitol policy required the group to work with a studio producer, Brian quickly took over the sessions and began expanding the group's range beyond simple surf rock. By the end of 1963, the Beach Boys had recorded three full LPs, hit the Top Ten as many times, and toured incessantly. Also, Brian began to grow as a producer, best documented on the third Beach Boys LP, Surfer Girl. Though surf songs still dominated the album, \"Catch a Wave,\" the title track, and especially \"In My Room\" presented a giant leap in songwriting, production, and group harmony -- especially astonishing considering the band had been recording for barely two years. Brian's intense scrutiny of Phil Spector's famous Wall of Sound productions was paying quick dividends and revealed his intuitive, unerring depths of musical knowledge. The following year, \"I Get Around\" became the first number one hit for the Beach Boys. Riding a crest of popularity, the late-1964 LP Beach Boys Concert spent four weeks at the top of the album charts, just one of five Beach Boys LPs simultaneously on the charts. The group also undertook promotional tours of Europe, but the pressures and time constraints proved too much for Brian. At the end of the year, he decided to quit the touring band and concentrate on studio productions. (Glen Campbell toured with the group briefly, then friend and colleague Bruce Johnston became Brian's permanent replacement.) With the Beach Boys as his musical messengers to the world, Brian began working full-time in the studio, writing songs and enlisting the cream of Los Angeles session players to record instrumental backing tracks before Carl, Dennis, Mike, and Al returned to add vocals. The single \"Help Me, Rhonda\" became the Beach Boys' second chart-topper in early 1965. On the group's seventh studio LP, The Beach Boys Today!, Brian's production skills hit another level entirely. In the rock era's first flirtation with an extended album-length statement, side two of the record presented a series of downtempo ballads, arranged into a suite that stretched the group's lyrical concerns beyond youthful infatuation and into more adult notions of love. Two more LPs followed in 1965, Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) and Beach Boys' Party. The first featured \"California Girls,\" one of the best fusions of Brian's production mastery, infectious melodies, and gorgeous close harmonies (it's still his personal favorite song). However, dragging down those few moments of brilliance were novelty tracks like \"Amusement Parks USA,\" \"Salt Lake City,\" and \"I'm Bugged at My Old Man\" that appeared to be a step back from Today. When Capitol asked for a Beach Boys record to sell at Christmas, the live-in-the-studio vocal jam session Beach Boys' Party resulted, and sold incredibly well after the single \"Barbara Ann\" became a surprise hit. In a larger sense though, both of these LPs were stopgaps as Brian prepared for production on what he hoped would be the Beach Boys' most effective musical statement yet. In late 1965, the Beatles released Rubber Soul. Amazed at the high song quality and overall cohesiveness of the album, Brian began writing songs -- with help from lyricist Tony Asher -- and producing sessions for a song suite charting a young man's growth to emotional maturity. Though Capitol was resistant to an album with few obvious hits, the group spent more time working on the vocals and harmonies than any other previous project. The result, released in May 1966 as Pet Sounds, more than justified the effort. It's still one of the best-produced and most influential rock LPs ever released, the culmination of years of Brian's perfectionist productions and songwriting. Critics praised Pet Sounds, but the new direction failed to impress American audiences. Though it reached the Top Ten, Pet Sounds missed a gold certificate (the first to do so since the group's debut LP). Conversely, worldwide reaction was not just positive but jubilant. In England, the album hit number two and earned the Beach Boys honors for best group in year-end polls by NME -- above even the Beatles, hardly slouches themselves with the releases of \"Paperback Writer\"/\"Rain\" and Revolver. The Beach Boys' next single, \"Good Vibrations,\" had originally been written for the Pet Sounds sessions, though Brian removed it from the song list to give himself more time for production. He resumed working on it after the completion of Pet Sounds, eventually devoting up to six months (and three different studios) to the single. Released in October 1966, \"Good Vibrations\" capped off the year as the group's third number one single and still stands as one of the best singles of all time. Throughout late 1966 and early 1967, Brian worked feverishly on the next Beach Boys LP -- a project named Dumb Angel, but later titled SMiLE, that promised to be as great an artistic leap beyond Pet Sounds as that album had been from Today. He drafted Van Dyke Parks, an eccentric lyricist and session man, as his songwriting partner, and recorded reams of tape containing increasingly fragmented tracks that grew ever more speculative as the months wore on. Already wary of Brian's increasingly artistic leanings and drug experimentation, the other Beach Boys grew hostile when called in to the studio to add vocals for Parks lyrics like, \"A blind class aristocracy/Back through the opera glass you see/The pit and the pendulum drawn/Columnaded ruins domino/Canvas the town and brush the backdrop\" (from \"Surf's Up\"). A rift soon formed between the band and Brian; they felt his intake of marijuana and LSD had clouded his judgment, while he felt they were holding him back from the coming psychedelic era. As recording for SMiLE dragged on into spring 1967, Brian began working fewer hours. For the first time in the Beach Boys' career, he appeared unsure of his direction. If SMiLE ever appeared salvageable, those hopes were dashed in May, when Brian officially canceled the project -- just a few weeks before the release of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. In August, the group finally released a new single, \"Heroes and Villains.\" Very similar to the fragmentary style of \"Good Vibrations,\" though a distinctly inferior follow-up, it missed the Top Ten. That fall, the group convened at Brian's Bel Air mansion-turned-studio and recorded new versions of several SMiLE songs plus a few new recordings and re-emerged with Smiley Smile. Carl summed up the LP as \"a bunt instead of a grand slam,\" and its near-complete lack of cohesiveness all but destroyed the group's reputation for forward-thinking pop. As the Beatles were ushering in the psychedelic age, the Beach Boys stalled with the all-important teen crowd, who quickly began to see the group as conservative, establishment throwbacks. The perfect chance to stem the tide, a headlining spot at the pioneering Monterey Pop Festival in summer 1967, was squandered. Though the Beach Boys regrouped quickly -- the back-to-basics Wild Honey LP appeared before the end of 1967 -- their hopes of becoming the world's preeminent pop group with both hippies and critics had fizzled in a matter of months. All this incredible promise wasted made fans, critics, and radio programmers undeniably bitter toward future product. Predictably, both Wild Honey and 1968's Friends suffered with all three audiences. They survive as interesting records nevertheless; deliberately under-produced, with song fragments and recording-session detritus often left in the mix; the skeletal blue-eyed soul of Wild Honey and the laid-back orchestral pop of Friends made them favorites only after fans realized the Beach Boys were a radically different group in 1968 than in 1966. Sparked by the Top 20 hit \"Do It Again\" -- a song that saw the first shades of the group as an oldies act -- 1969's 20/20 did marginally better. Still, Capitol dropped the band soon after. One year later, the Beach Boys signed to Reprise. The first LP for Brother/Reprise was 1970's Sunflower, a surprisingly strong album featuring a return to the gorgeous harmonies of the mid-'60s and many songs written by different members of the band. Surf's Up, titled after a reworked song originally intended for SMiLE, followed in 1971. Though frequently lovable, the wide range of material on Surf's Up displayed not a band but a conglomeration of individual interests. During sessions for the album, Dennis put his hand through a plate glass window and was unable to play drums. Early in 1972, the band hired drummer Ricky Fataar and guitarist Blondie Chaplin, two members of a South African rock band named the Flame (Carl had produced their self-titled debut for Brother Records the previous year). Carl and the Passions: So Tough, the first album released with Fataar and Chaplin in the band, descended into lame early-'70s AOR. For the first time, a Beach Boys album retained nothing of their classic sound. Brian's mental stability wavered from year to year, and he spent much time in his mansion with no wish to even contact the outside world. He occasionally contributed to the songwriting and session load, but was by no means a member of the band anymore (he rarely even appeared on album covers or promotional shots). Though it's unclear why Reprise felt ready to take such a big risk, the label authorized a large recording budget for the next Beach Boys album. After shipping most of the group's family and entourage (plus an entire studio) over to Amsterdam, the Beach Boys re-emerged in 1973 with Holland. The LP scraped the bottom rungs of the Top 40, and the single \"Sail on, Sailor\" (with vocals by Chaplin) did receive some FM radio airplay. Still, Holland's muddy sound did nothing for the aging band, and it earned scathing reviews. Perhaps a bit gun-shy, the Beach Boys essentially retired from recording during the mid-'70s. Instead, the band concentrated on grooming their live act, which quickly grew to become an incredible experience. It was a good move, considering the Beach Boys could lay claim to more hits than any other '60s rock act on the road. The Beach Boys in Concert, their third live album in total, appeared in 1973. Then, in mid-1974, Capitol Records went to the vaults and issued a repackaged hits collection, Endless Summer. Both band and label watched, dumbfounded, as the double LP hit number one, spent almost three years on the charts, and went gold. Endless Summer capitalized on a growing fascination with oldies rock that had made Sha Na Na, American Graffiti, and Happy Days big hits. Rolling Stone, never the most friendly magazine to the group, named the Beach Boys its Band of the Year at the end of the year. Another collection, Spirit of America, hit the Top Ten in 1974, and the Beach Boys were hustled into the studio to begin new recordings. Trumpeted by the barely true marketing campaign \"Brian's Back!,\" 1976's 15 Big Ones balanced a couple of '50s oldies with some justifiably exciting Brian Wilson oddities like \"Had to Phone Ya.\" It also hit the Top Ten and went gold, despite many critical misgivings. Brian took a much more involved position for the following year's The Beach Boys Love You (it was almost titled Brian Loves You and released as a solo album). In marked contrast to the fatalistic early-'70s pop of \"Til I Die\" and others, Brian sounded positively jubilant on gruff proto-synth pop numbers like \"Let Us Go on This Way\" and \"Mona.\" However idiosyncratic compared to what oldies fans expected of the Beach Boys, Love You was the group's best album in years. (A suite of beautiful, tender ballads on side two was quite reminiscent of 1965's Today.) After 1979's M.I.U. Album, the group signed a large contract with CBS that stipulated Brian's involvement on each album. However, his brief return to the spotlight ended with two dismal efforts, L.A. (Light Album) and Keepin' the Summer Alive. The Beach Boys began splintering by the end of the decade, with financial mismanagement by Mike Love's brothers Stan and Steve fostering tension between him and the Wilsons. By 1980, both Dennis and Carl had left the Beach Boys for solo careers. (Dennis had already released his first album, Pacific Ocean Blue, in 1977, and Carl released his eponymous debut in 1981.) Brian was removed from the group in 1982 after his weight ballooned to over 300 pounds, though the tragic drowning death of Dennis in 1983 helped bring the group back together. In 1985, the Beach Boys released a self-titled album that returned them to the Top 40 with \"Getcha Back.\" It would be the last proper Beach Boys album of the '80s, however. Brian had been steadily improving in both mind and body during the mid-'80s, though the rest of the group grew suspicious of his mentor, Dr. Eugene Landy. Landy was a dodgy psychiatrist who reportedly worked wonders with the easily impressionable Brian but also practically took over his life. He collaborated with Brian on the autobiography Wouldn't It Be Nice and wrote lyrics for Brian's first solo album, 1988's Brian Wilson. Critics and fans enjoyed Wilson's return to the studio, but the charts were unforgiving, especially with attention focused on the Beach Boys once more. The single \"Kokomo,\" from the soundtrack to Cocktail, hit number one in the U.S. late that year, prompting a haphazard collection named Still Cruisin'. The group also sued Brian, more to force Landy out of the picture than anything, and Mike Love later sued Brian for songwriting royalties (Brian had frequently admitted Love's involvement on most of them). Despite the many quarrels, the Beach Boys kept touring during the early '90s, and Mike and Brian actually began writing songs together in 1995. Instead of a new album, though, the Beach Boys returned with Stars and Stripes, Vol. 1, a collection of remade hits with country stars singing lead and the group adding backing vocals. Also, a Brian Wilson documentary titled I Just Wasn't Made for These Times aired on the Disney Channel, with an accompanying soundtrack featuring spare renditions of Beach Boys classics by Brian himself. Just as the band appeared to be pulling together for a proper studio album, though, Carl died of cancer in 1998. Ten years after his first solo album, Brian became aware of his immense influence on the alternative rock community; he worked with biggest fans Sean O'Hagan (of the High Llamas) and Andy Paley on a series of recordings. Again, good intentions failed to carry through as the recordings were ditched in favor of another overly produced, mainstream-slanted work, Imagination. By early 1999, no less than three Beach Boys-connected units were touring the country -- a Brian Wilson solo tour, the \"official\" Beach Boys led by Mike Love, and the \"Beach Boys Family\" led by Al Jardine. In 2000, Capitol instituted a long-promised reissue campaign, focusing on the group's long out of print '70s LPs, and updated remastering of the '60s LPs followed soon after. Brian Wilson continued his solo career into the 2000s with a string of popular albums, including a live run-though of Pet Sounds (Pet Sounds Live) and, in 2004, a concert tour as well as a re-recording around SMiLE. The surviving members next united in 2006 to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Pet Sounds. Two years later, however, Jardine was forced to settle a lawsuit brought by Love and Carl Wilson's estate over the use of the Beach Boys' name in his touring band (which was renamed the Endless Summer Band). Regardless of legal actions and strained relations, all of the band's surviving members were on hand in June 2011 for a special announcement: forthcoming were new live dates, reissues (including the first-ever release of The Smile Sessions; it appeared at the end of 2011), new recordings, and a spate of planned releases for 2012 that would feature all of the surviving members of the band who contributed the most to their '60s prime: Brian Wilson, Mike Love, Al Jardine, Bruce Johnston, and even David Marks. The new recordings included a version of their 1968 hit \"Do It Again\" and, by June 2012, a full album, including 12 original songs produced by Wilson and given the title of its first single, That's Why God Made the Radio; the album generated generally positive reviews and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200. Just before their 50th anniversary tour ended, in late September, Love announced that additional tour dates for the rest of 2012 would not include Brian Wilson, Jardine, or Marks. The brief reunion was commemorated on the May 2013 live album The Beach Boys Live: The 50th Anniversary Tour. Three years later a couple of archival releases appeared: a 50th anniversary reissue of Pet Sounds and a compilation of their earliest recordings called Becoming the Beach Boys: The Complete Hite & Dorinda Morgan Sessions. ~ John Bush\nTop Albums",
"The Beach Boys Bio | The Beach Boys Career | MTV\nwww.facebook.com/8216394139\nRock\nBeginning their career as the most popular surf band in the nation, the Beach Boys finally emerged by 1966 as America's preeminent pop group, the only act able to challenge (for a brief time) the overarching success of the Beatles with both mainstream listeners and the critical community. From their 1961 debut with the regional hit \"Surfin',\" the three Wilson brothers -- Brian, Dennis, and Carl -- plus cousin Mike Love and friend Al Jardine constructed the most intricate, gorgeous harmonies ever heard from a pop band. With Brian's studio proficiency growing by leaps and bounds during the mid-'60s, the Beach Boys also proved one of the best-produced groups of the '60s, exemplified by their 1966 peak with the Pet Sounds LP and the number one single \"Good Vibrations.\" Though Brian's escalating drug use and obsessive desire to trump the Beatles (by recording the perfect LP statement) eventually led to a nervous breakdown after he heard Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, the group soldiered on long into the '70s and '80s, with Brian only an inconsistent participant. The band's post-1966 material is often maligned (if it's recognized at all), but the truth is the Beach Boys continued to make great music well into the '70s. Displayed best on 1970's Sunflower, each member revealed individual talents never fully developed during the mid-'60s -- Carl became a solid, distinctive producer and Brian's replacement as nominal bandleader, Mike continued to provide a visual focus as the frontman for live shows, and Dennis developed his own notable songwriting talents. Though legal wranglings and marginal oldies tours during the '90s often obscured what made the Beach Boys great, the band's unerring ability to surf the waves of commercial success and artistic development during the '60s made them America's first, best rock band.\nThe origins of the group lie in Hawthorne, California, a southern suburb of Los Angeles situated close to the Pacific coast. The three sons of a part-time song plugger and occasionally abusive father, Brian, Dennis, and Carl grew up a just few miles from the ocean -- though only Dennis had any interest in surfing itself. The three often harmonized together as youths, spurred on by Brian's fascination with '50s vocal acts like the Four Freshmen and the Hi-Lo's. Their cousin Mike Love often joined in on the impromptu sessions, and the group gained a fifth with the addition of Brian's high-school football teammate Al Jardine. His parents helped rent instruments (with Brian on bass, Carl on guitar, and Dennis on drums) and studio time to record \"Surfin',\" a novelty number written by Brian and Mike. The single, initially released in 1961 on Candix and billed to \"the Pendletones\" (a musical paraphrase of the popular Pendleton shirt), prompted a little national chart action and gained the renamed Beach Boys a contract with Capitol. The group's negotiator with the label, the Wilsons' father, Murray, also took over as manager for the band. Before the release of any material for Capitol, however, Jardine left the band to attend college in the Midwest. A friend of the Wilsons, David Marks, replaced him.\nFinally, in mid-1962 the Beach Boys released their major-label debut, Surfin' Safari. The title track, a more accomplished novelty single than its predecessor, hit the Top 20 and helped launch the surf rock craze just beginning to blossom around Southern California (thanks to artists like Dick Dale, Jan & Dean, the Chantays, and dozens more). A similarly themed follow-up, Surfin' U.S.A., hit the Top Ten in early 1963 before Jardine returned from school and resumed his place in the group. By that time, the Beach Boys had recorded their first two albums, a pair of 12-track collections that added a few novelty songs to the hits they were packaged around. Though Capitol policy required the group to work with a studio producer, Brian quickly took over the sessions and began expanding the group's range beyond simple surf rock.\nBy the end of 1963, the Beach Boys had recorded three full LPs, hit the Top Ten as many times, and toured incessantly. Also, Brian began to grow as a producer, best documented on the third Beach Boys LP, Surfer Girl. Though surf songs still dominated the album, \"Catch a Wave,\" the title track, and especially \"In My Room\" presented a giant leap in songwriting, production, and group harmony -- especially astonishing considering the band had been recording for barely two years. Brian's intense scrutiny of Phil Spector's famous Wall of Sound productions was paying quick dividends and revealed his intuitive, unerring depths of musical knowledge.\nThe following year, \"I Get Around\" became the first number one hit for the Beach Boys. Riding a crest of popularity, the late-1964 LP Beach Boys Concert spent four weeks at the top of the album charts, just one of five Beach Boys LPs simultaneously on the charts. The group also undertook promotional tours of Europe, but the pressures and time constraints proved too much for Brian. At the end of the year, he decided to quit the touring band and concentrate on studio productions. (Glen Campbell toured with the group briefly, then friend and colleague Bruce Johnston became Brian's permanent replacement.)\nWith the Beach Boys as his musical messengers to the world, Brian began working full-time in the studio, writing songs and enlisting the cream of Los Angeles session players to record instrumental backing tracks before Carl, Dennis, Mike, and Al returned to add vocals. The single \"Help Me, Rhonda\" became the Beach Boys' second chart-topper in early 1965. On the group's seventh studio LP, The Beach Boys Today!, Brian's production skills hit another level entirely. In the rock era's first flirtation with an extended album-length statement, side two of the record presented a series of downtempo ballads, arranged into a suite that stretched the group's lyrical concerns beyond youthful infatuation and into more adult notions of love.\nTwo more LPs followed in 1965, Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) and Beach Boys' Party. The first featured \"California Girls,\" one of the best fusions of Brian's production mastery, infectious melodies, and gorgeous close harmonies (it's still his personal favorite song). However, dragging down those few moments of brilliance were novelty tracks like \"Amusement Parks USA,\" \"Salt Lake City,\" and \"I'm Bugged at My Old Man\" that appeared to be a step back from Today. When Capitol asked for a Beach Boys record to sell at Christmas, the live-in-the-studio vocal jam session Beach Boys' Party resulted, and sold incredibly well after the single \"Barbara Ann\" became a surprise hit. In a larger sense though, both of these LPs were stopgaps as Brian prepared for production on what he hoped would be the Beach Boys' most effective musical statement yet.\nIn late 1965, the Beatles released Rubber Soul. Amazed at the high song quality and overall cohesiveness of the album, Brian began writing songs -- with help from lyricist Tony Asher -- and producing sessions for a song suite charting a young man's growth to emotional maturity. Though Capitol was resistant to an album with few obvious hits, the group spent more time working on the vocals and harmonies than any other previous project. The result, released in May 1966 as Pet Sounds, more than justified the effort. It's still one of the best-produced and most influential rock LPs ever released, the culmination of years of Brian's perfectionist productions and songwriting. Critics praised Pet Sounds, but the new direction failed to impress American audiences. Though it reached the Top Ten, Pet Sounds missed a gold certificate (the first to do so since the group's debut LP). Conversely, worldwide reaction was not just positive but jubilant. In England, the album hit number two and earned the Beach Boys honors for best group in year-end polls by NME -- above even the Beatles, hardly slouches themselves with the releases of \"Paperback Writer\"/\"Rain\" and Revolver.\nThe Beach Boys' next single, \"Good Vibrations,\" had originally been written for the Pet Sounds sessions, though Brian removed it from the song list to give himself more time for production. He resumed working on it after the completion of Pet Sounds, eventually devoting up to six months (and three different studios) to the single. Released in October 1966, \"Good Vibrations\" capped off the year as the group's third number one single and still stands as one of the best singles of all time. Throughout late 1966 and early 1967, Brian worked feverishly on the next Beach Boys LP -- a project named Dumb Angel, but later titled SMiLE, that promised to be as great an artistic leap beyond Pet Sounds as that album had been from Today. He drafted Van Dyke Parks, an eccentric lyricist and session man, as his songwriting partner, and recorded reams of tape containing increasingly fragmented tracks that grew ever more speculative as the months wore on. Already wary of Brian's increasingly artistic leanings and drug experimentation, the other Beach Boys grew hostile when called in to the studio to add vocals for Parks lyrics like, \"A blind class aristocracy/Back through the opera glass you see/The pit and the pendulum drawn/Columnaded ruins domino/Canvas the town and brush the backdrop\" (from \"Surf's Up\"). A rift soon formed between the band and Brian; they felt his intake of marijuana and LSD had clouded his judgment, while he felt they were holding him back from the coming psychedelic era.\nAs recording for SMiLE dragged on into spring 1967, Brian began working fewer hours. For the first time in the Beach Boys' career, he appeared unsure of his direction. If SMiLE ever appeared salvageable, those hopes were dashed in May, when Brian officially canceled the project -- just a few weeks before the release of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. In August, the group finally released a new single, \"Heroes and Villains.\" Very similar to the fragmentary style of \"Good Vibrations,\" though a distinctly inferior follow-up, it missed the Top Ten. That fall, the group convened at Brian's Bel Air mansion-turned-studio and recorded new versions of several SMiLE songs plus a few new recordings and re-emerged with Smiley Smile. Carl summed up the LP as \"a bunt instead of a grand slam,\" and its near-complete lack of cohesiveness all but destroyed the group's reputation for forward-thinking pop.\nAs the Beatles were ushering in the psychedelic age, the Beach Boys stalled with the all-important teen crowd, who quickly began to see the group as conservative, establishment throwbacks. The perfect chance to stem the tide, a headlining spot at the pioneering Monterey Pop Festival in summer 1967, was squandered. Though the Beach Boys regrouped quickly -- the back-to-basics Wild Honey LP appeared before the end of 1967 -- their hopes of becoming the world's preeminent pop group with both hippies and critics had fizzled in a matter of months.\nAll this incredible promise wasted made fans, critics, and radio programmers undeniably bitter toward future product. Predictably, both Wild Honey and 1968's Friends suffered with all three audiences. They survive as interesting records nevertheless; deliberately under-produced, with song fragments and recording-session detritus often left in the mix; the skeletal blue-eyed soul of Wild Honey and the laid-back orchestral pop of Friends made them favorites only after fans realized the Beach Boys were a radically different group in 1968 than in 1966. Sparked by the Top 20 hit \"Do It Again\" -- a song that saw the first shades of the group as an oldies act -- 1969's 20/20 did marginally better. Still, Capitol dropped the band soon after. One year later, the Beach Boys signed to Reprise.\nThe first LP for Brother/Reprise was 1970's Sunflower, a surprisingly strong album featuring a return to the gorgeous harmonies of the mid-'60s and many songs written by different members of the band. Surf's Up, titled after a reworked song originally intended for SMiLE, followed in 1971. Though frequently lovable, the wide range of material on Surf's Up displayed not a band but a conglomeration of individual interests. During sessions for the album, Dennis put his hand through a plate glass window and was unable to play drums. Early in 1972, the band hired drummer Ricky Fataar and guitarist Blondie Chaplin, two members of a South African rock band named the Flame (Carl had produced their self-titled debut for Brother Records the previous year).\nCarl and the Passions: So Tough, the first album released with Fataar and Chaplin in the band, descended into lame early-'70s AOR. For the first time, a Beach Boys album retained nothing of their classic sound. Brian's mental stability wavered from year to year, and he spent much time in his mansion with no wish to even contact the outside world. He occasionally contributed to the songwriting and session load, but was by no means a member of the band anymore (he rarely even appeared on album covers or promotional shots). Though it's unclear why Reprise felt ready to take such a big risk, the label authorized a large recording budget for the next Beach Boys album. After shipping most of the group's family and entourage (plus an entire studio) over to Amsterdam, the Beach Boys re-emerged in 1973 with Holland. The LP scraped the bottom rungs of the Top 40, and the single \"Sail on, Sailor\" (with vocals by Chaplin) did receive some FM radio airplay. Still, Holland's muddy sound did nothing for the aging band, and it earned scathing reviews.\nPerhaps a bit gun-shy, the Beach Boys essentially retired from recording during the mid-'70s. Instead, the band concentrated on grooming their live act, which quickly grew to become an incredible experience. It was a good move, considering the Beach Boys could lay claim to more hits than any other '60s rock act on the road. The Beach Boys in Concert, their third live album in total, appeared in 1973.\nThen, in mid-1974, Capitol Records went to the vaults and issued a repackaged hits collection, Endless Summer. Both band and label watched, dumbfounded, as the double LP hit number one, spent almost three years on the charts, and went gold. Endless Summer capitalized on a growing fascination with oldies rock that had made Sha Na Na, American Graffiti, and Happy Days big hits. Rolling Stone, never the most friendly magazine to the group, named the Beach Boys its Band of the Year at the end of the year. Another collection, Spirit of America, hit the Top Ten in 1974, and the Beach Boys were hustled into the studio to begin new recordings.\nTrumpeted by the barely true marketing campaign \"Brian's Back!,\" 1976's 15 Big Ones balanced a couple of '50s oldies with some justifiably exciting Brian Wilson oddities like \"Had to Phone Ya.\" It also hit the Top Ten and went gold, despite many critical misgivings. Brian took a much more involved position for the following year's The Beach Boys Love You (it was almost titled Brian Loves You and released as a solo album). In marked contrast to the fatalistic early-'70s pop of \"Til I Die\" and others, Brian sounded positively jubilant on gruff proto-synth pop numbers like \"Let Us Go on This Way\" and \"Mona.\" However idiosyncratic compared to what oldies fans expected of the Beach Boys, Love You was the group's best album in years. (A suite of beautiful, tender ballads on side two was quite reminiscent of 1965's Today.)\nAfter 1979's M.I.U. Album, the group signed a large contract with CBS that stipulated Brian's involvement on each album. However, his brief return to the spotlight ended with two dismal efforts, L.A. (Light Album) and Keepin' the Summer Alive. The Beach Boys began splintering by the end of the decade, with financial mismanagement by Mike Love's brothers Stan and Steve fostering tension between him and the Wilsons. By 1980, both Dennis and Carl had left the Beach Boys for solo careers. (Dennis had already released his first album, Pacific Ocean Blue, in 1977, and Carl released his eponymous debut in 1981.) Brian was removed from the group in 1982 after his weight ballooned to over 300 pounds, though the tragic drowning death of Dennis in 1983 helped bring the group back together. In 1985, the Beach Boys released a self-titled album that returned them to the Top 40 with \"Getcha Back.\" It would be the last proper Beach Boys album of the '80s, however.\nBrian had been steadily improving in both mind and body during the mid-'80s, though the rest of the group grew suspicious of his mentor, Dr. Eugene Landy. Landy was a dodgy psychiatrist who reportedly worked wonders with the easily impressionable Brian but also practically took over his life. He collaborated with Brian on the autobiography Wouldn't It Be Nice and wrote lyrics for Brian's first solo album, 1988's Brian Wilson. Critics and fans enjoyed Wilson's return to the studio, but the charts were unforgiving, especially with attention focused on the Beach Boys once more. The single \"Kokomo,\" from the soundtrack to Cocktail, hit number one in the U.S. late that year, prompting a haphazard collection named Still Cruisin'. The group also sued Brian, more to force Landy out of the picture than anything, and Mike Love later sued Brian for songwriting royalties (Brian had frequently admitted Love's involvement on most of them).\nDespite the many quarrels, the Beach Boys kept touring during the early '90s, and Mike and Brian actually began writing songs together in 1995. Instead of a new album, though, the Beach Boys returned with Stars and Stripes, Vol. 1, a collection of remade hits with country stars singing lead and the group adding backing vocals. Also, a Brian Wilson documentary titled I Just Wasn't Made for These Times aired on the Disney Channel, with an accompanying soundtrack featuring spare renditions of Beach Boys classics by Brian himself. Just as the band appeared to be pulling together for a proper studio album, though, Carl died of cancer in 1998.\nTen years after his first solo album, Brian became aware of his immense influence on the alternative rock community; he worked with biggest fans Sean O'Hagan (of the High Llamas) and Andy Paley on a series of recordings. Again, good intentions failed to carry through as the recordings were ditched in favor of another overly produced, mainstream-slanted work, Imagination. By early 1999, no less than three Beach Boys-connected units were touring the country -- a Brian Wilson solo tour, the \"official\" Beach Boys led by Mike Love, and the \"Beach Boys Family\" led by Al Jardine.\nIn 2000, Capitol instituted a long-promised reissue campaign, focusing on the group's long out of print '70s LPs, and updated remastering of the '60s LPs followed soon after. Brian Wilson continued his solo career into the 2000s with a string of popular albums, including a live run-though of Pet Sounds (Pet Sounds Live) and, in 2004, a concert tour as well as a re-recording around SMiLE. The surviving members next united in 2006 to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Pet Sounds. Two years later, however, Jardine was forced to settle a lawsuit brought by Love and Carl Wilson's estate over the use of the Beach Boys' name in his touring band (which was renamed the Endless Summer Band).\nRegardless of legal actions and strained relations, all of the band's surviving members were on hand in June 2011 for a special announcement: forthcoming were new live dates, reissues (including the first-ever release of The Smile Sessions; it appeared at the end of 2011), new recordings, and a spate of planned releases for 2012 that would feature all of the surviving members of the band who contributed the most to their '60s prime: Brian Wilson, Mike Love, Al Jardine, Bruce Johnston, and even David Marks. The new recordings included a version of their 1968 hit \"Do It Again\" and, by June 2012, a full album, including 12 original songs produced by Wilson and given the title of its first single, That's Why God Made the Radio; the album generated generally positive reviews and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200. Just before their 50th anniversary tour ended, in late September, Love announced that additional tour dates for the rest of 2012 would not include Brian Wilson, Jardine, or Marks. The brief reunion was commemorated on the May 2013 live album The Beach Boys Live: The 50th Anniversary Tour. Three years later a couple of archival releases appeared: a 50th anniversary reissue of Pet Sounds and a compilation of their earliest recordings called Becoming the Beach Boys: The Complete Hite & Dorinda Morgan Sessions. ~ John Bush, Rovi",
"Beach Boys | Download Music, Tour Dates & Video | eMusic\nGroup Members: Brian Wilson , Brian Wilson And Van Dyke Parks , Blondie Chaplin , Dennis Wilson , Bruce Johnston , The Surf Stompers [Bruce Johnston] , Mike Love of Beach Boys , Bruce Johnston Surfing Band\nAll Music Guide:\nBeginning their career as the most popular surf band in the nation, the Beach Boys finally emerged by 1966 as America's preeminent pop group, the only act able to challenge (for a brief time) the overarching success of the Beatles with both mainstream listeners and the critical community. From their 1961 debut with the regional hit \"Surfin,\" the three Wilson brothers -- Brian, Dennis, and Carl -- plus cousin Mike Love and friend Al Jardine constructed the most intricate, gorgeous harmonies ever heard from a pop band. With Brian's studio proficiency growing by leaps and bounds during the mid-'60s, the Beach Boys also proved one of the best-produced groups of the '60s, exemplified by their 1966 peak with the Pet Sounds LP and the number one single \"Good Vibrations.\" Though Brian's escalating drug use and obsessive desire to trump the Beatles (by recording the perfect LP statement) eventually led to a nervous breakdown after he heard Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, the group soldiered on long into the '70s and '80s, with Brian only an inconsistent participant. The band's post-1966 material is often maligned (if it's recognized at all), but the truth is the Beach Boys continued to make great music well into the '70s. Displayed best on 1970's Sunflower, each member revealed individual talents never fully developed during the mid-'60s -- Carl became a solid, distinctive producer and Brian's replacement as nominal bandleader, Mike continued to provide a visual focus as the frontman for live shows, and Dennis developed his own notable songwriting talents. Though legal wranglings and marginal oldies tours during the '90s often obscured what made the Beach Boys great, the band's unerring ability to surf the waves of commercial success and artistic development during the '60s made them America's first, best rock band.\nThe origins of the group lie in Hawthorne, California, a southern suburb of Los Angeles situated close to the Pacific coast. The three sons of a part-time song plugger and occasionally abusive father, Brian, Dennis, and Carl grew up a just few miles from the ocean -- though only Dennis had any interest in surfing itself. The three often harmonized together as youths, spurred on by Brian's fascination with '50s vocal acts like the Four Freshmen and the Hi-Lo's. Their cousin Mike Love often joined in on the impromptu sessions, and the group gained a fifth with the addition of Brian's high school football teammate, Al Jardine. His parents helped rent instruments (with Brian on bass, Carl on guitar, and Dennis on drums) and studio time to record \"Surfin',\" a novelty number written by Brian and Mike. The single, initially released in 1961 on Candix and billed to \"the Pendletones\" (a musical paraphrase of the popular Pendleton shirt), prompted a little national chart action and gained the renamed Beach Boys a contract with Capitol. The group's negotiator with the label, the Wilsons' father, Murray, also took over as manager for the band. Before the release of any material for Capitol, however, Jardine left the band to attend college in the Midwest. A friend of the Wilsons', David Marks, replaced him.\nFinally, in mid-1962 the Beach Boys released their major-label debut, Surfin' Safari. The title track, a more accomplished novelty single than its predecessor, hit the Top 20 and helped launch the surf rock craze just beginning to blossom around Southern California (thanks to artists like Dick Dale, Jan & Dean, the Chantays, and dozens more). A similarly themed follow-up, Surfin' U.S.A., hit the Top Ten in early 1963 before Jardine returned from school and resumed his place in the group. By that time, the Beach Boys had recorded their first two albums, a pair of 12-track collections that added a few novelty songs to the hits they were packaged around. Though Capitol policy required the group to work with a studio producer, Brian quickly took over the sessions and began expanding the group's range beyond simple surf rock.\nBy the end of 1963, the Beach Boys had recorded three full LPs, hit the Top Ten as many times, and toured incessantly. Also, Brian began to grow as a producer, best documented on the third Beach Boys LP, Surfer Girl. Though surf songs still dominated the album, \"Catch a Wave,\" the title track, and especially \"In My Room\" presented a giant leap in songwriting, production, and group harmony -- especially astonishing considering the band had been recording for barely two years. Brian's intense scrutiny of Phil Spector's famous Wall of Sound productions was paying quick dividends and revealed his intuitive, unerring depths of musical knowledge.\nThe following year, \"I Get Around\" became the first number one hit for the Beach Boys. Riding a crest of popularity, the late 1964 LP Beach Boys Concert spent four weeks at the top of the album charts, just one of five Beach Boys LPs simultaneously on the charts. The group also undertook promotional tours of Europe, but the pressures and time constraints proved too much for Brian. At the end of the year, he decided to quit the touring band and concentrate on studio productions. (Glen Campbell toured with the group briefly, then friend and colleague Bruce Johnston became Brian's permanent replacement.)\nWith the Beach Boys as his musical messengers to the world, Brian began working full-time in the studio, writing songs and enlisting the cream of Los Angeles session players to record instrumental backing tracks before Carl, Dennis, Mike, and Al returned to add vocals. The single \"Help Me, Rhonda\" became the Beach Boys' second chart-topper in early 1965. On the group's seventh studio LP, The Beach Boys Today!, Brian's production skills hit another level entirely. In the rock era's first flirtation with an extended album-length statement, side two of the record presented a series of downtempo ballads, arranged into a suite that stretched the group's lyrical concerns beyond youthful infatuation and into more adult notions of love.\nTwo more LPs followed in 1965, Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) and Beach Boys' Party. The first featured \"California Girls,\" one of the best fusions of Brian's production mastery, infectious melodies, and gorgeous close harmonies (it's still his personal favorite song). However, dragging down those few moments of brilliance were novelty tracks like \"Amusement Parks USA,\" \"Salt Lake City,\" and \"I'm Bugged at My Old Man\" that appeared to be a step back from Today. When Capitol asked for a Beach Boys record to sell at Christmas, the live-in-the-studio vocal jam session Beach Boys' Party resulted, and sold incredibly well after the single \"Barbara Ann\" became a surprise hit. In a larger sense though, both of these LPs were stopgaps as Brian prepared for production on what he hoped would be the Beach Boys' most effective musical statement yet.\nIn late 1965, the Beatles released Rubber Soul. Amazed at the high song quality and overall cohesiveness of the album, Brian began writing songs -- with help from lyricist Tony Asher -- and producing sessions for a song suite charting a young man's growth to emotional maturity. Though Capitol was resistant to an album with few obvious hits, the group spent more time working on the vocals and harmonies than any other previous project. The result, released in May 1966 as Pet Sounds, more than justified the effort. It's still one of the best-produced and most influential rock LPs ever released, the culmination of years of Brian's perfectionist productions and songwriting. Critics praised Pet Sounds, but the new direction failed to impress American audiences. Though it reached the Top Ten, Pet Sounds missed a gold certificate (the first to do so since the group's debut LP). Conversely, world-wide reaction was not just positive but jubilant. In England, the album hit number two and earned the Beach Boys honors for best group in year-end polls by NME -- above even the Beatles, hardly slouches themselves with the releases of \"Paperback Writer\"/\"Rain\" and Revolver.\nThe Beach Boys' next single, \"Good Vibrations,\" had originally been written for the Pet Sounds sessions, though Brian removed it from the song list to give himself more time for production. He resumed working on it after the completion of Pet Sounds, eventually devoting up to six months (and three different studios) to the single. Released in October 1966, \"Good Vibrations\" capped off the year as the group's third number one single and still stands as one of the best singles of all time. Throughout late 1966 and early 1967, Brian worked feverishly on the next Beach Boys LP -- a project named Dumb Angel, but later titled SMiLE, that promised to be as great an artistic leap beyond Pet Sounds as that album had been from Today. He drafted Van Dyke Parks, an eccentric lyricist and sessionman, as his songwriting partner, and recorded reams of tape containing increasingly fragmented tracks that grew ever more speculative as the months wore on. Already wary of Brian's increasingly artistic leanings and drug experimentation, the other Beach Boys grew hostile when called in to the studio to add vocals for Parks lyrics like, \"A blind class aristocracy/Back through the opera glass you see/The pit and the pendulum drawn/Columnaded ruins domino/Canvas the town and brush the backdrop\" (from \"Surf's Up\"). A rift soon formed between the band and Brian; they felt his intake of marijuana and LSD had clouded his judgment, while he felt they were holding him back from the coming psychedelic era.\nAs recording for SMiLE dragged on into spring 1967, Brian began working fewer hours. For the first time in the Beach Boys' career, he appeared unsure of his direction. If SMiLE ever appeared salvageable, those hopes were dashed in May, when Brian officially canceled the project -- just a few weeks before the release of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. In August, the group finally released a new single, \"Heroes and Villains.\" Very similar to the fragmentary style of \"Good Vibrations,\" though a distinctly inferior follow-up, it missed the Top Ten. That fall, the group convened at Brian's Bel Air mansion-turned-studio and recorded new versions of several SMiLE songs plus a few new recordings and re-emerged with Smiley Smile. Carl summed up the LP as \"a bunt instead of a grand slam,\" and its near-complete lack of cohesiveness all but destroyed the group's reputation for forward-thinking pop.\nAs the Beatles were ushering in the psychedelic age, the Beach Boys stalled with the all-important teen crowd, who quickly began to see the group as conservative, establishment throwbacks. The perfect chance to stem the tide, a headlining spot at the pioneering Monterey Pop Festival in summer 1967, was squandered. Though the Beach Boys regrouped quickly -- the back-to-basics Wild Honey LP appeared before the end of 1967 -- their hopes of becoming the world's pre-eminent pop group with both hippies and critics had fizzled in a matter of months.\nAll this incredible promise wasted made fans, critics, and radio programmers undeniably bitter toward future product. Predictably, both Wild Honey and 1968's Friends suffered with all three audiences. They survive as interesting records nevertheless; deliberately under-produced, with song fragments and recording-session detritus often left in the mix; the skeletal blue-eyed soul of Wild Honey and the laid-back orchestral pop of Friends made them favorites only after fans realized the Beach Boys were a radically different group in 1968 than in 1966. Sparked by the Top 20 hit \"Do It Again\" -- a song that saw the first shades of the group as an oldies act -- 1969's 20/20 did marginally better. Still, Capitol dropped the band soon after. One year later, the Beach Boys signed to Reprise.\nThe first LP for Brother/Reprise was 1970's Sunflower, a surprisingly strong album featuring a return to the gorgeous harmonies of the mid-'60s and many songs written by different members of the band. Surf's Up, titled after a reworked song originally intended for SMiLE, followed in 1971. Though frequently lovable, the wide range of material on Surf's Up displayed not a band but a conglomeration of individual interests. During sessions for the album, Dennis put his hand through a plate glass window and was unable to play drums. Early in 1972, the band hired drummer Ricky Fataar and guitarist Blondie Chaplin, two members of a South African rock band named the Flame (Carl had produced their self-titled debut for Brother Records the previous year).\nCarl and the Passions: So Tough, the first album released with Fataar and Chaplin in the band, descended into lame early-'70s AOR. For the first time, a Beach Boys album retained nothing of their classic sound. Brian's mental stability wavered from year to year, and he spent much time in his mansion with no wish to even contact the outside world. He occasionally contributed to the songwriting and session load, but was by no means a member of the band anymore (he rarely even appeared on album covers or promotional shots). Though it's unclear why Reprise felt ready to take such a big risk, the label authorized a large recording budget for the next Beach Boys album. After shipping most of the group's family and entourage (plus an entire studio) over to Amsterdam, the Beach Boys re-emerged in 1973 with Holland. The LP scraped the bottom rungs of the Top 40, and the single \"Sail On, Sailor\" (with vocals by Chaplin) did receive some FM radio airplay. Still, Holland's muddy sound did nothing for the aging band, and it earned scathing reviews.\nPerhaps a bit gun-shy, the Beach Boys essentially retired from recording during the mid-'70s. Instead, the band concentrated on grooming their live act, which quickly grew to become an incredible experience. It was a good move, considering the Beach Boys could lay claim to more hits than any other '60s rock act on the road. The Beach Boys in Concert, their third live album in total, appeared in 1973.\nThen, in mid-1974, Capitol Records went to the vaults and issued a repackaged hits collection, Endless Summer. Both band and label watched, dumbfounded, as the double LP hit number one, spent almost three years on the charts, and went gold. Endless Summer capitalized on a growing fascination with oldies rock that had made Sha Na Na, American Graffiti, and Happy Days big hits. Rolling Stone, never the most friendly magazine to the group, named the Beach Boys its Band of the Year at the end of the year. Another collection, Spirit of America, hit the Top Ten in 1974, and the Beach Boys were hustled into the studio to begin new recordings.\nTrumpeted by the barely true marketing campaign \"Brian's Back!,\" 1976's 15 Big Ones balanced a couple of '50s oldies with some justifiably exciting Brian Wilson oddities like \"Had to Phone Ya.\" It also hit the Top Ten and went gold, despite many critical misgivings. Brian took a much more involved position for the following year's The Beach Boys Love You (it was almost titled Brian Loves You and released as a solo album). In marked contrast to the fatalistic early-'70s pop of \"Til I Die\" and others, Brian sounded positively jubilant on gruff proto-synth pop numbers like \"Let Us Go on This Way\" and \"Mona.\" However idiosyncratic compared to what oldies fans expected of the Beach Boys, Love You was the group's best album in years. (A suite of beautiful, tender ballads on side two was quite reminiscent of 1965's Today.)\nAfter 1979's M.I.U. Album, the group signed a large contract with CBS that stipulated Brian's involvement on each album. However, his brief return to the spotlight ended with two dismal efforts, L.A. (Light Album) and Keepin' the Summer Alive. The Beach Boys began splintering by the end of the decade, with financial mismanagement by Mike Love's brothers Stan and Steve fostering tension between him and the Wilsons. By 1980, both Dennis and Carl had left the Beach Boys for solo careers. (Dennis had already released his first album, Pacific Ocean Blue, in 1977, and Carl released his eponymous debut in 1981.) Brian was removed from the group in 1982 after his weight ballooned to over 300 pounds, though the tragic drowning death of Dennis in 1983 helped bring the group back together. In 1985, the Beach Boys released a self-titled album which returned them to the Top 40 with \"Getcha Back.\" It would be the last proper Beach Boys album of the '80s, however.\nBrian had been steadily improving in both mind and body during the mid-'80s, though the rest of the group grew suspicious of his mentor, Dr. Eugene Landy. Landy was a dodgy psychiatrist who reportedly worked wonders with the easily impressionable Brian but also practically took over his life. He collaborated with Brian on the autobiography Wouldn't It Be Nice and wrote lyrics for Brian's first solo album, 1988's Brian Wilson. Critics and fans enjoyed Wilson's return to the studio, but the charts were unforgiving, especially with attention focused on the Beach Boys once more. The single \"Kokomo,\" from the soundtrack to Cocktail, hit number one in the U.S. late that year, prompting a haphazard collection named Still Cruisin'. The group also sued Brian, more to force Landy out of the picture than anything, and Mike Love later sued Brian for songwriting royalties (Brian had frequently admitted Love's involvement on most of them).\nDespite the many quarrels, the Beach Boys kept touring during the early '90s, and Mike and Brian actually began writing songs together in 1995. Instead of a new album though, the Beach Boys returned with Stars and Stripes, Vol. 1, a collection of remade hits with country stars singing lead and the group adding backing vocals. Also, a Brian Wilson documentary titled I Just Wasn't Made for These Times aired on the Disney Channel, with an accompanying soundtrack featuring spare renditions of Beach Boys classics by Brian himself. Just as the band appeared to be pulling together for a proper studio album, though, Carl died of cancer in 1998.\nTen years after his first solo album, Brian became aware of his immense influence on the alternative rock community; he worked with biggest fans Sean O'Hagan (of the High Llamas) and Andy Paley on a series of recordings. Again, good intentions failed to carry through as the recordings were ditched in favor of another overly produced, mainstream-slanted work, Imagination. By early 1999, no less than three Beach Boys-connected units were touring the country -- a Brian Wilson solo tour, the \"official\" Beach Boys led by Mike Love, and the \"Beach Boys Family\" led by Al Jardine.\nIn 2000, Capitol instituted a long-promised reissue campaign, focusing on the group's long out of print '70s LPs, and updated remastering of the '60s LPs followed soon after. Brian Wilson continued his solo career into the 2000s with a string of popular albums, including a live run-though of Pet Sounds (Pet Sounds Live) and, in 2004, a concert tour as well as a re-recording around SMiLE. The surviving members next united in 2006 to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Pet Sounds. Two years later, however, Jardine was forced to settle a lawsuit brought by Love and Carl Wilson's estate over the use of the Beach Boys' name in his touring band (which was renamed the Endless Summer Band).\nRegardless of legal actions and strained relations, all of the band's surviving members were on hand in June 2011 for a special announcement: forthcoming were new live dates, reissues (including the first-ever release of The Smile Sessions; it appeared at the end of 2011), new recordings, and a spate of planned releases for 2012 that would feature all of the surviving members of the band who contributed the most to their '60s prime: Brian Wilson, Mike Love, Al Jardine, Bruce Johnston, and even David Marks. The new recordings included a version of their 1968 hit \"Do It Again,\" and by June 2012, a full album, including 12 original songs produced by Wilson and given the title of its first single, That's Why God Made the Radio; the album generated generally positive reviews and debuted at number 3 on the Billboard 200. Just before their 50th anniversary tour ended, in late September, Love announced that additional tour dates for the rest of 2012 would not include Brian Wilson, Jardine, or Marks. The brief reunion was commemorated on the May 2013 live album The Beach Boys Live: The 50th Anniversary Tour.",
"The Beach Boys | New Music And Songs |\nThe Beach Boys\nAbout The Beach Boys\nBeginning their career as the most popular surf band in the nation, the Beach Boys finally emerged by 1966 as America's preeminent pop group, the only act able to challenge (for a brief time) the overarching success of the Beatles with both mainstream listeners and the critical community. From their 1961 debut with the regional hit \"Surfin',\" the three Wilson brothers -- Brian, Dennis, and Carl -- plus cousin Mike Love and friend Al Jardine constructed the most intricate, gorgeous harmonies ever heard from a pop band. With Brian's studio proficiency growing by leaps and bounds during the mid-'60s, the Beach Boys also proved one of the best-produced groups of the '60s, exemplified by their 1966 peak with the Pet Sounds LP and the number one single \"Good Vibrations.\" Though Brian's escalating drug use and obsessive desire to trump the Beatles (by recording the perfect LP statement) eventually led to a nervous breakdown after he heard Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, the group soldiered on long into the '70s and '80s, with Brian only an inconsistent participant. The band's post-1966 material is often maligned (if it's recognized at all), but the truth is the Beach Boys continued to make great music well into the '70s. Displayed best on 1970's Sunflower, each member revealed individual talents never fully developed during the mid-'60s -- Carl became a solid, distinctive producer and Brian's replacement as nominal bandleader, Mike continued to provide a visual focus as the frontman for live shows, and Dennis developed his own notable songwriting talents. Though legal wranglings and marginal oldies tours during the '90s often obscured what made the Beach Boys great, the band's unerring ability to surf the waves of commercial success and artistic development during the '60s made them America's first, best rock band.\nThe origins of the group lie in Hawthorne, California, a southern suburb of Los Angeles situated close to the Pacific coast. The three sons of a part-time song plugger and occasionally abusive father, Brian, Dennis, and Carl grew up a just few miles from the ocean -- though only Dennis had any interest in surfing itself. The three often harmonized together as youths, spurred on by Brian's fascination with '50s vocal acts like the Four Freshmen and the Hi-Lo's. Their cousin Mike Love often joined in on the impromptu sessions, and the group gained a fifth with the addition of Brian's high-school football teammate Al Jardine. His parents helped rent instruments (with Brian on bass, Carl on guitar, and Dennis on drums) and studio time to record \"Surfin',\" a novelty number written by Brian and Mike. The single, initially released in 1961 on Candix and billed to \"the Pendletones\" (a musical paraphrase of the popular Pendleton shirt), prompted a little national chart action and gained the renamed Beach Boys a contract with Capitol. The group's negotiator with the label, the Wilsons' father, Murray, also took over as manager for the band. Before the release of any material for Capitol, however, Jardine left the band to attend college in the Midwest. A friend of the Wilsons, David Marks, replaced him.\nFinally, in mid-1962 the Beach Boys released their major-label debut, Surfin' Safari. The title track, a more accomplished novelty single than its predecessor, hit the Top 20 and helped launch the surf rock craze just beginning to blossom around Southern California (thanks to artists like Dick Dale, Jan & Dean, the Chantays, and dozens more). A similarly themed follow-up, Surfin' U.S.A., hit the Top Ten in early 1963 before Jardine returned from school and resumed his place in the group. By that time, the Beach Boys had recorded their first two albums, a pair of 12-track collections that added a few novelty songs to the hits they were packaged around. Though Capitol policy required the group to work with a studio producer, Brian quickly took over the sessions and began expanding the group's range beyond simple surf rock.\nBy the end of 1963, the Beach Boys had recorded three full LPs, hit the Top Ten as many times, and toured incessantly. Also, Brian began to grow as a producer, best documented on the third Beach Boys LP, Surfer Girl. Though surf songs still dominated the album, \"Catch a Wave,\" the title track, and especially \"In My Room\" presented a giant leap in songwriting, production, and group harmony -- especially astonishing considering the band had been recording for barely two years. Brian's intense scrutiny of Phil Spector's famous Wall of Sound productions was paying quick dividends and revealed his intuitive, unerring depths of musical knowledge.\nThe following year, \"I Get Around\" became the first number one hit for the Beach Boys. Riding a crest of popularity, the late-1964 LP Beach Boys Concert spent four weeks at the top of the album charts, just one of five Beach Boys LPs simultaneously on the charts. The group also undertook promotional tours of Europe, but the pressures and time constraints proved too much for Brian. At the end of the year, he decided to quit the touring band and concentrate on studio productions. (Glen Campbell toured with the group briefly, then friend and colleague Bruce Johnston became Brian's permanent replacement.)\nWith the Beach Boys as his musical messengers to the world, Brian began working full-time in the studio, writing songs and enlisting the cream of Los Angeles session players to record instrumental backing tracks before Carl, Dennis, Mike, and Al returned to add vocals. The single \"Help Me, Rhonda\" became the Beach Boys' second chart-topper in early 1965. On the group's seventh studio LP, The Beach Boys Today!, Brian's production skills hit another level entirely. In the rock era's first flirtation with an extended album-length statement, side two of the record presented a series of downtempo ballads, arranged into a suite that stretched the group's lyrical concerns beyond youthful infatuation and into more adult notions of love.\nTwo more LPs followed in 1965, Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) and Beach Boys' Party. The first featured \"California Girls,\" one of the best fusions of Brian's production mastery, infectious melodies, and gorgeous close harmonies (it's still his personal favorite song). However, dragging down those few moments of brilliance were novelty tracks like \"Amusement Parks USA,\" \"Salt Lake City,\" and \"I'm Bugged at My Old Man\" that appeared to be a step back from Today. When Capitol asked for a Beach Boys record to sell at Christmas, the live-in-the-studio vocal jam session Beach Boys' Party resulted, and sold incredibly well after the single \"Barbara Ann\" became a surprise hit. In a larger sense though, both of these LPs were stopgaps as Brian prepared for production on what he hoped would be the Beach Boys' most effective musical statement yet.\nIn late 1965, the Beatles released Rubber Soul. Amazed at the high song quality and overall cohesiveness of the album, Brian began writing songs -- with help from lyricist Tony Asher -- and producing sessions for a song suite charting a young man's growth to emotional maturity. Though Capitol was resistant to an album with few obvious hits, the group spent more time working on the vocals and harmonies than any other previous project. The result, released in May 1966 as Pet Sounds, more than justified the effort. It's still one of the best-produced and most influential rock LPs ever released, the culmination of years of Brian's perfectionist productions and songwriting. Critics praised Pet Sounds, but the new direction failed to impress American audiences. Though it reached the Top Ten, Pet Sounds missed a gold certificate (the first to do so since the group's debut LP). Conversely, worldwide reaction was not just positive but jubilant. In England, the album hit number two and earned the Beach Boys honors for best group in year-end polls by NME -- above even the Beatles, hardly slouches themselves with the releases of \"Paperback Writer\"/\"Rain\" and Revolver.\nThe Beach Boys' next single, \"Good Vibrations,\" had originally been written for the Pet Sounds sessions, though Brian removed it from the song list to give himself more time for production. He resumed working on it after the completion of Pet Sounds, eventually devoting up to six months (and three different studios) to the single. Released in October 1966, \"Good Vibrations\" capped off the year as the group's third number one single and still stands as one of the best singles of all time. Throughout late 1966 and early 1967, Brian worked feverishly on the next Beach Boys LP -- a project named Dumb Angel, but later titled SMiLE, that promised to be as great an artistic leap beyond Pet Sounds as that album had been from Today. He drafted Van Dyke Parks, an eccentric lyricist and session man, as his songwriting partner, and recorded reams of tape containing increasingly fragmented tracks that grew ever more speculative as the months wore on. Already wary of Brian's increasingly artistic leanings and drug experimentation, the other Beach Boys grew hostile when called in to the studio to add vocals for Parks lyrics like, \"A blind class aristocracy/Back through the opera glass you see/The pit and the pendulum drawn/Columnaded ruins domino/Canvas the town and brush the backdrop\" (from \"Surf's Up\"). A rift soon formed between the band and Brian; they felt his intake of marijuana and LSD had clouded his judgment, while he felt they were holding him back from the coming psychedelic era.\nAs recording for SMiLE dragged on into spring 1967, Brian began working fewer hours. For the first time in the Beach Boys' career, he appeared unsure of his direction. If SMiLE ever appeared salvageable, those hopes were dashed in May, when Brian officially canceled the project -- just a few weeks before the release of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. In August, the group finally released a new single, \"Heroes and Villains.\" Very similar to the fragmentary style of \"Good Vibrations,\" though a distinctly inferior follow-up, it missed the Top Ten. That fall, the group convened at Brian's Bel Air mansion-turned-studio and recorded new versions of several SMiLE songs plus a few new recordings and re-emerged with Smiley Smile. Carl summed up the LP as \"a bunt instead of a grand slam,\" and its near-complete lack of cohesiveness all but destroyed the group's reputation for forward-thinking pop.\nAs the Beatles were ushering in the psychedelic age, the Beach Boys stalled with the all-important teen crowd, who quickly began to see the group as conservative, establishment throwbacks. The perfect chance to stem the tide, a headlining spot at the pioneering Monterey Pop Festival in summer 1967, was squandered. Though the Beach Boys regrouped quickly -- the back-to-basics Wild Honey LP appeared before the end of 1967 -- their hopes of becoming the world's preeminent pop group with both hippies and critics had fizzled in a matter of months.\nAll this incredible promise wasted made fans, critics, and radio programmers undeniably bitter toward future product. Predictably, both Wild Honey and 1968's Friends suffered with all three audiences. They survive as interesting records nevertheless; deliberately under-produced, with song fragments and recording-session detritus often left in the mix; the skeletal blue-eyed soul of Wild Honey and the laid-back orchestral pop of Friends made them favorites only after fans realized the Beach Boys were a radically different group in 1968 than in 1966. Sparked by the Top 20 hit \"Do It Again\" -- a song that saw the first shades of the group as an oldies act -- 1969's 20/20 did marginally better. Still, Capitol dropped the band soon after. One year later, the Beach Boys signed to Reprise.\nThe first LP for Brother/Reprise was 1970's Sunflower, a surprisingly strong album featuring a return to the gorgeous harmonies of the mid-'60s and many songs written by different members of the band. Surf's Up, titled after a reworked song originally intended for SMiLE, followed in 1971. Though frequently lovable, the wide range of material on Surf's Up displayed not a band but a conglomeration of individual interests. During sessions for the album, Dennis put his hand through a plate glass window and was unable to play drums. Early in 1972, the band hired drummer Ricky Fataar and guitarist Blondie Chaplin, two members of a South African rock band named the Flame (Carl had produced their self-titled debut for Brother Records the previous year).\nCarl and the Passions: So Tough, the first album released with Fataar and Chaplin in the band, descended into lame early-'70s AOR. For the first time, a Beach Boys album retained nothing of their classic sound. Brian's mental stability wavered from year to year, and he spent much time in his mansion with no wish to even contact the outside world. He occasionally contributed to the songwriting and session load, but was by no means a member of the band anymore (he rarely even appeared on album covers or promotional shots). Though it's unclear why Reprise felt ready to take such a big risk, the label authorized a large recording budget for the next Beach Boys album. After shipping most of the group's family and entourage (plus an entire studio) over to Amsterdam, the Beach Boys re-emerged in 1973 with Holland. The LP scraped the bottom rungs of the Top 40, and the single \"Sail on, Sailor\" (with vocals by Chaplin) did receive some FM radio airplay. Still, Holland's muddy sound did nothing for the aging band, and it earned scathing reviews.\nPerhaps a bit gun-shy, the Beach Boys essentially retired from recording during the mid-'70s. Instead, the band concentrated on grooming their live act, which quickly grew to become an incredible experience. It was a good move, considering the Beach Boys could lay claim to more hits than any other '60s rock act on the road. The Beach Boys in Concert, their third live album in total, appeared in 1973.\nThen, in mid-1974, Capitol Records went to the vaults and issued a repackaged hits collection, Endless Summer. Both band and label watched, dumbfounded, as the double LP hit number one, spent almost three years on the charts, and went gold. Endless Summer capitalized on a growing fascination with oldies rock that had made Sha Na Na, American Graffiti, and Happy Days big hits. Rolling Stone, never the most friendly magazine to the group, named the Beach Boys its Band of the Year at the end of the year. Another collection, Spirit of America, hit the Top Ten in 1974, and the Beach Boys were hustled into the studio to begin new recordings.\nTrumpeted by the barely true marketing campaign \"Brian's Back!,\" 1976's 15 Big Ones balanced a couple of '50s oldies with some justifiably exciting Brian Wilson oddities like \"Had to Phone Ya.\" It also hit the Top Ten and went gold, despite many critical misgivings. Brian took a much more involved position for the following year's The Beach Boys Love You (it was almost titled Brian Loves You and released as a solo album). In marked contrast to the fatalistic early-'70s pop of \"Til I Die\" and others, Brian sounded positively jubilant on gruff proto-synth pop numbers like \"Let Us Go on This Way\" and \"Mona.\" However idiosyncratic compared to what oldies fans expected of the Beach Boys, Love You was the group's best album in years. (A suite of beautiful, tender ballads on side two was quite reminiscent of 1965's Today.)\nAfter 1979's M.I.U. Album, the group signed a large contract with CBS that stipulated Brian's involvement on each album. However, his brief return to the spotlight ended with two dismal efforts, L.A. (Light Album) and Keepin' the Summer Alive. The Beach Boys began splintering by the end of the decade, with financial mismanagement by Mike Love's brothers Stan and Steve fostering tension between him and the Wilsons. By 1980, both Dennis and Carl had left the Beach Boys for solo careers. (Dennis had already released his first album, Pacific Ocean Blue, in 1977, and Carl released his eponymous debut in 1981.) Brian was removed from the group in 1982 after his weight ballooned to over 300 pounds, though the tragic drowning death of Dennis in 1983 helped bring the group back together. In 1985, the Beach Boys released a self-titled album that returned them to the Top 40 with \"Getcha Back.\" It would be the last proper Beach Boys album of the '80s, however.\nBrian had been steadily improving in both mind and body during the mid-'80s, though the rest of the group grew suspicious of his mentor, Dr. Eugene Landy. Landy was a dodgy psychiatrist who reportedly worked wonders with the easily impressionable Brian but also practically took over his life. He collaborated with Brian on the autobiography Wouldn't It Be Nice and wrote lyrics for Brian's first solo album, 1988's Brian Wilson. Critics and fans enjoyed Wilson's return to the studio, but the charts were unforgiving, especially with attention focused on the Beach Boys once more. The single \"Kokomo,\" from the soundtrack to Cocktail, hit number one in the U.S. late that year, prompting a haphazard collection named Still Cruisin'. The group also sued Brian, more to force Landy out of the picture than anything, and Mike Love later sued Brian for songwriting royalties (Brian had frequently admitted Love's involvement on most of them).\nDespite the many quarrels, the Beach Boys kept touring during the early '90s, and Mike and Brian actually began writing songs together in 1995. Instead of a new album, though, the Beach Boys returned with Stars and Stripes, Vol. 1, a collection of remade hits with country stars singing lead and the group adding backing vocals. Also, a Brian Wilson documentary titled I Just Wasn't Made for These Times aired on the Disney Channel, with an accompanying soundtrack featuring spare renditions of Beach Boys classics by Brian himself. Just as the band appeared to be pulling together for a proper studio album, though, Carl died of cancer in 1998.\nTen years after his first solo album, Brian became aware of his immense influence on the alternative rock community; he worked with biggest fans Sean O'Hagan (of the High Llamas) and Andy Paley on a series of recordings. Again, good intentions failed to carry through as the recordings were ditched in favor of another overly produced, mainstream-slanted work, Imagination. By early 1999, no less than three Beach Boys-connected units were touring the country -- a Brian Wilson solo tour, the \"official\" Beach Boys led by Mike Love, and the \"Beach Boys Family\" led by Al Jardine.\nIn 2000, Capitol instituted a long-promised reissue campaign, focusing on the group's long out of print '70s LPs, and updated remastering of the '60s LPs followed soon after. Brian Wilson continued his solo career into the 2000s with a string of popular albums, including a live run-though of Pet Sounds (Pet Sounds Live) and, in 2004, a concert tour as well as a re-recording around SMiLE. The surviving members next united in 2006 to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Pet Sounds. Two years later, however, Jardine was forced to settle a lawsuit brought by Love and Carl Wilson's estate over the use of the Beach Boys' name in his touring band (which was renamed the Endless Summer Band).\nRegardless of legal actions and strained relations, all of the band's surviving members were on hand in June 2011 for a special announcement: forthcoming were new live dates, reissues (including the first-ever release of The Smile Sessions; it appeared at the end of 2011), new recordings, and a spate of planned releases for 2012 that would feature all of the surviving members of the band who contributed the most to their '60s prime: Brian Wilson, Mike Love, Al Jardine, Bruce Johnston, and even David Marks. The new recordings included a version of their 1968 hit \"Do It Again\" and, by June 2012, a full album, including 12 original songs produced by Wilson and given the title of its first single, That's Why God Made the Radio; the album generated generally positive reviews and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200. Just before their 50th anniversary tour ended, in late September, Love announced that additional tour dates for the rest of 2012 would not include Brian Wilson, Jardine, or Marks. The brief reunion was commemorated on the May 2013 live album The Beach Boys Live: The 50th Anniversary Tour. Three years later a couple of archival releases appeared: a 50th anniversary reissue of Pet Sounds and a compilation of their earliest recordings called Becoming the Beach Boys: The Complete Hite & Dorinda Morgan Sessions. ~ John Bush, Rovi",
"The Beach Boys on Apple Music\nTo preview a song, mouse over the title and click Play. Open iTunes to buy and download music.\nBiography\nBeginning their career as the most popular surf band in the nation, the Beach Boys finally emerged by 1966 as America's preeminent pop group, the only act able to challenge (for a brief time) the overarching success of the Beatles with both mainstream listeners and the critical community. From their 1961 debut with the regional hit \"Surfin',\" the three Wilson brothers -- Brian, Dennis, and Carl -- plus cousin Mike Love and friend Al Jardine constructed the most intricate, gorgeous harmonies ever heard from a pop band. With Brian's studio proficiency growing by leaps and bounds during the mid-'60s, the Beach Boys also proved one of the best-produced groups of the '60s, exemplified by their 1966 peak with the Pet Sounds LP and the number one single \"Good Vibrations.\" Though Brian's escalating drug use and obsessive desire to trump the Beatles (by recording the perfect LP statement) eventually led to a nervous breakdown after he heard Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, the group soldiered on long into the '70s and '80s, with Brian only an inconsistent participant. The band's post-1966 material is often maligned (if it's recognized at all), but the truth is the Beach Boys continued to make great music well into the '70s. Displayed best on 1970's Sunflower, each member revealed individual talents never fully developed during the mid-'60s -- Carl became a solid, distinctive producer and Brian's replacement as nominal bandleader, Mike continued to provide a visual focus as the frontman for live shows, and Dennis developed his own notable songwriting talents. Though legal wranglings and marginal oldies tours during the '90s often obscured what made the Beach Boys great, the band's unerring ability to surf the waves of commercial success and artistic development during the '60s made them America's first, best rock band. The origins of the group lie in Hawthorne, California, a southern suburb of Los Angeles situated close to the Pacific coast. The three sons of a part-time song plugger and occasionally abusive father, Brian, Dennis, and Carl grew up a just few miles from the ocean -- though only Dennis had any interest in surfing itself. The three often harmonized together as youths, spurred on by Brian's fascination with '50s vocal acts like the Four Freshmen and the Hi-Lo's. Their cousin Mike Love often joined in on the impromptu sessions, and the group gained a fifth with the addition of Brian's high-school football teammate Al Jardine. His parents helped rent instruments (with Brian on bass, Carl on guitar, and Dennis on drums) and studio time to record \"Surfin',\" a novelty number written by Brian and Mike. The single, initially released in 1961 on Candix and billed to \"the Pendletones\" (a musical paraphrase of the popular Pendleton shirt), prompted a little national chart action and gained the renamed Beach Boys a contract with Capitol. The group's negotiator with the label, the Wilsons' father, Murray, also took over as manager for the band. Before the release of any material for Capitol, however, Jardine left the band to attend college in the Midwest. A friend of the Wilsons, David Marks, replaced him. Finally, in mid-1962 the Beach Boys released their major-label debut, Surfin' Safari. The title track, a more accomplished novelty single than its predecessor, hit the Top 20 and helped launch the surf rock craze just beginning to blossom around Southern California (thanks to artists like Dick Dale, Jan & Dean, the Chantays, and dozens more). A similarly themed follow-up, Surfin' U.S.A., hit the Top Ten in early 1963 before Jardine returned from school and resumed his place in the group. By that time, the Beach Boys had recorded their first two albums, a pair of 12-track collections that added a few novelty songs to the hits they were packaged around. Though Capitol policy required the group to work with a studio producer, Brian quickly took over the sessions and began expanding the group's range beyond simple surf rock. By the end of 1963, the Beach Boys had recorded three full LPs, hit the Top Ten as many times, and toured incessantly. Also, Brian began to grow as a producer, best documented on the third Beach Boys LP, Surfer Girl. Though surf songs still dominated the album, \"Catch a Wave,\" the title track, and especially \"In My Room\" presented a giant leap in songwriting, production, and group harmony -- especially astonishing considering the band had been recording for barely two years. Brian's intense scrutiny of Phil Spector's famous Wall of Sound productions was paying quick dividends and revealed his intuitive, unerring depths of musical knowledge. The following year, \"I Get Around\" became the first number one hit for the Beach Boys. Riding a crest of popularity, the late-1964 LP Beach Boys Concert spent four weeks at the top of the album charts, just one of five Beach Boys LPs simultaneously on the charts. The group also undertook promotional tours of Europe, but the pressures and time constraints proved too much for Brian. At the end of the year, he decided to quit the touring band and concentrate on studio productions. (Glen Campbell toured with the group briefly, then friend and colleague Bruce Johnston became Brian's permanent replacement.) With the Beach Boys as his musical messengers to the world, Brian began working full-time in the studio, writing songs and enlisting the cream of Los Angeles session players to record instrumental backing tracks before Carl, Dennis, Mike, and Al returned to add vocals. The single \"Help Me, Rhonda\" became the Beach Boys' second chart-topper in early 1965. On the group's seventh studio LP, The Beach Boys Today!, Brian's production skills hit another level entirely. In the rock era's first flirtation with an extended album-length statement, side two of the record presented a series of downtempo ballads, arranged into a suite that stretched the group's lyrical concerns beyond youthful infatuation and into more adult notions of love. Two more LPs followed in 1965, Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) and Beach Boys' Party. The first featured \"California Girls,\" one of the best fusions of Brian's production mastery, infectious melodies, and gorgeous close harmonies (it's still his personal favorite song). However, dragging down those few moments of brilliance were novelty tracks like \"Amusement Parks USA,\" \"Salt Lake City,\" and \"I'm Bugged at My Old Man\" that appeared to be a step back from Today. When Capitol asked for a Beach Boys record to sell at Christmas, the live-in-the-studio vocal jam session Beach Boys' Party resulted, and sold incredibly well after the single \"Barbara Ann\" became a surprise hit. In a larger sense though, both of these LPs were stopgaps as Brian prepared for production on what he hoped would be the Beach Boys' most effective musical statement yet. In late 1965, the Beatles released Rubber Soul. Amazed at the high song quality and overall cohesiveness of the album, Brian began writing songs -- with help from lyricist Tony Asher -- and producing sessions for a song suite charting a young man's growth to emotional maturity. Though Capitol was resistant to an album with few obvious hits, the group spent more time working on the vocals and harmonies than any other previous project. The result, released in May 1966 as Pet Sounds, more than justified the effort. It's still one of the best-produced and most influential rock LPs ever released, the culmination of years of Brian's perfectionist productions and songwriting. Critics praised Pet Sounds, but the new direction failed to impress American audiences. Though it reached the Top Ten, Pet Sounds missed a gold certificate (the first to do so since the group's debut LP). Conversely, worldwide reaction was not just positive but jubilant. In England, the album hit number two and earned the Beach Boys honors for best group in year-end polls by NME -- above even the Beatles, hardly slouches themselves with the releases of \"Paperback Writer\"/\"Rain\" and Revolver. The Beach Boys' next single, \"Good Vibrations,\" had originally been written for the Pet Sounds sessions, though Brian removed it from the song list to give himself more time for production. He resumed working on it after the completion of Pet Sounds, eventually devoting up to six months (and three different studios) to the single. Released in October 1966, \"Good Vibrations\" capped off the year as the group's third number one single and still stands as one of the best singles of all time. Throughout late 1966 and early 1967, Brian worked feverishly on the next Beach Boys LP -- a project named Dumb Angel, but later titled SMiLE, that promised to be as great an artistic leap beyond Pet Sounds as that album had been from Today. He drafted Van Dyke Parks, an eccentric lyricist and session man, as his songwriting partner, and recorded reams of tape containing increasingly fragmented tracks that grew ever more speculative as the months wore on. Already wary of Brian's increasingly artistic leanings and drug experimentation, the other Beach Boys grew hostile when called in to the studio to add vocals for Parks lyrics like, \"A blind class aristocracy/Back through the opera glass you see/The pit and the pendulum drawn/Columnaded ruins domino/Canvas the town and brush the backdrop\" (from \"Surf's Up\"). A rift soon formed between the band and Brian; they felt his intake of marijuana and LSD had clouded his judgment, while he felt they were holding him back from the coming psychedelic era. As recording for SMiLE dragged on into spring 1967, Brian began working fewer hours. For the first time in the Beach Boys' career, he appeared unsure of his direction. If SMiLE ever appeared salvageable, those hopes were dashed in May, when Brian officially canceled the project -- just a few weeks before the release of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. In August, the group finally released a new single, \"Heroes and Villains.\" Very similar to the fragmentary style of \"Good Vibrations,\" though a distinctly inferior follow-up, it missed the Top Ten. That fall, the group convened at Brian's Bel Air mansion-turned-studio and recorded new versions of several SMiLE songs plus a few new recordings and re-emerged with Smiley Smile. Carl summed up the LP as \"a bunt instead of a grand slam,\" and its near-complete lack of cohesiveness all but destroyed the group's reputation for forward-thinking pop. As the Beatles were ushering in the psychedelic age, the Beach Boys stalled with the all-important teen crowd, who quickly began to see the group as conservative, establishment throwbacks. The perfect chance to stem the tide, a headlining spot at the pioneering Monterey Pop Festival in summer 1967, was squandered. Though the Beach Boys regrouped quickly -- the back-to-basics Wild Honey LP appeared before the end of 1967 -- their hopes of becoming the world's preeminent pop group with both hippies and critics had fizzled in a matter of months. All this incredible promise wasted made fans, critics, and radio programmers undeniably bitter toward future product. Predictably, both Wild Honey and 1968's Friends suffered with all three audiences. They survive as interesting records nevertheless; deliberately under-produced, with song fragments and recording-session detritus often left in the mix; the skeletal blue-eyed soul of Wild Honey and the laid-back orchestral pop of Friends made them favorites only after fans realized the Beach Boys were a radically different group in 1968 than in 1966. Sparked by the Top 20 hit \"Do It Again\" -- a song that saw the first shades of the group as an oldies act -- 1969's 20/20 did marginally better. Still, Capitol dropped the band soon after. One year later, the Beach Boys signed to Reprise. The first LP for Brother/Reprise was 1970's Sunflower, a surprisingly strong album featuring a return to the gorgeous harmonies of the mid-'60s and many songs written by different members of the band. Surf's Up, titled after a reworked song originally intended for SMiLE, followed in 1971. Though frequently lovable, the wide range of material on Surf's Up displayed not a band but a conglomeration of individual interests. During sessions for the album, Dennis put his hand through a plate glass window and was unable to play drums. Early in 1972, the band hired drummer Ricky Fataar and guitarist Blondie Chaplin, two members of a South African rock band named the Flame (Carl had produced their self-titled debut for Brother Records the previous year). Carl and the Passions: So Tough, the first album released with Fataar and Chaplin in the band, descended into lame early-'70s AOR. For the first time, a Beach Boys album retained nothing of their classic sound. Brian's mental stability wavered from year to year, and he spent much time in his mansion with no wish to even contact the outside world. He occasionally contributed to the songwriting and session load, but was by no means a member of the band anymore (he rarely even appeared on album covers or promotional shots). Though it's unclear why Reprise felt ready to take such a big risk, the label authorized a large recording budget for the next Beach Boys album. After shipping most of the group's family and entourage (plus an entire studio) over to Amsterdam, the Beach Boys re-emerged in 1973 with Holland. The LP scraped the bottom rungs of the Top 40, and the single \"Sail on, Sailor\" (with vocals by Chaplin) did receive some FM radio airplay. Still, Holland's muddy sound did nothing for the aging band, and it earned scathing reviews. Perhaps a bit gun-shy, the Beach Boys essentially retired from recording during the mid-'70s. Instead, the band concentrated on grooming their live act, which quickly grew to become an incredible experience. It was a good move, considering the Beach Boys could lay claim to more hits than any other '60s rock act on the road. The Beach Boys in Concert, their third live album in total, appeared in 1973. Then, in mid-1974, Capitol Records went to the vaults and issued a repackaged hits collection, Endless Summer. Both band and label watched, dumbfounded, as the double LP hit number one, spent almost three years on the charts, and went gold. Endless Summer capitalized on a growing fascination with oldies rock that had made Sha Na Na, American Graffiti, and Happy Days big hits. Rolling Stone, never the most friendly magazine to the group, named the Beach Boys its Band of the Year at the end of the year. Another collection, Spirit of America, hit the Top Ten in 1974, and the Beach Boys were hustled into the studio to begin new recordings. Trumpeted by the barely true marketing campaign \"Brian's Back!,\" 1976's 15 Big Ones balanced a couple of '50s oldies with some justifiably exciting Brian Wilson oddities like \"Had to Phone Ya.\" It also hit the Top Ten and went gold, despite many critical misgivings. Brian took a much more involved position for the following year's The Beach Boys Love You (it was almost titled Brian Loves You and released as a solo album). In marked contrast to the fatalistic early-'70s pop of \"Til I Die\" and others, Brian sounded positively jubilant on gruff proto-synth pop numbers like \"Let Us Go on This Way\" and \"Mona.\" However idiosyncratic compared to what oldies fans expected of the Beach Boys, Love You was the group's best album in years. (A suite of beautiful, tender ballads on side two was quite reminiscent of 1965's Today.) After 1979's M.I.U. Album, the group signed a large contract with CBS that stipulated Brian's involvement on each album. However, his brief return to the spotlight ended with two dismal efforts, L.A. (Light Album) and Keepin' the Summer Alive. The Beach Boys began splintering by the end of the decade, with financial mismanagement by Mike Love's brothers Stan and Steve fostering tension between him and the Wilsons. By 1980, both Dennis and Carl had left the Beach Boys for solo careers. (Dennis had already released his first album, Pacific Ocean Blue, in 1977, and Carl released his eponymous debut in 1981.) Brian was removed from the group in 1982 after his weight ballooned to over 300 pounds, though the tragic drowning death of Dennis in 1983 helped bring the group back together. In 1985, the Beach Boys released a self-titled album that returned them to the Top 40 with \"Getcha Back.\" It would be the last proper Beach Boys album of the '80s, however. Brian had been steadily improving in both mind and body during the mid-'80s, though the rest of the group grew suspicious of his mentor, Dr. Eugene Landy. Landy was a dodgy psychiatrist who reportedly worked wonders with the easily impressionable Brian but also practically took over his life. He collaborated with Brian on the autobiography Wouldn't It Be Nice and wrote lyrics for Brian's first solo album, 1988's Brian Wilson. Critics and fans enjoyed Wilson's return to the studio, but the charts were unforgiving, especially with attention focused on the Beach Boys once more. The single \"Kokomo,\" from the soundtrack to Cocktail, hit number one in the U.S. late that year, prompting a haphazard collection named Still Cruisin'. The group also sued Brian, more to force Landy out of the picture than anything, and Mike Love later sued Brian for songwriting royalties (Brian had frequently admitted Love's involvement on most of them). Despite the many quarrels, the Beach Boys kept touring during the early '90s, and Mike and Brian actually began writing songs together in 1995. Instead of a new album, though, the Beach Boys returned with Stars and Stripes, Vol. 1, a collection of remade hits with country stars singing lead and the group adding backing vocals. Also, a Brian Wilson documentary titled I Just Wasn't Made for These Times aired on the Disney Channel, with an accompanying soundtrack featuring spare renditions of Beach Boys classics by Brian himself. Just as the band appeared to be pulling together for a proper studio album, though, Carl died of cancer in 1998. Ten years after his first solo album, Brian became aware of his immense influence on the alternative rock community; he worked with biggest fans Sean O'Hagan (of the High Llamas) and Andy Paley on a series of recordings. Again, good intentions failed to carry through as the recordings were ditched in favor of another overly produced, mainstream-slanted work, Imagination. By early 1999, no less than three Beach Boys-connected units were touring the country -- a Brian Wilson solo tour, the \"official\" Beach Boys led by Mike Love, and the \"Beach Boys Family\" led by Al Jardine. In 2000, Capitol instituted a long-promised reissue campaign, focusing on the group's long out of print '70s LPs, and updated remastering of the '60s LPs followed soon after. Brian Wilson continued his solo career into the 2000s with a string of popular albums, including a live run-though of Pet Sounds (Pet Sounds Live) and, in 2004, a concert tour as well as a re-recording around SMiLE. The surviving members next united in 2006 to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Pet Sounds. Two years later, however, Jardine was forced to settle a lawsuit brought by Love and Carl Wilson's estate over the use of the Beach Boys' name in his touring band (which was renamed the Endless Summer Band). Regardless of legal actions and strained relations, all of the band's surviving members were on hand in June 2011 for a special announcement: forthcoming were new live dates, reissues (including the first-ever release of The Smile Sessions; it appeared at the end of 2011), new recordings, and a spate of planned releases for 2012 that would feature all of the surviving members of the band who contributed the most to their '60s prime: Brian Wilson, Mike Love, Al Jardine, Bruce Johnston, and even David Marks. The new recordings included a version of their 1968 hit \"Do It Again\" and, by June 2012, a full album, including 12 original songs produced by Wilson and given the title of its first single, That's Why God Made the Radio; the album generated generally positive reviews and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200. Just before their 50th anniversary tour ended, in late September, Love announced that additional tour dates for the rest of 2012 would not include Brian Wilson, Jardine, or Marks. The brief reunion was commemorated on the May 2013 live album The Beach Boys Live: The 50th Anniversary Tour. Three years later a couple of archival releases appeared: a 50th anniversary reissue of Pet Sounds and a compilation of their earliest recordings called Becoming the Beach Boys: The Complete Hite & Dorinda Morgan Sessions. ~ John Bush\nTop Albums"
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Whose musical works included Composition For Orchestra and Philomel?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Philomel, a serial composition composed in 1964, combines synthesizer with both live and recorded soprano voice. It is Milton Babbitt’s best-known work and was planned as a piece for performance at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, funded by the Ford Foundation and commissioned for soprano Bethany Beardslee. Babbitt created Philomel in the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, of which he was a founding member. \n\nSynopsis \n\nThe three sections of the piece are based on Ovid’s myth of Philomela, a maiden without the capability of speech, her escape from King Tereus, and her transformation into a nightingale. In the second section, John Hollander, the librettist, has Philomel communicate with some of the inhabitants of the woods in echo verse. In fact, Hollander had written a book on Echo Poetry, so the section is written not in straight echo but in very elaborate and intricate poetry. The third section is a series of five arias where Philomel finally regains her voice and sings about her life.\n\nMethods of composition \n\nThe piece, an example of combined live performance with tape, was one of the first compositions on the synthesizer and shows Babbitt’s use of the human voice. \n\nJohn Hollander, a poet at Yale University, wrote the libretto for Babbitt under specific conditions – it would be for solo soprano and would be performed with at least four sets of speakers around the performance hall. Essentially, Babbitt would record the soprano’s voice and edit it through a synthesizer.\n\nTo produce the piece, Babbitt had to create the sounds from the synthesizer. Then he had to tape the soprano voice in sections, however, for a large portion of the time, she sang straight but answered herself as she was recorded. The vocal part was fairly straightforward since the soprano was producing the part within the confines of the human voice, but Babbitt wrote for Beardsley in a way that he could not have written otherwise because so much of it depended on what was happening electronically. Philomel was written, as most of Babbitt’s music was, on four tracks, with the set-up for the recording at the Macmillan Theatre. The piece could not have been attempted with live performers.\n\nAccording to Milton Babbitt himself, \"I could produce things faster than any pianist could play or any listener could hear. We were able to work with greater speeds. That was one of the things that interested me the most – the timbre, the rhythmic aspect. And we learned a great deal. It was an analog device and it was given digital information and switching instructions...passing over very expensive gold wires that scanned the information and then recorded it on tape. I could change certain qualities of a tone while keeping other qualities, like the pitch, consistent.\"\n\nNew ways of combining musical and verbal expression were devised by the composer and poet such as: music is as articulate as language and language (Philomel’s thoughts) is transformed into music (the nightingale’s song). The work is an almost endless range of similarities and differences between speech and song, and word-music puns which were not achievable without the use of the synthesizer. \n\nThe composition is \"a re-interpretation of a scena drammatica with its distinct recitative–arioso–aria layout\".",
"Electronic music is music that employs electronic musical instruments and electronic music technology in its production, an electronic musician being a musician who composes and/or performs such music. In general a distinction can be made between sound produced using electromechanical means and that produced using electronic technology. Examples of electromechanical sound producing devices include the telharmonium, Hammond organ, and the electric guitar. Purely electronic sound production can be achieved using devices such as the theremin, sound synthesizer, and computer. \n\nThe first electronic devices for performing music were developed at the end of the 19th century, and shortly afterward Italian Futurists explored sounds that had previously not been considered musical. During the 1920s and 1930s, electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions for electronic instruments were composed. By the 1940s, magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sounds and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction, leading to the development of electroacoustic tape music in the 1940s, in Egypt and France. Musique concrète, created in Paris in 1948, was based on editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. Music produced solely from electronic generators was first produced in Germany in 1953. Electronic music was also created in Japan and the United States beginning in the 1950s. An important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music. Algorithmic composition was first demonstrated in Australia in 1951.\n\nIn America and Europe, live electronics were pioneered in the early 1960s. During the 1970s to early 1980s, the monophonic Minimoog became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music.\n\nIn the 1970s, electronic music began having a significant influence on popular music, with the adoption of polyphonic synthesizers, electronic drums, and drum machines, through the emergence of genres such as krautrock, disco, new wave and synthpop. In the 1980s, electronic music became more dominant in popular music, with a greater reliance on synthesizers, and the adoption of programmable drum machines, and bass synthesizers. In the early 1980s, digital technologies for synthesizers including digital synthesizers have been popularized, and a group of musicians and music merchants developed the Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI).\n\nElectronically produced music became prevalent in the popular domain by the 1990s, because of the advent of affordable music technology. Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from experimental art music to popular forms such as electronic dance music. Today, pop electronic music is most recognizable in its 4/4 form and vastly more connected with the mainstream culture as opposed to its preceding forms which were specialized to niche markets. \n\nOrigins: late 19th century to early 20th century\n\nAt the turn of the 20th century, experimentation with emerging electronics led to the first electronic musical instruments. These initial inventions were not sold, but were instead used in demonstrations and public performances. The audiences were presented with reproductions of existing music instead of new compositions for the instruments. While some were considered novelties and produced simple tones, the Telharmonium accurately synthesized the sound of orchestral instruments. It achieved viable public interest and made commercial progress into streaming music through telephone networks. \n\nCritics of musical conventions at the time saw promise in these developments. Ferruccio Busoni encouraged the composition of microtonal music allowed for by electronic instruments. He predicted the use of machines in future music, writing the influential Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music. Futurists such as Francesco Balilla Pratella and Luigi Russolo began composing music with acoustic noise to evoke the sound of machinery. They predicted expansions in timbre allowed for by electronics in the influential manifesto The Art of Noises. \n\nEarly compositions \n\nDevelopments of the vacuum tube led to electronic instruments that were smaller, amplified, and more practical for performance. In particular, the theremin, ondes Martenot and trautonium were commercially produced by the early 1930s. \n\nFrom the late 1920s, the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such as Joseph Schillinger to adopt them. They were typically used within orchestras, and most composers wrote parts for the theremin that could otherwise be performed with string instruments.\n\nAvant-garde composers criticized the predominant use of electronic instruments for conventional purposes. The instruments offered expansions in pitch resources that were exploited by advocates of microtonal music such as Charles Ives, Dimitrios Levidis, Olivier Messiaen and Edgard Varese. Further, Percy Grainger used the theremin to abandon fixed tonation entirely, while Russian composers such as Gavriil Popov treated it as a source of noise in otherwise-acoustic noise music. \n\nRecording experiments \n\nDevelopments in early recording technology paralleled that of electronic instruments. The first means of recording and reproducing audio was invented in the late 19th century with the mechanical phonograph. Record players became a common household item, and by the 1920s composers were using them to play short recordings in performances. \n\nThe introduction of electronic recording in 1925 was followed by increased experimentation with record players. Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch composed several pieces in 1930 by layering recordings of instruments and vocals at adjusted speeds. Influenced by these techniques, John Cage composed \"Imaginary Landscape No. 1\" in 1939 by adjusting the speeds of recorded tones. \n\nConcurrently, composers began to experiment with newly-developed sound-on-film technology. Recordings could be spliced together to create sound collages, such as those by Tristan Tzara, Kurt Schwitters, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Walter Ruttmann and Dziga Vertov. Further, the technology allowed sound to be graphically created and modified. These techniques were used to compose soundtracks for several films in Germany and Russia, in addition to the popular Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde in the United States. Experiments with graphical sound were continued by Norman McLaren from the late 1930s.\n\nDevelopment: 1940s to 1950s\n\nElectroacoustic tape music \n\nThe first practical audio tape recorder was unveiled in 1935. Improvements to the technology were made using the AC biasing technique, which significantly improved recording fidelity. As early as 1942, test recordings were being made in stereo. Although these developments were initially confined to Germany, recorders and tapes were brought to the United States following the end of World War II. These were the basis for the first commercially-produced tape recorder in 1948. \n\nMagnetic audio tape opened up a vast new range of sonic possibilities to musicians, composers, producers and engineers. Audio tape was relatively cheap and very reliable, and its fidelity of reproduction was better than any audio medium to date. Most importantly, unlike discs, it offered the same plasticity of use as film. Tape can be slowed down, sped up or even run backwards during recording or playback, with often startling effect. It can be physically edited in much the same way as film, allowing for unwanted sections of a recording to be seamlessly removed or replaced; likewise, segments of tape from other sources can be edited in. Tape can also be joined to form endless loops that continually play repeated patterns of pre-recorded material. Audio amplification and mixing equipment further expanded tape's capabilities as a production medium, allowing multiple pre-taped recordings (and/or live sounds, speech or music) to be mixed together and simultaneously recorded onto another tape with relatively little loss of fidelity. Another unforeseen windfall was that tape recorders can be relatively easily modified to become echo machines that produce complex, controllable, high-quality echo and reverberation effects (most of which would be practically impossible to achieve by mechanical means).\n\nThe spread of tape recorders eventually led to the development of electroacoustic tape music. The first known example was composed in 1944 by Halim El-Dabh, a student at Cairo, Egypt. He recorded the sounds of an ancient zaar ceremony using a cumbersome wire recorder and at the Middle East Radio studios processed the material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls, and re-recording. The resulting work was entitled The Expression of Zaar and it was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo. While his initial experiments in tape based composition were not widely known outside of Egypt at the time, El-Dabh is also notable for his later work in electronic music at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in the late 1950s. \n\nMusique concrète \n\nIt wasn't long before composers in Paris also began using the tape recorder to develop a new technique for composition called musique concrète. This technique involved editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. The first pieces of musique concrète in Paris were assembled by Pierre Schaeffer, who went on to collaborate with Pierre Henry.\n\nOn 5 October 1948, Radiodiffusion Française (RDF) broadcast composer Pierre Schaeffer's Etude aux chemins de fer. This was the first \"movement\" of Cinq études de bruits, and marked the beginning of studio realizations and musique concrète (or acousmatic art). Schaeffer employed a disk-cutting lathe, four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit. Not long after this, Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music. Another associate of Schaeffer, Edgard Varèse, began work on Déserts, a work for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio, and were later revised at Columbia University.\n\nIn 1950, Schaeffer gave the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrète at the École Normale de Musique de Paris. \"Schaeffer used a PA system, several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well, as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before.\" Later that same year, Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer on Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950) the first major work of musique concrete. In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, Orpheus, for concrete sounds and voices.\n\nElektronische Musik\n\nKarlheinz Stockhausen worked briefly in Schaeffer's studio in 1952, and afterward for many years at the WDR Cologne's Studio for Electronic Music.\n\nIn Cologne, what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world was officially opened at the radio studios of the NWDR in 1953, though it had been in the planning stages as early as 1950 and early compositions were made and broadcast in 1951. The brain child of Werner Meyer-Eppler, Robert Beyer, and Herbert Eimert (who became its first director), the studio was soon joined by Karlheinz Stockhausen and Gottfried Michael Koenig. In his 1949 thesis Elektronische Klangerzeugung: Elektronische Musik und Synthetische Sprache, Meyer-Eppler conceived the idea to synthesize music entirely from electronically produced signals; in this way, elektronische Musik was sharply differentiated from French musique concrète, which used sounds recorded from acoustical sources. \n\n\"With Stockhausen and Mauricio Kagel in residence, it became a year-round hive of charismatic avante-gardism \" on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional orchestras—in Mixtur (1964) and Hymnen, dritte Region mit Orchester (1967). Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of \"outer space,\" sensations of flying, or being in a \"fantastic dream world\". \nMore recently, Stockhausen turned to producing electronic music in his own studio in Kürten, his last work in the medium being Cosmic Pulses (2007).\n\nJapanese electronic music\n\nThe earliest electronic musical instruments in Japan, Yamaha Magna Organ was built in 1935,\n\tBefore the WWII in Japan, already several \"electric\" instruments seems to be developed (see :ja:電子音楽#黎明期), and in 1935 a kind of \"electronic\" musical instrument, Yamaha Magna Organ was developed. It seems to be a multi-timbral keyboard instrument based on electrically-blown free reeds with pickups, possibly similar to the electrostatic reed organs developed by Frederick Albert Hoschke in 1934 then manufactured by Everett and Wurlitzer until 1961.\n\n however after the World War II, Japanese composers such as Minao Shibata were aware of farther developments of electronic musical instruments. By the late 1940s, Japanese composers began experimenting with electronic music, and institutional sponsorship enabled them to experiment with cutting-edge equipment. Their infusion of Asian music into the emerging genre would eventually support Japan's domination in the development of music technology several decades later. \n\nFollowing the foundation of electronics company Sony in 1946, composers Toru Takemitsu and Minao Shibata independently conceived possible uses for electronic technology to produce music. Takemitsu had ideas similar to that of musique concrète, which he was initially unaware of, while Shibata foresaw the development of synthesizers and predicted a drastic change in music. Sony began producing popular magnetic tape recorders for government and public use. \n\nThe avant-garde collective Jikken Kōbō (Experimental Workshop), founded in 1950, was offered access to emerging audio technology by Sony. The company hired Toru Takemitsu to demonstrate their tape recorders with compositions and performances of electronic tape music. The first electronic tape pieces by the group were \"Toraware no Onna\" (\"Imprisoned Woman\") and \"Piece B\", composed in 1951 by Kuniharu Akiyama. Many of the electroacoustic tape pieces they produced were used as incidental music for radio, film, and theatre. They also held concerts employing a slide show synchronized with a recorded soundtrack. Composers outside of the the Jikken Kōbō, such as Yasushi Akutagawa, Saburo Tominaga and Shirō Fukai, were also experimenting with radiophonic tape music between 1952 and 1953.\n\nMusique concrète was introduced to Japan by Toshiro Mayuzumi, who was influenced by a Pierre Schaeffer concert. From 1952, he composed tape music pieces for a comedy film, a radio broadcast, and a radio drama. However, Schaeffer's concept of sound object was not influential among Japanese composers, who were mainly interested in overcoming the restrictions of human performance. This led to several Japanese electroacoustic musicians making use of serialism and twelve-tone techniques, evident in Yoshirō Irino's 1951 dodecaphonic piece \"Concerto da\nCamera\", in the organization of electronic sounds in Mayuzumi's \"X, Y, Z for Musique Concrète\", and later in Shibata's electronic music by 1956. \n\nModelling the NWDR studio in Cologne, NHK established an electronic music studio in Tokyo in 1955, which became one of the world's leading electronic music facilities. The NHK Studio was equipped with technologies such as tone-generating and audio processing equipment, recording and radiophonic equipment, ondes Martenot, Monochord and Melochord, sine-wave oscillators, tape recorders, ring modulators, band-pass filters, and four- and eight-channel mixers. Musicians associated with the studio included Toshiro Mayuzumi, Minao Shibata, Joji Yuasa, Toshi Ichiyanagi, and Toru Takemitsu. The studio's first electronic compositions were completed in 1955, including Mayuzumi's five-minute pieces \"Studie I: Music for Sine Wave by Proportion of Prime Number\", \"Music for Modulated Wave by Proportion of Prime Number\" and \"Invention for Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave\" produced using the studio's various tone-generating capabilities, and Shibata's 20-minute stereo piece \"Musique Concrète for Stereophonic Broadcast\". \n\nAmerican electronic music\n\nIn the United States, electronic music was being created as early as 1939, when John Cage published Imaginary Landscape, No. 1, using two variable-speed turntables, frequency recordings, muted piano, and cymbal, but no electronic means of production. Cage composed five more \"Imaginary Landscapes\" between 1942 and 1952 (one withdrawn), mostly for percussion ensemble, though No. 4 is for twelve radios and No. 5, written in 1952, uses 42 recordings and is to be realized as a magnetic tape. According to Otto Luening, Cage also performed a William Mix at Donaueschingen in 1954, using eight loudspeakers, three years after his alleged collaboration. Williams Mix was a success at the Donaueschingen Festival, where it made a \"strong impression\". \n\nThe Music for Magnetic Tape Project was formed by members of the New York School (John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff, David Tudor, and Morton Feldman), and lasted three years until 1954. Cage wrote of this collaboration: \"In this social darkness, therefore, the work of Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff continues to present a brilliant light, for the reason that at the several points of notation, performance, and audition, action is provocative.\" \n\nCage completed Williams Mix in 1953 while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project. The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios, including the studio of Louis and Bebe Barron.\n\nColumbia-Princeton Center\n\nIn the same year Columbia University purchased its first tape recorder—a professional Ampex machine—for the purpose of recording concerts. Vladimir Ussachevsky, who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it.\n\nHerbert Russcol writes: \"Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another.\" Ussachevsky said later: \"I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation.\" On Thursday, May 8, 1952, Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music/effects that he created at his Composers Forum, in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University. These included Transposition, Reverberation, Experiment, Composition, and Underwater Valse. In an interview, he stated: \"I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments.\"\nOtto Luening, who had attended this concert, remarked: \"The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder . . . and a simple box-like device designed by the brilliant young engineer, Peter Mauzey, to create feedback, a form of mechanical reverberation. Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds.\" \n\nJust three months later, in August 1952, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont at Luening's invitation to present his experiments. There, the two collaborated on various pieces. Luening described the event: \"Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition. Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations.\"\nThey played some early pieces informally at a party, where \"a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying, 'This is it' ('it' meaning the music of the future).\"\n\nWord quickly reached New York City. Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to \"produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music, Inc., under the direction of Leopold Stokowski at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. After some hesitation, we agreed. . . . Henry Cowell placed his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, at our disposal. With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky's car, we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks. . . . In late September, 1952, the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky's living room in New York, where we eventually completed the compositions.\"\n\nTwo months later, on October 28, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States. The concert included Luening's Fantasy in Space (1952)—\"an impressionistic virtuoso piece\" using manipulated recordings of flute—and Low Speed (1952), an \"exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range.\" Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock, NY. After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City, Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC's Today Show to do an interview demonstration—the first televised electroacoustic performance. Luening described the event: \"I improvised some [flute] sequences for the tape recorder. Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations.\" \n\n1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions—acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated and/or electronically generated sound. Three major works were premiered that year: Varèse's Déserts, for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works by Luening and Ussachevsky: Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony and A Poem in Cycles and Bells, both for orchestra and tape. Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part for Varèse's work contains much more concrete sounds than electronic. \"A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternates with the mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers.\" \n\nAt the German premiere of Déserts in Hamburg, which was conducted by Bruno Maderna, the tape controls were operated by Karlheinz Stockhausen. The title Déserts, suggested to Varèse not only, \"all physical deserts (of sand, sea, snow, of outer space, of empty streets), but also the deserts in the mind of man; not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness, aloofness, timelessness, but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach, where man is alone, a world of mystery and essential loneliness.\" \n\nIn 1958, Columbia-Princeton developed the RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer, the first programmable synthesizer. This device was actually a special-purpose, digitally controlled analogue computer, it was the first electronic music synthesizer in which a large range of sounds could not only be produced and sequenced but also be programmed by the user. This programming feature had a profound influence on the nature of Babbitt's electronic music. Prominent composers such as Vladimir Ussachevsky, Otto Luening, Milton Babbitt, Charles Wuorinen, Halim El-Dabh, Bülent Arel and Mario Davidovsky used the RCA Synthesizer extensively in various compositions. One of the most influential composers associated with the early years of the studio was Egypt's Halim El-Dabh who, after having developed the earliest known electronic tape music in 1944, became more famous for Leiyla and the Poet, a 1959 series of electronic compositions that stood out for its immersion and seamless fusion of electronic and folk music, in contrast to the more mathematical approach used by serial composers of the time such as Babbitt. El-Dabh's Leiyla and the Poet, released as part of the album Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in 1961, would be cited as a strong influence by a number of musicians, ranging from Neil Rolnick, Charles Amirkhanian and Alice Shields to rock musicians Frank Zappa and The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band. \n\nStochastic music\n\nAn important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds. Iannis Xenakis began what is called musique stochastique, or stochastic music, which is a composing method that uses mathematical probability systems. Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters. Xenakis used computers to compose pieces like ST/4 for string quartet and ST/48 for orchestra (both 1962), Morsima-Amorsima, ST/10, and Atrées. He developed the computer system UPIC for translating graphical images into musical results and composed Mycènes Alpha (1978) with it.\n\nMid-to-late 1950s\n\nIn 1954, Stockhausen composed his Elektronische Studie II—the first electronic piece to be published as a score. In 1955, more experimental and electronic studios began to appear. Notable were the creation of the Studio di fonologia musicale di Radio Milano, a studio at the NHK in Tokyo founded by Toshiro Mayuzumi, and the Philips studio at Eindhoven, the Netherlands, which moved to the University of Utrecht as the Institute of Sonology in 1960.\n\nThe score for Forbidden Planet, by Louis and Bebe Barron, was entirely composed using custom built electronic circuits and tape recorders in 1956.\n\nThe world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC, which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the Colonel Bogey March, of which no known recordings exist. However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice. CSIRAC was never recorded, but the music played was accurately reconstructed. The oldest known recordings of computer-generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer, a commercial version of the Baby Machine from the University of Manchester in the autumn of 1951. The music program was written by Christopher Strachey.\n\nThe impact of computers continued in 1956. Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson composed Illiac Suite for string quartet, the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using algorithmic composition. \"... Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly.\" Later developments included the work of Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories, who developed the influential MUSIC I program in 1957, one of the first computer programs to play electronic music. Vocoder technology was also a major development in this early era. In 1956, Stockhausen composed Gesang der Jünglinge, the first major work of the Cologne studio, based on a text from the Book of Daniel. An important technological development of that year was the invention of the Clavivox synthesizer by Raymond Scott with subassembly by Robert Moog.\n\nAlso in 1957, Kid Baltan (Dick Raaymakers) and Tom Dissevelt released their debut album, Song Of The Second Moon, recorded at the Philips studio. The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world, as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varèse's Poème électronique, which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 Brussels World Fair. That same year, Mauricio Kagel, an Argentine composer, composed Transición II. The work was realized at the WDR studio in Cologne. Two musicians performed on a piano, one in the traditional manner, the other playing on the strings, frame, and case. Two other performers used tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of prerecorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance.\n\nExpansion: 1960s\n\nThese were fertile years for electronic music—not just for academia, but for independent artists as synthesizer technology became more accessible. By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was established and growing. 1960 witnessed the composition of Luening's Gargoyles for violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen's Kontakte for electronic sounds, piano, and percussion. This piece existed in two versions—one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers. \"In Kontakte, Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax. This new approach, which he termed 'moment form,' resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth century film.\" \n\nThe theremin had been in use since the 1920s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science-fiction film soundtrack music in the 1950s (e.g., Bernard Herrmann's classic score for The Day the Earth Stood Still). \n\nIn the UK in this period, the BBC Radiophonic Workshop (established in 1958) came to prominence, thanks in large measure to their work on the BBC science-fiction series Doctor Who. One of the most influential British electronic artists in this period was Workshop staffer Delia Derbyshire, who is now famous for her 1963 electronic realisation of the iconic Doctor Who theme, composed by Ron Grainer.\n\nIn 1961 Josef Tal established the Centre for Electronic Music in Israel at The Hebrew University, and in 1962 Hugh Le Caine arrived in Jerusalem to install his Creative Tape Recorder in the centre. In the 1990s Tal conducted, together with Dr Shlomo Markel, in cooperation with the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, and VolkswagenStiftung a research project (Talmark) aimed at the development of a novel musical notation system for electronic music. \n\nMilton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—his Composition for Synthesizer (1961)—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center.\n\nThe collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, Ussachevsky invited Varèse to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varese embarked upon a revision of Déserts. He was assisted by Mario Davidovsky and Bülent Arel. \n\nThe intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in 1963 by Morton Subotnick, with additional members Pauline Oliveros, Ramon Sender, Anthony Martin, and Terry Riley.\n\nLater, the Center moved to Mills College, directed by Pauline Oliveros, where it is today known as the Center for Contemporary Music. \n\nSimultaneously in San Francisco, composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern, presented the first “Audium” concert at San Francisco State College (1962), followed by a work at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (1963), conceived of as in time, controlled movement of sound in space. Twelve speakers surrounded the audience, four speakers were mounted on a rotating, mobile-like construction above. In an SFMOMA performance the following year (1964), San Francisco Chronicle music critic Alfred Frankenstein commented, \"the possibilities of the space-sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored\". In 1967, the first Audium, a \"sound-space continuum\" opened, holding weekly performances through 1970. In 1975, enabled by seed money from the National Endowment for the Arts, a new Audium opened, designed floor to ceiling for spatial sound composition and performance. “In contrast, there are composers who manipulated sound space by locating multiple speakers at various locations in a performance space and then switching or panning the sound between the sources. In this approach, the composition of spatial manipulation is dependent on the location of the speakers and usually exploits the acoustical properties of the enclosure. Examples include Varese's Poeme Electronique (tape music performed in the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 World Fair, Brussels) and Stanley Schaff's Audium installation, currently active in San Francisco” Through weekly programs (over 4,500 in 40 years), Shaff “sculpts” sound, performing now-digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers. \n\nA well-known example of the use of Moog's full-sized Moog modular synthesizer is the Switched-On Bach album by Wendy Carlos, which triggered a craze for synthesizer music.\n\nAlong with the Moog modular synthesizer, other makes of this period included ARP and Buchla.\n\nPietro Grossi was an Italian pioneer of computer composition and tape music, who first experimented with electronic techniques in the early sixties. Grossi was a cellist and composer, born in Venice in 1917. He founded the S 2F M (Studio de Fonologia Musicale di Firenze) in 1963 in order to experiment with electronic sound and composition.\n\nComputer music\n\nCSIRAC, the first computer to play music, did so publicly in August 1951. One of the first large-scale public demonstrations of computer music was a pre-recorded national radio broadcast on the NBC radio network program Monitor on February 10, 1962. In 1961, LaFarr Stuart programmed Iowa State University's CYCLONE computer (a derivative of the Illiac) to play simple, recognizable tunes through an amplified speaker that had been attached to the system originally for administrative and diagnostic purposes. An interview with Mr. Stuart accompanied his computer music.\n\nLaurie Spiegel is also notable for her development of \"Music Mouse—an Intelligent Instrument\" (1986) for Macintosh, Amiga, and Atari computers. The intelligent-instrument name refers to the program's built-in knowledge of chord and scale convention and stylistic constraints. She continued to update the program through Macintosh OS 9, and , it remained available for purchase or demo download from her Web site.\n\nThe late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis. Starting in 1957, Max Mathews of Bell Labs developed the MUSIC programs, culminating in MUSIC V, a direct digital synthesis language \n\nLive electronics\n\nIn Europe in 1964, Karlheinz Stockhausen composed Mikrophonie I for tam-tam, hand-held microphones, filters, and potentiometers, and Mixtur for orchestra, four sine-wave generators, and four ring modulators. In 1965 he composed Mikrophonie II for choir, Hammond organ, and ring modulators. \n\nIn 1966–67, Reed Ghazala discovered and began to teach \"circuit bending\"—the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced by John Cage’s aleatoric music concept. \n\nPopularization: 1970s to early 1980s\n\nSynthesizers\n\nReleased in 1970 by Moog Music, the Mini-Moog was among the first widely available, portable and relatively affordable synthesizers. It became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music.\n\"In 1969, a portable version of the studio Moog, called the Minimoog Model D, became the most widely used synthesizer in both popular music and electronic art music\" .\nNote: Thereafter, at least the total shipments record have been overwritten by Yamaha DX7 (over 200,000 units between 1983 and 1989) and Korg M1 (250,000 units between 1988 and 1995). For details, see Yamaha DX7 § Footnote.\nPatrick Gleeson, playing live with Herbie Hancock in the beginning of the 1970s, pioneered the use of synthesizers in a touring context, where they were subject to stresses the early machines were not designed for. \n\nIn 1974, the WDR studio in Cologne acquired an EMS Synthi 100 synthesizer, which a number of composers used to produce notable electronic works—including Rolf Gehlhaar's Fünf deutsche Tänze (1975), Karlheinz Stockhausen's Sirius (1975–76), and John McGuire's Pulse Music III (1978). \n\nThe early 1980s saw the rise of bass synthesizers, the most influential being the Roland TB-303, a bass synthesizer and sequencer released in late 1981 that later became a fixture in electronic dance music, particularly acid house. One of the first to use it was Charanjit Singh in 1982, though it wouldn't be popularized until Phuture's \"Acid Tracks\" in 1987. \n\nIRCAM, STEIM, and Elektronmusikstudion\n\nIRCAM in Paris became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the Sogitec 4X computer system, [http://knorretje.hku.nl/wiki/Sogitec_4X]. featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing. Pierre Boulez's Répons (1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system.\n\nSTEIM is a center for research and development of new musical instruments in the electronic performing arts, located in Amsterdam, Netherlands. STEIM has existed since 1969. It was founded by Misha Mengelberg, Louis Andriessen, Peter Schat, Dick Raaymakers, Jan van Vlijmen, Reinbert de Leeuw, and Konrad Boehmer. This group of Dutch composers had fought for the reformation of Amsterdam's feudal music structures; they insisted on Bruno Maderna's appointment as musical director of the Concertgebouw Orchestra and enforced the first public fundings for experimental and improvised electronic music in The Netherlands.\n\nElektronmusikstudion (EMS), formerly known as Electroacoustic Music in Sweden, is the Swedish national centre for electronic music and sound art. The research organisation started in 1964 and is based in Stockholm.\n\nRise of popular electronic music\n\nIn the late 1960s, pop and rock musicians, including The Beach Boys and The Beatles, began to use electronic instruments, like the theremin and Mellotron, to supplement and define their sound. By the end of the decade, the Moog synthesizer took a leading place in the sound of emerging progressive rock with bands including Pink Floyd, Yes, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, and Genesis making them part of their sound. Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe, allowing bands like Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Can, and Faust to circumvent the language barrier. Their synthesiser-heavy \"krautrock\", along with the work of Brian Eno (for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music), would be a major influence on subsequent electronic rock..\n\nElectronic rock was also produced by several Japanese musicians, including Isao Tomita's Electric Samurai: Switched on Rock (1972), which featured Moog synthesizer renditions of contemporary pop and rock songs, and Osamu Kitajima's progressive rock album Benzaiten (1974). The mid-1970s saw the rise of electronic art music musicians such as Jean Michel Jarre, Vangelis, and Tomita, who with Brian Eno were a significant influence on the development of new-age music. \n\nAfter the arrival of punk rock, a form of basic electronic rock emerged, increasingly using new digital technology to replace other instruments. Pioneering bands included Ultravox with their 1977 single \"Hiroshima Mon Amour\", Yellow Magic Orchestra from Japan, Gary Numan, Depeche Mode, and The Human League. Yellow Magic Orchestra in particular helped pioneer synthpop with their self-titled album (1978) and Solid State Survivor (1979). The definition of MIDI and the development of digital audio made the development of purely electronic sounds much easier.. These developments led to the growth of synthpop, which after it was adopted by the New Romantic movement, allowed synthesizers to dominate the pop and rock music of the early 80s. Key acts included Duran Duran, Spandau Ballet, A Flock of Seagulls, Culture Club, Talk Talk, Japan, and Eurythmics. Synthpop sometimes used synthesizers to replace all other instruments, until the style began to fall from popularity in the mid-1980s.\n\nSequencers and drum machines\n\n Music sequencers began being used around the mid 20th century, and Tomita's albums in mid-1970s being later examples. In 1978, Yellow Magic Orchestra were using computer-based technology in conjunction with a synthesiser to produce popular music, making their early use of the microprocessor-based Roland MC-8 Microcomposer sequencer. \n\nDrum machines, also known as rhythm machines, also began being used around the late-1950s, with a later example being Osamu Kitajima's progressive rock album Benzaiten (1974), which used a rhythm machine along with electronic drums and a synthesizer. In 1977, Ultravox's \"Hiroshima Mon Amour\" was one of the first singles to use the metronome-like percussion of a Roland TR-77 drum machine. In 1980, Roland Corporation released the TR-808, one of the first and most popular programmable drum machines. The first band to use it was Yellow Magic Orchestra in 1980, and it would later gain widespread popularity with the release of Marvin Gaye's \"Sexual Healing\" and Afrika Bambaataa's \"Planet Rock\" in 1982. The TR-808 was a fundamental tool in the later Detroit techno scene of the late 1980s, and was the drum machine of choice for Derrick May and Juan Atkins. \n\nBirth of MIDI\n\nIn 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface that new instruments could use to communicate control instructions with other instruments and computers. This standard was dubbed Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) and resulted from a collaboration between leading manufacturers, initially Sequential Circuits, Oberheim, Roland—and later, other participants that included Yamaha, Korg, and Kawai. A paper was authored by Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits and proposed to the Audio Engineering Society in 1981. Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized.\n\nMIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and in synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer.\n\nMIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via sampling and sampled-ROM-based instruments.\n\nMiller Puckette developed graphic signal-processing software for 4X called Max (after Max Mathews) and later ported it to Macintosh (with Dave Zicarelli extending it for Opcode) for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background.\n\nDigital synthesis\n\nIn 1975, the Japanese company Yamaha licensed the algorithms for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971. Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the \"key scaling\" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation. However, the first commercial digital synthesizer to be released would be the Australian Fairlight company's Fairlight CMI (Computer Musical Instrument) in 1979, as the first practical polyphonic digital synthesizer/sampler system.\n\nIn 1980, Yamaha eventually released the first FM digital synthesizer, the Yamaha GS-1, but at an expensive price. In 1983, Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the DX-7, which also used FM synthesis and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time. The DX-7 was known for its recognizable bright tonalities that was partly due to an overachieving sampling rate of 57 kHz. \n\nBarry Vercoe describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds:\n\nChiptunes\n\nThe characteristic lo-fi sound of chip music was initially the result of early sound cards' technical limitations; however, the sound has since become sought after in its own right.\n\nLate 1980s to 1990s\n\nRise of dance music \n\nThe trend has continued to the present day with modern nightclubs worldwide regularly playing electronic dance music (EDM). Nowadays, electronic dance music has radio stations, websites, and publications like Mixmag dedicated solely to the genre. Moreover, the genre has found commercial and cultural significance in the United States and North America, thanks to the wildly popular big room house/EDM sound that has been incorporated into U.S. pop music and the rise of large scale commercial raves such as Electric Daisy Carnival, Tomorrowland (festival) and Ultra Music Festival.\n\nAdvancements\n\nOther recent developments included the Tod Machover (MIT and IRCAM) composition Begin Again Again for \"hypercello\", an interactive system of sensors measuring physical movements of the cellist. Max Mathews developed the \"Conductor\" program for real-time tempo, dynamic and timbre control of a pre-input electronic score. Morton Subotnick released a multimedia CD-ROM All My Hummingbirds Have Alibis.\n\n2000s and 2010s\n\nIn recent years, as computer technology has become more accessible and music software has advanced, interacting with music production technology is now possible using means that bear no relationship to traditional musical performance practices: for instance, laptop performance (laptronica), live coding and Algorave. In general, the term Live PA refers to any live performance of electronic music, whether with laptops, synthesizers, or other devices.\n\nIn the last decade, a number of software-based virtual studio environments have emerged, with products such as Propellerhead's Reason and Ableton Live finding popular appeal. Such tools provide viable and cost-effective alternatives to typical hardware-based production studios, and thanks to advances in microprocessor technology, it is now possible to create high quality music using little more than a single laptop computer. Such advances have democratized music creation, leading to a massive increase in the amount of home-produced electronic music available to the general public via the internet.\n\nArtists can now also individuate their production practice by creating personalized software synthesizers, effects modules, and various composition environments. Devices that once existed exclusively in the hardware domain can easily have virtual counterparts. Some of the more popular software tools for achieving such ends are commercial releases such as Max/Msp and Reaktor and open source packages such as Csound, Pure Data, SuperCollider, and ChucK.\n\nCircuit bending\n\nCircuit bending is the creative customization of the circuits within electronic devices such as low voltage, battery-powered guitar effects, children's toys and small digital synthesizers to create new musical or visual instruments and sound generators. Emphasizing spontaneity and randomness, the techniques of circuit bending have been commonly associated with noise music, though many more conventional contemporary musicians and musical groups have been known to experiment with \"bent\" instruments. Circuit bending usually involves dismantling the machine and adding components such as switches and potentiometers that alter the circuit. With the revived interest for analogue synthesizers, circuit bending became a cheap solution for many experimental musicians to create their own individual analogue sound generators. Nowadays many schematics can be found to build noise generators such as the Atari Punk Console or the Dub Siren as well as simple modifications for children toys such as the famous Speak & Spells that are often modified by circuit benders. Reed Ghazala has explored circuit bending with the Speak & Spell toy, and has held apprenticeships and workshops on circuit bending."
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"Milton Babbitt, Composer Who Gloried in Complexity, Dies at 94 - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nMusic |Milton Babbitt, a Composer Who Gloried in Complexity, Dies at 94\nSearch\nContinue reading the main story\nMilton Babbitt , an influential composer, theorist and teacher who wrote music that was intensely rational and for many listeners impenetrably abstruse, died on Saturday. He was 94 and lived in Princeton, N.J.\nPaul Lansky, a composer who studied with Mr. Babbitt and was a colleague at Princeton University , where Mr. Babbitt remained an emeritus professor of composition, said that Mr. Babbitt died at a hospital in Princeton.\nMr. Babbitt, who had a lively sense of humor despite the reputation for severity that his music fostered, sometimes referred to himself as a maximalist to stress the musical and philosophical distance between his style and the simpler, more direct style of younger contemporaries like Philip Glass, Steve Reich and other Minimalist composers. It was an apt description.\nAlthough he dabbled early in his career with theater music, his Composition for Orchestra (1940) ushered in a structurally complex, profoundly organized style that was rooted in Arnold Schoenberg’s serial method.\nContinue reading the main story\nBut Mr. Babbitt expanded on Mr. Schoenberg’s approach. In Mr. Schoenberg’s system, a composer begins by arranging the 12 notes of the Western scale in a particular order called a tone row, or series, on which the work is based. Mr. Babbitt was the first to use this serial ordering not only with pitches but also with dynamics, timbre, duration, registration and other elements. His methods became the basis of the “total serialism” championed in the 1950s by Pierre Boulez, Luigi Nono and other European composers.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nMr. Babbitt began exploring this path in Three Compositions for Piano (1947) and Composition for Four Instruments (1948), and adhered to it through his entire career. He composed prolifically for chamber ensembles and instrumental soloists and created a substantial and varied catalog of vocal works. He also composed a compact but vital group of orchestral pieces and an enduring series of works for synthesizer, often in combination with voices or acoustic instruments.\nMr. Babbitt liked to give his pieces colorful titles, often with puns (“The Joy of More Sextets,” for example), and said that in selecting titles he tried to avoid both the stale and the obscure. Yet when Mr. Babbitt explained his compositional approach in essays, lectures and program notes, they could be as difficult to understand as his music. In one program note, he spoke of “models of similar, interval-preserving, registrally uninterpreted pitch-class and metrically durationally uninterpreted time-point aggregate arrays.”\nHe often said in interviews that every note in a contemporary composition should be so thoroughly justified that the alteration of a tone color or a dynamic would ruin the work’s structure. And although colleagues who worked in atonal music objected when their music was described as cerebral or academic, Mr. Babbitt embraced both terms and came to be regarded as the standard-bearer of the ultrarational extreme in American composition.\nThat reputation was based in part on an article published by High Fidelity magazine in February 1958 under the title “Who Cares if You Listen?” The headline was often cited as evidence of contemporary composers’ disregard for the public’s sensibilities, and Mr. Babbitt objected that it had been added by an editor, without his permission. But whatever his objections, the article did argue that contemporary composition was a business for specialists, on both the composing and listening end of the transaction, and that the general public’s objections were irrelevant.\n“Why refuse to recognize the possibility that contemporary music has reached a stage long since attained by other forms of activity?” Mr. Babbitt wrote. “The time has passed when the normally well-educated man without special preparation could understand the most advanced work in, for example, mathematics, philosophy and physics. Advanced music, to the extent that it reflects the knowledge and originality of the informed composer, scarcely can be expected to appear more intelligible than these arts and sciences to the person whose musical education usually has been even less extensive than his background in other fields.”\nListeners who overlooked Mr. Babbitt’s philosophical abstractions and thorny analyses — who simply sat back and listened, rather than trying to understand his harmonies and structural processes — often discovered works of great expressive variety.\nThese range from the intense emotionality of “A Solo Requiem” (1976) to the shimmering surfaces and eerie pictorialism of “Philomel” (1964) and the poetic flow of some of the solo piano works, which have the spirit of advanced jazz improvisations. Indeed, in his “All Set” (1957), for winds, brasses and percussion, he achieved a freely improvisatory feeling within an atonal harmonic context.\nMilton Byron Babbitt was born in Philadelphia on May 10, 1916, and grew up in Jackson, Miss. He began studying the violin when he was 4 but soon switched to clarinet and saxophone. Early in his life he was attracted to jazz and theater music.\nAdvertisement\nHe was making his own arrangements of popular songs at 7, and when he was 13, he won a local songwriting contest.\nPhoto\nMilton Babbitt at Carnegie Hall in 1998. Credit Steve J. Sherman\nAlthough the music he went on to write rejected the easily assimilated tonal language of popular music, Mr. Babbitt retained a fondness for theater songs all his life and was said to have an encyclopedic knowledge of the style.\n“If you know anybody who knows more popular music of the ’20s or ’30s than I do, I want to know who it is,” he said in an Internet interview with the New Music Box in 2001. “I grew up playing every kind of music in the world, and I know more pop music from the ’20s and ’30s, it’s because of where I grew up. We had to imitate Jan Garber one night; we had to imitate Jean Goldkette the next night. We heard everything from the radio; we had to do it all by ear. We took down their arrangements; we stole their arrangements; we transcribed them, approximately. We played them for a country club dance one night and for a high school dance the next.”\nIn 1946, Mr. Babbitt tried his hand at a musical, a collaboration with Richard Koch and Richard S. Childs called “Fabulous Voyage.” The work was not produced, but in 1982 Mr. Babbitt published three of its songs, which showed a firm command of the idiom and considerable charm.\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nBut Mr. Babbitt set his course toward serious avant-garde composition in 1932, when he played through the scores of some Schoenberg piano music that an uncle had brought home from Europe. At the time, Mr. Babbitt was a 16-year-old philosophy student at the University of Pennsylvania. The next year he became a composition student of Marion Bauer and Philip James at New York University, and in 1935 he began studying privately with Roger Sessions.\nIn 1938, Sessions invited Mr. Babbitt to join the Princeton composition faculty, and Mr. Babbitt succeeded him as the William Shubael Conant Professor of Music in 1965. Mr. Babbitt was also on the faculty of the Juilliard School, where he began teaching in 1973, as well as at the Salzburg Seminar in American Studies; the Berkshire Music Center at Tanglewood ; the new-music academy at Darmstadt, Germany; and the New England Conservatory in Boston. A series of six lectures he gave at the University of Wisconsin was published as “Words About Music” in 1987. Mr. Babbitt’s articles about music were published as “The Collected Essays of Milton Babbitt” by Princeton University Press in 2003.\nHis students included Mario Davidovsky and John Eaton, who have followed essentially in Mr. Babbitt’s atonal path (although Mr. Eaton later broke away), and the theater composer Stephen Sondheim.\nDuring World War II, Mr. Babbitt taught mathematics at Princeton and undertook secret research in Washington. He also evolved his extended form of serialism during these years. But immediately after the war he pursued a split musical path, exploring his rigorous serial style in his abstract concert works, on one hand, and completing “Fabulous Voyage” and a film score, “Into the Good Ground” (1949).\nIn the 1950s Mr. Babbitt was hired as a consultant by RCA, which was developing the most sophisticated electronic-music instrument of the time, the Mark II synthesizer. The Mark II became the centerpiece of the new Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in 1959. Mr. Babbitt was one of the center’s first directors, along with Sessions, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nMr. Babbitt’s earliest electronic pieces, Composition for Synthesizer (1961) and Ensembles for Synthesizer (1964), were as intensely organized as his instrumental music had been. Indeed, he saw the synthesizer as a kind of liberation from the physical limitations of living performers.\n“The medium provides a kind of full satisfaction for the composer,” he said in a 1969 interview with The New York Times. “I love going to the studio with my work in my head, realizing it while I am there and walking out with the tape under my arm. I can then send it anywhere in the world, knowing exactly how it will sound.”\nThe early synthesizer pieces have become classics, but Mr. Babbitt quickly moved forward, writing works in which electronic soundtracks accompanied live performers. Particularly striking are the vocal works “Vision and Prayer” (1961) and “Philomel,” and “Reflections” (1975) for piano and tape. He stopped composing music with an electronic component in 1976, when the Columbia-Princeton studio was vandalized, and it was decided that restoring it would be too expensive.\nMany of Mr. Babbitt’s works have been recorded, and he has always had the loyalty of performers willing to devote the effort required to render his music sensibly. Among his earliest champions were the soprano Bethany Beardslee, for whom he wrote many of his vocal works (“A Solo Requiem” was written in memory of her husband, Godfrey Winham); the Juilliard String Quartet; the pianists Robert Miller and Robert Helps; the Contemporary Chamber Ensemble; and the Group for Contemporary Music.\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, a generation of young instrumentalists inured to the complexities of contemporary music became eloquent champions of Mr. Babbitt’s music . Among them are the pianists Robert Taub and the guitarist David Starobin, who have commissioned and recorded Mr. Babbitt’s works.\nMr. Babbitt’s orchestral music is so exceedingly complex that both the New York Philharmonic, in 1969, and the Philadelphia Orchestra, in 1989, postponed premieres when the available rehearsal time proved insufficient. He did, however, have champions among top-flight conductors, the most notable being James Levine, who in 1967, as a 24-year-old fledgling conductor, led the premiere of Mr. Babbitt’s “Correspondences.” Mr. Levine later recorded Mr. Babbitt’s music with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and commissioned his Second Piano Concerto for the Met Orchestra and Mr. Taub in 1998. He regularly included Mr. Babbitt’s chamber works on his Met Chamber Ensemble programs, and in 2004 Mr. Babbitt dedicated his Concerti for Orchestra to Mr. Levine and the Boston Symphony Orchestra, which commissioned it.\nMr. Babbitt received a special Pulitzer citation for his life’s work in 1982, and in 1986 he was awarded a $300,000 MacArthur Fellowship. His earlier awards included the Joseph Bearns Prize from Columbia University, for his “Music for the Mass” in 1941; the New York Music Critics Circle Awards, for Composition for Four Instruments in 1949 and for “Philomel” in 1964; and the Creative Arts Award from Brandeis University in 1970. He was elected to the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1965.\nMr. Babbitt’s wife, Sylvia, died in 2005. He is survived by a daughter, Betty Anne Duggan, and two grandchildren, Julie and Adam.\nCorrection: February 6, 2011\nAn obituary in some editions last Sunday about the composer Milton Babbitt misstated the name of one of his compositions, the name of a film for which he wrote the score, and the name of an ensemble that was an early champion of his work. The composition was titled “All Set,” not “All Set for Jazz.” The film was titled “Into the Good Ground,” not “Into the Ground.” And the ensemble was the Group for Contemporary Music, not the Group of Contemporary Music.\nA version of this article appears in print on January 30, 2011, on Page A24 of the New York edition with the headline: Milton Babbitt, a Composer Who Gloried in Complexity, Dies at 94. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe",
"Milton Babbitt, musician and composer from Jackson, Mississippi\nby Lisa Hill (SHS)\nLisa Hill, SHS Researcher\nMilton Byron Babbitt was born on May 10, 1916, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His father was a mathematician. Milton Babbitt grew up in Jackson, Mississippi, learning to play the violin at age four and later he learned to play the clarinet and saxophone. When he was just fifteen years old, he graduated high school, and he became a jazz musician and pop music composer.\nIn 1931, Babbitt enrolled in the University of Pennsylvania with the intention of studying mathematics as his father did. However, music interested him more, so he transferred to New York University where he studied composition. Babbitt earned his degree from New York University in music in 1935 and later from Princeton in music in 1942 “Symposium in Honor of Milton Babbitt”).\nHe joined the Princeton music faculty in 1938 and received one of Princeton’s first Master of Fine Arts degrees in 1942. Then he actually did mathematical research during World War II in Washington, DC, and Princeton, where he became a member of the mathematics faculty from 1943 to 1945 (Barkin & Brody 2001).\nBabbitt is a theorist and composer (“Smith Archives”) whose works for instruments and accomplishments in synthesized sound have made him one of the most recognized composers of the 20th century. Babbitt’s interest in electronic music resulted in his being hired by RCA as consultant composer to work with their RCA Mark II Synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, and in 1961 produced his Composition for Synthesizer.\nBabbitt writes both electronic music and music for conventional musical instruments, and often combines the two. He has great talent and an instinct for jazz and other American popular music. In addition to teaching at Princeton, he has also taught at The Juilliard School. He founded the Committee of Direction for the Electronic Music Center of Columbia-Princeton Universities. He has been awarded many honors including a MacArthur Fellowship in 1986 (sometimes called the “Genius Award”) and a Pulitzer Prize Citation for his “life’s work as a distinguished and seminal American composer.” Milton Babbitt is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a part of the American Academy of Arts. He was the recipient of the Mississippi Institute of Arts and Letters Award for music composition in 1988. He has had a major impact on the works of contemporary musicians. (Schirmer, G.). Babbitt once said, “I want a piece of music to be literally as much as possible (“Smith Archives”).\nBabbitt is a leading composer of serialization (the use of predetermined series of pitches, rhythms, tone colors, and durations.) This is the start for the composition of music. His work contains the order of twelve tones in the vertical and linear succession. Two Sonnets for baritone, viola, clarinet, and cello create a parallel between the rhyme scheme and serial employed. The Third Quartet shows features of metronomic stability. Babbitt believes that a serious composer would accept his isolation from the public as a way of functioning and should help to develop the resources of his art in his work not suitable for most listeners. (“Babbitt, Milton Byron”).\nHis early influences included Webern and Schoenberg. Babbitt wanted to have control of every aspect of his compositions in a serialization of 12 tones, 12 dynamic levels, 12 note values, 12 instrumental timbres, and 12 time intervals. He compares the 20th century serialization of music as a revolution equal to the 20th century revolution in physics. Milton Babbitt wrote the article, “Who Cares If You Listen?” dealing with the composer as a writer of music that the general public does not understand or even want to understand (Arnold, C.).\nBabbitt is a great composer and accomplished man who still works with serialization today (see update below). Milton Babbitt once said, “I am concerned with stating an attitude towards the indisputable facts of the status and condition of the composer of what we will, for the moment, designate as ‘serious,’ ‘advanced,’ contemporary music. This composer expends an enormous amount of time and energy — and, usually, considerable money — on the creation of a commodity which has little, no, or negative commodity value. He is, in essence, a ‘vanity’ composer. The general public is largely unaware of and uninterested in his music. The majority of performers shun it and resent it. Consequently, the music is little performed, and then primarily at poorly-attended concerts before an audience consisting in the main of fellow professionals. At best, the music would appear to be for, of, and by specialists.” (Arnold, C.). Nevertheless, the compositional and intellectual wisdom of Milton Babbitt has influenced a wide range of contemporary musicians. His All Set, for jazz ensemble, reveals an extraordinary compositional flexibility, uniquely American and vintage Babbitt.\nIn May, 1998, there was a symposium in honor of Milton Babbitt in the Coolidge Auditorium of the Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress. Babbitt has been a friend of the Music Division in the Library of Congress for many years and has served on the Coolidge Foundation Committee. Some of his works have been shown at the Library and show insight into many of the most important developments in music. The purpose of the symposium in his honor was to acknowledge those developments (“Symposium in Honor of Milton Babbitt”).\nMilton Babbitt’s wife Sylvia died in 2005. Together they had one daughter, Betty Anne Duggan. Babbitt’s brother Albert E. Babbitt, Jr., a mathematician who died in 2005.\n2011 UPDATE: Milton Babbitt died on January 29, 2011, at the age of 94 in Princeton, New Jersey. The Associated Press stated that Babbitt was known for his complex orchestral compositions and credited with developing the first electronic synthesizer. Babbitt had earned degrees from Princeton and New York University and joined Princeton’s faculty in 1938. He became a professor emeritus of music there in 1984. In the 1950s, RCA hired Babbitt as a consultant while it was developing the Mark II synthesizer. The synthesizer was installed at Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Cente,r and Babbitt became a founder and director. He was best known for electronic music blended with vocal performances in compositions such as Vision and Prayer and Philomel in the 1960s and Reflections in 1975.\nTimeline\n1916– May 10- Babbitt was born in Philadelphia, PA, but grew up in Jackson, Mississippi\n1931- Began his college educated at the University of Pennsylvania in mathematics, but soon moved to New York University to study music\n1948- The first works in which linear succession, harmonic stimulaneity, dynamics, duration, articulation, register, and timber were all derived from a single, all-inclusive premise were written by Babbitt.\n1932-35- Educated at New York University in music.\n1938-42- Babbitt taught on the music faculty at Princeton\n1942- Graduated from Princeton University in music.\n1943-45- Babbitt was on the mathematics faculty at Princeton.\n1959- Helped found the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center.\n1960- Named Conant Professor of Music at Princeton.\n1973- Composition faculty at the Julliard School of Music.\n1977- Babbitt’s works premiered at the Library of Congress.\n1981- Professor Emeritus at Princeton.\n1982- Received a Pulitzer Prize Citation for his life’s work\n1986–Received MacArthur Fellowship for $500,000\n1998- Symposium in Honor of Milton Babbitt.\n2011–January 29 at age 96",
"electronic music | Britannica.com\nElectronic music\nElectronic music, any music involving electronic processing, such as recording and editing on tape, and whose reproduction involves the use of loudspeakers .\nElectronic organ.\nr4Rick\nAlthough any music produced or modified by electrical, electromechanical, or electronic means can be called electronic music, it is more precise to say that for a piece of music to be electronic its composer must anticipate the electronic processing subsequently applied to his musical concept, so that the final product reflects in some way his interaction with the medium. This is no different from saying that a composer should have in mind an orchestra when he composes a symphony and a piano when he composes a piano sonata . A conventional piece of popular music does not become electronic music by being played on an electronically amplified guitar , nor does a Bach fugue become electronic music if played on an electronic organ instead of a pipe organ . Some experimental compositions , often containing chance elements and perhaps of indeterminate scoring, permit but do not necessarily demand electronic realization, but this is a specialized situation.\nElectronic music is produced from a wide variety of sound resources—from sounds picked up by microphones to those produced by electronic oscillators (generating basic acoustical wave forms such as sine waves, square waves, and sawtooth waves), complex computer installations, and microprocessors—that are recorded on tape and then edited into a permanent form . Generally, except for one type of performed music that has come to be called “live electronic music” (see below), electronic music is played back through loudspeakers either alone or in combination with ordinary musical instruments .\nThis article covers both early experimentation with electronic sound-producing devices and composers’ subsequent exploitation of electronic equipment as a technique of composition . Throughout the discussion it should be clear that electronic music is not a style but rather a technique yielding diverse results in the hands of different composers.\nSimilar Topics\nwhite noise\nHistorically, electronic music is one aspect of the larger development of 20th-century music strongly characterized by a search for new technical resources and modes of expression. Before 1945 composers sought to liberate themselves from the main Classical–Romantic tradition of tonal thinking and to reconstruct their thinking along new lines, for the most part either Neoclassical or atonal and 12-tone, in which a composition is built up entirely from a tone row consisting of all 12 notes of the ordinary chromatic scale.\nThis pre-World War II period was accompanied by substantial experimentation with electrical and electronic devices. The most important outcome for the composer was the development of a number of electronic musical instruments (such as the Hammond organ and the theremin) that provided new timbres and that laid the technical foundations for the future development of electronic music proper from about 1948 onward. The rapid development of computer technology has had its effect in music, too, so much so that the term computer music is replacing electronic music as the more accurate description of the most significant interaction between the composer and the electronic medium.\nElectronic music is represented not only by a wide variety of 20th-century works, and not only by serious concert pieces, but also by a substantial literature of theatre , film , and television scores and by multimedia works that use all types of audiovisual techniques. Electronic music for theatre and films seems an especially appropriate replacement for a disembodied, nonexistent orchestra heard from a tape or a sound track. Electronic popular music has also won adherents. This mostly has consisted of arrangements of standard popular music for electronic synthesizers, the tentative use of electronic alterations by some of the more ambitious and experimental rock groups, and the preparation of recordings by innovative studio techniques.\nHistory and stylistic development\nMusic: Fact or Fiction?\nBeginnings\nDuring the 19th century attempts were made to produce and record sounds mechanically or electromechanically. For example, the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz traced wave forms of regular sounds to check results of his acoustical researches. An important event was the invention of the phonograph by Thomas Edison and Emile Berliner , independently, in the 1870s and 1880s. This invention not only marked the beginning of the recording industry but also showed that all the acoustical content of musical sounds could be captured (in principle, if not in actuality at that time) and be faithfully retained for future use.\nBritannica Stories\nRingling Bros. Folds Its Tent\nThe first major effort to generate musical sounds electrically was carried out over many years by an American, Thaddeus Cahill , who built a formidable assembly of rotary generators and telephone receivers to convert electrical signals into sound. Cahill called his remarkable invention the telharmonium , which he started to build about 1895 and continued to improve for years thereafter. The instrument failed because it was complex, impractical, and could not produce sounds of any magnitude since amplifiers and loudspeakers had not yet been invented. Nevertheless, Cahill’s concepts were basically sound. He was a visionary who lived ahead of his time, and his instrument was the ancestor of present-day electronic music synthesizers.\nThe Italian Futurist painter Luigi Russolo was another early exponent of synthesized music. As early as 1913 Russolo proposed that all music be destroyed and that new instruments reflecting current technology be built to perform a music expressive of industrialized society. Russolo subsequently did build a number of mechanically activated intonarumori (noise instruments) that grated, hissed, scratched, rumbled, and shrieked. Russolo’s instruments and most of his music apparently vanished during World War II.\nImpact of technological developments\nBetween World War I and World War II developments occurred that led more directly to modern electronic music, although most of them were technically, rather than musically, important. First was the development of audio-frequency technology. By the early 1920s basic circuits for sine-, square-, and sawtooth-wave generators had been invented, as had amplifiers, filter circuits, and, most importantly, loudspeakers. (Sine waves are signals consisting of “pure tones”—i.e., without overtones; sawtooth waves comprise fundamental tones and all related overtones; square waves consist only of the odd-numbered partials, or component tones, of the natural harmonic series.) Also, mechanical acoustical recording was replaced by electrical recording in the late 1920s.\nConnect with Britannica\nFacebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest\nSecond was the development of electromechanical and electronic musical instruments designed to replace existing musical instruments—specifically, the invention of electronic organs . This was a remarkable achievement and one that absorbed the attention of many ingenious inventors and circuit designers. It should be stressed, however, that it was the objective of these organ builders to simulate and replace pipe organs and harmoniums, not to provide novel instruments that would stimulate the imaginations of avant-garde composers.\nMost electromechanical and electronic organs employ subtractive synthesis, as do pipe organs. Signals rich in harmonic partials (such as sawtooth waves) are selected by the performer at the keyboard and combined and shaped acoustically by filter circuits that simulate the formant , or resonant-frequency, spectra—i.e., the acoustical components—of conventional organ stops. The formant depends on the filter circuit and does not relate to the frequency of a tone being produced. A low tone shaped by a given formant (a given stop) is normally rich in harmonics, while a high tone normally is poor in them. Psychologically, one expects this from all musical instruments, not only organs but also orchestral instruments.\nSome electronic organs operate on the opposing principle of additive synthesis, whereby individually generated sine waves are added together in varying proportions to yield a complex wave form. The most successful of these is the Hammond organ , patented by Laurens Hammond in 1934. The Hammond organ has odd qualities because the richness of its harmonic content does not diminish as the player goes up the keyboard. The German composer Karlheinz Stockhausen (in Momente, 1961–62), the Norwegian composer Arne Nordheim (in Colorazione, 1968), and a few others have scored specifically for this instrument.\nThird was the development of novel electronic musical instruments designed to supply timbres not provided by ordinary musical instruments. During the 1920s there was a burst of interest in building an extraordinary variety of such instruments, ranging from practical to absurd. The most successful of these were relatively few in number, were monophonic (i.e., could play only one melodic line at a time), and survive chiefly because some important music has been scored for them. These are the theremin , invented in 1920 by a Russian scientist, Leon Theremin; the Ondes Martenot , first built in 1928 by a French musician and scientist, Maurice Martenot; and the trautonium , designed by a German, Friedrich Trautwein, in 1930.\nBritannica Lists & Quizzes\nEditor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies\nThe theremin is a beat-frequency audio oscillator (sine-wave generator) that has two condensers placed not inside the circuit chassis but, rather, outside, as antennas . Because these antennas respond to the presence of nearby objects, the pitch and amplitude of the output signal of the theremin can be controlled by the manner in which a performer moves his hands in its vicinity. A skilled performer can produce all sorts of effects, including scales, glissandi, and flutters. A number of compositions have been written for this instrument since the 1920s.\nThe Ondes Martenot consists of a touch-sensitive keyboard and a slide-wire glissando generator that are both controlled by the performer’s right hand, as well as some stops controlled by the left hand. These, in turn, activate a sawtooth-wave generator that delivers a signal to one or more output transducers. The instrument has been used extensively by several French composers, including Olivier Messiaen and Pierre Boulez , and by the French-American composer Edgard Varèse.\nThe trautonium, like the Ondes Martenot, uses a sawtooth-wave generator as its signal source and a keyboard of novel design that permits not just ordinary tuning but unusual scales as well. Most of the music composed for this instrument is of German origin, an example being the Concertino for Trautonium and Strings (1931) by Paul Hindemith . In about 1950 a polyphonic version (capable of playing several voices, or parts, simultaneously) of this instrument was built by Oskar Sala, a former student of Trautwein and Hindemith, for preparing sound tracks in a Berlin film studio. These instruments have become virtually obsolete, however, because all the sounds they produce can easily be duplicated by electronic music synthesizers.\nTape music\nWith tape music the history of electronic music in the narrower sense begins. This history seems split into three main periods: an early (by now classical) period lasting from the commercial introduction of the tape recorder immediately following World War II until about 1960; a second period that featured the introduction of electronic music synthesizers and the acceptance of the electronic medium as a legitimate compositional activity; and the third period, in which computer technology is rapidly becoming both the dominant resource and the dominant concern.\nTrending Topics\nEyjafjallajökull volcano\nThe invention of the tape recorder gave composers of the 1950s an exciting new musical instrument to use for new musical experiences. Fascination with the thing itself was the dominant motivation for composing electronic tape music. Musically, the 1950s, in contrast to the 1960s, were relatively introverted years: in all kinds of music, the focus of interest was technique and style, especially with the avant-garde. In time, the medium became fairly well understood, the techniques for handling it became increasingly standardized, and a repertory of characteristic and historically important compositions came into being. The burning issues were whether tape would replace live musicians; whether the composer was at last freed from the humiliations so often endured to get his music into the concert hall; and whether a new medium of expression had been created, quite different from and independent of instrumental music, analogous , say, to photography as opposed to traditional painting.\nIt became increasingly evident, however, that there was no reason to think that the electronic tape medium would eliminate instrumental performance by live musicians. Tape was increasingly regarded as something that could be—but did not need to be—treated as a unique medium. Thus the notion that the tape recorder could function as one instrument in an ensemble grew more and more popular. This conception obviated the visual monotony of an evening in an auditorium with nothing to look at but a loudspeaker. To this has been added a further stage of evolution, namely, live electronic music, in which the tape recorder and its tape is eliminated or greatly restricted in function, and transformations of the sounds of musical instruments are effected at the concert with electronic equipment. Not infrequently, this kind of performance environment also involves scores in which aleatory (chance, or random), improvisatory, or quasi-improvisatory musical guidelines for the manipulation of such equipment are supplied by a composer who prefers to let what happens just happen. Actually, it is open to question whether live electronic music is really an advance or a reversion to a more primitive state of the art, in the sense that it is the enhancement of the timbres of familiar instruments, rather than music conceived totally in terms of electronic media per se.\nEstablishment of electronic studios\nThe first period of development was certainly one into which Europeans put the most consistent work. Tape music quickly gained recognition and financial support, and, before long, a number of well-equipped electronic music studios were established, primarily in government-supported broadcast facilities. Some important work was also done in the United States, but this was much more fragmentary, and not until after 1958 did Americans begin to catch up, either technically or artistically.\nIn 1948 two French composers, Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Henry , and their associates at Radiodiffusion et Télévision Française in Paris began to produce tape collages (analogous to collages in the visual arts), which they called musique concrète . All the materials they processed on tape were recorded sounds—sound effects, musical fragments, vocalizings, and other sounds and noises produced by man, his environment, and his artifacts . Such sounds were considered “concrete,” hence the term musique concrète. To this Paris group certainly belongs the credit both for originating the concept of tape music as such and for demonstrating how effective certain types of tape manipulation can be in transforming sounds. These transformations included speed alteration, variable speed control, playing tapes backward, and signal feedback loops. Schaeffer however, opposed the use of electronic oscillators as sound sources, claiming that these were not “concrete” sound sources, not “real,” and hence artificial and anti-humanistic.\nTwo of the most successful and best known musique concrète compositions of this early period are Schaeffer and Henry’s Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950; Symphony for One Man Only) and Henry’s Orphée (1953), a ballet score written for the Belgian dancer Maurice Béjart . These and similar works created a sensation when first presented to the public. Symphonie pour un homme seul, a descriptive suite about man and his activities, is an extended composition in 11 movements. Orphée is concerned with the descent of Orpheus into Hades.\nThe second event of significance was the formation of an electronic music studio in Cologne by Herbert Eimert , a composer working for Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk (now Westdeutscher Rundfunk), who was advised in turn by Werner Meyer-Eppler, an acoustician from the University of Bonn. Eimert was soon joined by Karlheinz Stockhausen , who composed the first really important tape composition from this studio, the now-famous Gesang der Jünglinge (1956; Song of Youth). The Cologne studio soon became a focal point of the reemergence of Germany as a dominant force in new music.\nAt Cologne emphasis was immediately placed on electronically generated sounds rather than concrete sounds and on electronic sound modifications such as filtering and modulating rather than tape manipulation. Eimert and Stockhausen also published a journal, Die Reihe (“The Row”), in which appeared articles emphasizing the “purity” of electronic sounds and the necessity of coupling electronic music to serial composing (using ordered groups of pitches, rhythms, and other musical elements as compositional bases), which made no more sense than the Paris group’s insistence on using only nonelectronic, nonserial material. This activity was part of the campaign of the 1950s that brought about the collapse of Neoclassicism (a style that drew equally on 20th-century musical idioms and earlier, formal types); the emergence of the Austrian composer Anton von Webern as the father figure of the new music; the development of total serialism , pointillism (a style making use of individual tones placed in a very sparse texture), and intellectualism; and an emphasis on technique. The examples set by these two studios were soon widely imitated in Europe . This trend continued in the 1960s, with many more studios, from modest to elaborate, being set up in almost every major urban centre in Europe. As time passed, the techniques and equipment in the newer studios became more standardized and reliable, and the rather peculiar issue of concrete versus electronic sounds ceased to concern anyone.\nIn the United States the production of electronic music, until 1958, was much more sporadic. The only continuing effort of this sort was the project undertaken by two composers at Columbia University , Otto Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky , to create a professional tape studio and to compose music illustrating the musical possibilities of the tape medium. Luening and Ussachevsky often collaborated on joint compositions. They gained particular attention for the composition of several concerto-like works for tape recorder and orchestra. In 1959 Luening and Ussachevsky joined with another U.S. composer, Milton Babbitt, to organize, on a much larger scale, the Columbia–Princeton Electronic Music Center, in which an impressive number of composers of professional repute have worked.\nOther tape compositions in the early 1950s in the United States were largely those of individual composers working as best they could under improvised circumstances. One major composer who did so was Varèse , who completed Déserts, for tape and instrumental ensemble, in 1954, and Poème électronique, for the Philips Pavilion at the 1958 Brussels World’s Fair. Another was John Cage , who completed Williams Mix in 1952 and Fontana Mix in 1958. Both Varèse and Cage had anticipated the electronic medium; Cage’s Imaginary Landscape No. 1 (1939) for RCA test records and percussion can well be regarded as a forerunner of current live electronic music.\nWith the establishment of the Experimental Music Studio at the University of Illinois in 1958 by Lejaren Hiller and the University of Toronto studio in 1959 by Myron Schaeffer, the formation of facilities for both production and teaching began to move forward. The number of studios in university music departments grew rapidly, and they soon became established as essential in teaching as well as composing.\nThe individual components may vary in a well-designed “classic” studio, but basically the equipment may be divided into five categories: sound sources (sine-wave, square-wave, sawtooth-wave, and white-noise generators; and microphones for picking up concrete sounds); routing and control circuitry (patch panels, switching boards, and mixers for coupling components together; amplifiers; and output connections); signal modifiers (modulators, frequency shifters, artificial reverberators, filters, variable-speed tape recorders, and time compression–expansion devices); monitors and quality-control equipment (frequency counter, spectrum analyzer, VU metres that monitor recording levels, oscilloscope, power amplifiers with loudspeakers and headsets, and workshop facilities); and recording and playback equipment, including high-quality tape recorders.\nWith this equipment the composer records sounds, both electronic and microphoned; modifies them singly or in montages by operations such as modulation, reverberation, and filtering; and finally re-records them in increasingly complex patterns. Inevitably, a major part of the composer’s effort is tape editing, unless he is satisfied with the crudest string of effects merely linked together in sequence. As in any other kind of music, the aesthetic merit of an electronic music composition seems to depend not only on musical ideas as such but also on the way in which they relate to one another and how they are used to build up a musical structure.\nThe integration of the tape has become a rather popular form of chamber music , if not of symphonic music. Varèse’s Déserts is an early example of this. It is scored for a group of 15 musicians and a two-channel tape and consists of four instrumental episodes interrupted by three tape interludes. In other works the tape recorder is “performed” together with the remaining instruments rather than merely in contrast to them. The problems of coordination, however, can become overriding, for it is difficult for a group of performers to follow a tape exactly. Obviously, the tape dominates the situation, remorselessly moving along no matter what happens in the rest of the group.\nThousands of electronic tape compositions were in existence by the early 1970s, many of ephemeral interest. It is relatively rare for a composer to have established a reputation solely as a composer of tape music. Pierre Henry perhaps is an example, but in general the important names in instrumental music of the 1950s and 1960s are the significant contributors in electronic music, too.\nStockhausen remained in the forefront of electronic music composers with several important pieces following Gesang der Jünglinge. These included Kontakte (1959–60; Contacts), for tape, piano, and percussion, and Telemusik (1966), for tape alone. Luciano Berio and Bruno Maderna , both Italians, worked for a while at the Radio Audizioni Italia (now Radiotelevisione Italiana) studio in Milan. Besides Différences (1958–60), a composition for tape and chamber group, Berio’s tape pieces include Thema-Omaggio a Joyce (1958; Homage to Joyce) and Visage (1961), which exploited the unusual voice of the American singer Cathy Berberian.\nIn the United States the Columbia–Princeton Electronic Music Center has had the greatest output, a long list of composers besides Luening and Ussachevsky having used its facilities. Tape music from the University of Illinois studio includes Salvatore Martirano’s L’s GA (1967), a savage political satire for tape, films, helium bomb, and gas-masked politico. The University of Toronto studio, in spite of its technical excellence, has not been well represented on discs. One Canadian piece that is very amusing, however, is Hugh LeCaine’s Dripsody (1955), all the sounds of which are derived from the splash of a single drop of water.\nMusic synthesizers\nComposing tape music by the classic method was neither easy nor free of technical pitfalls. A complex piece had to be assembled from hundreds or even thousands of fragments of tape. Splicing these sounds together consumed a vast amount of time and could also lead to an accumulation of errors and deterioration of the sound. Consequently, substantial efforts were expended to reduce this work load and at the same time improve quality. Music synthesizers were the first product of these efforts. They cannot, however, be regarded as more than an intermediate technological development because of later computer technology (see below).\nIn contrast to Cahill’s period, by the 1950s the means finally existed to construct full-scale music synthesizers, starting with the RCA Electronic Music Synthesizers, designed by Harry Olson and Herbert Belar, research scientists working at the RCA Laboratories at Princeton, New Jersey . The first machine was introduced in 1955; a second, improved model was turned over to the Columbia–Princeton Electronic Music Center in 1959.\nThe basic advance of the RCA synthesizer was an information input mechanism, a device for punching sets of instructions into a wide roll of punched paper tape. The composer could at any time during the programming process interrupt this activity to listen to what had been punched, to make corrections, and to edit the material before making a final paper tape that then constituted the “master score” of the composition.\nThe composer whose name became particularly associated with the RCA synthesizer was Milton Babbitt . He had developed a precisely defined compositional technique involving total serialization (i.e., of every musical element). When he became aware of the synthesizer, he was anxious to use it, because it gave him the opportunity to realize his music more precisely than had hitherto been the case. Among Babbitt’s compositions created with this machine were Composition for Synthesizer (1961), Vision and Prayer (1961), Ensembles for Synthesizer (1963), Philomel (1964), and Phonemena (1974).\nIn about 1960 a new circuit, the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), attracted the attention of engineers interested in electronic music because the frequency of its output signal is proportional to an independently generated input voltage rather than being internally set. The response is immediate because no mechanical couplings or controls are required. Robert Moog was the first to design several types of compact synthesizers of moderate price that supplied an extended range of possibilities for sound manipulation. In addition to VCO’s, which produce sine, square, sawtooth, and triangular waves, the Moog synthesizer contained white-noise generators, attack and decay generators (controlling a sound’s onset and fading), voltage-controlled amplifiers, and band-pass filters and sequencers.\nMoog electronic sound synthesizer\nAllen H. Kelson\nOne major advance in sound manipulation provided by VCO’s is frequency modulation; if the input is a periodic function, the output frequency will vary periodically to provide tremolos, trills, and warble tones. Moog’s synthesizer soon had to compete with several other synthesizers of essentially the same design, the Buchla Electronic Music Box, the ARP, and the later, more sophisticated Prophet 10.\nThese popular synthesizers eliminate much of the drudgery of tape splicing, but at a price. The range of timbres and processes is more limited because they operate by subtractive synthesis and impose transients that affect all partials (component vibrations) of a complex wave identically. An advantage of a harmonic tone generator built in 1962 by James Beauchamp at the University of Illinois, also from VCO’s, was that it used additive synthesis —i.e., it created sound by combining signals for pure tones (sine waves)—instead of removing partials from a complex signal. It was designed so that each partial of a sound could have its own entry point, its own rise time, and its own decay time. The improvement in tone quality was enormous, because the ear normally expects nuances such as higher partials that decay faster than lower ones. Salvatore Martirano’s Underworld (1965) is a good example of music in which the tape was made largely by additive synthesis.\nLearn about, and listen to, the Synthi 100, an analogue synthesizer made in the 1970s by Electronic …\n© University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (A Britannica Publishing Partner)\nA composer closely associated with synthesizers is Morton Subotnik, who has produced a series of extended electronic music compositions, starting with Silver Apples of the Moon (1967). These pieces were created on the Buchla synthesizer, and any one of them demonstrates in relatively unmodified form the types of sounds one may obtain with these instruments.\nA word should be said about realizations of instrumental music through synthesizers, notably an early, commercially successful album called Switched-on Bach (1968), arrangements made by Walter (later Wendy) Carlos on a Moog synthesizer. The record displayed technical excellence in the sounds created and made the electronic synthesis of music more intelligible to the general listening public. This is useful so long as it is realized that the materials on the record are arrangements of familiar music, not original compositions. (Carlos later created an original electronic score for the science fiction film Tron.)\nPage 1 of 2",
"Focus! 2016 Presents \"Milton Babbitt's World: A Centennial Celebration\" in January 2016 | The Juilliard School\nFocus! 2016 Presents \"Milton Babbitt's World: A Centennial Celebration\" in January 2016\nSubhead\nSix Free Concerts from Friday, January 22 through Friday, January 29, 2016\nStart Date\nMilton Babbitt\nBody\nNEW YORK –– The 32nd annual Focus! festival, Milton Babbitt’s World: A Centennial Celebration, is devoted to composer, teacher, and writer, the late Milton Babbitt, who was a longtime member of Juilliard’s composition faculty (1971 to 2008) and remained an emeritus faculty member. The festival, which will include the world premiere of Babbitt’s Concerti for Violin, Orchestra, and Synthesized Sound, opens with the New Juilliard Ensemble, conducted by Joel Sachs, on Friday, January 22, 2016, at 7:30pm in Juilliard’s Peter Jay Sharp Theater in a program with works by Milton Babbitt, Juilliard faculty member and composer Jonathan Dawe, Alexander Goehr, Stefan Wolpe, and Ursula Mamlok. The festival continues with four chamber music concerts, Monday, January 25 through Thursday, January 28, 2016, and closes with a concert by the Juilliard Orchestra, conducted by Jeffrey Milarsky, on Friday, January 29, 2016, at 7:30pm in Alice Tully Hall. The closing program features works by some of Milton Babbitt’s favorite composers — Brahms, Stravinsky, and Schoenberg — and Babbitt’s Piano Concerto No.2 with Juilliard alumnus, pianist Conor Hanick.\nA highlight of the opening night program is the world premiere of Babbitt’s Concerti for Violin, Orchestra, and Synthesized Sound, which had been lost for nearly 40 years. The piece had been commissioned by Isidor Lateiner, a violinist and brother of the late Jacob Lateiner, a Juilliard faculty member from 1966-2010. When Isidor passed away in 2005, he bequeathed the score and solo part to Jacob, who was a major collector. After Jacob’s death, when his collection was up for sale, the auctioneer offered the Babbitt score to Jane Gottlieb, Vice President for Library and Information Resources, who immediately acquired it. Unfortunately, Babbitt had never finished the tape part. Since all pitches and rhythms are in the score, Jonathan Dawe — his student and friend — and Nathan Prillaman of Juilliard’s Center for Innovation in the Arts, using today’s technology, are realizing the electronics for live keyboard players.\nAll Focus! festival events are free; tickets are available at events.juilliard.edu.\nDownload the Program Notes\nAbout Milton Babbitt\nMilton Babbitt was one of the most influential composers and music theorists of the 20th century. He passed away on January 29, 2011, in Princeton, New Jersey where he had resided for many years. He was a member of the Juilliard composition faculty from 1971 to 2008 and remained an emeritus faculty member.\nBorn on May 10, 1916, in Philadelphia, Milton Babbitt grew up in Jackson, Mississippi. He began playing the violin at age 4, and was playing jazz gigs as a teenage clarinetist. When he was 16, he became interested in serialism and Arnold Schoenberg’s music, which became a major influence on his work as a composer. Mr. Babbitt received his bachelor’s degree from N.Y.U., his master’s degree and PhD from Princeton University where he was on the faculty from 1938 to 1984 and remained an emeritus professor of composition. He received a special Pulitzer citation in 1982; he was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 1986. Juilliard presented Milton Babbitt with an honorary Doctor of Music degree in 2006.\nMeet the Artists\nJoel Sachs\nJoel Sachs, founder and director of the New Juilliard Ensemble, performs a vast range of traditional and contemporary music as a conductor and pianist. As co-director of the internationally acclaimed new music ensemble Continuum, he has appeared in hundreds of performances in New York, nationally, and throughout Europe, Asia, and Latin America. He has also conducted orchestras and ensembles in Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, El Salvador, Germany, Iceland, Mexico, Mongolia, Switzerland, and Ukraine, and has held new music residencies in Berlin, Shanghai, London, Salzburg, Curitiba (Brazil), Helsinki, and the Banff Centre (Canadian Rockies). One of the most active presenters of new music in New York, Dr. Sachs founded New Juilliard Ensemble in 1993. He produces and directs Juilliard’s annual FOCUS! festival, and has been artistic director of Juilliard’s concerts at New York’s Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) since 1993. A member of Juilliard’s music history faculty, Dr. Sachs wrote a biography of the American composer Henry Cowell, which was published by Oxford University Press in 2012. Dr. Sachs often appears on radio as a commentator on recent music; he was the studio guest and a prominent performer on BBC Radio 3’s recent Composer of the Week show, which devoted five one-hour programs to Cowell. A graduate of Harvard, Dr. Sachs received his PhD from Columbia University. In 2011, he was made an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa at Harvard University for his work in support of new music, and received the National Gloria Artis Medal of the Polish Government for his service to Polish music. In 2002, he was given Columbia University’s Alice M. Ditson Award for his service to American Music.\nNew Juilliard Ensemble\nLed by founding director Joel Sachs and now in its 23rd season, New Juilliard Ensemble (N.J.E.), presents music by a variety of international composers writing in the most diverse styles. Its members, current students at Juilliard, are admitted to the ensemble by audition. Student interest in the ensemble’s work is considerable: more than 100 students participate each year, although the maximum size of compositions played is normally 15–20 players. The ensemble has premiered some 100 compositions, appears regularly at MoMA’s Summergarden, has been a featured ensemble four times at the Lincoln Center Festival, and opened this season on September 11 with an 80th-birthday concert for Arvo Pärt at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. A highlight of the 2013–14 season was a collaboration with the Royal Philharmonic Society’s Bicentennial Celebration with the U.S. premieres of works by Magnus Lindberg and Judith Weir. N.J.E. has collaborated with Carnegie Hall festivals “UBUNTU: Music and Arts of South Africa” (2014); “Voices from Latin America” (2012); “JapanNYC” (2011), and “Ancient Paths, Modern Voices” (2009). In June 2009, the New Juilliard Ensemble toured Japan; the following December it performed aleatory music at the Smithsonian’s Freer Gallery in Washington, D.C., in conjunction with an exhibition of Persian and Turkish “divining” manuscripts. The ensemble annually opens Juilliard’s FOCUS! Festival, whose recent themes have included “California: A Century of New Music” (2009); “Music at the Center: Composing an American Mainstream” (2010); “Polish Modern: New Directions in Polish Music Since 1945” (2011); “Sounds Re-Imagined: John Cage at 100” (2012); “The British Renaissance” (2013); “Alfred Schnittke’s World” (2014); and “Nippon Gendai Ongaku: Japanese Music Since 1945” (2015).\nJeffrey Milarsky\nAmerican conductor Jeffrey Milarsky is the founding music director of AXIOM. Known for his innovative programming, he has been hailed for his interpretation of a wide range of repertoire, which spans from Bach to Xenakis. In recent seasons he has worked with such orchestras as the San Francisco Symphony, American Composers Orchestra, MET Chamber Ensemble, Los Angeles Philharmonic, Milwaukee Symphony, Bergen Philharmonic, New York City Opera, Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center, New World Symphony, Tanglewood Festival Orchestra, and the New York Philharmonic chamber music series. In the United States and abroad, he has premiered and recorded works by many groundbreaking contemporary composers, in venues such as Carnegie Hall, Zankel Hall, Davies Symphony Hall, Alice Tully Hall, Walt Disney Concert Hall, Boston’s Symphony Hall, and at IRCAM in Paris. In June of 2015, Mr. Milarsky made his New York Philharmonic debut conducting the CONTACT! series, a Japanese based program including music of Takemitsu, Messiaen, Fujikura, and Mochizuki. \nMr. Milarsky has a long history of premiering, recording and performing American composers and in keeping with that he was presented the prestigious Ditson Conductor's Award in 2013. He has collaborated with such composers as Adams, Babbitt, Cage, Carter, Corigliano, Crumb, Davidovsky, Druckman, Gordon, Lang, Mackey, Rouse, Shapey, Subotnick, Wuorinen, and an entire generation of young and developing composers.\nA dedicated teacher, Mr. Milarsky serves on the conducting faculty at Juilliard and is a senior lecturer in music at Columbia University, where he is the music director and conductor of the Columbia University Orchestra.\nAn in-demand timpanist and percussionist, Mr.Milarsky has been the principal timpanist for the Santa Fe Opera since 2005. In addition, he has performed and recorded with the New York Philharmonic, The Philadelphia Orchestra, and the Pittsburgh Symphony. He has recorded extensively for Angel, Bridge, Teldec, Telarc, New World, CRI, MusicMasters, EMI, Koch, and London records.\nAt Juilliard, Mr. Milarsky received his bachelor’s and master’s degrees and was awarded the Peter Mennin Prize for outstanding leadership and achievement in the arts.\nJuilliard Orchestra\nThe Juilliard Orchestra, Juilliard’s largest and most visible performing ensemble, is comprised of all orchestral instrumental majors in the bachelor’s and master’s degree programs. Under the musical leadership of alumnus Alan Gilbert, the director of conducting and orchestral studies, the Juilliard Orchestra is also led by numerous world-renowned guest conductors, some of which have included John Adams, alumna Marin Alsop, Vladimir Ashkenazy, alumnus James Conlon, Charles Dutoit, James Gaffigan,\nFabio Luisi, Bernard Haitink, alumnus James Levine, David Robertson, Yannick Nézet-Séguin, alumnus Leonard Slatkin, Michael Tilson Thomas, David Zinman, and many others. The Juilliard Orchestra performs regularly at Lincoln Center and Carnegie Hall, as well as in opera and dance productions, special events and broadcasts, and national and international tours.\nAll undergraduates begin their orchestral studies with Orchestra Orientation, a three-week orchestra cycle comprised of seminars, workshops, and rehearsals designed to prepare students for the rigors of the Juilliard Orchestra. Led by Maestro Gilbert, the Orchestra Orientation also calls upon Juilliard faculty and members of the New York Philharmonic and Metropolitan Opera orchestras to lead discussions, coach sectionals, and play in side-by-side rehearsals.\nIn the 2015-16 season, the Juilliard Orchestra welcomes an impressive roster of world-renowned conductors: Pablo Heras-Casado, Fabio Luisi, Nicholas McGegan, Gianandrea Noseda, Case Scaglione, and faculty members Alan Gilbert, Jeffrey Milarsky, Itzhak Perlman, and Matthias Pintscher. Highlights of the orchestra’s 2014-15 season included debut appearances by guest conductors Fabio Luisi, Tadaaki Otaka, and alumnus Peter Oundjian; return appearances by Edward Gardner, Larry Rachleff, Emmanuel Villaume, David Zinman, and David Robertson; and concerts with Juilliard faculty members Alan Gilbert and Jeffrey Milarsky.\n# # #\nMILTON BABBITT’S WORLD: A CENTENNIAL CELEBRATION\nConcert I | Friday, January 22, 2016, at 7:30pm| Peter Jay Sharp Theater\nNew Juilliard Ensemble\nJoel Sachs, founding director and conductor\nHugo Lee, oboe\nMilton BABBITT The Crowded Air (1988)\nJonathan DAWE Déploration sur la mort de Milton Babbitt (2011, world premiere)\nAlexander GOEHR Verschwindendes Wort (Vanishing Word) (2005-6, world premiere)\nStefan WOLPE Chamber Piece No. 2 (1965-67)\nUrsula MAMLOK Concerto for Oboe and Chamber Orchestra (1976/2003)\nMilton BABBITT Concerti for Violin, Orchestra, and Synthesized Sound (1975-6, world premiere) (electronics completed by Jonathan Dawe and Nathan Prillaman)\n \nConcert II | Monday, January 25, 2016, at 7:30pm| Peter Jay Sharp Theater\nMilton BABBITT Three Compositions for Piano (1947)\nIrving BERLIN \"Let's Face the Music and Dance\" from the film Follow the Fleet (1936)\nStephen Sondheim \"Send in the Clowns\" from A Little Night Music (1973) and \"What More Do I Need\" from Saturday Night (1954)\nMilton BABBITT Three Theatrical Songs (1946)\nMilton BABBITT The Widow’s Lament in Springtime (1951)\nCharles WUORINEN Trio for Violin, Cello, and Piano (1983)\nElliott CARTER Bariolage (1972)\nMilton BABBITT My Ends are my Beginnings (1978)\nMilton BABBITT Sonnets (1955)\nPreconcert Panel Discussion | Tuesday, January 26, 2016, at 6:30pm| Peter Jay Sharp Theater\nJoel Sachs moderates the panel with Bethany Beardslee, Jonathan Dawe, Charles Wuorinen, and others.\nConcert III | Tuesday, January 27, 2016, at 7:30pm| Peter Jay Sharp Theater\nMilton Babbitt Beaten Paths (1988)\nVincent PERSICHETTI Parable XXII for Solo Tuba, Op. 147 (1981)\nMilton BABBITT Sheer Pluck (Composition for Guitar) (1984)\nMilton BABBITT Play it Again, Sam (1989)\nSamuel ADLER Four Composer Portraits (2001)\nMilton BABBITT An Encore (2006)\nGodfrey WINHAM Concert Piece (1975)\nMilton BABBITT A Solo Requiem (1976-7)\n \nConcert IV | Wednesday, January 27, 2016, at 7:30pm| Peter Jay Sharp Theater\n“Milton Babbitt’s Electronic and Live World”\nMilton BABBITT It takes twelve to Tango (1984)\nMilton BABBITT Ensembles for Synthesizer (1964)\nMario DAVIDOVSKY Synchronisms No. 12, for clarinet and electronic sounds (2008)\nPaul LANSKY notjustmoreidlechatter (1989) for computer-manipulated voices\nJimmy VINCENT Excerpts from A Jazz Set (1957, transcribed in 1990)\nDonald MARTINO A Set for Clarinet (1954)\nEarl KIM Dear Linda (1993)\nMilton BABBITT More Melismata (2005-6)\nMilton BABBITT Philomel (1964) for soprano, recorded soprano, and synthesized sound\n(Poem of John Hollander)\nConcert V | Thursday, January 28, 2016, at 7:30pm| Peter Jay Sharp Theater\nMilton BABBITT None but the Lonely Flute (1991)\nRoger SESSIONS Duo for violin and cello (1978)\nMiriam GIDEON Suite for Bassoon and Piano (1972)\nMilton BABBITT Manifold Music (1995)\nKati AGOCS Versprechen (Promise) (2004)\nGeorge PERLE Six Celebratory Inventions (1981-1995)\nMilton BABBITT String Quartet No. 2 (1954)\n \nConcert VI | Friday, January 29, 2016, at 7:30pm| Alice Tully Hall\nJuilliard Orchestra\nJeffrey Milarsky, conductor\nConor Hanick, piano \nJohannes BRAHMS Chorale Prelude, Op. 122, No. 8, Es ist ein Ros entsprungen (There is a Rose in Flower; ca. 1896), orchestrated by Erich Leinsdorf\nArnold SCHOENBERG Five Pieces for Orchestra (1909)\nIgor STRAVINSKY Variations (Aldous Huxley in Memoriam) (1963-4)\nMilton BABBITT Piano Concerto No. 2 (1998)"
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What was the first state to join the Union in the 20th century?
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"The date of the start of the history of the United States is a subject of debate among historians. Older textbooks start with the arrival of Christopher Columbus on October 12, 1492 and emphasize the European background, or they start around 1600 and emphasize the American frontier. In recent decades American schools and universities typically have shifted back in time to include more on the colonial period and much more on the prehistory of the Native peoples. \n\nIndigenous people lived in what is now the United States for thousands of years before European colonists began to arrive, mostly from England, after 1600. The Spanish had small settlements in Florida and the Southwest, and the French along the Mississippi River and the Gulf Coast. By the 1770s, thirteen British colonies contained two and a half million people along the Atlantic coast east of the Appalachian Mountains. In the 1760s, the British government imposed a series of new taxes while rejecting the American argument that any new taxes had to be approved by the people (see Stamp Act 1765). Tax resistance, especially the Boston Tea Party (1774), led to punitive laws (the Intolerable Acts) by Parliament designed to end self-government in Massachusetts. American Patriots (as they called themselves) adhered to a political ideology called republicanism that emphasized civic duty, virtue, and opposition to corruption, fancy luxuries and aristocracy.\n\nAll thirteen colonies united in a Congress that called on them to write new state constitutions. After armed conflict began in Massachusetts, Patriots drove the royal officials out of every colony and assembled in mass meetings and conventions. Those Patriot governments in the colonies unanimously empowered their delegates to Congress to declare independence. In 1776, Congress declared that there was a new, independent nation, the United States of America, not just a collection of disparate colonies. With large-scale military and financial support from France and military leadership by General George Washington, the American Patriots rebelled against British rule and succeeded in the Revolutionary War.\n\nThe peace treaty of 1783 gave the new nation the land east of the Mississippi River (except Florida and Canada, and Spain disputed the Mississippi Territory until 1795) and confirmed Great Britain's recognition of the United States as a nation. The central government established by the Articles of Confederation proved ineffectual at providing stability, as it had no authority to collect taxes and had no executive officer. Congress called a convention to meet secretly in Philadelphia in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation. It wrote a new Constitution, which was adopted in 1789. In 1791, a Bill of Rights was added to guarantee inalienable rights. With Washington as the Union's first president and Alexander Hamilton his chief political and financial adviser, a strong central government was created. When Thomas Jefferson became president he purchased the Louisiana Territory from France, doubling the size of the United States. A second and final war with Britain was fought in 1812.\n\nEncouraged by the notion of Manifest Destiny, federal territory expanded all the way to the Pacific. The U.S. always was large in terms of area, but its population was small, only 4 million in 1790. Population growth was rapid, reaching 7.2 million in 1810, 32 million in 1860, 76 million in 1900, 132 million in 1940, and 321 million in 2015. Economic growth in terms of overall GDP was even faster. However the nation's military strength was quite limited in peacetime before 1940. The expansion was driven by a quest for inexpensive land for yeoman farmers and slave owners. The expansion of slavery was increasingly controversial and fueled political and constitutional battles, which were resolved by compromises. Slavery was abolished in all states north of the Mason–Dixon line by 1804, but the South continued to profit off the institution, producing high-value cotton exports to feed increasing high demand in Europe. The 1860 presidential election of Republican Abraham Lincoln was on a platform of ending the expansion of slavery and putting it on a path to extinction.\n\nSeven cotton-based deep South slave states seceded and later founded the Confederacy months before Lincoln's inauguration. No nation ever recognized the Confederacy, but it opened the war by attacking Fort Sumter in 1861. A surge of nationalist outrage in the North fueled a long, intense American Civil War (1861-1865). It was fought largely in the South as the overwhelming material and manpower advantages of the North proved decisive in a long war. The war's result was restoration of the Union, the impoverishment of the South, and the abolition of slavery. In the Reconstruction era (1863–1877), legal and voting rights were extended to the freed slave. The national government emerged much stronger, and because of the Fourteenth Amendment, it gained the explicit duty to protect individual rights. However, when white Democrats regained their power in the South during the 1870s, often by paramilitary suppression of voting, they passed Jim Crow laws to maintain white supremacy, and new disfranchising constitutions that prevented most African Americans and many poor whites from voting, a situation that continued for decades until gains of the civil rights movement in the 1960s and passage of federal legislation to enforce constitutional rights. \n\nThe United States became the world's leading industrial power at the turn of the 20th century due to an outburst of entrepreneurship in the Northeast and Midwest and the arrival of millions of immigrant workers and farmers from Europe. The national railroad network was completed with the work of Chinese immigrants and large-scale mining and factories industrialized the Northeast and Midwest. Mass dissatisfaction with corruption, inefficiency and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement, from the 1890s to 1920s, which led to many social and political reforms. In 1920, the 19th Amendment to the Constitution guaranteed women's suffrage (right to vote). This followed the 16th and 17th amendments in 1913, which established the first national income tax and direct election of US senators to Congress. Initially neutral during World War I, the US declared war on Germany in 1917 and later funded the Allied victory the following year.\n\nAfter a prosperous decade in the 1920s, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the onset of the decade-long world-wide Great Depression. Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt ended the Republican dominance of the White House and implemented his New Deal programs for relief, recovery, and reform. The New Deal, which defined modern American liberalism, included relief for the unemployed, support for farmers, Social Security and a minimum wage. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the United States later entered World War II along with Britain, the Soviet Union, China, and the smaller number of Allied nations. The U.S. financed the Allied war effort and helped defeat Nazi Germany in the European theater and culminated in using the newly invented nuclear weapons on Japanese strategic cities that helped defeat Imperial Japan in the Pacific theater at the cost of 407,000 Americans throughout both theaters of World War II.\n\nThe United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers after World War II. During the Cold War, the US and the USSR confronted each other indirectly in the arms race, the Space Race, proxy wars, and propaganda campaigns. US foreign policy during the Cold War was built around the support of Western Europe and Japan along with the policy of \"containment\" or stopping the spread of communism. The US joined the wars in Korea and Vietnam to try to stop its spread. In the 1960s, in large part due to the strength of the civil rights movement, another wave of social reforms were enacted by enforcing the constitutional rights of voting and freedom of movement to African-Americans and other racial minorities. Native American activism also rose. The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union officially dissolved in 1991, leaving the United States as the world's only superpower. As the 21st century began, international conflict centered around the Middle East following the September 11 attacks by Al-Qaeda on the United States in 2001. In 2008, the United States had its worst economic crisis since the Great Depression, which has been followed by slower than usual rates of economic growth during the 2010s.\n\nPre-Columbian era\n\nIt is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and the present-day United States. The prevailing theory proposes that people migrated from Eurasia across Beringia, a land bridge that connected Siberia to present-day Alaska during the Ice Age, and then spread southward throughout the Americas and possibly going as far south as the Antarctic peninsula. This migration may have begun as early as 30,000 years ago and continued through to about 10,000+ years ago, when the land bridge became submerged by the rising sea level caused by the ending of the last glacial period. These early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes.\n\nThe pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period. While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus' initial landing.\n\nNative development prior to European contact\n\nNative American cultures are not normally included in characterizations of advanced stone age cultures as \"Neolithic,\" which is a category that more often includes only the cultures in Eurasia, Africa, and other regions. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases; see Archaeology of the Americas.\n\nThe Clovis culture, a megafauna hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, New Mexico. The Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, by which it was inserted into a shaft. Dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B.P. (roughly 9100 to 8850 BCE).\n\nNumerous Paleoindian cultures occupied North America, with some arrayed around the Great Plains and Great Lakes of the modern United States of America and Canada, as well as adjacent areas to the West and Southwest. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living on this continent since their genesis, described by a wide range of traditional creation stories. Other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the indigenous people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians. Archeological and linguistic data has enabled scholars to discover some of the migrations within the Americas.\n\nThe Folsom Tradition was characterized by use of Folsom points as projectile tips, and activities known from kill sites, where slaughter and butchering of bison took place. Folsom tools were left behind between 9000 BCE and 8000 BCE. \n\nNa-Dené-speaking peoples entered North America starting around 8000 BCE, reaching the Pacific Northwest by 5000 BCE, and from there migrating along the Pacific Coast and into the interior. Linguists, anthropologists and archeologists believe their ancestors comprised a separate migration into North America, later than the first Paleo-Indians. They migrated into Alaska and northern Canada, south along the Pacific Coast, into the interior of Canada, and south to the Great Plains and the American Southwest.\n\nThey were the earliest ancestors of the Athabascan- speaking peoples, including the present-day and historical Navajo and Apache. They constructed large multi-family dwellings in their villages, which were used seasonally. People did not live there year round, but for the summer to hunt and fish, and to gather food supplies for the winter. The Oshara Tradition people lived from 5500 BCE to 600 CE. They were part of the Southwestern Archaic Tradition centered in north-central New Mexico, the San Juan Basin, the Rio Grande Valley, southern Colorado, and southeastern Utah.\n\nSince the 1990s, archeologists have explored and dated eleven Middle Archaic sites in present-day Louisiana and Florida at which early cultures built complexes with multiple earthwork mounds; they were societies of hunter-gatherers rather than the settled agriculturalists believed necessary according to the theory of Neolithic Revolution to sustain such large villages over long periods. The prime example is Watson Brake in northern Louisiana, whose 11-mound complex is dated to 3500 BCE, making it the oldest, dated site in the Americas for such complex construction. It is nearly 2,000 years older than the Poverty Point site. Construction of the mounds went on for 500 years until was abandoned about 2800 BCE, probably due to changing environmental conditions. \n\nPoverty Point culture is a Late Archaic archaeological culture that inhabited the area of the lower Mississippi Valley and surrounding Gulf Coast. The culture thrived from 2200 BCE to 700 BCE, during the Late Archaic period. Evidence of this culture has been found at more than 100 sites, from the major complex at Poverty Point, Louisiana (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) across a 100 mi range to the Jaketown Site near Belzoni, Mississippi.\n\nPoverty Point is a 1 mi2 complex of six major earthwork concentric rings, with additional platform mounds at the site. Artifacts show the people traded with other Native Americans located from Georgia to the Great Lakes region. This is one among numerous mound sites of complex indigenous cultures throughout the Mississippi and Ohio valleys. They were one of several succeeding cultures often referred to as mound builders.\n\nThe Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BCE to 1,000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term \"Woodland\" was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites dated between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures. The Hopewell tradition is the term for the common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern United States from 200 BCE to 500 CE. \n\nThe indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were of many nations and tribal affiliations, each with distinctive cultural and political identities, but they shared certain beliefs, traditions and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. Their gift-giving feast, potlatch, is a highly complex event where people gather in order to commemorate a special events. These events, such as, the raising of a Totem pole or the appointment or election of a new chief. The most famous artistic feature of the culture is the Totem pole, with carvings of animals and other characters to commemorate cultural beliefs, legends, and notable events.\n\nThe Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations, who were connected by a common network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell Exchange System. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern United States into the southeastern Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Within this area, societies participated in a high degree of exchange; most activity was conducted along the waterways that served as their major transportation routes. The Hopewell exchange system traded materials from all over the United States.\n\nMajor cultures\n\n*Adena culture: The Adena culture was a Native American culture that existed from 1000 BC to 200 BC, in a time known as the Early Woodland period. The Adena culture refers to what were probably a number of related Native American societies sharing a burial complex and ceremonial system.\n\n*Coles Creek culture: The Coles Creek culture is an indigenous development of the Lower Mississippi Valley that took place between the terminal Woodland period and the later Plaquemine culture period. The period is marked by the increased use of flat-topped platform mounds arranged around central plazas, more complex political institutions, and a subsistence strategy still grounded in the Eastern Agricultural Complex and hunting rather than on the maize plant as would happen in the succeeding Plaquemine Mississippian period. The culture was originally defined by the unique decoration on grog-tempered ceramic ware by James A. Ford after his investigations at the Mazique Archeological Site. He had studied both the Mazique and Coles Creek Sites, and almost went with the Mazique culture, but decided on the less historically involved sites name. It is ancestral to the Plaquemine culture.\n\n*Hohokam culture: The Hohokam was a culture centered along American Southwest. The early Hohokam founded a series of small villages along the middle Gila River. They raised corn, squash and beans. The communities were located near good arable land, with dry farming common in the earlier years of this period. They were known for their pottery, using the paddle-and-anvil technique. The Classical period of the culture saw the rise in architecture and ceramics. Buildings were grouped into walled compounds, as well as earthen platform mounds. Platform mounds were built along river as well as irrigation canal systems, suggesting these sites were administrative centers allocating water and coordinating canal labor. Polychrome pottery appeared, and inhumation burial replaced cremation. Trade included that of shells and other exotics. Social and climatic factors led to a decline and abandonment of the area after 1400 A.D.\n\n*Ancestral Puebloan culture: The Ancestral Puebloan culture covered present-day Four Corners region of the United States, comprising southern Utah, northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southwestern Colorado.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22804/Ancestral-Pueblo-culture \"Ancestral Pueblo culture.\"] Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 June 2012. It is believed that the Ancestral Puebloans developed, at least in part, from the Oshara Tradition, who developed from the Picosa culture. They lived in a range of structures that included small family pit houses, larger clan type structures, grand pueblos, and cliff sited dwellings. The Ancestral Puebloans possessed a complex network that stretched across the Colorado Plateau linking hundreds of communities and population centers. The culture is perhaps best known for the stone and earth dwellings built along cliff walls, particularly during the Pueblo II and Pueblo III eras. \n**Three UNESCO World Heritage Sites located in the United States are credited to the Pueblos: Mesa Verde National Park, Chaco Culture National Historical Park and Taos Pueblo.\n**The best-preserved examples of the stone dwellings are in National Parks (USA), examples being, Navajo National Monument, Chaco Culture National Historical Park, Mesa Verde National Park, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, Aztec Ruins National Monument, Bandelier National Monument, Hovenweep National Monument, and Canyon de Chelly National Monument.\n\n*Mississippian culture: The Mississippian culture which extended throughout the Ohio and Mississippi valleys and built sites throughout the Southeast, created the largest earthworks in North America north of Mexico, most notably at Cahokia, on a tributary of the Mississippi River in present-day Illinois. \n**The ten-story Monks Mound at Cahokia has a larger circumference than the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan or the Great Pyramid of Egypt. The 6 mi2 city complex was based on the culture's cosmology; it included more than 100 mounds, positioned to support their sophisticated knowledge of astronomy, and built with knowledge of varying soil types. The society began building at this site about 950 CE, and reached its peak population in 1,250 CE of 20,000–30,000 people, which was not equalled by any city in the present-day United States until after 1800.\n**Cahokia was a major regional chiefdom, with trade and tributary chiefdoms located in a range of areas from bordering the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.\n**Kincaid c. 1050-1400 AD, is one of the largest settlements of the Mississippian culture, it was located at the southern tip of present-day U.S. state of Illinois. Kincaid Mounds has been notable for both its significant role in native North American prehistory and for the central role the site has played in the development of modern archaeological techniques. The site had at least 11 substructure platform mounds (ranking fifth for mound-culture pyramids). Artifacts from the settlement link its major habitation and the construction of the mounds to the Mississippian period, but it was also occupied earlier during the Woodland period.\n**The Mississippian culture developed the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, the name which archeologists have given to the regional stylistic similarity of artifacts, iconography, ceremonies and mythology. The rise of the complex culture was based on the people's adoption of maize agriculture, development of greater population densities, and chiefdom-level complex social organization from 1200 CE to 1650 CE. \n**The Mississippian pottery are some of the finest and most widely spread ceramics north of Mexico. Cahokian pottery was espically fine, with smooth surfaces, very thin walls and distinctive tempering, slips and coloring.\n*Iroquois Culture: The Iroquois League of Nations or \"People of the Long House\", based in present-day upstate and western New York, had a confederacy model from the mid-15th century. It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the later United States government. Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies. \n**Leadership was restricted to a group of 50 sachem chiefs, each representing one clan within a tribe. The Oneida and Mohawk people had nine seats each; the Onondagas held fourteen; the Cayuga had ten seats; and the Seneca had eight. Representation was not based on population numbers, as the Seneca tribe greatly outnumbered the others. When a sachem chief died, his successor was chosen by the senior woman of his tribe in consultation with other female members of the clan; property and hereditary leadership were passed matrilineally. Decisions were not made through voting but through consensus decision making, with each sachem chief holding theoretical veto power. The Onondaga were the \"firekeepers\", responsible for raising topics to be discussed. They occupied one side of a three-sided fire (the Mohawk and Seneca sat on one side of the fire, the Oneida and Cayuga sat on the third side.) \n**Elizabeth Tooker, an anthropologist, has said that it was unlikely the US founding fathers were inspired by the confederacy, as it bears little resemblance to the system of governance adopted in the United States. For example, it is based on inherited rather than elected leadership, selected by female members of the tribes, consensus decision-making regardless of population size of the tribes, and a single group capable of bringing matters before the legislative body. \n**Long-distance trading did not prevent warfare and displacement among the indigenous peoples, and their oral histories tell of numerous migrations to the historic territories where Europeans encountered them. The Iroquois invaded and attacked tribes in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky and claimed the hunting grounds. Historians have placed these events as occurring as early as the 13th century, or in the 17th century Beaver Wars. \n**Through warfare, the Iroquois drove several tribes to migrate west to what became known as their historically traditional lands west of the Mississippi River. Tribes originating in the Ohio Valley who moved west included the Osage, Kaw, Ponca and Omaha people. By the mid-17th century, they had resettled in their historical lands in present-day Kansas, Nebraska, Arkansas and Oklahoma. The Osage warred with Caddo-speaking Native Americans, displacing them in turn by the mid-18th century and dominating their new historical territories.\n\nNative development in Hawaii\n\nNative development in Hawaii begins with the settlement of Polynesians between 1st century to 10th century. Around 1200 AD Tahitian explorers found and began settling the area as well. This became the rise of the Hawaiian civilization and would be separated from the rest of the world for another 500 years until the arrival of the British. Europeans under the British explorer Captain James Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. Within five years of contact, European military technology would help Kamehameha I conquer most of the people, and eventually unify the islands for the first time; establishing the Kingdom of Hawaii.\n\nColonial period\n\nAfter a period of exploration sponsored by major European nations, the first successful English settlement was established in 1607. Europeans brought horses, cattle, and hogs to the Americas and, in turn, took back to Europe maize, turkeys, potatoes, tobacco, beans, and squash. Many explorers and early settlers died after being exposed to new diseases in the Americas. The effects of new Eurasian diseases carried by the colonists, especially smallpox and measles, were much worse for the Native Americans, as they had no immunity to them. They suffered epidemics and died in very large numbers, usually before large-scale European settlement began. Their societies were disrupted and hollowed out by the scale of deaths. \n\nSpanish, Dutch, and French colonization\n\nSpanish explorers were the first Europeans with Christopher Columbus' second expedition, to reach Puerto Rico on November 19, 1493; others reached Florida in 1513. Spanish expeditions quickly reached the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. In 1540, Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the Southeast. \n\nIn 1540, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado explored from Arizona to central Kansas. Small Spanish settlements eventually grew to become important cities, such as San Antonio, Texas; Albuquerque, New Mexico; Tucson, Arizona; Los Angeles, California; and San Francisco, California. \n\nNew Netherland was a 17th-century Dutch colony centered on present-day New York City and the Hudson River Valley; the Dutch traded furs with the Native Americans to the north. The colony served as a barrier to expansion from New England. Despite being Calvinists and building the Reformed Church in America, the Dutch were tolerant of other religions and cultures. \n\nThe colony, which was taken over by Britain in 1664, left an enduring legacy on American cultural and political life. This includes secular broad-mindedness and mercantile pragmatism in the city as well as rural traditionalism in the countryside (typified by the story of Rip Van Winkle). Notable Americans of Dutch descent include Martin Van Buren, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt and the Frelinghuysens.\n\nNew France was the area colonized by France from 1534 to 1763. There were few permanent settlers outside Quebec and Acadia, but the French had far-reaching trading relationships with Native Americans throughout the Great Lakes and Midwest. French villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers were based in farming communities that served as a granary for Gulf Coast settlements. The French established plantations in Louisiana along with settling New Orleans, Mobile and Biloxi.\n\nThe Wabanaki Confederacy were military allies of New France through the four French and Indian Wars while the British colonies were allied with the Iroquois Confederacy. During the French and Indian War – the North American theater of the Seven Years' War – New England fought successfully against French Acadia. The British removed Acadians from Acadia (Nova Scotia) and replaced them with New England Planters. Eventually, some Acadians resettled in Louisiana, where they developed a distinctive rural Cajun culture that still exists. They became American citizens in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase. Other French villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers were absorbed when the Americans started arriving after 1770, or settlers moved west to escape them. French influence and language in New Orleans, Louisiana and the Gulf Coast was more enduring; New Orleans was notable for its large population of free people of color before the Civil War.\n\nBritish colonization\n\nThe strip of land along the eastern seacoast was settled primarily by English colonists in the 17th century along with much smaller numbers of Dutch and Swedes. Colonial America was defined by a severe labor shortage that employed forms of unfree labor such as slavery and indentured servitude and by a British policy of benign neglect (salutary neglect). Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants. Salutary neglect permitted the development of an American spirit distinct from that of its European founders. \n\nThe first successful English colony, Jamestown, was established in 1607 on the James River in Virginia. Jamestown languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in the late 17th century and established commercial agriculture based on tobacco. Between the late 1610s and the Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 convicts to their American colonies. A severe instance of conflict was the 1622 Powhatan uprising in Virginia in which Native Americans killed hundreds of English settlers. The largest conflicts between Native Americans and English settlers in the 17th century were King Philip's War in New England and the Yamasee War in South Carolina. \n\nNew England was initially settled primarily by Puritans. The Pilgrims established a settlement in 1620 at Plymouth Colony, which was followed by the establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. The Middle Colonies, consisting of the present-day states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, were characterized by a large degree of diversity. The first attempted English settlement south of Virginia was the Province of Carolina, with Georgia Colony – the last of the Thirteen Colonies – established in 1733. \n\nThe colonies were characterized by religious diversity, with many Congregationalists in New England, German and Dutch Reformed in the Middle Colonies, Catholics in Maryland, and Scots-Irish Presbyterians on the frontier. Sephardic Jews were among early settlers in cities of New England and the South. Many immigrants arrived as religious refugees: French Huguenots settled in New York, Virginia and the Carolinas. Many royal officials and merchants were Anglicans. \n\nReligiosity expanded greatly after the First Great Awakening, a religious revival in the 1740s led by preachers such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. American Evangelicals affected by the Awakening added a new emphasis on divine outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that implanted within new believers an intense love for God. Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and carried the newly created evangelicalism into the early republic, setting the stage for the Second Great Awakening beginning in the late 1790s. In the early stages, evangelicals in the South such as Methodists and Baptists preached for religious freedom and abolition of slavery; they converted many slaves and recognized some as preachers.\n\nEach of the 13 American colonies had a slightly different governmental structure. Typically, a colony was ruled by a governor appointed from London who controlled the executive administration and relied upon a locally elected legislature to vote taxes and make laws. By the 18th century, the American colonies were growing very rapidly as a result of low death rates along with ample supplies of land and food. The colonies were richer than most parts of Britain, and attracted a steady flow of immigrants, especially teenagers who arrived as indentured servants. \n\nThe tobacco and rice plantations imported African slaves for labor from the British colonies in the West Indies, and by the 1770s African slaves comprised a fifth of the American population. The question of independence from Britain did not arise as long as the colonies needed British military support against the French and Spanish powers. Those threats were gone by 1765. London regarded the American colonies as existing for the benefit of the mother country. This policy is known as mercantilism.\n\n18th century\n\nAn upper-class, with wealth based on large plantations operated by slave labor, and holding significant political power and even control over the churches, emerged in South Carolina and Virginia. A unique class system operated in upstate New York, where Dutch tenant farmers rented land from very wealthy Dutch proprietors, such as the Rensselaer family. The other colonies were more equalitarian, with Pennsylvania being representative. By the mid-18th century Pennsylvania was basically a middle-class colony with limited deference to its small upper-class. A writer in the Pennsylvania Journal in 1756 summed it up:\nThe People of this Province are generally of the middling Sort, and at present pretty much upon a Level. They are chiefly industrious Farmers, Artificers or Men in Trade; they enjoy in are fond of Freedom, and the meanest among them thinks he has a right to Civility from the greatest. \n\nPolitical integration and autonomy\n\nThe French and Indian War (1754–63) was a watershed event in the political development of the colonies. It was also part of the larger Seven Years' War. The influence of the main rivals of the British Crown in the colonies and Canada, the French and North American Indians, was significantly reduced with the territory of the Thirteen Colonies expanding into New France both in Canada and the Louisiana Territory. Moreover, the war effort resulted in greater political integration of the colonies, as reflected in the Albany Congress and symbolized by Benjamin Franklin's call for the colonies to \"Join or Die\". Franklin was a man of many inventions – one of which was the concept of a United States of America, which emerged after 1765 and was realized in July 1776. \n\nFollowing Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 with the goal of organizing the new North American empire and protecting the native Indians from colonial expansion into western lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains. In ensuing years, strains developed in the relations between the colonists and the Crown. The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act of 1765, imposing a tax on the colonies without going through the colonial legislatures. The issue was drawn: did Parliament have this right to tax Americans who were not represented in it? Crying \"No taxation without representation\", the colonists refused to pay the taxes as tensions escalated in the late 1760s and early 1770s. \n\nThe Boston Tea Party in 1773 was a direct action by activists in the town of Boston to protest against the new tax on tea. Parliament quickly responded the next year with the Coercive Acts, stripping Massachusetts of its historic right of self-government and putting it under army rule, which sparked outrage and resistance in all thirteen colonies. Patriot leaders from all 13 colonies convened the First Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance to the Coercive Acts. The Congress called for a boycott of British trade, published a list of rights and grievances, and petitioned the king for redress of those grievances. The appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened in 1775 to organize the defense of the colonies against the British Army.\n\nOrdinary folk became insurgents against the British even though they were unfamiliar with the ideological rationales being offered. They held very strongly a sense of \"rights\" that they felt the British were deliberately violating – rights that stressed local autonomy, fair dealing, and government by consent. They were highly sensitive to the issue of tyranny, which they saw manifested in the arrival in Boston of the British Army to punish the Bostonians. This heightened their sense of violated rights, leading to rage and demands for revenge. They had faith that God was on their side. \n\nThe American Revolutionary War began at Concord and Lexington in April 1775 when the British tried to seize ammunition supplies and arrest the Patriot leaders.\n\nIn terms of political values, the Americans were largely united on a concept called Republicanism, that rejected aristocracy and emphasized civic duty and a fear of corruption. For the Founding Fathers, according to one team of historians, \"republicanism represented more than a particular form of government. It was a way of life, a core ideology, an uncompromising commitment to liberty, and a total rejection of aristocracy.\" \n\nAmerican Revolution\n\nThe Thirteen Colonies began a rebellion against British rule in 1775 and proclaimed their independence in 1776 as the United States of America. In the American Revolutionary War (1775–83) the American captured the British invasion army at Saratoga in 1777, secured the Northeast and encouraged the French to make a military alliance with the United States. France brought in Spain and the Netherlands, thus balancing the military and naval forces on each side as Britain had no allies. \n\nGeneral George Washington (1732–99) proved an excellent organizer and administrator, who worked successfully with Congress and the state governors, selecting and mentoring his senior officers, supporting and training his troops, and maintaining an idealistic Republican Army. His biggest challenge was logistics, since neither Congress nor the states had the funding to provide adequately for the equipment, munitions, clothing, paychecks, or even the food supply of the soldiers.\n\nAs a battlefield tactician, Washington was often outmaneuvered by his British counterparts. As a strategist, however, he had a better idea of how to win the war than they did. The British sent four invasion armies. Washington's strategy forced the first army out of Boston in 1776, and was responsible for the surrender of the second and third armies at Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781). He limited the British control to New York City and a few places while keeping Patriot control of the great majority of the population. \n\nThe Loyalists, whom the British counted upon too heavily, comprised about 20% of the population but never were well organized. As the war ended, Washington watched proudly as the final British army quietly sailed out of New York City in November 1783, taking the Loyalist leadership with them. Washington astonished the world when, instead of seizing power for himself, he retired quietly to his farm in Virginia. Political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset observes, \"The United States was the first major colony successfully to revolt against colonial rule. In this sense, it was the first 'new nation'.\" \n\nOn July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, declared the independence of \"the United States of America\" in the Declaration of Independence. July 4 is celebrated as the nation's birthday. The new nation was founded on Enlightenment ideals of liberalism in what Thomas Jefferson called the unalienable rights to \"life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness\", and dedicated strongly to republican principles. Republicanism emphasized the people are sovereign (not hereditary kings), demanded civic duty, feared corruption, and rejected any aristocracy. \n\nEarly years of the republic\n\nConfederation and Constitution\n\nIn the 1780s the national government was able to settle the issue of the western territories, which were ceded by the states to Congress and became territories. With the migration of settlers to the Northwest, soon they became states. Nationalists worried that the new nation was too fragile to withstand an international war, or even internal revolts such as the Shays' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts. \n\nNationalists – most of them war veterans – organized in every state and convinced Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. The delegates from every state wrote a new Constitution that created a much more powerful and efficient central government, one with a strong president, and powers of taxation. The new government reflected the prevailing republican ideals of guarantees of individual liberty and of constraining the power of government through a system of separation of powers.\n\nThe Congress was given authority to ban the international slave trade after 20 years (which it did in 1807). A compromise gave the South Congressional apportionment out of proportion to its free population by allowing it to include three-fifths of the number of slaves in each state's total population. This provision increased the political power of southern representatives in Congress, especially as slavery was extended into the Deep South through removal of Native Americans and transportation of slaves by an extensive domestic trade.\n\nTo assuage the Anti-Federalists who feared a too-powerful national government, the nation adopted the United States Bill of Rights in 1791. Comprising the first ten amendments of the Constitution, it guaranteed individual liberties such as freedom of speech and religious practice, jury trials, and stated that citizens and states had reserved rights (which were not specified). \n\nThe new Chief Executive\n\nGeorge Washington – a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, and president of the Constitutional Convention – became the first President of the United States under the new Constitution in 1789. The national capital moved from New York to Philadelphia and finally settled in Washington DC in 1800.\n\nThe major accomplishments of the Washington Administration were creating a strong national government that was recognized without question by all Americans. His government, following the vigorous leadership of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, assumed the debts of the states (the debt holders received federal bonds), created the Bank of the United States to stabilize the financial system, and set up a uniform system of tariffs (taxes on imports) and other taxes to pay off the debt and provide a financial infrastructure. To support his programs Hamilton created a new political party – the first in the world based on voters – the Federalist Party.\n\nThomas Jefferson and James Madison formed an opposition Republican Party (usually called the Democratic-Republican Party by political scientists). Hamilton and Washington presented the country in 1794 with the Jay Treaty that reestablished good relations with Britain. The Jeffersonians vehemently protested, and the voters aligned behind one party or the other, thus setting up the First Party System. Federalists promoted business, financial and commercial interests and wanted more trade with Britain. Republicans accused the Federalists of plans to establish a monarchy, turn the rich into a ruling class, and making the United States a pawn of the British. The treaty passed, but politics became intensely heated. \n\nThe Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, when western settlers protested against a federal tax on liquor, was the first serious test of the federal government. Washington called out the state militia and personally led an army, as the insurgents melted away and the power of the national government was firmly established. \n\nWashington refused to serve more than two terms – setting a precedent – and in his famous farewell address, he extolled the benefits of federal government and importance of ethics and morality while warning against foreign alliances and the formation of political parties. \n\nJohn Adams, a Federalist, defeated Jefferson in the 1796 election. War loomed with France and the Federalists used the opportunity to try to silence the Republicans with the Alien and Sedition Acts, build up a large army with Hamilton at the head, and prepare for a French invasion. However, the Federalists became divided after Adams sent a successful peace mission to France that ended the Quasi-War of 1798. \n\nSlavery\n\nDuring the first two decades after the Revolutionary War, there were dramatic changes in the status of slavery among the states and an increase in the number of freed blacks. Inspired by revolutionary ideals of the equality of men and influenced by their lesser economic reliance on slavery, northern states abolished slavery.\n\nStates of the Upper South made manumission easier, resulting in an increase in the proportion of free blacks in the Upper South (as a percentage of the total non-white population) from less than one percent in 1792 to more than 10 percent by 1810. By that date, a total of 13.5 percent of all blacks in the United States were free. After that date, with the demand for slaves on the rise because of the Deep South's expanding cotton cultivation, the number of manumissions declined sharply; and an internal U.S. slave trade became an important source of wealth for many planters and traders.\n\nIn 1809, president James Madison severed the U.S.A.'s involvement with the Atlantic slave trade.\n\n19th century\n\nJeffersonian Republican Era\n\nThomas Jefferson defeated Adams for the presidency in the 1800 election. Jefferson's major achievement as president was the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which provided U.S. settlers with vast potential for expansion west of the Mississippi River. \n\nJefferson, a scientist himself, supported expeditions to explore and map the new domain, most notably the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Jefferson believed deeply in republicanism and argued it should be based on the independent yeoman farmer and planter; he distrusted cities, factories and banks. He also distrusted the federal government and judges, and tried to weaken the judiciary. However he met his match in John Marshall, a Federalist from Virginia. Although the Constitution specified a Supreme Court, its functions were vague until Marshall, the Chief Justice (1801–35), defined them, especially the power to overturn acts of Congress or states that violated the Constitution, first enunciated in 1803 in Marbury v. Madison. \n\nWar of 1812\n\nAmericans were increasingly angry at the British violation of American ships' neutral rights in order to hurt France, the impressment (seizure) of 10,000 American sailors needed by the Royal Navy to fight Napoleon, and British support for hostile Indians attacking American settlers in the Midwest. They may also have desired to annex all or part of British North America. Despite strong opposition from the Northeast, especially from Federalists who did not want to disrupt trade with Britain, Congress declared war in June 18, 1812. \n\nThe war was frustrating for both sides. Both sides tried to invade the other and were repulsed. The American high command remained incompetent until the last year. The American militia proved ineffective because the soldiers were reluctant to leave home and efforts to invade Canada repeatedly failed. The British blockade ruined American commerce, bankrupted the Treasury, and further angered New Englanders, who smuggled supplies to Britain. The Americans under General William Henry Harrison finally gained naval control of Lake Erie and defeated the Indians under Tecumseh in Canada, while Andrew Jackson ended the Indian threat in the Southeast. The Indian threat to expansion into the Midwest was permanently ended. The British invaded and occupied much of Maine.\n\nThe British raided and burned Washington, but were repelled at Baltimore in 1814 – where the \"Star Spangled Banner\" was written to celebrate the American success. In upstate New York a major British invasion of New York State was turned back. Finally in early 1815 Andrew Jackson decisively defeated a major British invasion at the Battle of New Orleans, making him the most famous war hero. \n\nWith Napoleon (apparently) gone, the causes of the war had evaporated and both sides agreed to a peace that left the prewar boundaries intact. Americans claimed victory in February 18, 1815 as news came almost simultaneously of Jackson's victory of New Orleans and the peace treaty that left the prewar boundaries in place. Americans swelled with pride at success in the \"second war of independence\"; the naysayers of the antiwar Federalist Party were put to shame and it never recovered. The Indians were the big losers; they never gained the independent nationhood Britain had promised and no longer posed a serious threat as settlers poured into the Midwest.\n\nEra of Good Feelings\n\nAs strong opponents of the war, the Federalists held the Hartford Convention in 1814 that hinted at disunion. National euphoria after the victory at New Orleans ruined the prestige of the Federalists and they no longer played a significant role. President Madison and most Republicans realized they were foolish to let the Bank of the United States close down, for its absence greatly hindered the financing of the war. So, with the assistance of foreign bankers, they chartered the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. \n\nThe Republicans also imposed tariffs designed to protect the infant industries that had been created when Britain was blockading the U.S. With the collapse of the Federalists as a party, the adoption of many Federalist principles by the Republicans, and the systematic policy of President James Monroe in his two terms (1817–25) to downplay partisanship, the nation entered an Era of Good Feelings, with far less partisanship than before (or after), and closed out the First Party System.\n\nThe Monroe Doctrine, expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere in the Americas. This was a defining moment in the foreign policy of the United States. The Monroe Doctrine was adopted in response to American and British fears over Russian and French expansion into the Western Hemisphere. \n\nIn 1832, President Andrew Jackson, 7th President of the United States, ran for a second term under the slogan \"Jackson and no bank\" and didn't renew the charter of the Second Bank of the United States of America. Jackson was convinced that central banking was used by the elite to take advantage of the average American. \n\nIndian removal\n\nIn 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to negotiate treaties that exchanged Native American tribal lands in the eastern states for lands west of the Mississippi River. Its goal was primarily to remove Native Americans, including the Five Civilized Tribes, from the American Southeast; they occupied land that settlers wanted. Jacksonian Democrats demanded the forcible removal of native populations who refused to acknowledge state laws to reservations in the West; Whigs and religious leaders opposed the move as inhumane. Thousands of deaths resulted from the relocations, as seen in the Cherokee Trail of Tears. Many of the Seminole Indians in Florida refused to move west; they fought the Army for years in the Seminole Wars.\n\nSecond Party System\n\nAfter the First Party System of Federalists and Republicans withered away in the 1820s, the stage was set for the emergence of a new party system based on very well organized local parties that appealed for the votes of (almost) all adult white men.\nThe former Jeffersonian party split into factions. They split over the choice of a successor to President James Monroe, and the party faction that supported many of the old Jeffersonian principles, led by Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, became the Democratic Party. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828:\nJacksonians believed the people's will had finally prevailed. Through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president. The Democrats became the nation's first well-organized national party...and tight party organization became the hallmark of nineteenth-century American politics. \n\nOpposing factions led by Henry Clay helped form the Whig Party. The Democratic Party had a small but decisive advantage over the Whigs until the 1850s, when the Whigs fell apart over the issue of slavery.\n\nBehind the platforms issued by state and national parties stood a widely shared political outlook that characterized the Democrats:\nThe Democrats represented a wide range of views but shared a fundamental commitment to the Jeffersonian concept of an agrarian society. They viewed the central government as the enemy of individual liberty. The 1824 \"corrupt bargain\" had strengthened their suspicion of Washington politics....Jacksonians feared the concentration of economic and political power. They believed that government intervention in the economy benefited special-interest groups and created corporate monopolies that favored the rich. They sought to restore the independence of the individual--the artisan and the ordinary farmer--by ending federal support of banks and corporations and restricting the use of paper currency, which they distrusted. Their definition of the proper role of government tended to be negative, and Jackson's political power was largely expressed in negative acts. He exercised the veto more than all previous presidents combined. Jackson and his supporters also opposed reform as a movement. Reformers eager to turn their programs into legislation called for a more active government. But Democrats tended to oppose programs like educational reform mid the establishment of a public education system. They believed, for instance, that public schools restricted individual liberty by interfering with parental responsibility and undermined freedom of religion by replacing church schools. Nor did Jackson share reformers' humanitarian concerns. He had no sympathy for American Indians, initiating the removal of the Cherokees along the Trail of Tears. \n\nSecond Great Awakening\n\nThe Second Great Awakening was a Protestant revival movement that affected the entire nation during the early 19th century and led to rapid church growth. The movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800, and, after 1820 membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the 1840s. \n\nIt enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. Many converts believed that the Awakening heralded a new millennial age. The Second Great Awakening stimulated the establishment of many reform movements – including abolitionism and temperance designed to remove the evils of society before the anticipated Second Coming of Jesus Christ. \n\nAbolitionism\n\nAfter 1840 the growing abolitionist movement redefined itself as a crusade against the sin of slave ownership. It mobilized support (especially among religious women in the Northeast affected by the Second Great Awakening). William Lloyd Garrison published the most influential of the many anti-slavery newspapers, The Liberator, while Frederick Douglass, an ex-slave, began writing for that newspaper around 1840 and started his own abolitionist newspaper North Star in 1847. The great majority of anti-slavery activists, such as Abraham Lincoln, rejected Garrison's theology and held that slavery was an unfortunate social evil, not a sin. \n\nWestward expansion and Manifest Destiny\n\nThe American colonies and the new nation grew very rapidly in population and area, as pioneers pushed the frontier of settlement west. The process finally ended around 1890–1912 as the last major farmlands and ranch lands were settled. Native American tribes in some places resisted militarily, but they were overwhelmed by settlers and the army and after 1830 were relocated to reservations in the west. The highly influential \"Frontier Thesis\" argues that the frontier shaped the national character, with its boldness, violence, innovation, individualism, and democracy. \n\nRecent historians have emphasized the multicultural nature of the frontier. Enormous popular attention in the media focuses on the \"Wild West\" of the second half of the 19th century. As defined by Hine and Faragher, \"frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states\". They explain, \"It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, and the merging of peoples and cultures that gave birth and continuing life to America.\"\n\nThrough wars and treaties, establishment of law and order, building farms, ranches, and towns, marking trails and digging mines, and pulling in great migrations of foreigners, the United States expanded from coast to coast fulfilling the dreams of Manifest Destiny. As the American frontier passed into history, the myths of the west in fiction and film took firm hold in the imagination of Americans and foreigners alike. America is exceptional in choosing its iconic self-image. \"No other nation,\" says David Murdoch, \"has taken a time and place from its past and produced a construct of the imagination equal to America's creation of the West.\" \n\nFrom the early 1830s to 1869, the Oregon Trail and its many offshoots were used by over 300,000 settlers. '49ers (in the California Gold Rush), ranchers, farmers, and entrepreneurs and their families headed to California, Oregon, and other points in the far west. Wagon-trains took five or six months on foot; after 1869, the trip took 6 days by rail. \n\nManifest Destiny was the belief that American settlers were destined to expand across the continent. This concept was born out of \"A sense of mission to redeem the Old World by high example ... generated by the potentialities of a new earth for building a new heaven.\" Manifest Destiny was rejected by modernizers, especially the Whigs like Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln who wanted to build cities and factories – not more farms. Democrats strongly favored expansion, and they won the key election of 1844. After a bitter debate in Congress the Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845, which Mexico had warned meant war. \n\nWar broke out in 1846, with the homefront polarized as Whigs opposed and Democrats supported the war. The U.S. army, using regulars and large numbers of volunteers, won the Mexican–American War (1846–48). The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo made peace. Mexico recognized the annexation of Texas and ceded its claims in the Southwest (especially California and New Mexico).\n\nThe Hispanic residents were given full citizenship and the Mexican Indians became American Indians. Simultaneously gold was discovered, pulling over 100,000 men to northern California in a matter of months in the California Gold Rush. Not only did the then president James K. Polk expand America's border to the Republic of Texas and a fraction of Mexico but he also annexed the north western frontier known as the Oregon Country, which was renamed the Oregon Territory.\n\nDivisions between North and South\n\nThe central issue after 1848 was the expansion of slavery, pitting the anti-slavery elements that were a majority in the North, against the pro-slavery elements that overwhelmingly dominated the white South. A small number of very active Northerners were abolitionists who declared that ownership of slaves was a sin (in terms of Protestant theology) and demanded its immediate abolition. Much larger numbers were against the expansion of slavery, seeking to put it on the path to extinction so that America would be committed to free land (as in low-cost farms owned and cultivated by a family), free labor (no slaves), and free speech (as opposed to censorship rampant in the South). Southern whites insisted that slavery was of economic, social, and cultural benefit to all whites (and even to the slaves themselves), and denounced all anti-slavery spokesmen as \"abolitionists.\" \n\nReligious activists split on slavery, with the Methodists and Baptists dividing into northern and southern denominations. In the North, the Methodists, Congregationalists, and Quakers included many abolitionists, especially among women activists. (The Catholic, Episcopal and Lutheran denominations largely ignored the slavery issue.) \n\nThe issue of slavery in the new territories was seemingly settled by the Compromise of 1850, brokered by Whig Henry Clay and Democrat Stephen Douglas; the Compromise included the admission of California as a free state. The point of contention was the Fugitive Slave Act, which increased federal enforcement and required even free states to cooperate in turning over fugitive slaves to their owners. Abolitionists pounced on the Act to attack slavery, as in the best-selling anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe. \n\nThe Compromise of 1820 was repealed in 1854 with the Kansas–Nebraska Act, promoted by Senator Douglas in the name of \"popular sovereignty\" and democracy. It permitted voters to decide on slavery in each territory, and allowed Douglas to say he was neutral on the slavery issue. Anti-slavery forces rose in anger and alarm, forming the new Republican Party. Pro- and anti- contingents rushed to Kansas to vote slavery up or down, resulting in a miniature civil war called Bleeding Kansas. By the late 1850s, the young Republican Party dominated nearly all northern states and thus the electoral college. It insisted that slavery would never be allowed to expand (and thus would slowly die out). \n\nThe Southern slavery-based societies had become wealthy based on their cotton and other agricultural commodity production, and some particularly profited from the internal slave trade. Northern cities such as Boston and New York, and regional industries, were tied economically to slavery by banking, shipping, and manufacturing, including textile mills. By 1860, there were four million slaves in the South, nearly eight times as many as there were nationwide in 1790. The plantations were highly profitable, because of the heavy European demand for raw cotton. Most of the profits were invested in new lands and in purchasing more slaves (largely drawn from the declining tobacco regions).\n\nFor 50 of the nation's first 72 years, a slaveholder served as President of the United States and, during that period, only slaveholding presidents were re-elected to second terms. In addition, southern states benefited by their increased apportionment in Congress due to the partial counting of slaves in their populations.\n\nSlave rebellions were planned or actually took place – including by Gabriel Prosser (1800), Denmark Vesey (1822), Nat Turner (1831), and John Brown (1859) – but they only involved dozens of people and all failed. They caused fear in the white South, which imposed tighter slave oversight and reduced the rights of free blacks. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 required the states to cooperate with slave owners when attempting to recover escaped slaves, which outraged Northerners. Formerly, an escaped slave, having reached a non-slave state, was presumed to have attained sanctuary and freedom. The Supreme Court's 1857 decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional; angry Republicans said this decision threatened to make slavery a national institution.\n\nAfter Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election, seven Southern states seceded from the union and set up a new nation, the Confederate States of America (C.S.A.), on February 8, 1861. It attacked Fort Sumter, a U.S. Army fort in South Carolina, thus igniting the war. When Lincoln called for troops to suppress the Confederacy in April 1861, four more states seceded and joined the Confederacy. A few of the (northernmost) \"slave states\" did not secede and became known as the border states; these were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri.\n\nDuring the war, the northwestern portion of Virginia seceded from the C.S.A. and became the new Union state of West Virginia. West Virginia is usually grouped with the border states.\n\nCivil War\n\nThe Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a U.S. military installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina. In response to the attack, on April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and \"preserve the Union\", which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. The two armies had their first major clash at the First Battle of Bull Run, ending in a Union defeat, but, more importantly, proved to both the Union and Confederacy that the war would be much longer and bloodier than originally anticipated. \n\nThe war soon divided into two theaters: Eastern and Western. In the western theater, the Union was quite successful, with major battles, such as Perryville and Shiloh, producing strategic Union victories and destroying major Confederate operations. \n\nWarfare in the Eastern theater started poorly for the Union as the Confederates won at Manassas Junction (Bull Run), just outside Washington. Major General George B. McClellan was put in charge of the Union armies. After reorganizing the new Army of the Potomac, McClellan failed to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia in his Peninsula Campaign and retreated after attacks from newly appointed Confederate General Robert E. Lee. \n\nFeeling confident in his army after defeating the Union at Second Bull Run, Lee embarked on an invasion of the north that was stopped by McClellan at the bloody Battle of Antietam. Despite this, McClellan was relieved from command for refusing to pursue Lee's crippled army. The next commander, General Ambrose Burnside, suffered a humiliating defeat by Lee's smaller army at the Battle of Fredericksburg late in 1862, causing yet another change in commanders. Lee won again at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863, while losing his top aide, Stonewall Jackson. But Lee pushed too hard and ignored the Union threat in the west. Lee invaded Pennsylvania in search of supplies and to cause war-weariness in the North. In perhaps the turning point of the war, Lee's army was badly beaten at the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1–3, 1863, and barely made it back to Virginia. \n\nSimultaneously on July 4, 1863, Union forces under the command of General Ulysses S. Grant gained control of the Mississippi River at the Battle of Vicksburg, thereby splitting the Confederacy. Lincoln made General Grant commander of all Union armies.\n\nThe last two years of the war were bloody for both sides, with Grant launching a war of attrition against General Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. This war of attrition was divided into three main campaigns. The first of these, the Overland Campaign forced Lee to retreat into the city of Petersburg where Grant launched his second major offensive, the Richmond-Petersburg Campaign in which he besieged Petersburg. After a near ten-month siege, Petersburg surrendered. However, the defense of Fort Gregg allowed Lee to move his army out of Petersburg. Grant pursued and launched the final, Appomattox Campaign which resulted in Lee surrendering his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House. Other Confederate armies followed suit and the war ended with no postwar insurgency.\n\nBased on 1860 census figures, about 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6% from the North and 18% from the South, establishing the American Civil War as the deadliest war in American history. Its legacy includes ending slavery in the United States, restoring the Union, and strengthening the role of the federal government.\n\nEmancipation\n\nThe Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from \"slave\" to \"free.\" It had the practical effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the slave became legally and actually free. The owners were never compensated. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all of the designated slaves. Large numbers moved into camps run by the Freedmen's Bureau, where they were given food, shelter, medical care, and arrangements for their employment were made.\n\nThe severe dislocations of war and Reconstruction had a large negative impact on the black population, with a large amount of sickness and death. \n\nReconstruction Era\n\nReconstruction lasted from Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863 to the Compromise of 1877. \n\nThe major issues faced by Lincoln were the status of the ex-slaves (called \"Freedmen\"), the loyalty and civil rights of ex-rebels, the status of the 11 ex-Confederate states, the powers of the federal government needed to prevent a future civil war, and the question of whether Congress or the President would make the major decisions.\n\nThe severe threats of starvation and displacement of the unemployed Freedmen were met by the first major federal relief agency, the Freedmen's Bureau, operated by the Army. \n\nThree \"Reconstruction Amendments\" were passed to expand civil rights for black Americans: the Thirteenth Amendment outlawed slavery; the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal rights for all and citizenship for blacks; the Fifteenth Amendment prevented race from being used to disfranchise men.\n\nEx-Confederates remained in control of most Southern states for over two years, but that changed when the Radical Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. President Andrew Johnson, who sought easy terms for reunions with ex-rebels, was virtually powerless; he escaped by one vote removal through impeachment. Congress enfranchised black men and temporarily stripped many ex-Confederate leaders of the right to hold office. New Republican governments came to power based on a coalition of Freedmen made up of Carpetbaggers (new arrivals from the North), and Scalawags (native white Southerners). They were backed by the US Army. Opponents said they were corrupt and violated the rights of whites. \n\nState by state they lost power to a conservative-Democratic coalition, which gained control of the entire South by 1877. In response to Radical Reconstruction, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) emerged in 1867 as a white-supremacist organization opposed to black civil rights and Republican rule. President Ulysses Grant's vigorous enforcement of the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1870 shut down the Klan, and it disbanded. Paramilitary groups, such as the White League and Red Shirts emerged about 1874 that worked openly to use intimidation and violence to suppress black voting to regain white political power in states across the South during the 1870s. Rable described them as the military arm of the Democratic Party.\n\nReconstruction ended after the disputed 1876 election. The Compromise of 1877 gave Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes the White House. The federal government withdrew its troops from the South, and Southern Democrats took control of every Southern state. . From 1890 to 1908, southern states effectively disfranchised most black voters and many poor whites by making voter registration more difficult through poll taxes, literacy tests, and other arbitrary devices. They passed segregation laws and imposed second-class status on blacks in a system known as Jim Crow that lasted until the successes of the Civil Rights movement in 1964-65. \n\nDeeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:\nGod had chastised them and given them a special mission – to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God's favor.\nIn sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:\nGod's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self-help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land. \n\nThe West and the Gilded Age\n\nThe latter half of the nineteenth century was marked by the rapid development and settlement of the far West, first by wagon trains and riverboats and then aided by the completion of the transcontinental railroad. Large numbers of European immigrants (especially from Germany and Scandinavia) took up low-cost or free farms in the Prairie States. Mining for silver and copper opened up the Mountain West. The United States Army fought frequent small-scale wars with Native Americans as settlers encroached on their traditional lands. Gradually the US purchased the Native American tribal lands and extinguished their claims, forcing most tribes onto subsidized reservations. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), from 1789 to 1894:\nThe Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate... \n\nThe \"Gilded Age\" was a term that Mark Twain used to describe the period of the late 19th century when there had been a dramatic expansion of American wealth and prosperity. Reform of the Age included the Civil Service Act, which mandated a competitive examination for applicants for government jobs. Other important legislation included the Interstate Commerce Act, which ended railroads' discrimination against small shippers, and the Sherman Antitrust Act, which outlawed monopolies in business. Twain believed that this age was corrupted by such elements as land speculators, scandalous politics, and unethical business practices. Since the days of Charles A. Beard and Matthew Josephson, some historians have argued that the United States was effectively plutocratic for at least part of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. As financiers and industrialists such as J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller began to amass vast fortunes, many US observers were concerned that the nation was losing its pioneering egalitarian spirit. \n\nBy 1890 American industrial production and per capita income exceeded those of all other world nations. In response to heavy debts and decreasing farm prices, wheat and cotton farmers joined the Populist Party. An unprecedented wave of immigration from Europe served to both provide the labor for American industry and create diverse communities in previously undeveloped areas. From 1880 to 1914, peak years of immigration, more than 22 million people migrated to the United States. Most were unskilled workers who quickly found jobs in mines, mills, factories. Many immigrants were craftsmen (especially from Britain and Germany) bringing human skills, and others were farmers (especially from Germany and Scandinavia) who purchased inexpensive land on the Prairies from railroads who sent agents to Europe. Poverty, growing inequality and dangerous working conditions, along with socialist and anarchist ideas diffusing from European immigrants, led to the rise of the labor movement, which often included violent strikes. \n\nSkilled workers banded together to control their crafts and raise wages by forming labor unions in industrial areas of the Northeast. Before the 1930s few factory workers joined the unions in the labor movement. Samuel Gompers led the American Federation of Labor 1886-1924, coordinating multiple unions. Industrial growth was very rapid, led by John D. Rockefeller in oil and Andrew Carnegie in steel; both became leaders of philanthropy, giving away their fortunes to create the modern system of hospitals, universities, libraries, and foundations.\n\nA severe nationwide depression broke out in 1893; it was called the Panic of 1893 and impacted farmers, workers, and businessmen who saw prices, wages, and profits fall. Many railroads went bankrupt. The resultant political reaction fell on the Democratic Party, whose leader President Grover Cleveland shouldered much of the blame. Labor unrest involved numerous strikes, most notably the violent Pullman Strike of 1894, which was shut down by federal troops under Cleveland's orders. The Populist Party gained strength among cotton and wheat farmers, as well as coal miners, but was overtaken by the even more popular Free Silver movement, which demanded using silver to enlarge the money supply, leading to inflation that the silverites promised would end the depression. \n\nThe financial, railroad, and business communities fought back hard, arguing that only the gold standard would save the economy. In the most intense election in the nation's history, conservative Republican William McKinley defeated silverite William Jennings Bryan, who ran on the Democratic, Populist, and Silver Republican tickets. Bryan swept the South and West, but McKinley ran up landslides among the middle class, industrial workers, cities, and among upscale farmers in the Midwest. \n\nProsperity returned under McKinley, the gold standard was enacted, and the tariff was raised. By 1900 the US had the strongest economy on the globe. Apart from two short recessions (in 1907 and 1920) the overall economy remained prosperous and growing until 1929. Republicans, citing McKinley's policies, took the credit. \n\n20th century\n\nProgressive Era\n\nDissatisfaction on the part of the growing middle class with the corruption and inefficiency of politics as usual, and the failure to deal with increasingly important urban and industrial problems, led to the dynamic Progressive Movement starting in the 1890s. In every major city and state, and at the national level as well, and in education, medicine, and industry, the progressives called for the modernization and reform of decrepit institutions, the elimination of corruption in politics, and the introduction of efficiency as a criterion for change. Leading politicians from both parties, most notably Theodore Roosevelt, Charles Evans Hughes, and Robert LaFollette on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson on the Democratic side, took up the cause of progressive reform. Women became especially involved in demands for woman suffrage, prohibition, and better schools; their most prominent leader was Jane Addams of Chicago. \"Muckraking\" journalists such as Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens and Jacob Riis exposed corruption in business and government along with rampant inner city poverty. Progressives implemented anti-trust laws and regulated such industries of meat-packing, drugs, and railroads. Four new constitutional amendments – the Sixteenth through Nineteenth – resulted from progressive activism, bringing the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, prohibition, and woman suffrage. The Progressive Movement lasted through the 1920s; the most active period was 1900–18. \n\nImperialism\n\nThe United States emerged as a world economic and military power after 1890. The main episode was the Spanish–American War, which began when Spain refused American demands to reform its oppressive policies in Cuba. The \"splendid little war\", as one official called it, involved a series of quick American victories on land and at sea. At the Treaty of Paris peace conference the United States acquired the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. \n\nCuba became an independent country, under close American tutelage. Although the war itself was widely popular, the peace terms proved controversial. William Jennings Bryan led his Democratic Party in opposition to control of the Philippines, which he denounced as imperialism unbecoming to American democracy. President William McKinley defended the acquisition and was riding high as the nation had returned to prosperity and felt triumphant in the war. McKinley easily defeated Bryan in a rematch in the 1900 presidential election. \n\nAfter defeating an insurrection by Filipino nationalists, the United States engaged in a large-scale program to modernize the economy of the Philippines and dramatically upgrade the public health facilities. By 1908, however, Americans lost interest in an empire and turned their international attention to the Caribbean, especially the building of the Panama Canal. In 1912 when Arizona became the final mainland state, the American Frontier came to an end. The canal opened in 1914 and increased trade with Japan and the rest of the Far East. A key innovation was the Open Door Policy, whereby the imperial powers were given equal access to Chinese business, with not one of them allowed to take control of China. \n\nWorld War I\n\nAs World War I raged in Europe from 1914, President Woodrow Wilson took full control of foreign policy, declaring neutrality but warning Germany that resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against American ships supplying goods to Allied nations would mean war. Germany decided to take the risk and try to win by cutting off supplies to Britain; the U.S. declared war in April 1917. American money, food, and munitions arrived quickly, but troops had to be drafted and trained; by summer 1918 American soldiers under General John J. Pershing arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day, while Germany was unable to replace its losses. \n\nThe result was Allied victory in November 1918. President Wilson demanded Germany depose the Kaiser and accept his terms, the Fourteen Points. Wilson dominated the 1919 Paris Peace Conference but Germany was treated harshly by the Allies in the Treaty of Versailles (1919) as Wilson put all his hopes in the new League of Nations. Wilson refused to compromise with Senate Republicans over the issue of Congressional power to declare war, and the Senate rejected the Treaty and the League. \n\nWomen's suffrage\n\nThe women's suffrage movement began with the June 1848 National Convention of the Liberty Party. Presidential candidate Gerrit Smith argued for and established women's suffrage as a party plank. One month later, his cousin Elizabeth Cady Stanton joined with Lucretia Mott and other women to organize the Seneca Falls Convention, featuring the Declaration of Sentiments demanding equal rights for women, and the right to vote. Many of these activists became politically aware during the abolitionist movement. The women's rights campaign during \"first-wave feminism\" was led by Stanton, Lucy Stone and Susan B. Anthony, among many others. Stone and Paulina Wright Davis organized the prominent and influential National Women's Rights Convention in 1850. The movement reorganized after the Civil War, gaining experienced campaigners, many of whom had worked for prohibition in the Women's Christian Temperance Union. By the end of the 19th century a few western states had granted women full voting rights, though women had made significant legal victories, gaining rights in areas such as property and child custody. \n\nAround 1912 the feminist movement, which had grown sluggish, began to reawaken, putting an emphasis on its demands for equality and arguing that the corruption of American politics demanded purification by women because men could not do that job. Protests became increasingly common as suffragette Alice Paul led parades through the capital and major cities. Paul split from the large National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which favored a more moderate approach and supported the Democratic Party and Woodrow Wilson, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and formed the more militant National Woman's Party. Suffragists were arrested during their \"Silent Sentinels\" pickets at the White House, the first time such a tactic was used, and were taken as political prisoners. \n\nThe old anti-suffragist argument that only men could fight a war, and therefore only men deserve the right to vote, was refuted by the enthusiastic participation of tens of thousands of American women on the home front in World War I. Across the world, grateful nations gave women the right to vote. Furthermore, most of the Western states had already given the women the right to vote in state and national elections, and the representatives from those states, including the first woman Jeannette Rankin of Montana, demonstrated that woman suffrage was a success. The main resistance came from the south, where white leaders were worried about the threat of black women voting. Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919, and women could vote in 1920. \n\nNAWSA became the League of Women Voters, and the National Woman's Party began lobbying for full equality and the Equal Rights Amendment, which would pass Congress during the second wave of the women's movement in 1972. Politicians responded to the new electorate by emphasizing issues of special interest to women, especially prohibition, child health, and world peace. The main surge of women voting came in 1928, when the big-city machines realized they needed the support of women to elect Al Smith, a Catholic from New York City. Meanwhile, Protestants mobilized women to support Prohibition and vote for Republican Herbert Hoover. \n\nRoaring Twenties and the Great Depression\n\nIn the 1920s the U.S. grew steadily in stature as an economic and military world power. The United States Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles imposed by its Allies on the defeated Central Powers; instead, the United States chose to pursue unilateralism. The aftershock of Russia's October Revolution resulted in real fears of Communism in the United States, leading to a Red Scare and the deportation of aliens considered subversive.\n\nWhile public health facilities grew rapidly in the Progressive Era, and hospitals and medical schools were modernized, the nation in 1918 lost 675,000 lives to the Spanish flu pandemic. \n\nIn 1920, the manufacture, sale, import and export of alcohol were prohibited by the Eighteenth Amendment, Prohibition. The result was that in cities illegal alcohol became a big business, largely controlled by racketeers. The second Ku Klux Klan grew rapidly in 1922-25, then collapsed. Immigration laws were passed to strictly limit the number of new entries. The 1920s were called the Roaring Twenties due to the great economic prosperity during this period. Jazz became popular among the younger generation, and thus the decade was also called the Jazz Age.\n\nThe Great Depression (1929–39) and the New Deal (1933–36) were decisive moments in American political, economic, and social history that reshaped the nation. \n\nDuring the 1920s, the nation enjoyed widespread prosperity, albeit with a weakness in agriculture. A financial bubble was fueled by an inflated stock market, which later led to the Stock Market Crash on October 29, 1929. This, along with many other economic factors, triggered a worldwide depression known as the Great Depression. During this time, the United States experienced deflation as prices fell, unemployment soared from 3% in 1929 to 25% in 1933, farm prices fell by half, and manufacturing output plunged by one-third.\n\nIn 1932, Democratic presidential nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt promised \"a New Deal for the American people\", coining the enduring label for his domestic policies. The desperate economic situation, along with the substantial Democratic victories in the 1932 elections, gave Roosevelt unusual influence over Congress in the \"First Hundred Days\" of his administration. He used his leverage to win rapid passage of a series of measures to create welfare programs and regulate the banking system, stock market, industry, and agriculture, along with many other government efforts to end the Great Depression and reform the American economy. The New Deal regulated much of the economy, especially the financial sector. It provided relief to the unemployed through numerous programs, such as the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and (for young men) the Civilian Conservation Corps. Large scale spending projects designed to provide high paying jobs and rebuild the infrastructure were under the purview of the Public Works Administration. Roosevelt turned left in 1935–36, building up labor unions through the Wagner Act. Unions became a powerful element of the merging New Deal Coalition, which won reelection for Roosevelt in 1936, 1940, and 1944 by mobilizing union members, blue collar workers, relief recipients, big city machines, ethnic, and religious groups (especially Catholics and Jews) and the white South, along with blacks in the North (where they could vote). Some of the programs were dropped in the 1940s when the conservatives regained power in Congress through the Conservative Coalition. Of special importance is the Social Security program, begun in 1935. \n\nWorld War II\n\nIn the Depression years, the United States remained focused on domestic concerns while democracy declined across the world and many countries fell under the control of dictators. Imperial Japan asserted dominance in East Asia and in the Pacific. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy militarized too and threatened conquests, while Britain and France attempted appeasement to avert another war in Europe. US legislation in the Neutrality Acts sought to avoid foreign conflicts; however, policy clashed with increasing anti-Nazi feelings following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 that started World War II. Roosevelt positioned the US as the \"Arsenal of Democracy\", pledging full-scale financial and munitions support for the Allies – but no military personnel. Japan tried to neutralize America's power in the Pacific by attacking Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which catalyzed American support to enter the war and seek revenge. \n\nThe main contributions of the US to the Allied war effort comprised money, industrial output, food, petroleum, technological innovation, and (especially 1944–45), military personnel. Much of the focus in Washington was maximizing the economic output of the nation. The overall result was a dramatic increase in GDP, the export of vast quantities of supplies to the Allies and to American forces overseas, the end of unemployment, and a rise in civilian consumption even as 40% of the GDP went to the war effort. This was achieved by tens of millions of workers moving from low-productivity occupations to high efficiency jobs, improvements in productivity through better technology and management, and the move into the active labor force of students, retired people, housewives, and the unemployed, and an increase in hours worked.\n\nIt was exhausting; leisure activities declined sharply. People tolerated the extra work because of patriotism, the pay, and the confidence that it was only \"for the duration\", and life would return to normal as soon as the war was won. Most durable goods became unavailable, and meat, clothing, and gasoline were tightly rationed. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled, and Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war instead of a return to depression. \n\nThe Allies – the US, Britain, and the Soviet Union, China, as well as Poland, Canada and other countries – fought the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Allies saw Germany as the main threat and gave highest priority to Europe. The US dominated the war against Japan and stopped Japanese expansion in the Pacific in 1942. After losing Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines to the Japanese, and drawing the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942), the American Navy inflicted a decisive blow at Midway (June 1942). American ground forces assisted in the North African Campaign that eventually concluded with the collapse of Mussolini's fascist government in 1943, as Italy switched to the Allied side. A more significant European front was opened on D-Day, June 6, 1944, in which American and Allied forces invaded Nazi-occupied France from Britain.\n\nOn the home front, mobilization of the US economy was managed by Roosevelt's War Production Board. The wartime production boom led to full employment, wiping out this vestige of the Great Depression. Indeed, labor shortages encouraged industry to look for new sources of workers, finding new roles for women and blacks. \n\nHowever, the fervor also inspired anti-Japanese sentiment, which was handled by removing everyone of Japanese descent from the West Coast war zone. Research and development took flight as well, best seen in the Manhattan Project, a secret effort to harness nuclear fission to produce highly destructive atomic bombs. \n\nThe Allies pushed the Germans out of France but faced an unexpected counterattack at the Battle of the Bulge in December. The final German effort failed, and, as Allied armies in East and West were converging on Berlin, the Nazis hurriedly tried to kill the last remaining Jews. The western front stopped short, leaving Berlin to the Soviets as the Nazi regime formally capitulated in May 1945, ending the war in Europe. Over in the Pacific, the US implemented an island hopping strategy toward Tokyo, establishing airfields for bombing runs against mainland Japan from the Mariana Islands and achieving hard-fought victories at Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945. Bloodied at Okinawa, the U.S. prepared to invade Japan's home islands when B-29s dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, forcing the empire's surrender in a matter of days and thus ending World War II. The US occupied Japan (and part of Germany), sending Douglas MacArthur to restructure the Japanese economy and political system along American lines. During the war, Roosevelt coined the term \"Four Powers\" to refer four major Allies of World War II, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and China, which later became the foundation of the United Nations Security Council. \n\nThough the nation lost more than 400,000 military personnel, the mainland prospered untouched by the devastation of war that inflicted a heavy toll on Europe and Asia.\n\nParticipation in postwar foreign affairs marked the end of predominant American isolationism. The awesome threat of nuclear weapons inspired both optimism and fear. Nuclear weapons were never used after 1945, as both sides drew back from the brink and a \"long peace\" characterized the Cold War years, starting with the Truman Doctrine in May 22, 1947. There were, however, regional wars in Korea and Vietnam. \n\nThe Cold War, counterculture, and civil rights\n\nFollowing World War II, the United States emerged as one of the two dominant superpowers, the USSR being the other. The U.S. Senate on a bipartisan vote approved U.S. participation in the United Nations (UN), which marked a turn away from the traditional isolationism of the U.S. and toward increased international involvement.\n\nThe primary American goal of 1945–48 was to rescue Europe from the devastation of World War II and to contain the expansion of Communism, represented by the Soviet Union. The Truman Doctrine of 1947 provided military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey to counteract the threat of Communist expansion in the Balkans. In 1948, the United States replaced piecemeal financial aid programs with a comprehensive Marshall Plan, which pumped money into the economy of Western Europe, and removed trade barriers, while modernizing the managerial practices of businesses and governments. \n\nThe Plan's $13 billion budget was in the context of a US GDP of $258 billion in 1948 and was in addition to the $12 billion in American aid given to Europe between the end of the war and the start of the Marshall Plan. Soviet head of state Joseph Stalin prevented his satellite states from participating, and from that point on, Eastern Europe, with inefficient centralized economies, fell further and further behind Western Europe in terms of economic development and prosperity. In 1949, the United States, rejecting the long-standing policy of no military alliances in peacetime, formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance, which continues into the 21st century. In response the Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact of communist states.\n\nIn August 1949 the Soviets tested their first nuclear weapon, thereby escalating the risk of warfare. Indeed, the threat of mutually assured destruction prevented both powers from going too far, and resulted in proxy wars, especially in Korea and Vietnam, in which the two sides did not directly confront each other. Within the United States, the Cold War prompted concerns about Communist influence. The unexpected leapfrogging of American technology by the Soviets in 1957 with Sputnik, the first Earth satellite, began the Space Race, won by the Americans as Apollo 11 landed astronauts on the moon in 1969. The angst about the weaknesses of American education led to large-scale federal support for science education and research. \n\nIn the decades after World War II, the United States became a global influence in economic, political, military, cultural, and technological affairs. Beginning in the 1950s, middle-class culture became obsessed with consumer goods. White Americans made up nearly 90% of the population in 1950. \n\nIn 1960, the charismatic politician John F. Kennedy was elected as the first and – thus far – only Roman Catholic President of the United States. The Kennedy family brought a new life and vigor to the atmosphere of the White House. His time in office was marked by such notable events as the acceleration of the United States' role in the Space Race, escalation of the American role in the Vietnam War, the Cuban missile crisis, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the jailing of Martin Luther King, Jr. during the Birmingham campaign, and the appointment of his brother Robert F. Kennedy to his Cabinet as Attorney General. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963, leaving the nation in profound shock. \n\nClimax of liberalism\n\nThe climax of liberalism came in the mid-1960s with the success of President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–69) in securing congressional passage of his Great Society programs. They included civil rights, the end of segregation, Medicare, extension of welfare, federal aid to education at all levels, subsidies for the arts and humanities, environmental activism, and a series of programs designed to wipe out poverty. As recent historians have explained:\nGradually, liberal intellectuals crafted a new vision for achieving economic and social justice. The liberalism of the early 1960s contained no hint of radicalism, little disposition to revive new deal era crusades against concentrated economic power, and no intention to fast and class passions or redistribute wealth or restructure existing institutions. Internationally it was strongly anti-Communist. It aimed to defend the free world, to encourage economic growth at home, and to ensure that the resulting plenty was fairly distributed. Their agenda-much influenced by Keynesian economic theory-envisioned massive public expenditure that would speed economic growth, thus providing the public resources to fund larger welfare, housing, health, and educational programs. \n\nJohnson was rewarded with an electoral landslide in 1964 against conservative Barry Goldwater, which broke the decades-long control of Congress by the Conservative coalition. However, the Republicans bounced back in 1966 and elected Richard Nixon in 1968. Nixon largely continued the New Deal and Great Society programs he inherited; conservative reaction would come with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. Meanwhile, the American people completed a great migration from farms into the cities and experienced a period of sustained economic expansion.\n\nCivil Rights Movement\n\nStarting in the late 1950s, institutionalized racism across the United States, but especially in the South, was increasingly challenged by the growing Civil Rights movement. The activism of African-American leaders Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King, Jr. led to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which launched the movement. For years African Americans would struggle with violence against them but would achieve great steps toward equality with Supreme Court decisions, including Brown v. Board of Education and Loving v. Virginia, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which ended the Jim Crow laws that legalized racial segregation between whites and blacks. \n\nMartin Luther King, Jr., who had won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to achieve equality of the races, was assassinated in 1968. Following his death others led the movement, most notably King's widow, Coretta Scott King, who was also active, like her husband, in the Opposition to the Vietnam War, and in the Women's Liberation Movement. There were 164 riots in 128 American cities in the first nine months of 1967. Black Power emerged during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The decade would ultimately bring about positive strides toward integration, especially in government service, sports, and entertainment. Native Americans turned to the federal courts to fight for their land rights. They held protests highlighting the federal government's failure to honor treaties. One of the most outspoken Native American groups was the American Indian Movement (AIM). In the 1960s, Cesar Chavez began organizing poorly paid Mexican-American farm workers in California. He led a five-year-long strike by grape pickers. Then Chávez formed the nation's first successful union of farm workers. His United Farm Workers of America (UFW) faltered after a few years but after Chavez died in 1993 he became an iconic \"folk saint\" in the pantheon of Mexican Americans. \n\nThe Women's Movement\n\nA new consciousness of the inequality of American women began sweeping the nation, starting with the 1963 publication of Betty Friedan's best-seller, The Feminine Mystique, which explained how many housewives felt trapped and unfulfilled, assaulted American culture for its creation of the notion that women could only find fulfillment through their roles as wives, mothers, and keepers of the home, and argued that women were just as able as men to do every type of job. In 1966 Friedan and others established the National Organization for Women, or NOW, to act for women as the NAACP did for African Americans. \n\nProtests began, and the new Women's Liberation Movement grew in size and power, gained much media attention, and, by 1968, had replaced the Civil Rights Movement as the US's main social revolution. Marches, parades, rallies, boycotts, and pickets brought out thousands, sometimes millions. There were striking gains for women in medicine, law, and business, while only a few were elected to office. The Movement was split into factions by political ideology early on, however (with NOW on the left, the Women's Equity Action League (WEAL) on the right, the National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC) in the center, and more radical groups formed by younger women on the far left). The proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, passed by Congress in 1972 was defeated by a conservative coalition mobilized by Phyllis Schlafly. They argued that it degraded the position of the housewife and made young women susceptible to the military draft. \n\nHowever, many federal laws (i.e., those equalizing pay, employment, education, employment opportunities, and credit; ending pregnancy discrimination; and requiring NASA, the Military Academies, and other organizations to admit women), state laws (i.e., those ending spousal abuse and marital rape), Supreme Court rulings (i.e. ruling that the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied to women), and state ERAs established women's equal status under the law, and social custom and consciousness began to change, accepting women's equality. The controversial issue of abortion, deemed by the Supreme Court as a fundamental right in Roe v. Wade (1973), is still a point of debate today. \n\nThe Counterculture Revolution and Cold War Détente\n\n \nAmid the Cold War, the United States entered the Vietnam War, whose growing unpopularity fed already existing social movements, including those among women, minorities, and young people. President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society social programs and numerous rulings by the Warren Court added to the wide range of social reform during the 1960s and 1970s. Feminism and the environmental movement became political forces, and progress continued toward civil rights for all Americans. The Counterculture Revolution swept through the nation and much of the western world in the late sixties and early seventies, further dividing Americans in a \"culture war\" but also bringing forth more liberated social views. \n\nJohnson was succeeded in 1969 by Republican Richard Nixon, who attempted to gradually turn the war over to the South Vietnamese forces. He negotiated the peace treaty in 1973 which secured the release of POWs and led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops. The war had cost the lives of 58,000 American troops. Nixon manipulated the fierce distrust between the Soviet Union and China to the advantage of the United States, achieving détente (relaxation; ease of tension) with both parties. \n\nThe Watergate scandal, involving Nixon's cover-up of his operatives' break-in into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex destroyed his political base, sent many aides to prison, and forced Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974. He was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford. The Fall of Saigon ended the Vietnam War and resulted in North and South Vietnam being reunited. Communist victories in neighboring Cambodia and Laos occurred in the same year.\n\nThe OPEC oil embargo marked a long-term economic transition since, for the first time, energy prices skyrocketed, and American factories faced serious competition from foreign automobiles, clothing, electronics, and consumer goods. By the late 1970s the economy suffered an energy crisis, slow economic growth, high unemployment, and very high inflation coupled with high interest rates (the term stagflation was coined). Since economists agreed on the wisdom of deregulation, many of the New Deal era regulations were ended, such as in transportation, banking, and telecommunications. \n\nJimmy Carter, running as someone who was not a part of the Washington political establishment, was elected president in 1976. On the world stage, Carter brokered the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt. In 1979, Iranian students stormed the US embassy in Tehran and took 66 Americans hostage, resulting in the Iran hostage crisis. With the hostage crisis and continuing stagflation, Carter lost the 1980 election to the Republican Ronald Reagan. On January 20, 1981, minutes after Carter's term in office ended, the remaining U.S. captives held at the U.S. embassy in Iran were released, ending the 444-day hostage crisis. \n\nClose of the 20th century\n\nRonald Reagan produced a major realignment with his 1980 and 1984 landslide elections. Reagan's economic policies (dubbed \"Reaganomics\") and the implementation of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 lowered the top marginal tax rate from 70% to 28% over the course of seven years. Reagan continued to downsize government taxation and regulation. The US experienced a recession in 1982, but the negative indicators reversed, with the inflation rate decreasing from 11% to 2%, the unemployment rate decreasing from 10.8% in December 1982 to 7.5% in November 1984, and the economic growth rate increasing from 4.5% to 7.2%. \n\nReagan ordered a buildup of the US military, incurring additional budget deficits. Reagan introduced a complicated missile defense system known as the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (dubbed \"Star Wars\" by opponents) in which, theoretically, the U.S. could shoot down missiles with laser systems in space. The Soviets reacted harshly because they thought it violated the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, and would upset the balance of power by giving the U.S. a major military advantage. For years Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev argued vehemently against SDI. However, by the late 1980s he decided the system would never work and should not be used to block disarmament deals with the U.S. Historians argue how great an impact the SDI threat had on the Soviets – whether it was enough to force Gorbachev to initiate radical reforms, or whether the deterioration of the Soviet economy alone forced the reforms. There is agreement that the Soviets realized they were well behind the Americans in military technology, that to try to catch up would be very expensive, and that the military expenses were already a very heavy burden slowing down their economy. \n\nReagan's Invasion of Grenada and bombing of Libya were popular in the US, though his backing of the Contras rebels was mired in the controversy over the Iran–Contra affair that revealed Reagan's poor management style. \n\nReagan met four times with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who ascended to power in 1985, and their summit conferences led to the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Gorbachev tried to save Communism in the Soviet Union first by ending the expensive arms race with America, then by shedding the East European empire in 1989. The Soviet Union collapsed on Christmas Day 1991, ending the US–Soviet Cold War.\n\nThe United States emerged as the world's sole remaining superpower and continued to intervene in international affairs during the 1990s, including the 1991 Gulf War against Iraq. Following his election in 1992, President Bill Clinton oversaw one of the longest periods of economic expansion and unprecedented gains in securities values, a side effect of the digital revolution and new business opportunities created by the Internet. He also worked with the Republican Congress to pass the first balanced federal budget in 30 years. \n\nIn 1998, Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives on charges of lying about a sexual relationship with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. He was acquitted by the Senate. The failure of impeachment and the Democratic gains in the 1998 election forced House Speaker Newt Gingrich, a Republican, to resign from Congress.\n\nThe GOP expanded its base throughout the South after 1968 (excepting 1976), largely due to its strength among socially conservative white Evangelical Protestants and traditionalist Roman Catholics, added to its traditional strength in the business community and suburbs. As white Democrats in the South lost dominance of the Democratic Party in the 1990s, the region took on the two-party apparatus which characterized most of the nation. The Republican Party's central leader by 1980 was Ronald Reagan, whose conservative policies called for reduced government spending and regulation, lower taxes, and a strong anti-Soviet foreign policy. His iconic status in the party persists into the 21st century, as practically all GOP leaders acknowledge his stature. Social scientists Theodore Caplow et al. argue, \"The Republican party, nationally, moved from right-center toward the center in 1940s and 1950s, then moved right again in the 1970s and 1980s.\" They add: \"The Democratic party, nationally, moved from left-center toward the center in the 1940s and 1950s, then moved further toward the right-center in the 1970s and 1980s.\" \n\nThe presidential election in 2000 between George W. Bush and Al Gore was one of the closest in US history and helped lay the seeds for political polarization to come. The vote in the decisive state of Florida was extremely close and produced a dramatic dispute over the counting of votes. The US Supreme Court in Bush v. Gore ended the recount with a 5–4 vote. That meant Bush, then in the lead, carried Florida and the election. Including 2000, the Democrats outpolled the Republicans in the national vote in every election from 1992 to 2012, except for 2004.\n\n21st century\n\n9/11 and the War on Terror\n\nOn September 11, 2001 (\"9/11\"), the United States was struck by a terrorist attack when 19 al-Qaeda hijackers commandeered four airliners to be used in suicide attacks and intentionally crashed two into both twin towers of the World Trade Center and the third into the Pentagon, killing 2,937 victims — 206 aboard the three airliners, 2,606 who were in the World Trade Center and on the ground, and 125 who were in the Pentagon. The fourth plane was re-taken by the passengers and crew of the aircraft. While they were not able to land the plane safely, they were able to re-take control of the aircraft and crash it into an empty field in Pennsylvania, killing all 44 people including the four terrorists on board, thereby saving whatever target the terrorists were aiming for. All in all, a total of 2,977 victims perished in the attacks. In response, President George W. Bush on September 20 announced a \"War on Terror\". On October 7, 2001, the United States and NATO then invaded Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime, which had provided safe haven to al-Qaeda and its leader Osama bin Laden. \n\nThe federal government established new domestic efforts to prevent future attacks. The controversial USA PATRIOT Act increased the government's power to monitor communications and removed legal restrictions on information sharing between federal law enforcement and intelligence services. A cabinet-level agency called the Department of Homeland Security was created to lead and coordinate federal counter-terrorism activities. Some of these anti-terrorism efforts, particularly the US government's handling of detainees at the prison at Guantanamo Bay, led to allegations against the US government of human rights violations. \n\nIn 2003, from March 19 to May 1, the United States launched an invasion of Iraq, which led to the collapse of the Iraq government and the eventual capture of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, with whom the US had long-standing tense relations. The reasons for the invasion cited by the Bush administration included the spreading of democracy, the elimination of weapons of mass destruction (a key demand of the UN as well, though later investigations found parts of the intelligence reports to be inaccurate), and the liberation of the Iraqi people. Despite some initial successes early in the invasion, the continued Iraq War fueled international protests and gradually saw domestic support decline as many people began to question whether or not the invasion was worth the cost. In 2007, after years of violence by the Iraqi insurgency, President Bush deployed more troops in a strategy dubbed \"the surge\". While the death toll decreased, the political stability of Iraq remained in doubt. \n\nIn 2008, the unpopularity of President Bush and the Iraq war, along with the 2008 financial crisis, led to the election of Barack Obama, the first African-American President of the United States. After his election, Obama reluctantly continued the war effort in Iraq until August 31, 2010, when he declared that combat operations had ended. However, 50,000 American soldiers and military personnel were kept in Iraq to assist Iraqi forces, help protect withdrawing forces, and work on counter-terrorism until December 15, 2011, when the war was declared formally over and the last troops left the country. At the same time, Obama increased American involvement in Afghanistan, starting a surge strategy using an additional 30,000 troops, while proposing to begin withdrawing troops sometime in December 2014. With regards to Guantanamo Bay, President Obama forbade torture but in general retained Bush's policy regarding the Guantanamo detainees, while also proposing that the prison eventually be closed. \n\nIn May 2011, after nearly a decade in hiding, the founder and leader of Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, was killed in Pakistan in a raid conducted by US naval special forces acting under President Obama's direct orders. While Al Qaeda was near collapse in Afghanistan, affiliated organizations continued to operate in Yemen and other remote areas as the CIA used drones to hunt down and remove its leadership. \n\nThe Boston Marathon Bombing was a bombing incident, followed by subsequent related shootings, that occurred when two pressure cooker bombs exploded during the Boston Marathon on April 15, 2013. The bombs exploded about 12 seconds and 210 yards (190 m) apart at 2:49 pm EDT, near the marathon's finish line on Boylston Street. They killed 3 people and injured an estimated 264 others.\n\nThe Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant - formerly known as Al-Qaeda in Iraq - rose to prominence in September 2014. In addition to taking control of much of Western Iraq and Eastern Syria, ISIS also beheaded three journalists, two American and one British. These events lead to a major military offensive by the USA and its allies in the region.\n\nOn December 28, 2014, President Obama officially ended the combat mission in Afghanistan and promised a withdrawal of all remaining troops at the end of 2016 with the exception of the embassy guards. \n\nThe Great Recession\n\nIn September 2008, the United States, and most of Europe, entered the longest post–World War II recession, often called the \"Great Recession.\" Multiple overlapping crises were involved, especially the housing market crisis, a subprime mortgage crisis, soaring oil prices, an automotive industry crisis, rising unemployment, and the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. The financial crisis threatened the stability of the entire economy in September 2008 when Lehman Brothers failed and other giant banks were in grave danger. Starting in October the federal government lent $245 billion to financial institutions through the Troubled Asset Relief Program which was passed by bipartisan majorities and signed by Bush. \n\nFollowing his election victory by a wide electoral margin in November 2008, Bush's successor - Barack Obama - signed into law the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which was a $787 billion economic stimulus aimed at helping the economy recover from the deepening recession. Obama, like Bush, took steps to rescue the auto industry and prevent future economic meltdowns. These included a bailout of General Motors and Chrysler, putting ownership temporarily in the hands of the government, and the \"cash for clunkers\" program which temporarily boosted new car sales. \n\nThe recession officially ended in June 2009, and the economy slowly began to expand once again. The unemployment rate peaked at 10.1% in October 2009 after surging from 4.7% in November 2007, and returned to 5.0% as of October 2015. However, overall economic growth has remained weaker in the 2010s compared to expansions in previous decades. \n\nRecent events\n\nFrom 2009 to 2010, the 111th Congress passed major legislation such as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act, which were signed into law by President Obama. Following the 2010 midterm elections, which resulted in a Republican-controlled House of Representatives and a Democratic-controlled Senate, Congress presided over a period of elevated gridlock and heated debates over whether or not raise the debt ceiling, extend tax cuts for citizens making over $250,000 annually, and many other key issues. These ongoing debates led to President Obama signing the Budget Control Act of 2011. In the Fall of 2012, Mitt Romney challenged Barack Obama for the Presidency. Following Obama's reelection in November 2012, Congress passed the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 - which resulted in an increase in taxes primarily on those earning the most money. Congressional gridlock continued as Congressional Republicans' call for the repeal of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act - popularly known as \"Obamacare\" - along with other various demands, resulted in the first government shutdown since the Clinton administration and almost led to the first default on U.S. debt since the 19th century. As a result of growing public frustration with both parties in Congress since the beginning of the decade, Congressional approval ratings fell to record lows, with only 11% of Americans approving as of October 2013. \n\nOther major events that have occurred during the 2010s include the rise of new political movements, such as the conservative Tea Party movement and the liberal Occupy movement. There was also unusually severe weather during the early part of the decade. In 2012, over half the country experienced record drought and Hurricane Sandy caused massive damage to coastal areas of New York and New Jersey.\n\nThe ongoing debate over the issue of rights for the LGBT community, most notably that of same-sex marriage, began to shift in favor of same-sex couples, and has been reflected in dozens of polls released in the early part of the decade. In 2012, President Obama becoming the first president to openly support same-sex marriage, and the 2013 Supreme Court decision in the case of United States v. Windsor provided for federal recognition of same-sex unions. In June 2015, the United States Supreme Court legalized gay marriage nationally in the case of Obergefell v. Hodges.\n\nPolitical debate has continued over issues such as tax reform, immigration reform, income inequality and US foreign policy in the Middle East, particularly with regards to global terrorism, the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, and an accompanying climate of Islamophobia. \n\nIn the 2016 presidential election, the Republicans have focused most of their attack on the Obama administration. Senator Marco Rubio, for example in the GOP debates, argues that \"Barack Obama is undertaking a systematic effort to change this country,” citing Obamacare, the $800 billion stimulus, the Dodd-Frank financial reform bill and the nuclear deal with Iran. POLITICOs reporter comments:\nBut whether or not you like what Obama has done, and none of the Republican candidates do, Rubio is correct that he has done an awful lot, transforming U.S. policy not only on health care, economics, financial regulation and Iran, but also on energy, education, taxation, gay rights, Iraq, Cuba and much more. \n\n----"
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Where were the 2004 Summer Olympic Games held?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"The 2004 Summer Olympic Games (, ), officially known as the Games of the XXVIII Olympiad and commonly known as Athens 2004, was a premier international multi-sport event held in Athens, Greece, from 13 to 29 August 2004 with the motto Welcome Home. 10,625 athletes competed, some 600 more than expected, accompanied by 5,501 team officials from 201 countries. There were 301 medal events in 28 different sports. Athens 2004 marked the first time since the 1996 Summer Olympics that all countries with a National Olympic Committee were in attendance. 2004 marked the return of the games to the city where they began.\n\nA new medal obverse was introduced at these Games, replacing the design by Giuseppe Cassioli that had been used since the 1928 Games. This rectified the long lasting mistake of using a depiction of the Roman Colosseum rather than a Greek venue. The new design features the Panathenaic Stadium. The 2004 summer games were hailed as \"unforgettable, dream games\" by IOC President Jacques Rogge, and left Athens with a significantly improved infrastructure, including a new airport, ring road, and subway system. \n\nThe final tally was led by the United States, followed by China and Russia with host Greece at 15th place. Several World and Olympics records were broken during the games. Several concerns were raised over the preparations of the Games and these included excessive budget overruns, infrastructural compromise and delays in construction of the main Games' venues. The games were deemed generally successful with the rising standard of competition amongst nations across the world.\n\nHost city selection\n\nAthens was chosen as the host city during the 106th IOC Session held in Lausanne on 5 September 1997. Athens had lost its bid to organize the 1996 Summer Olympics to Atlanta nearly seven years before on 18 September 1990, during the 96th IOC Session in Tokyo. 1996 coincided with the 100th Anniversary of the first modern Olympics, which were also held in Athens. Under the direction of Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, Athens pursued another bid, this time for the right to host the Summer Olympics in 2004. The success of Athens in securing the 2004 Games was based largely on Athens' appeal to Olympic history and the emphasis that it placed on the pivotal role that Greece and Athens could play in promoting Olympism and the Olympic Movement. Furthermore; unlike their bid for the 1996 Games which was largely criticized for its overall disorganization and arrogance – wherein the bid lacked specifics and relied largely upon sentiment and the notion that it was Athens' right to organize the Centennial Games; the bid for the 2004 Games was lauded for its humility and earnestness, its focused message, and its detailed bid concept. The 2004 bid addressed concerns and criticisms raised in its unsuccessful 1996 bid – primarily Athens' infrastructural readiness, its air pollution, its budget, and politicization of Games preparations. Athens' successful organization of the 1997 World Championships in Athletics the month before the host city election was also crucial in allaying lingering fears and concerns among the sporting community and some IOC members about its ability to host international sporting events. Another factor which also contributed to Athens' selection was a growing sentiment among some IOC members to restore the values of the Olympics to the Games, a component which they felt was lost during the heavily criticized over-commercialization of Atlanta 1996 Games. Subsequently, the selection of Athens was also motivated by a lingering sense of disappointment among IOC members regarding the numerous organizational and logistical setbacks experienced during the 1996 Games.\n\nAfter leading all voting rounds, Athens easily defeated Rome in the 5th and final vote. Cape Town, Stockholm, and Buenos Aires, the three other cities that made the IOC shortlist, were eliminated in prior rounds of voting. Six other cities submitted applications, but their bids were dropped by the IOC in 1996. These cities were Istanbul, Lille, Rio de Janeiro, San Juan, Seville, and Saint Petersburg. \n\nDevelopment and preparation\n\nCosts \n\nThe 2004 Summer Olympic Games cost the Government of Greece €8.954 billion to stage. According to the cost-benefit evaluation of the impact of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games presented to the Greek Parliament in January 2013 by the Minister of Finance Mr. Giannis Stournaras, the overall net economic benefit of the games for Greece was positive. \n\nThe Athens 2004 Organizing Committee (ATHOC), responsible for the preparation and organisation of the games, concluded its operations as a company in 2005 with a surplus of €130.6 million. ATHOC contributed €123.6 million of the surplus to the Greek State to cover other related expenditures of the Greek State in organizing of the games. As a result, ATHOC reported in its official published accounts a net profit of €7 million. The State’s contribution to the total ATHOC budget was 8% of its expenditure against an originally anticipated 14%.\n\nThe overall revenue of ATHOC, including income from tickets, sponsors, broadcasting rights, merchandise sales etc., totalled €2,098.4 million. The largest percentage of that income (38%) came from broadcasting rights. The overall expenditure of ATHOC was €1,967.8 million.\n\nOften analysts refer to the \"Cost of the Olympic Games\" by taking into account not only the Organizing Committee’s budget (i.e. the organizational cost) directly related to the Olympic Games, but also the cost incurred by the hosting country during preparation, i.e. the large projects required for the upgrade of the country’s infrastructure, including sports infrastructure, roads, airports, hospitals, power grid etc. This cost, however, is not directly attributable to the actual organisation of the Games. Such infrastructure projects are considered by all fiscal standards as fixed asset investments that stay with the hosting country for decades after the Games. Also, in many cases these infrastructure upgrades would have taken place regardless of hosting the Olympic Games, although the latter may have acted as a \"catalyst\".\n\nIt was in this sense that the Greek Ministry of Finance reported in 2013 that the expenses of the Greek state for the Athens 2004 Olympic Games, including both infrastructure and organizational costs, reached the amount of €8.5 billion. The same report further explains that €2 billion of this amount was covered by the revenue of the ATHOC (from tickets, sponsors, broadcasting rights, merchandise sales etc.) and that another €2 billion was directly invested in upgrading hospitals and archaeological sites.\nTherefore, the net infrastructure costs related to the preparation of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games was €4.5 billion, substantially lower than the reported estimates, and mainly included long-standing fixed asset investments in numerous municipal and transport infrastructures.\n\nOn the revenue side, the same report estimates that incremental tax revenues of approximately €3.5 billion arose from the increased activities caused by the Athens 2004 Olympic Games during the period 2000 to 2004. These tax revenues were paid directly to the Greek state specifically in the form of incremental social security contributions, income taxes and VAT tax paid by all the companies, professionals, and service providers that were directly involved with the Olympic Games. Moreover, it is reported that the Athens 2004 Olympic Games have had a great economic growth impact on the tourism sector, one of the pillars of the Greek economy, as well as in many other sectors.\n\nThe final verdict on the cost of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games, in the words of the Greek Minister of Finance, is that \"as a result from the cost-benefit analysis, we reach the conclusion that there has been a net economic benefit from the Olympic Games\"\n\nConstruction\n\nBy late March 2004, some Olympic projects were still behind schedule, and Greek authorities announced that a roof it had initially proposed as an optional, non-vital addition to the Aquatics Center would no longer be built. The main Olympic Stadium, the designated facility for the opening and closing ceremonies, was completed only two months before the games opened. This stadium was completed with a retractable glass roof designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava. The same architect also designed the Velodrome and other facilities.\n\nInfrastructure, such as the tram line linking venues in southern Athens with the city proper, and numerous venues were considerably behind schedule just two months before the games. The subsequent pace of preparation, however, made the rush to finish the Athens venues one of the tightest in Olympics history. The Greeks, unperturbed, maintained that they would make it all along. By July/August 2004, all venues were delivered: in August, the Olympic Stadium was officially completed and opened, joined or preceded by the official completion and openings of other venues within the Athens Olympic Sports Complex (OAKA), and the sports complexes in Faliro and Helliniko.\n\nLate July and early August witnessed the Athens Tram become operational, and this system provided additional connections to those already existing between Athens and its waterfront communities along the Saronic Gulf. These communities included the port city of Piraeus, Agios Kosmas (site of the sailing venue), Helliniko (the site of the old international airport which now contained the fencing venue, the canoe/kayak slalom course, the 15,000-seat Helliniko Olympic Basketball Arena, and the softball and baseball stadia), and the Faliro Coastal Zone Olympic Complex (site of the taekwondo, handball, indoor volleyball, and beach volleyball venues, as well as the newly reconstructed Karaiskaki Stadium for football). The upgrades to the Athens Ring Road were also delivered just in time, as were the expressway upgrades connecting Athens proper with peripheral areas such as Markopoulo (site of the shooting and equestrian venues), the newly constructed Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, Schinias (site of the rowing venue), Maroussi (site of the OAKA), Parnitha (site of the Olympic Village), Galatsi (site of the rhythmic gymnastics and table tennis venue), and Vouliagmeni (site of the triathlon venue). The upgrades to the Athens Metro were also completed, and the new lines became operational by mid-summer.\n\nEMI released Unity, the official pop album of the Athens Olympics, in the leadup to the Olympics. It features contributions from Sting, Lenny Kravitz, Moby, Destiny's Child, and Avril Lavigne. EMI has pledged to donate US$180,000 from the album to UNICEF's HIV/AIDS program in Sub-Saharan Africa.\n\nAt least 14 people died during the work on the facilities. Most of these people were not from Greece. \n\nBefore the games, Greek hotel staff staged a series of one-day strikes over wage disputes. They had been asking for a significant raise for the period covering the event being staged. Paramedics and ambulance drivers also protested. They claimed to have the right to the same Olympic bonuses promised to their security force counterparts.\n\nTorch relay\n\nThe lighting ceremony of the Olympic flame took place on 25 March in Ancient Olympia. For the first time ever, the flame travelled around the world in a relay to former, next, and later Olympic cities and other large cities, before returning to Greece.\n\nMascots\n\nMascots have been a tradition at the Olympic Games since the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France. The Athens games had two official mascots: Athiná and Phévos (pronounced in Greek, Athina and Fivos). The sister and brother were named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom, strategy and war, and Phoebus, the god of light and music, respectively. They were inspired by the ancient daidala, which were dolls that had religious connotations as well as being toys.\n\nOnline coverage\n\nFor the first time, major broadcasters were allowed to serve video coverage of the Olympics over the Internet, provided that they restricted this service geographically, to protect broadcasting contracts in other areas. For instance, the BBC made their complete live coverage available to UK high-speed Internet customers for free; customers in the U.S. were only able to receive delayed excerpts. The International Olympic Committee forbade Olympic athletes, as well as coaches, support personnel and other officials, from setting up specialized weblogs and/or other websites for covering their personal perspective of the games. They were not allowed to post audio, video, or photos that they had taken. An exception was made if an athlete already has a personal website that was not set up specifically for the Games. NBC launched its own Olympic website, NBCOlympics.com. Focusing on the television coverage of the games, it did provide video clips, medal standings, live results. Its main purpose, however, was to provide a schedule of what sports were on the many stations of NBC Universal. The games were on TV 24 hours a day on one network or another.\n\nTechnology\n\nAs with any enterprise, the Organizing Committee and everyone involved with it relied heavily on technology in order to deliver a successful event. ATHOC maintained two separate data networks, one for the preparation of the Games (known as the Administrative network) and one for the Games themselves (Games Network). The technical infrastructure involved more than 11,000 computers, over 600 servers, 2,000 printers, 23,000 fixed-line telephone devices, 9,000 mobile phones, 12,000 TETRA devices, 16,000 TV and video devices and 17 Video Walls interconnected by more than 6,000 kilometers of cabling (both optical fiber and twisted pair).\n\nThis infrastructure was created and maintained to serve directly more than 150,000 ATHOC Staff, Volunteers, Olympic family members (IOC, NOCs, Federations), Partners & Sponsors and Media. It also kept the information flowing for all spectators, TV viewers, Website visitors and news readers around the world, prior and during the Games. The Media Center was located inside the Zappeion which is a Greek national exhibition center.\n\nBetween June and August 2004, the technology staff worked in the Technology Operations Center (TOC) from where it could centrally monitor and manage all the devices and flow of information, as well as handle any problems that occurred during the Games. The TOC was organized in teams (e.g. Systems, Telecommunications, Information Security, Data Network, Staffing, etc.) under a TOC Director and corresponding team leaders (Shift Managers). The TOC operated on a 24x7 basis with personnel organized into 12-hour shifts.\n\nThe Games\n\nOpening Ceremony\n\nThe widely praised Opening Ceremony Directed by avant garde choreographer Dimitris Papaioannou and Produced by Jack Morton Worldwide led by Project Director David Zolkwer was held on 13 August 2004. It began with a twenty eight (the number of the Olympiads up to then) second countdown paced by the sounds of an amplified heartbeat. As the countdown was completed, fireworks rumbled and illuminated the skies overhead. After a drum corps and bouzouki players joined in an opening march, the video screen showed images of flight, crossing southwest from Athens over the Greek countryside to ancient Olympia. Then, a single drummer in the ancient stadium joined in a drum duet with a single drummer in the main stadium in Athens, joining the original ancient Olympic games with the modern ones in symbolism. At the end of the drum duet, a single flaming arrow was launched from the video screen (symbolically from ancient Olympia) and into the reflecting pool, which resulted in fire erupting in the middle of the stadium creating a burning image of the Olympic rings rising from the pool. The Opening Ceremony was a pageant of traditional Greek culture and history hearkening back to its mythological beginnings. The program began as a young Greek boy sailed into the stadium on a 'paper-ship' waving the host nation's flag to aethereal music by Hadjidakis and then a centaur appeared, followed by a gigantic head of a cycladic figurine which eventually broke into many pieces symbolising the Greek islands. Underneath the cycladic head was a Hellenistic representation of the human body, reflecting the concept and belief in perfection reflected in Greek art. A man was seen balancing on a hovering cube symbolising man's eternal 'split' between passion and reason followed by a couple of young lovers playfully chasing each other while the god Eros was hovering above them. There followed a very colourful float parade chronicling Greek history from the ancient Minoan civilization to modern times.\n\nAlthough NBC in the United States presented the entire opening ceremony from start to finish, a topless Minoan priestess was shown only briefly, the breasts having been pixelated digitally in order to avoid controversy (as the \"Nipplegate\" incident was still fresh in viewer's minds at the time) and potential fines by the Federal Communications Commission. Also, lower frontal nudity of men dressed as ancient Greek statues was shown in such a way that the area below the waist was cut off by the bottom of the screen. In most other countries presenting the broadcast, there was no censorship of the ceremony.\n\nFollowing the artistic performances, a parade of nations entered the stadium with over 10,500 athletes walking under the banners of 201 nations. The nations were arranged according to Greek alphabet making Finland, Fiji, Chile, and Hong Kong the last four to enter the stadium before the Greek delegation. On this occasion, in observance of the tradition that the delegation of Greece opens the parade and the host nation closes it, the Greek flag bearer opened the parade and all the Greek delegation closed it. Based on audience reaction, the emotional high point of the parade was the entrance of the delegation from Afghanistan which had been absent from the Olympics and had female competitors for the first time. The Iraqi delegation also stirred emotions. Also recognized was the symbolic unified march of athletes from North Korea and South Korea under the Korean Unification Flag. The country of Kiribati made a debut at these games and East Timor made a debut under its own flag. After the Parade of Nations, during which the Dutch DJ Tiësto provided the music, the Icelandic singer Björk performed the song Oceania, written specially for the event by her and the poet Sjón.\n\nThe Opening Ceremony culminated in the lighting of the Olympic Cauldron by 1996 Gold Medalist Windsurfer Nikolaos Kaklamanakis. Many key moments in the ceremony, including the lighting of the Olympic Cauldron, featured music composed and arranged by John Psathas from New Zealand. The gigantic cauldron, which was styled after the Athens 2004 Olympic Torch, pivoted down to be lit by the 35-year-old, before slowly swinging up and lifting the flame high above the stadium. Following this, the stadium found itself at the centre of a rousing fireworks spectacular.\n\nParticipating National Olympic Committees\n\nAll National Olympic Committees (NOCs) participated in the Athens Games, as was the case in 1996. Two new NOCs had been created since 1996 and made their debut at these Games (Kiribati and Timor-Leste). Therefore, with the re-appearance of Afghanistan (missing the 2000 Summer Olympics) the number of participating nations increased from 199 to 202. Also since 2000, Yugoslavia had changed its name to Serbia and Montenegro and its code from YUG to SCG. The number in parentheses indicates the number of participants each NOC contributed.\n\nSports\n\nThe sports featured at the 2004 Summer Olympics are listed below. Officially there were 301 events in 28 sports as swimming, diving, synchronised swimming and water polo are classified by the IOC as disciplines within the sport of aquatics, and wheelchair racing was a demonstration sport. For the first time, the wrestling category featured women's wrestling and in the fencing competition women competed in the sabre. American Kristin Heaston, who led off the qualifying round of women's shotput became the first woman to compete at the ancient site of Olympia but Cuban Yumileidi Cumba became the first woman to win a gold medal there.\n\nThe demonstration sport of wheelchair racing was a joint Olympic/Paralympic event, allowing a Paralympic event to occur within the Olympics, and for the future, opening up the wheelchair race to the able-bodied. The 2004 Summer Paralympics were also held in Athens, from 17 to 28 September.\n\nCalendar\n\nAll times are in Eastern European Summer Time (UTC+3)\n 31 sports\n\nHighlights\n\n* The shot put event was held in ancient Olympia, site of the ancient Olympic Games (that is the very first time women athletes competed in Ancient Olympia), while the archery competition was held in the Panathenaic Stadium, in which the 1896 games were held.\n* Kiribati and Timor Leste participated in the Olympic Games for the first time.\n* Women's wrestling and women's sabre made their debut at the 2004 games.\n* Greece had its best ever medal tally, 6 gold, 6 silver, and 4 bronze, since hosting the 1896 games, and also won Euro 2004 in July.\n* The marathon was held on the same route as the 1896 games, beginning in the site of the Battle of Marathon to the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens. \n* Australia became the first country in Olympic history to win more gold medals (17) immediately after hosting the Olympics in Sydney 2000 where they won 16 gold medals.\n* World record holder and strong favourite Paula Radcliffe crashes out of the women's marathon in spectacular fashion, leaving Mizuki Noguchi to win the gold.\n* While leading in the men's marathon with less than 10 kilometres to go, Brazilian runner Vanderlei de Lima is attacked by Irish priest Cornelius Horan and dragged into the crowd. De Lima recovered to take bronze, and was later awarded the Pierre de Coubertin medal for sportsmanship.\n* British athlete Kelly Holmes wins gold in the 800 m and 1500 m.\n* Liu Xiang wins gold in the 110 m hurdles, equalling Colin Jackson's 1993 world record time of 12.91 seconds. This was China's first ever gold in men's track and field.\n* Kenyan runners swept the medals in the 3000 meters steeple chase.\n* The Olympics saw Afghanistan's first return to the Games since 1996 (it was banned due to the Taliban's extremist attitudes towards women, but was reinstated in 2002).\n* Hicham El Guerrouj wins gold in the 1500 m and 5000 m. He is the first person to accomplish this feat at the Olympics since Paavo Nurmi in 1924.\n* Greek athlete Fani Halkia comes out of retirement to win the 400 m hurdles.\n* The US women's 4 × 200 m swimming team of Natalie Coughlin, Carly Piper, Dana Vollmer and Kaitlin Sandeno win gold, smashing the long-standing world record set by the German Democratic Republic in 1987.\n* The United States lost for the first time in Olympic men's basketball since 1992, the first time NBA players were permitted to play in the Games. This defeat came at the hands of Puerto Rico 92–73.\n* Argentina won a thrilling victory over the United States in the semi-finals of men's basketball. They went on to beat Italy 84–69 in the final.\n* Windsurfer Gal Fridman wins Israel's first-ever gold medal.\n* Dominican athlete Félix Sánchez won the first ever gold medal for the Dominican Republic in the 400 m hurdles event.\n* German kayaker Birgit Fischer wins gold in the K-4 500 m and silver in the K-2 500 m. In so doing, she became the first woman in any sport to win gold medals at 6 different Olympics, the first woman to win gold 24 years apart and the first person in Olympic history to win two or more medals in five different Games.\n* Swimmer Michael Phelps wins 8 medals (including a record 6 gold and 2 bronze), becoming the first athlete to win 8 medals in non boycotted Olympics.\n* United States' gymnast Carly Patterson becomes only the second American woman to win the all-around gold medal, and the first American women to win the all-around competition at a non-boycotted Olympic games.\n* Chilean Tennis players Nicolás Massu and Fernando Gonzalez won the gold medal in the Doubles Competition, while Massu won the gold and Gonzalez the bronze on the Singles competition. These were Chile's first-ever gold medals. With these victories, Massú became the thirteenth Tennis player (and the eighth male player) in history to have won the gold medal in both the Singles and Doubles Competition during the same Olympic Games. He also became the second Tennis player, and first male player, to have achieved this feat in modern Olympic Tennis (1988 onwards). The first player to do so was Venus Williams in 2000.\n* Anchored by Brazil, South America had its best Olympics, with nine Gold Medals.\n\nClosing Ceremony\n\nThe Games were concluded on 29 August 2004. The closing ceremony was held at the Athens Olympic Stadium, where the Games had been opened 16 days earlier. Around 70,000 people gathered in the stadium to watch the ceremony.\n\nThe initial part of the ceremony interspersed the performances of various Greek singers, and featured traditional Greek dance performances from various regions of Greece (Crete, Pontos, Thessaly, etc.). The event was meant to highlight the pride of the Greeks in their culture and country for the world to see.\n\nA significant part of the closing ceremony was the exchange of the Olympic flag of the Antwerp games between the mayor of Athens and the mayor of Beijing, host city of the next Olympic games. After the flag exchange a presentation from the Beijing delegation presented a glimpse into Chinese culture for the world to see. Beijing University students (who were at first incorrectly cited as the Twelve Girls Band) sang Mo Li Hua (Jasmine Flower) and the medal ceremony for the last event of the Olympics, the men's marathon, was conducted, with Stefano Baldini from Italy as the winner. The bronze medal winner, Vanderlei Cordeiro de Lima of Brazil, was simultaneously announced as a recipient of the Pierre de Coubertin medal for his bravery in finishing the race despite being attacked by a rogue spectator while leading with 7 km to go.\n\nA flag-bearer from each nation's delegation then entered along the stage, followed by the competitors en masse on the floor.\n\nShort speeches were presented by Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, President of the Organising Committee, and by President Dr. Jacques Rogge of the IOC, in which he described the Athens Olympics as \"unforgettable, dream Games\".\n\nDr. Rogge had previously declared he would be breaking with tradition in his closing speech as President of the IOC and that he would never use the words of his predecessor Juan Antonio Samaranch, who used to always say 'these were the best ever games'. Dr. Rogge had described Salt Lake City 2002 as \"superb games\" and in turn would continue after Athens 2004 and describe Turin 2006 as \"truly magnificent games.\"\n\nThe national anthems of Greece and China were played in a handover ceremony as both nations' flags were raised. The Mayor of Athens, Dora Bakoyianni, passed the Olympic Flag to the Mayor of Beijing, Wang Qishan. After a short cultural performance by Chinese actors, dancers, and musicians directed by eminent Chinese director Zhang Yimou, Rogge declared the 2004 Olympic Games closed. The Olympic flag was next raised again on 10 February 2006 during the opening ceremony of next Winter Olympic games in Torino.\n\nA young Greek girl, Fotini Papaleonidopoulou, lit a symbolic lantern with the Olympic Flame and passed it on to other children before \"extinguishing\" the flame in the cauldron by blowing a puff of air. The ceremony ended with a variety of musical performances by Greek singers, including Dionysis Savvopoulos, George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou, Anna Vissi, Sakis Rouvas, Eleftheria Arvanitaki, Alkistis Protopsalti, Antonis Remos, Michalis Hatzigiannis, Marinella and Dimitra Galani, as thousands of athletes carried out symbolic displays on the stadium floor.\n\nMedal count\n\nThese are the top ten nations that won medals in the 2004 Games.\n\n Host nation (Greece)\n\nVenues\n\nOAKA\n\n* Athens Olympic Aquatic Centre – diving, swimming, synchronized swimming, water polo\n* Athens Olympic Tennis Centre – tennis\n* Athens Olympic Velodrome – cycling (track)\n* Olympic Indoor Hall – basketball (final), gymnastics (artistic, trampolining)\n* Olympic Stadium – ceremonies (opening/ closing), athletics, football (final)\n\nHOC\n\n* Fencing Hall – fencing\n* Helliniko Indoor Arena – basketball, handball (final)\n* Olympic Baseball Centre – baseball\n* Olympic Canoe/Kayak Slalom Centre – canoeing (slalom)\n* Olympic Hockey Centre – field hockey\n* Olympic Softball Stadium – softball\n\nFaliro\n\n* Faliro Olympic Beach Volleyball Centre – volleyball (beach)\n* Faliro Sports Pavilion Arena – handball, taekwondo\n* Peace and Friendship Stadium – volleyball (indoor)\n\nGOC\n\n* Goudi Olympic Hall – badminton\n* Olympic Modern Pentathlon Centre – modern pentathlon\n\nFootball venues\n\n* Kaftanzoglio Stadium (Thessaloniki)\n* Karaiskakis Stadium (Athens)\n* Pampeloponnisiako Stadium (Patras)\n* Pankritio Stadium (Heraklion)\n* Panthessaliko Stadium (Volos)\n\nOther venues\n\n* Agios Kosmas Olympic Sailing Centre – sailing\n* Ano Liosia Olympic Hall – judo, wrestling\n* Galatsi Olympic Hall – gymnastics (rhythmic), table tennis\n* Kotzia Square – cycling (individual road race)\n* Marathon (city) – athletics (marathon start)\n* Markopoulo Olympic Equestrian Centre – equestrian\n* Markopoulo Olympic Shooting Centre – shooting\n* Nikaia Olympic Weightlifting Hall – weightlifting\n* Panathenaic Stadium – archery, athletics (marathons finish)\n* Peristeri Olympic Boxing Hall – boxing\n* Schinias Olympic Rowing and Canoeing Centre – canoeing (sprint), rowing\n* Stadium at Olympia – athletics (shot put)\n* Vouliagmeni Olympic Centre – cycling (individual time trial), triathlon\n\nLegacy\n\nTo commemorate the games, a series of Greek high value euro collectors' coins were minted by the Mint of Greece, in both silver and gold. The pieces depict landmarks in Greece as well as ancient and modern sports on the obverse of the coin. On the reverse, a common motif with the logo of the games, circled by an olive branch representing the spirit of the games.\n\nPreparations to stage the Olympics led to a number of positive developments for the city's infrastructure. These improvements included the establishment of Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, a modern new international airport serving as Greece's main aviation gateway; expansions to the Athens Metro system; the \"Tram\", a new metropolitan tram (light rail) system system; the \"Proastiakos\", a new suburban railway system linking the airport and suburban towns to the city of Athens; the \"Attiki Odos\", a new toll motorway encircling the city, and the conversion of streets into pedestrianized walkways in the historic center of Athens which link several of the city's main tourist sites, including the Parthenon and the Panathenaic Stadium (the site of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896). All of the above infrastructure is still in use to this day, and there have been continued expansions and proposals to expand Athens' metro, tram, suburban rail and motorway network, the airport, as well as further plans to pedestrianize more thoroughfares in the historic center of Athens.\n\nThe Greek Government has created a corporation, Olympic Properties SA, which is overseeing the post-Olympics management, development and conversion of these facilities, some of which will be sold off (or have already been sold off) to the private sector, while some other facilities are still in use, or have been converted for commercial use or modified for other sports. \n\nAs of 2012 many conversion schemes have stalled owing to the Greek government-debt crisis. The annual cost to maintain the sites has been estimated at £500 million, a sum which has been politically controversial in Greece, though many of these facilities are now under the control of domestic sporting clubs and organizations or the private sector.\n\nThe table below delineates the current status of the Athens Olympic facilities:\n\nBroadcast rights\n\nPost-competition developments\n\nOn 6 December 2012, the IOC stripped medals from four athletes caught doping at the 2004 Athens Olympics including one gold medalist and postponed a decision to revoke Lance Armstrong's bronze from the 2000 Sydney Games. The IOC also disqualified four athletes whose Athens doping samples were retested earlier in the year and came back positive, including shot put gold medalist Yuriy Bilonog of Ukraine. The others are hammer throw silver medalist Ivan Tskikhan of Belarus and two bronze medalists, women's shot putter Svetlana Krivelyova of Russia and discus thrower Irina Yatchenko of Belarus.\nThe case of a fifth bronze medalist, weightlifter Oleg Perepechenov of Russia, remains pending.",
"The modern Olympic Games or Olympics ( ) are the leading international sporting event featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games are considered to be the world's foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held every four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years but two years apart.\n\nTheir creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894. The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority.\n\nThe evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in several changes to the Olympic Games. Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for ice and winter sports, the Paralympic Games for athletes with a disability, and the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, and technological advancements. As a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship and commercialization of the Games. World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916, 1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games.\n\nThe Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees (NOCs), and organizing committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, and organizes and funds the Games according to the Olympic Charter. The IOC also determines the Olympic program, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. Over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals: gold, silver, and bronze, respectively.\n\nThe Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, and a terrorist attack in 1972. Every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to showcase themselves to the world.\n\nAncient Olympics\n\nThe Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece. Competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration, horse and chariot racing events. It has been widely written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce. This idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were traveling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus. The origin of the Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend; one of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games. According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games \"Olympic\" and established the custom of holding them every four years. The myth continues that after Heracles completed his twelve labors, he built the Olympic Stadium as an honor to Zeus. Following its completion, he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a \"stadion\" (, Latin: stadium, \"stage\"), which later became a unit of distance. The most widely accepted inception date for the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC; this is based on inscriptions, found at Olympia, listing the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC. The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race, and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, pankration, and equestrian events. Tradition has it that Coroebus, a cook from the city of Elis, was the first Olympic champion.\n\nThe Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus (whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia) and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia. Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis. The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues. The Games were held every four years, and this period, known as an Olympiad, was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement. The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games, which included the Pythian Games, the Nemean Games, and the Isthmian Games. \n\nThe Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece. While there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Games officially ended, the most commonly held date is 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I decreed that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated. Another date commonly cited is 426 AD, when his successor, Theodosius II, ordered the destruction of all Greek temples.\n\nModern Games\n\nForerunners\n\nVarious uses of the term \"Olympic\" to describe athletic events in the modern era have been documented since the 17th century. The first such event was the Cotswold Games or \"Cotswold Olimpick Games\", an annual meeting near Chipping Campden, England, involving various sports. It was first organized by the lawyer Robert Dover between 1612 and 1642, with several later celebrations leading up to the present day. The British Olympic Association, in its bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in London, mentioned these games as \"the first stirrings of Britain's Olympic beginnings\".\n\nL'Olympiade de la République, a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France also attempted to emulate the ancient Olympic Games. The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics. The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport.\n\nIn 1850 an Olympian Class was started by William Penny Brookes at Much Wenlock, in Shropshire, England. In 1859, Brookes changed the name to the Wenlock Olympian Games. This annual sports festival continues to this day. The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Brookes on 15 November 1860.\n\nBetween 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival. Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly, these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook, although only 'gentlemen amateurs' could compete. The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics. In 1865 Hulley, Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association. Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter. In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized at London's Crystal Palace.\n\nRevival\n\nGreek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem \"Dialogue of the Dead\", published in 1833. Evangelos Zappas, a wealthy Greek-Romanian philanthropist, first wrote to King Otto of Greece, in 1856, offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games. Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859, which was held in an Athens city square. Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games.\n\nThe stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875. Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870, though no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games. In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society, Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired to found the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years. He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee. This meeting was held from 16 to 23 June 1894, at the University of Paris. On the last day of the Congress, it was decided that the first Olympic Games to come under the auspices of the IOC would take place in Athens in 1896. The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president.\n\n1896 Games\n\nThe first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens in 1896. The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events. Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games. This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games. George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games. The Greek government also provided funding, which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set.\n\nGreek officials and the public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting an Olympic Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic host city. The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to various host cities around the world. The second Olympics was held in Paris. \n\nChanges and adaptations\n\nAfter the success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival. The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the World's fair at St. Louis in 1904 were side shows. The Games in Paris did not have a stadium, but were notable for being the first time women took part in the Games. When the St. Louis Games were celebrated roughly 650 athletes participated, but 580 were from the United States. The homogeneous nature of these celebrations was a low point for the Olympic Movement. The Games rebounded when the 1906 Intercalated Games (so-called because they were the second Games held within the third Olympiad) were held in Athens. These Games were, but are not now, officially recognized by the IOC and no Intercalated Games have been held since. The Games attracted a broad international field of participants and generated great public interest. This marked the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics. \n\nWinter Games\n\nThe Winter Olympics was created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games. Figure skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities. At the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (it was actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France, in connection with the Paris Games held three months later; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games. Although it was intended that the same country host both the Winter and Summer Games in a given year, this idea was quickly abandoned. The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart. This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France; after that, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Olympics were held every four years, two years after each Summer Olympics.\n\nParalympics\n\nIn 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttmann, determined to promote the rehabitation of soldiers after World War II, organized a multi-sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics. Guttmann's event, known then as the Stoke Mandeville Games, became an annual sports festival. Over the next twelve years, Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing. For the 1960 Olympic Games, in Rome, Guttmann brought 400 athletes to compete in the \"Parallel Olympics\", which became known as the first Paralympics. Since then, the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year. Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics. In 2001 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) signed an agreement guaranteeing that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games. The agreement came into effect at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing, and the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver. Chairman of the London organising committee, Lord Coe, said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and Olympics in London that,\n\nYouth Games\n\nIn 2010, the Olympic Games were complemented by the Youth Games, which give athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 the chance to compete. The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC. The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14–26 August 2010, while the inaugural Winter Games were hosted in Innsbruck, Austria, two years later. These Games will be shorter than the senior Games; the summer version will last twelve days, while the winter version will last nine days. The IOC allows 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games, and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games. The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games, however there will be variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as a reduced number of disciplines and events. \n\n21st-century games\n\nFrom 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, the Games have grown to about 10,500 competitors from 204 nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics. The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller. For example, Sochi hosted 2,873 athletes from 88 nations competing in 98 events during the 2014 Winter Olympics. During the Games most athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic Village. This village is intended to be a self-contained home for all the Olympic participants, and is furnished with cafeterias, health clinics, and locations for religious expression. \n\nThe IOC allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees representing nations that did not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organizations demand. As a result, colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games. Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico, Bermuda, and Hong Kong, all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country. The current version of the Charter allows for the establishment of new National Olympic Committees to represent nations which qualify as \"an independent State recognized by the international community\". Therefore, it did not allow the formation of National Olympic Committees for Sint Maarten and Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010, although the IOC had recognized the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986. After 2012, Netherlands Antilles athletes can choose to represent either the Netherlands or Aruba. \n\nEconomic and social impact on host cities and countries\n\nMany economists are skeptical about the economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games, emphasizing that such \"mega-events\" often have large costs while yielding relatively few tangible benefits in the long run. Conversely hosting (or even bidding for) the Olympics appears to increase the host country's exports, as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games. Moreover, research suggests that hosting the Summer Olympics has a strong positive effect on the philanthropic contributions of corporations headquartered in the host city, which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector. This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards, although not permanently. This finding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities to influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector and civil society. \n\nThe Games have also had significant negative effects on host communities; for example, the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades, often disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups. The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi were the most expensive Olympic Games in history, costing in excess of US$50 billion. According to a report by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development that was released at the time of the games, this cost will not boost Russia's national economy, but may attract business to Sochi and the southern Krasnodar region of Russia in the future as a result of improved services. But by December 2014, The Guardian stated that Sochi \"now feels like a ghost town\", citing the spread-out nature of the stadiums and arenas, the still-unfinished construction, and the overall effects Russia's political and economic turmoil. Furthermore, at least four cities withdrew their bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics, citing the high costs or the lack of local support, resulting in only a two-city race between Almaty, Kazakhstan and Beijing, China. Thus in July 2016, The Guardian stated that the biggest threat to the future of the Olympics is that very few cities want to host them. \n\nInternational Olympic Committee\n\nThe Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations, recognized media partners, as well as athletes, officials, judges, and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter. As the umbrella organization of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city, overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games, updating and approving the sports program, and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights.\n\nThe Olympic Movement is made of three major elements:\n* International Federations (IFs) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level. For example, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) is the IF for association football, and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball is the international governing body for volleyball. There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement, representing each of the Olympic sports. \n* National Olympic Committees (NOCs) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country. For example, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is the NOC of the United States. There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC.\n* Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) are temporary committees responsible for the organization of each Olympic Games. OCOGs are dissolved after each Games once the final report is delivered to the IOC. \n\nFrench and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country (or languages, if a country has more than one official language apart from French or English). Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these three (or more) languages, or the main two depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country.\n\nCriticism\n\nThe IOC has often been criticized for being an intractable organization, with several members on the committee for life. The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially controversial. Brundage was president for over 20 years, and during his tenure he protected the Olympics from political involvement and the influence of advertising. He was accused of both racism, for his handling of the apartheid issue with the South African delegation, and antisemitism. Under the Samaranch presidency, the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption. Samaranch's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism. \n\nIn 1998, it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics. The IOC pursued an investigation which led to the resignation of four members and expulsion of six others. The scandal set off further reforms that changed the way host cities were selected, to avoid similar cases in the future. \n\nA BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, aired in August 2004, investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games, Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee (headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe) of breaking the bid rules. He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness; Chirac gave guarded interviews regarding his involvement. The allegation was never fully explored. The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy. A prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler, strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion, Switzerland, alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee. These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation. The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination. \n\nIn July 2012, the Anti-Defamation League called the continued refusal by the International Olympic Committee to hold a moment of silence at the opening ceremony for the eleven Israeli athletes killed by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich Olympics, \"a continuing stubborn insensitivity and callousness to the memory of the murdered Israeli athletes.\" \n\nCommercialization\n\nUnder national organizing committees \n\nThe Olympics have been commercialized to various degrees since the initial 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, when a number of companies paid for advertizing, including Kodak. In 1908, Oxo, Odol mouthwash and Indian Foot Powder became official sponsors of the London Olympic Games. Coca Cola sponsored the 1928 Summer Olympics, and has subsequently remained a sponsor to the current time. Before the IOC took control of sponsorship, national organizing committees were responsible for negotiating their own contracts for sponsorship and the use of the Olympic symbols.\n\nUnder IOC control \n\nThe IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors. It was not until the retirement of IOC president Avery Brundage, in 1972, that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative advertising markets available to them. Under the leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch the Games began to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand.\n\nBudget\n\nDuring the first half of the 20th century the IOC ran on a small budget. As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest. Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC's decision-making. Brundage's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organizing committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols. When Brundage retired the IOC had US$2 million in assets; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US$45 million. This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights. When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent.\n\nThe 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history. The Los Angeles-based organizing committee, led by Peter Ueberroth, was able to generate a surplus of US$225 million, which was an unprecedented amount at that time. The organizing committee had been able to create such a surplus in part by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies. The IOC sought to gain control of these sponsorship rights. Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Program (TOP) in 1985, in order to create an Olympic brand. Membership in TOP was, and is, very exclusive and expensive. Fees cost US$50 million for a four-year membership. Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights for their product category, and use of the Olympic symbol, the interlocking rings, in their publications and advertisements.\n\nEffect of television\n\nThe 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television, though only to local audiences. The 1956 Winter Olympics were the first internationally televised Olympic Games, and the following Winter Games had their broadcasting rights sold for the first time to specialized television broadcasting networks—CBS paid US$394,000 for the American rights, and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) allocated US$660,000. In the following decades the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War. Superpowers jockeyed for political supremacy, and the IOC wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium. The sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games, thereby generating more interest, which in turn created more appeal to advertisers time on television. This cycle allowed the IOC to charge ever-increasing fees for those rights. For example, CBS paid US$375 million for the rights of the 1998 Nagano Games, while NBC spent US$3.5 billion for the broadcast rights of all the Olympic Games from 2000 to 2012.\n\nViewership increased exponentially from the 1960s until the end of the century. This was due to the use of satellites to broadcast live television worldwide in 1964, and the introduction of color television in 1968. Global audience estimates for the 1968 Mexico City Games was 600 million, whereas at the Los Angeles Games of 1984, the audience numbers had increased to 900 million; that number swelled to 3.5 billion by the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. However, at the 2000 Summer Games in Sydney, NBC drew the lowest ratings for any Summer or Winter Olympics since 1968. This was attributed to two factors: one was the increased competition from cable channels, the second was the internet, which was able to display results and video in real time. Television companies were still relying on tape-delayed content, which was becoming outdated in the information era. A drop in ratings meant that television studios had to give away free advertising time. With such high costs charged to broadcast the Games, the added pressure of the internet, and increased competition from cable, the television lobby demanded concessions from the IOC to boost ratings. The IOC responded by making a number of changes to the Olympic program. At the Summer Games, the gymnastics competition was expanded from seven to nine nights, and a Champions Gala was added to draw greater interest. The IOC also expanded the swimming and diving programs, both popular sports with a broad base of television viewers. Finally, the American television lobby, namely NBC, was able to dictate when certain events were held so that they could be broadcast live during prime time in the United States. The results of these efforts were mixed: ratings for the 2006 Winter Games were significantly lower than those for the 2002 Games, while there was a sharp increase in viewership for the 2008 Summer Olympics, and the 2012 Summer Games became the most watched event in US television history. \n\nThe sale of the Olympic brand has been controversial. The argument is that the Games have become indistinguishable from any other commercialized sporting spectacle. Specific criticism was levelled at the IOC for market saturation during the 1996 Atlanta and 2000 Sydney Games. The cities were awash in corporations and merchants attempting to sell Olympic-related wares. The IOC indicated that they would address this to prevent spectacles of over-marketing at future Games. Another criticism is that the Games are funded by host cities and national governments; the IOC incurs none of the cost, yet controls all the rights and profits from the Olympic symbols. The IOC also takes a percentage of all sponsorship and broadcast income. Host cities continue to compete ardently for the right to host the Games, even though there is no certainty that they will earn back their investments. Research has shown that trade is around 30 percent higher for countries that have hosted the Olympics. \n\nSymbols\n\nThe Olympic Movement uses symbols to represent the ideals embodied in the Olympic Charter. The Olympic symbol, better known as the Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents (Africa, America, Asia, Oceania, Europe). The colored version of the rings—blue, yellow, black, green, and red—over a white field forms the Olympic flag. These colors were chosen because every nation had at least one of them on its national flag. The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time only at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. It has since been hoisted during each celebration of the Games.\n\nThe Olympic motto, Citius, Altius, Fortius, a Latin expression meaning \"Faster, Higher, Stronger\" was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin in 1894 and has been official since 1924. The motto was coined by Coubertin's friend, the Dominican priest Henri Didon OP, for a Paris youth gathering of 1891. \n\nCoubertin's Olympic ideals are expressed in the Olympic creed:\n\nMonths before each Games, the Olympic Flame is lit in Olympia in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals. A female performer, acting as a priestess, ignites a torch by placing it inside a parabolic mirror which focuses the sun's rays; she then lights the torch of the first relay bearer, thus initiating the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city's Olympic stadium, where it plays an important role in the opening ceremony. Though the flame has been an Olympic symbol since 1928, the torch relay was only introduced at the 1936 Summer Games.\n\nThe Olympic mascot, an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country, was introduced in 1968. It has played an important part of the Games' identity promotion since the 1980 Summer Olympics, when the Russian bear cub Misha reached international stardom. The mascot of the Summer Olympics in London was named Wenlock after the town of Much Wenlock in Shropshire. Much Wenlock still hosts the Wenlock Olympian Games, which were an inspiration to Pierre de Coubertin for the Olympic Games. \n\nCeremonies\n\nOpening\n\nAs mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. This ceremony takes place before the events have occurred. Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country's flag and a performance of its national anthem. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theater representative of its culture. The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor's in terms of memorability. The opening ceremony of the Beijing Games reportedly cost $100 million, with much of the cost incurred in the artistic segment. \n\nAfter the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Greece is traditionally the first nation to enter in order to honor the origins of the Olympics. Nations then enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country's chosen language, with the host country's athletes being the last to enter. During the 2004 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Athens, Greece, the Greek flag entered the stadium first, while the Greek delegation entered last. Speeches are given, formally opening the Games. Finally, the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier, often a successful Olympic athlete from the host nation, who lights the Olympic flame in the stadium's cauldron.\n\nClosing\n\nThe closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each participating country enter the stadium, followed by the athletes who enter together, without any national distinction. Three national flags are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played: the flag of the current host country; the flag of Greece, to honor the birthplace of the Olympic Games; and the flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games. The president of the organizing committee and the IOC president make their closing speeches, the Games are officially closed, and the Olympic flame is extinguished. In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony, the mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic flag to the president of the IOC, who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games. The next host nation then also briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture.\n\nAs is customary, the men's marathon medals (at the Summer Olympics) or the men's 50 km cross-country skiing freestyle mass start medals (at the Winter Olympics) are presented as part of the Closing Ceremony, which take place later that day, in the Olympic Stadium, and are thus the last medal presentation of the Games.\n\nMedal presentation\n\nA medal ceremony is held after each Olympic event is concluded. The winner, second and third-place competitors or teams stand on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by an IOC member, the national flags of the three medalists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist's country plays. Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies, as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag-bearers. \n\nSports\n\nThe Olympic Games program consists of 35 sports, 30 disciplines and 408 events. For example, wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport, comprising two disciplines: Greco-Roman and Freestyle. It is further broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women, each representing a different weight class. The Summer Olympics program includes 26 sports, while the Winter Olympics program features 15 sports. Athletics, swimming, fencing, and artistic gymnastics are the only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program. Cross-country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined, ski jumping, and speed skating have been featured at every Winter Olympics program since its inception in 1924. Current Olympic sports, like badminton, basketball, and volleyball, first appeared on the program as demonstration sports, and were later promoted to full Olympic sports. Some sports that were featured in earlier Games were later dropped from the program. \n\nOlympic sports are governed by international sports federations (IFs) recognized by the IOC as the global supervisors of those sports. There are 35 federations represented at the IOC. There are sports recognized by the IOC that are not included on the Olympic program. These sports are not considered Olympic sports, but they can be promoted to this status during a program revision that occurs in the first IOC session following a celebration of the Olympic Games. During such revisions, sports can be excluded or included in the program on the basis of a two-thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC. There are recognized sports that have never been on an Olympic program in any capacity, including chess and surfing.\n\nIn October and November 2004, the IOC established an Olympic Programme Commission, which was tasked with reviewing the sports on the Olympic program and all non-Olympic recognized sports. The goal was to apply a systematic approach to establishing the Olympic program for each celebration of the Games. The commission formulated seven criteria to judge whether a sport should be included on the Olympic program. These criteria are history and tradition of the sport, universality, popularity of the sport, image, athletes' health, development of the International Federation that governs the sport, and costs of holding the sport. From this study five recognized sports emerged as candidates for inclusion at the 2012 Summer Olympics: golf, karate, rugby union, roller sports and squash. These sports were reviewed by the IOC Executive Board and then referred to the General Session in Singapore in July 2005. Of the five sports recommended for inclusion only two were selected as finalists: karate and squash. Neither sport attained the required two-thirds vote and consequently they were not promoted to the Olympic program. In October 2009 the IOC voted to instate golf and rugby union as Olympic sports for the 2016 and 2020 Summer Olympic Games.\n\nThe 114th IOC Session, in 2002, limited the Summer Games program to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes. Three years later, at the 117th IOC Session, the first major program revision was performed, which resulted in the exclusion of baseball and softball from the official program of the 2012 London Games. Since there was no agreement in the promotion of two other sports, the 2012 program featured just 26 sports. The 2016 and 2020 Games will return to the maximum of 28 sports given the addition of rugby and golf.\n\nAmateurism and professionalism\n\nThe ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public school greatly influenced Pierre de Coubertin. The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education, an attitude summed up in the saying mens sana in corpore sano, a sound mind in a sound body. In this ethos, a gentleman was one who became an all-rounder, not the best at one specific thing. There was also a prevailing concept of fairness, in which practicing or training was considered tantamount to cheating. Those who practiced a sport professionally were considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practiced it merely as a hobby.\n\nThe exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was discovered that he had played semi-professional baseball before the Olympics. His medals were posthumously restored by the IOC in 1983 on compassionate grounds. Swiss and Austrian skiers boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of their skiing teachers, who were not allowed to compete because they earned money with their sport and were thus considered professionals. \n\nAs class structure evolved through the 20th century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated. The advent of the state-sponsored \"full-time amateur athlete\" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism. Beginning in the 1970s, amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter. After the 1988 Games, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics, subject to the approval of the IFs. As of 2012, the only sports in which no professionals compete is boxing and wrestling, although even this requires a definition of amateurism based on fight rules rather than on payment, as some boxers and wrestlers receive cash prizes from their National Olympic Committees.\n\nControversies\n\nBoycotts\n\nGreece, Australia, France, Great Britain, and Switzerland are the only countries to be represented at every Olympic Games since their inception in 1896. While countries sometimes miss an Olympics due to a lack of qualified athletes, some choose to boycott a celebration of the Games for various reasons. The Olympic Council of Ireland boycotted the 1936 Berlin Games, because the IOC insisted its team needed to be restricted to the Irish Free State rather than representing the entire island of Ireland.\n\nThere were three boycotts of the 1956 Melbourne Olympics: the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland refused to attend because of the repression of the Hungarian uprising by the Soviet Union, but did send an equestrian delegation to Stockholm; Cambodia, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon boycotted the Games because of the Suez Crisis; and China (the \"People's Republic of China\") boycotted the Games because Taiwan was allowed to compete in the Games as the \"Republic of China\".\n\nIn 1972 and 1976 a large number of African countries threatened the IOC with a boycott to force them to ban South Africa and Rhodesia, because of their segregationist regimes. New Zealand was also one of the African boycott targets, because its national rugby union team had toured apartheid-ruled South Africa. The IOC conceded in the first two cases, but refused to ban New Zealand on the grounds that rugby was not an Olympic sport. Fulfilling their threat, twenty African countries were joined by Guyana and Iraq in a withdrawal from the Montreal Games, after a few of their athletes had already competed. \n\nTaiwan also decided to boycott these Games because the People's Republic of China (PRC) exerted pressure on the Montreal organizing committee to keep the delegation from the Republic of China (ROC) from competing under that name. The ROC refused a proposed compromise that would have still allowed them to use the ROC flag and anthem as long as the name was changed. Taiwan did not participate again until 1984, when it returned under the name of Chinese Taipei and with a special flag and anthem.\n\nIn 1980 and 1984, the Cold War opponents boycotted each other's Games. The United States and sixty-four other countries boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. This boycott reduced the number of nations participating to 81, the lowest number since 1956. The Soviet Union and 15 other nations countered by boycotting the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984, contending that they could not guarantee the safety of their athletes. Soviet officials defended their decision to withdraw from the Games by saying that \"chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria are being whipped up in the United States\". The boycotting nations of the Eastern Bloc staged their own alternate event, the Friendship Games, in July and August.\n\nThere had been growing calls for boycotts of Chinese goods and the 2008 Olympics in Beijing in protest of China's human rights record, and in response to Tibetan disturbances. Ultimately, no nation supported a boycott. In August 2008, the government of Georgia called for a boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics, set to be held in Sochi, Russia, in response to Russia's participation in the 2008 South Ossetia war. \n\nPolitics\n\nThe Olympic Games have been used as a platform to promote political ideologies almost from its inception. Nazi Germany wished to portray the National Socialist Party as benevolent and peace-loving when they hosted the 1936 Games, though they used the Games to display Aryan superiority. Germany was the most successful nation at the Games, which did much to support their allegations of Aryan supremacy, but notable victories by African American Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals, and Hungarian Jew Ibolya Csák, blunted the message. The Soviet Union did not participate until the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. Instead, starting in 1928, the Soviets organized an international sports event called Spartakiads. During the interwar period of the 1920s and 1930s, communist and socialist organizations in several countries, including the United States, attempted to counter what they called the \"bourgeois\" Olympics with the Workers Olympics. It was not until the 1956 Summer Games that the Soviets emerged as a sporting superpower and, in doing so, took full advantage of the publicity that came with winning at the Olympics. \n\nIndividual athletes have also used the Olympic stage to promote their own political agenda. At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, two American track and field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, who finished first and third in the 200 meters, performed the Black Power salute on the victory stand. The second-place finisher, Peter Norman of Australia, wore an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge in support of Smith and Carlos. In response to the protest, IOC president Avery Brundage told the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) to either send the two athletes home or withdraw the track and field team. The USOC opted for the former. During the same Olympics, Czechoslovakian gymnast Věra Čáslavská announced her protest to the Soviet-led invasion of her home country after controversially receiving Silver on the Beam and a shared Gold on the Floor. During the Soviet anthem, Čáslavská turned her head down and to the right of the Soviet flag in order to make a statement over the invasion and the Soviet influence of the sport of Gymnastics. Returning home, Čáslavská was made an outcast by the Soviet government and was banned from competition and travelling.\n\nCurrently, the government of Iran has taken steps to avoid any competition between its athletes and those from Israel. An Iranian judoka, Arash Miresmaeili, did not compete in a match against an Israeli during the 2004 Summer Olympics. Although he was officially disqualified for being overweight, Miresmaeli was awarded US$125,000 in prize money by the Iranian government, an amount paid to all Iranian gold medal winners. He was officially cleared of intentionally avoiding the bout, but his receipt of the prize money raised suspicion. \n\nUse of performance-enhancing drugs\n\nIn the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to improve their athletic abilities. For example, in 1904, Thomas Hicks, a gold medalist in the marathon, was given strychnine by his coach. The only Olympic death linked to performance enhancing occurred at the 1960 Rome games. A Danish cyclist, Knud Enemark Jensen, fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines. By the mid-1960s, sports federations started to ban the use of performance-enhancing drugs; in 1967 the IOC followed suit. \n\nThe first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance-enhancing drugs was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use. One of the most publicized doping-related disqualifications occurred after the 1988 Summer Olympics where Canadian sprinter, Ben Johnson (who won the 100-metre dash) tested positive for stanozolol. His gold medal was later stripped and awarded to the American runner-up Carl Lewis, who himself had tested positive for banned substances prior to the Olympics. \n\nIn 1999 the IOC formed the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in an effort to systematize the research and detection of performance-enhancing drugs. There was a sharp increase in positive drug tests at the 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics. Several medalists in weightlifting and cross-country skiing were disqualified because of doping offenses. During the 2006 Winter Olympics, only one athlete failed a drug test and had a medal revoked. The IOC-established drug testing regimen (now known as the Olympic Standard) has set the worldwide benchmark that other sporting federations attempt to emulate. During the Beijing games, 3,667 athletes were tested by the IOC under the auspices of the World Anti-Doping Agency. Both urine and blood tests were used to detect banned substances. Several athletes were barred from competition by their National Olympic Committees prior to the Games; only three athletes failed drug tests while in competition in Beijing. In London over 6,000 Olympic and Paralympic athletes were tested. Prior to the Games 107 athletes tested positive for banned substances and were not allowed to compete. During and after the Games eight athletes tested positive for a banned substance and were suspended, including shot putter Nadzeya Ostapchuk, who was stripped of her gold medal. \n\nSex discrimination\n\nWomen were first allowed to compete at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, but at the 1992 Summer Olympics 35 countries were still fielding all-male delegations. This number dropped rapidly over the following years. In 2000, Bahrain sent two women competitors for the first time: Fatema Hameed Gerashi and Mariam Mohamed Hadi Al Hilli. In 2004, Robina Muqimyar and Fariba Rezayee became the first women to compete for Afghanistan at the Olympics. In 2008, the United Arab Emirates sent female athletes (Maitha Al Maktoum competed in taekwondo, and Latifa Al Maktoum in equestrian) to the Olympic Games for the first time. Both athletes were from Dubai's ruling family. \n\nBy 2010, only three countries had never sent female athletes to the Games: Brunei, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar. Brunei had taken part in only three celebrations of the Games, sending a single athlete on each occasion, but Saudi Arabia and Qatar had been competing regularly with all-male teams. In 2010, the International Olympic Committee announced it would \"press\" these countries to enable and facilitate the participation of women for the 2012 Summer Olympics. Anita DeFrantz, chair of the IOC's Women and Sports Commission, suggested that countries be barred if they prevented women from competing. Shortly thereafter, the Qatar Olympic Committee announced that it \"hoped to send up to four female athletes in shooting and fencing\" to the 2012 Summer Games in London.\n\nIn 2008, Ali Al-Ahmed, director of the Institute for Gulf Affairs, likewise called for Saudi Arabia to be barred from the Games, describing its ban on women athletes as a violation of the International Olympic Committee charter. He noted: \"For the last 15 years, many international nongovernmental organizations worldwide have been trying to lobby the IOC for better enforcement of its own laws banning gender discrimination. [...] While their efforts did result in increasing numbers of women Olympians, the IOC has been reluctant to take a strong position and threaten the discriminating countries with suspension or expulsion.\" In July 2010, The Independent reported: \"Pressure is growing on the International Olympic Committee to kick out Saudi Arabia, who are likely to be the only major nation not to include women in their Olympic team for 2012. [...] Should Saudi Arabia [...] send a male-only team to London, we understand they will face protests from equal rights and women's groups which threaten to disrupt the Games\".\n\nAt the 2012 Olympic Games in London, Great Britain, for the first time in Olympic history, every country competing included female athletes. Saudi Arabia included two female athletes in its delegation; Qatar, four; and Brunei, one (Maziah Mahusin, in the 400m hurdles). Qatar made one of its first female Olympians, Bahiya al-Hamad (shooting), its flagbearer at the 2012 Games, and runner Maryam Yusuf Jamal of Bahrain became the first Gulf female athlete to win a medal when she won a bronze for her showing in the 1500 m race. \n\nThe only sport on the Olympic programme that features men and women competing together is the equestrian disciplines. There is no \"Women's Eventing\", or 'Men's Dressage'. As of 2008, there were still more medal events for men than women. With the addition of women's boxing to the program in the 2012 Summer Olympics, however, female athletes were able to compete in all the same sports as men. In the winter Olympics, women are still unable to compete in the Nordic Combined. There are currently two Olympic events in which male athletes may not compete: synchronized swimming and rhythmic gymnastics.\n\nTerrorism and violence\n\nThree Olympiads had to pass without a celebration of the Games because of war: the 1916 Games were cancelled because of World War I, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because of World War II. The Russo-Georgian War between Georgia and Russia erupted on the opening day of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Both President Bush and Prime Minister Putin were attending the Olympics at that time and spoke together about the conflict at a luncheon hosted by Chinese president Hu Jintao. When Nino Salukvadze of Georgia won the bronze medal in the 10 metre air pistol competition, she stood on the medal podium with Natalia Paderina, a Russian shooter who had won the silver. In what became a much-publicized event from the Beijing Games, Salukvadze and Paderina embraced on the podium after the ceremony had ended. \n\nTerrorism most directly affected the Olympic Games in 1972. When the Summer Games were held in Munich, Germany, eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the Palestinian terrorist group Black September in what is now known as the Munich massacre. The terrorists killed two of the athletes soon after they had taken them hostage and killed the other nine during a failed liberation attempt. A German police officer and five terrorists also perished. \n\nTerrorism affected the last two Olympic Games held in the United States. During the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta, Georgia, a bomb was detonated at the Centennial Olympic Park, which killed two and injured 111 others. The bomb was set by Eric Rudolph, an American domestic terrorist, who is currently serving a life sentence for the bombing. The 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, took place just five months after the September 11 attacks, which meant a higher level of security than ever before provided for an Olympic Games. The opening ceremonies of the Games featured symbols of the day's events. They included the flag that flew at Ground Zero, NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing \"God Bless America\", and honor guards of NYPD and FDNY members. The events of that day have made security at the Olympic Games an increasing concern for Olympic planners. \n\nColonialism\n\nThe Olympic Games have been criticized as upholding (and in some cases increasing) the colonial policies and practices of some host nations and cities either in the name of the Olympics by associated parties or directly by official Olympic bodies, such as the International Olympic Committee, host organizing committees and official sponsors. Critics have argued that the Olympics have engaged in or caused: erroneous anthropological and colonial knowledge production; erasure; commodification and appropriation of indigenous ceremonies and symbolism; theft and inappropriate display of indigenous objects; further encroachment on and support of the theft of indigenous lands; and neglect and/or intensification of poor social conditions for indigenous peoples. Such practices have been observed at: the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, Missouri; the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, Quebec; the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta; and the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia.\n\nCitizenship\n\nIOC rules for citizenship\n\nThe Olympic Charter requires that an athlete be a national of the country for which they compete. Dual nationals may compete for either country, as long as three years have passed since the competitor competed for the former country. However, if the NOCs and IF involved agree, then the IOC Executive Board may reduce or cancel this period. This waiting period exists only for athletes who previously competed for one nation and want to compete for another. If an athlete gains a new or second nationality, then they do not need to wait any designated amount of time before participating for the new or second nation. The IOC is only concerned with issues of citizenship and nationality after individual nations have granted citizenship to athletes.\n\nReasons for changing citizenship\n\nAthletes will sometimes become citizens of a different nation so they are able to compete in the Olympics. This is often because they are drawn to sponsorships or training facilities in such places as the United States. It could also be because an athlete is unable to qualify from within their original country. The athlete may not qualify because there are already qualified athletes in the athlete's home country. Between 1992 and 2008, about fifty athletes emigrated to the United States to compete on the US Olympic team after having previously competed for another nation.\n\nCitizenship changes and disputes\n\nOne of the most famous cases of changing nationality for the Olympics was Zola Budd, a South African runner who emigrated to the United Kingdom because there was an apartheid-era ban on the Olympics in South Africa. Budd was eligible for British citizenship because her grandfather was born in Britain, but British citizens accused the government of expediting the citizenship process for her. \n\nOther notable examples include Kenyan runner Bernard Lagat, who became a United States citizen in May 2004. The Kenyan constitution requires that one renounce their Kenyan citizenship when they become a citizen of another nation. Lagat competed for Kenya in the 2004 Athens Olympics even though he had already become a United States citizen. According to Kenya, he was no longer a Kenyan citizen, jeopardizing his silver medal. Lagat said he started the citizenship process in late 2003 and did not expect to become an American citizen until after the Athens games. \n\nBasketball player Becky Hammon was not being considered for the United States Olympic team but wanted to play in an Olympic Games, so she emigrated to Russia, where she already played in a domestic league during the WNBA offseason. Hammon received criticism from some Americans, including the US national team coach, even being called unpatriotic. \n\nChampions and medalists\n\nThe athletes or teams who place first, second, or third in each event receive medals. The winners receive gold medals, which were solid gold until 1912, then made of gilded silver and now gold-plated silver. Every gold medal however must contain at least six grams of pure gold. The runners-up receive silver medals and the third-place athletes are awarded bronze medals. In events contested by a single-elimination tournament (most notably boxing), third place might not be determined and both semifinal losers receive bronze medals. At the 1896 Olympics only the first two received a medal; silver for first and bronze for second. The current three-medal format was introduced at the 1904 Olympics. From 1948 onward athletes placing fourth, fifth, and sixth have received certificates, which became officially known as victory diplomas; in 1984 victory diplomas for seventh- and eighth-place finishers were added. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, the gold, silver, and bronze medal winners were also given olive wreaths. The IOC does not keep statistics of medals won, but National Olympic Committees and the media record medal statistics as a measure of success. \n\nNations\n\nNations at the Summer Olympics\n\nAs of the 2012 Games in London, all of the current 204 NOCs have participated in at least one edition of the Olympic Summer Olympics, and athletes from Australia, France, Great Britain, Greece, and Switzerland have competed in all twenty-seven Summer Olympic Games.\n\nNations at the Winter Olympics\n\n119 NOCs (110 of the current 204 NOCs and 9 obsolete NOCs) have participated in at least one Winter Games, and twelve nations (Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States) have participated in all twenty-two Winter Games to date. Including continuity from Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic and Slovakia have also been represented in every edition.\n\nHost nations and cities\n\nThe host city for an Olympic Games is usually chosen seven to eight years ahead of their celebration. The process of selection is carried out in two phases that span a two-year period. The prospective host city applies to its country's National Olympic Committee; if more than one city from the same country submits a proposal to its NOC, the national committee typically holds an internal selection, since only one city per NOC can be presented to the International Olympic Committee for consideration. Once the deadline for submission of proposals by the NOCs is reached, the first phase (Application) begins with the applicant cities asked to complete a questionnaire regarding several key criteria related to the organization of the Olympic Games. In this form, the applicants must give assurances that they will comply with the Olympic Charter and with any other regulations established by the IOC Executive Committee. The evaluation of the filled questionnaires by a specialized group provides the IOC with an overview of each applicant's project and their potential to host the Games. On the basis of this technical evaluation, the IOC Executive Board selects the applicants that will proceed to the candidature stage.\n\nOnce the candidate cities are selected, they must submit to the IOC a bigger and more detailed presentation of their project as part of a candidature file. Each city is thoroughly analyzed by an evaluation commission. This commission will also visit the candidate cities, interviewing local officials and inspecting prospective venue sites, and submit a report on its findings one month prior to the IOC's final decision. During the interview process the candidate city must also guarantee that it will be able to fund the Games. After the work of the evaluation commission, a list of candidates is presented to the General Session of the IOC, which must assemble in a country that does not have a candidate city in the running. The IOC members gathered in the Session have the final vote on the host city. Once elected, the host city bid committee (together with the NOC of the respective country) signs a Host City Contract with the IOC, officially becoming an Olympic host nation and host city.\n\nBy 2016, the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 44 cities in 23 countries, but by cities outside Europe and North America on only eight occasions. Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the Olympics have been held in Asia or Oceania four times, a sharp increase compared to the previous 92 years of modern Olympic history. The 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro will be the first Olympics for a South American country. No bids from countries in Africa have succeeded.\n\nThe United States has hosted eight Olympic Games, four Summer and four Winter, more than any other nation. The British capital London holds the distinction of hosting three Olympic Games, all Summer, more than any other city. The other nations hosting the Summer Games twice are Germany, Australia, France and Greece. The other cities hosting the Summer Games twice are Los Angeles, Paris and Athens. With the 2020 Summer Olympic Games, Japan and Tokyo, respectively, will hold these statuses.\n\nIn addition to the United States, nations hosting multiple Winter Games are France with three, while Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Japan, Canada and Italy have hosted twice. Among host cities, Lake Placid, Innsbruck and St. Moritz have played host to the Winter Olympic Games more than once, each holding that honor twice. The most recent Winter Games were held in Sochi in 2014, Russia's first Winter Olympics and second Olympics overall."
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"The Olympic Games - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com\nThe Olympic Games\nA+E Networks\nIntroduction\nThe Olympic Games, which originated in ancient Greece as many as 3,000 years ago, were revived in the late 19th century and have become the world’s preeminent sporting competition. From the 8th century B.C. to the 4th century A.D., the Games were held every four years in Olympia, located in the western Peloponnese peninsula, in honor of the god Zeus. The first modern Olympics took place in 1896 in Athens, and featured 280 participants from 13 nations, competing in 43 events. Since 1994, the Summer and Winter Olympic Games have been held separately and have alternated every two years.\nGoogle\nThe Olympics in Ancient Greece\nThe first written records of the ancient Olympic Games date to 776 B.C., when a cook named Coroebus won the only event–a 192-meter footrace called the stade (the origin of the modern “stadium”)–to become the first Olympic champion. However, it is generally believed that the Games had been going on for many years by that time. Legend has it that Heracles (the Roman Hercules ), son of Zeus and the mortal woman Alcmene, founded the Games, which by the end of the 6th century B.C had become the most famous of all Greek sporting festivals. The ancient Olympics were held every four years between August 6 and September 19 during a religious festival honoring Zeus. The Games were named for their location at Olympia, a sacred site located near the western coast of the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece. Their influence was so great that ancient historians began to measure time by the four-year increments in between Olympic Games, which were known as Olympiads.\nDid You Know?\nThe 1896 Games featured the first Olympic marathon, which followed the 25-mile route run by the Greek soldier who brought news of a victory over the Persians from Marathon to Athens in 490 B.C. Fittingly, Greece's Spyridon Louis won the first gold medal in the event. In 1924, the distance would be standardized to 26 miles and 385 yards.\nAfter 13 Olympiads, two more races joined the stade as Olympic events: the diaulos (roughly equal to today’s 400-meter race), and the dolichos (a longer-distance race, possibly comparable to the 1,500-meter or 5,000-meter event). The pentathlon (consisting of five events: a foot race, a long jump, discus and javelin throws and a wrestling match) was introduced in 708 B.C., boxing in 688 B.C. and chariot racing in 680 B.C. In 648 B.C., pankration, a combination of boxing and wrestling with virtually no rules, debuted as an Olympic event. Participation in the ancient Olympic Games was initially limited to freeborn male citizens of Greece; there were no women’s events, and married women were prohibited from attending the competition.\nDecline and Revival of the Olympic Tradition\nAfter the Roman Empire conquered Greece in the mid-2nd century B.C., the Games continued, but their standards and quality declined. In one notorious example from A.D. 67, the decadent Emperor Nero entered an Olympic chariot race, only to disgrace himself by declaring himself the winner even after he fell off his chariot during the event. In A.D. 393, Emperor Theodosius I, a Christian, called for a ban on all “pagan” festivals, ending the ancient Olympic tradition after nearly 12 centuries.\nIt would be another 1,500 years before the Games would rise again, largely thanks to the efforts of Baron Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937) of France. Dedicated to the promotion of physical education, the young baron became inspired by the idea of creating a modern Olympic Games after visiting the ancient Olympic site. In November 1892, at a meeting of the Union des Sports Athlétiques in Paris, Coubertin proposed the idea of reviving the Olympics as an international athletic competition held every four years. Two years later, he got the approval he needed to found the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which would become the governing body of the modern Olympic Games.\nThe Olympics Through the Years\nThe first modern Olympics were held in Athens, Greece, in 1896. In the opening ceremony, King Georgios I and a crowd of 60,000 spectators welcomed 280 participants from 13 nations (all male), who would compete in 43 events, including track and field, gymnastics, swimming, wrestling, cycling, tennis, weightlifting, shooting and fencing. All subsequent Olympiads have been numbered even when no Games take place (as in 1916, during World War I , and in 1940 and 1944, during World War II ). The official symbol of the modern Games is five interlocking colored rings, representing the continents of North and South America, Asia, Africa, Europe and Australia. The Olympic flag, featuring this symbol on a white background, flew for the first time at the Antwerp Games in 1920.\nThe Olympics truly took off as an international sporting event after 1924, when the VIII Games were held in Paris. Some 3,000 athletes (with more than 100 women among them) from 44 nations competed that year, and for the first time the Games featured a closing ceremony. The Winter Olympics debuted that year, including such events as figure skating, ice hockey, bobsledding and the biathlon. Eighty years later, when the 2004 Summer Olympics returned to Athens for the first time in more than a century, nearly 11,000 athletes from a record 201 countries competed. In a gesture that joined both ancient and modern Olympic traditions, the shotput competition that year was held at the site of the classical Games in Olympia.\nTags",
"2004 Summer Olympics\n2004 Summer Olympics\nGames of the XXVIII Olympiad\nAncient victors were crowned with olive\nwreaths (kotinos) a tradition echoed\nwith this games' medalists. The colours of\nthe logo come from the Flag of Greece.\nNations participating\nStadium\nOlympic Stadium\nThe 2004 Summer Olympics are officially known as the Games of the XXVIII Olympiad (the 28th Summer Olympic Games). The Games were held in Athens over 17 days, from August 13 to August 29, 2004. Planners expected 10,500 athletes (in fact 11,099 competed) and 5,500 team officials from 202 countries. Athens 2004 marked the first time since the 1996 Summer Olympics that all countries with a National Olympic Committee were in attendance. There were a total of 301 medal events from 28 different sports.\nMedal table\n2004 Summer Olympics medal count\nRank\nFor the full list, see 2004 Summer Olympics medal count\nBid and preparations\nThe Olympic Complex was not yet complete in early July 2004, when this photograph was taken.\nThe ceremony for the lighting of the flame was arranged as a pagan pageant, with \"priestesses\" dancing.\nMain article: 2004 Summer Olympic bids\nAthens was chosen as the host city during the 106th IOC Session held in Lausanne in 05 September 1997, after surprisingly losing the bid to organize the 1996 Summer Olympics to Atlanta nearly seven years before, on 18 September 1990, during the 96th IOC Session in Tokyo. Athens, under the direction of Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, pursued another bid, this time for the right to organize the 2004 games. The success of Athens in securing the 2004 Games were based largely on first, the Athens bids' appeal to Olympic history and the emphasis that it placed on the pivotal role that Greece and Athens played in the promotion of the Olympic Movement, and second, the apparent failure of Atlanta in successfully staging the symbolically significant Centennial Olympic Games in 1996.\nIn the last round of voting, Athens defeated Rome, Italy, 66 votes to 41. Cape Town, South Africa; Stockholm, Sweden; and Buenos Aires, Argentina, the three other cities that made the IOC shortlist, were eliminated in prior rounds of voting. Six other cities submitted applications, but their bids were dropped by the IOC in 1996. These cities were: Istanbul, Turkey; Lille, France; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; San Juan, Puerto Rico, Seville, Spain ; and Saint Petersburg, Russia [1].\nNBC Universal paid the IOC $793 million for U.S. broadcast rights [2], the most paid by any country. It was the first Olympics since NBC had merged with Vivendi Universal Entertainment; the merger, along with the acquisitions of the Bravo and Telemundo networks, made it possible for the network to broadcast over 1200 hours of coverage during the games, triple what was broadcast in the U.S. four years earlier.\nFollowing the September 11, 2001 attacks, concerns about terrorism were much higher. Greece increased the budget for security at the Olympics to €970 million (US$1.2 billion). Approximately 70,000 police officers patrolled Athens and the Olympic venues during the Olympics. NATO and the European Union also provided minor support, after Athens asked for co-operation.\nThe USPS issued a stamp to honor the 2004 Summer Olympics.\nWhen the International Olympic Committee expressed its concern over the progress of construction work of the new Olympic venues, a new Organizing Committee was formed under President Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki. Athens was transformed into a city that uses state-of-the-art technology in transportation and urban development. Some of the most modern sporting venues in the world were built to host the 2004 Olympic Games.\nFor the first time the Olympic Flame toured the world.\nVenue construction crisis\nBy late March 2004, some Olympic projects were still behind schedule, and Greek authorities announced that a roof would no longer be constructed over the main swimming venue. The main Olympic Stadium, the designated facility for the opening and closing ceremonies, was completed only two months before the games opened, with the sliding over of a futuristic glass roof designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava . Other facilities, such as the streetcar line linking the airport, the stadium and the city, were largely unfinished just two months before the games. The subsequent pace of preparation, however, made the rush to finish the Athens venues one of the tightest in Olympics history. The Greeks, unperturbed, maintained that they would make it all along. By August 2004, the Olympic Stadium was officially completed and opened, and the Athens Tram and Light Rail became operational. The upgrades to the Athens Ring Road were also delivered just in time.\nThe lighting ceremony of the Olympic flame took place on March 25 in Ancient Olympia. For the first time ever, the flame travelled around the world in a relay to former Olympic cities and other large cities, before returning to Greece.\nEMI released Unity, the official pop album of the Athens Olympics, in the leadup to the Olympics. It features contributions from Sting, Lenny Kravitz, Moby, Destiny's Child and Avril Lavigne. EMI has pledged to donate US$180,000 from the album to UNICEF's HIV/AIDS program in Sub-Saharan Africa. [3]\nAt least 19 people died during the work on the facilities. Most of these people were not from Greece.[4]\nBefore the games, Greek hotel staff staged a series of one-day strikes over wage disputes. They have been asking for a significant raise for the period covering the event being staged. Paramedics and ambulance drivers have also been protesting, as they want the same Olympic bonuses promised to their security force counterparts.\nIn the event the 2004 games were described as 'unforgettable, dream Games' by the IOC president and the Greek government was congratulated for its organisation.[5]\nMascots\nThe mascots were based on this clay model at the National Archaelogical Museum\nSoft toys were one of the many items of merchandising available at the Games\nSince the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France it has been the tradition to have a mascot for the games; for 2004, the official mascots were sister and brother, Athiná and Phévos (pronounced in Greek, Athina and Fivos), named after the goddess of wisdom, strategy and war and Phoebos the god of light and music, respectively. They were inspired by the ancient daidala which were dolls that had religious links as well as being toys.\nOnline coverage\nFor the first time, major broadcasters were allowed to serve video coverage of the Olympics over the Internet, provided that they restricted this service geographically, to protect broadcasting contracts in other areas. For instance, the BBC made their complete live coverage available to UK high-speed Internet customers for free; customers in the U.S. were only able to receive delayed excerpts. [6]\nThe International Olympic Committee forbade Olympic athletes, as well as coaches, support personnel and other officials, from setting up specialized weblogs and/or other websites for covering their personal perspective of the games. They were not allowed to post audio, video, or photos that they had taken. An exception was made if an athlete already has a personal website that was not set up specifically for the Games. [7]\nOpening ceremony\nThe 2004 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony was held on August 13. As part of the theatrics, the Olympic rings are seen burning in a pool of water.\nA bare-breasted goddess holding snakes, based on a Minoan statue\nThe Opening Ceremony held on August 13, 2004 began with a thirty second countdown paced by the sounds of an amplified heartbeat. As the countdown was completed, fireworks rumbled and illuminated the skies overhead as fire erupted from a reflecting pool in the middle of the stadium creating a burning image of the Olympic rings. The Opening Ceremony was a pageant of traditional Greek culture and history hearkening back to its mythological beginnings. The program began as a young Greek boy sailed into the stadium on a ship waving the host nation's flag and then various characters from ancient Greek myths appeared, followed by a float parade chronicling Greek history from the ancient Minoan civilization to modern times.\nThe olympic flame at the Opening Ceremony.\nFollowing the artistic performances, a parade of nations entered the stadium with over 10,500 athletes walking under the banners of 202 nations. Based on audience reaction, the emotional high point of the parade was the entrance of the delegation from Afghanistan which had been absent from the Olympics and had female competitors for the first time. The Iraqi delegation also stirred emotions. Also recognized was the symbolic unified march of athletes from North Korea and South Korea under the Korean Unification Flag. The country of Kiribati made a debut appearance at these games and East Timor made a debut appearance under its own flag. Due to the perceived unpopularity of the American-led invasion of Iraq among Greeks, it had been expected that audience members would protest the war during the entrance of the American delegation into the stadium by booing; however, the roar of cheers and applause the Americans received was among the loudest of the evening.[8][9][10]After the Parade of Nations, during which the Dutch DJ Tiësto provided the music, the Icelandic singer Björk performed.\nScene from the opening ceremony\nThe Opening Ceremony culminated in the lighting of the Olympic Cauldron by 1996 Gold Medalist Windsurfer Nikolaos Kaklamanakis . The gigantic cauldron, which was styled after the Athens 2004 Olympic Torch, pivoted down to be lit by the 35 year-old, before slowly swinging up and lifting the flame high above the stadium. Following this, the stadium found itself at the centre of a rousing fireworks spectacular.\nClosing ceremony\nThe Games were concluded on August 29, 2004. The closing ceremony was held at the Athens Olympic Stadium, where the Games had been opened 16 days earlier. Around 70,000 people gathered in the stadium to watch the ceremony.\nThe ceremony ended with a variety of musical performances by Greek singers, including Anna Vissi, Sakis Rouvas, Eleftheria Arvanitaki, Alkistis Protopsalti, Marinella, George Dalaras, Dimitra Galani, and Haris Alexiou, as thousands of athletes carried out humorous and symbolic displays on the stadium floor. Before that, the Twelve Girls Band from China sang Mo Li Hua (Jasmine Flower) and the medal ceremony for the last event of the Olympiad, the Men's Marathon, was conducted, with Stefano Baldini from Italy as the winner.\nA flag-bearer from each nation's delegation then entered along the stage, followed by the competitors en masse on the floor.\nAfter short speeches by Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, chief Greek organizer of the Games, and by President Dr. Jacques Rogge of the IOC, in which he describes the Athens Olympics as \"unforgettable, dream Games\", the national anthems of Greece and China were played in a handover ceremony as both nations' flags were raised. The Mayor of Athens, Dora Bakoyianni, passed the Olympic Flag to the Mayor of Beijing, Wang Qishan. After a short cultural performance by Chinese actors, dancers, and musicians directed by eminent Chinese director Zhang Yimou, Rogge declared the 2004 Olympic Games closed.\nA young Greek girl, Fotini Papaleonidopoulou, lit a symbolic lantern with the Olympic Flame and passed it on to other children before \"extinguishing\" the flame in the cauldron by blowing a puff of air.\nSports\nThe sports featured at the 2004 Summer Olympics are listed below. Officially there were 28 sports as swimming, diving, synchronised swimming and water polo are classified by the IOC as disciplines within the sport of aquatics, and wheelchair racing was a demonstation sport. For the first time, the wrestling category featured women's wrestling and in the fencing competition women competed in the sabre. American Kristin Heaston, who led off the qualifying round of women's shotput became the first woman to compete at the ancient site of Olympia but Cuban Yumileidi Cumba became the first woman to win a gold medal there.\nThe demonstration sport of wheelchair racing was a joint Olympic/Paralympic event, allowing a Paralympic event to occur within the Olympics, and for the future, opening up wheelchair racing to the able-bodied. The 2004 Summer Paralympics were also held in Athens, from September 17 to 28.\nNations",
"When the Games Were Held at Olympia | EDSITEment\nWhen the Games Were Held at Olympia\nHolding an Olympic Games means evoking history.\n—Pierre de Coubertin, father of the modern Olympics\nEvery two years, a group of people dedicated to a common purpose will solemnly assemble, light a flame, chant a hymn, and swear an oath. If the spectacle just described sounds a little like a religious ritual, it might be because the event—the opening ceremonies of the Olympic Games—is in fact intended to evoke an ancient Greek religious festival. And when the games opened in Summer 2004, the ancient roots of the modern Olympics were on full display because the Olympics had come home!\nDora Bakoyiannis was the mayor of Athens when Greece hosted the games of the 28th Olympiad in 2004. In a speech in Washington, D.C., she explained the historic and symbolic significance of the return of the Olympics to Greece:\nAs you all know, Greece in general, and Athens in particular, has a number of unique historic and cultural advantages in staging the Olympics. After all, the games originated in Greece near[ly] 2,800 years ago, and were then revived again in Athens in 1896. As a result, visitors to Greece can still see the original ancient stadium of ancient Olympia, where the Olympics were first organized in 776 BCE.\nAs the mayor’s remarks suggest, anybody who followed the 2004 Olympics could not help but become aware of ancient Greek civilization in the process. And the return of the Olympics to Greece to its native land continues to hold great promise for parents and educators looking for a way to interest contemporary students in the culture and history of ancient Greece. Simply tuning in to television coverage of the Olympic games brought students into contact with a wide range of historically significant images. EDSITEment resources can be used to explain these images and to place them within the larger narrative of ancient Greek history.\nThe 2004 games not only sparked curiosity in the specific history of ancient Greece, but also impressed students more generally with the relevance of history as a discipline. The Athens Olympics presented such a valuable educational moment because they showed students how historical analysis can help us critically re-examine the world we live in today. The juxtaposition of the modern games against an ancient backdrop, the Athens Olympics still encourages us to reflect on the ways in which Greek civilization continues to reverberate (or not) through our contemporary world. Thus, the activities and prompts described in this Feature all revolve around this core question:\nHow and why does the study of the ancient Greeks have continuing relevance to our ability to better understand ourselves?\nOverview of EDSITEment Resources\nStudents will find a library of textual and visual tools for the study of ancient Greece on the EDSITEment-reviewed Perseus Project website. The Perseus Project site includes a special exhibit designed to immerse students in the lives of ancient Olympic athletes. The exhibit provides details on the events, ethos, cultural context, and physical location of the ancient games. Highlights of the exhibit include a multimedia tour of ancient Olympia and a series of profiles of ancient Olympic athletes. Also, through the EDSITEment resource ArchNet , students have access to Archaeology Online’s Ancient Olympics Guide . The articles on Winning at Olympia and Myths about the Olympic Games presents the latest research on the cultural backdrop of the ancient games.\nThe EDSITEment lesson plan Live From Ancient Olympia (for grades 6–8) suggests one strategy for guiding students through the wealth of information available through the Perseus Project ancient Olympics exhibit . The lesson plan’s central activity asks students to write and perform a TV news-style “live interview” with the ancient Olympic heroes profiled in the exhibit. These interviews should clarify students’ understanding of the attitudes and ideals underpinning the significance of the Olympics to the ancient Greek culture. The activities and discussion questions presented below extend the themes of that lesson, while also helping to elucidate the significance of the Olympic games within our own modern context.\n \n— Back to Top —\nA Closer Look at the Perseus Project Exhibit\nThe Olympic games remind us that the kinds of sporting events that a society institutionalizes tells us a great deal about the values and cultural assumptions of that particular society. But we must also carefully note the ways in which the worldview reflected in ancient Olympic practice might differ from our own. Thus, the key question raised by the Perseus Project exhibit is this:\nDo the modern Olympics represent true continuity with an ancient tradition, or a mostly new phenomenon with an ancient name?\nIn addressing this question, students can use EDSITEment resources to investigate the following contrasts between the ancient and modern games. But be careful: some contrasts may not be as sharp as they first seem!\nPerhaps the most striking difference between the ancient and modern Olympics is that the ancient Olympics were held as religious festivals. Students can click here for an explanation of the religious significance of the ancient games. Although no longer intended for the honor of a particular god, the modern Olympics do strive to retain the ritualistic bent of the ancient Olympics. There is an Olympic anthem, an Olympic hymn, and an Olympic oath. Every two years, the Olympic torch is ritually lit at an altar in Olympia by natural rays of the sun reflected off curved mirrors. Discuss:\nTo what extent does the success of the modern Olympic movement depend upon particular symbols, rituals, and ceremonies?\nAs much as the modern Olympics strives to create a sense of world unity, the modern games often serve as platforms for governments and individuals to make their own political statements. During the opening ceremonies of the 1908 Olympics in London, the American flag-bearer refused to follow the custom of dipping the flag as he passed King Edward VII’s box. The flag-bearer reportedly said: “This flag dips to no earthly king.” In 1976, 26 African Nations boycotted the Montreal Olympics to protest the fact that New Zealand was allowed to compete after its national rugby team visited apartheid South Africa. The United States and 59 of its allies boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics to protest the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan. When the Olympics came to Los Angeles in 1984, the Soviet Union retaliated with its own boycott. Did politics play a similar role at the ancient Olympics? Click here to find out , then discuss:\nTo what extent can the ideal of a non-political Olympic games be taken seriously?\nMen and women both participate in the modern Olympics, competing in separate events. Click here to learn about the status of women at the ancient games in Olympia. Then discuss:\nTo what extent has the participation of women in the Olympic games changed since ancient times? To what extent does our own modern culture encourage or discourage female participation in sports?\nThe modern Olympics brings together athletes of all races and nationalities. Pierre de Coubertin, father of the modern Olympic movement, declared, “The Olympic Games are for the world, and all nations must be admitted to them.” But for most of their history, the ancient Olympics were only for athletes of Greek lineage. The ancient Olympics were “panhellenic,” meaning that they included people from all over the Greek-speaking world. Discuss:\nThe participants in the ancient games all shared a common Hellenic culture. To what extent do the modern games presume a shared global culture?\nToday’s Olympic athletes compete as representatives of national teams, while ancient Olympians competed as individuals. And whereas today’s Olympics include team sports such as basketball, volleyball, and baseball, the ancient games included no team sports. The ancient Greek emphasis on the achievement of individual athletes is best captured in the Greek concept of arete, meaning competitive excellence. Click here to find out more about arete , and then discuss:\nTo what extent does arete survive as a core ideal in contemporary society? In our culture, is individual competitiveness seen as more of a vice or a virtue?\nOne feature of the ancient Olympics that may be absent in the modern version is the idea of the ekecheiria, or “sacred truce.” Students can click here to investigate the concept of the sacred truce . Note that the truce did not establish peace among the Greek city-states, but only guaranteed safe passage for athletes and spectators traveling to and participating in the games. And while there are scattered examples of the truce being violated, the ancient Greeks mostly succeeded in ensuring that war would not interfere with the Olympic games. From 776 BCE until 393 CE—the entire period of the ancient games—293 consecutive Olympics were held without once being cancelled due to war. By contrast, since the modern Olympics began in 1896, the games have been cancelled three times because of wars—in 1916, 1940, and 1944. Discuss:\nWhy and to what extent do we think that sport has the potential to promote peace among nations?\nThe rules of modern Olympic sports are calculated to provide for the safety and protection of the athletes. This was not the case at ancient Olympia. Click here to learn about the pankration a particularly brutal combat sport that could sometimes turn lethal. It is no coincidence that one of the most popular ancient Olympic sports was combat-oriented. Classics scholar Michael B. Poliakoff, author of a book on ancient athletics noted that violent sports \"filled a crucial need as an outlet for highly competitive and individualistic impulses Greece developed during the period from the seventh to the fifth centuries BCE.\" Discuss:\nDo violent sports channel and moderate aggressive, hyper-competitive behavior, or do they only make us more violent and more competitive?\nThe modern Olympics began as a contest for amateur athletes—competitors who have never taken money to play sports. In fact, the American Olympic hero Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it later came to light that he had played semi-professional baseball. Click here to find out whether the distinction between amateur and professional athletes existed in ancient Greece. Then discuss:\nWhat do students think of the recent change in the Olympic rules permitting professional athletes to participate in some events (e.g., basketball)?\nThe prize for ancient Olympic champions was a crown made by twisting a wild olive branch, called kotinos, into a circle. Unlike the modern games, the ancient Olympics did not recognize second and third place finishers. The idea of an athlete being rewarded at Olympia for being second best would not have made sense to the ancient Greeks. Discuss:\nDo students think that medals should be awarded to the top three finishers in an Olympic event, or does it make more sense to follow the ancient Greek model and just recognize a single champion?\n \n— Back to Top —\nOlympic Tidbits\nParents and educators can also lead much shorter interactive activities that use familiar Olympic images as “hooks” to introduce tidbits on ancient Greek history and culture. Examples of two such activities are provided below.\n1. Mascot Mythology\nThe official Athens 2004 mascots were a pair of brother and sister named Phevos and Athena. According to the International Olympic Committee website, “their creation was inspired by an ancient Greek doll and their names are linked to ancient Greece, yet the two siblings are children of modern times … Phevos and Athena represent the link between Greek history and the modern Olympic Games.”\nAthena and Phevos (known in ancient Greece as Phoebus Apollo) are both names of prominent gods in Greek mythology. But what sorts of gods were they and how were they represented? To find out, direct your students to Odyssey Online’s At Home on Mount Olympos page. There, students will find an image of five Olympian gods, including Athena and Apollo. The two gods are pictured next to one another. They are the second and third gods from the left. Students can click on their individual pictures to learn more about them.\nDiscuss: How do the pictorial representations of Athena and Apollo in the painting reflect their attributes?\nDiscuss: What are some reasons why Athena and Phoebus Apollo may have been chosen as the names for the 2004 Olympic mascots?\n2. The Marathon in Legend and History\nThe marathon was never an ancient Olympic event, but the race was first run as the final event in the inaugural modern Olympics, as a tribute to the popular legend of a Greek soldier named Phidippides (also spelled Pheidippides) who fought at the battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. Click here to learn about the origins of the marathon .\nOf course, the battle at Marathon remains significant not only in Olympic history, but in the history of warfare and military strategy. It is difficult for us to conceptualize how ancient wars were actually fought—what sort of tactical maneuvers won or lost campaigns. But EDSITEment has created a schematic animation that portrays the design and success of the Athenians’ battle strategy at Marathon. After showing this animation to your students, have them read about the Athenian strategy in a summary of The Histories, a text by the Greek historian Herodotus, who lived in the fifth century BCE. If desired, you can explore Herodotus’ text using the following discussion questions:\nWhat does the text reveal about the relationship between religion and war in the ancient world?\nWhat was the source of the Persians’ advantage at Marathon? What advantages did the Athenians enjoy?\nWhat part does Phidippides play in the battle according to Herodotus?\nWhat does the commentary on the text say about the legend of the run from Marathon to Athens? What does Herodotus’ text say about the run?\nStandards Alignment",
"2004 Summer Olympics : Modern Olympics, Paralympic Games\n2004 Summer Olympics : Modern Olympics, Paralympic Games\nStarted in the year 1896 in Athens. IOC organizes the olympics. With 7 months to go for the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics, the 2nd phase ticket application period will end on Dec 30.\nIn the summer of 2004 all roads lead to Athens. The 2004 summer Olympics were held in Athens is the sports spectacle that Olympic enthusiasts will be looking forward to. The extravaganza that is the Modern Olympics is conducted on a larger-than-life scale. Come on an Olympic expedition that will trace the history of the games and bring you abreast with the preparations for the Greece Olympics. Find out about the Summer Olympics mascots, sports categories and much more.\n2004 Summer Olympics\nIt seems fitting that the 2004 summer Olympics will be held at Athens as this signifies a return to origins – the home of the first Modern Olympics. Athens was chosen by the IOC in preference over Buenos Aires, Cape Town, Rome and Stockholm. The 2004 Summer Olympics will be held from August 13 – 29 2004. The lighting ceremony of the Olympic Flame in Ancient Olympia prior to the Greece Olympics will be held on 25 March 2004.\nAthens 2004 Olympics – Torch Relay\nThe Olympic flame has always been symbolic of the Olympic ideals of noble competition, friendship and peaceful coexistence. The Olympic torch is first lit in Ancient Olympia and then passed on to the stadium of the city hosting the Opening Ceremony of the Games. The Athens 2004 Olympics torch relay will be the first to travel the globe and return to the country that gave us the Olympics Games. The journey of the Athens 2004 Olympics flame will cover a distance of about 78, 000 km. The flame will pass the hands of about 3,600 torchbearers and will provide an opportunity for nearly 260 million people to view it in their own cities. For the first time, the Athens 2004 Olympics flame will travel to Africa and Latin America.\nThe torch for the Athens 2004 Olympics has been inspired from an olive leaf and was chosen to enhance the Flame with its upward dynamic shape. The Olive tree is a powerful tree in the Mediterranean regions and has been held sacred for thousands of years. Since the olive branch is the global symbol of peace and freedom, it is a fitting choice for the Athens 2004 Olympics torch.\nAthens Olympics Mascot\nThe bell-shaped cartoons Phevos and Athena have been selected as the Athens Olympics mascots. The Athens Olympics mascots were inspired by two Greek Gods. They represent two children of today – a brother and sister. Phevos represents the God of light and music also known as Apollo while Athena is the Goddess of wisdom and is the patron of Athens. The Olympics mascots were created to symbolize a bond between Greek history and modern Olympic games.\nModern Olympics\nThe Modern Olympics can be traced to the religious festival held in dedication of Zeus, the supreme Greek God. Olympia in Greece was the symbolic site where the ancient games were held. These ancient games were then revived due to the efforts of the French educator Baron Pierre de Coubertin. The first Modern Olympics were held in Athens in 1896 where 14 nations sent nearly 250 athletes to compete in the ancient Panathenaic Stadium. Greece led the medals tally with 47 medals. The Modern Olympics were seen as an instrument to promote understanding and friendship among nations and uphold the true spirit of sportsmanship. Participants from all over the world live in an Olympic village at the site of the games. The Olympic games are organized and developed by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The IOC chooses the venue of each Modern Olympics and the games that are to be held.\nModern Olympics include track and field athletics that comprise decathlon and heptathlon. Other games and sports like archery, badminton, baseball, softball, canoeing and kayaking have also been added to the list. Modern Olympics are now open to professionals as well as amateurs. Modern Olympics have seen many an instance where intense rivalry between nations has sometimes threatened the foundations as well as the very survival of the games. Nations assign political significance to the sporting feats of their teams resulting in antagonism. Modern Olympics have also been besieged with the problem of athletes resorting to illegal competitive advantages through the use of performance enhancing drugs. Gross commercialization in the form of licensing of the games to television networks is also part of the Modern Olympics scenario. But the spirit of the Modern Olympics has survived political boycotts and threats of modern terrorism. The Panathinaic marble stadium where the first Modern Olympics took place is being refurbished to stage the biggest sporting event in recent times – Summer Olympics 2004 at Athens.\n2004 Greece Olympics – The Complete Picture\nThere will be a total of 37 disciplines within the 28 sports to be played at the 2004 Greece Olympics. An Olympic sport is one that should be widely practiced by men in at least 75 countries on 4 continents and by women in at least 40 countries on 3 continents. The various sports at the 2004 Greece Olympics:\nAquatics",
"First modern Olympics is held - Apr 06, 1896 - HISTORY.com\nFirst modern Olympics is held\nShare this:\nFirst modern Olympics is held\nAuthor\nFirst modern Olympics is held\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nOn April 6, 1896, the first modern Olympic Games are held in Athens, Greece, with athletes from 14 countries participating.\nThe International Olympic Committee met for the first time in Paris in June 1984 and chose Greece as the site of the inaugural modern Olympiad. The ancient games are believed to have originated in 776 B.C. in Olympia, Greece, where athletes competed in one event: a foot race. Over the years, other events were added, including chariot racing, boxing, wrestling and the pentathlon. Participants, who were all young men from Greek city-states and colonies, often battled it out in the buff, as a way to celebrate the human body, and winners received olive branches. The last ancient Olympics are thought to have taken place in A.D. 393.\nAt the first modern Olympics, 241 male athletes (and no women) representing 14 nations competed in 43 events. America’s James Connolly became the first modern Olympic champion when he won the triple jump on the opening day of the Games. For his achievement, he was awarded a silver medal and an olive branch. Connolly later finished second in the high-jump event and took third in the long jump.\nFrance, Great Britain, Germany and Greece had the largest number of athletes participating. Nevertheless, the U.S. took home the most first-place finishes (11) of any nation, followed by Greece (10) and Germany (6). All told, America placed first, second or third in 20 events while Greece scored in 46 events and Germany placed in 13 competitions. To the delight of the hometown crowd, Greek runner Spyridon Louis won the marathon. The first Olympiad closed on April 15, 1896.\nThe second Olympiad was held in Paris in 1900 with 997 athletes (22 of them women) from 24 countries competing in 95 events. The U.S. hosted the Olympics for the first time in 1904, in St. Louis. The third Olympiad marked the first time gold, silver and bronze medals were given out to first, second and third-place finishers.\nStarting in 1992, the summer and winter games, which had traditionally been held in the same year every four years, took place two years apart. The Summer Games returned to Athens in 2004, with 10,625 athletes (4,329 women and 6,296 men) from 201 nations participating in 301 events.\nRelated Videos",
"Olympic Games | Olympics Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nMain article: Summer Olympic Games\nAfter the initial success, the Olympics struggled. The celebrations in Paris (1900) and St. Louis (1904) were overshadowed by the World's Fair exhibitions in which they were included. The 1906 Intercalated Games (so-called because of their off-year status, as 1906 is not divisible by four) were held in Athens, as the first of an alternating series of Athens-held Olympics. Although originally the IOC recognised and supported these games, they are currently not recognised by the IOC as Olympic Games, which has given rise to the explanation that they were intended to mark the 10th anniversary of the modern Olympics. The 1906 Games again attracted a broad international field of participants—in 1904, 80% had been American—and great public interest, thereby marking the beginning of a rise in popularity and size of the Games.\nFrom the 241 participants from 14 nations in 1896, the Games grew to nearly 11,100 competitors from 202 countries at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens . The number of competitors at the Winter Olympics is much smaller than at the Summer Games; at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin Italy, 2,633 athletes from 80 countries competed in 84 events.\nThe Olympics are one of the largest media events. In Sydney in 2000, there were over 16,000 broadcasters and journalists, and an estimated 3.8 billion viewers watched the games on television. The growth of the Olympics is one of the largest problems the Olympics face today. Although allowing professional athletes and attracting sponsorships from major international companies solved financial problems in the 1980s, the large number of athletes, media and spectators makes it difficult and expensive for host cities to organize the Olympics. For example, the 2012 Olympics (which were held in London), is based on an updated budget of over £9bn—one of the biggest budgets for an Olympics to date. Even if sponsorships do lighten the load in terms of the debt that these countries take on, one of the biggest problems faced is how their economies will cope with the extra financial burdens put on them.\nDespite the Olympics usually being associated with one host city, most of the Olympics have had events held in other cities, especially the football and sailing events. There were two Olympics where some events were held in a different country: during the 1920 Antwerp Olympics two sailing races were held in the Netherlands; and during the Melbourne Olympics equestrian events were held in Sweden. The 2008 Beijing Olympics marked the third time that Olympic events have been held in the territories of two different NOC 's: at the 2008 Olympics, equestrian events were held in Hong Kong (which competes separately from mainland China.)\n203 countries currently participate in the Olympics. This is a noticeably higher number than the number of countries belonging to the United Nations, which is only 193. The International Olympic Committee allows nations to compete which do not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that many other international organizations demand. As a result, many colonies and dependencies are permitted to host their own Olympic teams and athletes even if such competitors hold the same citizenship as another member nation. Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico , Bermuda , and Hong Kong , all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country. Also, since 1980, Taiwan has competed under the name \" Chinese Taipei \", and under a flag specially prepared by the IOC. Prior to that year the People's Republic of China refused to participate in the Games because Taiwan had been competing under the name \"Republic of China\". The Republic of the Marshall Islands was recognised as a nation by the IOC on February 9, 2006, and competed in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . [9]\nYouth Olympic Games\nMain article: Youth Olympic Games\nThe Youth Olympic Games (YOG) [10] are planned to be a \"junior\" version of the Games, complementing the current \"senior\" Games, [11] and will feature athletes between the ages of 14 and 18. [12] The idea for such an event was envisioned in 2001 by IOC president Jacques Rogge , [13] and at the 119th IOC session in Guatemala City in July 2007, the IOC approved the Games. [14]\nThe Youth Games versions will be shorter: the summer version will last at most twelve days; the winter version will last a maximum of nine days. [15] [16] The IOC will allow a maximum of 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the summer games, while 970 athletes and 580 officials are expected at the winter games. [14] Each participating country would send at least four athletes. The sports contested at these games will be the same as those scheduled for the traditional Games, [13] but with a limited number of disciplines and events, and including some with special appeal to youth. Education and culture are also key components for this Youth edition.\nEstimated cost for the game are currently $30 million for the summer and $15–$20 million for winter games. [17] It has been stated the IOC will \"foot the bill\" for the Youth Games.\nThe first host city will be Singapore in 2010; the first Winter Olympics is in 2012 in Innsbruk .\nOlympic problems\nEdit\nThe 1956 Melbourne Olympics were the first Olympics to be boycotted. The Netherlands , Spain , and Switzerland refused to attend because of the repression of the Hungarian Uprising by the Soviet Union ; additionally, Cambodia , Egypt , Iraq , and Lebanon , boycotted the games due to the Suez Crisis. [18]\nIn 1972 and 1976 , a large number of African countries threatened the IOC with a boycott, to force them to ban South Africa , Rhodesia , and New Zealand . The IOC conceded in the first two cases, but refused in 1976 because the boycott was prompted by a New Zealand rugby union tour of South Africa, and rugby was not an Olympic sport. The countries withdrew their teams after the games had started; some African athletes had already competed. A lot of sympathy was felt for the athletes forced by their governments to leave the Olympic Village; there was little sympathy outside Africa for the governments' attitude. Twenty-two countries ( Guyana was the only non-African nation) boycotted the Montreal Olympics because New Zealand was not banned. [19]\nAlso in 1976, due to pressure from the People's Republic of China ( PRC ), Canada told the team from the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) that it could not compete at the Montreal Summer Olympics under the name \"Republic of China\" despite a compromise that would have allowed Taiwan to use the ROC flag and anthem . The Republic of China refused and as a result did not participate again until 1984, when it returned under the name \" Chinese Taipei \" and used a special flag. [20]\nIn 1980 and 1984, the Cold War opponents boycotted each other's games. Sixty-five nations refused to compete at the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, but 16 nations from Western Europe did compete at the Moscow Olympics. The boycott reduced the number of nations participating to only 81, the lowest number of nations to compete since 1956. The Soviet Union and 14 of its Eastern Bloc partners (except Romania ) countered by skipping the Los Angeles Olympics in 1984 , arguing the safety of their athletes could not be guaranteed there and \"chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria are being whipped up in the United States\". [21] The 1984 boycotters staged their own Friendship Games in July-August. [22] [23]\nThere have been growing calls for boycotts of the 2008 Olympics in Beijing in protest of China's poor human rights record and response to the recent disturbances in Tibet, Darfur, and Taiwan. There are also campaigns calling for Chinese goods to be boycotted. [24] [25] [26]\nOlympic Problems\nEdit\nOne of the main problems facing the Olympics (and international sports in general) is doping , or performance enhancing drugs. In the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to enhance their performance. For example, the winner of the marathon at the 1904 Games , Thomas J. Hicks , was given strychnine and brandy by his coach, even during the race. As these methods became more extreme, gradually the awareness grew that this was no longer a matter of health through sports. In the mid-1960s, sports federations put a ban on doping, and the IOC followed suit in 1967.\nThe first and so far only Olympic death caused by doping occurred in 1960. At the cycling road race in Rome the Danish rider Knud Enemark Jensen fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines.\nThe first Olympic athlete to test positive for doping use was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall , a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics , who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use. Seventy-three athletes followed him over the next 38 years, several medal winners among them. The most publicised doping-related disqualification was that of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson , who won the 100m at the 1988 Seoul Olympics , but tested positive for stanozolol.\nDespite the testing, many athletes continued to use doping without getting caught. In 1990, documents were revealed that showed many East German female athletes had been unknowingly administered anabolic steroids and other drugs by their coaches and trainers as a government policy.\nIn the late 1990s, the IOC took initiative in a more organised battle against doping, leading to the formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999. The recent 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics have shown that this battle is not nearly over, as several medalists in weightlifting and cross-country skiing were disqualified due to doping offences. One innocent victim of the anti-doping movement at the Olympics was the Romanian gymnast Andreea Răducan who was stripped of her gold medal-winning performance in the All-Around Competition of the 2000 Sydney games. Test results indicated the presence of the banned-stimulant pseudophedrine which had been prescribed to her by an Olympic doctor. Raducan had been unaware of the presence of the illegal substance in the medicine that had been prescribed to her for a cold she had during the games.\nDuring the 2006 Winter Olympics , only one athlete failed a drug test and had a medal revoked. The only other case involved 12 members with high levels of haemoglobin and their punishment was a five day suspension for health reasons.\nThe International Olympic Committee introduced blood testing for the first time during these games.\nPolitics\nMain article: Politics in the Olympics\nPolitics interfered with the Olympics on several occasions, the most well-known of which was the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin , where the games were used as propaganda by the German Nazis. At this Olympics, a true Olympic spirit was shown by Luz Long , who helped Jesse Owens (a black athlete) to win the long jump, at the expense of his own silver medal. [27] The Soviet Union did not participate in the Olympic Games until the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki . Instead, the Soviets organized an international sports event called Spartakiads, from 1928 onward. Many athletes from Communist organizations or close to them chose not to participate or were even barred from participating in Olympic Games, and instead participated in Spartakiads. [28]\nA political incident on a smaller scale occurred at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City . Two American track-and-field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos , performed the Black Power salute on the victory stand of the 200-meter track and field race. In response, the IOC's autocratic president Avery Brundage told the USOC to either send the two athletes home, or withdraw the complete track and field team. The USOC opted for the former. [29]\nThe government of the Islamic Republic of Iran specifically orders its athletes not to compete in any olympic heat, semi-final, or finals that includes athletes from Israel . At the 2004 Olympics, an Iranian judoka who had otherwise earned his place, did not compete in a heat against an Israeli judoka. [30]\nViolence\nEdit\nDespite what Coubertin had hoped for, the Olympics did not bring total peace to the world. In fact, three Olympiads had to pass without Olympics because of war: due to World War I the 1916 Games were cancelled, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because of World War II.\nDuring the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, a massacre of 11 members from the Israeli Olympic team occurred. The team members were taken hostage and eventually killed, along with a German police officer, by the Palestinian group Black September.\nDuring the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta , a bombing at the Centennial Olympic Park killed two and injured 111 others. The bomb was set by Eric Robert Rudolph, an conservative American domestic terrorist, who is currently serving a life sentence. [31]\nThe 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City were the first Olympic Games since the September 11, 2001 attacks. Olympic Games since then have required an extremely high degree of security due to the fear of possible terrorist activities. [32]\nThere have been pro-Tibet / pro-human rights protests during the Beijing Olympic Games Torch Relay, some of which included violent incidents\nOlympic Movement\nEdit\nA number of organizations are involved in organizing the Olympic Games. Together they form the Olympic Movement. The rules and guidelines by which these organizations operate are outlined in the Olympic Charter .\nAt the heart of the Olympic Movement is the International Olympic Committee (IOC), currently headed by Jacques Rogge . It can be seen as the government of the Olympics, as it takes care of the daily problems and makes all important decisions, such as choosing the host city of the Games, and the programme of the Olympics.\nThree groups of organisations operate on a more specialised level:\nInternational Federations (IFs), the governing bodies of a sport (e.g. FIFA , the IF for football (soccer) , and the FIVB , the international governing body for volleyball .)\nNational Olympic Committees (NOCs), which regulate the Olympic Movement within each country (eg. USOC , the NOC of the United States )\nOrganizing Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs), which take care of the organisation of a specific celebration of the Olympics.\nAt present, 202 NOCs and 35 IFs are part of the Olympic Movement. OCOGs are dissolved after the celebration of each Games, once all subsequent paperwork has been completed.\nMore broadly speaking, the term Olympic Movement is sometimes also meant to include everybody and everything involved in the Olympics, such as national sport governing bodies, athletes, media, and sponsors of the Olympic Games.\nCriticism\nEdit\nMost Olympic Games have been held in European and North American cities; only a few games have been held in other places, and all bids by countries in South America and Africa have failed. Many believe the games should expand to include locations in poorer regions. Economists point out that the massive infrastructure investments could springboard cities into earning higher GDP after the games. However, many host cities regret the high costs associated with hosting the games as a poor investment [33] .\nIn the past, the IOC has often been criticised for being a monolithic organisation, with several members remaining a member at old age, or even until their deaths. The leadership of IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch especially has been strongly criticised. Under his presidency, the Olympic Movement made great progress, but has been seen as autocratic and corrupt. Samaranch's ties with the Franco's regime in Spain and his long term as a president (21 years, until he was 81 years old) have also been points of critique.\nIn 1998, it became known that several IOC members had taken bribes from the organising committee for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , Utah , in exchange for a vote on the city at the election of the host city. The IOC started an investigation, which led to four members resigning and six being expelled. The scandal set off further reforms, changing the way in which host cities are elected to avoid further bribes. Also, more active and former athletes were allowed in the IOC, and the membership terms have been limited.\nThe same year (1998), four European groups organized the International Network Against Olympic Games and Commercial Sports to oppose their cities' bids for future Olympic Games. Also, an Anti-Olympic Alliance had formed in Sydney to protest the hosting of the 2000 Games. Later, a similar movement in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia organized to protest the hosting of the 2010 Winter Games. These movements were particularly concerned about adverse local economic impact and dislocation of people to accommodate the hosting of the Olympics.\nA BBC documentary aired in August 2004, entitled Panorama: \"Buying the Games\", investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics . The documentary claimed it is possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. In an airborne television interview on the way home, the Mayor of Paris Bertrand Delanoë , specifically accused the British Prime Minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee (headed by former Olympic athlete Sebastian Coe ) of breaking the bid rules with flagrant financial and sexual bribes. He cited French President Jacques Chirac as a witness but President Chirac gave rather more guarded interviews. In particular, Bulgaria 's member Ivan Slavkov, and Muttaleb Ahmad from the Olympic Council of Asia, were implicated. They have denied the allegations. Mayor Delanoë never mentioned the matter again. Others have alleged that the 2006 Winter Olympics were held in Turin because officials bribed the IOC and so Turin got the games and Sion, Switzerland (which was the favorite) did not.\nThe Olympic Movement has been accused of being overprotective of its symbolism (in particular, it claims an exclusive and monopolistic copyright over any arrangement of five rings and the term \"olympics\"), and have taken action against things unrelated to sport, such as the role-playing game Legend of the Five Rings. It was accused of homophobia in 1982 when it successfully sued the Gay Olympics, an event now known as the Gay Games, to ban it from using the term \"olympics\" in its name. [34]\nOlympic symbols\nMain article: Olympic symbols\nThe Olympic movement uses many symbols, most of them representing Coubertin's ideas and ideals. The Olympic Rings are the most widely used symbol. The five colored rings on a white field form the Olympic Flag . The colors, white, red, blue, green, yellow, and black, were chosen such that each nation has at least one of these colors in its national flag. The flag was adopted in 1914, but the first Games at which it was flown were Antwerp, 1920 . It is hoisted at each celebration of the Games.\nThe Olympic Motto is \"Citius, Altius, Fortius\", a Latin phrase meaning \"Swifter, Higher, Stronger\". Coubertin's ideals are probably best illustrated by the Olympic Creed :\n\"The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well.\"\nPrior to each Games, the Olympic Flame is lit in Olympia, Greece and brought to the host city by runners carrying the torch in relay. There it plays an important role in the opening ceremonies. Though the torch fire has been around since 1928 , the relay was introduced in 1936 as part of the then German government's attempt to promote their National Socialist ideology.\nThe Olympic mascot, an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country, was introduced in 1968 . It has played an important part of the games since 1980 with the debut of Misha , a Russian bear.\nFrench and English are the official languages of the Olympic movement.\nOlympic ceremonies\nEdit\nApart from the traditional elements, the host nation ordinarily presents artistic displays of dance and theatre representative of that country. [35]\nVarious traditional elements frame the opening ceremonies of a celebration of the Olympic Games. The ceremonies typically start with the hoisting of the host country's flag and the performing of its national anthem.{{ safesubst:ifsubst |{{subst:Unsubst|Citation needed| name|¬|reason|¬| date|October 2007 }}| Template:Fix The traditional part of the ceremonies starts with a \"parade of nations\" (or of athletes), during which most participating athletes march into the stadium, country by country. One honoured athlete, typically a top competitor, from each country carries the flag of his or her nation, leading the entourage of other athletes from that country.\nTraditionally (starting at the 1928 Summer Olympics ) Greece marches first, because of its historical status as the origin of the Olympics, while the host nation marches last. (In 2004, when the Games were held in Athens, Greece marched last as host nation rather than first, although the flag of Greece was carried in first.) Between these two nations, all other participating nations march in alphabetical order of the dominant language of the host country,{{ safesubst:ifsubst |{{subst:Unsubst|Citation needed| name|¬|reason|¬| date|November 2007 }}| Template:Fix or in French or English alphabetical order if the host country does not write its dominant language in an alphabet which has a set order. In the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona , both Spanish and Catalan were official languages of the games, but due to politics surrounding the use of Catalan, the nations entered in French alphabetical order. The XVIII Olympic Winter Games in Nagano, Japan saw nations entering in English alphabetical order since the Japanese language grouped both China and Chinese Taipei together in the Parade of Nations.\nAfter all nations have entered, the president of the host country's Olympic Organising Committee makes a speech, followed by the IOC president who, at the end of his speech introduces the representative of the host country who declares the Games open by reciting the formula:\n«I declare open the Games of ... (name of the host city) celebrating the ... (number of the Olympiad) Olympiad of the modern era.» [36] (There is a similar recital for the Winter Games.)\nBefore 1936, the Opener often used to make a short Speech of Welcome before declaring the Games open. However, since 1936 when Adolf Hitler opened both the Garmisch Partenkirchen Winter Olympics and the Berlin Summer Olympics, the Openers have unswervingly stuck to that formula. The only exception was in 1984, when U.S. President Ronald Reagan opened the Summer Olympics that year in Los Angeles when he said:\nCelebrating the XXIII Olympiad of the modern era, I declare open the Olympic Games of Los Angeles. [37]\nDespite the Games having been awarded to a particular city and not to the country in general, the Olympic Charter presently requires the Opener to be the host country's head of state . [36] However, there have been many cases where someone other than the host country's head of state opened the Games. The first example was at the Games of the II Olympiad in Paris in 1900, when there wasn't even an Opening Ceremony. There are five examples from the United States alone where the Games were not opened by the head of state. [38]\nNext, the Olympic Flag is carried horizontally (since the 1960 Summer Olympics ) into the stadium and hoisted as the Olympic Anthem is played. The flag bearers of all countries circle a rostrum , where one athlete (since the 1920 Summer Olympics ) and one judge (since the 1972 Summer Olympics ) speak the Olympic Oath , declaring they will compete and judge according to the rules. [36] Finally, the Torch is brought into the stadium, passed from athlete to athlete, until it reaches the last carrier of the Torch, often a well-known athlete from the host nation, who lights the fire in the stadium's cauldron. [36] The Olympic Flame has been lit since the 1928 Summer Olympics , but the torch relay did not start until the 1936 Summer Olympics . Beginning at the post- World War I 1920 Summer Olympics , the lighting of the Olympic Flame was for 68 years followed by the release of doves , symbolizing peace. [36] This gesture was discontinued after several doves were burned alive in the Olympic Flame during the opening ceremony of the 1988 Summer Olympics . [39] However, some Opening Ceremonies have continued to include doves in other forms; for example, the 2002 Winter Olympics featured skaters holding kite-like cloth dove puppets.\nOpening ceremonies have been held outdoors, usually on the main athletics stadium, but those for the 2010 Winter Olympics will be the first to be held indoors, at the BC Place Stadium . [40]\nClosing\nEdit\nAfter medals are awarded and presented for a particular event, the flags of the nations of the three medalists are raised. The flag of the gold medalist's country is in the center and always raised the highest while the flag of the silver medalist's country is on the left facing the flags and the flag of the bronze medalist's country is on the right, both at lower elevations to the gold medalist's country's flag. The flags are all raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist's country plays.\nThis format of medal presentation is also seen in other multi-sporting events such as the Southeast Asian Games , the Commonwealth Games and the Asian Games , as well as some motor racing events including Formula 1 and MotoGP\nOlympic sports\nMain article: Olympic sports\nCurrently, the Olympic program consists of 35 different sports, 53 disciplines and more than 400 events. The Summer Olympics includes 28 sports with 38 disciplines and the Winter Olympics includes 7 sports with 15 disciplines. [43] Nine sports were on the original Olympic programme in 1896: athletics , cycling , fencing , gymnastics , weightlifting , shooting , swimming , tennis , and wrestling . If the 1896 rowing events had not been cancelled due to bad weather, they would have been included in this list as well. [44]\nAt the most recent Winter Olympics, 15 disciplines in seven sports were featured. Of these, cross country skiing , figure skating , ice hockey , Nordic combined , ski jumping , and speed skating have been featured on the programme at all Winter Olympics. In addition, figure skating and ice hockey also have been contested as part of the Summer Games before the introduction of separate Winter Olympics.\nIn recent years, the IOC has added several new sports to the programme to attract attention from young spectators. Examples of such sports include snowboarding and beach volleyball . The growth of the Olympics also means that some less popular ( modern pentathlon ) or expensive (white water canoeing ) sports may lose their place on the Olympic programme. The IOC decided to discontinue baseball and softball beginning in 2012. Cricket and Rugby union used to be in the Olympic Games but were discontinued; a revival is now seen as possible.\nRule 48.1 of the Olympic Charter requires that there be a minimum of 15 Olympic sports at each Summer Games. Following its 114th Session (Mexico 2002), the IOC also decided to limit the programme of the Summer Games to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes. The Olympic sports are defined as those governed by the International Federations listed in Rule 46 of the Olympic Charter. A two-thirds vote of the IOC is required to amend the Charter to promote a Recognised Federation to Olympic status and therefore make the sports it governs eligible for inclusion on the Olympic programme. Rule 47 of the Charter requires that only Olympic sports may be included in the programme.\nThe IOC reviews the Olympic programme at the first Session following each Olympiad. A simple majority is required for an Olympic sport to be included in the Olympic programme. Under the current rules, an Olympic sport not selected for inclusion in a particular Games remains an Olympic sport and may be included again later with a simple majority. At the 117th IOC Session , 26 sports were included in the programme for London 2012.\nUntil 1992, the Olympics also often featured demonstration sports . The objective was for these sports to reach a larger audience; the winners of these events are not official Olympic champions. These sports were sometimes sports popular only in the host nation, but internationally known sports have also been demonstrated. Some demonstration sports eventually were included as full-medal events.\nAmateurism and professionalism\nEdit\nTemplate:See The ethos of English public schools greatly influenced Pierre de Coubertin. The public schools had a deep involvement in the development of many team sports including all British codes of football as well as cricket and hockey .\nThe English public schools of the second half of the 19th century had a major influence on many sports. The schools contributed to the rules and influenced the governing bodies of those sports out of all proportion to their size. They subscribed to the Ancient Greek and Roman belief that sport formed an important part of education, an attitude summed up in the saying: mens sana in corpore sano – a sound mind in a healthy body. In this ethos, taking part has more importance than winning, because society expected gentlemen to become all-rounders and not the best at everything. Class prejudice against \"trade\" reinforced this attitude. The house of the parents of a typical public schoolboy would have a tradesman 's entrance, because tradesmen did not rank as the social equals of gentlemen. Apart from class considerations there was the typically English concept of \"fairness,\" in which practicing or training was considered as tantamount to cheating; it meant that you considered it more important to win than to take part. Those who practiced a sport professionally were considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practiced it merely as a \"hobby.\"\nIn Coubertin's vision, athletes should be gentlemen. Initially, only amateurs were considered such; professional athletes were not allowed to compete in the Olympic Games. A short-lived exception was made for professional fencing instructors. [45] This exclusion of professionals has caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics.\n1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion, Jim Thorpe , was disqualified when it was discovered that he played semi-professional baseball prior to winning his medals. He was restored as champion on compassionate grounds by the IOC in 1983. Swiss and Austrian skiers boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of their skiing teachers, who were not allowed to compete because they earned money with their sport and were considered professionals.\nIt gradually became clear to many that the amateurism rules had become outdated, not least because the self-financed amateurs of Western countries often were no match for the state-sponsored \"full-time amateurs\" of Eastern bloc countries. Nevertheless, the IOC, led by President Avery Brundage , held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism. In the 1970s, after Brundage left, amateurism requirements were dropped from the Olympic Charter, leaving decisions on professional participation to the international federation for each sport. This switch was perhaps best exemplified by the American Dream Team , composed of well-paid NBA stars, which won the Olympic gold medal in basketball in 1992. As of 2004 , the only sport in which no professionals compete is boxing (though even this requires a definition of amateurism based on fight rules rather than on payment, as some boxers receive cash prizes from their National Olympic Committees); in men's football (soccer) , the number of players over 23 years of age is limited to three per team.\nAdvertisement regulations are still very strict, at least on the actual playing field, although \"Official Olympic Sponsors\" are common. Athletes are only allowed to have the names of clothing and equipment manufacturers on their outfits. The sizes of these markings are limited.\nOlympic champions and medalists\nSee also: List of multiple Olympic gold medalists\nThe athletes (or teams) who place first, second, or third in each event receive medals. The winners receive \"gold medals\". (Though they were solid gold until 1912, they are now made of gilded silver.) The runners-up receive silver medals, and the third-place athletes bronze medals. In some events contested by a single-elimination tournament (most notably boxing ), third place might not be determined, in which case both semi-final losers receive bronze medals. The practice of awarding medals to the top three competitors was introduced in 1904; at the 1896 Olympics only the first two received a medal, silver and bronze, while various prizes were awarded in 1900 . However, the 1904 Olympics also awarded silver trophies for first place, which makes Athens 1906 the first games that awarded the three medals only. In addition, from 1948 onward athletes placing fourth, fifth and sixth have received certificates which became officially known as \"victory diplomas;\" since 1976 the medal winners have received these also, and in 1984 victory diplomas for seventh- and eighth-place finishers were added, presumably to ensure that all losing quarter-finalists in events using single-elimination formats would receive diplomas, thus obviating the need for consolation (or officially, \"classification\") matches to determine fifth through eighth places (though interestingly these latter are still contested in many elimination events anyway). Certificates were awarded also at the 1896 Olympics, but there they were awarded in addition to the medals to first and second place. Commemorative medals and diplomas — which differ in design from those referred to above — are also made available to participants finishing lower than third and eighth respectively. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, the first three were given wreaths as well as their medals.\nBecause the Olympics are held only once every four years, the public and athletes often consider them as more important and valuable than world championships and other international tournaments, which are often held annually. Many athletes have become celebrities or heroes in their own country, or even world-wide, after becoming Olympic champions.\nThe diversity of the sports, and the great differences between the Olympic Games in 1896 and today make it difficult to decide which athlete is the most successful Olympic athlete of all time. This is further complicated since the IOC no longer recognises the Intercalated Games which it originally organised. When measuring by the number of titles won at the Modern Olympic Games, the following athletes may be considered the most successful.\nAthlete\nEdit\nThe IOC does not publish lists of medals per country, but the media often does. A comparison between countries would be unfair to countries with fewer inhabitants, so some have made calculations of medals per number of inhabitants, such as [1] for the 2004 Olympics and [2] for a few more. A problem here is that for a very small country, gaining just one medal could mean the difference between the very top and the very bottom of the list (a point illustrated by the Bahamas ' per capita number one position in 2004). On the other hand, a large country may not be able to send a number of athletes that is proportional to its size because a limit is set for the number of participants per country for a specific sport.\nA comparison of the total number of medals over time is further complicated by the fact that the number of times that countries have participated is not equal, and that many countries have gained and lost territories where medal-winning athletes come from. A case in point is the USSR , which not only participated relatively rarely (18 times, versus 45 times for the UK ), but also ceased to exist in 1991. The resulting Russian Federation is largely, but not entirely equal to the former USSR. Also, one would have to use population statistics at the time.\nThe IOC medal tally chart is based on the number of gold medals for country. Where states are equal, the number of silver medals (and then bronze medals) are counted to determine rankings. Since 1996, the only countries that have appeared in the top 10 medal tallies for summer Olympics have been the Russian Federation , United States , China , France , Germany , Australia and Italy . Since 1994, the only countries that have appeared in the top 10 medal tallies for winter Olympics have been Norway , the Russian Federation , the United States , Canada , Germany , Austria , South Korea , Switzerland , France and Italy .\nOlympic Games host cities\nMain article: List of Olympic host cities\nBy 2014, the Olympic Games were hosted by 42 cities in 22 countries. The upcoming 2012 Summer Olympic Games will be held in London, and the 2014 Winter Olympic Games will be held in Soshi. The number in parentheses following the city/country denotes how many times that city/country had then hosted the games, with said exclusions.\nThis table does not include the \"Olympic Games\" organized by Evangelos Zappas prior to the IOC's creation in 1894. It does list the \"Intercalated Games\" of 1906 , but it is not included in the counts as the IOC no longer considers them to be official Olympic Games.\nOlympic Games host cities\n1 Originally awarded to Chicago , but moved to St. Louis to coincide with the World's Fair\n2 Cancelled due to World War I\n3 Cancelled due to World War II\n4 Equestrian events were held in Stockholm , Sweden . Stockholm had to bid for the equestrian competition separately; it received its own Olympic flame and had its own formal invitations and opening & closing ceremonies, just like the regular Summer Olympics. [46]\n5 Equestrian events to be held in China's Hong Kong SAR . Although Hong Kong's separate NOC is conducting the equestrian competition, it is an integral part of the Beijing Games; it is not being conducted under a separate bid, flame, etc., as was the 1956 Stockholm equestrian competition. The IOC website lists only Beijing as the host city [47] .\nSee also"
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"A Word From God by Becky Oswald pdf by Marilyn Orton - issuu\nissuu\nIssuu on Google+\nBecky Oswald cannot remember a day in her life that she did not know that God was with her. She has been studying, teaching and ingesting the Word of God since she could read. And even before that when they were read to her. Her insights into the Word of God will help you: • • •\nlift your spirit up give a better understanding of God’s unconditional love for you and help you to become more like Him.\nIsn’t that what we all want? So, dig in and know Him more through His Word and through the knowledge of someone who has lived it for over 70 years! Copyright ©2014 Becky Oswald First Edition All rights reserved under all Copyright Conventions.\nNo part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permissions from the author. Submit all requests for reprinting to: Peak Performance Publishers 28677 San Lucas Lane #201 Bonita Springs, FL 34135 [email protected]\nPublished in the U. S. A. by Peak Performance Publishers Composition by Peak Performance Publishers Cover Design by McPherson Graphics DEDICATION\nI would like to dedicate this book to my children. They truly are in their own right, Women of Worth and a joy to my heart. To Kathy, my firstborn, who loves and cares for me and is such an encouragement by her own faithfulness to the Lord and to those who know her. To Vickie, who would bring joy to any Mom’s heart as she serves the Lord so faithfully in the role of a Pastor’s wife for many years and has so much love for them as well as her family. To Karen, as she has so many times given me words of wisdom and insight when mine was sadly lacking. I never fail to be grateful for her life and loving concern. To Terry, I am so thankful for all the years the Lord gave her to raise a family she loved and is now with Jesus in all His glory. To Chris, who has lovingly supported me in some desperate times of my life and shown me love when I needed it the most. And, has worked tirelessly and endlessly to process this book. Having children who love and live for Jesus is the second desire of my heart, having a loving and close relationship with Jesus and to grieve not the Holy Spirit, being first. We all send forth this book with the prayer that God will use His Words to encourage hungry hearts! INTRODUCTION\nSpending some time with the Lord, reading the Bible and praying to God about the cares of my life and asking for His help has been a priority for many years.\nI began journaling in 1987. Most of what\nyou will be reading in this book is a direct quote from one of those journals. The Ladies Class I taught at Coventry Baptist Church, Fort Wayne, IN gave me a small leather bound book which provided writing space for two days on each page.\nThere was only room to\nwrite maybe three sentences for each day, but it was a start. In the beginning, I would write a scripture that was meaningful to me as I read the Bible that day. Then gradually, I begin to communicate my thoughts to the Lord and then state a brief prayer. Eventually, I wrote in between the lines, in the margins, above and below the printed scripture; the pages were a mess but I knew the Lord could read it. Let me encourage you, if you’ve never kept a journal, you need to!\nIt is my prayer that as you read these daily readings that\nyou too, will begin to record your thoughts and prayers each day. It’s hard to begin anything new but this is something you need to do! We can drop money in the offering plate, extend a helping hand, say an encouraging word, minister in so many great ways but when you give your first thoughts of the day to the Lord, He can cause the rest of it to be more fruitful. What God speaks to you through His Word is worth recording and can be so meaningful to you when you reread it. Every day, I read what I wrote a year ago on that day and it keeps me sober! Seriously, it lets me focus on where I’ve been and what I want to be. The desire of my heart is to love and serve and please my Lord.\nReading, studying, and meditating in His word\nevery day is the way to know Him. My prayer is that this book will be helpful to you and as you read it each day.\nJANUARY 1 FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE YEAR TO THE END Deuteronomy 11:12 New King James Version (NKJV) “A land for which the Lord your God cares; the eyes of the Lord your God are always on it, from the beginning of the year to the very end of the year.” Every year is a challenge and is full of uncertainty, but here’s the promise: His eyes are on it, God cares for it from the beginning to the end of it! He is the source of our mercy and His mercy endures forever. Be enriched in the Word, as it will always be! Heaven and earth as we know it will pass away but God’s Word is forever! Romans 16:20 Message Bible (MSG), “Stay alert like this and before you know it, the God of peace will come down on Satan with both feet, stomping him into the dirt! Enjoy the best of Jesus.” The love of Jesus is the One who lights our soul as well as our path.\nSo many do not live at their best, but flounder in their\nstruggles of living. He enables you to “enjoy the best of Jesus,” as, “The Lord cares where you are and is with you from the beginning of the year to the very end of it.” In my journal on January 1, 2010, I wrote: “Who knows but Him what the year holds?” Little did I know that this particular year would mean the loss of my husband, Louie, the love of my life, followed shortly thereafter by the death of my youngest daughter, Terry. The scripture says, “enjoy the best of Jesus”, and I can now do that as I know that’s what they’re doing and I will see them again!\n5\nJANUARY 2 GOD’S BLESSING ON YOUR LIFE 1 Thessalonians 5:23 (NKJV) “Now may the God of peace Himself sanctify you completely; and may your whole spirit, soul, and body be preserved blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.” As you start a new year, you may be inclined to want to make new vows regarding your diet, behavior, spending habits, etc., and that’s good to make improvements.\nPaul’s prayer for the people in\nThessalonica was for them to be sanctified in their spirit, soul and body. He wanted every one of them to be set apart for service and to live holy lives before the Lord. The result?\n“They would be\nblameless at the coming of their Lord.” Listen, you want the Lord to approve of your conduct when He returns.\nBlameless doesn’t\nmean you are sinless, but free from reproach and being full of regret. Can you do that? Probably not; but look at the verse. “The One who calls you is faithful, He will do it,” as you allow Him to settle within your spirit, soul and body, you can be blameless at His return. You serve a loving, faithful Lord; He wants you to be right before Him and He will help you. God knows how you struggle with the body parts, your soul and spirit are more willing than your body, but He’s a Big God, let Him do it!\nJANUARY 3 EVERYTHING I DO IS KNOWN TO YOU\n6\nRomans 12:1 (MSG) “So here’s what I want you to do, God helping you: Take your everyday, ordinary life—sleeping, eating, going-to-work, and walking-around life—and place it before God as an offering. Embracing what God does for you is the best thing you can do for him. Don’t become so well-adjusted to your culture that you fit into it without even thinking. Instead, fix your attention on God. You’ll be changed from the inside out. Readily recognize what he wants from you, and quickly respond to it …” Psalm 119:167-168 Living Bible (LB), “I have looked for your commandments and I love them very much; yes, I have searched for them. You know this because everything I do is known to you.” VS. 165, “Those who love your Word have great peace of heart and mind and do not stumble.” VS. 162, “I rejoice in your laws like one who finds a great treasure.” Romans 5:5 (MSG), “… we can’t round up enough containers to hold everything God generously pours into our lives through the Holy Spirit!” Shut every other door of your life and be determined to know Him and to recognize what He wants from you. The key is to respond quickly to what you sense God is saying to you in His Word. Do it in your every day, ordinary life your sleeping, eating, going-to-work, walking-around life. The more time you spend in His Word, the more natural it will be to respond to Him; because it is so true, everything we do is known to Him. JANUARY 4 GOD ALLOWS SOME TIMES OF DARKNESS IN OUR LIVES\n7\nJohn 12:24 (NKJV) “Most assuredly, I say to you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the ground and dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it produces much grain.” The last thing in the world we want to be is obscure. We struggle for acceptance and fight with all our might for recognition. It is a faith stretching experience when we find ourselves alone and buried, as if six feet of dirt is on top of us. The world’s way is choosing the talented, the gifted; God’s way is choosing the helpless. That grain of wheat, if given the choice, would remain above ground and forever be a single grain of wheat, but when buried and processed through much darkness and time it becomes many grains. Similarly, God allows some times of darkness and brokenness in our lives that we may become more obedient and fruitful. You will either give up and surrender or be put on a shelf. God empties us so that He might fill us. We want maturity without suffering and pain. We want God to answer our prayers and leave us alone. We want to do God’s work our way... Acts 17:28 (NKJV), “…for in Him we live and move and have our being,”\nWe have\nnothing; it is God and God alone. Nothing exists, transpires, happens, or is even thought of, apart from the presence of God. So, if you find yourself “buried” for a time, know that God knows where you are, you are not alone…the best place in all the world is in His Presence. JANUARY 5 HE GIVES US THE “WILL” AND THE “WON’T” POWER\" Romans 12:1 (NKJV)\n8\n“I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of God that you present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable to God which is your reasonable service.” Before we trusted Christ, we used our bodies for sin; now we want them to be used for His glory. The Spirit of God dwells there; it’s God’s temple. Jesus had to take a body to accomplish God’s purpose. So we must yield our body for the Holy Spirit to use us. Each day, surrender your body to Him and then spend time in His Word so He can transform your mind and prepare your thinking for the day. Romans 12:2 (NKJV), “…be not conformed to this world but be transformed by the renewing of your mind…” The world wants to change your mind so it exerts pressure from without. The Holy Spirit changes your mind by releasing power from within. If the world controls your thinking, you’re a conformer; if God controls your thinking, you’re a transformer. Memorizing God’s Word will gradually make you spiritually minded. Your mind controls your body and your will controls your mind. Many people think they can control themselves by “will power” and generally fail. He gives us the “will” power and the “won’t” power when we surrender to Him. Yield to Him and let Him work what is best for you. Ephesians 1:8 (LB), “For how well He understands us and knows what’s best for us at all times.”\nIf you have a right relationship with God, you will\nhave a right relationship with people. Yield your spirit, mind and body to Him for your “acceptable service.” JANUARY 6 GOD GIVES EACH ONE A MEASURE OF FAITH\n9\nRomans 12:3 (NKJV) “For I say, through the grace given to me, to everyone who is among you, not to think of himself more highly than he ought to think, but to think soberly, as God has dealt to each one a measure of faith.” Every believer is a living part of Christ’s body and has a spiritual function to perform of building up “The Body.” We belong to each other and we need each other. Don’t be guilty of guarding your own turf … thinking that no one can do this as well as you can. It is not wrong to recognize your gift but it is wrong to have a false evaluation…both to over-estimate and to under-estimate. We are saved by grace and we are “gifted” by God’s grace through faith “according to His measure” as stated in verses 3-6 of this chapter. Some can belittle their gifts and not use them; others can boast about gifts they simply do not possess. Both are guilty of false pride. God places the gifts He wants exercised in the local body of believers so they can grow in a balanced relationship. We may not see results of our ministry but God sees and blesses. Encouragement is as much a blessing as teaching or preaching. Spiritual gifts are tools to build with, not toys to play with or weapons to fight with. Don’t think of yourself more highly than you ought to think but do use what you have been given to build up others and to glorify Him. JANUARY 7 HE SATISFIES EVERY NEED\n10\nActs 17:25-28a (LB) “And human hands can’t minister to His needs--for He has no needs! He himself gives life and breath to everything and satisfies every need there is. He created all the people of the world from one man, Adam, and scattered the nations across the face of the earth.\nHe decided beforehand which should rise and fall and\nwhen. He determined their boundaries. His purpose in all of this is that they should seek after God and perhaps feel their way toward him and find him—though He is not far from any one of us. For in Him we live and move and are!” There is no life outside of Christ, just existence. The people in Corinth were suing one another; Galatians were biting and devouring each other; women in Philippi were at odds with each other and splitting the church. They began to judge and criticize each other, each sure the other was not spiritual at all. When some people come into the church you know they’re going to be a problem.\nWhat do you do in a marriage when you differ on a\nmatter? You find something you do agree on, a common ground, and build on that. Whether in the home or the church, Jesus gives life and breath to everything and satisfies every need there is. Our purpose in living is to seek after God and find Him…for in Him we live and move and are!\nJANUARY 8 THE LORD IS CLOSE TO THOSE WHOSE HEARTS ARE BREAKING\n11\nRomans 5:3 (LB) “We can rejoice too when we run into problems and trials for we know that they are good for us—they help us learn to be patient.” Receive the trouble/pain because when it comes, God is up to something in your life. God gets blamed for a lot of things He didn’t do but He still can work your difficulties into blessings, in spite of the Devil’s schemes. But, receiving and being accepting of pain and problems is not a natural reaction for anyone. Again, the best response I know is God’s Word. Psalms 34:15 (LB), “For the eyes of the Lord are intently watching all who live good lives, and He gives attention when they cry to him.” VS. 17-19, “Yes, the Lord hears the good man when he calls to him for help, and saves him out of all his troubles. The Lord is close to those whose hearts are breaking. The good man does not escape all troubles—he has them too. But the Lord helps him in each and every one.”\nIf it\nconcerns you, it concerns Him. We live in a fallen world that loves sin and bad things do happen to God’s people, but we have a refuge and a place of safety; also, we have His promise that He will be with us. While we pray, He works, and in the meantime, we learn patience.\nJANUARY 9 BEHAVE LIKE A CHRISTIAN Romans 12:10-13 (NKJV) “Be kindly affectionate to one another with brotherly love, in honor giving preference to one another, not lagging in diligence,\n12\nfervent in spirit, serving the Lord; rejoicing in hope, patient in tribulation, continuing steadfastly in prayer; distributing to the needs of the saints, given to hospitality.” Behave like a Christian. Christian fellowship is more than a handshake; it is sharing the burdens and blessings of others. When life becomes difficult, reach out to someone else; don’t become cold and uncaring. When life is unfair, rejoice in the hope you have in the promises of Jesus. If is not natural to be kind. But God can give you the power to do it. Offer to push the grocery cart of an older person who is struggling; bring in the mail/newspaper for a disabled person; surprise a friend by picking up the check at lunch. And when feeling really generous, offer to babysit! When you do things for someone else, you are showing brotherly love, you are “giving preference and not lagging in diligence,” plus you are serving the Lord. As for being “patient in tribulation,” the best help is in reading scripture. Micah 7:8-9 (LB), “…and when I sit in darkness, the Lord himself will be my Light. God will bring me out of my darkness into the light and I will see His goodness.” It helps to continue steadfastly in your prayer time and to help those in need by being hospitable. In other words, first focus on Jesus and then others; it will help you behave like a Christian! JANUARY 10 ACCEPT AND RECEIVE ONE ANOTHER Romans 14:1-4a (NKJV) “Receive one who is weak in the faith, but not to disputes over doubtful things. For one believes he may eat all things, but he who is weak eats only vegetables. Let not him who eats despise him\n13\nwho does not eat, and let not him who does not eat judge him who eats; for God has received him. Who are you to judge another’s servant? Indeed, he will be made to stand, for God is able to make him stand.” The point is to accept and receive because God does that for you. Some people think that believers who follow strict rules are more mature…not necessarily so.\nVS. 3, “…sometimes they\nbecome judgmental and critical.” Do not allow your knowledge of the Word to cause you to condemn others. Christian fellowship is not based on diet or religious calendars, but is found in accepting and receiving. VS. 4, “Our Master is the One who is able to make us stand and it is before Him we stand or fall.” No one has the right to “play God” in another’s life, but we can advise, pray and admonish. It is encouraging to know that our success in our walk before the Lord does not depend on the attitudes and opinions of others. I found that God blesses those I disagree with and it’s okay for “He is the One who made him to stand.” If we would yield to the Holy Spirit, we’d find that all need to grow. The strong Christian needs to grow in love; the weaker Christian needs to grow in knowledge. The weak must learn from the strong and the strong must love the weak. It is God who makes us all to receive, accept and to stand! JANUARY 11 DON’T LET YOUR CONCEPT OF GOD BE LIMITED AND DON’T STOP WHERE YOU ARE Jeremiah 29:11-13 (LB) “For I know the plans I have for you says the Lord. They are plans for good and not for evil, to give you a future and a hope. In\n14\nthose days when you pray, I will listen. You will find me when you seek me, if you look for me in earnest.” We tend to put God in a box of our own limited understanding. God cannot be confined to our knowledge of Him. He’s a God of surprises.\nIf you’ve ever had surprise lilies, you know how\ndelightful they are … nothing that night and the next morning, dozens of blooms! God loves to give us delightful blessings and even the desires of our heart. He acts in unexpected ways and people. We shouldn’t despair because the present is painful and the future uncertain.\nHe is the Lord of all history and it is as\nEugene Peterson says, “Every morning we wake up to something that has been going on for a very long time.” Even though He is the creator of everything, He cares for you individually and has a good plan for your life. Don’t let your concept of God be limited, and don’t stop where you are; resolve each day to seek after Him. “You will find me when you seek me, if you look for me with all your heart!” JANUARY 12 WE NEVER RECEIVE ANYTHING UNTIL THE WORD COMES 1 Kings 17:5-7 (NKJV) “So he went and did according to the Word of the Lord, for he went and stayed by the Brook of Cherith, which flows into the Jordan. The ravens brought him bread and meat in the morning, and bread and meat in the evening; and he drank from the brook. And it happened that after a while the brook dried up, because there had been no rain in the land.”\n15\nWhen God forces us to move or change, He’s got something better for us. For Elijah, the brook dried up and the birds didn’t show up! VS. 8, “Then the Word of the Lord came to him…” We never receive anything until the Word of God comes to us; sometimes from Him and sometimes from someone else.\nGod\nnever dries up a brook unless he’s got a widow. Most of us only see the birds are gone and so is the water.\nGod has a\ngeographical place for every one of us! The widow told Elijah, “I have some for myself and my son.” Come to the place where you say, “I cast myself upon you Lord Jesus, if I die, I die, but I will make a sacrifice.” God says that if we will trust Him, we will see a miracle.\nThe widow gave up her last hope of life. Determine\nwithin yourself that you will give the Lord only that which is of value to you. Obedience is the key that opens the door of life. It’s giving of self/substance that produces the supply.\nVS. 24, “Then the\nwoman said to Elijah … the Word of the Lord in your mouth is the truth.” All things happen according to the spoken Word of God; I repeat: we never receive anything until the Word of God comes to us. JANUARY 13 TO KNOW THE LOVE OF CHRIST Ephesians 3:17-18 (NKJV) “…that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith; that you being rooted and grounded in love may be able to comprehend with all the saints what is the width and length and depth and height—to know the love of Christ…”\n16\nFaith is to believe, trust and to commit. We believe in Jesus Christ; we trust in Him for salvation; we commit ourselves to His will and way. Faith is the channel through which God’s gracious gift of salvation flows through us and in us. Grace is God’s part; that place of free love and special favor. God, in His mercy, does not give us what we deserve; and God in His grace gives us what we do not deserve. God is love and when God relates that love, it becomes grace and mercy.\nScience with its entire means of\nmeasuring cannot “guess” as to the size of the universe. God is greater than the universe He created. He is omnipresent, present in all space and in every moment of time. He is love. Wherever He is, there is His love. How wide is God’s love? How long? How deep? How high? Yet, Paul prayed we might grasp the answers in our minds. It is broad enough to include all people. It is long enough to extend from eternity to eternity and to go to any length in expressing itself. It is as deep or profound as the very nature of God and high enough to reach the limitless heights of heaven itself. Thank you, Lord, for letting us know You and Your love. JANUARY 14 THEN THE WIDOW GAVE Mark 12:44 (NKJV) “…for they all put in out of their abundance, but she out of her poverty put in all that she had, her whole livelihood.” Jesus sat opposite the treasury and saw how the people put in money into the treasury. Mark 12:41 (NKJV), “…and many who were rich put in much and then the widow came…” Your giving is\n17\nmeasured by its cost, not its amount. God is concerned about the Spirit in which we give and by what we keep. The coins made certain sounds as they dropped in and the rich made a display of the amount they gave, enjoying the sound as the large coins rolled around. The widow gave just a few cents and Jesus said it was the largest gift of the day. “This poor widow has put in more than all those who have given” were His exact Words.\nYour giving is\nmeasured by what it cost you, not the amount of the gift. She had nothing left. The widow gave out of deep devotion and worship. Giving is meant to be in grateful response to all God has granted us; it is a privilege to do it.\nJANUARY 15 YOUR REASON FOR RIGHT LIVING Romans 13:11-12 (LB) “Another reason for right living is this: you know how late it is; time is running out. Wake up for the coming of the Lord is nearer now than we first believed. The night is far gone; the day of his return will soon be here. So quit the evil deed of darkness and put on the armor of right living.” We are not our own bosses to love or die as we ourselves might choose. Romans 14:8 (LB), “Living or dying, we follow the Lord.\nEither way we are his.”\nRomans 14:10b-12 (LB),\n“Remember, each of us will personally stand before the Judgment Seat of God. For it is written,” ‘As I live,’ says the Lord, ‘every knee shall bow to me and every tongue confess to God.’ Yes, each of us will give an account of himself to God.”\n18\nRomans 15-13 (LB),\n“God who gives you hope will keep you happy and full of peace as you believe in him. I pray that God will help you overflow with hope in him through the Holy Spirit’s power within you.”\nWe need to\nsaturate ourselves in the Word of God and in prayer knowing He already given you everything you need. 1 Corinthians 3:21b-23 (LB): “He has given you the whole world to use, and life and even death are your servants. He has given you all of the present and all of the future. All are yours, and you belong to Christ and Christ is God’s.” He has given you everything you need to live right.\nJANUARY 16 THERE ARE NO LIMITS TO WHAT GOD CAN DO Ephesians 3:20 (NKJV) “Now to Him who is able to do exceedingly abundantly above all that we ask or think, according to the power that works in us…” God exceeds our greatest expectations. God can do even more than we can think or even imagine. Push your imagination to the limit…God can do more than that. Ask beyond your dreams… God can do more than that! Super Abundantly!! There are no limits to what God can do.\nLook at what the verse says, it’s\naccording to God’s power working in us. Too many times we sit on the side lines, as it were, and want God to work. God does work, but only to the extent we are willing for Him to work. We need to ask, “What do you want me to do in this?” People are not led to Jesus by clever arguments or neat soul winning packages, but always by the gracious and powerful influence of God’s Holy Spirit.\n19\nWe have everything when we have Christ.\nPhilippians 2:13 (LB),\n“For God is at work within you, helping you want to obey him, and then helping you do what he wants.” Thank Him today for His power working in you because there are no limits to what our God can do!\nJANUARY 17 GOD ALWAYS DOES JUST WHAT HE SAYS 1 Corinthians.1:9 (LB) “God will surely do this for you for He always does just what He says and He is the One who invited you into this wonderful friendship with His Son, even Christ our Lord.” We need to believe exactly what the Bible says; if not, you’ll believe what you “feel.” Which is more trustworthy; your feelings or the Bible? When you received Christ, you were placed by the Holy Spirit in Him. Before you were placed in Christ, you were in Adam, dead in sins. But when you were saved, you were placed in Christ and that was the work of the Holy Spirit. This new position is a work engineered through the cross by the Holy Spirit to a new relationship in Jesus, in whom we now live and abide, according to the Word of God. You now have two addresses: one where you live here and one in Christ.\nThe one in Christ is unchanging,\neternal and unalterable. Your level of fellowship may change but your relationship will not ever change. It is a work of grace. God reached down, took you out of a life of sin and placed you in a life of righteousness in Him through an act of grace. You didn’t do it; all you did was respond to His love. God seated us with Him (in\n20\nChrist). Our position in Him is the source of our security both in eternity and in our earthly experience. There is no other source, no other way. “God always does just what He says.”\nJANUARY 18 THE BRIGHTEST AND THE BEST 1 Corinthians 1:26-31 (MSG) “Take a good look, friends, at who you were when you got called into this life. I don’t see many of the “brightest and the best” among you, not many influential, not many from high-society families.” When you became a Christian, it didn’t make you instantly the “brightest and the best,” giving you impeccable manners and morals. The early Corinthians brought their hard-drinking, sexual, promiscuous behavior into the church. After Paul had been their Pastor for over a year, he wrote:\n“Isn’t it obvious that God\ndeliberately chose men and women that the culture overlooks, and exploits and abuses, chose these “nobodies” to expose the hollow pretensions of the “somebodies?” That makes it quite clear that none of you can get by with blowing your own horn before God. Everything that we have—right thinking and right living, a clean slate and a fresh start—comes from God by the way of Jesus Christ. That’s why we have the saying, “If you’re going to blow a horn, blow a trumpet for God.” I am weak; Satan is strong; Jesus is stronger. We can have victory no matter what, but God doesn’t provide armor for our backsides, so don’t turn and run. God rarely\n21\nspeaks to us through visions and dreams but He re-speaks His Word to us in particular situations. Set your sights on becoming one of the “brightest and the best” but also know that God will teach you and use you where you are and who you are.\nJANUARY 19 DO YOU KNOW WHERE YOU’RE GOING Hebrews 11:8 (NKJV) “Abraham obeyed when he was called to go out to the place which he would receive as an inheritance. And he went out, not knowing where he was going.” By faith, Abraham obeyed God and went out, without knowing where he was going. Oswald Chambers says, “We have to continually revise our attitude towards God to see if we are going out of everything, trusting God entirely. Each morning we wake it is to be a ‘going out,’ building in confidence on God. Do you believe in a miracle working God and will you go out in surrender to Him until you are not surprised an atom at anything He does?” God knows what He’s doing; do you know what you’re doing and where you’re going? He is the author and finisher of my faith, my life. I cannot control what happens to me but I can control what I say and do about it, i.e. how I respond; and then let God controls the rest. Hardships, trials, and pain are a part of life. Will God tell me what He’s going to do? I don’t think so! But He will tell me Who He is and He will direct my steps when I “go out” with Him.\n22\nJANUARY 20 SPIRIT CAN ONLY BE KNOWN BY SPIRIT 1 Corinthians 2:15-16 (LB) “But the spiritual man has insight into everything, and that bothers and baffles the man of the world, who can’t understand it at all. How could he? Man certainly has never been one to know the Lord’s thoughts or to discuss them with Him or to move the hands of God by prayer. But strange as it seems, we Christians actually do have within us a portion of the very thoughts and mind of Christ.” 1 Corinthians 2:9 (NKJV), “Eye has not seen nor ear heard, nor have entered into the heart of man the things which God has prepared for those who love Him.” VS. 10, “But God has revealed them to us through His Spirit. For the Spirit searches all things, yes the deep things of God.” VS.12, “Now we have received not the spirit of the world but the Spirit who is from God, that we might know the things that have been freely given to us by God.” It is the Spirit of God within us that keeps us walking when we don’t understand. We have to have His Spirit to trust Him when things don’t change rather than when they do; when you can’t see, when things make no sense. Mostly, we believe in one outcome…ours… and the way we want it!\nTrust in God, His Plan, His character,\nWho He is and what He does. It is not the spirit of the world that helps you do this.\nSpirit can only be known by Spirit.\nspiritual wisdom and that only comes through His Word. JANUARY 21\n23\nHave\nGOD WANTS YOU TO BECOME SOMETHING Romans 5:2 (LB) “For because of our faith, He has brought us into this place of highest privilege where we now stand and we confidently and joyfully look forward to actually becoming all that God has in mind for us to be.” God wants you to become something! God has a very special plan for your life. It began a long time ago when He created you. He carefully and lovingly formed you exactly how He wanted you to be - your looks, abilities, birthplace, birthday...nothing was accidental. God has something in mind for you that He wants you to become. In order to do that, we’re inclined to think we need to do a righteous program of self-improvement. The harder we try, the more frustrated we become. God has to do the changing; your trials are not accidents. Patience, endurance and steadfastness grow when difficulties and temptations put us under the scrutiny of the Holy Spirit. Our self-centered defensive, selfish behavior has a way of surfacing when problems come. It is “because of our faith, He has brought us into this place of highest privilege.”\nHe draws\nyou unto Himself through the circumstances He has arranged just for you and for that purpose.\nSo “stand confidently and look\nforward to actually becoming all that God has in mind for you to be.” Trust Him to help you become all that He wants you to be!\nJANUARY 22 SEEK THE WELFARE OF THOSE WHO WOULD DESTROY YOU\n24\nJeremiah 29:7 (NKJV) “And seek the peace of the city where I have caused you to be carried away captive and pray to the Lord for it, for in its peace you will have peace.” Almost in the same breath God told Jeremiah to tell the Jews to pray for the peace of the city of Babylon in which they were held captive for 70 years, He tells them He has a good plan for them (VS.11), “Many suffered and died there, but God told them to pray for Babylon and to seek its welfare for in its welfare, they would find their own.” In it, they would discover God’s best plan. Why not in the good times?\nThe purifying and testing come from\nchallenging circumstances, not from what our senses, emotions or intellect tell us. So when He tells us He’s working all things for our good and we see everything going wrong—we have to continually claim the promise in His Word and believe He’s doing exactly that. Then thank Him for whatever happens. God alone can remake and remold from within and He does that as we submit. Our part is to believe He has taken over and then accept joyfully and with thanksgiving and praise every circumstance God uses to bring about the transformation needed in our lives. We want to “see” the good; God wants us to “believe” so we may experience the good.\nJANUARY 23 GOD WILL BLESS YOU IN THE PAIN OF UNDESERVED SUFFERING\n25\n2 Corinthians 12:9b-12 (LB) “My power shows up best in weak people. Now I am glad to boast about how weak I am; I am glad to be a living demonstration of Christ’s power, instead of showing off my own power and abilities. Since I know it is all for Christ’s good, I am happy about “the thorn,” and about insults and hardships, persecutions and difficulties; for when I am weak, than I am strong—the less I have, the more I depend on Him.” Circumstances that rip our self-sufficiency are blessings in disguise. Every blow shows we cannot handle our own situation. The more trying the circumstance, the more we realize our need of Him. Each trial gives us opportunity for growth. When we trust our lives to Him, we can be sure that no one can mistreat us unless God allows it. So thank and praise Him in (not for) every evil thing that comes your way. God will bless you if you endure the pain of undeserved suffering. What credit is in enduring the suffering you deserve for having done wrong? But if you endure it having done right, God will bless you, as is explained in 1 Peter 2:19-20a (LB): Praise the Lord if you are punished for doing right! Of course, you get no credit for being patient if you are beaten for doing wrong…” God carefully designed the universe and just as carefully designed you and your circumstances. “What I want from you is your true thanks; I want your promises fulfilled. I want you to trust me in your times of trouble, so I can rescue you, and you can give Me glory,” Psalms 50:14-15 (NLT) JANUARY 24 NOTHING HAPPENS TO US WITHOUT HIS KNOWLEDGE\n26\nRomans 8:3b (LB) “He destroyed sin’s control over us by giving Himself as a sacrifice for our sins.” God may see every sparrow in existence and number the hairs on your head, but the fact remains sparrows do fall and tragedies do happen. Children are objects of abuse; people we love die from horrible diseases despite our prayers. We are prone to wonder why God didn’t do something to prevent it; why does He allow sin and evil to prevail. Some come to the conclusion that it’s because of our or someone else’s sin. The truth is…bad things do happen to good people. God didn’t create evil because He is love. He made humans with a free will and the capacity to choose to do evil. Evil remains in the world with God’s permission, but is always subject to His will.\nNothing evil can touch us without His\npermission. God sent His Son to break the power of evil in our lives. “He destroyed sin’s control over us by giving Himself as a sacrifice for our sins” Romans 8:3b (LB): “Receive God as the allpowerful God He is and know absolutely nothing, happens to us without His knowledge.” Believing this, we can praise and thank Him in every circumstance evil in our lives. Every difficult situation, even tragedy, will ultimately be changed by Almighty God. God will work in us to transform it to fit into His intended plan for your life. Praise Him, and release His power to work in any situation for your good!\nJANUARY 25\n27\nPRAISE GOD FOR ALL CIRCUMSTANCES Ephesians 5:20 (NKJV) “Giving thanks always for all things to God the Father in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ.” If someone inherits a lot of money, we say: “How wonderful!” If someone dies and goes to heaven, we say, “How sad!” We are to praise and thank God for all things. We mentioned yesterday the fall of the sparrow, the abuse of children and loved ones who die; some will die and some will fall and some will not die…our praise must be for both instances! How do we combat evil face to face? Sometimes Jesus took charge and sometimes He stood quietly by and let it happen. So what are we to do? First, know that we have no power – the overcoming force is God Himself. We have to learn to focus on Him and not the evil that is against us. Do not give the enemy your attention; give it to Jesus. We just want to respond to the wrong being done…get in our licks and put right the wrong. If our action is prompted by the evil circumstance, rather than by faith in the power of God, we allow evil to overcome us. Always keep your eye on God and thank Him for everything. You’re not thanking Him for the evil or bad situation; you’re thanking Him for Who He is; for His goodness and mercy in all things. Set your mind and will to accept God’s Word that He is in charge regardless of what your feelings or apparent circumstances may be. The final outcome is in His capable hands.\nJANUARY 26 CALL THINGS THAT DON’T EXIST AS THOUGH THEY DO\n28\nRomans 4:17b (NKJV) “God who gives life to the dead and calls those things which do not exist as though they did.” Abraham and Sarah were past the age of childbearing; yet they called those things which did not exist as though they did. Romans 4:18-24 New International Version (NIV), “Against all hope, Abraham in hope believed and so became the father of many nations just as it had been said to him...Without weakening in his faith, he faced the fact that his body was as good as dead— since he was about 100 years old—and that Sarah’s womb was also dead. Yet he did not waver through unbelief regarding the promise of God, but was strengthened in his faith and gave glory to God, being fully persuaded that God had power to do what He had promised. This is why “it was credited to him as righteousness.” The words “it was credited to him” were written not for him alone, but also for us, to whom God will credit righteousness—for us who believe in Him who raised Jesus our Lord from the dead.” It is your Word, Lord God, and is just as true for us when we don’t waver in unbelief but believe You. The same power that raised Jesus Christ from the dead works in our dead hearts and bodies to quicken us to believe that those things which do not now exist can become reality. You are the Lord God Almighty. Psalms 18:24b (MSG), “God rewrote the text of my life when I opened the book of my heart to his eyes.” God does rewrite and reroute our lives when we believe His Word and “call the things the things that do not exist as though they do.”\n29\nJANUARY 27 STEP INTO THE WATER Isaiah 43:2 (NKJV) “When you pass through the waters, I will be with you; and through the rivers, they shall not overflow you.” God doesn’t open up a path or give you help before you need it. When you are confronted with obstacles, keep walking. The waters didn’t part for the fleeing Israelites until they stepped their feet into the water. We worry about problems we “envision;” all kinds of difficulties, some of which never happen. We want God to clear the way before us for miles but God wants us to “step into the water.” His promise is that “they will not overflow (overcome) you;” but you have to be in the floodwaters before you can claim that promise. Faith isn’t learned in comfortable surroundings; and how we hate discomfort. The cross wasn’t comfortable, for sure, but God the Father was with His Son. Trust Him today as “you pass through the waters, He will be with you.”\nJANUARY 28 GOD WORKS BEHIND THE SCENES Isaiah 45:9 (NKJV) “Woe to him who strives with his Maker!” God is in charge of every storm, every war, every famine and pestilence, earthquake, tornado, hurricane, every wave of the\n30\nocean (saying you will go this far and no farther), every birth and death, every flower that grows in the field, every sparrow...living or dead, for He is Lord.\nOur part is to choose whether or not to\nbelieve Who He is. God has never been late and never will be. His timing is as perfect as He is. We are always fussing because our estimates are usually wrong, or we turn in our bids late! “Woe is the man who fights with his creator.” God works behind the scenes and sometimes in the lives of the ungodly to bring good into our lives.\nJob knew he was innocent; and his conclusion was\n“Though he slay me, yet I will trust Him.” It is interesting that it was when God had Job pray for his abusive friends that He restored his happiness and wealth. God had a perfect plan for his life as He does for yours. Isaiah 45:6b-7a (NIV), “I am the Lord and there is no other; I form the light and create darkness” but every single thing He does is with you in mind; so be accepting of the “light and the dark” as He is in charge of both and He is your Maker. He works behind the scenes for you!\nJANUARY 29 DON’T MURMUR AND COMPLAIN 1 Corinthians 10:10 (LB) “Don’t murmur against God and His dealings with you…” On August 24, 1998, I wrote the following in my journal: “We offer thanks when the sun shines and grumble when it rains! Having lived in Fort Wayne, IN (which I nicknamed Fort Rain) for 39 years makes me really appreciate the last 8 months. When I walk\n31\ninto my kitchen, which has a skylight (now living in Florida), I see solid sunshine; only once has it been cloudy.\nMany, many\nmornings I grumbled at the appearance of darkness and gloom. But are we to thank God only for what we want?\nDoesn’t\neverybody fuss and complain—what’s the difference? Everything!! Life depends on little things! Marriages fail over them; a mechanic makes a small mistake and a great airliner crashes; wars break out over small misunderstandings.\nOne angry Word results in a\nshooting. We get an “attitude” at the breakfast table or in the long line at the grocery store. Grumbling is so easy to do that we all do it and so well! To complain is a natural response—no one had to teach you how to complain. By grumbling/complaining, we actually are accusing God of not knowing how to manage His world or how to schedule our day, even though He has said that He scheduled every day of our lives before we began to breathe in Psalms 139:16 (LB), “And don’t murmur against God and His dealings with you as some of them did, for that is why God sent his Angel to destroy them.” “All these things happened to them as examples— as object lessons to us—to warn us against doing the same things; they were written down so that we could read about them and learn from them in these last days,” 1 Corinthians 10:10-11 (LB),”We need to read, heed and believe His Word. Unbelief is the root of our murmurings and complaints and is also the indication that we have little confidence in the One who does “all things well.” So stop murmuring against God and His dealings with you!\nJANUARY 30 THANK HIM FOR WHAT HE IS ABLE AND WANTS TO DO\n32\nPsalms 62:9 (LB) “The greatest of men, or the lowest—both alike are nothing in His sight. They weigh less than air on scales.” Merlin Carothers said that he thought since his grumblings were legitimate, he had the right to do them. For instance, if the bathroom was left messy by another family member and he had to gobble his breakfast so he wouldn’t be late; the car wouldn’t start; he hit every red light, then these were valid complaints and it was okay. The first step is to admit you’re a habitual complainer. Make an agreement with God not to grumble, instead “Thank God for everything!” The Holy Spirit had to show him that this is what he had taught. God will do the changing; it is His power that brings transformation. Keep your eyes on Jesus and thank Him for what He is able and wants to do. In time, you’ll see the very things you used to grumble about coming back to vex you again. He’ll use those incidents to bring about change in you. Once they made you stumble, but now they become opportunities for God to show up! Some go through their entire lives believing, if I had just had the right breaks, I could have been…you fill in the blanks…if my marriage or my profession had been different…whatever. Can you accept that God has you exactly where He wants you? He hasn’t overlooked a single thing. We all make bad choices and then live in the consequences. Right now, praise and thank Him for your situation, as is. Submit every aspect of your mess to Him, at every turn. You may weigh less than air on scales, but He is a Mighty God!\n33\nJANUARY 31 BE FILLED WITH MY JOY John 17:13 (LB) “I have told them many things while I was with them so that they would be filled with My joy.” Jesus prayed for us that His joy might be perfected in us and that we might experience His delight and that it might be fulfilled in us.\nWhatever happens, we are to be glad in the Lord …not\nnecessarily for the happening itself, but Philippians 3:1 (LB), says “Whatever happens, dear friends, be glad in the Lord. I never get tired of telling you this and it is good for you to hear it again and again” So you say, “Well, that’s hard to do!” Here’s what is hard, friend, the cross was hard! Jesus willingly suffered the strain and weight of all our sin to provide for us a way to heaven, plus the coming of the Holy Spirit to help us live our life here “...for how well He understands us and knows what’s best for us at all times,” Ephesians 1:8 (LB). We can be glad in the Lord, regardless of what is happening in our lives. Paul said that he never got tired of telling you to be glad in the Lord because we needed to hear it again and again. That is so true, we have to turn to the Word and repeat His promises over and over until our mind agrees with our heart and we sense His Presence, love and joy more than our pain. Jesus prays for you that you may experience that.\nFEBRUARY 1 INTO EVERY LIFE SOME RAIN MUST FALL Ezekiel 34:26b (NKJV)\n34\n“And I will cause showers to come down in their season; there shall be showers of blessing.” Ask yourself this question today, as I did, “What is my season today, Lord?”\nIf it’s a time of dryness and drought, then it’s a\nseason for some showers. Is it a time of heaviness and darkness? Then, this too must be a season for showers, and notice Ezekiel makes the word “showers” plural. A season of showers can do a lot for a dry and withered heart. He can send showers of comfort, healing and grace. “Let your heart become a valley low and God will rain on it ‘till it will overflow,” Streams in the Desert.\nJob’s\nseason of thorns became flowers after You rained on him, Lord. You received your crown of glory after your crown of thorns. The fruitful life seeks rain as well as sunshine; both are required for growth.\nThe promise is the showers will become seasons of\nblessings. Deuteronomy 33:25 (NIV) tells us that, “…your strength will equal your days,” and that’s good in all the seasons in which you live.\nWe just need You to permeate our lives with Your\nPresence, Lord!\nFEBRUARY 2 DO YOU LACK WISDOM James 1:5 (NKJV) “If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask of God who gives to all liberally…”\n35\nJesus told His disciples in Luke 21:15 (NKJV), “For I will give you a mouth and wisdom which all your adversaries will not be able to contradict or resist.”\nIf you need wisdom, Jesus will be\ngenerous in giving it to you as He gave you the mouth in which to speak. He is so pleased when we make the choice to consult and obey Him. With His wisdom comes the absence of fear. On our own, we can go through deep valleys or soar to new heights and neither one changes us.\nOn the other hand, God’s wisdom\nprovides balance, insight and stability. None of which is natural and you get it only when you ask for it. God’s wisdom is so needed in hard confusing situations; we need His strength to continue in spite of swirling circumstances. His promise is that He will give it to us generously and it will be such that “none can contradict us.” When we use His Word in our responses, not only will He be pleased, He is also glorified! Just remember, it is His wisdom, not yours, so give Him the praise and glory!\nFEBRUARY 3 MONEY 1 Timothy 6:9-10 Holman Christian Standard Bible (HCSB) “But those who want to be rich fall into temptation, a trap, and many foolish and harmful desires, which plunge people into ruin and destruction. For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil, and by craving it, some have wandered away from the faith and pierced themselves with many pains.” Money itself is not your problem… it’s how you handle it and your attitude toward it. A poor person or a wealthy person can\n36\nhave a love for money that will ruin their life. It appears the focus of the world in which we live today is all about money as it seems to be the basis of all our decisions. Job tells us, “We brought nothing into the world and we can take nothing out.” Nothing you accumulate here in these short years on earth will go with you beyond the grave. Our real problem lies in that we want more than we need and “things” always require more things. When you do this, you fall into the temptation of taking shortcuts and before you know it, you’re caught in a greed trap. The scripture says that the love of money is a root and those roots spread all over your life and can cause you to “wander away from your faith.” The things that you allow to come into your home because of the love of money will not only jeopardize it, but your relationship with God, and will “pierce you through with many pains.” God measures what we give, rather than what we have.\nFEBRUARY 4 BE COMFORTED Isaiah 40:1 (NKJV) “Comfort, yes, comfort My people!” says your God.” This world is full of hurting hearts. Before you can ever be a comfort to others, you must go through what is wringing out the hearts of the hurting. If you, yourself are wounded, you will learn in the process how to help the wounded. If you are experiencing some really great sorrow, it could be that years from now, you’ll be able to be of help to someone going through much the same thing.\n37\nYou will actually be able to bless God for the discipline learned in the experience as you help others.\nJames 1:2-3 (Weymouth),\n“Reckon it nothing but joy whenever you find yourself hedged in by various trials. Be assured that the testing of your faith leads to power of endurance.” God, often hedges us in for protection but we don’t see it that way and struggle to be set free. You are there for the experience so spend the time listening and learning. God doesn’t comfort us so we will feel comfortable, but to enable us to comfort others.\nFEBRUARY 5 I’M YOURS Ephesians 1: 4 (NIV) “For He chose us in Him before the creation of the world to be holy and blameless in His sight.” “Long ago, even before He made the world, God chose us to be His very own through what Christ would do for us; He decided then to make us holy in His eyes without a single fault—we who stand before Him covered with His love,” Ephesians 1:4 (LB). That is true whether I ever live it out or not. My body, soul, and spirit are Yours, Lord, made by You, kept by You and redeemed one day by You. You have sealed me until the day of redemption and You’ve committed Yourself for my growth in truth and holiness.\nYour\npromise is to cover me with Your love so that I stand without a single fault on that day when salvation from sin is complete. I truly “do not count my life dear to myself, so that I may finish my race with joy, and the ministry which I received from the Lord Jesus.”\n38\nActs 20:24 (NKJV). So be it, Jesus. Be it praise, thanksgiving, despair or destruction, I am Yours. Your love is perfect, whatever state or form, and I receive it! I belong to You!\nFEBRUARY 6 WE HAVE THIS MOMENT Ephesians 2:19 (LB) “Now you are no longer strangers to God and foreigners to heaven, but you are members of God’s very own family…” Ephesians 3:20 (NIV), “Now to Him who is able to do immeasurably more than all we ask or imagine…” Recently I read that most people spend 58 minutes out of every 60 thinking about: 1) the past; 2) regretting lost joys or pleasures; 3) feeling shame for things done badly; and 4) or, living in the future, either longing for or dreading it. Only one person in a thousand knows how to live in the present, which is really all we have. Each moment is rarely repeatable…seldom ever happens again. To relive the past and worry about bad decisions and mistakes is futile and weakening. To consider the future is important, true, but we have no guarantee we will have it. What we have is this moment. We have now. I’ve tried, since reading this to check my thoughts to see if what I’m thinking is in the past, present or things yet to be and I have to constantly bring myself in line to keep centered on “now.” Scripture tells us that, “Now we have every grace and blessing. Every spiritual gift and power are ours now during this time of waiting for the return of our Lord Jesus Christ,” 1 Corinthians 1:7\n39\n(LB). Put your hopes and prayers into today and live expecting the Lord to be gracious unto you.\nFEBRUARY 7 LISTEN 1 Kings 19:11-12 (NKJV) “Then He said, ‘Go out, and stand on the mountain before the Lord.’ And behold the Lord passed by, and a great and strong wind tore into the mountains and broke the rocks in pieces before the Lord, but the Lord was not in the wind; and after the wind an earthquake, but the Lord was not in the earthquake, and after the earthquake a fire, but the Lord was not in the fire; and after the fire a still small voice.” The Lord speaks clearly in His Word, and sometimes He only whispers. (Satan whispers too, but it’s all lies; just look at your past). Notice, God wasn’t in the wind, the earthquake or the fire, but “in a still small voice.” God was in all of them but not for Elijah. That’s why we need to be listening so we can discern what He is saying to us.\nGod speaks all the time but only ears that are\nlistening will hear. In Revelation 2 and 3 we read seven times, “He who has ears to hear, let him hear.” Jeremiah 7:13 (NKJV), “… I spoke to you, rising up early and speaking, but you did not hear…,” God is telling Jeremiah that He has spoken to His people but because of their wickedness, they are not listening. Romans 10:17 (NKJV), “So then faith comes by hearing and hearing by the Word of God.” Be a person who seeks what to know, as is stated in Luke\n40\n8:18 (NKJV), “Therefore take heed how you hear ...” The MountainMaker and Earth- Shaper owns it all. Humble yourself before the Lord God Almighty. Open His Word and let your heart and ear hear what He speaks into your spirit. Today, listen!\nFEBRUARY 8 JESUS LOVES ME John 17:23 (NKJV) “I in them, and You in Me; that they may be made perfect in one, and that the world may know that You have sent Me, and have loved them as You have loved Me.” You need to realize that God loves you as much as He loves Jesus; put that with 1 John 4:18a (LB), “We need have no fear of someone who loves us perfectly; his perfect love for us eliminates all dread of what he might do to us.” You get a major hook up when you believe that! Not only does He love us but He helps us be perfected, i.e., being made or in the process of being made perfect. Perfect love casts out fear. Outer circumstances that loom out at us have to fall in place to fit perfectly into the Plan that God is working out for our lives. We may not see that Plan but we can and do see Jesus; and we know that God sees and knows His Plan and that it is good. The established and accomplished facts of Ephesians 1:3 (LB), tells us that He, “…has blessed us with every blessing in heaven” and that in Vs. 18, “the eyes of our heart are flooded with light so that we can see something of the future he has called us to share.” When that kicks in, we can truly entrust\n41\nour circumstances to Him. Reading the scriptures every day really aids the mindset. Feelings fight like crazy for control—never doubt what you believe and stop believing your doubts. Doubts have a hard way to go if you feed them enough scripture! The truth is Jesus Loves you!!\nFEBRUARY 9 GOD IS KIND, BUT NOT SOFT Romans 2:1-10 (MSG) “Those people are on a dark spiral downward. But if you think that leaves you on the high ground where you can point your finger at others, think again.\nEvery time you criticize someone, you\ncondemn yourself. It takes one to know one. Judgmental criticism of others is a well-known way of escaping detection in your own crimes and misdemeanors. But God isn’t so easily diverted. He sees right through all such smoke screens and holds you to what you’ve done. You didn’t think, did you, that just by pointing your finger at others you would distract God from seeing all your misdoings and from coming down on you hard? Or did you think that because he’s such a nice God, he’d let you off the hook? Better think this one through from the beginning. God is kind, but He’s not soft. In kindness He takes us firmly by the hand and leads us into a radical life-change.\nYou’re not getting by with\nanything. Every refusal and avoidance of God adds fuel to the fire. The day is coming when it’s going to blaze hot and high, God’s fiery and righteous judgment. Make no mistake: In the end, you get what’s coming to you—Real Life for those who work on God’s side, but to those who insist on getting their own way and take the\n42\npath of least resistance, Fire! If you go against the grain, you get splinters, regardless of which neighborhood you’re from, what your parents taught you, what schools you attended.\nBut if you\nembrace the way God does things, there are wonderful payoffs…” Finding fault is not worth the find!\nFEBRUARY 10 LIVING WORDS John 6:63b (NKJV) “The Words that I speak to you are spirit, and they are life.” John 6:63b (MSG), “Every Word I’ve spoken to you is a SpiritWord, and so it is life-making.” Spend time studying, reading and meditating in God’s Word each day and if you really want an eyeopener and desire to improve your quality of life, memorize some of it. Memorizing scripture is the most important habit you’ll ever have to improve your life.\nIt’s like a planted seed; it will\nproduce life in you. Write scripture down on a card and place it where you’ll see it often during the day. It takes a while before you really learn it but reflecting often and referring to it will help you gain insight into your problems and enable you to help others with theirs. It’s the best habit out there, go for it! Every “you” and “your” you read can become “me” and “mine;” just\nknow that it was\nwritten for you. When you read something that sounds too good to be true, know that He had you in mind and that it was written for\n43\nyou!\nJames 1:25 (NKJV) reminds us, “… to not be a forgetful\nhearer but a doer of the Word.” It isn’t enough to hear and know, as the last part of the verse says, “… this is the one who will be blessed in what he does.”\nYou aren’t blessed until you do\nsomething with the insight you’ve been shown. Make a life with His Words…every Word is a SpiritWord, and so it is life-making.\nFEBRUARY 11 EXPERIENCE GOD’S LOVING KINDNESS Psalms 125:1-2, 4 (LB) “Those who trust in the Lord are steady as Mount Zion, unmoved by any circumstance. Just as the mountains surround and protect Jerusalem, so the Lord surrounds and protects his people. O Lord, do good to those who are good, whose hearts are right with the Lord.” Psalm 51:1 (NKJV), “Have mercy upon me, O God, according to Your loving kindness; according to the multitude of Your tender mercies, blot out my transgressions. Wash me thoroughly from my iniquity and cleanse me from my sin.” Regardless of our circumstances, we are as steady as the mountains surrounding Jerusalem because the Lord protects those who trust in Him. The promise is He will give good to those whose hearts are right with the Lord. When you err, acknowledge and confess your sin, as David did.\nThen ask for His tender mercy according to His\nmeasure of loving kindness. David loved the Lord but one of the hardest experiences of his life was facing the sin of his affair with Bathsheba. David’s response when rebuked was, “I have sinned\n44\nagainst the Lord.” David had sinned against Bathsheba, Uriah, as well as the nation he ruled, but none of it was as offensive as His sin against the Lord. Thank you, God for your loving kindness that covers our sin when we confess and respond rightly to You.\nFEBRUARY 12 SUBMISSION BRINGS STRENGTH James 4:7 (NKJV) “Therefore submit to God. Resist the devil and he will flee from you.” Eugene Peterson wrote in his introduction to the Book of Judges: “God it turns out does not require good people in order to do good work. He can and does work with us in whatever moral and spiritual condition he finds us. God, we are learning, does some of his best work using the most unlikely people. It’s almost as if God is saying, ‘Well, if that’s all you’re going to give me to work with, I’ll use these men and women just as they are,’ and get on with working out the story of salvation.” Twice in the Book of Judges, we read there was no king in Israel and the people did whatever they felt like doing, which accounts for their moral and political anarchy. Whatever you are when God calls you to a higher level of responsibility, know that He’s also calling you to a lower level of humility. Peter Marshall, Chaplin of U.S. Senate, prayed, “Lord, when we are wrong make us willing to change and when we are\n45\nright, make us easy to live with.” Each time God blesses us with good things, He runs the risk that it will take our focus off of Him. The more He blesses us, the more self-absorbed we tend to become. Submission to God actually brings us strength; we find that a submitted life has the power to overcome. When our enemy meets that kind of resistance, he runs!\nFEBRUARY 13 COMPLETE YOUR TASK Acts 20:24 (LB) “I consider my life nothing to me, if only I may finish the race and complete the task the Lord Jesus has given me.” “When God is preparing us for a great work, the enemy always comes to confront us. We should accept it as evidence of God being in it and claim double the blessing, victory and power. Power has always been developed through resistance. The force and damage of an artillery shell is determined by the amount of resistance at the point of impact. Electricity is produced by the friction of rotating turbines. We can gain power from Satan as God uses him as an instrument for our blessing and ultimate good. Tribulation is a door to triumph. No one wins until he has walked the winepresses of woe. In anguish, Jesus said, “In this world you will have trouble” John 16:33 (LB). But, also, “Take heart, I have overcome the world.” Someday we will understand. We wrestle our crowns from the giants we conquer. Tribulation was in the lives of all the greats such as Paul, Martin Luther, John Wesley,” Streams in the Desert. Our goal is to finish and complete whatever\n46\nJesus has assigned for us today.\nFriction and Resistance are\noften much of the assignment but also serve as a door opener to complete the task.\nFEBRUARY 14 GOD’S LOVE IS ETERNAL Psalms 103:17 (MSG) “God’s love though, is ever and always, eternally present to all who fear Him.” When Louie and I went for pre-marital counseling (we were young whippersnappers, ages 66-67), our Pastor asked us if we would like to say anything to one another as we exchanged our vows. I thought about it for a moment and we both agreed to do so. At the given point in our ceremony, the Pastor indicated I would be first. I took both of Louie’s hands, looked into his eyes and began: “Louie, how we praise God the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ who has blessed us with every spiritual in heaven because we belong to Christ…” and continued on for most of the next 12 verses of Ephesians 1. When I finally shut up, Louie had nothing to say … his comments were in his pocket on a 3x5 card and remained there. Later this card was included in the pages of our Wedding Book. In reality, I may have spoken good words but he lived them out every day of our lives.\nHe never missed a\nValentine’s Day, Proposal Day or Anniversary to take me to the beach, kneel in the sand, and again ask me to marry him. “God’s love though, is ever and always, eternally present to all who fear\n47\nHim.” Today, Louie is in heaven praising God for the gift of His love in bringing him there.\nMaybe there is someone you need to\nremember on this Valentine’s Day in love. Even though you can never match the love of Jesus, He is pleased when you try!\nFEBRUARY 15 SOME THINGS ARE GOOD TO HEAR AGAIN AND AGAIN Philippians 3:1 (LB) “Whatever happens to you dear friends, be glad in the Lord. I never get tired of telling you this and it is good for you to hear it again and again.” You can learn to thank God and be grateful for every inconsequential, little thing that happens in your life. God will use your praise to draw weary and unhappy people to you and then to Himself. Try using small upsets as a point to praise and watch Him turn things around. Are you glad for the upset? Not really, but if you’ve determined beforehand (mind set, will set) that you will use these events as a reason to voice your praise, then you might recognize this is God’s way of getting your attention so you will pause and acknowledge Him. (This gives me some insight as to why I am such a Master-Messer!) As you begin to do this privately, it will eventually carry over into your public life as well. In time, you will be able to thank Him for an upset that caused you to turn your thoughts toward Him…start doing this today and before you know it, you’ll do it automatically.\nGod has this incredible way of\nmatching your praise to equal your problems! You’ve heard all this\n48\nbefore but the scripture says, “it is good that you hear it again and again.”\nFEBRUARY 16 COMPLETE THE TASK GOD HAS GIVEN YOU Acts 20:24 (MSG) “What matters most to me is to finish what God started: the job the Master Jesus gave me of letting everyone I meet know all about this incredibly extravagant generosity of God.” Paul said, “I consider my life worth nothing to me, if only I may finish the race and complete the task the Lord Jesus has given me,” Acts 20:24 (NIV). God gives you work to do and when He is preparing you for something great, the Enemy always comes to confront you, causing you to doubt and question. You need to accept this as evidence that God is in it, He is at hand to help you through His blessing and power.\nPower has always been\ndeveloped through resistance. It’s just as true in the spiritual world as in the physical. God can turn Satan’s power and use it as an instrument of blessing to you. He is God! Tribulation is a door to triumph. Jesus said, “In this world you will have trouble, but take heart, I have overcome the world,” John 16:33 (NIV). What has God given you to do that you haven’t yet finished? He finished His work and wants you to finish yours!\nFEBRUARY 17\n49\nSPEAK GOD’S WORD INTO YOUR LIFE Hosea 10:12 (LB) “Plant the good seeds of righteousness and you will reap a crop of my love; plow the hard ground of your hearts for now is the time to seek the Lord …” Hosea 12:6 (LB), “Oh, come back to God.\nLive by the\nprinciples of love and justice, and always be expecting much from him, your God.” Hosea 14:8-9 (LB), “… I am living and strong! I look after you and care for you.\nI am like an evergreen tree,\nyielding my fruit to you throughout the year. My mercies never fail. Whoever is wise, let him understand these things.\nWhoever is\nintelligent, let him listen. For the paths of the Lord are true and right, and good men walk along them.” Jude 20-21; 24-25 (LB), “You must build up your lives ever more strongly upon the foundation of our holy faith, learning to pray in the power and strength of the Holy Spirit.\nStay always within the boundaries\nwhere God’s love can reach and bless you. Wait patiently for the eternal life that our Lord Jesus Christ in his mercy is going to give. And now—all glory to him who alone is God, who saves us through Jesus Christ our Lord; yes, splendor and majesty , all power and authority are his from the beginning; his they are and his they evermore shall be. And he is able to keep you from slipping and falling away and to bring you sinless and perfect into his glorious presence with mighty shouts of everlasting joy!” Nothing is more powerful than God’s Word. Speak these scriptures into your life and live in them today!\n50\nFEBRUARY 18 STOP COMPLAINING Philippians 2:13-14 (LB) “For God is at work within you, helping you want to obey him, and then helping you do what he wants. In everything you do, stay away from complaining and arguing.” I had no idea of how much I complain until I started trying to quit! (Much like trying to quit smoking, I suspect). It’s so automatic! If I ever shut up complaining, I find it is so much easier to be glad! Quit grumbling and start praising God in (not for) every dark and crooked thing you see and watch God’s light penetrate the darkness. Do I really believe that? Yeah, Lord, Your Word says so. Beware, though of the dangerous dogs all around you, as they don’t believe a word of it. We have no idea of what this day will hold, but we do know who holds the day and it is He that works within you, helping you want to obey Him and then helping you do what He wants. It is the “old man” in us that looks for what’s wrong in our lives instead of what’s right. Wise up and learn the benefits of praise to the One who has already ordered up what’s on your plate for today. Praise Him before He fixes you and be amazed at how quickly you are made right. Above all, and in everything you do, stop complaining and grumbling.\n“Whatever happens, dear\nfriends, be glad in the Lord. I never get tired of telling you this and it is good for you to hear it again and again,” Philippians 3:1 (LB).\n51\nFEBRUARY 19 THE POWER OF THE LIFE-GIVING SPIRIT IS MINE Romans 8:1-3 (LB) “So there is now no condemnation awaiting those who belong to Christ Jesus. For the power of the life-giving Spirit—and this power is mine through Christ Jesus—has freed me from the vicious circle of sin and death.\nWe aren’t saved from sin’s grasp by\nknowing the commandments of God, because we can’t and don’t keep them, but God put into effect a different plan to save us. He sent His own Son in a human body like ours—except ours are sinful—and destroyed sin’s control over us by giving himself as a sacrifice for our sins.” The power of the life-giving Spirit is mine and that power gets me through life’s low–lying humiliations. I recognize that before You, I am wretched, miserable, blind, and naked, but I am covered with the love of Jesus and the power of the Holy Spirit. When Jesus died on the cross, You have truly saved me from sin and death. Nothing passes through my life until it first passes You. You have poured Your favor out on me and I give You praise. You destroyed sin’s control over me by the sacrifice of Your Life that You gave for my sins when You went to the cross. Thank You Jesus! I could never do this on my own…never be saved from sin’s death grip and grasp, even in knowing Your commandments, could never keep them; so thank You for providing a way for me to come to You. I know you live in me and I hope You are happy here.\nFEBRUARY 20\n52\nTRUST IS THE LANGUAGE OF THE HEART Psalms 37:3 (LB) “Commit everything you do to the Lord. Trust Him to help you do it and He will.” Trust is the language of our heart. Faith is an act of our will and belief comes from the mind; but trust comes from the heart. Faith and belief refer to something about to happen or is taking place. Trust is to see, feel and lean on His great heart of love through delays, reversals, difficulties, rejection and all evidence to the contrary. Trust in Him. We are to always praise and reverence Your Name. Your business on earth is the supreme concern of life and all of our personal “stuff” no matter how we view it, is secondary. No prayer of any human on earth has any power until that lesson is learned. God, have Your way in this world and in my heart. Your will be done today in all I do. “Commit everything you do to the Lord; trust Him to help you to do it and He will.”\nFEBRUARY 21 THE LORD IS GOOD Nahum 1:7 (LB) “The Lord is good. When trouble comes, He is the place to go! And He knows everyone who trusts in Him!” The Lord is good and He is the One we run to in times of trouble. All the forces that come against us can be used to bring us\n53\nstraight to Jesus. “ An eagle will wait perfectly still on a mountain cliff, watching the sky fill with lightening and darkness until he feels the burst of the storm screaming around him, then he dives straight into the winds, using the power of the storm to carry him above it. This is how God wants us to use the storms that threaten to destroy us…use the power of the thing that comes against you to rise above what is threatening you,” Streams in the Desert.\nSatan\nattacks our bodies and plans our defeat. God heals us and we come out better for it. Psalms 138:2b-3 (LB) “… for your promises are backed by all the honor of your Name.\nWhen I pray, You\nanswer me and give me the strength I need.” Help us not to just read, but believe and heed Your Words, as Your Word is the way that it is!\nFEBRUARY 22 GOD DETERMINES THE TIME OF YOUR DELIVERANCE Ecclesiastes 11:5a (MSG) “So you’ll never understand the mystery at work in all that God does.” “We would love it if God would visibly show us and encourage us and sometimes He does. But how wonderful it is when we just trust Him either way. He really wants us to remember that His promises and His Word are more dependable than anything we can ‘sense or feel.’ We receive more when we trust Him without the visible evidence. Strangely, it’s those who trust Him without any evidence except His Word that always receives the greater amount of visible evidence of His love. Many unanswered prayers\n54\ncome with ‘my time has not yet come’ recorded underneath,” George G. Trumbull.\n“God has a fixed time and an ordained\npurpose and He who controls the limits of our life also determines the time of our deliverance,” Selected. God is ever working in our lives and sometimes we see it; sometimes we can only see where He’s been; and sometimes we just need to blindly follow knowing that He who controls the limits of our life also determines the time of our deliverance. When the shadows deepen and you do not know the way, keep walking, He will always lead you into the Light.\nFEBRUARY 23 I WANT TO WALK STEADILY WITH YOU 1 Peter 5:10 (NKJV) “But may the God of all grace, who called us to His eternal glory by Christ Jesus, after you have suffered a while, perfect, establish, strengthen and settle you;” Exodus 33:21 King James Version (KJV), “And the Lord said, “Here is a place by Me, and you shall stand on the rock.” Put a spiritual splint on me and hold me quiet until I believe I can walk steadily with You all the time. I want to stand still until Your insight is so ingrained in me that it becomes a permanent habit to choose You in everything. Lead me forward, plan my days that I may do well what you have left me here to do for Your glory, remembering if I receive glory, You get none. My spirit is justified before God at salvation, but the “sinful nature” still resides in my body. If I allow it to control me, I will sink under the power of my Enemy.\n55\nIf I\nunderstand the love God has for me, I will make a practice of placing my faith in Him. If my cell phone loses its power, I plug it into an electrical outlet to recharge it. The power source is always available but I have to plug it in to receive it. God is our source of power and I must stay plugged into Him.\nThe spiritual law of\nabiding, making the right choice, being steadfast (not wavering) and believing is the thing that keeps me connected. The natural law of sin and sickness loses its grip over me when I’m connected to You. Pluck my heart strings over and over until I am humbled and blended in harmony with Your Spirit.\nFEBRUARY 24 GOD DELIGHTS IN EVERY DETAIL OF YOUR LIFE Psalms 37:23 (LB) “The Lord directs the steps of the godly. He delights in every detail of their lives.” You read your Bible, pray, go to church, help others, witness— do you think that’s all that God’s interested in? He takes pleasure in His children just as you do…every detail we enjoy in our life… eating, working, resting, playing; every human activity except sin can be done for God’s pleasure if we do it in faith and with an attitude of gratitude. You can wash dishes, clean house (even iron, uggh), dispense pills, raise a family, set up a computer program, sell cars, push grocery carts, all for the glory of God. Like a proud parent, God watches and is pleased when you use the abilities He’s given you for His glory. Be thankful you can do them! There are no unspiritual abilities, just misused ones! Do the things you\n56\nwere designed to do. “God delights in every detail of your life.” FEBRUARY 25 HE OWNS IT ALL Psalms 104:32 (MSG) “He takes one look at earth and triggers an earthquake; points a finger at the mountains and volcanoes erupt!” Holy, Holy, Holy is my God! Years ago and perhaps today in countries where there is a king, the king owns the land, all of it! People could build houses and live in them; they owned the house but the King owned all the land and the people were grateful for the privilege of living there. Our King owns it all. He lets me live in His house, sleep in His bed, breathe His air, eat His food, drive His car, see with eyes He has made; write checks on His bank account. It’s all His! I own nothing but my relationship with Him and He’s the One that made that possible. He alone can say, “It’s Mine, Mine, it’s all Mine!” One look from Him can trigger an earthquake; point a finger and volcanoes erupt.\nEvery day You give us new\nopportunities to trust You, Almighty God, help us to recognize and respond to them.\nFEBRUARY 26 YOU ARE THE APPLE OF HIS EYE Isaiah 43:4b (LB) “You are precious to me and honored, and I love you.”\n57\nWe need to let those Words soak in when we go through heartache, financial stress, body pain, and also when the enemy comes in like a flood. My weakness needs Your strength; whatever concerns me, concerns You. “Whoever touches you, touches the apple of My eye,” Zechariah 2:8 (NKJV). God says in 1 Kings 12:24b (MSG), \"I’m in charge here!\" He is the God who owns it all and He owns my circumstances. I didn’t come to where I am by accident; I am where He wants me to be. He is the Keeper of my finances; I am to depend on Him because we read in Philippians 4:19 (LB) “And it is He who will supply all your needs from His riches in glory …” It is as though He who whispers, “I am aware of every interruption, every weakness you have.” The problems will leave as we learn to see Him in everything. He owns your every experience and He owns you.\nEven though you are insufficient,\nthe Word of God says, “I am precious and honored in His sight and yeah, the apple of His eye.”\nFEBRUARY 27 YOUR SITUATION IS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR SOMETHING ABOUT TO HAPPEN 1 Kings 12:24b (MSG) “This is God’s Word … I’m in charge here.” We seem to always be looking around for someone to blame for what we’re experiencing instead of looking to see what God can do. Our situation is an opportunity for something about to happen. That’s why some promises seem unfulfilled, prayers unanswered and circumstances unfair. Your discontent in some of this is so you\n58\nwon’t feel so comfortable here; you need to realize you’re not home yet! This isn’t the end of you or your story. Everything that breaks your heart is temporary.\nUse the things you experience to\naccomplish God’s purposes.\nYou can use the very things that\ncome against you to “walk over the backs of your enemies,” with God helping you. God said, “I’m in charge here.” Or, “This thing is from Me,” (NKJV). This was spoken by the Lord to tell a rebellious king to return home and stop fighting; but it is just as true for you today. If you’re having financial problems, going through difficult circumstances, or times of sorrow, God could be saying, “This is from Me.” Rejection and disappointment go with the territory but this territory isn’t your home. God sees the completion; we see in part. Let that part be enlightened with the knowledge that “He is in charge!”\nFEBRUARY 28 GOD WILL SETTLE AND ESTABLISH YOU 1 Peter 5:10 (LB) “After you have suffered a little while, our God, who is full of kindness through Christ, will give you His eternal glory. He will personally come and pick you up and set you firmly in place, and make you stronger than ever.” We all experience times of highs and they are usually followed by almost depression! In the morning, you’re singing and in a good mood; by evening, almost silent. God shines His light on your life all the time, in the good times and the bad. He lifts you up to\n59\nstrengthen you so you may go deeper still. He lights your way so He can send you out into the night. This is not for you, but for you to help someone else. If you haven’t been in the night, you don’t know how to help someone that is there. Satan loves a good fight and we feel like we’re trapped. Actually we have the Word working for us, He doesn’t. It is time for you to realize God keeps your soul in His hand and His promise is “after you’ve suffered a little while, He will personally come and pick you up and set you firmly in place and make you stronger than ever.” You need to realize that part of His makeover includes perfecting, establishing and settling you.\nFEBRUARY 29 YOU CAN TRUST GOD IN ALL YOUR EXPERIENCES Isaiah 60:1 (LB) “Arise; my people let your light shine for all the nations to see. For the glory of the Lord is streaming from you.” Are you letting your past bother you? Too many people keep going over and over what happened years ago…your past can be an albatross around your neck or it can become the wind beneath your wings.\nA missionary was brutally raped and asked this\nquestion, “Can I thank God for trusting me with this experience even if He never tells me why?” Some things are never explained to us but the secret of trust is never found in answers; it’s in acceptance. Whatever happens, has happened, or will happen, know that God is in charge. You can either believe that or you will go through life thinking God is unfair. You need to bury the past; if not, you’ll live with its ghosts. Rehashing old hurts is like watching\n60\na sad movie over and over, hoping for a different ending. It ain’t gonna happen!\nLearn from your mistakes, get over them, and\nmove on. “Arise and shine and let the glory of the Lord stream from you!” You can learn to trust God in all your experiences! MARCH 1 HIS HAND AND HIS HEART ARE ALWAYS OPEN TO YOU Matthew 17:20b (NKJV) “Nothing is impossible with God.” Actually, nothing is impossible for you as your cast all your anxiety on Him and experience His peace. It is possible to have all your thoughts and desires of the heart purified in the deepest sense of the Word. It is possible to see all your circumstances as God’s will and be accepting rather than complaining. It is possible to become strong by taking refuge in God. Everything that works in your life is subject to Him and His will and every bit of it gives you a more blessed sense of His Presence and power.\nAll divine\npossibilities cause you to bow before Him and teach you to hunger and thirst more for Him. You are able to have as much of God as you want. He always has His hand and heart open to you. Whose fault is it if you come away lacking or empty-handed? He gave His life that you may KNOW Him and the power of the resurrection and because of that, nothing is impossible with God Almighty! MARCH 2 WAIT PATIENTLY\n61\nPsalms 37:7 (NKJV) “Be still before the Lord and wait patiently for Him.” Oswald Chambers said: “One of the greatest strains of life is waiting for God.” Jesus said that He would take care of us and He knows our needs better than we do.\nNever let your desires to\nreceive what you want become stronger than your desire for the will of God to be done. His patience eliminates your wavering and wobbling before Him. Waiting is more than just hanging on. The Lord was accused of being demon possessed, ridiculed, beaten and crucified and He endured it all because He knew heaven was just ahead. The Lord said that He would come and His Word is just as good as His Presence. He is your Rock and steady foundation. Trust Him completely and wait patiently for Him to act. James 1:4 (LB), “...so let your patience grow and don’t try to squire out of your problems.\" For when your patience is finally in full bloom, then you will be ready for anything, strong in character, full and complete.” Wait patiently on the Lord! MARCH 3 WE KNOW THE LOVE OF CHRIST BY EXPERIENCE Ephesians 3:16-19a Revised Standard Version (RSV) “That according to the riches of his glory he may grant you to be strengthened with might through his Spirit in the inner man, and that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith; that you being rooted and grounded in love, may have power to comprehend with all the saints what is the breadth and length and height and depth, and to know the love of Christ …”\n62\nVS. 16, “that you be strengthened with might through His Spirit” means to be infused with power and as a result, be fortified or invigorated through His Spirit, as that is the agent that activates the power. “In the inner man” is your spiritual being. The Holy Spirit is the One who causes the power to be active and effective in your life. God has a limitless reservoir of strength and power… tapping into this source is up to you. VS. 18, “Only God can help us comprehend that the power is fully able to accomplish its goal.” It is broad enough to include all men; long enough to extend from eternity to eternity. It is as deep as the very nature of God and as high so as to reach the limitless heights of heaven itself. And, it is as deep as the profound nature of God Himself. VS. 19, We “know the love of Christ” by experience! MARCH 4 ALWAYS BE THANKFUL 1 Thessalonians 5:18 (LB) “No matter what happens, always be thankful, for this is God’s will for you who belong to Christ Jesus.” The natural thing to do is to be ungrateful and think on what is not right in your life. The natural thing is to be thankful only for the things that seem good at the time! But when the Holy Spirit has control, we are able to give thanks all the time in (not for) everything.\nThat includes adversity, hard licks, unfairness, and\nlumps right along with the blessings. I have to ask, do I really believe 1 Thessalonians 5:18 and give God thanks in everything? Yea, Lord, my intellect knows; now help my emotions to agree that\n63\nno matter what happens, to always be thankful. I know that You hold the keys to this life and the next. It is your Holy Spirit who reveals Jesus to me…Your beauty, holiness, glory…I bow before the King of Heaven and magnify Your great Name. There is none like you! I will praise you and give thanks, no matter what! MARCH 5 FOLLOW THE HOLY SPIRIT’S LEADING Ephesians 5:25-26 (LB) “If we are living now by the Holy Spirit’s power, let us follow the Holy Spirit’s leading in every part of our lives. Then we won’t need to look for honors and popularity which lead to jealousy and hard feelings.” This scripture is such good advice for our day to day living; because if we are living by the power of the Holy Spirit, we won’t need to look for honor and popularity among people. These things only lead to jealousy and hard feelings. It is the Holy Spirit that produces love, joy, peace (which is our relationship to God); longsuffering, kindness, goodness (our relationship to others); faithfulness, gentleness, self-control (our inner-self relationship). The best response we can give to the Giver of gifts is to put them in action. He has given you exactly what He wants you to use; and as you use what He has given you, He gives you more. Focus all your attention on Him. When we do this, we’re not prone to go out and tell others all about ourselves…what we are like ... but we’ll be talking about our Mighty God and Savior and Who He is. Let the Holy Spirit lead your life.\n64\nMARCH 6 DON’T PICK ON PEOPLE OR JUMP ON THEIR FAILURES 1 Corinthians 10:12 (LB) “So be careful. If you are thinking, “Oh, I would never behave like that”—let this be a warning to you. For you too may fall into sin.” When we look at another’s sin, we might be prone to say, “I’m bad, but certainly not that bad.” If I do this, I become a Pharisee and violate something very important about my own relationship with Jesus. God graciously reminds me that there is NO SIN OF WHICH I’M NOT CAPABLE! And it is only His restraining hand that keeps me from being as bad as I could be! It is almost dangerous for a Christian to be right most of the time; as the spirit of pride creeps in.\nRejoicing in the failure of another can be spiritually\ndevastating. To say, “I told you so” is not an attractive trait as it reveals pride, self-wisdom and shows there is something very sinful going on in your own heart. “Let him who thinks he stands, take heed lest he fall” Luke 6:37 (MSG). Don’t pick on people, jump on their failures, and criticize their faults— unless, of course, you want the same treatment.\nDon’t condemn those who are down; that\nhardness can boomerang. Lord, help us to learn and live by Your commands, not just read them, but know what You say and then do them!\n65\nMARCH 7 IT’S OKAY TO BE ALONE Genesis 32:24 (NKJV) “Then Jacob was left alone; and a Man wrestled with him until the breaking of day.” I’ve certainly cringed from the reality of being alone and to grieve and cry is hard, but that’s not what the Lord had in mind. When left alone with You, Lord, what better state of mind and wellbeing could I possibly have? Jacob, when left alone, became a prince; Peter was left alone on the rooftop to have a vision; Moses was alone when he received his assignment as the bush burned; many old-timers such as John the Baptist, John on the Isle of Patmos, Gideon, Joshua, all received their commission of the Lord while alone. Think of what it would be like to be alone without You! If we fail to be alone with You, we have little blessing to pass on to anyone else. True, we may have less time to work but what we do will have more meaning and power. Jacob may have wrestled all night but he did receive his blessing. There is no way of measuring the value of our time alone with You, dear Lord.\nMARCH 8 LAUNCH OUT INTO THE DEEP Luke 5:4 (MSG)\n66\n“When he finished teaching, he said to Simon, “Push out into deep water…” How deep, Lord? It all depends on how completely we are willing to cut off our ties to what is on shore; and how great our need really is, plus how anxiously we regard what’s next! It also depends on how much we trust His Word and that which He is speaking into our lives. As we are “put out into the deep,” we embrace in detail His goodness, mercy, grace and finite loving care. We go “out into the deep” to gain the work of the Holy Spirit in us. It is there we lose our sorrows and concerns and take on His calmness and peace and experience His abiding Presence. “Putting out into the deep” is to be immersed in His purposes, not our own. In Simon’s case, it was for a better catch; whatever He has in mind for you, will always be for your good. He is the One who invites you to do it. He created us for going into the deep places and He is the One who makes those places fit in harmony with His own purpose and plan. never become stagnant.\nDeep waters always flow and\nGod will always want you to share\nwhatever you learn in your deeps. MARCH 9 SUBMIT TO THE LORD’S PROCESSING Hebrews 6:12 (RSV) “...so that you may not be sluggish, but imitators of those who through faith and patience inherit the promises.”\n67\nThose who have gone before us call from their lofty heights saying: “We did it; you can too!” We need faith and patience so teach me Lord, don’t let me squirm out of one lesson of Your loving discipline because I’m discouraged, doubting or lonely. Don’t throw me in the scrap heap because I’ve not passed the test; give me another chance! The old blacksmith, in order to test a piece of metal, heats, hammers, and then throws it into cold water to see if it stands the test. After doing this a few times, he then knows if it will be tempered or fall to pieces. The Lord does the same thing … puts me in the fire, water and heavy blows … help me, Lord, to stand and not be unwilling to submit to Your processing. It takes 11 tons of pressure on a piano string for it to be tuned … just tune me, Lord, to be in harmony with You. It was Job who said, “And when He has tried me, I will come forth as gold.” When the fire is the hottest, stand still, for later on will come the harvest.\nHebrews\n12:11 (RSV), “For the moment all discipline seems painful rather than pleasant; later it yields the peaceful fruit of righteousness to those who have been trained by it.” MARCH 10 GOD CAN RESTORE, USE AND BLESS OUR BROKENNESS Isaiah 41:15 (LB) “You shall be instrument…”\na\nsharp-toothed\nthreshing\nYou said, “I will make you a sharp-toothed threshing instrument to tear your enemies apart,” and you can do it Lord, even to a wimp and a worm, when I look to You. What greater contrast is there from a worm to a sharp-toothed threshing\n68\ninstrument? A worm is so easily squashed; a threshing tool with sharp teeth can cut through a mighty rock! You, Almighty God, can turn one into the other. You can take an individual or a nation and turn their weakness into great strength. So I need to take heart, You can make me stronger than my circumstances or situations. You can make me into a threshing tool that can plow through the hardest situations, just like a plow share cuts through hard dirt. The verse says, “I will make you…” On earth, we look for the Big, Brave and the Beautiful—the strong victorious people; God looks for the broken, the failed, and the weak to build His kingdom. Isaiah 42:3 (LB), “...He will not break the bruised reed nor quench the dimly burning flame.\" He will encourage the fainthearted, those tempted to despair. He will see full justice given to all who have been wronged.” In Him, there is no bruised reed that God cannot restore, use and bless. MARCH 11 THERE’S A SMALL CLOUD RISING 1 Kings 18:44 (NLT) “ … I saw a little cloud about the size of a man’s hand rising from the sea.” Mostly we miss the “small cloud risings” all around us because we have such a fixation on what is “big.” Every big thing though starts with something small…like a small step or a small seed, and usually it is all we have at the time. If you’re not willing to start with something small, you’ll probably never start at all. In this particular instance, the small cloud had great potential and so does your\n69\nsmall beginnings. Your problems are opportunities for God to show He strong; His strength is made perfect in your weakness. The “small cloud rising” came about as Elijah bowed himself upon the earth and put his face between his knees. As a result, the small cloud brought an abundance of rain. We’re prone to view health and prosperity as an indication of God being with us. But it is in the mundane, the small experiences that we learn to live in total dependence on the One who brings about our deliverance. He helps us switch from anxiety to total trust. We need to spend some time bowing upon the earth with our face between our knees and then to step out believing His Word. That small cloud rising over you could result in an abundance of blessings.\nMARCH 12 THERE IS NONE LIKE YOU! Isaiah 45:5 (KJV) “I am the Lord and there is none else, there is no God beside me! I girded thee though thou hast not known me.” Isaiah 45:5 (LB), “I am Jehovah; there is no other God. I will strengthen you and send you out to victory even though you don’t know me.” What an awesome Mighty God You Are; You rule, you reign victoriously! You know my desire is to be obedient; God help me to be willing to follow you; not me providing and doing, but you…all the way!\nIt takes gumption, grits, guts and grace to\ncontinue where there is nothing being revealed to follow. The only way to live is to keep looking to You. Keep the eyes of my soul open and responsive to you. Don’t let me be involved in pettiness\n70\nand paltriness, but fix my gaze on You, not the drudgery of things here. A surf rider is not distressed by the overtaking waves but dives clean through to the other side. Distress, persecution and tribulation are nothing but “set-ups” to prove You to be more than a conqueror. Praise God, not in spite of, and in the middle of all your struggles and watch Him work! It is the constant love of Jesus and knowing that I am held completely by Your hand that lets me rely solely on Your care alone. Truly, there is none like You! MARCH 13 PRAY ABOUT EVERYTHING Matthew 6:33 (RSV) “0 “But seek you first His kingdom and His righteousness all these things shall be yours as well.” For most people, when prayer fails, so does their spiritual life. Pray privately and to the point. You can’t pray wrong, it’s a matter of centering on Jesus. If you want to know how to pray … pray! Pray to a personal God. One man said that in his entire life, he had only conversed five times with his father, so when he said, “Our Father,” it made him wonder if He was going to abandon him too. God’s promise is that He will never leave us or forsake us, He is personally our God. Ask God where to go, what to do, things to buy…God wants you to pray about everything; ask Him to provide for your family. Sometimes there are long spans of time in between your requests and His answers. Sometimes you may hear “It’s not good for you now,” or “Wait,” even “No!” Development needs to take place first within you … God moving in your life is more important than what you’re asking for. Always include praising God\n71\nwhen you pray.\nPsalms 22:22b (RSV), “In the midst of the\ncongregation, I will praise thee.” (LB), “I will stand up before the congregation and testify of the wonderful things you have done.” This encourages you to stand up before others to praise, worship, adore, honor and glorify Him. Pray persistently. It isn’t that God didn’t hear you the first time; you are just reminding Him that you’re waiting but be sure, though, to thank Him for answering you. And remember, He wants you to want Him more than any other thing He could ever give you. MARCH 14 SEE THAT YOU EXCEL IN GIVING 1 Corinthians 8:7-8 (LB) “You people there are leaders in so many ways---you have so much faith, so many good preachers, so much learning, so much enthusiasm, and so much love for us.\nNow I want you to be\nleaders also in the spirit of cheerful giving.” Giving makes you more like God.\n“God gives to all\ngenerously and ungrudgingly,” James 1:5 New Revised Standard Version (NRSV). Giving draws me closer to God. “Your heart will be wherever your treasure is,” Matthew 6:21 (NIV). Giving breaks the grip of materialism as described in Matthew 6:24. Giving is a test of maturity. If you are untrustworthy with worldly wealth, who do you think will trust you with true riches of heaven? Giving is an investment for eternity. You will store up real treasure for yourself in heaven; it is a safe investment for eternity, plus you will live a fruitful Christian life down here as well.\nGiving blesses you. 1\nTimothy 6:18-19 (RSV), “They are to do good, to be rich in good deeds, liberal and generous, thus laying up for themselves a good\n72\nfoundation for the future, so that they may take hold of the life which is life indeed.” Proverbs 22:9 (LB), “Happy is the generous man, the one who feeds the poor.” Deuteronomy 15:10b (RSV), “Give generously and God will bless you in all your work and in all that you undertake.” Remember the generosity of Jesus as He willingly gave His life for us.\" There is more happiness in giving than in getting. MARCH 15 THE BORROWER IS A SLAVE TO THE LENDER Proverbs 22:7 (LB) “Just as the rich rule the poor, so the borrower is servant to the lender.” VS. 7 Modern Language, “… the borrower is the slave to the lender.” Being on the wrong side of interest can ruin your life. You need to earn interest, rather than pay interest.\nDebt enslaves,\nobligates, undermines joy, erodes giving opportunities and unravels character flaws. It will cause lack of contentment, patience, trust, self-discipline and affect your Christian witness. Why would you want to do something that would cause you to do evil in His sight? If you’re already in debt, how do you free yourself from it? Make the decision to have a plan, stick with it and give yourself time; find a partner that will help you be accountable. Start a small savings account; if you’re determined, God will help you. Savings makes a person free and wise, as well as enhances your joy. It lets you respond to giving opportunities. It strengthens your character and provides a powerful witness.\nEcclesiastics 3:17 (LB), “In due\n73\nseason, God will judge everything man does, both good and bad.” Living within your means is a good way to live. Proverbs 23:12 (LB), “Don’t refuse to accept criticism, get all the help you can.” Listen to Proverbs 23: 12 (RSV), “Apply your mind to instruction and your ear to Words of knowledge.” VS. 18, “Surely there is a future, and your hope will not be cut off.” Go to God’s Word every day for encouragement and instruction, you will find that He will direct you to live a debt-free life. MARCH 16 THE WORD OF GOD IS MY DELIGHT Psalms 119:77 (LB) “Now let your loving-kindness comfort me, just as you promised. Surround me with your tender mercies that I may live. For your law is my delight.” The Word of God reveals the mind and will of God. Ephesians 5:18 (RSV), “… to be filled with the Holy Spirit …” and Colossians 3:16 (RSV), “Let the Word of Christ dwell in you richly …” Psalms 119:96-98 (LB). “Nothing is perfect except your Words. Oh how I love them. I think about them all day long. They make me wiser than my enemies because they are my constant guide.”\nVS.\n102103 (LB), “No, I haven’t turned away from what you taught me; your Words are sweeter than honey.” VS. 105 (RSV), “Thy Word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.” We should never neglect God’s instructions. Scripture isn’t mere musings; it is God directing us as surely as He led the Israelites with a cloud by day and fire by night. In Psalms 119, we find the meaning of being obedient and faithful to His Word.\nDevelop an appetite for the Word, it is\n74\ndelightful. A little dab will not do you! Learn how to discern good from evil. We live in a permissive society with suggestive lifestyles and it is impossible sometimes to tell the Christian from the unbelievers. Let the Word of God be a lamp to your feet to light and illumine your path. When you read it, obey it. God will equip you with the strength to keep His Word. MARCH 17 THE THINGS OF HEAVEN ARE JUST BEYOND WHAT WE’RE LOOKING AT 2 Corinthians 4:16-18 (MSG) “So we’re not giving up. How could we! Even though on the outside it often looks like things are falling apart on us, on the inside where God is making new life, not a day goes by without his unfolding grace. These hard times are small potatoes compared to the coming good times, the lavish celebration prepared for us. There’s far more here than meets the eye. The things we see now are here today, gone tomorrow. But the things we can’t see now will last forever.” The things of heaven are just beyond what we’re looking at, at earth’s level. We should never give up or lose hope. We stare at what we see … disappointment, failure, pain and sorrow and on the outside it often looks like things are falling apart on us but on the inside God is making new life within us. Not one day goes by without His unfolding grace. Truly, every evil intent Satan hurls against us is small potatoes compared to the lavish celebration being prepared for us this minute. Just beyond what you’re looking\n75\nat is a whole host of “His salvation wonders on display in His trophy room. Earth-Tamer, Ocean-Pourer, Mountain-Maker, HillDresser, Muzzler of sea storms,” Psalms 65:6 (MSG). What we see today is so brief but all our salvation wonders will be forever. While our worldly life is wasting away as it is controlled by the laws of nature; our inward nature (born at our second birth) has eternal value. Life is like grass, very short lived; but life with Jesus is both now and forever. MARCH 18 FIND OUT WHAT GOD IS UP TO AND GET IN ON IT! 1 Corinthians 15:58 (RSV) “Therefore, my beloved brethren, be steadfast, immovable, always abounding in the work of the Lord, immovable, always abounding in the work of the Lord, knowing that in the Lord your labor is not in vain.” I need to get off of what I’m down to and get on to what God is up to! Here’s what you’re down to: you think you won’t get what you need or you might lose what you’ve got. You struggle with material wants, unmindful that God knows what you need and He has a bountiful supply. You need to be more concerned with your relationship with Him more than what you want. God has work for each one of you to do and sometimes your wants hinder the effectiveness of your work. Or, Satan can discourage you in your work by getting your eyes off the ministry and onto yourself. God is more concerned about your attitude than He is your actions. You need to “be steadfast, immovable and always abounding in the work of the Lord;” and when you do this, you will find out what God is up to; so get with it and get on it! God wants to be involved in\n76\nyour life and please believe this; you want to be involved in what God wants!\nMARCH 19 HE IS IN CHARGE 2 Peter 5:10 (LB) “After you’ve suffered a little while, our God, who is full of kindness through Christ, will give you his eternal glory.\nHe\npersonally will come and pick you up and set you firmly in place, and make you stronger than ever.” The most difficult ingredient in suffering is time. A sharp pain is easily endured but body or heart pain over a period of years needs God’s grace to not despair. Prolonged pain burns like fire. God knows how much pain we need to be purified. “He sits as a refiner and will closely watch as the dross is burned away” Malachi 3:3 (RSV). He stops the fire the moment He sees His image in the suffering. His plan may be hidden for a very long time but we have to believe He is in charge. Focus on the lesson to be learned more than on the deliverance. The reasons behind it all will more than justify the One who brought you to it. Don’t try to steal tomorrow out of His hand. Wait for Him to personally come and pick you up and set you firmly in place, just as He promised. You will become stronger than ever before.\nMARCH 20\n77\nTHE LORD IS MY STRENGTH AND SONG Isaiah 12:2b (LB) “I will trust and not be afraid for the Lord is my strength and song; he is my salvation.” The One, who merely spoke and the world began, opened His mouth and the universe came into existence has become my salvation and He is my strength and song. That is true because You said so. Your promises are backed by all the honor of Your Name. Fear can block that flow of strength, so instead of trying to fight my fear, I trust in You. There is no limit, NONE, to how much You can strengthen me. You are my song; You rejoice over me in singing and I want to join You in singing Your song!\nZephaniah\n3:17 Modern Language (ML), “The Lord your God is in your midst, a mighty God who will save. He will rejoice over you with delight, He will rest you (quiet you) in His love. He will be joyful over you with singing.” (LB) puts it this way, “Is that a joyous choir I hear? No, it is the Lord himself exulting over you in happy song!” The Mighty Voice that spoke the universe into existence rejoices over you in song! MARCH 21 GOD WILL DEAL WITH YOUR TOMORROWS Matthew 6:34 (MSG) “Give your entire attention to what God is doing right now and don’t get worked up about what may or may not happen tomorrow. God will help you deal with whatever hard things come up when the time comes.”\n78\nYou are not to worry about tomorrow…housing closures, bankruptcy, unemployment, and business failures all create fear and depression. No one knows where to go for answers, as we all are so inadequate.\nGod has predicted a time of shaking of\nkingdoms and materials, as stated in Hebrews 12:26-27 (RSV), “… but now he has promised, yet once more, I will shake not only the earth but the heaven. This phrase, yet once more, indicates the removal of what is shaken, as of what has been made, in order that what cannot be shaken may remain.”\nToday’s society and the\nbusiness world has been shaken to the very core, yet God and His kingdom remain rock solid. God is more than able to make all grace abound to you, so that in all things at all times, having all that you need, you will abound in every good work as described in 2 Corinthians 9:8.\nYour family, your health, your spiritual and\nmaterial security is secure; your present and your future is guaranteed in His promise of His unshakeable kingdom. Man’s resources are not your source. It is merely one conduit He may or may not choose to use to meet your needs. Philippians4:19 (KJ), “My God shall supply all your need according to his riches in glory by Christ Jesus.” You are not to worry about tomorrow! MARCH 22 JESUS IS CONTINUALLY WITH YOU Psalms 73:23-24 (NKJV) “You hold me by Your right hand.\nNevertheless, I am\ncontinually with You. You will guide me with your counsel and afterwards receive me to glory.”\n79\nIt is in the knowing that Jesus is continually with you that gets us through the dull, dreary, days and commonplace duties of living. Learn the secret of abiding in Jesus. It’s a test you can give to every high emotion to see what the outcome of it will be. If it is an emotion kindled by the Spirit of God and you do not let it have its way, it will react on a low level--the higher the emotion, the deeper you’ll sink. But if the Spirit of God has stirred the emotion, let the consequences be what He wills. You can’t stay on the heights of emotion, but you must walk in the light of what you received there, when God through His Spirit, has stirred you. When God uses the thing that should have destroyed you to develop you, say: Psalms 119:71 (RSV), “It is good for me that I have been afflicted that I may learn your statues.”\nIt is during hard times of stress and\nadversity that you learn truly that He is holding you and is continually with you. MARCH 23 HIS WORD IS BETTER THAN GOLD Psalms 119:59 (RSV) “When I think of thy ways, I turn my feet to thy testimonies.” VS. 72, “The law of thy mouth is better to me than thousands of gold and silver pieces.” When you think of God’s way and your turn your feet to obey Him, turn quickly because any delay whatsoever will cause you to waver. Once you’re distracted, more than likely, you will not do it at all. Job 23:11 (RSV), “My foot has held fast to His steps, I have kept His way and have not turned aside.” Job started out in VS. 8\n80\nby saying, “But He knows the way that I take and when He has tried me, I shall come forth as gold.” VS. 12, “I have not departed from the commandment of his lips,” as the Word of God was better to him “than thousands of gold and silver pieces.” It is so important to believe and cling to His Word. There are times when we go forward, He is not there; and backward, we do not perceive Him; turn to the left and seek Him, but do not behold Him; to the right and cannot see Him. It happens. None of which changes the fact that He knows the way that you take and when He has tried you, you shall come forth as gold. It is one of His promises and every one of them are backed by all the honor of His Name. Trust His Word. MARCH 24 HAVE FAITH TO BELIEVE GREAT THINGS AND STRENGTH TO ACCOMPLISH THEM Joshua 3:15-16 (RSV) “And when those who bore the ark had come to the Jordan, and the feet of the priests bearing the ark were dipped in the brink of the water…the waters coming down from above stood and rose up in a heap far off.” It is incredible that in David’s day when one reached out to just “steady” the ark he was struck dead. Yet the priests carrying the ark dared to approach the raging water of the Jordan where the sacred ark could have been swept away but when their feet merely touched the water, they found themselves standing on dry ground.\n81\nWe never test the power of God in our lives until we attempt the impossible. “When we move forward in faith, it helps God carry out His good plan. Faith always honors God and God honors faith. Attempt great things for God and expect great things from God. When taking things from God in the supernatural that are normally impossible, it is easier to take a lot than to take a little. It is when we launch out into the deep, that we find “all things are possible with God,” Luke 18:27 (NIV). Draw from the Source—take His faith to believe great things and His strength to accomplish them,” Days of Heaven upon Earth.\nMARCH 25 LEARN TO LIVE IN CHAOS Proverbs 13:33 (LB) “Humility and reverence for the Lord will make you both wise and honored.” I would love for the unsettled and restless thoughts to go away but I know that I need to learn to live in the chaos, accept each day as it comes, as You are in the middle of it. A thing doesn’t have to be “right” for it to be going on—life happens; pain hurts; people experience sorrow; my goal is in communication with You. When I get distracted and focus on lesser things, You are with me, just waiting and watching in the background. A successful day is one in which I stay in connection with You all day long. God will never open a door for me that He has closed; He opens other doors. And, He holds me responsible for what I do not see. I lose when I\n82\nthink of “what might have been.” He reminds me that I have shut doors that never should have been closed. I am not to fear when He brings back the past … let memory have its way—God ministers to me in memory. Only He can turn what “might have been” into something good in the future. Humility and reverence for the Lord will show how to live in a way that will honor Him.\nMARCH 26 GOD WILL MEET MY EVERY NEED Psalms 34:19 (KJV) “Many are the afflictions of the righteous; but the Lord delivereth him out of them all.” In You, I am complete; in You, I have everything. Open my capacity to experience You. Remove the clutter from my heart. As my yearning for You increases, I will lose the desire for other things. I desire You and Your favor. It is impossible for me to have a need You cannot meet. Never be fooled by appearances; things that are visible are fleeting, but things that invisible are everlasting. I can never fix the problem if I am obsessed with fixing the blame. How I say something is as important as what I say. I can never be persuasive when I’m abrasive. Faith in God is never an exemption from trials but it will sustain me during them.\nI Peter 4:12-13\n(MSG), “Friends, when life gets really difficult, don’t jump to the conclusion that God isn’t on the job. Instead, be glad that you are in the very thick of what Christ experienced. This is a spiritual refining process, with glory just around the corner.” Real maturity takes place in pain—I’ll never know how strong I am until I have a\n83\nneed. 2 Corinthians 4:12 (MSG), “Our lives are at constant risk for Jesus’ sake, which makes Jesus’ life all the more evident in us. While we’re going through the worst, we’re getting in on the best!” Through the good and the bad, He meets our every need.\nMARCH 27 HOW TO LIVE A CREATIVE LIFE Galatians 6:1-5, 7-8, 14-17 (MSG) “Live creatively, friends. If someone falls into sin, forgivingly restore him, saving your critical comments for yourself. You might be needing forgiveness before the days out.\nStoop down and\nreach out to those who are oppressed. Share their burdens and so complete Christ’s law. If you think you are too good for that, you are badly deceived…Don’t compare yourself to others. Each of you must take responsibility for doing the creative best you can with your own life. Don’t be misled: No one makes a fool of God. What a person plants, he will harvest.\nThe person who plants\nselfishness, ignoring the needs of others—ignoring God!—harvests a crop of weeds. But the one who plants in response to God, letting God’s Spirit do the growth work in him, harvests a crop of real life, eternal life.\nFor my part, I am going to boast about\nnothing but the Cross of our Master, Jesus Christ. Because of that Cross, I have been crucified in relation to the world, set free from the stifling atmosphere of pleasing others and fitting into the little patterns they dictate…It’s not what you and I do…It is what God is doing, and He is creating something totally new, a free life! I have far more important things to do—the serious living of this faith!”\n84\nWhat a mouthful of great advice from Paul. How much time do you spend on you and how much do you spend in ministry? Galatians 6:10b (MSG) “Every time you get the chance, let us work for the benefit of all, starting with the people closest to us in the community of faith.”\nMARCH 28 WHAT ARE YOU DOING HERE 1 Kings 19:1 (KJV) “And Ahab told Zezebel all that Elijah had done and withal how he had slain all the prophets with the sword.” Ahab was not only a wimp but a blabbermouth. When he couldn’t have the plot of ground he wanted, he got into bed, covered up his head and whimpered until Jezebel did his dirty work for him. Now he can’t wait to tell Jezebel that Elijah has just killed 850 of her private stock. It was true, he had killed 450 prophets of Baal and 400 prophets of Asherah, and now running for his life and prays to die. This is a man who had received a special power from the Lord. Having the power of God in your life is never an easy thing. Elijah is about to receive a visit from the Lord. VS. 9, “What are you doing here Elijah?” If God should suddenly appear in this room and ask you that question, could you say, “I’m about doing what you planned and sent me to do?” Look at Elijah’s response, “I, even I only am left.” He wasn’t giving a thought to what God might have had in mind in his predicament; he’s having a pity party. The Lord passes by and there is a great wind across the\n85\nmountains, followed by an earthquake, then a fire and after that, a still small voice.\nElijah heard it (give him credit for hearing it!)\nAgain he’s asked, “What are you doing here Elijah?” His reply, “All your covenant people have left and I, only I am left alone.” The Lord ignores his pitiful plea and promptly gives him another assignment! If God has given you a special assignment, He has also given you what you need to see it to completion. You need to be listening in case the next voice you hear should be, “What are you doing here?!”\nMARCH 29 HE WILL NOT DISREGARD THE SMALL AND INSIGNIFICANT Isaiah 42:3 (LB) “He will not break a bruised reed, nor quench the dimly burning flame. He will encourage the downhearted, those tempted to despair.” “He won’t brush aside the bruised and the hurt and He won’t disregard the small and insignificant,” is another translation. In our world, we look for the big, brave, and the beautiful … the strong, victorious people; God looks for the broken, the failed, and the weak in which to build His kingdom. In Him, there is no “bruised reed” that God cannot restore, use and bless. He can take a life crushed by pain and sorrow and turn it into an instrument of total praise. Our saddest failure can become heaven’s glory. Our life becomes what we focus on the most.\nIf we dwell on our\ndisappointments and sorrows, they will become our life. If we focus on the goodness, greatness and love of Jesus, that’s what we’ll\n86\nhave. You are the only one who can let the Lord turn your sorrow into joy. When my Louie died, it was the greatest pain I have ever known, but knowing and realizing what his life is now, has become my greatest joy.\nI am so blessed in knowing the love he is\nexperiencing this moment!\nYou can become bruised but not\nbroken. Why? Because His Word states, “He will encourage you and will not quench a dimly burning flame.” MARCH 30 USE WEALTH WISELY 1 Timothy 6:17 (HCSB) “Instruct those who are rich in the present age not to be arrogant or to set their hope on the uncertainty of wealth, but on God, who richly provides us with all things to enjoy.” Jesus Calling: “It’s impossible for you to have a need God cannot meet.” fulfillment.\nYet we constantly flit here and there to find\nMaterial achievement is temporary.\nBuy the latest\nsmart phone and see how long before it is outdated! If God has blessed you with money, He probably meant for you to use a good portion of it to help those who do not have enough. Always be humble and grateful and never become arrogant.\nThose who\nregard money as a status symbol need to see what the verse says about the “uncertainty of wealth.” Do not run after money, run after “God, who richly provides us all things to enjoy.” Money has a way of strangely disappearing. Paul says to use your wealth to do what is good and to be rich in good works. It is one thing to be known as\n87\naffluent; it is so much better to be known as being rich in good deeds. Use what God has allowed you to have wisely. MARCH 31 YOU ARE WITH ME On March 31, 2010, I called on Dr. Jesus, (Dr. Love) for release of pain for my husband, Louie.\nIt looked like you had\nforsaken him but You came and gloriously redeemed him. Thank you, Lord! I have to “rouse myself up and get the mind of Christ” about Louie’s death for he is not dead, but risen! I am keenly aware of the enemy’s attack on my body and emotions—you lose devil; Jesus is calling me to trust Him. He is the One who drives away my sorrow and heals my brokenness. Help me to find you at every turn today, when I seek you with all my heart. Clear my mind and calm my fears; draw near so I may receive Your peace; tune out other voices so I can hear Yours. At this very hour (6:55a.m.) four years ago today, Louie came to live with You and left such a hole in my heart. Fill it with your loving, living Presence. He said, “Good morning, Jesus” to you for the first time and now he can join in praise with millions who never stop lifting their voices together in adoration and thanksgiving. What a joy! He has total deliverance, forever and ever. The storms of bereavement still roll over me but only drive me to my knees, actually on my face, in total dependence and trust in You. You don’t keep me from the storms, but You are my protection and safekeeping in them.\nAPRIL 1 JEHOVAH HIMSELF IS CARING FOR YOU\n88\nIsaiah 54:2, 4-7 (RSV) “Enlarge the place of your tent and let the curtains of your habitation be stretched out; hold not back, lengthen your cords and strengthen your stakes. Fear not, for you will not be ashamed; be not confounded, for you will not be put to shame; for you will forget the shame of your youth and the reproach of your widowhood you’ll remember no more. For your Maker is your husband, the Lord of Hosts is His Name and the Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer, the God of the whole earth He is called. For the Lord has called you, like a wife forsaken and grieved in spirit, like a wife of youth when she is cast off says your God. For a brief moment I forsook you, but with great compassion I will gather you.” If you have ever experienced the grief of being a widow, you will find much comfort in these verses. If you have been the “wife of youth that has been cast off” you will really cling to the promise of “your Maker being your husband.” I have served both roles and it is truly a time when you believe these particular scriptures. Should you find yourself with children, no home in which to live, no job or money. It seems as if the Lord has cast you off; but look at the promise: “For a brief moment I forsook you, but with great compassion, I will gather you.” He does I; so if that is your life today, be encouraged. You are hob-knobbing with the Elite…the Lord of Hosts is His Name; the Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer. It is but a brief moment, until He will gather you with great compassion; you have His Word. It may well be April Fool’s Day but he is no fool whose God is the Lord!\n89\nAPRIL 2 THE HOLY ONE OF ISRAEL IS YOUR REDEEMER Psalms 121:5-7 (LB) “Jehovah Himself is caring for you. God is your defender. He protects you day and night.\nHe keeps you from all evil and\npreserves your life. His eye is on you as you come and go and always guards you.” When my husband was in the hospital before he died, this scripture was a poster by his bedside. And yet, he died. Nonetheless, he surely lives in God’s Presence today and I am convinced that His eye never left him as he left me to go and live with Jesus and He is continually caring for him today. God’s hand is ever at work in his life and God’s unseen power controls everything for His purpose. blended with submission.\nAfflictions cannot injure us when Hard situations, circumstances, and\ntroubles come when we’re on Christ’s “other side.” God may never reveal to us what we so yearn to know but He owes us no explanations. We need to believe He will keep every promise He makes. His Word working His will is the way it is. We just need to believe that regardless of what is going in our life, He is caring for us; He is our defender; He protects us day and night and preserves our life; and His eye is on us as we come and go. The more we trust God, the more He meets our needs. The more He meets our needs, the more we are encouraged to trust Him. God is always at work within us. With problems comes the keen anticipation to see how He will either use them or rescue us from them.\n90\nAPRIL 3 TODAY, PLEASE LISTEN Hebrews 4:7b (RSV) “Today when you hear His voice, do not harden your hearts.” (MSG) “Today, please listen, don’t turn a deaf ear.” God said the Words, “Today, please listen, and don’t turn a deaf ear” three times in this chapter; it wasn’t just spoken to people living in the days of Moses but for our entire lifetime, as well. God means what He says and “today” is now. His powerful Word is as sharp as a surgeon’s scalpel cutting through everything in our lives, whether doubt or defense; laying us open to listen and to obey. Nothing and no one is impervious to God’s Word—we can’t get away from it, no matter what!\nHebrews 4:16 (MSG): “Jesus has\nbeen through weakness and testing, He has experienced it all and not once did He sin. So let’s walk right up to Him and get what He’s so ready to give us, take His mercy and accept His help.” KJV states, “Let us therefore come boldly unto the throne of grace that we may obtain mercy and find grace to help in time of need.” We’re so ready to listen to ill advice from well-meaning friends; to bad reports from the doctor; to political schemes that threaten our very existence. We need to be listening, not harden our hearts, but be receptive to what He is speaking into our lives when He says, “Today, please listen.” APRIL 4 MY PRAYER\n91\nPhilippians 4:13 (MSG) “Whatever I have, wherever I am, I can make it through anything in the One who makes me who I am.” Truly, you know me better than I know me. Nothing in me is unknown to You. Since You look at me through Your eyes of grace, I need not fear You or what You’re seeing. You are healing me in body and spirit; probe further in my mind, refresh me and renew me. You are my resident tutor; teach me Lord. I just need to listen for You, knowing You not only care, but You are love. Something of real worth is in “listening” for You; and to seek, actively seek, Your deepest blessings. My heart is open to receive more of what you desire to disclose. Work God, in my behalf that I will bring honor and praise to Your Holy Name and Word. We think of the abundant life as health and wealth; You say it is in learning to live in total dependence on You. Every moment switch me from anxiety to speaking Your Name and to know what You’re up to. You are here, You care, You love, and You can help me do this, in Jesus Name I pray.\nAPRIL 5 HIS PEACE IS AVAILABLE TO US John 16:33 (RSV) “I have said this to you that in me you may have peace. In the world you have tribulation ...” Jesus spoke these Words to His disciples to encourage and also to warn them. “You may have peace in me” was telling them it\n92\nis available for the taking.\nBut “… in the world you will have\ntribulation.” It is for certain that if we share in His suffering, we will be more conformed to His likeness. We are enlarged spiritually in understanding as we endure hardships, as it softens our heart and makes us more sensitive and tender toward others and more receptive to the Holy Spirit. Every stinging sorrow we are spared results in either an unclaimed or missed blessing. (With that thought in mind, don’t dread the stinging blows but rather look for the blessing sure to follow…bring ‘em on!)\n2 Corinthians 4:16-18\n(MSG), “So we’re not giving up …. Even though on the outside it often looks like things are falling apart on us, on the inside, where God is making new life, not a day goes by without his unfolding grace.\nThese hard times are small potatoes compared to the\ncoming good times, the lavish celebration prepared for us. There’s far more here than meets the eye. The things we see now are here today, gone tomorrow. But the things we can’t see now will last forever.” He says that in the world we will have tribulation but to be of good cheer as He has overcome the world and His peace is available for every stinging blow!\nAPRIL 6 JEHOVAH THE LORD IS MY STRENGTH AND SONG Isaiah 12:2 (ML) “Behold, God is my salvation; I will trust and not be afraid, for JEHOVAH, the Lord, is my strength and song; yes, He has become my salvation.”\n93\nThe One who spoke the universe into existence is my strength and song; yes, He has become my salvation. He is my absolute unlimited power. The human weakness in me, when consecrated to You, is like a magnet drawing your power into my own neediness. Fear can block that flow of strength so I depend on the truth of Your Word, “I will trust and not be afraid.” Instead of trying to fight my fear, I will trust You. Confidently trusting You, there is no limit, NONE, to how much you can strengthen me. You are my song. You want to share Your joy, making me constantly aware of Your Presence in me. You want me to join You in singing Your song! APRIL 7 HE HAS MADE WIDE STEPS FOR MY FEET TO KEEP ME FROM SLIPPING Psalms 73: 1-2 (ML) “Surely God is good to Israel, to those whose hearts are pure; but as for me, my feet had almost stumbled, my steps had nearly slipped.” How good God is to those whose hearts are clean and pure but in this Psalm, Asaph is saying, “but my feet had almost stumbled, my steps had nearly slipped.”\nEver been there?\n2\nSamuel 22:27 (LB), “You have made wide steps for my feet to keep them from slipping.”\n(ML), “Thou stretchest my stride on the\nground on ankles that never grow weak.”\n(KJV), “Thou hast\nenlarged my steps under me; so that my feet did not slip.” How good God is even when we almost slip! One of the things that cause us to slip is to doubt. Doubt is not a sin but to retain it until it\n94\nmasters you is. The serpent in the garden said, “but God won’t let you eat of that tree, will He?”\nCausing Eve to think God was\nholding out and this led to spiritual decay and the beginning of doubt and sin for the rest of us. You can starve your doubts by feeding them a steady diet of faith and by believing God wants you to have a good, clean heart. He does this by going before you to make wide steps for your feet to keep them from slipping! APRIL 8 THE PROSPERITY OF THE WICKED IS A SLIPPERY PATH Psalms 73:3 (ML) “For I was envious of the arrogant, when I saw the prosperity of the wicked.” How many times have we looked at the prosperity of the wicked and been envious?\nPeople, who seemingly have\neverything, often have nothing.\nThey are often like shells…\noutwardly beautiful but nothing inside and are constantly seeking pleasure but finding only emptiness. There is a vast difference between pleasure and happiness and an even greater distance between pleasure and peace. Peace with God and peace within are life’s greatest treasures. True values in life are spiritual, not material. Psalms 73: 11-12 (RSV), “And they say, ‘How can God know? Is there knowledge in the Most High? Behold these are the wicked: always at ease, they increase in riches.” Psalms 73:18-20 (LB), “What a slippery path they are on—suddenly God will send them sliding over the edge of the cliff and down to their destruction: an instant end to all their happiness, an eternity of terror. Their\n95\npresent life is only a dream! They will awaken to the truth as one awakes from a dream of things that never really were!” It is like someone walking on ice, one minute they are on their feet and the next, they are on their back! We are never to envy the prosperity of the wicked.\nAPRIL 9 GOD’S PRESENCE MAKES THE DIFFERENCE Psalms 73:21-24 (RSV) “When my soul was embittered, when I was pricked in heart, I was stupid and ignorant; I was like a beast toward thee. Nevertheless I am continually with thee; thou dost hold my right hand. Thou dost guide me with thy counsel and afterward thou wilt receive me to glory.” Asaph got a good look at himself; his soul was embittered, life wasn’t fair and what’s worse, God wasn’t fair either! His feelings were hurt; pouting; his values were out of focus. He behaved and reacted in animal fashion. He came to worship with questions and went away with answers when God whispered in his soul. You can’t get right with yourself until you get right with God. He realized the Presence of God and the fact that he was continually with Him; He was holding his right hand and guiding him with His counsel… glory here, glory there! God’s Presence makes all the difference.\nAPRIL 10\n96\nTHESE THINGS WILL SURELY COME TO PASS. JUST BE PATIENT Habakkuk 2:1-3 (LB) “I will climb my watchtower now and wait to see what answer God will give to my complaint. And the Lord said to me, Write my answer on a billboard, large and clear, so that anyone can read it at a glance and rush to tell others. But these things I plan won’t happen right away. Slowly, steadily, surely, the time approaches when the vision will be fulfilled. If it seems slow, do not despair, for these things will surely come to pass. Just be patient! They will not be overdue a single day!” I can remember posting this entire scripture on poster board and hanging it on the inside door of my basement. My washer and dryer were in the basement, as well as a TV room, so I went up and down those basement steps many times each day and always read this scripture.\nI noted the challenge was not to write my\ncomplaints, but my answer. I was experiencing a very painful time of divorce, a marriage of 25 years was falling apart and I needed to know that “these things I plan won’t happen right away. Slowly, steadily, surely, the time approaches when the vision will be fulfilled… for these things will surely come to pass.” I needed to know the truth of these scriptures. God had not moved out of my house, my husband had Reading these verses many times a day gave me courage and hope. And I found the rest of the verse to hold true as well, as repairmen for the washing machine and airconditioner read and commented on it, as well. God knows your\n97\ncomplaints, but He also knows when you believe His Word and focus on His answers. APRIL 11 FOCUS ON YOUR PURPOSE, NOT YOUR PROBLEM Habakkuk 1:5 (LB) “The Lord replied:\n“Look and be amazed!\nastounded at what I am about to do.\nYou will be\nFor I am going to do\nsomething in your own lifetime that you will have to see to believe.” Prophets generally spoke to people on God’s behalf, but Habakkuk spoke to God about people. Habakkuk’s name means “strong embrace;” and he was a prophet with deep emotions. Years ago, statistics reported there are 54 million disabled people in our society with special needs and problems and the rate only increases. We may not have a physical handicap but we all seem to capitalize on what’s wrong in our lives. You need to focus on your purpose and not your problem. Never stop looking at your purpose and ask yourself, “What purpose can I fulfill in this problem?” The Lord says, “Look and be amazed! You will be astounded at what I am about to do...you will have to see it to believe it.” Instead of throwing up your hands and looking at the impossible, turn to the Lord.\nDon’t let your troubles make you\nselfish and self-centered. Focus on the needs around you. Look beyond what is temporary to the eternal. Jesus focused on His passion, not His pain. His passion is you. Focus on triumph, not your trial. If you will let go of what you hold in your hand, He will let go of what is in His! APRIL 12\n98\nSTRIP DOWN, START RUNNING AND NEVER QUIT Hebrews 12:1-10 (MSG) “Do you see what this means…it means we’d better get on with it.\nStrip down, start running—and never quit!\nNo extra\nspiritual fat, no parasitic sins. Keep your eyes on Jesus, who both began and finished this race we’re in.\nStudy how he did it.\nBecause he never lost sight of where he was headed, he could put up with anything along the way: the Cross, shame, whatever. And now he’s there, in the place of honor, right alongside God. When you find yourselves flagging in your faith, go over that story again, item by item, that long litany of hostility he plowed through. That will shoot adrenaline into your souls!” We all have a race to run and we need to have a goal in mind. When an athlete runs, he isn’t dressed in a suit, vest and tie, but he’s stripped down to aid in his sprint. We need to strip down (get rid of those parasitic sins hanging all over us); start running (get up and get going); never quit (and never give up); with our eyes on Jesus…not on those around us or the obstacles looming ahead. Jesus never lost sight of His finish line. And He knew that the cross was ahead of Him. When you’re prone to be flagging in your faith, go over His race, and consider His treatment and how He finished! Now, He’s in His place of honor, right alongside God Almighty. Your challenge is to keep your eyes on Jesus!\nYour problems\naren’t for your punishment; they are for your training. APRIL 13 GOD WILL DO IT\n99\n2 Samuel 10:12b (MSG) “And God will do whatever He sees Needs Doing.” What is your greatest need today? Do you believe God will do whatever He sees needs doing? God must have wanted us to believe it because it’s stated again in 1 Chronicles 19:13b (MSG), “And God will do whatever He sees needs doing.” Both instances were in reference to God defending His people in battle; but it is just as true in our lives, as well. God sees our inward parts and knows our needs. Our bodies get sullied by the things and people with which we associate. Our innards (spirit) get blurred when the outer comes in contact with what’s ungodly. But you will never have a desire (that has been placed in you by the Holy Spirit) in which He doesn’t intend to fulfill. Everything you can comprehend through faith belongs to you. You draw close to God by opening the Bible and your spirit to receive from Him in how to do this. God will do whatever He sees needs doing in you when you are open to receive it. God puts a natural instinct into your heart to enable you to receive what He has spoken. He who breathes heavenly hope into you will not deceive or fail you. God will do it because He has said that “He will do what He sees needs doing!”\nAPRIL 14 DESPERATION IS BETTER THAN DESPAIR Lamentations 3:16-24 (MSG) “He ground my face into the gravel. He pounded me into the mud. I gave up on life altogether. I’ve forgotten what the good life\n100\nis like. I said to myself, ‘This is it, I’m finished. God is a lost cause.’ I’ll never forget the trouble, the utter sense of lost, the taste of ashes, or the poison I’ve swallowed. I remember it all—oh how well I remember--the feeling of hitting the bottom. But there’s one thing I remember and remembering, I keep a grip on hope. God’s royal love couldn’t have run out, his merciful love couldn’t have dried up. They’re created new every morning. How great your faithfulness. I’m sticking with God. (l say it over and over), He’s all I’ve got left.” You didn’t “ground my face into the gravel,” it was of my own doing but I do recall the “utter sense of being lost;\" the taste of ashes and I remember hitting the bottom.”\nYou’ve brought me\nthrough a lot of dirt but “I’m sticking with You.” Faith doesn’t create desperate days but sustains you in them.\nThe alternative to\ndesperation is despair. Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego faced a desperate situation but they didn’t despair but said, “Our God is able to save us but even if He does not, we will not serve or worship any other.” God is walking in the depths of your blazing fire and His “royal love does not run out; keep a grip on hope, His merciful love hasn’t dried up, it is new every morning!” You will survive desperation; just don’t despair.\nAPRIL 15 YOU ARE A GOD WHO GIVES AND GIVES AND GIVES Hebrews 6:13 (MSG)\n101\n“When God made his promise to Abraham, he backed it to the hilt, putting his own reputation on the line. He said, ‘I promise that I’ll bless you with everything I have—bless and bless and bless!” You are a God who gives and gives and gives. You poured out Your life like a drink offering for my sins. Thank You, Jesus. Help me to receive from You the full measure of whatever You see that needs doing within me. Let me be receptive and attentive and open me up to receive Your abundance. Direct my attention to You, searching for You every moment, not just while I’m sitting here. Stay close and help me keep my mind focused. One person has said that he sets the timer on his watch every hour to remind him of his need to turn his thoughts to You either in Your Word or in prayer. Grant peace to my hurting heart. I know you are Lord, You are God Almighty. Isaiah 26:3 (NLT), “You will keep him in perfect peace whose mind is stayed on you, because he trusts in You.” Joni E. Tada said that when she gets to heaven, she’ll be glad to get out of that wheelchair and to be able to walk and run but the thing she will be most thankful for is a new heart that is perfect toward You. Your best blessing is Yourself, dear Lord!\nAPRIL 16 GO UP HIGHER Revelation 4:1b (MSG) “Ascend and enter. I’ll show you what happens next.” (KJV) “Come up hither, and I will show thee things.”\n102\nWe are constantly being challenged to “go up higher.” New heights bring new temptations and Satan uses that state of elevation to bring us to a precarious pinnacle beyond our ability, where we dare not move, and then pulls the rug out from under us. God will lead you “to go higher” but when He elevates you, instead of clinging to a pinnacle, you find yourself walking on a great tableland, a Rock. When God gives me a truth, sometimes it lasts for that day. God wants, once He has shown me a truth, to work my way through it and walk in the light of it … not for the moment for but for my entire life. “I want to scale the utmost height and catch a gleam of glory bright” … to walk on that tableland that is stable and secure. John was invited to “Ascend and enter. I’ll show you what happens next” and he was caught up in deep worship! Any height you can attain in your spiritual life is for the purpose of deeper relationship with your Lord and to enhance your time of worship.\nAPRIL 17 HE BUT SPOKE AND THE WORLD BEGAN Psalms 33:4-11 (LB) “For all God’s Words are right, and everything he does is worthy of our trust. He loves whatever is just and good: the earth is filled with his tender love.\nHe merely spoke and the heavens were\nformed and all the galaxies of stars. He made the oceans, pouring them into his vast reservoirs. Let everyone in the entire world— men, women and children—fear the Lord and stand in awe of him. For when he but spoke the world began!\n103\nIt appeared at his\ncommand. And with a breath he can scatter the plans of all the nations who oppose him, but his own plan stands forever.” Our God is in the Psalms. When my hungry heart finds the living truth, I gain new strength for daily living. Pain, sorrow and grief lose their grip of terror as fear flies away. I’m encouraged as I see how others long ago won victories in the same arenas, as I read in the Psalms. It makes my heart “well up in praise” (VS.1) when I read this entire chapter. It is so true, everything God says and does is worthy of our trust and praise. He but spoke and when He opened His mouth, the world began! And as He spoke the entire world into existence, He can just as easily scatter the plans of any nation who oppose Him.\nVS. 7 Emphasized Bible says,\n“Who gathered as into a skin-bottle, the water of the sea, delivering into treasuries the roaring deeps!” All that, plus He saves our souls … there is none like the God of the Psalms!\nAPRIL 18 PURSUE A LOVE RELATIONSHIP Hebrews 12:1 (ML) “So then, encircled as we are with such a great cloud of witnesses all about us, let us get rid of every impediment and the sin that ensnares us so easily and let us run steadily the course mapped out for us.” God pursues a love relationship with you and encourages you to seek one with Him Jeremiah 29:13 (NKJV, “And you will seek me and find me when you search for me with all your heart.” You\n104\nare His workmanship and there is no one else in all the world exactly like you! “For we are God’s handiwork created in Christ to devote ourselves to the good deeds for which God has designed us.” Ephesians 2:10 says that God’s plan for your life is personal … no dream, no esteem. Do you want to go out for the rat race or for God’s race? Dedicate your whole life to the Lord. People get hung up just trying to fit in. Learn to say, “Yes, Lord.” And then, “Now what was the question?”\nOffer yourself, i.e., your time,\ntreasures, as a living sacrifice, dedicated wholly to Him. Do not conform to the standards of this world but let God transform you. Then you will know the will of God…what is good, and perfect. Perfect means it fits you perfectly. Strip off everything that slows you down or holds you back. Run with patience the race God has set before you. Don’t let your possessions possess you. Don’t live as close to sin as you can because you will become ensnared. That’s a lot of “don’ts”, so DO pursue that love relationship, as there are a great cloud of witnesses all around you. APRIL 19 GOD IS THE GOD OF WHATEVER YOU NEED Psalms 146:5-8 (LB) “But happy is the man who has the God of Jacob as his helper, whose hope is in the Lord his God. It is God who made the earth, the heavens, and the seas and everything in them. He is the God who keeps every promise and gives justice to the poor and oppressed and food to the hungry. He frees the prisoners and opens the eyes of the bind; he lifts the burdens from those bent down beneath their loads. For the Lord loves good men.”\n105\nMaybe you resent that things aren’t better for you right now and you hold God responsible. Look at the needy people listed in these verses … poor, oppressed, hungry, prisoners, and blind, heavily burdened. God is the God of whatever you need. Psalms 147:11 (LB), “His joy is in those who reverence him, those who expect him to be loving and kind.” Are you looking at another person for companionship, intimacy, friendship, or understanding? That person may leave you, either by choice or by death. One of life’s most frightening experiences is to be orphaned or widowed. God watches over you not just to observe, but to help. “Happy is the man who has God as his helper … He is the God who keeps every promise.” He is the God of all whatever’s. APRIL 20 TO GOD, THE NIGHT SHINES AS BRIGHT AS DAY Psalms 139:12 (LB) “For even darkness cannot hide from God; for you the night shines as bright as day. Darkness and light are both alike to you.” “It is better to walk in the dark with God than to walk alone in the light.” The day before my husband died, I had copied that quote in my journal from Streams in the Desert that morning as well as: “Trouble and darkness are meant to teach you … never try to get out of a dark place except in God’s timing.\nPremature\ndeliverance can circumvent God’s work of grace. Commit it to Him and be willing to abide in the darkness, knowing He is there. Touching anything of His mars His work. Moving the hands of the clock to suit you can never change the time.” Your situation may\n106\nbe very difficult and filled with uncertainty, very serious, but perfectly right. The reason behind it all will more than justify the One who brought you to it, for it is the platform from which God will display his Almighty grace and power. He will not only deliver you but in doing so, impart a lesson you will never forget. You will be unable to thank Him enough for doing exactly what He has done. I spoke these words at my husband’s funeral and they are just as true for me today as they were then. I am unable to thank God enough for doing exactly what He has done! Thank you God for deliverance from darkness into Your marvelous light! APRIL 21 IT’S UP TO US TO GATHER IN GOD’S PROVISION Psalms 104:27-28 (LB) “Every one of these depends on you to give them daily food. You supply it and they gather it. You open wide your hand to feed them and they are satisfied with all your bountiful provision.” The Psalmist was addressing “the whale that plays in the sea” in the above scripture. As humans, we do not live in a spoon-fed world. God gives richness to the soil, fertility to the seed, provides sun and rain. But we must plant, work the soil and harvest. Even birds must scratch and wild animals hunt. He may supply it, but it is up to us to gather it. Work is a blessing. The world’s oldest profession is not prostitution … horticulture is and it started in the Garden of Eden.\nVS. 30 (RSV), “Then You send your Spirit and\nrenew the face of the ground.”\n(If you cut down a tree, plant\nanother for those who come after you). God provides a bountiful\n107\nprovision for all His creation. He opens wide His hand to provide us a bountiful provision of whatever we need; but it is up to us to gather it in. APRIL 22 EXPERIENCE THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD 2 Peter 1:2 (NKJV) “Grace and peace be multiplied to you in the knowledge of God and of Jesus our Lord as His divine power has given to us all things that pertain to life and godliness through the knowledge of Him …” This scripture contains every source of help I need to walk before You and I can never exhaust all Your resources. No more than I could ever breathe all the oxygen in the air or a fish could drink a river dry. But I can increase my knowledge of You.\nIn\nknowing You and what your Word says will give me the knowledge to cope with life at its worst. A discouraged person is in a helpless state and is not able to stand against the devil’s schemes, nor is he able to prevail in prayer for others. Flee from every symptom of the deadly foe of discouragement as you would run from a snake. Never be slow to turn your back on it unless you desire to know the taste of bitter defeat. Having “the knowledge of God and knowing He has given me His divine power to deal with all things that pertain to my life” means He, through His Word and His Presence has granted me not only the wisdom I need but blessed me with HIS grace and peace as He does it! and know this promise is for me. APRIL 23\n108\nI will say His Word out loud\nGOD WILL SUPPLY ALL YOUR NEEDS Philippians 4:19 (NKJV) “My God shall supply all your needs according to His riches in glory.” I may not always understand You but trusting You anyway will keep me close. I would love for the unsettled restless thoughts to go away but You say to learn to live in the chaos as You are here in the middle of it. Accept each day as it comes. It doesn’t have to be “right” to be going on—life happens; pain hurts; people are great and people are awful; but my mindset is communication with You. A successful day is one in which I have stayed in communication with you all day. 1,000 things may be on my plate but what I need is You. My deepest and most constant need is Your peace and when I do sit quietly with You, You shine a light in my heart and its total belief in You that calms all my concerns. Weeds of pride, selfishness, and worry are more than met…killed…or at best, made sick enough to leave!\nIt is in moving through the day that I\nconstantly need to maintain openness before You. You will supply all my needs; and my greatest need is fulfilled in being with You.\nAPRIL 24 LOOK AT JESUS Hebrews 3:1b (MSG), “Take a good hard look at Jesus.\nHe’s the centerpiece of\neverything we believe, faithful in everything God gave him to do.”\n109\nWhen Paul received his sight, You also gave him spiritual insight into Yourself. His whole preaching centered on that insight; he was “determined to know nothing but You and You crucified.” We all need to: “Take a good hard look at Jesus; He’s the centerpiece of everything we believe in.” In You, I am complete; in You, I have everything.\nOpen my capacity to experience You.\nRemove the clutter from my heart.\nAs my yearning for You\nincreases, I will lose the desire for other things. I desire You and Your favor. It is important for me to have a need I cannot meet. Never be fooled by appearances … for the things that are visible are fleeting, but the things that are invisible, are everlasting. That’s why “taking a good hard look at Jesus and keeping Him as the centerpiece of everything I believe in” will keep me focused on what is important.\nHeaven’s things are just beyond what I’m\nlooking at, at earth’s level. God will hold me responsible for the things I do not see. If the centerpiece of my life is Jesus, I will be seeing things aright.\nAPRIL 25 HE GETS THE LAST WORD, YES HE DOES 1 Peter 5:9 (MSG) “The suffering won’t last forever. It won’t be long before this generous God who has great plans for us in Christ—eternal and glorious plans they are!—will have you put together and on your feet for good. He gets the last Word: yes, He does!” Worrying over what’s been lost or taken from you will never make things better but will only prevent you from making and\n110\nimproving on what remains. No calamity in life will bring only evil if you will immediately take it to God in fervent prayer. It is through pain and sorrow and afflictions that God gives you fresh and new revelations of Himself.\nGod selects only the best for His most\nnoble afflictions as those who have received the most grace from Him can endure. No trial ever hits you by chance but by God’s divine direction. No arrow is haphazard but is aimed as a special message to touch only the heart and home of the one intended. It will reveal God’s grace and glory if you are accepting. A hostile resentful bitter heart will destroy you and your health. Spiritually deep people are those who come through the deep anguishing fires of the soul. If you pray to know Jesus, you might find Him in a furnace of pain. Be encouraged as it doesn’t last forever and before you know it, He “will have you put together and on your feet for good! He gets the last Word, yes He does!” APRIL 26 WE HAVE A FUTURE IN HEAVEN AND THE FUTURE STARTS NOW 1 Peter 1:3-5 (MSG) “What a God we have! And how fortunate we are to have him, this Father of our Master Jesus! Because Jesus was raised from the dead, we’ve been given a brand-new life and have everything to live for, including a future in heaven—and the future starts now! God is keeping careful watch over us and the future. The Day is coming when you’ll have it all—life healed and whole.”\n111\nHoly, Righteous and True are You, O Lord, and we commend this day unto You. Because of Your death, we have been given a brand-new life with everything to live for … a future in heaven…and the future starts now! We may not “feel” like we’re enjoying the journey because of situations and circumstances, but the truth is, you never die and your ordained future began the day you accepted Jesus as Savior.\nOur capacity for knowing Jesus is\nenlarged when we are brought to Him by difficulties and situations that try to tear down and break our faith. It is then that we get to know “what a God we have!”\nWe realize He is taking time to\ndeliver us and also it gives us time to lean on Him and trust Him. “God is keeping careful watch over us and our future” and He is the Holy One, the only One who can walk us safely into the day when “life will be healed and whole.”\nAPRIL 27 LOVE MAKES UP FOR PRACTICALLY ANYTHING 1 Peter 4:7 (MSG) “Everything in the world is about to be wrapped up, so take nothing for granted. Stay wide-awake in prayer. Most of all, love each other as if your life depended on it.\nLove makes up for\npractically anything.” In human relationships, we mostly love and respect those who do the same for us. We tend to love those who love us and hurt those who hurt us. As we learn to honor and love the Lord, we find that we can love Him even in our trials, in the very things that hurt us so much. Even though there are times when God doesn’t allow\n112\nhis saints to feel the fire, there are other times when He does. Fire causes pain and when it does, we place faith in His goodness and love that permitted it.\nOut of it will come something worthy of\npraise to Him that otherwise would not have happened. In the book of Daniel, the three in the fiery furnace came out of it with everything they went in with, except the ropes that bound them. Sometimes God removes the shackles in or during the affliction. Whatever is happening in our life, we know He is wrapping His arms of love around us.\nAnd since “the world is about to be\nwrapped up, we need to stay wide-awake in prayer and truly love each other as if our life depended on it, as love makes up for practically anything!” APRIL 28 QUIETNESS AND CONFIDENCE SHALL BE YOUR STRENGTH Isaiah 30:15 (NKJV) “For thus says the Lord God, the Holy One of Israel:\n‘In\nreturning and rest you will be saved; in quietness and confidence shall be your strength.” Quietness and confidence could be better phrased “utter and complete trust.” Trusting in God’s strength instead of our own is the only way to find true rest.\nIn this particular instance, the\nIsraelites chose to depend on the strength of Egypt’s horses and chariots for their defense and then found to their dismay that VS. 17 was so true: “One thousand shall flee at the threat of one and were left like a lone pole on top of a mountain.” We need to totally trust in our God and not waste our time wondering if we are\n113\nadequate…we are more than adequate with the power of the Holy Spirit within, to handle anything the day brings.\nOur strength\ncomes as we wait on the Lord as VS. 18 tells us, “Therefore the Lord will wait that He may be gracious to you and therefore He will be exalted. Blessed are all those who wait on him.” The Lord waits in order that He may be exalted; and that He may bless you. Where is your confidence and strength; is it in utter trust in God and His Word, or are you looking for an alternative power source? Thousands of Israelites trusted in Egypt’s horses and found themselves running scared from one soldier and abandoned like a lone pole on top of a mountain.\nTrust God in quietness and\nconfidence; He is able to meets the needs of your day. APRIL 29 I WILL BUILD YOU AND YOU SHALL BE REBUILT Jeremiah 21:3-5 (NKJV) “The Lord has appeared of old to me saying: Yes, I have loved you with an everlasting love; therefore with loving kindness I have drawn you, again I will build you and you shall be rebuilt.” Keep that promise within me, Lord, and rebuild me. The last few years have seemed like You were tearing the old apart, but I’m the one who hasn’t done it right. Reshape me. I cling to You for “good\ncharacter,\nalert\ndiscipline,\npassionate patience, reverent wonder, warm friendliness, generous love—each dimension fitting into and developing the others” as I read in 2 Peter 1:5-7 (MSG). You are to be praised. You are Holy God. I love you and thank you for loving me with an everlasting love. You are able to do immeasurably more than I can ask or\n114\nimagine according to Your power that is at work within me. You will only do as much as I allow You to do so wash me in Your blood, fill me with the power of the Holy Spirit and protect me from each temptation, from every emergency and crisis…every circumstance and all adversity. Whether it is referencing a city or a person, your love covers all, and I stand in need of your rebuilding grace and power. I cling to your promise of being rebuilt.\nAPRIL 30 LOVE OF THE WORLD SQUEEZES OUT LOVE FOR THE FATHER 1 John 2:15-17 (MSG) “Don’t love the world’s ways. Don’t love the world’s goods. Love of the world squeezes out love for the Father. Practically everything that goes on in the world—wanting your own way, wanting everything for yourself, wanting to appear important—has nothing to do with the Father. It just isolates you from him. The world and all it’s wanting, wanting, wanting is on the way out—but whoever does what God wants is set for eternity.” Isaiah 64:8 (NKJV), “We are the clay, You are the Potter; we are the work of your hand.” There are days when I flow in harmony and then there are times I seem to be swimming against the current. Help me to realize it and stop struggling and take the hand of One who made me. You may be the one opposing me, the One who caused the current.\nHelp me to not love the world’s ways or\n115\ngoods or to be caught up in the snare of wanting, wanting, wanting, but to be resolved to do what You want. Thank You for Your power to overcome the desire to have everything I see. It only isolates me from You and keeps me from focusing on what You’re looking at … what You’ve already set for me in eternity. Great is my God and greatly to be praised! MAY 1 WHAT JESUS DID AMONG THEM, HE DOES IN US—HE LIVES 2 Corinthians 4:8-14 (MSG) “We’ve been surrounded and battered by troubles but we’re not demoralized; we’re not sure what to do, but we know that God knows what to do; we’ve been spiritually terrorized, but God hasn’t left our side; we’ve been thrown down, but we haven’t broken. What they did to Jesus, they do to us—trial and torture, mockery and murder; what Jesus did among them, he does in us—he lives! Our lives are at a constant risk for Jesus’ sake, which makes Jesus’ life all the more evident in us. While we’re going through the worst, you’re getting in on the best!” There are times when problems and troubles throw us down but we’re not broken; we may become spiritually terrorized (been there, done that) but God doesn’t leave our side. We really don’t know what to do but we know that God does! What God has done for generations past, He does for us…He lives! We have no way in the world of knowing when we get up in the morning what that day will hold; we can be healthy and well one moment and our life in peril the next…our lives are at a constant risk…but that being true, it makes Jesus’ life all the more precious and evident in us. To know His sufficiency is coming to the end of everything in ourselves\n116\nand circumstances, every trial and problem, and to know that it is there that He makes His life all the more evident in us. While we’re going through the worst, we are getting in on the best because it is all necessary for us to be blessed. MAY 2 EVERYTHING’S GOING TO BE ALL RIGHT Jude VS. 2 (MSG) “Everything’s going to be all right; rest, everything’s coming together; open your hearts, love is on it the way!” I have love, hope, faith and they all work! Faith is power; power to change the wrong to right and darkness to light when I truly believe “everything’s going to be all right.” Here’s the truth: I rarely will leave worldly things and seek God until I discover the beauty, glory and greatness of God. When I see and want that, then I am willing to forsake the cheap trinkets of the world that I once thought brought satisfaction. God satisfies the hunger of my soul. I have messed up my life so many times, God; save me from killing off the rest of what’s left. Help me to open up my heart and help me to be a person of faith. Take the me and get it to what is You. It is through the worst that God reveals His best because “everything’s going to be all right, as love is on the way.”\nMAY 3 THERE IS A FORCE THAT HOLDS YOU UP; THE SAME ONE HOLDS YOU DOWN\n117\nPhilippians 4:13 (NKJV) “I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me.” There is a force that holds you up. It’s the same one that holds you down, speeds you on your way or stops you, but always guides you. It’s the Father’s hand. God will always use a force to come against you to strengthen you. When He wants to produce more power in your life, He creates more friction.\nHe uses\npressure to generate spiritual power and some people can’t handle it and often run from it instead of using and receiving it. It is not enough to be propelled, we all need an equally repelling force and that’s why God lets pressures and oppositions come against us to further our progress and to strengthen our souls and bodies. We need to thank him for “holding us down” as well as “speeding us on our way.” We can do it all through the One who strengthens us. MAY 4 THE LORD WAITS Isaiah 30:18 (NKJV) “Therefore the Lord will wait that He may gracious to you; and therefore He will be exalted, that He may have mercy on you … Blessed are those who wait for Him.” Many times we read, “... wait upon the Lord” as we are so prone to be impatient in wanting the Lord to attend to our affairs and our requests. This verse says that the Lord waits. Sometimes His delays are because He’s waiting on us to be ready to receive. We ask for things and we have a preconceived idea of how He’s going to do this and that might not be how it’s going to come about\n118\nat all. Our hearts have to change in order to be prepared for the answer, and so the Lord waits. “Therefore, the Lord waits that He may be gracious to you” is the first part; and then “He waits that He may be exalted.” We don’t want to miss His mercy and we don’t want to miss His glory. Truly, “blessed are those who wait for Him.” MAY 5 THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD 2 Peter 1:2 (NKJV) “Grace and peace be multiplied to you in the knowledge of God and of Jesus our Lord, as His divine power has given to us all things that pertain to life and godliness …” Grace and peace are blessings that spring from the knowledge of God, just in knowing Him. 2 Peter 1:2-3 (LB), “Do you want to know more and more of God’s kindness and peace? Then learn to know him better and better. For as you know him better, he will give you through his great power, everything you need for living a truly good life.” The knowledge of God is a special kind of knowledge; it’s a kind that is totally complete.\nAs our\nknowledge of Jesus grows and we mature, He gives us through His divine power, i.e., resurrection power, knowledge of all things that pertain to our life.\nMany questions and problems are thus\nanswered when we know what His Word says because then we grow in our knowledge of Him.\nMAY 6\n119\nJESUS WILL MEET YOUR NEEDS Luke 9:42 (HCSB) “As the boy was still approaching, the demon knocked him down and threw him into severe convulsions.” Was the demon afraid of Jesus? Apparently not, as it knocked the boy down right in front of Jesus and sent him into severe convulsions. Satan will stand his ground; you have to get on God’s ground. Don’t miss this: It was the destructive intent of the demon that brought about the end of the matter! So don’t shrink in terror of his evil intentions toward you, as it gets God’s attention to defend you! Jesus gave the boy back to his father, healed and whole. He will do the same for you. You don’t have to be shrieking and foaming at the mouth to warrant His help; God can do what is impossible for humans to accomplish. Refuse to be stopped by whatever the need is and do something to solidify your faith in the One who can meet every need. MAY 7 RENEW YOUR MIND EVERY DAY Romans 12:12 (NKJV) “Be transformed by the renewing of your mind ...” You’ve just overcome a problem?\nGreat!\nBut one is just\naround the corner waiting to take its place. You’re always going to be a “work in progress.” That’s how spiritual growth happens. And, it doesn’t come about by us ... by human effort … work of self, but by spending time in prayer and having your mind cleaned up in the\n120\nWord every day. Reading the Word will wash away the debris in your mind you collected the day before. Agree with God, believe what He says is the way that it is. Just as you don’t give up on a child when they try, God is pleased when He sees you trying. It’s His job to “…cause you to be governed by the Holy Spirit.” 2 Corinthians 3:8 Amplified Bible (AMP) If you could do it, you wouldn’t need Jesus. You need to be transformed by renewing your mind in His Word every day! MAY 8 GIVE YOURSELF TIME TO MOURN Ecclesiastics 3:4b (NKJV) “A time to weep, and a time to laugh; a time to mourn, and a time to dance …” Grief has to be processed as it is a natural reaction to loss. If you bury your grief, it will cause you to be depressed and anxious. You will become stressed as you search for resolution, as we all need a time to mourn. The Bible says “time” so that tells you there is a beginning and end to it. How much time? The time it takes depends on how great the loss, as well as the spiritual health of the one doing the mourning. God processes our grief so we will again laugh and dance. You need to complete grief or you will repeat it. You will know when it is complete when the time comes that you can remember it without being terrorized by it. You will weep, you will laugh, you will mourn; but you also will dance! Be encouraged! MAY 9 WHEN YOU PRAY, GET READY\n121\nHebrews 12:12 (LB) “So take a new grip with your tired hands, stand firm on your shaky legs, mark out a straight smooth path for your feet so that those who follow after you, though weak and lame, will not fall and hurt themselves but become strong.” When you pray, “Lord, give me faith”—get ready! What you’re doing is asking for trials—for how else can you know you have faith except as it is exercised? God refines the gifts He gives us through them. He never trains us in tents of ease or luxury but in hard, lengthy and difficult service, which is why there are so many drop outs. We mostly live in the glare of the things of the world so we need a time when He pulls us aside to give us a glimpse of what’s next. So know when the hands are tired and the legs shaky, you can keep on that straight smooth path because others are depending on you to do it as they need your strength. The Lord gives you faith; He is with you; He is at hand! MAY 10 GIVE GOD TIME TO POSSESS YOUR SOUL Matthew 10:27 (NKJV) “What I tell you in the dark, speak in the daylight.” All of God’s greats spent hours, months, even years alone… Moses in the desert; Elijah on Mt. Horeb; Paul in Arabia. If you are to be used of Him, you too will need to spend great quantities of time of rest in the shadow of El Shaddai. You need a time for God to possess and process your soul and to whisper to you. It is as\n122\nnecessary as your food.\nThere is nothing random in God’s\nkingdom! Everything that happens fits into a pattern for good to those who love Him. Instead of trying to make sense of it—trust, praise and thank Him for it. Even your mistakes and sins can be reprocessed into something good. What He whispers to you in the night, speak that to someone in the daylight. MAY 11 THE DEVIL’S AIM IS HIGH Luke 4:1-2 (NKJV) “Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit, was led by the Spirit into the desert where for 40 days He was tempted by the devil.” There is nothing backward or bashful about the devil; if he didn’t hesitate to try to tempt Jesus, he certainly won’t back away from you. Anyone full of the Spirit of God will experience times of great conflict. God allows it for the lessons we will learn and for the growth that will come as a result. What does heat do for paint but to give it endurance and a luster it would otherwise not have? He polishes us with afflictions and trials for future service. Charles H. Spurgeon: “I owe more to my Lord’s fire, hammer and file than to anything else in His workshop. Sometimes I wonder if I ever learn anything except at the end of God’s rod. When my classroom is darkest, I see my best.”\nThe Devil loves to attack God’s best\nservants, he aims high; but our God is higher and greater!\nMAY 12\n123\nGRANT US ALL A TRANSITION OF COMING TO YOU Psalms 119:168 (LB) “You know this because everything I do is known to You.” I know that I will reach home in Your perfect timing because everything I do is already known to you. It will not be one moment too soon or too late. I watched my husband, Louie, do that and it wasn’t something I understood but I know he is with You and I praise You for that.\nI pray that You will redeem that horrible\nprocessing as You see fit. The days of darkness and bungling of doctors did bring him into your glorious Presence. You are Holy Lord God Almighty; grant us all a transition of coming to You. You’ve filled the earth with Your tender love. “Those who rejoice in Your Word have great peace of heart and do not stumble. I long for Your salvation … ” Psalms 119:165-166a (LB) Thank you for Your love that covers us like a soft cloud that wraps totally around us as you so graciously usher us into Your wonderful kingdom. MAY 13 GOD DOESN’T CHECK OUT ON US PSALMS 138:7 (KJV) “Though I walk in the midst of trouble, You preserve my life.” Mostly, when problems and troubles overwhelm us and continue unchecked, we tend to think You’ve checked out. Not so … any more than You left Daniel in the lion’s den or the three men in the fiery furnace. It is in the center, the very deepest midst of the trouble that You are there, Your Presence protecting and preserving\n124\nthe life You breathed into us. Oswald Chambers: “We have no right to judge where we should be put, or to have preconceived notions as to what God is fitting us for. God engineers everything.” He is in the center of whatever and wherever you are.\nHe never\nhas, nor will He ever, check out on you. But He certainly will be the One who “checks you in.” MAY 14 CULTIVATE GOD CONFIDENCE 1 Corinthians 10:12b (MSG) “You could fall flat on your face as easily as anyone else. Forget about self-confidence, it’s useless! Cultivate God confidence.” Bible characters always fell on their strong points, never on their weak ones. Don’t rely on your strengths, rely on God. You will never know where temptation will come from. The least likely thing can wind up being your downfall.\nIf you have just come\nthrough looking good in a great crisis, beware of the aftermath. Be constantly aware of your great need of God...be dead to doubts and blind to impossibilities! What you consider your strength, could be a double weakness. “Cultivate God confidence; forget about selfconfidence, it’s useless!”\nMAY 15 WHAT IS FAITH Hebrews 11:1 (LB)\n125\n“What is faith? It is the confident assurance that something we want is going to happen.” “Faith puts a letter in the mailbox and lets go.\nDistrust,\nhowever, holds onto the corner of the envelope and then wonders why an answer never arrives! Hand your circumstances over to God, allow Him to work,” Streams in the Desert. Faith is more than a receiving.\nYou have faith but it only benefits you as you\nappropriate and use it. Don’t worry over it or be anxious; and don’t doubt or waiver in unbelief. Faith is believing and being certain of what you do not see. It is the confident assurance that something you want is going to happen and having confidence in the One who can make it happen. Faith doesn’t reason or contemplate, only believes in the ability of the Lord God Almighty! MAY 16 TRUST HIM TO DO WHAT YOU’VE COMMITTED TO HIM Psalms 37:5 (NKJV) “Commit your way to the Lord, trust also in him and he will bring it to pass.” One translation says, “Commit your way to the Lord, trust in Him and He will do this.” The first issue is “you.” Commit your way —that means be willing for Him to answer in whatever way He chooses. He will do this for you…maybe not as you expect, but commit it to Him.\nTrust Him to do what you’ve committed to Him.\nYou activate your faith muscles by believing. Keep believing God even though nothing changes. Trust God to do it. “God will do whatever He sees needs doing …” 2 Samuel 10:12 (MSG)\n126\nMAY 17 EXTEND YOURSELF Isaiah 58:10 (MSG) “If you are generous with the hungry and start giving yourselves to the down and out, your lives will begin to glow in the darkness…” The (NKJV) says, “If you extend your soul to the hungry and satisfy the afflicted soul” … that’s more than giving them a little money or bread, that’s giving of yourself, getting involved in their life, letting the down and out know that you don’t live an entirely selfish life but you have a concern for them as well. To “satisfy the desire of the afflicted” means to help them find some answers. Isaiah 58 10-11 (LB), “Then shall your light shine out of the darkness and the darkness around you shall be as bright as day. And the Lord will guide you continually and satisfy you with all good things and keep you healthy too; and you will be like a wellwatered garden, like an overflowing spring.” For years, I loved the promise of “the darkness being as bright as the day; of being satisfied with all good things/being kept healthy; flowing like an overflowing spring” never realizing all that was prefaced with “IF I extend my soul to the hungry and give myself to the down and out, then my life would begin to glow in the darkness.”\nTo realize\nfulfillment of His Word, we need to comprehend the conditions stated. What a great promise in extending yourself!\n127\nMAY 18 HE WAS DESPISED AND REJECTED Isaiah 53:3 (NKJV) “He was despised and rejected by men; a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief.” People are prone to believe that suffering is associated with sin. Jesus’ suffering was for our sin, not His. He was despised and no one cared. He carried our sin on His shoulders and instead of being grateful, people shunned Him as if He had leprosy. He was “wounded, pierced through; crushed to death for our sins.” He took on Himself the punishment for all our wrongdoings. He accepted the entire affliction without response as stated in VS. 7, “He was oppressed and he was afflicted, yet he opened not his mouth.” Because of His own suffering, He knows how to help you in yours. He endured the shame and pain of the cross, “He was smitten by God and afflicted,” VS. 4, but now He ever lives to make intercession for you. Because He was rejected, we are accepted. Thank Him today for being willing to hang there in shame on the cross until all of our sins were forgiven. MAY 19 ARE YOU UNEMPLOYED 2 Timothy 4:2 (NKJV) “ … Be ready in season and out of season.” When Timothy said, “Be ready in season and out of season,” he wasn’t taking about time, but about you; whether you feel like it\n128\nor not. If you do only what you feel like doing mostly that would be nothing. The “unemployed line” in the spiritual realm is endless. Spiritually depraved people refuse to do anything whatsoever unless\nthere’s\nsome\nsupernatural\nphenomenon. If you have experienced a new birth and taken your rightful position of being in Him, you will do your best at whatever the Wind Words whisper to you, whether you feel inspired or equipped. You will never hear God say, “If you can’t get it right, do nothing at all.” If you’ve done your best, it’s a “Well done, good and faithful servant,” even if it’s mostly a mess. Don’t join the ranks of the unemployed where God’s works are concerned; be ready in season and out of season.\nYou need not be unemployed\nspiritually; ‘tis the season to serve.\nMAY 20 GOD AFFIRMS US, MAKING US A SURE THING IN CHRIST 2 Corinthians 1:20-22 (MSG) “Whatever God has promised gets stamped with the Yes of Jesus…God’s Yes and our Yes together, gloriously evident. God affirms us, making us a sure thing in Christ, putting his Yes within us. By His Spirit He has stamped us with His eternal pledge—a sure beginning of what He is destined to complete.” Oswald Chambers:\n“We must not measure our spiritual\ncapacity by education or by intellect; our capacity in spiritual things is measured by the promises of God.” And whatever God has promised gets stamped with the, “Yes of Jesus!”\n129\nWhen the\npromise states, “God affirms us, making us a sure thing in Christ;” what does that do for all your feelings of inadequacy and inferiority? Genesis 1:27 says that we are made in His image, reflecting His nature. What else do you need? We have His stamp of approval for not only a sure beginning; we also have His promise that our destination is complete!\nMAY 21 COMPLETE WHAT GOD GAVE YOU TO DO John 17:4 (NLT) “I brought you glory on earth by completing what You gave Me to do.” Don’t try to do what someone else is doing.\nA spiritually\nmature Christian enjoys the accomplishments and gifts others have because they enjoy what God has gifted them to do. “Let us not become … competitive … envying … and jealous of one another … “Galatians 5:28 (AMP) Time spent in trying to be like someone else is a total waste. God made you unique; there’s not another human being in the world exactly like you…there may be some look-alikes, but that’s where it stops. He not only has a plan but a divine purpose for you. Jesus told God, “I brought You glory by completing what You gave Me to do” ... you need to live for that!\n130\nMAY 22 YOUR LIFE IS A PRIZE Jeremiah 45:6 (NKJV) “I will give you your life as a prize …” Whether I live or whether I die, I have life; I will come out of it living because of You, Jesus! You will have you life, no matter what! Even if you go to hell, you will still have life. When God breathed into you life, it was forever.\nPossessions, property,\nblessing all go, but life remains. Strip everything else away, life is left. A life hidden in Christ is all that counts. “I will give you your life as a prize;” is that how you view it? It is a prize when you abandon your plan to follow His. God doesn’t respond to what you do, you respond to what God is doing, let Him set the pace. He knows a thousand ways to make a way for you. God specializes in impossibilities. Psalms 32:10 (MSG), “God-defiers are always in trouble. God-affirmers find themselves loved every time they turn around.” Your life is a prize when you say, “I don’t want to live my way, I want to live Your way, Your Word’s way …” Psalms 17:4 Paraphrase (MSG) MAY 23 HE IS AT OUR SIDE IN BAD TIMES Psalms 91:15 (MSG) “Call Me and I’ll answer, be at your side in bad times…”\n131\nOne morning last year, I was standing at my kitchen sink getting ready to put a large chicken pot pie in the oven, having just made cookies to take to church for a dinner with missionaries. I looked at the clock and saw that I had about 15 minutes before time to put the casserole in the oven and thought I had time to shower. At that moment, my heart totally stopped and I woke up 15 min. later and took a cookie sheet off my face wondering what happened. The broken dish of pot pie was nearby but I never saw it. I had fallen from a standing position to flat of my back on tile flooring and had vertigo so bad I couldn’t lift my head. “Lord, you said to call on You, that You’d be at my side in bad times (one of the scriptures I had read that morning) this is a bad time, please help me.” He did. It took me 25 min. to scoot on my backside to a purse on the floor in the next room so I could use my cell phone to call 911. God is faithful always and He does respond to His Word when we call on Him!\nMAY 24 I NEED TO BE REFUELED DAILY Psalms 17:4-5 (MSG) “I’m not trying to get my way in the world’s way; I’m trying to get your way, Your Word’s way.” Your Spirit is here within, it shouldn’t be hard to stay connected and in tune with you and it wouldn’t be if we kept our mind and will focused on Your Presence, power and desire for us. There’s no lack on Your part! A beautiful float in the Rose Bowl suddenly ran out of gas. The whole parade was held up until gas\n132\ncould be found. Ironically, the float belonged to the Standard Oil Company! The float couldn’t run without fuel and neither can I. My gas pump is Your Word and I don’t operate well on the “Economy Version;” I require a higher octane. The “Regular” doesn’t work for me as my tank requires a more powerful fuel to live rightfully and pleasing to You. “I’m not trying to get my way in the world’s way; I’m trying to get your way, Your Word’s way.” I need to be refueled daily with the best You have to offer!\nMAY 25 THE FIRST RECORDED PRAYER Genesis 3:9 (NKJV) “Then the Lord God called to Adam and said to him, “Where are you?” When Adam and Eve heard God walking in the garden, they hid themselves among the trees and when God questioned them, Adam admitted that he had done something wrong but it really wasn’t his fault. “It’s that woman you gave me, it’s all her fault” and Eve said, “Don’t look at me, the Devil made me do it!” Some things haven’t changed too much in all these years, have they? At least they were talking to God and that is what prayer is all about. They didn’t need to tell God they were hiding; He already knew that…He asks them why they were hiding. He knew that too. He asked to\n133\ngive Adam a chance to confess his sin. This first recorded prayer has so many applications that we can make in our own times of confrontation and repentance before the Lord. If you hear God asking you today, “Where are you?” If it’s in sin, learn from Adam and don’t blame anyone else. Be glad He is seeking you out and giving you a chance to make things right with Him.\nMAY 26 WE ARE CHANGED INTO HIS IMAGE AS WE BEHOLD HIM 2 Corinthians 3:18 (KJV) “But we all with open face beholding as in a glass the glory of the Lord.” We want the Lord to manifest Himself to us; God only manifests Himself in us. His promise is: “I will be with you.” I continually mess up; He remains faithful. It is so easy to become agitated and frustrated when I’m trying to do the right thing and it all goes south. I falter, fail and repeat mistakes, and God still helps me! People who used to be lights do, at times, flicker out (how true).\n2 Timothy 4:16-17\n(KJV), “All men forsook me…\nnotwithstanding the Lord stood with me.” I have to build my faith on not the fading light but on the Light that never fails. The ones who flicker and fail were meant to go. So, I will turn my gaze on You. The whole verse reads: “We all with open face beholding as in a glass the glory of the Lord are changed into that same image from glory to glory even as by the Spirit of the Lord.” We gain His light and glory as we behold and gaze upon Him.\n134\nMAY 27 TRUST THE ONE WHO PROCESSES YOUR LIFE Job 23:10 (RSV) “But He knows the way that I take and when He has tried Me I shall come forth as gold.” Truly there wasn’t a man like Job on the face of the earth. Job 1:21 (RSV), “The Lord gave and the Lord has taken away, may the Name of the Lord be praised.” He saw nothing but the hand of the Lord as swords attacked his servants and cattle; the fierce lightening and winds that swept away all his sons and daughters; and as he experienced the deadening silence of his home. Yet his response was, “Though He slay me, yet I trust in Him,” Job 13:15 (RSV) Job trusted God when severely afflicted and all things dear to him were gone. The furnace may be hot but not only can I trust the hand that lights the fire but I have the assurance the fire will not consume, but only refine me and in the processing, “I really will come forth as gold!” MAY 28 IN YOUR FAVOR, OUR HORN IS EXALTED Psalms 89:17 (NKJV) “For you are the glory of their strength and in Your favor, our horn is exalted.” I was intrigued when I first read this verse and didn’t have a clue about what the Psalmist meant. Then I read further in VS.24\n135\nwhen God said of David: exalted.”\n“For in My name, his horn shall be\nIt means that in God’s Name, David would be given\npower and eventual triumph. David had been chosen and singled out to be holy; yet his beginnings were not spectacular as he was an ordinary shepherd. David’s strength (his horn) would be exalted in the God’s Name and would bring about his eventual success through God’s favor.\nLater, in Psalms 92:10 (NKJV), David\ndeclares, “But my horn You have exalted like a wild ox.” What does your horn represent? It should represent power and eventful triumph! In ancient times, the horn always was a symbol of strength.\nMAY 29 REACH OUT FOR CHRIST Philippians 3:12 (MSG) “I’m not saying that I have this all together, that I have it made. But I am well on my way; reaching out for Christ, who has so wondrously reached out for me.” To embrace Christ and be embraced by Him, to know Him personally, experience His resurrection power, requires embracing and being a partner in His suffering, as well. Most of us shy away from pain like the plague. We want the Light without paying for what produces light. The Light of the world is Jesus but He had to suffer death for our Light to come. A candle burns before light appears; an unlit candle has no light. We can be of little use to others without experiencing some burnings that will ultimately\n136\nproduce the “Light” of our life, and to do that, we have to be submissive. Jesus suffered what was necessary to reach out for you and now it’s your turn to partner with Him in order to help someone else. As you reach out for someone, He reaches out for you.\nMAY 30 THE THIRD TIME IS NOT ALWAYS A CHARM Proverbs 29:1 (NKJV) “He who is often rebuked and hardens his neck will suddenly be destroyed and that without remedy.” A poet wrote: “My old companions fare thee well, I will not go with thee to hell!”\nSamson lost everything because of wrong\nrelationships. The Bible says that “three times Samson went down” and the third time it was to Delilah.\nUngodly relationships can\ndestroy your life. Samson thought because he was special, God would excuse him. He was special and he was specially gifted, but “he went down” the wrong road. It’s better to want what you don’t have than to end up with what you can’t handle. If you find yourself developing an unhealthy relationship, don’t go that third time; you could end up destroyed and that without remedy. MAY 31 USE WHAT GOD HAS GIFTED IN YOU FOR HIS GLORY James 1:15 (MSG)\n137\n“Lust gets pregnant and has a baby: sin! Sin grows up to adulthood and becomes a real killer.” In Judges Chapters 14-16, you can read of Samson’s feats of strength: He could tear young lions apart with his bare hands; lift bolted gates and gate posts of the city and carry them away on his shoulders; kill a whole company of men with the jawbone of a donkey because of God’s gift of strength. Samson never knew when the Spirit left him until he tried to use it and found he had none. An angel of the Lord appeared to his mother before he was ever born and told her that “… he would begin to deliver Israel out of the hand of the Philistines …” Judges 13:5b (NKJV) God gifted him with strength for a purpose. What are you doing with the gifts that God has especially gifted in you? Luke 12:48 (MSG) “Great gifts\nmean\ngifts,\ngreater\nresponsibilities.” Never let lust be conceived within you so that sin grows and becomes a real killer. Use what God has gifted in you for His glory. JUNE 1 ARE YOU WILLING TO BE NOTHING SO THAT HE CAN BE EVERYTHING 2 Chronicles 16:9 (NKJV) “The eyes of the Lord run to and fro throughout the whole earth, to show Himself strong on behalf of those whose heart is loyal to Him.” Samson’s gift of strength departed from him as did his eyesight and fame. He was imprisoned, jeered, shackled in irons and defeated.\nThousands of Philistines shamed him as they\n138\ncelebrated their great victory to their god Dagon for the capture of Samson. Samson was granted his last prayer, “Master God, grant me strength one more time. Let me die with the Philistines.” He pushed hard on the two central pillars of the building and so it was he killed more in his death than he had killed in his life.” Don’t ever discount God’s plan. Before he was born, God had told Samson’s mother that he would begin to deliver Israel out of the hands of the Philistines. Ultimately, that happened. What about you? God has a plan in place for your life as surely as He did for Samson. 2 Chronicles 16:9 (NIV) “The eyes of the Lord range throughout the earth to strengthen those whose hearts are fully committed to Him.” God watches to see who will be willing to be nothing, so that He can be everything.\nJUNE 2 HE WILL DELIVER YOU…GIVE HIM TIME Jeremiah 1:19 (NKJV) “They will fight against you, but they shall not prevail against you. For I am with you says the lord, to deliver you.” God had already told Jeremiah in VS. 18, “I have made you like a fortified city and an iron pillar.” (MSG) Bible states it this way: “… immoveable as a steel post; solid as a concrete block wall, you’re a one-man defense system.” Jeremiah 1:5b “… before you were born I sanctified you; I ordained you a prophet to the nations.” VS. 9b-10 “Behold I have put My Words in your mouth.\n139\nSee I have this day set you over the nations and over the kingdoms.” Later, He told him, “You are to preach to the people of Judah. They won’t listen to a Word you say; you will not have one convert. They’ll try to kill you but I will be with you.” How would you like to get that kind of an assignment? If God has given you a difficult assignment, think of Jeremiah; he faithfully preached for 40 years without compromise or even one convert.\nYet, God was\nalways with him and He did deliver him. We have to trust and believe in the infallible Word of Almighty God Jehovah!\nJUNE 3 HE CAN DELIVER YOU INSTANTLY Judges 3:9-10 (NKJV) “The children of Israel cried into the Lord and He raised up a deliverer for the children of Israel who delivered them.” The Prophet Jeremiah may have waited 40 years to be delivered, but God can put someone in position instantly (as He did in the above reference). It might take us years in schooling but God can download a lifetime of living in us in an instant. It is God who works in us and if we’re receptive, God can do it all—He can do anything! Mostly, we aren’t “instantly” made heroes or judges; we go through valleys, tribulations and tunnels of darkness before He brings us into greatness in anything. A year ago today, I wrote: “Whether I live or whether I die, I live; I come out of it living because of You, Jesus! Strip it all away, life is left. You don’t respond to what we do, we respond to what You do. You set the pace. You know a thousand ways to make a way for me.” Psalms\n140\n32:10 (MSG), “God-defiers are always in trouble, God-affirmers find themselves loved every time they turn around.\nCelebrate\nGod!” He can deliver you instantly; it’s His choice. JUNE 4 HAVE YOUR OWN PERSONAL REVIVAL Psalms 80:3, 7, and 19 (NKJV) “Restore us, O God, cause Your face to shine and we shall be saved.” In these three verses, the psalmist says basically the same thing. Because we are restored and His face does shine on us when we with pad, pencil and Bible come to Him to find out what is wrong with us on the inside. Sometimes He does the restoring very quickly. You really can afford to see fewer TV shows. If not, spiritual impressions will soon be lost to your heart. Years ago, people went to the movies to escape God, now the movies come to them in their own homes. The Devil’s ideals and standards are accepted without us even realizing it. When you spend time in His Word and look up to His throne, all of heaven comes to you. When The Psalmist said, “restore us and we will be saved,” you are saved from evil influences here and now; saved to fulfill God plan and purpose for your life each and every day; and saved for all eternity. You can have your own personal revival every day. JUNE 5\n141\nTHE VICTORIES OF YESTERDAY HAVE LITTLE LINGERING VALUE Genesis 41:1b (NKJV) “ ... Pharaoh had a dream; and behold, he stood by the river.” Pharaoh had a dream as he stood by the Nile River, the lifestream of Egypt. (Please realize that your source of destruction can come from what you consider your greatest asset).\nIn His\ndream, out of the river came seven fine-looking, fat cows and began to feed in the meadow. Out of the same river, came seven gaunt, ugly cows and ate up the fine-looking healthy cows. Pharaoh awoke and went back to sleep and dreamed seven heads of grain came up on one stalk, plump and good. Then seven thin heads, blighted by the east wind, came and devoured the seven plump, full heads. This troubling dream was the Plan God had for using one Hebrew to save the entire land of Egypt and to reunite one broken family. The best years of your life, the victories can all be swallowed up just as surely as the fat cows and the plump heads of grain…all gone without a trace, leaving you with nothing but defeat and failure. The victories of yesterday can be today’s reversals. It happens, it’s called life. Listen to me, God saved Egypt through one person and He can do the same thing for you. Defeat and failure is not the end of life. God can use any and all of it, as a means of spurring you onto something richer and better. JUNE 6 YOUR WORDS ARE HEARD Luke 1:37 (LB)\n142\n“For every promise from God shall surely come true.” If God has made the promise, we can believe it.\nDaniel\n10:1213 (NKJV), “Then he said to me, “Do not fear, Daniel, for from the first day that you set your heart to understand, and to humble yourself before your God, your Words were heard; and I have come because of your Words. But the prince of the kingdom of Persia withstood me twenty-one days … ” Daniel had fasted and prayed for 21 days and the angel is telling him that from the first day he prayed, his prayer was answered but an Evil Spirit (LB) had blocked his path and prevented him from coming to him. But now he would tell him what was about to happen. There may not be anything wrong with you or your prayer but an Evil Spirit can block your answer. How many of us would continue to fast and pray for 21 days about anything? Consider Daniel’s reward: VS. 10-11, “Suddenly a hand touched me … and he said to me, O Daniel, man greatly beloved, understand the words that I speak to you … ” Trembling greatly, Daniel received not only strength and peace but the message God sent to him.\nEvery promise from God shall\nsurely come true. JUNE 7 TRUST AND OBEY Mark 9:23 (LB) “Everything is possible for him who believes.” Oswald Chambers: “He will tax the last grain of sand and the remotest star to bless us if we will obey Him. What does it matter if\n143\nexternal circumstances are hard? Why should they not be! If we give way to self-pity and indulge in the luxury of misery, we banish God’s riches from our own lives and hinder others from entering into His provision. No sin is worse than the sin of self-pity, because it obliterates God and puts self-interest upon the throne.” Make yourself a checklist: Being obedient involves your tongue (what you say); your mind (what you think); and your emotions (how you behave). Do you want to remain the same miserable, complaining, crosspatch or are you absorbing and doing life His way?\nBe\nencouraged to obey as you get a fresh touch from Him in His Word. God can encourage and inspire you, but it’s up to you to practice obedience. “Everything is possible for him who believes.”\nJUNE 8 BE READY Psalms 1:3 (NKJV) “He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water that brings forth its fruit in its season, whose leaf also shall not wither…” Be ready in season and out of season, we’re told. We just need to recognize what season we’re in. It may be a season of comfort; it may be a season to give comfort; or it may be a time to receive correction. Time is so important. We need to be wise enough to know a blessed life is like a tree that gives fruit in season. God is more interested in your roots than He is in how high your branches. He’s more interested in quality than He is in quantity. He is very interested in what comes out of you. That’s\n144\nwhy He uses your struggles to cultivate the kind of person necessary to produce good fruit. Storms are used sometimes to blow away things or people that hinder what He’s working on in you. Be ready for your season, whatever it is! JUNE 9 HOLD ONTO GOD Romans 8:35 (NKJV) “Who shall separate us from the love of Christ?” Paul lists a number of things: tribulation, distress, persecution, famine, nakedness, peril and sword, indicating some of the troubles that can come in our lifetime. But he hastens to say that we are more than conquerors in all these things. We may be a victim for a while, but we can become super victorious in spite of it all. Not by our own ingenuity or courage, but by holding onto God and His promises. It happens when we don’t let any of them affect our relationship with Jesus.\nNever let any of the things that come\nagainst you separate you from the knowledge of His Presence being right there with you.\nNo matter what comes in your life\nexperience, hold onto the love of God and believe that He has not left you for one second. Psalms 73:23 (NKJV), “Nevertheless I am continually with You; You hold me by my right hand.” JUNE 10 MY STRENGTH SHALL EQUAL MY DAYS Deuteronomy 33:25 (RSV)\n145\n“As your days, so shall your strength be.” You saved me from the penalty of sin in salvation. Today, I’m being saved from the power of sin. When You come back, I’ll be saved from all presence of sin. My strength will equal my days! “Because God’s my refuge, the High God my very own home, evil can’t get close to me, harm can’t get through the door” Psalms 91:11 (MSG) (personalized). I really never know anything until I recognize that God knows it all. My humble heart can help me more than my proud mind. God’s Word will only bear fruit when sown in peace and that’s why the Devil plays so much havoc in my life.\nIf the Devil can’t get me upset, he loses control.\nOswald\nChambers: “We have to take ourselves by the scruff of the neck and shake ourselves and we will find that we can do what we said we could not.” God redeemed my life to live it out for Him, and with Him helping me, my strength will equal my days! JUNE 11 OUR STRENGTH COMES FROM THE LORD Philippians 4:13 (KJV) “I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me.” Where we consider ourselves the strongest is where we’re least likely to prepare for attack.\nSatan loves to attack our\nstrongholds. What seems so innocent can be totally destructive. Flirting with temptation is a guarantee you will at some point actually do it. You need to recognize, avoid and eliminate it, now! Failure to do so won’t cut you off from God but it will totally destroy your potential and certainly affect your fellowship with your Savior.\n146\nAnd play havoc with your testimony! If you are feeling inadequate today, it’s probably because you are. God didn’t call us to work for Him but with Him.\nYou don’t have ability?\nNo problem; your\nsufficiency is from God. No money? God is able to make all grace abound to you so that in all things, at all times, you have all you need. No strength? “I can do all things through Him who gives me strength.” JUNE 12 OPEN YOUR MIND TO TRUTH Luke 24:45 (NKJV) “And He opened their understanding that they might comprehend the scriptures.” Before Jesus ascended to heaven, He was trying to tell the disciples of things to come and they didn’t understand a word of it. The Bible says that then He opened their minds to truth. That’s exactly what we need to do is to be open to receive from the Holy Spirit the truth of His Word. Hebrews 2:1 (LB), “We must listen very carefully to the truths we have heard or we may drift away from them.” Veering even slightly off course can put you miles away from where God showed you truth and you can end up in a place you never thought possible. Many times we blame the Devil, when actually it’s our own careless drifting and being involved in the cares of this world. When you read, ask the Holy Spirit to bring each thought captive so He can open your understanding, in order for you to comprehend the great truth of the scriptures.\n147\nJUNE 13 HE CAN MEET YOUR NEED John 17:19 (LB) “I consecrate Myself to meet their need for growth in truth and holiness.” God doesn’t ask us if we can go through or if we want to go through losses, disasters or death. He allows us to experience these things so that He can meet our need for growth in truth and holiness. In the midst of these things, we can either decide to become sweeter in Spirit or we can become bitter … more stubborn and critical and fault finding. It all happens, depending on your relationship with God. John 17:21 (LB), “My prayer for all of them is that they will be of one heart and mind just as You and I are Father, that just as You are in Me and I in You, so they will be in us and the world will believe You sent Me.” When we respond rightly to life’s surprises, the world does see exactly what our relationship with the Father really is. Jesus has already dedicated Himself to meet our need for growth in truth and holiness, so learn as you groan and know that you are in Him and He is in You!\nJUNE 14 THE PLANS OF THE LORD STAND FIRM Psalms 33:11 (NKJV)\n148\n“The counsel of the Lord stands forever, the plans of His heart to all generations.” The plans of the Lord stand firm but we must be prepared to wait on His timing. God’s timing is precious and He does things in the very time He has set. It is not for us to know His timing; in fact, we cannot know it—we have to wait for it. If God had told Abraham before he left Haram that he would have to wait 30 years before he could hold his promised son in his arms, his heart would have failed within him.\nInstead, God graciously withheld that painful\ninformation. But the sound of laughter did fill their home in their old age and they soon forgot the long years of waiting. So take heart when God requires you to wait—the One you wait for will not disappoint you. Habakkuk 2:3b (LB), \"If it seems slow, do not despair, for these things will surely come to pass. Just be patient! They will not be overdue a single day!” The plan of God’s heart extends to all generations.\nJUNE 15 TAKE A LOOK AT GOD Psalms 46:10 (MSG) “Take a long, loving look at me, your High God, above politics, above everything.” Psalms 73:25, 28 (MSG), ““You’re all I want in heaven! You’re all I want on earth! When my skin sags and my bones get brittle, God is rock-firm and faithful. I’ve made Lord God my home. God,\n149\nI’m telling the world what you do!” Focus on God, Who He is and What He is. Stop focusing on your problems. He doesn’t need a thing to start with in order to solve what’s wrong with you or in you. He flung the stars in place and they still shine every night; He emptied the oceans from His vast reservoirs; He but spoke and the world began, it appeared at His command, and it hasn’t stopped yet. There isn’t a thing He can’t do and He will help you. When He’s getting you ready to do something, He often allows you to get into situations in which there are no human solutions. Focus on Jesus more than your problem. He will make you into the kind of person you’ve always wanted to be. Trust Him regardless of what comes against you. Take a long, loving look at Him; He is rock-firm and faithful! JUNE 16 JOB KNEW SORROW Job 2:7-8 (LB) “So Satan went out from the presence of the Lord and struck Job with a terrible case of boils from head to foot. Then Job took a broken piece of pottery to scrape him, and sat among the ashes.” When Job sat alone on his ash heap all troubled over the providence of God (i.e., God working in his life controlling everything for His divine purpose), he might have been encouraged if he had known that literally millions of people would for generations read of his afflictions and find comfort. It is because of his afflictions that he is remembered--without them, we probably would never have known him. Which one of us has not learned that it is through our sorrows that we most clearly experience God’s\n150\npresence in our life? The person who goes through life without them is very shallow indeed. We all need to know heights and depths or we would be dwarfed and undeveloped.\nJob lost\neverything in his life that was dear to him but his response was, “Though He slay me, yet will I trust Him.”\nGod restored and\nblessed him, giving him twice as much as he lost. Job may have known deep sorrow but he also personally knew the “Man of Sorrows.” JUNE 17 WE SEEK YOU Psalms 27:8 (NKJV) “When you said, “Seek My face,” my heart said to You, “Your face, Lord, I will seek.” We seek You, Your Presence; we are so needy.\nWe find\nourselves overwhelmed with difficulties, trials and emergencies almost daily. This can be God’s way of providing vessels in us that the Holy Spirit needs to fill. Some of these things are nothing but opportunities and God’s means of deliverance that we could receive no other way. This is when we “Seek Your face!” We stand still before You and stop our own struggle to be delivered. The very things that threaten to destroy us can be used by God to show us His Almighty power and grace, as we continue to seek and trust You. We spend far too much time seeking what comes from Your hand, asking for blessings. We need to be doing what You said, “Seek My face” and be strengthened in our relationship with You. JUNE 18\n151\nWE ALL GET IN A FIX WE CAN’T FIX Psalms 46:1 (NKJV) “God is our refuge and strength, a very present help in trouble.” David went from being an exalted and honored King to being hounded and hiding in a cave. His life looked as if it fell apart. We all do some time in that state of existence … it is called “learning time.” It is a time to learn from where your help comes and learn about yourself. This is where God can do some of His best work. It is where your worst failures are confirmed, both to yourself and unfortunately to the whole world about you. It is also the time God bails you out. For all David knew, he was going to die in his cave. We get in a fix we can’t fix and this is as good as it gets. Because it is there that we learn to trust God.\nNever let your sense of\nsecurity be based on you. God will help you and be with you, no matter what. Trust Him. He will bring you out of the cave. Our only hope is in You, Lord! We really can’t fix us; only You can do that!\nJUNE 19 PACE YOURSELF Psalms 80:3 (NKJV) “Restore us, O God; cause Your face to shine, and we shall be saved!”\n152\nEvery day you are saved from evil influences and you are saved to fulfill God’s plan and purpose for your life. Here’s how you do it: Start each day by pacing yourself: •\nP – Praise God Almighty for Who He is.\n•\nA – Accept, be accepting of the plan He has for you today because His Plan is good.\n•\nC – Commit your life to the Lord, let Him have His way. “In all your ways acknowledge Him and He will direct your path,” Proverbs 3:6 (NKJV).\n•\nE – Embrace God’s plan for it is perfectly right whether or not you understand it at the time. (MSG) “Embracing what God does for you is the best thing you can do for God.”\nThree times we are told in Psalms 80, “Restore us and we will be saved” (VS. 3, 7, and 19). A person with pad, pencil and Bible is sure to find out what is wrong with their life very quickly. Look up to the throne, your advocate sits at God’s right hand, heaven is just ahead. PACE yourself today, all of heaven awaits you! JUNE 20 HE COMES TO FIGHT BY YOUR SIDE Mark 5:36b (NIV) “Don’t be afraid, just believe.” You walk with God, but sometimes God walks slowly. You become impatient as you wait for God to answer your prayers. Once prayed, you expect God to “hop to” when in reality, it may take years for “what you’ve prayed for to be prepared.” Do you ever consider that God waits for you? Many times He’s ready but\n153\nyou aren’t! Nor, are you moving with Him, so it’s missed. You also over-wait because you lack the confidence to move forward. Psalms 73:24a (NKJV), You will guide me with Your counsel,” but you lag behind or run ahead. Your goal is to walk with Him, so as to be available when the timing is right. Blessings happen when you do what is right and what is required…that involves obedience and faith.\nStop believing your doubts. You believe every doubt\nSatan throws at you, so why can’t you believe what the Lord says? You have to enter a conflict in order to win and as you enter, He comes to fight by your side. God will deliver you in His determined time. He has a fixed time and an ordained purpose for everything. He who controls the limits of our life also determines the time of our deliverance. Don’t be afraid, just believe. JUNE 21 THE WORD OF THE LORD WORKS 1 Thessalonians 2:12 (LB) “... that your daily lives should not embarrass God, but bring joy to him who invited you into his kingdom to share his glory.” 1 Thessalonians 2:13 (NKJV), “When you received the Word of God which you heard from us, you welcomed it not as the Word of men, but as it is in truth, the Word of God, which also effectively works in you who believe.” (LB) “… and it changed your lives when you believed it.” The Word of God works in you. Do not follow the crowd; do not follow the multitude to do evil. Mark 7:8 (LB), \"You ignore God’s specific orders and substitute your own traditions.” Proverbs 16:25 (NKJV), “There’s a way that seems right to a man, but its end is the way of death.” Judges 21:25\n154\n(NKJV), “Every man did what was right in his own eyes.” 1 Peter 1:17 (LB), “Your heavenly Father has no favorites when He judges. He will judge you with perfect justice for everything you do; so act in reverent fear of Him from now on until you get to heaven.” You need to accept the Word which is at work within you. You must receive the Word and carefully consider how you listen. Revelation 1:3 (NKJV), “Blessed is he who reads and those who hear the Words of this prophecy, and keep those things which are written in it, for the time is near.” (MSG) says it this way: “Happy is the one who reads the Book and those who listen to it being read and do what it says.”\nThe Word of God effectively works in you who\nbelieve! JUNE 22 MOVE FORWARD WITH THE KNOWN WILL OF GOD IN YOUR LIFE Exodus 14:21b (NIV) “… all that night the Lord drove the sea back with a strong east wind.” We read that “all that night, the Lord drove back the sea,” and we know that He merely spoke and the world began, it appeared at His command (Psalms 33 (LB). He can merely “speak” or He can cause an all-night, all-month, all-year happening in order to bring your deliverance, as He is Almighty God!\nThe people whined,\n“Have you brought us out here to die in the desert because there were not enough graves for us in Egypt? Why did you make us leave Egypt? Isn’t this what we told you, while we were slaves, to\n155\nleave us alone? We said it would be better to be slaves to the Egyptians than dead in the wilderness …” Exodus 14:11-12 (LB). In VS. 15, “Then the Lord said to Moses, “Quit praying and get the people moving!”\n(There’s a time to pray and a time to move\nforward). Result in VS. 18, “And all Egypt shall know that I am Jehovah.” You may think they were foolish but respond in like manner when you face difficulties. Moses told them, “Don’t be afraid. Just stand where you are and watch, and you will see the wonderful way the Lord will rescue you today … the Lord will fight for you and you won’t need to lift a finger!” VS. 13-14. You may need to stand still so that you see the solution to your situation. You never know when God will “blow” all night to change things just for you! JUNE 23 THE LORD IS MY HELPER Hebrews 13:5-6 (NKJV) “For He Himself has said, ‘I will never leave you nor forsake you.’ So we may boldly say: \"The Lord is my helper; I will not fear, what man can do to me?’” I need to get the dread of “what’s next” out of me and listen to what You say…to Your say-so. You have said, “I will never leave you nor forsake you,” so that I can say, “The Lord is my helper, I will not fear.”\nIt is through You that I can boldly claim Your\npromises. I just “ … need to watch what You do and then do it… mostly what you You do is love us; keep company with you and learn a life of love, learn to love like that … ” Ephesians 5:1-2 (MSG). In the meantime, I need to do what is within my power to\n156\ndo.\nIt isn’t within my power to create the wind or change its\ndirection but I can lift my sail to catch it when it comes. I can’t control the Holy Spirit but I can connect with Him and be obedient in doing what He’s called me to do as I come under His influence and power. You are my helper. I am not to fear, no matter what. Whether I face giants or grasshoppers, You say, “I will never forsake you.” I just need the courage to be bold and believe, “You are my helper.”\nJUNE 24 DESIRE THE WORD Ezra 7:10 (ML) “For Ezra had disciplined himself to study the Law of the Lord, to practice it and to teach its statutes and ordinances in Israel.” (RSV) “For Ezra had set his heart to study the law of the Lord and to do it!” Ezra didn’t wake up and say, “Behold, I am a spirit-filled teacher!” It took years of disciplined study. Study is more than reading it is delving into the scriptures, running references and finding the treasures that lie within. Learning and knowing means little unless used rightly. Notice he didn’t just study, but he put it into practice what he had learned!\nIt has been said, “I am a\nchanged person when I sharpen my focus to believe the Bible was written for me. What do I want from it? I want it to revive my soul, instruct, counsel, comfort, convict, and encourage me.\nPsalms\n19:7 (RSV), “The law of the lord is perfect, reviving the soul.” The\n157\nLaw is His instructions and guidelines which are flawless. VS. 8, “The testimony (statutes) of the Lord are sure (trustworthy and complete in every way), making wise the simple.”\nVS. 8, “The\nprecepts (requirements) of the Lord are right, rejoicing the heart (giving joy to the heart). The commandment of the Lord is pure (radiant), enlightening the eyes (giving light to our spirit eyes).” VS. 10, “More to be desired are they than gold, even much fine gold; sweeter also than honey dripping from the honeycomb.” I want to be wise; I want joy; and for my spirit eyes to be enlightened. His Word is more to be desired than fine gold and is sweeter than honey from the honeycomb. Desire the Word, taste and see that it is good!\nJUNE 25 HE BECAME POOR AND WE BECAME RICH 2 Corinthians 8:9 (MSG) “Rich as he was, he gave it all away for us—in one stroke, he became poor and we became rich.” Up until the last moment before He died, Jesus could have called it all off but in one stroke, He took on our sin and endured incredible pain so that we could be made right. When tuning the harp, the tortuous thumb screw has to be tightened by the harpist in order for the strings to produce a perfect sound. The Father sometimes works with us in much the same way…He hears off key, discordant sounds out of us so He plucks our heart strings with anguish and pain and then leans over to listen. If all He hears is still discord and harshness, He plucks some more. He tenderly\n158\nwaits for our stubbornness to melt and our will to be blended with His own.\nHe is long suffering and never ceases until we are\nhumbled and blended to become one in Him. The sounds that come out of us may never be perfect, but they can be in harmony. We are thankful for His fine tuning process in us and grateful that He endured His own incredible pain. The Bible tells us that all of our sin was poured into Him and in exchange, His righteousness was poured into us.\nIn that process, He became poor and we\nbecame very rich! JUNE 26 YOU ARE ALL I WANT IN HEAVEN OR ON EARTH Psalms 73:25-26 (MSG) “You’re all I want in heaven! You’re all I want on earth! When my skin sags and my bones get brittle, God is rock-firm and faithful.” (LB) Psalms 73:26: “My health fails, my spirit droops, yet God remains. \"You are the strength of my heart; You are mine forever!” It has been said, “The enemy doesn’t mind you talking about your faith as long as you don’t live it.”\nFaith can change any\nsituation, no matter what it is. Lifting my heart to God in a moment of genuine faith in Him can quickly alter any circumstance. God is still on His throne. He can turn disaster and defeat into victory in a split second, if I trust Him. I don’t want to wallow in self-pity and grief but I need your help; I hurt. Strengthen me that I may respond rightly to You. I don’t want to be whimpering and weak but I do pray that You will use my life experiences for your glory. Psalms\n159\n73:2124 (MSG), “When I was beleaguered and bitter, totally consumed by envy, I was totally ignorant, a dumb ox in your very presence. I’m still in your presence, but you’ve taken my hand. You wisely and tenderly lead me, and then you bless me.” VS. 28, “I’ve made Lord God my home. God, I’m telling the world what you do!” You are not only all I need, and You are all I want in heaven or on earth; You are rock-firm and faithful!\nJUNE 27 SEEK THE LORD Luke 11:9 (NKJV) “Seek and you will find ...” Oswald Chambers says: “Seek if you have not found. ‘You ask and receive not, because you ask amiss.’ If you ask for things from life instead of from God, you ask amiss. The more you focus on yourself, the less will you seek God. Seek, concentrate and you will find.”\nWe look at our creature comforts, our passions and\npleasures and draw far too much satisfaction from them. Thus, sometimes they are removed so we can direct our attention and thoughts to Jesus. Our identity lies not in our accomplishments but in our relationship to our Lord. Regardless of yesterday, God can rearrange tomorrow in our favor if we are faithful to Him. Some relationships will never be fixed. Turn to the One who loves you. He is not limited by the past; He is only limited by your lack of faith and trust. Seek the Lord. “You will find Him if you seek Him with all your heart and soul.” Deuteronomy 4:29 (NKJV).\n160\nJUNE 28 DO NOT JUDGE OTHERS Hebrews 11:31 (NKJV) “By faith the harlot Rahab did not perish with those who did not believe, when she had received the spies with peace.” We read in Joshua 2:1 (NKJV), “So they came to the house of a harlot named Rahab and lodged there.”\nIn the ancient world\nthere were two kinds of prostitutes … those who engaged in sexual acts at the shrine of a god as an act of pagan worship and the others were simply those who sold sexual favors for money. It is useless to try to speculate which one she was; both were sinful. The scripture says the scouts went there; Rahab wasn’t out beckoning them to come in. As a result of her courage and faith, we read that she and her entire household were saved when later the city was destroyed ... Joshua 2:8-13. Later she gets honorable mention in the Heroes of Faith outlined in Hebrews 11. Look at what she would have missed if she had turned them away. How many blessings do you imagine we miss because we don’t respond to what we’re exposed to? People cross our paths every day of our lives, some of them might be “scheduled” to change our destiny but we are oblivious to the opportunity. Rahab was a harlot, a nobody, an outcast; but because she was responsive to what God brought across her life, she became somebody known for all eternity. What can you learn from this? Hopefully, we learn not to judge others. God could have looked at what she was known as (a prostitute) but\n161\nHe looked at her heart and it was just waiting for an opportunity to be changed. What is He looking at in your heart today?\nJUNE 29 HOW IS YOUR HEART TODAY Joshua 6:21 (NKJV) “And they utterly destroyed all that was in the city, both man and woman, young and old, ox and sheep and donkey, with the edge of the sword.” Joshua’s army utterly destroyed all that was in the city, both man and woman, young and old...all but one family. They were as safe as bugs in a rug, as if the blood was on the doorposts. There is not even a hint that the scouts did anything wrong in making Rahab, the harlot, the promise that she and her family would be safe, even though God had commanded the Israelites to destroy all the Canaanites. We are so amiss when we cluck our tongues over things that do not add up for us. “God does what He sees needs doing …” 2 Samuel 10:12 (MSG). Your life is all about Him, not about you, you just need to let Him be in charge. This harlot was an exception to the rule; He can do that when He wants to. God can make exceptions. Rahab’s life had been a mess but her heart was ready for change; her statements of faith in Joshua 2:8-11 prove it. We need to respond to our life challenges as she did with courage and faith and be grateful for her example. Anyone can respond well, given the right environment. Acting in faith is called obedience. Have you had to move forward recently in something that needed added courage and strength? Knowing and speaking God’s Words of faith are your best assets.\n162\nJUNE 30 SPREAD GOD A BANQUET OF PRAISE Psalms 50:8, 13, 15 (MSG) “This is God, your God, speaking to you. If I get hungry, do you think I’d tell you? All creation and its bounty are mine. Spread for me a banquet of praise; serve High God a feast of kept promises. And call for help when you’re in trouble. I’ll help you and you’ll honor me.” I spread you a table of praise; I praise my High God, magnificent in splendor! Would you feast or would you be apt to famine on my “kept promises?” You keep every promise You make to me; help me to keep those I make to You. I enjoy trying new recipes so help me create new praises and spread them before You as carefully as I set my table for guests. I spread a banquet of praise to you my Savior, King, Redeemer, God of the Angel Armies, Jehovah! I submit to you, whatever it takes to change me from what I am to what you want me to be. I am who You say I am. Oswald Chambers:\n“Beware of looking back to what you once\nwere when God wants you to be something you’ve never been.” People continually worry their lives away, trying to figure out why they suffer, why their life is so full of burdens and troubles. How different life would be if they would stop indulging in thinking only of themselves and what is wrong in their life but instead lift their daily experiences to God and praise Him. It is so much easier to praise Him than to try to reason out what worries you. Psalm 50:14-15 (MSG) says “spread me a banquet of praise; serve High God a\n163\nfeast of kept promises. Call for help when you’re in trouble, I’ll help you.”\nJULY 1 WE CAN EXPERIENCE HIS HIDDEN SECRETS Psalms 25:14a (NKJV) “The secret of the Lord is with those who fear Him.” On the surface, God’s dealings with His own children sometimes appear to be harsh and hidden. In faith, we look for “the hidden,” for God’s secret… that which is not seen on the surface.\nGod may give us gifts that are wrapped in most\nunattractive paper— we are to ignore the outside—because inside are treasures of love, kindness and wisdom. We are to receive what He sends and trust Him for the valuables inside because in time, we will experience His hidden secrets. If you have Christ as your Master, you can master any circumstance. Your situations can not only shape you but provide you with added resources for “what’s next.” Two years ago today I wrote in my journal regarding the loss of my husband: “There’s no rug being hooked; no car being assembled; no candle in the making…all lay silent, just as he left them. All is totally silent except the screaming pain in my heart, can you hear it Lord? I know that You are using him for far better purposes today; thank You for that. Now, help me today, Lord, to make something for You out of what You have given me.” Your love is not hidden; it is a revealed secret in my heart. You have awakened my spirit, help me to respond.\n164\nJULY 2 LEARN SOME NEW ABC’S Psalms 15: 1-5 (MSG) “God, who gets invited to dinner at your place? How do we get on your guest list? Walk straight, act right, and tell the truth. Don’t hurt your friend, don’t blame your neighbor; despise the despicable. Keep your Word even when it costs you, make an honest living, and never take a bribe. You’ll never get blacklisted if you live like this.” Oswald Chambers: “One life wholly devoted to God is more value to God than 100 lives simply awakened by His Spirit. God brings us to a standard of life by His grace and we are responsible for reproducing that standard in others.” So often our lives do not tally with what the Lord has revealed to us, let the Son of Man arise in your heart! I try to find some new ABC’s before I go to sleep at night, such as:\nA – I Admire you; B – I Belong to you; C – You\nCare for my soul; D – You are my Deliverer; E – You are Everything; F – You Favor me; G – Great is my God; H – Hallowed be Your Holy Name; I – I’m in You; J – You are Jehovah; K – King of Kings; L – Lord of Lords; M – Master of everything; N – No one like You; O – Omnipotent; P – Powerful; Q – You are a Quiet Spirit; R – You are Radiant; S – You are the Star of Bethlehem; T – I am Trusting You; U – You are unique; V – Victory through You; W – You are Wonderful; X – You are Extra- ordinary; Y – Yield to You; Z – Zealous for You!\nJust praise and give glory to God.\n165\nPraising\nanswers a lot of prayers. Praise when “we walk straight, act right, tell the truth and keep our word” both to God and to your neighbor! JULY 3 THE ISSUE OF FORGIVENESS Matthew. 6:14 (NKJV) “For if you forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive you.” You need to forgive for your sake. When you forgive, you set someone free…and that someone is you.\nIf you wait until you\n“feel” like doing it, it will never happen. Forgiveness is a matter of choice; and it’s a hard choice. You may even know that the person will turn around and do this again but you’re not the Judge. When you walk in un-forgiveness, know this: There’s more damage to the vessel in which un-forgiveness is stored than there is in the vessel into which it is poured. You need to be resolute when God speaks to you in His Word; first to listen and then to do what He speaks. Act in faith immediately on what He says. Don’t hesitate or you’ll “reason” yourself out of it. Take the step necessary and make it impossible for you to reverse your decision. Walk in forgiveness and your heavenly Father will also forgive you. JULY 4 CELEBRATE TODAY Philippians 4:4-5 (MSG) “Celebrate God all day, every day. I mean, revel in him! The Master is about to arrive. He could show up any minute!”\n166\nWe have such a need in our land to “celebrate God all day, every day.” A lot of celebration will be going on today and we are thankful for those who have come before us and defended our freedoms so that we may worship God in spirit and in truth. Brave men and women today our living in adverse situations so that we may have peace and enjoy life, family and friends here at home. Many have made plans today to picnic or cook out and enjoy fireworks later. But nothing could possibly compare to the great celebration when “The Master arrives and He could show up any minute.”\nThink about it today as you go your way…He could\nintercept our plans with His own at any time. Psalms 91:16 (MSG), “I’ll rescue you, and then throw you a party. I’ll give you a long life, and then give you a long drink of salvation.” Firecrackers can light up the sky, but Jesus can light up your life! Celebrate Jesus today, all day! JULY 5 GOD’S NATURE IS TO LOVE US Isaiah. 43:4 (LB) “You are precious to me and honored and I love you.” God loves me not because I am loveable but because it is His nature to do so. Then He seems to say: “Love as I have loved you.\nI will bring any number of people around you whom you\ncannot even respect and you must exhibit My love to them as I have exhibited it to you.” God has loved me to the uttermost and He sends me forth to love the same way. I get huffed because\n167\npeople are disagreeable…but I have to know how disagreeable I’ve been to Him.\nKeep going to the Word.\nLife includes a lot of\ndiscipline and we all go through many areas of training. Ignore what you see and what you feel…God’s Word is the way it is. You have brought me through much heartache and sorrow, Lord; now bring me “into the knowledge of You.”\nTeach, help, train, and\nencourage me to love others as you love me.\nJULY 6 WE ALL GET PERPLEXED, PUSHED AND PERSECUTED 2 Corinthians 4:8-9 (NKJV) “We are hard-pressed on every side, yet not crushed; we are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed.” Grow stronger. You must stop thinking like a victim. Stop expecting others to rescue you, feel sorry for you, or to reduce your stress levels…you’re not helpless and your situation isn’t hopeless. Invest your energy in what you can change, which is your attitude and your approach. It takes more energy to hang onto old habits and beliefs than to embrace new ones. When everything changes in your life, learn to adjust. You may not like the changes but you can learn a way to flow through them. “We are perplexed but we don’t give up and quit…we get knocked down but we get up again and keep going.” 2 Corinthians 4:8-9 (LB). Psalms 66:12 (NLT) states, “… we went through the fire and the flood but in the end you brought us to a place of wealth and abundance.”\nFind a\nperson who has gone through great conflict and you’ll find a person\n168\nat rest. Be encouraged! Psalms 91:15 (MSG) states, “Call on me and I’ll answer, be at your side in bad times!” An untested person has no idea how to handle a crisis, much less a setback. When tragedy hits, our hearts are overwhelmed, but faith can lift our shattered hopes when we look to the One in whom we believe. We all are perplexed, pushed and persecuted, at times.\nIt will not\ndestroy you, but it will improve your relationship with the only One who can make it work for your good and not against you.\nJULY 7 GOD WILL INCREASE YOUR STRENGTH Isaiah 40:29 (NKJV) “He gives power to the weak and to those who have no might, He increases strength.” We hate giving up things we do well, so we focus on ‘doing things right’ but not always doing the right things. It’s great to be good at something but we need to reach out and learn new things. We should be open to change…new strategies…focus on what God wants you to do. Don’t fear when you enter a new situation. Our inclination is to slow down, proceed cautiously, play it safe, buy some time, thus we stall and fall behind. Help us Lord to trust You and move with You and not to drag our feet. Don’t be overwhelmed but move in confidence and believe You. It is You who activates Your Word and “gives power to the weak and to those who have no might, You increase their strength.” Help us to respond quickly. Instant obedience is the only kind there is. Delayed obedience is\n169\ndisobedience. Our inclination is always to ask ‘why’ and to have answers before obeying. Refuse to go there! If He leads you to it, He will lead you through it. Believe He will not only help you but increase your strength! JULY 8 WE CAN TRUST HIS WORD Deuteronomy 31:6 (NIV) “Be strong and courageous.\nDo not be afraid or terrified\nbecause of them for the Lord your God goes with you. He will never leave you nor forsake you.” We fight Satan by knowing God’s Word and knowing God’s will…not only knowing it but standing on it and enforcing the terms God has already declared and put in place.\nJohn 8:32 (NLT)\nstates, “You will know the truth and the truth will set you free.” We are to know the truth and then trust God to do what He has said He will do.\nWhen God leads us through deep difficulties, go in\nconfidence and never take your eyes off Him. Don’t survey the opposition; it could cause you to fall apart. Pausing or hesitating could allow you to be overcome. Lift your eyes to the One who can and will take you to the other side. We can trust His Word.\nJULY 9 WE ARE TO MANIFEST GOD’S GRACE 2 Peter 3:18 (NKJV)\n170\n“But grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.” Oswald Chambers says:\n“Are you the same miserable\ncrosspatch, set in your own way? Then it is a lie to say that God has saved you. You cannot do a thing for your salvation but you must do something to manifest it. You must work out what God has worked in. All of the Almighty God is ours in the Lord Jesus. He will tax the last grain of sand and the remotest star to bless us if we will obey Him. If we give way to self-pity and indulge in misery, we banish God’s riches from our own lives and hinder others from entering into His provision. No sin is worse than the sin of self-pity because it obliterates God and puts self-interest on the throne. If the majesty, grace and power of God are not being manifested in us, God holds us responsible as He has made His grace to abound toward us. He, in turn, wants us to then to lavish His grace on others. Study His Word and obey what you learn; it is how we are enabled to manifest God’s grace in our lives by working out what He has worked in. JULY 10 GOD WILL USE YOU Matthew 6:26, 28b-29 (NIV) “Look at the birds of the air; they do not sow or reap or store away in barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not much more valuable than they? See how the lilies of the field grow. They do not labor or spin. Yet I tell you that not even Solomon in his entire splendor was dressed like one of these.”\n171\nThe lilies of the field, the sea, the stars, air, sun, and moon are all on display in God’s trophy room…He sustains them as they perform their ministries. We may want so much to be “something” but what we need most is simply to concentrate on God. We busy ourselves in doing for others when the only way to “be something” is to concentrate and believe Jesus, pay attention to Him. Let Him be manifested in you. The lilies of the field simply grow where they are planted. The people who influence us the most are not those who try to talk us to death but those who live their lives like the stars in the heavens and the lilies in the field, simple and unaffected.\nIf you want to be used of the Lord, live in a right\nrelationship with Jesus and then He will use you where He’s planted you.\nJULY 11 JESUS IS THE CENTERPIECE OF OUR LIFE Hebrews 3:1b (MSG) “Take a good hard look at Jesus.\nHe’s the centerpiece of\neverything we believe.” He is the center piece in the puzzle of life. If you would take a piece of faith, love, suffering, joy, desires, rejection, contentment, truth, grace, sorrow, endurance, conflict, heartache, emotions, grief and pain… fit them around the person of Jesus, you would have the complete puzzle of life itself. Everything fits in and within Him. In Him we live and move and have our being. I go with you, dear Jesus, I need you! I would like to pick and choose the pieces of the\n172\npuzzle but I would probably omit the very ones You will use to make me more like You.\nI’d probably choose faith, joy,\ncontentment, truth and love and someday, our life will certainly be like that, but we’re not home yet. Pour Your Spirit into me today so you may disclose You to me and I won’t disappoint and embarrass You. God is looking for just one man even, one God-ready woman … Lord, help me to be ready for You today. JULY 12 JOINT VENTURE AGREEMENT 2 Corinthians 4:8-10 (RSV) “We are hard pressed on every side but not crushed; perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body of the death of Jesus so that the life of Jesus may be manifested in us.” Our Joint Venture Agreement with the Lord should include this statement found in Joshua 24:15 (NLT), family, we will serve the Lord.”\n“…as for me and my\nWhen entering a Joint Venture\nAgreement of life, part of that agreement is we will be pressed on every side (at times) but doesn’t mean these things will crush us because God’s Heavenly Police are on patrol and will make a way for you even in the worst scenarios.\nWe are all perplexed by\nunfairness, things that simply don’t add up…in our spiritual walk… 2+2 will not always tally out, but keep walking, God has a plan. We will be persecuted but we’ll never be forsaken because His part of the Agreement is that He will never leave or forsake us. We get struck down but it is not fatal, you are not destroyed, just wounded.\n173\nYou can be overthrown but not overcome! Now get this, it’s the most important part of the Agreement…”we will always carry in our body the death of Jesus so that the life of Jesus may be manifested (or revealed) in us. We don’t even want to go there; we just want a fix. We all go through valleys and we think we can’t stand it, but it is there that the life of Jesus comes to the surface and it is in that time, He helps us the most.\nWe want deliverance without the\nstruggle and life is not like that. Too many times we surrender to defeat or else we give up and become bitter over what we think it not right. In a Joint Venture Agreement, the cost is always spelled out.\nGod has nothing worth having that can be easily gained.\nHeaven has nothing cheap for sale. The cost of your redemption cost God everything. Anything worth having will cost you plenty. Hard times and difficult situations are class rooms for learning and developing Godly character. When they come on us, we are to go forward toward them in confidence, know God is already there. Stand firm, you will not be overcome!\nJULY 13 THE BITTER BECOMES SWEET John 18:11 (NIV) “Jesus commanded Peter, “Put your sword away! Shall I not drink the cup the Father has given me?” Peter had just hacked off the ear of the high priest’s servant as Jesus was being arrested. Jesus was willing to drink the bitter cup of heartache and sorrow that was to follow. God may use many strokes of heartache and disappointing circumstances in order to get you into the best image. He can visualize what you need in\n174\norder to receive His gifts in the right spirit. If your soul is indifferent, you will not receive the bitter gifts and will let them pass by; hence nothing good will ever come of them.\nGod’s intent behind any\nsorrow is to let His love be manifested in blessings your human heart can never imagine.\nWhen you don’t receive pain, you\nbecome dry inside and often begin to question and wonder why you are experiencing such trauma. Open your heart to suffering, it will accomplish more good than you can imagine.\nIn the Old\nTestament, the people found their drinking water was bitter but when the prophet threw a branch into the water, the bitter water became sweet. Whatever God brings into your life, receive it, as His plan is always good; the bitter will become sweet when filtered through His love.\nJULY 14 CALL UPON THE LORD Psalms 107:28-29 (NIV) “Then they cried out to the Lord in their trouble, and he brought them out of their distress.\nHe stilled the storm to a\nwhisper; the waves of the sea were hushed.” “In the battle, do you feel alone? Remember at ‘Wit’s End Corner’ is just where God’s power is shown. Are you standing at Wit’s End Corner? Then you’re just in the very spot to learn the wondrous resources of Him who fails you not,” Antoinette Wilson. When we cry to the Lord in our distress, He brings us out! He can calm the storms that blow over you just as He calmed the waves of\n175\nthe sea. A closer look sometimes reveals what we perceived as a storm is more akin to showers of blessings. You worry and fret as if you are Captain of your life. Do you think that all the commotion and uproar of this life is evidence that God has left His throne? Well, He hasn’t.\nOur Jehovah is still Master.\nFeelings of\nhopelessness and fear will wither your heart and sear you against sensing His Presence and blessings.\nIt also causes you to\nexaggerate your troubles and makes them harder to bear.\nHis\nencouragement is to, “Cry out to Me in your trouble,” and He will answer you! JULY 15 THE PEOPLE SUNG AND DUG Numbers 21:17 (NKJV) “Spring up, O well, sing about it!” God told Moses to gather the people together and He would give them water. And the people begin to sing. They stood on the burning sand and sang a song of praise as noted in Numbers 21:17 (NKJV), “Spring up O well, all of you sing to it,” and as they sang and dug, gurgling water came up, an underground stream that had been there all the time. In their thirst, they would have passed over it had they not sung and dug...they left off whining and complaining and found water in the wilderness and streams in the desert. Nothing pleases God as much as praise. Trials in our life are blessings in disguise and oh how we squirm and complain while waiting for God to accomplish something. Praise Him with everything in you for what is right and praise Him for what isn’t,\n176\nbecause He will make it right. He does all things well, in time; our part is to praise Him regardless. JULY 16 GOD HAS CHOSEN YOU Isaiah 48:10 (NKJV) “I have chosen you in the furnace of affliction.” Genesis 26:24 (NKJV) “Do not be afraid, for I am with you.” God has chosen me, whatever state I find myself, He has chosen me for it. If it’s the Valley of Tears, then He is standing by. Whatever my trial, He is with me; His Presence never leaves. He is my comfort and safety.\nPoverty and devastation may walk\nthrough my door but God lives in my house.\nSickness may\npenetrate my body but Jesus lives within me. My heart burns with pain but His Word is like a soft rain to put out the fire. Afflictions, heartache and pain are a part of the life He has chosen for me. I will experience nothing that doesn’t fulfill some part of His plan. My purpose and communion with Him transcends time and any circumstance I encounter. Do I always respond rightly? No, but that doesn’t change His Word that says, “All of His Words are right; everything He does is worthy of our trust,” Psalms 33:4 (LB). I want to fulfill His joy in me and experience what He has chosen for me. I want to be willing to do what Oswald Chambers recommends: “Put yourself in the place where God’s almighty power will come through\n177\nyou.” That “place” is not of my choosing, it’s His choice, but I do have the promise that is He is with me.\nJULY 17 FOR HE IS LORD OF LORDS AND KING OF KINGS Revelation 17:14 (NKJV) “They will make war against the Lamb but the Lamb will overcome them for He is Lord of lords and King of kings and those with Him are called, chosen and faithful.” What a wonder You are…Lord God Almighty! I look at my creature comforts, passions and pleasures and draw far too much satisfaction from them.\nSometimes You remove them so I will\ndirect my attention and thoughts toward You. My identity lies not in my accomplishments but in my relationship with You. Thank you, Jesus for what You want to disclose to me today about You. Regardless of yesterday, You will rearrange tomorrow in my favor, if I am faithful. Some earthy relationships will never be fixed but my choice is to turn to the One who does love me. You are not limited by my past; You are only limited by my lack of faith and trust in You. A hundred years from now, we will all be alive, either in heaven or in hell, but every one of us we will all be living according to our relationship with Jesus. He is King of kings and Lord of lords! Use today to be strengthened in Him.\nJULY 18 ABIDE IN ME\n178\nJohn 15:4 (MSG) “Live in Me. Make your home in Me just as I do in you.” God will not make you obedient; He will not make you think like He does. We are the ones who need to bring every thought captive to the obedience of Christ. Adrian Rodgers said, “Bible study will give you knowledge of God; obedience lets you know God.” Obedience and abiding is my job and it’s what lets me see what needs to be done. The people who started the Salvation Army had the compassion to do so when they saw pup after pub in London with steps so little children could step up to the bar and order drinks. Now the organization ministers to 3 million people in 91 countries. How much do you care? What we read in Scripture is, Abraham entered into what God was doing for him and that was the turning point. He trusted God to set him right instead of trying to be right on his own. Sometimes you see that the job is too big for you, that it’s something only God can do and you trust Him to do it, knowing you could never do it for yourself no matter how hard and long you worked. Trusting-Him-to-do-it is what gets you set right with God, by God. It only happens in your life when you are “living (abiding) in Him” and being obedient to what He is speaking into your life.\nJULY 19 YOUR BROOK MAY EVAPORATE SOMETIME\n179\n1 Kings 17:7 (NIV) “Sometime later the brook dried up because there had been no rain in the land.” Elijah had followed the Lord’s directive to go the Kerith Ravine when He said, “You will drink from the brook and I have ordered the ravens to feed you there.” All was well until slowly the brook began to dry up.\nSometimes we experience disaster slowly and\nsometimes it comes suddenly and unexpectedly. Temptation is to wonder if we heard God rightly. Adversity causes us to look at our circumstances; faith causes us to put God between us and the problem so we’re looking at Him instead of the circumstance. The brook dwindled to a thread of water; the birds flew away, now what? It wasn’t until every scrap of evidence that God was with him was gone that he received any further direction from the Lord. Mostly, we don’t stick around long enough to receive further instructions. Once the food and water was gone, we would have devised some plan of our own, asked God to bless it, and been on our way. We are too impatient to wait for God’s deliverance. And what is the result? Many steps have to be retraced, many tears of repentance and much time wasted. It took time for the brook to dry up and it took time for God to lead him to Zarephath (his next assignment), where a widow was awaiting his help. Usually, we get “fixed” when we assist someone else. So the next time, you run dry, look for someone who needs your help. Just know we all experience the evaporation of the brook at some point in our lives, but God always has something new ahead. JULY 20\n180\nGOD IS IN EVERY PART OF YOUR LIFE Psalms 121:7-8 (MSG) “God guards you from every evil; he guards your very life. He guards you when you leave and when you return, he guards you now, and he guards you always.” Psalms 121:7-8 (NKJV) “The Lord shall preserve you from all evil. He shall preserve your soul. The Lord shall preserve your going out and your coming in from this time forth and even forever more.” “One of the bad habits we pick up early is separating our lives, things and people, into the secular and sacred. secular is what we’re in charge of:\nWe think the\nour jobs, our time, our\nentertainment/ social life. The sacred is what God’s in charge of: worship, Bible, heaven, hell, church and prayers. We set aside a sacred place to honor God and keep Him there, leaving us free to have the final say in everything else! Absolutely everything takes place on Holy ground. The way we make our money and the way we spend it; the way we feel and act in our hearts and home; the politics we embrace; the catastrophes we endure; the people we hurt and the people we help—nothing is exempt from the rule of God and nothing is hidden from the rule of God and nothing escapes His purposes,” Eugene Peterson. God is an intricate part of everything that concerns our life. He doesn’t run ahead of you and slip into a phone booth and change into His Superman suit just before you walk through the church doors. Our tendency is to take Him to church and tell him to stay there. He truly “sees you when\n181\nyou’re sleeping; He knows when you’re awake; He knows when you’ve been good or bad” and loves you anyway! He is in every nook and cranny of your life and wants to be a part of all of it. Nothing is unusable by God…everything, everybody, and every mess can be remade. He will preserve your life every time you go out and every time you come in, His Word says so! JULY 21 THE INSIDE/OUTSIDE OF YOUR LIFE Job 1:1 (NKJV) “Job was upright, blameless, feared God and shunned evil.” That scripture describes what was on the inside of Job (it is so important to want to be bigger and better on the inside than on the outside). In VS. 2-3…He had 7 sons, 3 daughters, 7,000 sheep, 3,000 camels, 500 yoke of oxen, 500 female donkeys and a very large household. He was the greatest man in all the land. That was what was on the outside. God was impressed with what was on the inside and pointed out to Satan\nin VS.8, “Have you\nconsidered my servant Job, that there is no one like him in all the earth, a blameless and upright man who fears God and shuns evil?” Does God even mention one thing that Job had on the outside? No! Because God’s interested in what’s on the inside. VS. 9-11, Satan doesn’t mention anything but what he had on the outside (his possessions); because that’s his domain and it’s exactly how he operates in our lives (through worldly possessions). Satan believes Job is big on the inside because of what he has on the outside and says in VS.11, “You stretch out Your hand and touch all that he has\n182\nand he’ll curse you to your face.” We see it every day as people turn away from God because it; and that’s where losses come from…Satan exercises his powers of evil in this world and people blame God.\nJob lost every outside thing he had, including his\nchildren. When you get stripped of your outside possessions, what do you look like inside?\nIt would be great if God would be\nimpressed and see us as upright, blameless, fearing Him and shunning evil! Read the Book of Job and learn how to do this. JULY 22 INSIDE/OUTSIDE (CONTINUED) Acts 8:18 (NKJV) “Simon the Sorcerer said to Peter, Give me this power that on whom I lay hands may receive the Holy Spirit…” Here’s how we tend to live our life…”give me.” The son said to the Father, give me the portion of goods that belong to me,” Luke 15:12. The hope of every parent alive is that the child will outgrow this someday. The baby in the cradle reaches out so you will give to them; before they can even speak, they have the “give me” syndrome. So much so that children today grow up and take from the parents. A man goes into marriage so that a woman will “give him” what he needs. A woman does the same thing.\nIn\ncounseling, when the outside and the inside needs are not being fulfilled, the most frequent phrase is, “He/She is not meeting my needs biologically, physically, or spiritually.” recognized.\nWe’re ambitious.\nWe all want to be\nSimon the Sorcerer wanted to\nSpirit because he wanted to feel significant and be recognized. Please listen: Only God can make you happy. We look to people; it’s not there. Psalms 139:23 (NKJV), “Search me, O God, and know my heart.”\nPride and insecurity are what stop you from\nsearching and growing. We become un-teachable, unreachable, unsearchable when we stop searching for God and listening to Him. Be willing to be as the Prodigal and say to the Lord, “Make me like one of your hired servants;” i.e., fit for the Master’s use. And what are the results? God blessed the latter days of Job more than his beginning.\nIn fact, He doubled everything except his\nchildren. Why would He double the livestock and not his sons and daughters? (Half of his sons and daughters are already in heaven)! According to Job 1, “he would rise early in the morning and sanctify them and offer burnt offerings according to the number of them all.” Job had his inside/outside life in order. That was his story and he stuck to it! He got double for his trouble. How about you? Don’t you want to be bigger on the inside than what is seen on the outside? JULY 23 LEARN TO BE BOLD Isaiah 41:23 (NKJV) “For I the Lord your God will hold your right hand saying to you, ‘Fear Not, I will help you.” One of the attributes of a true Christian character is to encourage and lift up people and to not be afraid to do it. Andy Stanley said he brought a Bible, put it in a plastic bag, walked into a Beauty Salon and shyly/hesitantly put it on the counter in front of\n184\nthe beautician, his friend. Her customer said, “What’s in the bag?” She took it out, “Oh, a Bible, want me to mark some verses for you?” The next customer, who came in, picked up the Bible and read out loud the marked verse! The third customer was a staunch 80 year old woman who commented on the underlined verse and then later asked the beautician if she’d like to receive Christ and the two of them went back into the closet where they kept towels and supplies and the woman accepted Christ. Andy said, “I was timid and hesitant; these women were BOLD and God worked!” We need to know He will do what He says He will do…”Fear not, I will help you.” Help us today to be bold to the opportunities He provides. JULY 24 THE WORD OF THE LORD John 6:63 (NKJV) “It is the Spirit who gives life, the flesh profits nothing. The Words that I speak to you are Spirit and they are life.” John 6:63 (MSG), “The Spirit can make life. Sheer muscle and willpower don’t make anything happen. Every Word I’ve spoken to you is a Spirit-Word, and so it is life-making.” 1 Thessalonians 2:12 (LB), “That your daily lives should not embarrass God but bring joy to Him who invited you into His holy Kingdom to share His glory. VS.13 (RSV), “When you received the Word of God which you heard from us you accepted it, not as the Word of man but as what it really is, the Word of God, which is at work in you believers.” (LB), “It changed your lives when you believed it.” We are to live\n185\nand move and have our being in Him and His Word. Don’t try to separate Him in “churchy” and secular activity; He is in all of your life.\nGod is in you; He’s with you when you walk through the\ngrocery store just as much as when you walk through the door of the church. You might wish He wasn’t with you in some of the places you go, but He’s there! You only have one life and it’s all lived out with Him in it. How can you be so utterly unbelieving when God is in and around everything?\nIn tribulation, slander,\nmisunderstandings, devastation, God is there. Begin and end your day in His Word. It will change your life when you believe the Bible was actually written for you! JULY 25 SPEAK A WORD OF PRAISE Psalms 50:8,12 (MSG) “This is God, your God speaking to you…spread for me a banquet of praise…” If God says He wants to be praised, how much more we stand in need of it! If you’re thinking of it, don’t be selfish and take people for granted…tell them! It is so much easier to find fault, you have no problem spitting that one out! Our Words are so influential. Even what you think drops down into your own heart and eventually into your spirit. Think of how much good that can be for you, then consider the damnation it is to yourself when you’re condemning someone else.\nDon’t want to praise someone\nbecause it could cause pride? Jesus hailed Nathaniel with, “Here’s a true Israelite in whom there is nothing false.” Believe it, more people die of broken hearts than ever die from swelled heads.\n186\nGive someone a shout of praise today. If you shock them to death, at least they’ll die happy! Speak God’s Word into someone’s heart today, it could mean everlasting life to them. God says it fulfills His joy when you do!\nJULY 26 BE BLESSED BY THE LORD Psalms 84:5 (MSG) “And how blessed all those in whom you live, whose lives become roads you travel.\nVS. 10, One day spent in your house,\nthis beautiful place of worship, beats thousands spent on Greek island beaches. I’d rather scrub floors in the house of my God than be honored as a guest in the palace of sin.” You need to love more people than just those in your church family. Your neighbor may be hard to love indeed as they usually don’t love you, serve you, or even appreciate you. Jesus said to love them without expecting anything in return.\nDon’t just be\nconcerned with only your agenda. We are to be salt (putting flavor in their lives) and we are to be a light (dispelling darkness). We need to invest our lives in what God values. And, we need to have an interest in “all those in whom you live, whose lives become roads you travel.” It easier to do when we’ve spent time in His Word and in His house…”one day spent there beats thousands spent on Greek island beaches.” Scrubbing the floor of His house is better than being an honored guest in a palace of sin.\n187\nWorshipping God enables and equips us to not only tolerate our neighbor but to love them. Do this and be blessed by the Lord.\nJULY 27 ARE YOU GETTING IN ON THE BEST 2 Corinthians 4:10-12 (MSG) “...we’re not sure what to do, but we know that God knows what to do; we’ve been spiritually terrorized but God hasn’t left our side; we’ve been thrown down but we haven’t broken.\n…what\nJesus did among them, he does in us—he lives! Our lives are at constant risk for Jesus’ sake, which makes Jesus’ life all the more evident in us. While we’re going through the worst, you’re getting in on the best.” If I allow it, something at every turn will rob me of victory and peace of mind. When under attack, I need to exhibit faith in the power of Almighty God to deliver. Faith can change anything, no matter what. It is still Your throne, O Lord; and You can turn it all into victory in a split second. I trust you and will abide by your decision in knowing how best to demonstrate Your love and Your power and how to bring glory to You. My faith is in you, God-oftheAngel Armies. “Because when all is said and done, the last word is, “Immanuel--God-With-Us,”\nIsaiah. 8:10 (MSG).\nIn the\ndarkest part of my life, God works. Do I have faith to see but I’m not yet seeing? There may be a great occurring in my life when\n188\nthings seem to be the darkest. There may be no evidence but I know God works in the night, as “to You, the night shines as bright as the day,” Psalms. 139 (LB). All I have to remember is that yes, He lives…”what He did among them, He does in us, He lives! You have lifted, redeemed and empowered me to live out my life according to how You view it. You went through the worst, so that I might get in on the best. JULY 28 WRITE DOWN HIS ANSWERS Philippians 4:6 (LB) “Don’t worry about anything; instead pray about everything; tell God your needs and don’t forget to thank him for his answers.” We need to keep tabs on what we’re asking God for. That’s why it’s good to write out your requests. When you were in school, sometimes you got a “star” for good performance, but sometimes your name stayed on the blackboard for a long time with nothing. If a farmer plants a crop, he frequently checks to see if anything is coming forth. When a hunter shoots his game, he goes to see if he hit or missed what he targeted. You observe your children to see if they’ve progressed in what you’re trying to teach them. Shouldn’t you do the same thing with your prayers? Under the influence of the Holy Spirit, every prayer gets answered in some way. Pray in faith and according to God’s will in the Name of Jesus and prayers will be answered. Sometimes we may not discern the approach… sometimes it’s not what we expected but it was God’s answer to what you requested. Give God time to act. It takes time for us to\n189\nhonor God with our faith and still remain confident and be accepting of His decisions.\nIt takes time for Him to develop\ncharacter and steadfastness in us. His reasons for “delays” are always in our best interests because He knows what’s best for us at all times. Keep records and when you know He has answered, record that as well. It is so important to thank Him for His answers. Turn to the One who loves you, the One who has no limitations. JULY 29 TO THE WIDOW, WIDOWER OR DIVORCEE Isaiah 54:2 (RSV) “Enlarge the place of your tent, and let the curtains of your habitations be stretched out; hold not back, lengthen your cords and strengthen your stakes. VS. 4-7, “Fear not, for you will not be ashamed; be not confounded, for you will not be put to shame; for you will forget the shame of your youth and the reproach of your widowhood you will remember no more. For your Maker is your husband, the Lord of hosts is his name; and the Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer, the God of the whole earth he is called. For the Lord has called you, like a wife forsaken and grieved in spirit, like a wife of youth when she is cast off, says your God. For a brief moment I forsook you, but with great compassion I will gather you.” VS. 10, “For the mountains may depart and the hills be removed, but my steadfast love shall not depart from you and my covenant of peace shall not be removed, says the Lord, who has compassion on you.” VS. 17, no weapon formed against you shall prosper and you shall confute every tongue that rises against you in judgment.” Hebrews 12:12-13 (LB)\n190\n“So take a new grip with your tired hands, stand firm on your shaky legs and mark out a straight smooth path for your feet so that those who follow you though weak and lame, will not fall and hurt themselves but become strong.” If you have been ravaged by divorce or suffered the loss of your mate, I can tell you that it is worth your time to not only read these verses, but to memorize them.\nThe Word of God is a\npowerful asset in helping you cope with the rejection and misunderstanding of people who once were your friend but when tragedy came, tucked tail and ran.\n“For your Maker is your\nhusband. The Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer; the God of the whole earth He is called.” I wrote in my margin of my Bible by this verse, “I hob-nob with the Elite!” God loves you with a steadfast love and His compassion is all over you. Nothing that is formed against you will come to fruition and every slanderous tongue spoken in judgment about you, you yourself can confute! So just get a firm grip with your tired hands and stand firm on even those shaky legs, focus your eyes on Jesus, let Him set the pace, mark the path and follow hard after Him. There will be those who will rise and fall because of how you respond. You can do this. Trust me, I know. JULY 30 DESIRE HIM Psalms 73:25 (MSG)\n191\n“You’re all I want in heaven! You’re all I want on earth! When my skin sags and my bones get brittle, God is rock-firm and faithful.” Our Heavenly Father knows how needy we are and our greatest need is His Presence. If we ask for things from life instead of from God, we ask amiss. The more you realize “yourself,” the less you will seek from Him. Do you seek Him with your whole heart?\nSeek, concentrate and you will find.\n“Experience is a\ngateway (an opening), not an end. Beware of building your faith on experience. You can never give another person what you have found but you can make him homesick for what you have.” Oswald Chambers.\nDie to self is genuine brokenness.\nWhen self is\ncrushed, it afflicts the heart and conquers the mind. Don’t be part of the problem by being immature, be part of the solution. Pray, walk and talk God’s Word and believe in His Presence. Don’t try to take the leading role in your relationship with Him, it won’t work. That’s His role and He will not give it to you. Try saying, “You’re all I want in heaven and you’re all I want on earth” over and over to yourself and out loud today and it matters not whether you are young or old, you will find He is rock-firm and faithful! You will also find that, “He performs the Words of His servants.” Word; it’s as powerful as if He is speaking it. JULY 31 YAH, THE LORD, IS MY STRENGTH AND SONG Isaiah 12:2 (NKJV)\n192\nSpeak His\n“Behold God is my salvation, I will trust and not be afraid; for YAH, the Lord, is my strength and song; He also has become my salvation.” “Great faith is exhibited not so much in doing, as it is in suffering” Charles Parkhurst. John 18:11 (NKJV) states, “…shall I not drink the cup the Father has given me?”\nJesus asked the\nquestion and I need to inquire the same. The cup is bitter at times and others, sweet, because You have stirred the contents with Your own finger. I have the tendency to gulp the sweet, and gag on the bitter.\nBut You in Your loving kindness have proportioned and\npredetermined the contents of my cup.\nYAH, the Lord, is my\nstrength and song; He has become my salvation. Teach me, Lord, Your way. It lies within me to do almost anything to avoid pain; yet it is my best teacher, the conduit to You. The things that are most precious to me today come by way of tears and pain. Hard times and difficulties challenge my energy but also bring out the strongest qualities of the soul. It is the weights that keep a grandfather clock ticking. It is God’s choice to use opposition as a means of showing Himself strong; and in doing so, He has become my salvation. AUGUST 1 USE YOUR VOICE FOR JESUS Luke 7:28 (NKJV) “For I say to you, among those born of woman, there is not a greater prophet than John the Baptist.”\n193\nSo many of you live what you consider to be a mundane life, you see yourself as being almost inconspicuous, non-existent when it comes to having special talent or abilities. Mediocrity seems to be your measuring stick. You need to take a second look at what Jesus has given you. For one thing: He’s given you a voice, and speech itself can give you a great life! John the Baptist was just “a voice crying in the wilderness.” John never performed a miracle but he used his voice to be “a witness to the Light” and it caused others to think about the One he spoke of. You can have a GREAT life if you just do what he did, speak of Jesus to someone, say some Words, and share a simple truth about Christ. You don’t know it could be that something you say would be the very thing that causes someone to first think about Jesus and then later come to know Him as Savior. That is NOT mediocrity, that’s greatness where it really counts—God’s eternal kingdom! Jesus evaluated it like this: “Among those born of woman, there is no one greater than John the Baptist.” Here’s the truth: God didn’t make ANY mediocre people, use your voice to speak His Words today!\nAUGUST 2 HAVE FAITH IN HIS WORD Judges 6:17-18 (NKJV) “Then he said to Him, If now I have found favor in Your sight, then show me a sign that it is You who talk with me. Do not depart from here, I pray, until I come to You and bring out my offering and set it before You.”\n194\nIt’s the truth that fact is more interesting than fiction could ever be, and the Bible proves it. The Lord had just told Gideon that he would defeat all of the Midianites as if they were one man and Gideon asks for a sign to prove it. Then he asks the Angel of the Lord to wait while he prepares an offering of a young goat and makes a loaf of bread from a half bushel of flour (want to think of how long that might have taken?) When he presented it, the Angel stretched out the tip of the stick he was holding and touched the meat and the bread and it was instantly burned up. That seems to have changed the whole scenario for Gideon and as a result, he obeyed, and God granted him victory over the Midianites. Gideon’s faith was genuine but it was imperfect.\nFaith gained\nthrough signs is credited to feelings instead of trusting what God has spoken.\nGreater blessing is experienced when we believe\nwithout experiencing any emotion or feeling. Originally, God had told him that He would give him victory over his enemy but he wanted to see proof of it before proceeding. Are we like that? We need to believe what God has spoken is the way that it is. AUGUST 3 THE EAR-MAKER HEARS AND THE EYE-SHAPER SEES Psalms 94:8-12 (MSG) “…Do you think Ear-Maker doesn’t hear, Eye-Shaper doesn’t see?\nDo you think the trainer of nations doesn’t correct, the\nteacher of Adam doesn’t know? God knows, all right—knows your stupidity, sees your shallowness. How blessed the man you train, God, the woman you instruct in your Word. VS. 18-19, If God hadn’t been there for me, I never would have made it. The minute I said, “I’m slipping, I’m falling,” your love, God, took hold and held\n195\nme fast. When I was upset and beside myself, you calmed me down and cheered me up.” Just remember God makes no mistakes.\nThe Eye-Shaper\nsees all and He is looking for people who are willing to serve out their life in hidden obscure places from the sight of all others, yet in full view of heaven. The day will come when they will be rewarded. The Ear-Maker hears every Word of encouragement you speak to a hurting spirit. Let God bless and instruct you in His Word, it is His delight to do so and certainly to your enrichment. If you are in conflict, stand where you are and let the Lord uphold you. Stand firm and true to Him. God brought you here to this place for a purpose; He has chosen you for this experience. “The minute I said, I’m slipping, I’m falling, your love, God, took hold and held me fast.” Whether you’re in the fight or just on lookout, the “teacher of Adam knows how prone we are to be stupid and shallow” but He also knows how to deliver you.\nAUGUST 4 YOU’RE IN TRAINING Hebrews 12:1-3 (MSG) “…Strip down, start running—and never quit...Keep your eyes on Jesus, who both began and finished this race we’re in. Study how he did it.\nJesus Christ never lost sight of where he was\nheaded—that exhilarating finish with God—he could put up with anything along the way: Cross, shame, whatever. And now he’s there, in the place of honor, right alongside God. When you find yourself flagging in your faith, go over that story again, item by\n196\nitem, that long litany of hostility he plowed through. That will shoot adrenaline into your souls! VS. 6-11: God is educating you, that’s why you must never drop out. He’s treating you as dear children. This trouble you’re in isn’t punishment; its training, the normal experience of children. Only irresponsible parents leave children to fend for themselves…While we were children, our parents did what seemed best to them. But God is doing what is best for us, training us to live God’s holy best. At the time, discipline isn’t much fun.\nIt always feels like it’s going against the grain.\nLater, of\ncourse, it pays off handsomely, for it’s the well trained who find themselves mature in their relationship with God.” Our period of “training” is often tedious and painful, but nothing compared to “that long litany of hostility Jesus plowed through.” He knew, “later, it pays off handsomely!” And the very best part is having a thriving and “mature relationship with God.”\nAUGUST 5 RECEIVE THE GRACE OF GOD 2 Corinthians 6:1 (KJV) “We…beseech you that ye receive not the grace of God in vain.” What is the grace of God but the overflowing favor of God flowing into our undeserving lives? It’s like His faithfulness, it’s new every day. The grace you received yesterday needs to be renewed today. I draw on your grace now. Let circumstances do its thing.\n197\nMay I be aware that past hurts plague and stunt my relationship with everyone I know. Every bit of sorrow in my life is traced to unbelief…not believing the past is past and forgiven by You. The present is available with power, what am I doing with it? The future is bright because of Your total grace and faithfulness, which never changes with my moods. You stand firm and rock solid. You, Yourself made believing a condition for receiving and as Giver of all and everything; we look to You, Jesus. We ask a thousand times, “how can that possibly be?” There’s only one answer, it can only “be” by the grace of Almighty God.\nHe’s the Giver, we’re the\nreceiver; help us not to receive His grace in vain.\nAUGUST 6 SOME THINGS I CAN’T CHANGE OR REARRANGE Luke 22:32 (NKJV) “But I have prayed for you that your faith should not fail...” Use me, Lord, let it be You. Mostly, I try to take the leading role in our relationship with You and that doesn’t work. That’s Your role and You will not give it to me. You give the instructions; I need to follow; even when I don’t understand them. Why should it take You so long to do stuff? Unanswered questions create trust in You and keep my faith growing. You have a plan and a purpose; I just need to believe that what You’re doing is best. If I’m waiting, it’s for me to reach a new level of maturity so You can release a new level of blessing. You will not make me think like You. I have to do it myself.\nIt’s up to me to bring every thought into captivity and\nobedience to You.\nThere are some things I can’t change or\n198\nrearrange, and circumstances will change, You don’t.\nTrust in\nJesus, whatever is happening. The good news is, “You pray for me that my faith should not fail.” Thank you, Lord! AUGUST 7 GOD CAN DO ANYTHING Matthew19:26 (NKJV) “But Jesus looked at them and said to them, With men this is impossible, but with God, all things are possible.” Prayer alone does not bring down answers from Your throne, but the earnest prayer of one who believes, gets answers. Faith is the communication link between heaven and earth. It links you to God and clothes you with the power of Jehovah God. Faith is what assures you that each of His attributes will be used in your defense, helping you to defy the gates of hell and walk on the necks of your enemy. Everything is possible to one who believes. Good advice: don’t be discouraged when “flesh acts like flesh,” because it happens!\nDon’t be part of the problem by being\nimmature, be part of the solution. Pray, walk, and talk God’s Word and believe in His power and desire to deliver you.\nComplete\ngentleness comes only through endurance and when self is crushed, it will afflict your heart, but it will also conquer your mind. Just remind yourself…”with men this is impossible but with God, all things are possible.” AUGUST 8 DON’T BE CRITICAL\n199\nMatthew 7:1-3 (MSG) “Don’t pick on people, jump on their failure, and criticize their faults— unless, of course, you want the same treatment. critical spirit has a way of boomeranging.\nThat\nIt’s easy to see a\nsmudge on your neighbor’s face and be oblivious to the ugly sneer on your own.” If I observe a speck in someone else’s eye, it means I must have a beam in my own.\nEach and every time I judge, I only\ncondemn myself. Stop measuring others; there is always a fact to be considered that I know nothing about. God may give me a “spiritual spring cleaning” and when He does, there is no pride left as no dirt gets missed! It is so true: “That critical spirit has a way of boomeranging;” as it comes back to me! I could never despair over anyone after becoming aware of what lies within me apart from the grace of God. Peterson goes on to say in VS. 5, “Wipe that ugly sneer off your own face and you might be fit to offer a washcloth to your neighbor!” AUGUST 9 LISTEN FOR A WORD BEHIND YOU Isaiah 30:21 (NKJV) “Your ears shall hear a Word behind you saying, this is the way, walk in it, when you turn to the right hand or whenever you turn to the left.” We need to hear what the Lord is speaking into our lives and we do that by having listening spiritual ears, as we learn to\n200\nrecognize His voice. We will have all eternity to enjoy our victories but only one life in which to win them. We think our service is “what we do;” Jesus calls service what we are to Him, not what we do for Him.\nIn other words, our relationship to Him is more\nimportant than anything else and if we are responding to what He speaks into our lives, we’ll enjoy a close relationship. Sometimes that is perfected more when things don’t change than when they do; we need him more when life doesn’t add up than when it does. We need to wait to hear that voice behind us when healing doesn’t come, pain doesn’t stop, families fall apart, wicked get their way, the good die, comfort is not to be found, and sin seems to reign. What we do is to persevere until we’re done! And, don’t forget to keep listening; continue to believe you will receive what God has promised you.\nAUGUST 10 THE LORD IS MY STRENGTH Exodus15:2 (NKJV) “The Lord is my strength and song, and He has become my salvation.” Psalms 68:28 (NKJV), “Your God has commanded your strength.\" Deuteronomy 33:25 (NKJV), “…as your days, so shall your strength be.” Ephesians 3:16 (NKJV), ”…that He would grant you according to the riches of His glory to be strengthened with might through His Spirit in the inner man.”\n201\nThe strength He gives is continuous for He is a source of power I cannot exhaust. The Lord is my strength to go up; the Lord is my strength to go down, the Lord is my strength to sit still. The Lord is the strength I simply do not have. “The Lord is my strength and song and has become my salvation.” He hasn’t just become my salvation in redeeming my soul, but He salvages and saves me from that which would devour my spirit and destroy my body now. God is my salvation both in this life and the next. Use every Word of that verse to gain strength…do it in song. Raise your voice in a song of praise; He loves it and you will be strengthened by doing so. AUGUST 11 GOD WILL ATTEND TO THE VOICE OF MY PRAYER Psalms 66:18-20 (NKJV) “If I regard iniquity in my heart, The Lord will not hear. But certainly God has heard me; He has attended to the voice of my prayer, Blessed be God, Who has not turned away my prayer, nor His mercy from me!” Nothing lies beyond the reach of prayer except that which is outside the will of God Almighty. In Your Name and by Your Word, may Your will be done in our lives. Who am I, God that You would hear me but I am your servant who needs and loves you. You know me just as I am. Let circumstances do its thing; I draw on your grace now. The past is past and forgiven by You. The present is available with power…what am I doing with it? The future is bright because of Your total faithfulness.\n“You yourself made\nbelieving a condition for receiving and as Giver of all and\n202\neverything, You set Your own terms for the gifts we receive,” Samuel Hart. You can ask a thousand times a day, how can that be, and there is only one answer…God! God will not turn away from me. Prayer with faith brings the omnipotence of God right to me! He will attend to the voice of my prayer. AUGUST 12 EVERY OPPORTUNITY COMES WITH ADVERSITY Exodus1:12 (NKJV) “But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew.” There certainly is a measure of security in playing it safe; nothing lost, but nothing is won either. True, you are completely safe in the boat, but wouldn’t it be better to almost drown than to NEVER experience God’s working power in your life? Adversity is like yeast; when the heat is turned up, it rises, the warmer it gets, the more the dough rises to the top. Every opportunity God gives you comes with something that will come against you, and it’s up to you to rise above it. When the Israelites were in Egypt, the more they were afflicted, the more they multiplied and grew. Bad times will strengthen your faith, sometimes more than good ones do. The harsher the Egyptians made the lives of the Hebrews, the more they flourished. VS. 14, “they made their lives bitter.” Later God had them eat something bitter with the Passover meal so that they might remember the bitterness of this time in Egypt. deliver them out of their troubles and He will deliver you!\n203\nGod did\nAUGUST 13 HIS GRACE WILL ALWAYS BE ENOUGH 2 Corinthians 12:9 (NKJV) “And, He said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for My strength is made perfect in weakness.” People that you put your trust in will let you down, if it hasn’t happened yet it will, as it happens to everyone because, as a general rule, they are more interested in their agenda than yours. But people aren’t the ones who determine your destiny or the outcome of what concerns you. We have the Father’s assurance that He will perfect that which concerns us.\nPeople saying it\ndoesn’t make it so; God saying it does! The safest place in the world to be is in the will of God Almighty. Align your plan with God’s purpose and ultimately you will win. We “feel” weak and we are weak; but He says that His strength is perfected in our weaknesses.\nStrong people operate in their own strength and\nabilities and sometimes accomplish things, but mostly for their own glory and edification. Those who depend on the Lord will see Him manifested and glorified.\n1 Corinthians 10:12b (MSG), “Forget\nabout selfconfidence, it’s useless.\nCultivate God-confidence.”\nEvery one of us were born maimed and with flaws, but lovely in God’s sight. It’s okay; His grace is sufficient and will always be enough! AUGUST 14 COME TO JESUS\n204\nRevelation 22:17 (NKJV) “And the Spirit and the bride say, “Come!” And let him who hears say, “Come!”\nAnd let him who thirsts come.\nWhoever\ndesires let him take the water of life freely.” Lord, because I don’t sense it, doesn’t mean You do not love me. At 5:00 a.m., with no sleep, I do not feel very loved. Your love isn’t measured by what I “feel.” Spirit and flesh are not in the same realm or category. Regardless of my feelings, Your Word says, “let him who hears (that’s me) say, ‘Come;’ whoever is thirsty (me), let him come and whoever wishes (me) take the water of life freely.” Over and over throughout the day, I can come to You, Your arms are open; the invitation is 24/7, just come. Come just as I am regardless of the state of my mind and heart, come and experience how wide, long, high and deep is His love for me. John 6:37 (NIV), “All that the Father gives me will come to Me and whoever comes to Me, I will never drive away.” Listen for Him today and hear Him say to you, “Come!”\nAUGUST 15 DON’T BE AFRAID OF FACES Jeremiah1:8 (NKJV) “Do not be afraid of their faces, for I am with you to deliver you, says the Lord.” How many times we are faced with hostile, menacing and demeaning faces! Go steadily on with what you have been told to\n205\ndo as the promise is the Lord will deliver you. He will guard your life and if you try to do it yourself, you will remove yourself from His deliverance. I need to be passionate about You and to follow you will all my might what You speak into my heart…not to just do the job but do it well, even when confronted by hard looks in a hostile environment. I just need to be mindful that this is life. You are the One who determines the length of our days and what they hold is your determination, not mine; but how I respond to it does determine the quality of my life. Help me not to be intimidated and fearful of hard, cold looks from anyone as this is part of my learning experience, but to focus on the promise that You are facing the same stare I’m looking at and You are with me to deliver me. If you are fearful, then do it afraid; the promise of deliverance is the same. AUGUST 16 IN EVERYTHING, GIVE THANKS 1 Thessalonians 5:18 (NKJV) “In everything give thanks; for this is the will of God in Christ Jesus for you.” Absolutely everything that happens in our lives has been allowed by God. Your attitude toward those things is one of the most important choices of your day.\nPaul was chained and in\nprison when he wrote this, so he evidently had not let his circumstances determine his attitude. Knowing and believing what God says is so powerful in your life. Satan doesn’t get concerned over your sins as he knows God will forgive you; or your depression because God will drive it away; or your lack as he\n206\nknows God will provide. What concerns him is when you discover the truth and power of God’s Word because he knows it is the most powerful weapon you have to wield against him. Be accepting of your circumstances and situations, even what seems wrong which comes against you; trust and love the Lord, seek Him and His Word and hold the thought that this is the will of God for now. Love, trust and give Him thanks for all things…this is your attitude choice for today. VS. 24: “He who calls you is faithful, who also will do it!” Believe in Him and His Word. AUGUST 17 I DON’T WANT TO MISS YOUR GLORY Psalms 106:21 (MSG) “They traded the Glory for a cheap piece of sculpture—a grasschewing bull! They forgot God, their very own Savior…” How many times Lord, have I done the same thing…traded the Glory for a cheap piece of something worth nothing! You are King and Lord God of it all; don’t let me miss Your Glory! Deep and abiding is Your love. I want to focus on responding to You. I want to draw from all the love You have, and then give it out. Holy Spirit, empower me, guide me for outreach, but You do know how much I need your grace, God to cover me, grant it according to your working power within me. I need and want overcoming faith. Life is hard, Lord, but you allowed these things by Your hand and it is Your hand that will deliver. We want deliverance; You want the processing of it. God has nothing for me worth having that is easily gained as there is nothing cheap in the heavenly market. Difficult\n207\ntimes are school days to gain faith and character. The powers of earth and Hell have to obey You. So, “I need not fear even if the whole world blows up and the mountains crumble and fall into the sea” as stated in Psalms 46:2 (NLT). My hope is in You; I need Your help, Jesus, as I don’t want to miss Your glory! AUGUST 18 TURN TO THE WORD Psalms 119:169-175 (MSG) “Let my cry come right into your presence, God; provide me with the insight that comes only from your Word. Give my request your personal attention; rescue me on the terms of your promise. Let praise cascade off my lips; after all, you’ve taught me the truth about life! And let your promises ring from my tongue; every order you’ve given is right. Put your hand out and steady me since I’ve chosen to live by your counsel.\nI’m homesick, God, for your\nsalvation; I love it when you show yourself! Invigorate my soul so I can praise you well; use your decrees to put iron in my soul.” The future cannot be lived out ahead of its time. Learn to wait well. Psalms 62:5 (NKJV) states, “My soul, wait silently for God alone, for my expectation is from Him.” God will work at the perfect moment, if we will let Him. Trust Him completely to do it His way and in His time. Psalms 62:8 (NKJV), “Trust in Him at all times, you people, pour out your hearts before Him. God is a refuge for us.” We are to fix our eyes trustingly and consistently on Jesus and the encouragement we find in His Word. AUGUST 19\n208\nBELIEVE HIS SPOKEN WORD 1 Corinthians 3:21 (LB) “For God has already given you everything you need…He has given you the whole world to use, and life and even death are your servants. He’s has given you all the present and all the future. All are yours, you belong to Christ and Christ is God’s.” 1 Corinthians 2:13 (LB) “The spiritual man has insight into everything and that bothers and baffles the man of the world who can’t understand him at all. VS.16, “How could he? He has never been one to know the Lord’s thoughts or to discuss them with him or to move the hands of God by prayer. But strange as it seems, we Christians actually do have within us the very thoughts and mind of Christ!” We may not “feel” like God has given us everything we need to live out our lives as our bodies scream for divine intervention, but His Word says that He’s given us all the present and all the future and that the spiritual man has insight into absolutely everything, as we belong to Christ and Christ is God’s! Invade our spirit with divine understanding of the scriptures; let us follow hard after you, and believe Your spoken, inspired and Holy Word.\nAUGUST 20 FOCUS ON YOUR “WHAT’S NEXT” Hebrews 12:1b-2 (NKJV) “…let us lay aside every weight, and the sin which so easily ensnares us, and let us run with endurance the race that is set\n209\nbefore us, looking unto Jesus, the author and finisher of our faith, who for the joy that was set before Him endured the cross, despising the shame and has sat down at the right hand of the throne of God.” The key is to let Jesus be the focus of our life, not our circumstances. He truly is the finisher of our faith. He has done everything necessary for us to endure. Look at what He did. He focused on what was set before him (the coming joy) and not on His present agony which He was enduring at the time. He knew the suffering of the cross was going to be His crown…the “what’s next” would be His reward. VS. 2-3 (MSG), “...he never lost sight of where he was headed—that exhilarating finish in and with God —he could put up with anything along the way: Cross, shame, whatever.\nAnd now he’s there, in the place of honor, right\nalongside God.” When you find yourself flagging in your faith, go over that story again, item by item, that long litany of hostility he plowed through!” Our sufferings can never compare to the torture Jesus endured on our behalf. VS. 4 (NKJV), “You have not yet resisted to bloodshed, striving against sin.” You can do this as you focus on Jesus, your “what’s next,” is your reward!\nAUGUST 21 FAITH IS… Hebrews 11:1 (NKJV) “Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.”\n210\n“Faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen” is not a definition of faith as we have been told repeatedly. Rather, it is a description of what faith does. Faith is the “substance of things hoped for;” faith treats the things you hope for as reality (being real). Evidence means “proof.” Faith proves that what is unseen is real. Such is our reward at the return of Jesus. We have not seen the return of Christ, but we certainly believe in it, just as surely as if we were watching it happen! We have no visible “proof” but by faith, we can see it happening. The proof or evidence is backed up by His Word. Everything we know about spiritual truths is simply taking what God has said in His Word as being truth. Every single one of the people of faith listed in Hebrews 11 believed that what was then “a hope” would truly happen and would become a reality.\nHeavens things are just\nbeyond what we are looking at, at earth’s level. AUGUST 22 YOU KNOW ALL ABOUT ME Psalms 139:1-12 (LB) “O Lord, you have examine my heart and know everything about me. You know when I sit or stand. When I am far away, you know my every thought. You chart the path ahead of me and tell me where to stop and rest. Every moment, you know where I am. You know what I am going to say before I even say it. You both precede and follow me and place your hand of blessing on my head. This is so glorious, so wonderful to believe. I can never be lost to your Spirit! I can never get away from my God. If I go up to heaven you are there; if I go down to the place of dead you are\n211\nthere. If I ride the morning winds to the farthest ocean, even there your hand will guide me; your strength will support me. If I try to hide in the darkness, the night becomes light around me. For even darkness cannot hide from God: to you the night shines as bright as day. Darkness and light are both alike to you. God’s eye is on me morning, noon and night. There are 3 billion people that are loved, analyzed, studied closely and I am one of them! You know my every thought, in advance. You are acquainted with all my ways, every phase of my life. Before a Word is on my tongue, You know it. You are both behind and before me. If I ride the morning winds or if I lift up dawn wings and fly to the place of sun rise and settle down on the back side of the seas where the sun sets, even there Yahweh’s right hand guides and grasps me firmly. I am overwhelmed when reminded of my shortcomings, while God is looking at my potential.\nWe gain\nconfidence when we discover God’s will and start cooperating with it. AUGUST 23 MY AIM IN LIFE IS TO KNOW YOU Hebrews 3:1b (MB) “Take a good hard look at Jesus.\nHe’s the centerpiece of\neverything we believe” I am here, not to know myself, but to know You. Everything that comes into my life is a circumstance to let me know You. The Holy Spirit wants me to know and realize all of it is a means of\n212\nsecuring knowledge of You. You are here. Your Presence is with me. I do not ever want to allow any circumstance to come between me and You. So often the sun is dimmed by clouds, and that is a perfect picture of our unbelief. But if I put my faith in You between me and the circumstance, then I’ll see the circumstance through You. (I’ll be looking at You rather than the situation I’m facing). Never think that a circumstance is haphazard, everything that is dumped on me is a means of securing knowledge of Jesus. The work of the Holy Spirit is determined that I will realize Jesus is Lord in every part of life; and He will bring me back again and again until I do realize it. My aim in life is to know You. I am not here to “realize” me, but to know You. I am to see and realize You before I analyze any circumstance. “You are the centerpiece of everything we believe in.” AUGUST 24 YOU ARE PRECIOUS TO GOD Isaiah 43:4b (LB) “You are precious to Me and honored and I love you…” You are who God says you are, not what others say you are. If God didn’t give you a name…it’s not yours! Only believe what God says about you. God can break the power of every negative thing that is said about you or that attaches itself to you. You are a saint, not a sinner; not a loser, but a winner. People may try to label you, but you need only answer to the name God calls you. He says, “You are precious to Me and honored and I love you.”\n213\nYou can change the direction of your life when you realize God loves you and wants to spend time with you. You may be unworthy and feel undeserving but that doesn’t change how God loves you. We need to be close enough to Him to know what He is speaking into our lives. We should be able to sense His breath! You know that would please Him as He says, “You are precious to Me.” How many people do you know that says that to you?\nThink about it:\nHe’s the God of all heaven and earth and He waits for you to come to Him. Since childhood, you’ve sang, “Jesus Loves Me;” live it out now in your daily walk and you’ll find it is more than a childhood song, but a great way to live! AUGUST 25 KEEP GOING UNTIL YOU’RE GONE Deuteronomy 33:25b (NKJV) “… As your days, so shall your strength be…” We need to live and learn that we’re never too old to serve. Deuteronomy 34:7 (NRSV) states, “Moses was 120 when he died; his eye was not dim, nor his natural forces abated.” Job 42:12 (NRSV) states, “The Lord blessed the latter end of Job more than his beginning.” Noah was 500 years old when he built the ark. It ain’t over until God says it’s over and you’re not done until God says you’re done. You need to live out every moment God grants you.\nIf you can breathe, pray; if you can speak, encourage\nsomeone; if you have wisdom, share it.\nLook at what God\naccomplished in just one day! Give Him the days you have left.\n214\nGod is the God of plenty when life gives you less. So, you have an impossible situation…He specializes in them! If you’re a Super Senior, don’t you dare fold your hands with, “I’ve served my time, let someone younger do it.” God will let you know when you’re finished but until then, we need to live in the spirit of Caleb who at the age of 80, sprattled his legs, raised his arms and claimed his mountain! Keep going until you’re gone! AUGUST 26 HAVE YOU LOST YOUR SOUL MATE Psalms 46:1 (LB) “The Lord is my refuge and strength. He is a present help in time of trouble.” We are so prone to run from trouble…don’t, head straight for it. God is there to meet you. Your goal is to know God Himself, not joy or even peace, nor even blessing, but to know God, God Himself. Over and over He may remove your friends in order to bring Himself in their place.\nWe faint and fail and become\ndiscouraged…you know it, Lord!\nIn the year the one who\nrepresented all God was to me died---did I give up everything? Did I become ill? Was I disheartened...or, here’s the choice; did I seek the Lord? It must be God first, God second and God third in my life until I am faced steadily with God and no one else is of any account whatsoever. If you have lost your soul mate, be reconciled to your God. In the entire world, there is none like Him; there is no one like my God! I Kings 8:23 (NKJV), “O Lord God of Israel, there is no God like you in heaven above and on earth below—You who keep\n215\nwith your servants who continue\nwholeheartedly in your way.”\nAUGUST 27 WAIT ON THE LORD Habakkuk 2:3 (NKJV) “Wait for it, for it will surely come to pass.” Before God gives you more, He will observe what you do with what you have. When God speaks a Word into your life, you need to realize that it takes time to take root and sprout. We could all use a backward glance at times…what does your track record look like? How true have you been to what has enabled you to have what you have now?\nThe more God gives you, the more\naccountable you are to Him.\nIf you have trouble handling the\ncriticism of a few people now, how in the world do you think God would make you the manager of a large group? You say you want something but are you willing to pay the price it takes to acquire it? Whatever you’re going through today, have peace in knowing that there is nothing the evil one can do to preempt God’s plan for you. Psalms. 37:34 (NKJV) states, “Wait on the Lord and keep His way and He shall exalt you to inherit the land when the wicked are cut off, you shall see it”. Wait, I say, on the Lord. AUGUST 28 GOD KNOWS WHAT’S GOOD FOR YOU Psalms 145:10 (MSG)\n216\n“God’s in charge—always. Zion’s God is God for good! Hallelujah!” The mind of God is behind all things, strong and growing. Get it in your mind that God is there. Then, once you have established the idea, you need not ever to question it. You needn’t ever go to this one or to that one questioning, “Is God in this?” Isaac may never have wanted to leave the house again alone with his Dad, but Abraham didn’t for a minute question if God was in it when he raised the knife to kill his only son. God’s in charge—always. His response to the scene was to make Abraham’s family more numerous than the sand on the seashore and the stars in the sky. When we are willing to trust what He says and believe in His promises, then He is free to work in our lives. I don’t know about you but I’d much rather be a living sacrifice than to be tied to the altar and become a dead one. “God has His finger on your pulse and is extremely sensitive to even the slightest change. He will come to save you when the perfect moment has arrived,” Streams. God is God for good (and He knows what’s good for you)— Hallelujah! AUGUST 29 I’M HOMESICK, GOD, FOR YOUR SALVATION Psalms 119:169-175 (MSG) “Let my cry come right into your presence, God; provide me with the insight that comes only from your Word. Give my request your personal attention; rescue me on the terms of your promise. Let praise cascade off my lips; after all, you’ve taught me the truth\n217\nabout life! And let your promises ring from my tongue; every order you’ve given is right, put your hand out and steady me since I’ve chosen to live by your counsel.\nI’m homesick, God, for your\nsalvation; I love it when you show yourself! Invigorate my soul so I can praise you well; use your decrees to put iron in my soul.” Living life one day at a time is not easy; we want to reach out and get ready for what is to come and not to come! Trying to do that is so painful and so unnecessary because there is nothing we can do to control tomorrow. The future cannot be lived ahead of its time. Don’t let that ever be my vision…this is Your life to be lived out. I don’t want to miss Your plan because I know You have one. I scream out my selfish woes, but You do what You want with this soul and body in what’s left to live. If I have completely entrusted You with something, help me to keep my hands off of it.\nYou can\ndo a better job than I can and You don’t need my help. Psalms 62:5 (NKJV) states, “My soul waits silently for God alone, for my expectation is from Him.” AUGUST 30 TODAY IS YOURS, LORD Psalms 119:137 (MSG) “You are right and you do right, God; your decisions are right on target. You rightly instruct us in how to live ever faithful to you.” You’ve already been in my today and are here waiting for me. Today is Yours; I hold it open before you. You do it as it pleases you. “You have made me a polished arrow,” Isaiah 49:2 (RSV). You called me from my mother’s womb and you’ve hidden me in\n218\nYour quiver. Living the Christian life is difficult but that doesn’t cave me in; however it may cost me a few hours in waiting.\nThe\nPsalmist says, “Be still before the Lord and wait patiently for Him.” I am the one caught in a frenzy; God is never in a hurry. He has all the time in the world to “do what is right, His decisions are always right on target; and He is willing to instruct me in how to live faithfully in Him.” He is already here in my today waiting to do what His Word says. God will work at the perfect moment if I will let Him. I just need to trust Him completely to do it His way and in His time.\nPsalms 119:166 (MSG), “For those who love what you\nreveal, everything fits—no stumbling around in the dark for them.” VS. 158. “I follow your directions, abide by your counsel; my life’s an open book before you.” This day is Yours, read every Word of my heart, Lord!\nAUGUST 31 GOD’S HOUSE Psalms 84:2 (LB) “I long, yes even faint with longing to be able to enter your courtyard and come near to the Living God. VS. 5: Happy are those who are strong in the Lord, who want above all else to follow your steps. When they walk through the Valley of Weeping, it will become a place of springs where pools of blessings and refreshment collect after rains. VS. 10: A single day spent in your house is better than a thousand anywhere else. I would rather be a doorman in the Temple of my God than live in palaces of wickedness.”\n219\nI need to long for, yes even faint with longing to be able to enter the courtyard and come near to the Living Lord…my own designated place of worship. It is a sanctuary for my hungry soul. It is there I realize not myself, i.e., what’s going on with me, but to know Him. Everything part of and every phase of my natural life is to know Jesus. He is in charge of it all. Everything that comes into my life is a circumstance meant to let me know Him. The Holy Spirit wants me to realize all of it is a means of securing knowledge of Jesus. What I learn in His house enforces what I’ve read in His Word …walking through the Valley of Weeping brings me to pools of blessing and refreshment. It is better to spend one day in His house than a thousand anywhere else. Thank you, Lord, for a place to meet with others who desire to come near to the Living God!\nSEPTEMBER 1 SAVE YOUR CRITICAL COMMENTS FOR YOURSELF Galatians 6:1-3 (MSG) “Live creatively, friends. If someone falls into sin, forgivingly restore him, saving your critical comments for yourself. You might be needing forgiveness before the days out.\nStoop down and\nreach out to those who are oppressed. Share their burdens, and so complete Christ’s law. If you think you are too good for that, you are badly deceived.” When we look at another’s sin, we might say, “I know I’m bad, but certainly not that bad.” If I view someone else’s sin in that way,\n220\nI become a Pharisee and violate something very important about my own relationship with Jesus…which have you noticed has become suddenly a strange silence? God graciously reminds me that there is no sin of which I am not capable of doing. It is only His restraining hand that keeps me from being as bad as I could be! Mother Teresa has said, “Bless those who curse you, think what they would say if they knew the truth ... the real me.” The fall or failure of another person can be spiritually devastating. Saying or even thinking, “I told you so,” reveals pride, self-wisdom and insight and shows there is something very wrong and sinful going on in my own heart. 1 Corinthians 10:12 (NKJV), “Let him who thinks he stands, take heed lest he fall.”\nIt is so true, “you might need\nforgiveness yourself, before the days out!” SEPTEMBER 2 HOW SUBJECT ARE YOU TO CHANGE Acts 4:13 (NKJV) “Now when they saw the boldness of Peter and John, and perceived that they were uneducated and untrained men, they marveled. And they realized that they had been with Jesus.” If the Holy Spirit can transform Saul into Paul, changing the purpose of his existence, He can transform you. If you do your part, He will gladly do His. Just one touch from Him can change your life and cause you to talk, walk and accomplish His will, not yours. You can change what you hear and He will change the way you hear it. You can change what you say and Jesus will change the way you say it. You can change your appearance and He will\n221\nchange your behavior. In Acts 6:2, Stephen went from waiting on tables to a flaming evangelist in VS. 10.\nHe can change your\nvision, instead of looking down, you can look up (Acts 7:55). The Holy Spirit can give you discernment just as he gave Philip the perfect moment to meet and witness to the Ethiopian as in Acts 8:29-30. On many of Paul’s journeys, he didn’t try to witness until the people were ready. You don’t need to trust your own judgment, allows the Holy Spirit to give you discernment. Paul went from being a murderer to being a “brother.”\nThe Apostles couldn’t\nbelieve the transformation as they heard him preach as found in Acts 9:20. You can never change another person but you can let the Holy Spirit change you and your purpose for living. “And they realized they had been with Jesus;” that’s how we become different. How subject are you to change? SEPTEMBER 3 MAKE MY CALLING SURE Acts 10: 14-15 (NKJV) “But Peter said, Not so, Lord! For I have never eaten anything common or unclean. Again a voice spoke to him again the second time, What God has cleansed you must not call common.” Because of this vision, Peter had to change his opinion of tradition. Peter had despised the Gentiles but after this encounter on the roof top, where God told him three times that what He had cleansed, Peter was to kill and eat, Peter responded. As a result, God opened up a great ministry for him to those he had formerly despised. The Holy Spirit will show you through an inward knowing that what He reveals in your heart will happen. Sometimes He\n222\nreveals the future enough so we may prepare for what lies ahead. Later when Peter was in prison, continual prayers without ceasing were offered for him until he was delivered. It was so miraculous that he thought he was dreaming. Peter responded to his calling and you need to respond to yours. Sometimes it calls for breaking more than tradition. Every page in the book of Acts is separating those whom He has called to do specific things. May our prayer be, “Lord make my calling sure, quicken me and I will call upon your Name. I can’t do this without your help, Holy Spirit.”\nSEPTEMBER 4 INTERNALIZE THE WORD Acts 15:28 (NKJV) “For it seemed good to the Holy Spirit and to us to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things.” The key to life is internalizing the Word of God which never fails to expose sin and to supply the power to overcome sin. Allow God to be your Partner in decision making. Don’t make plans and then ask God to bless them…let Him be in the decision making process. Allow Him to be your Teacher, Guide, Counselor and Advisor. Be willing to let Him change your direction. Acts 16:6-7 (NKJV), “They were forbidden by the Holy Spirit to preach the Word in Asia…they tried to go into Bithynia, but the Spirit did not permit them.” Later, Paul received the Word that he was to go to\n223\nMacedonia and help them. Let the Holy Spirit lead you, He never makes a mistake. The key lies in internalizing the Word of God because it never fails to give us the right direction as well as the power needed to overcome the barriers and sin that come against us.\nSEPTEMBER 5 BLESS GOD EVERY DAY Psalms 145:1-3 (MSG) “I will lift you high in praise, my God, O my King! And I’ll bless your name into eternity. I’ll bless you every day, and keep it up from now to eternity. God is magnificent; he can never be praised enough. There are no boundaries to His greatness. VS. 13, God always does what He says and is gracious in everything He does.” We want joy, peace, health and blessings…our goal should be to want Jesus. He is the centerpiece of our life. It is in and through Him that the supernatural becomes possible. There is nothing you can do about the past but there is something you can do about this day. When you are doing acts of love and service to others, you yourself will experience healing and recovery. What you do lives on in others, so that it never ever really dies but goes on from age to age.\nYou can do nothing better for yourself than to help\nsomeone else. When you lift up others, you lift up Jesus. Bless Him every day and keep it up from now into eternity!\nSEPTEMBER 6\n224\nGOD’S IN CHARGE Psalms 146:10 (MSG) “God’s in charge—always. Zion’s God is God for good! Hallelujah!” The storms we face by physical elements bring us in conflict with the spirit elements. It is there our faith finds the best soil and grows the fastest. “Strong trees aren’t found in the forest but out in the open field, where they are beat on from storms and winds, where they blow, bend and are twisted into giants. Toolmakers seek them for handles because of their strength. The same is true of our spirits. The strong person of faith has had the winds of hell come against them, suffered greatly, experienced tears, sorrow, conflicts and hardships” Streams in the Desert. Don’t run from your storms, run into them. God is already there to strengthen you and to bring you through them with a faith that all the demons of hell cannot come against. Learn from sorrow and pain and learn from His heart. We can be encouraged in His Word because our “God is in charge—always. Zion’s God is God for good” and we can all shout Hallelujah!”\nSEPTEMBER 7 GREAT IS OUR GOD Psalms 147:3-6 (MSG) “He heals the heartbroken and bandages their wounds. He counts the stars and assigns each a name. Our Lord is great, with\n225\nlimitless strength; we’ll never comprehend what he knows and does. God puts the fallen on their feet again… VS. 11: He’s not impressed with horsepower; the size of our muscles means little to him. Those who fear God get God’s attention; they can depend on his strength. VS. 15-18, He launches his promises earthward how swift and sure they come! He broadcasts hail like birdseed – who can survive his winter? Then he gives the command and it all melts; he breathes on winter—suddenly its spring!” Yeah Lord, You do all these things.\nYou are complete.\nEverything we do is known to you. Even when it seems like the world is grinding to dust and very few people care and nothing moves, You launch your promises earthward and how swiftly they come! The One who has counted the stars and given each a name has named you and one day will give you a new name in glory. Our Lord is great and limitless in strength and as humans, we will never comprehend all that He does. God puts the fallen on their feet again…He feeds both cattle and crows and sees every sparrow that falls. He scatters frost like ashes and broadcasts hail like birdseed.\nHe breathes on winter and suddenly its spring!\nGreat is our God, there is none like Him.\nPsalms 145:3 (MSG),\n“God is magnificent; He can never be praised enough. There are no boundaries to His greatness.”\nSEPTEMBER 8 YOU ARE A RIVER OF LIFE John 7:37b-38 (NKJV)\n226\n“If anyone thirsts, let him come to me and drink. He who believes in me as the Scripture has said, out of his heart will flow rivers of living water.” God never puts anything in you that He doesn’t want to flow out of you…you are a river of life. “A river touches places of which its source knows nothing…out of us will flow rivers that will bless to the uttermost parts of the earth.\nWe have nothing to do with\noutflow, this is the work of God…A river is victoriously persistent, it overcomes all barriers. For a while it goes steadily on its course, then, it comes to an obstacle and for a while it is baulked, but it soon makes a pathway round the obstacle. Or a river will drop out of sight for miles and presently emerge again broader and grander than ever…The river of the Spirit of God overcomes all obstacles. Never get your eyes on the obstacle or on the difficulty.\nThe\nobstacle is a matter of indifference to the river which will flow steadily through you if you remember to keep right at the Source,” Oswald Chambers. There is a river of life coming out of all who believe in Christ. Not only will you be satisfied, but you will become a river so that others may drink and be satisfied.\nSEPTEMBER 9 LET THE HOLY SPIRIT DIRECT YOU Acts: 16:6b-7 (NKJV) “…they were forbidden by the Holy Spirit to preach the Word in Asia…they tried to go to Bithynia but the Spirit did not permit them.”\n227\nThe Holy Spirit is your Teacher, Guide, Counselor and Advisor. Let Him be your Partner in decision making. Let Him be in charge and/or change your direction. Paul was forbidden by the Holy Spirit to preach the Word in Asia and Bithynia but later was told in a vision to go to Macedonia to help the people there. Because he and Silas followed God’s direction, everywhere they went people were being saved, healed and God’s Spirit was at work. He wants to do the same with you. The Jews were so jealous of Paul and Silas’ preaching that they stirred up mobs and riots against them. The Bible says this of them, Acts 17:6b, “These who have turned the world upside down are now here too.” The quickest way to turn your world upside down is to turn yourself right side up! He will even change your understanding. You need to know the ways of God more perfectly in order to be more sensitive to your relationship with Him.\nGod never makes a mistake when He\nchanges your direction or understanding; trust Him to lead you and He’ll do it perfectly.\nSEPTEMBER 10 LET THE HOLY SPIRIT CHANGE YOU Acts 20:28 (NKJV) “Therefore take heed to yourselves and to all the flock, among which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers, to shepherd the church of God which He purchased with His own blood.”\n228\nIf God has called you to shepherd a church, the Holy Spirit will show you how to take that responsibility and will empower you to do it. It’s always such a relief when He takes over…takes charge. Paul’s farewell to this church came straight from his heart; he knew the Holy Spirit would give all the leadership they needed to succeed in shepherding the church which He had purchased with his own blood. But he warned them in Acts 10:29, “For I know this that after my departure savage wolves will come in among you not sparing the flock.”\nShepherding a church requires insight into the\ndiverse strategies that will challenge you and the church. Paul well remembered a time in his life when he was driven to take the lives of those of whom he now preached the gospel! Paul had to learn about the One who had “made him an overseer to now shepherd the church of God.” The Holy Spirit had totally changed him and his insight. God will and wants to do the same for you!\nSEPTEMBER 11 A DAY WE WILL NEVER FORGET Some of us will never forget as we watched the attack being made on the Twin Towers in New York by enemy aircraft, September 11, 2001. In our home, we were watching as we saw the unbelievable effect of the first hit and then saw the next approaching plane with its impact. It seemed as if all the people in the United States were stunned and could hardly believe what was happening. Even today as we listen to the incredible stories of the First Responders and how so many gave their lives to save the lives of people they had never known or will ever know this side of\n229\neternity, we are forever amazed and grateful. A lot of people made a lot of promises then that are not being kept today. It was a “wake up call” certainly as we never know what a day will bring and we need to humble ourselves before the Keeper of the Universe and have our lives right before Him.\nEnemy planes came,\nunsuspected, undetected and brought much destruction. Almighty God in heaven is still giving us time, but there is a Messenger coming and these are His Words: Malachi 3:1-3 (NKJV) “Behold, I send My messenger, and he will prepare the way before Me. And the Lord, whom you seek, will suddenly come to His temple, even the Messenger of the covenant, in whom you delight. ‘Behold He is coming,’ says the Lord of hosts. But who can endure the day of His coming? And who can stand when He appears? For He is like a refiner’s fire and like launderers’ soap. He will sit as a refiner and a purifier of silver.” Jesus is scheduled to come again and it will be just as undetected as the enemy planes. You need to be ready.\nSEPTEMBER 12 REJOICE IN THE LORD Philippians 4:4 (NKJV) “Rejoice in the Lord always. Again I will say, rejoice!” VS. 12 (MSG), “I know what it is to be in need and I know what it is to have plenty. I have learned the secret of being content in any and every situation, whether well fed or hungry, whether living in plenty or in want.” Regardless of what is going on in our own world, we can always rejoice in something going on in God’s world. Psalms 102:\n230\n25-27 (NKJV) states, “You laid the foundation of the earth and the heavens are the work of Your hands. They will perish, but You will endure; yes, they will all grow old like a garment; like a cloak You will change them, and they will be changed. But You are the same, and Your years will have no end.” God’s work is forever and has no ending; our lives are brief, and 1 Peter 1:17 tells us how we are to “conduct ourselves during this time of our temporary residence.” We spend so much of our day thinking of how we would like to change our circumstances, our health, finances, or relationships and it’s almost like trying to catch an overturned bottle from spilling its contents. Instead of trying to change the circumstances, turn every unfilled thought into praise to the Lord who truly knows how to effect change. Rejoice in the Lord always; and do it now!\nSEPTEMBER 13 PAUL WAS WILLING TO BE BOUND Acts 21:19-11 (NKJV) “…a certain prophet Agabus came down from Judea. And when he had come to us, he took Paul’s belt, bound his own hands and feet and said, Thus says the Holy Spirit so shall the Jews at Jerusalem bind the man who owns this belt…” Agabus took Paul’s belt and bound his own hands and feet and said that the owner of this belt will be bound with it and be delivered into the hands of the enemy. Paul’s response was that he was not only willing to be bound but to die for the Name of Jesus. The Holy Spirit gives spiritual understanding instead of panic in temporal\n231\nsituations. Over and over, Lord, you bring us through stress when our tendency is to bail out in defeat. We are so quick to cry out rather than to draw from the strength from within. We cringe at the thought that our weakest moment is actually the height of our spiritual depth. We think our victory is in our successes, when our victory is in our weaknesses. We abhor the thought of “being bound” and yet Paul says he was not only willing to be bound but to be hand carried to those who would try to kill him. How many times, Lord, do we have to be bound and delivered to learn who it is that delivers us?\nSEPTEMBER 14 GOD CAN INCREASE YOUR INFLUENCE Acts 23:1-3 (MSG) “Paul surveyed the members of the council with a steady gaze and then said his piece: ‘Friends, I’ve lived with a clear conscience before God all my life, up to this very moment.’ That set the Chief Priest Ananias off. He ordered his aides to slap Paul in the face. Paul shot back, ‘God will slap you down! What a fake you are! You sit there and judge me by the Law then break the Law by ordering me slapped around!’” God can change every part of your life and your world. He can change your insight, wisdom, understanding, decisions, direction, and in this instance for Paul, change your influence. Paul looked at the Chief Priest after he had ordered him slapped in the face and Paul said in VS. 3 (LB ), “God shall slap you, you whitewashed pig pen!” Later, he did apologize and said that he was\n232\nsorry as he didn’t know he was a Chief Priest as he certainly didn’t act like it.\nSome of the council against him was made up of\nPharisees and others of Sadducees and they were split right down the middle and were divided. Vs. 9-10, “We don’t find anything wrong with this man! What if a spirit has spoken to him or maybe an angel? What if it turns out we’re fighting against God?” God can cause even your enemies to defend you.\nLater, Paul was\nabout to be torn apart and God spoke to him and told him not to worry about any of the uproar...that He was sending him to Rome and that he would give his testimony there God changed Paul’s direction and then greatly increased his influence. Does this make you ask yourself, “How far does my influence go?” We all have influence over someone!\nSEPTEMBER 15 SOLD OUT FOR CHRIST Acts 20:24 (NKJV) “But none of these things move me, nor do I count my life dear to myself, so that I may finish my race with joy, and the ministry which I received from the Lord Jesus to testify to the gospel of the grace of God.” Paul was only one person, true, but he was sold out for Christ. How prone are you to keep one foot for yourself and slide all over the place with the other? Forty of the priests and elders made an oath that they would not eat or drink until Paul was dead but what had God said? God had told him that he would give his testimony\n233\nin Rome. The plot thickens in a scheme to kill Paul, but he is safely delivered. What God says is the way it will be. Before any of this, Paul had spoken what God had revealed to him. Acts 20:25 (MSG) says, “What matters most to me is to finish what God started: the job the Master Jesus gave me of letting everyone I meet know all about this incredibly extravagant generosity of God.”\nHow would\nyou have liked to have been the one chained to Paul in prison… you would have heard Jesus for breakfast, Jesus for lunch and guess what…Jesus for dinner! Paul only had one theme, one aim, one subject in mind, he was sold out for Christ. He was only one man but one man totally sold out for Christ!\nSaul was so\ncompletely changed that he was renamed, Paul. If Jesus were to rename you today, what do you suppose He would call you? Would it have anything to do with you being “sold out for Christ?”\nSEPTEMBER 16 HE KNOWS THE WAY THAT I TAKE Ephesians 1:3-5a (NKJV) “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ who has blessed us with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places in Christ, just as He chose us before the foundation of the world that we should be holy and without blame before Him in love, have predestined us to adoption as sons by Jesus Christ…” God has a prearranged plan for your life; there is nothing that will deter you from keeping the appointments He has made for you. We see heartache and resentment, injustice and deceit, unfairness and lies; but God sees the end results. God works in, through and\n234\nduring whatever we are experiencing; trust Him, He’s not done yet. Many times Paul was desolate, lonely and totally forsaken but he knew he had the ever-present Holy Spirit interceding in his behalf. We get discouraged but most likely will never be jailed or flogged. Paul dropped out of sight and for two years, little was even seen or heard from him. Sometimes he was in smelly dungeons with little or no food or even light, but when they brought him out, it was like he picked up in mid-sentence of what he was saying when they threw away the key! The harder life was, the stronger he became through the Holy Spirit. We walk freely, go wherever we please, live in relative comfort and ease and have the promise of what we don’t have, God will provide; yet we complain and blame. We need to live in the knowledge that God chose us before the foundation of the world to be His and has been so gracious and generous in dispensing His gifts of grace and love. He not only knows “the way that I take,” but “where I’m going next.”\nSEPTEMBER 17 GOD CAN CHANGE YOUR TURMOIL Acts 27:9b-10 (NKJV) “Paul advised them saying, ‘Men I perceive that this voyage will end with disaster and much loss, not only of the cargo and ship, but also our lives.” We read about a “northeaster” (a heavy wind of typhoon strength) that struck the ship as Paul was on his final journey to Rome.\nPaul, even though he was the prisoner, had advised\n235\nagainst setting sail before they ever left port. It was unheard of that a storm would last for two weeks but they were without food and had thrown overboard all their cargo, even needed items for the boat. Paul stood in the eye of the storm and told them, Vs. 21 “Men, you should have listened to me, but take heart, no one will lose their life, only the ship.” He was basing this on what he had been told that he would go to Rome and then an angel said, “You will go to Caesar and all these men with you” VS. 23-24. Nothing or no one will alter God’s unchanging and prearranged\nplan\nyour\nlife.\nCircumstances and situations; storms of the body or the soul must come under the control of the One who plans your life. God may allow us to flounder and struggle our way through when that’s what we want to do, but make no mistake…”We need not fear even if the whole world blows up and the mountains crumble into the sea…the nations rant and rave in anger—but when God speaks, the earth melts in submission and kingdoms totter into ruin” Psalms. 46:2, 6 (LB). If you are in the midst of a storm, God is capable of changing your turmoil!\nSEPTEMBER 18 GOD CAN CHANGE YOUR CONFLICT INTO VICTORY Acts 27:5 (LB) “But Paul shook off the snake into the fire and was unharmed.” Paul was called, appointed and anointed of God, but He can and will do the same things for you. God can handle any conflict\n236\nthat comes against you, as surely as He delivered Jesus from the conflicts He endured here on earth and raised His dead body to life again. On this particular missionary journey, Paul had told them that they would lose the ship but none would lose their life and that’s exactly what happened. Once safely ashore, Paul built a fire and in doing so, a snake came out and fastened itself on his hand. Those around him thought he must be a murderer and then they decided he was a god! Paul continued his role of seeing to the need of others by healing the sick and praying for them.\nThe\nnatives responded by giving the crew everything they needed to be on their way. Once in Rome (just as God had said he would be in Acts 23:11), Paul maintained his innocence and appealed to Caesar. His victory speech in Acts 27:23-31 never changed and is as true today as it was then.\nHad Paul been acquitted years\nbefore, look at the people he would never have reached. changed his conflict into total victory and\nGod\nGod received all the\nglory, Today, Lord, please change my hearing, vision, speech, and actions until I am aware of how you can change all conflict into victory when I am obedient to you.\nSEPTEMBER 19 SURVIVE YOUR PAST Micah 7:19b (LB) “You will tread our sins beneath your feet; you will throw them into the depths of the ocean.” iniquities into the deepest sea?”\n237\n(NKJV) “...who will haul all our\nGod’s promise is to pitch, haul, or throw all our sins into the depths of the sea when we come to Him in true repentance, so why in the world do we keep digging up the past? Lord, save me from me; You know that I can self-destruct in minutes! I need to look at what lies ahead to a life lived with all the love You offer. Ephesians. 2:7-8 (MSG) states, “So overflowing is his kindness toward us that he took away all our sins through the blood of his Son, by whom we are saved; and has showered down upon us the richness of his grace—for how well he understands us and knows what is best for us at all times.” You need to acknowledge His forgiveness and live in the wisdom He offers; as you can survive your past and be stronger because of it, because of Jesus.\nSEPTEMBER 20 BELIEVE WHAT THE PSALMIST ABOUT YOU Psalms 92:12-15 (LB) “But the godly shall flourish like palm trees and grow tall as the cedars of Lebanon. For they are transplanted into the Lord’s own garden, and are under his personal care. Even in old age they will still produce fruit and be vital and green. This honors the Lord and exhibits his faithful care. He is my shelter. There is nothing but goodness in him!” Do you see yourself as a transplanted tree in the Lord’s own garden under his personal care? The Psalmist says, “even in your old age, you will produce fruit and be vital and green.” That may not be what you see when you’re looking in the mirror but that’s what you look like to Him because, “this is what He sees when\n238\nHe’s looking at you and it’s what honors Him and exhibits His faithful care.” Spend enough time with Him until you can see what He’s looking at. Wait upon the Lord…tarry long enough for Him to speak to you. You cannot have a “drive-through” relationship and expect to hear from Him, much less experience His glory. Believe what God says about you, lack of belief has got to be the greatest detriment in Him fulfilling His plan for your life. Believe what the Psalmist says and he says that He is your shelter and there is nothing but goodness in Him! SEPTEMBER 21 YOU CAN DO THIS 1 Peter 1:13-16 (HCSC) “Therefore, with your mind ready for action, be serious and set your hope completely on the grace to be brought to you at the revelation of Jesus Christ.\nAs obedient children, do not be\nconformed to the desires of your former ignorance. But as the One who called you is holy, you also are to be holy in all your conduct; for it is written, Be holy, because I am holy.” Any time you read therefore, you always want to look at what came before it. Peter was pointing out that as believers we have received through God’s provision, our salvation; so therefore we are to prepare or get our minds ready for action. You “gird up the loins of your mind” (KJV) much like an athlete would gather up the flowing part of his garment and get ready to race…be prepared for some serious and strenuous action! When you talk about being holy, you’re talking about something serious and Peter says to be\n239\nserious.\nDon’t be a “squatter” on your knowledge that you’re\nsaved, going to heaven, and just sit waiting for it to happen. It takes a lot of guts to discipline your mind, which is the most unruly body part you have except for your tongue. You need to be calm, collected, wellbalanced, self-controlled and obedient. None of us were born with any of it; we have to learn these traits by doing them. Have the favor of God and “be obedient and do not be conformed to the desires of your former ignorance.” Get rid of your pre-conversion life styles. You didn’t used to know better, now you do; so put it in practice! We may never duplicate His holiness, but we can strive to do so. Instead of screaming, “I can’t be holy!” Grit your teeth and give it a try. You would never have learned to walk, if you had given up when you first failed. You can’t do it on your own but if you ask Him for guidance and depend on Him each day, He will help you. God isn’t impressed with our perfection, but He is impressed when we try. Aren’t you impressed when you see your children trying? You can do this!\nSEPTEMBER 22 HIS JUDGMENTS ARE IMPARTIAL 1 Peter 1:17 (HCSB) “And if you address as Father the One who judges impartially based on each one’s work, you are to conduct yourselves in fear during the time of your temporary residence.” Peter points out that “the One” you’re addressing as “Father” is the Supreme judge. It’s wonderful that we can address Him and\n240\ncome to Him.\nWhen He spent time with His disciples, He\nencouraged them to spend time with our compassionate Father as He is loving, caring, attentive and always judges impartially, without favoritism, each one of us individually.\nHe doesn’t judge by\noutward appearance, nor is He influenced by anything that so often sways our judgments.\nHe always knows everything about\nanything; He knows the facts and truth.\nHe knows everything\nabout you. Psalms 119:168, (LB) “Everything I do is known to you.” He knows what you do and why you do it. His judgment is impartial.\nWe are to be infused with fear and that’s not being\nscared to death but to have reverence, awe and respect for Almighty God. Think these hard times are never coming to an end? Look at the scripture, this is, ”during your time of temporary residence here.” We are here as earthlings for a brief pilgrimage; just like the Israelites, we’re on a journey to a new land; our promised land is heaven, next stop. This journey and our whole life should be made in light of eternity which is just ahead!\nSEPTEMBER 23 WE ARE A SERMON IN THE FIELD 2 Corinthians 4:16-17 (LB) “Though our bodies are dying, our inner strength in the Lord is growing every day. These troubles and sufferings of ours are after all quite small and won’t last very long.\nYet this short time of\ndistress will result in God’s richest blessing upon us forever and ever!”\n241\n“Let’s look at the sermon of the fields. You must die in order to live. You must be crucified, not only to your desires and habits that are obviously sinful but also to many others that may appear to be innocent and right. If you desire to save others, you cannot save yourself, and if you desire to bear much fruit, you must be buried in darkness and solitude. My heart fails me as I listen. But when the Words are from Jesus, I remind myself that it is my great privilege to enter into “the fellowship of sharing in his sufferings” (Philippians3:10) and I am therefore in great company.\nI also\nremind myself that all suffering is designed to make me a vessel suitable for His use.\nHis Calvary blossomed into abundant\nfruitfulness, and so will mine. Pain leads to plenty, and death to life —it is the law of the kingdom. Do we call it dying when a bud blossoms into a flower?” Streams in the Desert. The sermon of the field is that you must die in order to live. We are all like a seed sown in the field; unless a grain dies and is buried in the ground, it cannot yield any fruit. If you asked a grain of wheat, “do you want to be obscurely buried in the dirt for weeks?” The answer would probably be, “Not!” But when given the choice of being obscure or of bearing an abundant harvest, even a grain of wheat yields to its Master. When we are willing to let our flesh die, and yield to will of our Maker, we will bear an abundant harvest as we become a sermon in our field.\nSEPTEMBER 24 YOU WERE REDEEMED 1 Peter 1:18-19 (HCSB)\n242\n“For you know that you were redeemed from your empty way of life inherited from the fathers, not with perishable things like silver or gold but with the precious blood of Christ, like that of a lamb without defect or blemish.” You were redeemed from your empty way of life to a new life in Christ by the precious blood of Jesus. You can redeem miles earned on a credit card for an airline ticket or you take coupons to the store and exchange one thing for something you want. We can take our coupon, our life of sin and exchange it for a life that is covered by the blood of Jesus. That exchange cost Jesus His life. The cross represents all the cash registers and ticket counters across all of heaven and earth when He allowed His blood to be spilled all over them so that we might not die in our sin. We were redeemed by the precious blood of Christ like that of a lamb without defect or blemish.\nWhen the Israelites offered an animal in\nsacrifice, it had to be without blemish.\nJesus was the perfect\nsacrifice for our sins, since He was sinless, He could do that. That exchange of His life for ours was a priceless gift and is so perfectly described as being “precious.”\nYou’ve known some of these\nscriptures forever and sometimes just “read over them.” You need to digest them, let them get into your innards as they will strengthen your devotion to Him and put another layer of gratefulness around your heart for God’s great gift of redemption!\nSEPTEMBER 25 I WILL BLESS YOUR NAME EVERY DAY\n243\nPsalms 145:1-2 (MSG) “I lift you high in praise, my God, O my King! And I’ll bless your name into eternity. I’ll bless you every day and keep it up from now to eternity.” This is the verse of scripture that I had just copied in my journal, as my husband and I did our devotions together on the lanai, November 13, 2008, when I realized Louie (my late husband) was again on his knees proposing as he did EVERY anniversary of our marriage. Years have gone by, You are still here Lord, help me to grasp this as another opportunity to grow. It is a new era that I wouldn’t have chosen, but it is Your choice, Let me hear, experience Your disclosure, and to fill my mind with Your Word, renew it within my spirit; and cleanse my heart.\nYou have given\nme reason and knowledge of You and never intended for me to forego using either of them. Help me to discover Your will and Your intent behind all this and draw on Your power to use the gifts You’ve given me…using common sense to trust You and abide in You. You are the centerpiece of all I believe in. “I will lift You high in praise and bless Your name into all eternity and do it from now to eternity.” I will bless Your Name every day and lift you high in praise!\nSEPTEMBER 26 ASK HIM WHAT HE’S THINKING Jeremiah 29:11 (ML) “For I know the thoughts I think concerning you, says the Lord, thoughts of peace and not of hurt, to give you a future and a hope.”\n244\nWhen you pray, why not invite God’s thoughts as you speak? We pray for a hundred things we want and need; God knows all of it before we ask. Ask Him what He’s thinking about as you make your requests, what He has in mind. Scripture tells you that He’s actually given you a portion of His thoughts and mind. He speaks a Faith language…worry, defeat, anxiety are not in His vocabulary. When your baby was born he/she babbled and you couldn’t understand a thing, but finally the little one spoke your language and actually said words you understood. Stop babbling to God and pray in His language. Speak His Words of faith, hope, grace, love, trust and listen for His thoughts as you are speaking. Never ask for anything? He tells you to ask that you may receive, but pray spirit Words (lifechanging, life-making Words) and you’ll see your disappointments as His appointments. You’ll start to understand His purposes. Life’s most severe jabs are nothing more than God staking your claim to an ordained victory.\nSatan may whisper,\n“Just look at what God’s done to you now;” but you just watch God show up and show off! “For I know the thoughts I think concerning you says the Lord.” God will never make plans for the past; He always will take you forward. Stop living your days in what has happened and look to what’s next. And, when you pray, ask Him what He’s thinking.\nSEPTEMBER 27 JESUS WAS CHOSEN BEFORE THE FOUNDATION OF THE WORLD\n245\n1 Peter 2:20 (HCSB) “He was chosen before the foundation of the world but was revealed at the end of the times for you.” KJV: “Who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world, but was manifest in these last times for you.” God chose a fixed time in eternity past to redeem your soul. Christ was “chosen before the foundation of the world”…just as God had always planned.\nBefore God chose to form the\nfoundation of the world, they chose a plan that man would be redeemed through the death of Jesus.\nIt was determined and\nappointed beforehand, before even time began; God’s eternal purpose was to provide salvation of your soul. Peter says, “so that at the end of time”—the last days (a time it seems in which we now live) God’s redemption through Christ was for all who would believe. It is in His resurrection that we have our faith and hope. We should never lose our awareness of the high cost of our salvation and as we acknowledge it, it should motivate and move us to live as the redeemed. Arthur Blessitt physically walked a wooden cross around the world; it took him 40 years. He was beaten, put in prison and suffered many hardships.\nHe faced\nridicule and scorn, but his message today is always one of praise and thankfulness for God’s chosen plan before the world began for the salvation of souls to be revealed at the end of time. Today, there is still time for God to redeem your soul.\nSEPTEMBER 28 FEED YOUR SOUL\n246\nIsaiah 55:2-3 (LB) “Why do you spend your money on foodstuffs that don’t give you strength? Why pay for groceries that don’t do you any good? Listen and I will tell you where to get good food that fattens up the soul. Come to me with your ears wide open. Listen for the life of your soul is at stake. I am ready to make an everlasting covenant with you to give you all the unfailing mercies and love that I had for King David. VS. 6, Seek the Lord while you can find Him. Call upon Him now while He is near.” God, if only we were as concerned with the health of our soul as we are of our bodies! Far too many hours of our day are spent on preparing and consuming foodstuffs that give little or no strength and groceries that do more harm than good; while our soul is starved instead of being fattened. If we fed ourselves more in your Word, we’d find that it shows us what is right; what is not right; and how to stay right. Help us to know and realize You want to make an everlasting covenant with us of Your unfailing mercies and love…much like the one You had with King David. If we seek after You, we will find You; we know You are near as You are never far from anyone of us.\nSEPTEMBER 29 GIVE THANKS 1 Thessalonians 5:18 (NKJV)\n247\n“In everything give thanks, for this is the will of God in Christ Jesus for you.” Attitude is everything and one of the most important choices of your day.\nMost of our attitudes are founded on what are\ncircumstances are at the moment. Paul was in prison when he wrote this so when he wrote to give thanks for everything, it was a choice he made, but certainly not based on the circumstance he was experiencing. Mostly, we let how good we feel determine our thanksgiving! Believing and knowing what God says is our power point in life. Satan doesn’t get concerned over your sin because He knows God will forgive when we confess; your depression doesn’t bother him too much as He knows God can drive it away; or, if you have a lack, he knows God will provide. What scares him to death is for you to discover the truth of God’s Word because he knows your ignorance of it is the most important weapon he can use against you. You have the choice every day of enforcing the power of what God speaks into your life as being your rule in everything you do. You can do this when you give thanks for all things, as it is God who loves you and ultimately brings out what is the good and perfect will of the Father for you.\nSEPTEMBER 30 LOVE AND CARE FOR ONE ANOTHER 1 Peter 1:22 (HCSB) “By obedience to the truth, having purified yourselves for sincere love of the brothers, love one another earnestly from a pure heart.”\n248\nOnce you yourself have learned obedience to the truth, then you are enabled to love others earnestly and from a pure heart. (MSG) states, “Now that you’ve cleaned up your lives by following the truth, love one another as if your life depended on it.” Wouldn’t that be life changing?\nIf your life depended on how you love\nothers? Think about it! The list of things to change immediately would be unending! When you were saved, you experienced a cleansing that is still in effect. You didn’t do it; God did it; and because God purified you, you are to live in a state of being cleansed, daily. And, if you are to care for others as you care for yourself, you are to earnestly seek one another’s best interests “from a pure heart” with your whole being. One Pastor recently who has been in the ministry 54 years said that more Christian people are bruised and offended by people in the church than ever are by people of the world. The time you spend in letting the Word of God get inside of you will bring about change in the way you live and how you treat and respond to others. Have the courage to live the way Jesus would want you to live by sincerely and earnestly doing and caring for others as if you was doing it for yourself. OCTOBER 1 GOD’S WORD IS LIVING AND ENDURING 1 Peter 1:23-25a (HCSB) “Since you have been born again—not of perishable seed but of imperishable—through the living and enduring Word of God. For all flesh is like grass and all its glory like a flower of the grass. The grass withers and the flower fails but the Word of the Lord endures forever.”\n249\nEveryone born again experiences new life and this new life doesn’t come from any physical aspect such as perishable seed, but through that which is imperishable…the living and enduring Word of God. Our lives are brief and quickly fade away. Peter says, “...like the grass of the field that withers and the flowers that fail, but the Word of the Lord endures forever.” Ask yourself, “What is my strongest motive to live according to His Word?” Pray for God to deliver you from the sins that tempt you the most…you can’t be delivered from something you won’t admit to. Increase your time of study in His Word and gaze into His face. You have His promise that as you do, you will experience His glory reflected back inside of you. Every day…on the street, in your kitchen, standing in line at the checkout, wherever and whatever you’re doing, do it “through the living and enduring Word of God.” God can certainly accomplish His purposes without you, but He has chosen to use you. Preach the Word wherever you are, and if necessary, use Words! OCTOBER 2 WE ARE GIFTS TO GOD THAT HE DELIGHTS IN Ephesians 1:11-12a (LB) “Moreover, because of what Christ has done we have become gifts to God that he delights in, for as part of God’s sovereign plan we were chosen from the beginning to be his, and all things happen just as he decided long ago. God’s purpose in this was that we should praise God and give glory to him for doing these mighty things for us…”\n250\nWe were chosen from the very beginning to be His and He is the One that keeps us from falling; we are kept by His power and not by our own strength. We are sustained and protected so that we can persevere and be able to stand before Him and become “gifts to God that He delights in.” We all make mistakes but God doesn’t give up on us as easily as we do Him. He holds onto us and is long-suffering; He shapes, convinces and convicts us of our sin. He will send people in your life to hold you accountable; He is faithful. We need to learn as we go along what pleases Him, “what He delights in” and be open to His direction as He leads us. Just because He tells you something one time doesn’t mean it is a lifetime direction; we need to be aware of any changes He might want to make, so we need to be closely walking with Him each day. A thing might seem good, look good, but we need God’s unction. His Spirit is active and ever new and we need to be mindful and watchful for “His purpose and give praise and glory to Him for doing these mighty things for us.” OCTOBER 3 ONE DAY AT A TIME, SWEET JESUS Exodus15:2 (MSG) “The Lord is my strength and song and has become my salvation.” Your Spirit is creative and unique. I need to look for Your unexpected, unusual Presence in everything. You’re not always in the ‘spiritual box’ I create but in every ordinary experience of my life whether I acknowledge it or not.\nYou are perfect and every\nmanifestation of Your Spirit reflects power and glory. Help me to\n251\nkeep my eyes on You, The Master, more than the manifestation. No matter the calamity that befalls me, it can’t be soul destructive because I belong to You. You want me to go about each day without fear and anxiety, totally trusting and submitting to You. The more submissive I am, the more indifferent I’ll be to the circumstances around me. I won’t be constantly trying to figure out what to do next or be affected by the disturbing news swirling about. How can I say, “I trust You with everything,” when there is this one thing, I’m not trusting You with? Over and over, daily, I surrender when there is no other way out. It would please You so much more if I willingly submitted before coming to my wit’s end. There’s no deals cut; You see through all my faked and feigned obedience. Sometimes I manage to submit to spiritual issues but the flesh raises its ugly head and still wants to look good… demands to have its own way.\nSubmitting today doesn’t clear\ntomorrow’s calendar! You are my strength and song and have become my salvation! OCTOBER 4 WHAT WERE YOU CALLED TO DO 1 Peter 2:21 (HCSB) “For you were called to this, because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, so that you should follow in His steps.” Peter is talking about how people can put up with suffering in their lives because they are conscious of God’s presence and plan and in doing so, find peace with God.\nEven those who suffer\nunjustly and do what is good and right are sometimes treated\n252\ncruelly, but if you endure, it will bring favor with God (VS. 19-10). What do you do with the Words, “For you were called to this?” Are you doing what God called you to do? Are you one of those who think that “calling” is for ministers and missionaries? Have you ever reconciled yourself that your circumstances, relationships, health issues, sufferings and unjust situations are a part of your journey here? Is it possible you “were called” to have what you are experiencing? Here’s a truth: If you don’t recognize any other call on your life, let me tell you of at least one…you were called to imitate Jesus…”He left you that example, so that you should follow in His steps.” We are to copy or trace exactly what He did. Did you ever hold something up to the light and trace it? You may not have gotten a perfect duplicate but got a very good likeness. That’s what we are to do with Him, hold Him up to His Light and get the best likeness possible.\nHe not only was the model and\nexample but left us instruction sheets, in case we have trouble. It is just like putting anything else together, when all else fails, read the manual. Every Christian is called to be like Jesus. OCTOBER 5 WE NEED A GUARDIAN OF OUR SOUL 1 Peter 2:25 (HCSB) “For you were like sheep going astray, but you have now returned to the Shepherd and Guardian of your souls.” How much experience have you ever had with sheep? As a little girl, I can remember that sometimes little lambs were brought into the house and kept behind our wood burning stove when it was\n253\nbitter cold outside, just to keep them alive. Sheep need constant care and do not do well on their own at all. Jesus said that He was the Good Shepherd and that we are His sheep because He knew how much we need a Guardian. People all have very “sheepish” instincts.\nBefore knowing Christ, we were all like sheep going\nastray, moving farther and farther away from our Shepherd. Nothing you read about sheep is very favorable or smart…they will graze themselves right over a cliff; they are totally dependent, easily separated, scattered and led astray, needing help 24/7… recognize any of that in yourself? Peter says, “We all like sheep have gone astray and need to return to the Shepherd and Guardian of our souls.” Psalms 34:7 (LB) states, “For the angel of the Lord guards and rescues all who reverence Him.” We all need a Guardian, One who is an Authority Figure that loves guards and rescues our soul when we go astray. OCTOBER 6 GOD IS BIGGER THAN YOUR LIFE Psalms 37:5 (NKJV) “Commit your way to the Lord, trust also in Him and He will bring it to pass.” Once we submit to the control of the Lord, placing every matter of our life into His hands, Satan rises up against us. As long as Paul was doing what the Devil wanted, life was fine, but when he changed, all hell broke loose and he was under attack relentlessly.\nIf you yield completely to the Lord, Satan will\nconcentrate on you. He will cause you to doubt the things you KNOW; you’ll begin to look at fear instead of faith. You will think, “How bad can this get;”…instead of focusing on the fact that God\n254\nhas promised to get you through your crisis. When hard times come, doubts arise and you have a whole new crew to deal with as Satan will do anything to keep your focus diverted away from Jesus. You aren’t the first to submit to fear. Ezekiel 22:14 (NKJV), “Can your heart endure, or can your hands remain strong in the days when I shall deal with you? I the Lord have spoken and will do it.” Noah was “moved with godly fear” in Hebrews 11:7. David said in Psalms 119:120 (NKJV), “My flesh trembles and I’m afraid of my judgments.” Habakkuk 3:16 (LB) says, “My belly trembled; my lips quivered, rottenness entered my bones and I trembled in myself...” These men were gripped by fleshly fear but also stood in awe of God Almighty.\nYou have nothing to fear but fear itself,\nsubmit to the control of the Lord; He is bigger than your fear, and He’s bigger than the one who comes against you! OCTOBER 7 WHAT IS MAN THAT WE SHOULD BE AFRAID OF HIM Isaiah 51:11 (NKJV) “I, even I, am He who comforts you. Who are you that you should be afraid of a man who will die, and of the son of a man who will be made like grass?” Why is it that we are so afraid of man and what he might do to us? God says a man’s life is brief and that he will soon die like grass in the field! Yet, even as Christians, we tend to be more concerned as to what men think than we are of the One who made us. God Almighty should be the One we stand in awe of; when God begins to move in your life, nothing can stop His shaking. Judgments will begin at the house of God…and these all now lie at\n255\nthe door. For years, faithful men of God have pleaded for God’s own to repent and return to their Creator and for the most part, we see life going on…business as usual.\nGod’s promises are not\npiein-the-sky fantasies or fables. You can rely on Him. Life isn’t found in memorizing scriptures or perfecting a presentation, but rather in submitting yourself to the Lord. Tell someone what Christ has done for you; give of yourself and give others hope. Let them know that hopelessness can always be replaced with hope! Be an encourager; let them know that they can have their own relationship with the One who said, “I, even I, am He who comforts you.” OCTOBER 8 THE FIVE R’S OF HIS WORD The Bible was given to us by the inspiration of God and is useful to each one of us as it prepares us for living. There are five ways to get God’s Word in your life. •\nReceive it:\nLuke 8:13 (NIV), “…receive the Word with joy\nwhen you hear it.” •\nRevelation 1:3 (NKJV), “Blessed is he\nwho reads and those who hear the words of this prophecy.” •\nResearch God’s Word: Psalms 101:2 (NRVS), “...study it day and night.”\n•\nPsalms 119:11 (NKJV), “Hide it in\nyour heart.” Memorize it! •\nReflect on God’s Word: 2 Timothy 2:7 (NLT), “For the Lord will give you insight.” With knowledge comes increased responsibility! Joshua 1:8\n(NKJV), “Don’t let this Book of the Law depart from your mouth.”\n256\nBe a doer of the Word—knowing it is not enough.\nJohn 13:17,\n(NKJV), “Once you know these things, you will be blessed if you do them,” We aren’t saved from sin’s grasp by knowing the commandments of God because, we can’t and don’t keep them. God destroyed sin’s control over us by giving Himself as a sacrifice for our sins.\nYou need to receive, read, research, remember,\nreflect and then always respond to God’s Word! OCTOBER 9 YOU KNOW HOW I AM; HELP ME TO DEPEND ON HOW YOU ARE Psalms 27:4-5 (LB) “The one thing I want from God, the thing I seek most of all is the privilege of meditating in his Temple, living in his presence every day of my life, delighting in his incomparable perfections and glory. There I’ll be when trouble comes. He will hide me. He will set me on a high rock.” Jesus what a wonder You are! You are so precious; so kind and true. You shine like the morning star. Invade my life today with Your living, loving Presence. Motivate me to speak, acknowledge and live for You. Your Holy Spirit is power and God my Father is in control. Your love is a blanket over me. I praise you and worship You; Holy are you, O God. Your purpose and plan are good. I praise the Name of Jesus!\nIn Your time, You make all things\nbeautiful. You scheduled every day of my life before I began to breathe. I own nothing but your promises. I may think I have something, but everything that bears my name belongs to You. Help me, Lord, to relinquish my so-called possessions; even my\n257\nnext breath is yours. Just “Color me gone!” Have Your way; You know how I am; help me to depend on how You are! OCTOBER 10 SIN SAPS YOUR STRENGTH Psalms 32:4b (LB) “My strength evaporated like water on a sunny day until I finally admitted all my sins to you and stopped trying to hide them. I said to myself, ‘I will confess them to the Lord.’ And you forgave me. All my guilt is gone.” What relief we have when we confess our sins and God clears the record. As long as we do not confess, God does not cover our sins; but the moment we confess, He covers them…”then all my guilt is gone.” Guilt will wear out your mind, sap you spirit and body of strength and you will feel like “your bones being worn away.” There is a definite link between spiritual distress and physical disorders. “My strength evaporated like water on a sunny day.” You will be like a tree without sap in a land without moisture; you’ll have no strength and no energy. First, the Psalmist admitted the sin to himself, then he uncovered it; next, he repented and confessed it. How pleased You are, Father, when we finally get it right! We know how grieved we are when our own children make mistakes and hurt themselves or others and many times we don’t even know about it. But we are in Your face, always; “everything we do is known to you,” Psalms 119:168 (LB). Thank you Father, you see and still forgive! OCTOBER 11 SEEK HIS FACE AND HIS HEART\n258\nPsalms 27:8 (KJV) “When you said, seek ye my face, my heart cried unto thee, Thy face Lord will I seek!” The Lord so appreciates it when we seek Him, His face, His nearness. You may not be able to move too much on earth with your Words, but you can move all of heaven!! So, reach out to the unseen, the eternal, and the heavenly. Difficulties are sent in order to reveal what God can do!! Any Valley of Trouble can become a Door of Hope. We don’t have to “see” the physical answer but we do need to be aware of the spiritual aspects of our trouble and sense Your Presence. We flitter and flail, but You remain sure and strong. There is a time of testing and establishing during which we must stand still until the new relationship becomes ingrained in us that it becomes a permanent habit, like a surgeon setting a broken arm by splinting it to keep it from moving.\nGod, too, has His\nspiritual splints He puts on His children to keep them quiet and still through difficulties. 1 Peter 5:10 (NKJV), “…after you have suffered awhile, He will restore you and make you steadfast.”\nJeremiah\n17:7 (NLT) , “Blessed is the man who trusts in the Lord and has made the Lord his hope and confidence.” Seek His face and His heart; Isaiah 43:4 (LB) says, “You are precious to me and honored and I love you.” OCTOBER 12 THE EYES OF THE LORD RUN TO AND FRO THROUGHOUT THE WHOLE EARTH 2 Chronicles 16:9a (NKJV)\n259\n“The eyes of the Lord run to and fro throughout the whole earth to show Himself strong on behalf of those whose heart is loyal to Him.” The eyes of the Lord run throughout the whole earth searching for one who will be willing to be nothing so that He can be everything. There is no limit to what God can do through you, providing you do not seek your own glory. You need to lose all sense of self-sufficiency; 1 Corinthians 10:12b (MSG) says, “Forget about self-confidence, it’s useless; cultivate God-confidence.” Have confidence in the One who can be what you would like to be. Many of us have worn heart monitors and they serve a purpose, but they can only monitor the body. The Lord monitors the Spirit and the heartbeat of the soul. There is no way you can benefit someone else unless you have endured immense pain.\nYour own hard\ncircumstance that is pressing so hard is His tool to shape you for His work.\nDon’t push away His instrument or you’ll miss His\npurpose and intended result; and ultimately His glory. Philippians 1:30 (MSG) says, “There’s far more to this life than trusting Christ; there’s also suffering for Him and the suffering is as much a gift as the trusting,” It’s so true, “The eyes of the Lord run throughout the whole earth searching for those who will endure and yet remain loyal to Him.” OCTOBER 13 YOU’RE BLESSED WHEN YOU’RE AT THE END OF YOUR ROPE Matthew 5:3 (NKJV)\n260\n“Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” Matthew 5:3 (MSG) “You’re blessed when you’re at the end of your rope. With less of you there is more of God and His rule.” “Blessed are the paupers in spirit” which is the first lesson to receive in the kingdom of God.\nThe bedrock in Jesus Christ’s\nkingdom is poverty, not possessions, and carries a sense of total futility. It takes a long time to believe or even want to be poor; but the verse says blessed are the poor (paupers) in spirit and it is the place where Jesus will begin to work. The world regards material blessings, money and personal recognition as a sure sign of being blessed. Your greatest blessings are found in God’s promises and His gift of eternal life. I am a pauper and destitute for You, Jesus. I am blessed when I’m dangling at the end of my rope; because less of me means there is room for more of You. Blessed are the poor in spirit for theirs is the kingdom of heaven!\nOCTOBER 14 GOD COMMANDS YOUR STRENGTH Psalms 68:24 (NKJV) “Your God has commanded your strength…” God daily measures out and then enforces the amount of strength that you need. He has a plan for you each day, and you need to make a plan that parallels with His. God has promised to\n261\ndeliver you and will continue to deliver you until you’re gone. He wants you to empty out into someone, everything He’s put in you. Let Him touch your heart and your lips that I may Isaiah 50:4b (NKJV), “ be able to speak a Word in season to one that is weary.” 2 Corinthians 2:14\n(NKJV) says, “Now thanks be to God who\nalways leads us to triumph in Christ, and through us diffuses the fragrance of His knowledge in every place.” God will command your strength so that you will triumph and in doing so, will allow you to leave His fragrance, showing He’s been there! Regardless of the situation, God’s Word contains the dynamite of the Holy Spirit. It explodes within you when the circumstance of your life causes it to do so. When God reveals some truth of His Word, you have to decide whether you will accept the upheaval that will come in your circumstance if you obey. And, as you obey, God commands your strength!\nOCTOBER 15 SUFFERING IS AS MUCH A GIFT AS TRUSTING Philippians 1:29 (MSG) “There’s far more to this life than trusting in Christ. There’s also suffering for him. And the suffering is as much a gift as the trusting.” Regardless of the crisis, we should have total confidence in You. We do to a point. Then we revert to panic prayers as if we don’t even know You. We get to our wits end showing we haven’t the slightest reliance in Jesus or God and His rule in this world. God’s been dealing with corrupt people since the beginning of time.\n262\nHe told Ahaziah, King of Judah in 2 Chronicles 21:16-20, “You’re going to come down with a terrible disease of the colon and die a painful humiliating death and two years later, he was totally incontinent and writhing in pain and died.” One day we will realize the joy we could have given Jesus if we would have trusted Him no matter what.\nWhen we pray and nothing happens, we go\nscrambling elsewhere for answers and solutions. In a crisis, we reveal who we have placed our trust in…we could be at the beginning of finding God’s wisdom. Don’t succumb to panic, He will bring you into truth; and that could be the place you will learn that “suffering is as much a gift as trusting.”\nOCTOBER 16 YOUR WILL BE DONE Matthew 26:42 (NKJV) “Oh, My Father, if this cup cannot pass away from Me unless I drink it, Your will be done.” Jesus was willing to drink the bitter cup of death, as it was God’s will. Before He suffered His agonizing death on the cross, He knew how hard it would be but he also knew that God’s will is the most glorious thing in the world.\nHis will is the continual\nworking of His omnipotent power for our benefit with nothing to prevent it, as we are surrendered and believe.\nAll of Satan’s\nschemes backfire and result in our good. Jesus said, “Shall I not drink the cup the Father has given me?” And because He did, we have eternal life.\n263\nIt’s a fascinating life in the center of His will. Even the sins that Satan hurls against us are useless when God gets through processing them. Nothing that is not a part of God’s will is allowed to come into the lives of those who trust and obey You. Nothing haphazard ever gets dumped into your life. Fill every heart that is lifted to you today, dear Jesus. Because you died of a broken heart, You are close to those whose hearts are breaking. You gave us the example, when You were hurting the most; You turned Your face to the Father and showed us how to be accepting of the Father’s will being done.\nOCTOBER 17 WHAT HE DID AMONG THEM, HE DOES IN IS…HE LIVES 2 Corinthians 4:14 (MSG) “...what Jesus did among them, he does in us--he lives! Our lives are at constant risk for Jesus’ sake, which makes Jesus’ life all the more evident in us. While we’re going through the worst, we’re getting in on the best!” Paul is telling the Corinthians that he has been surrounded and battered by troubles but is not demoralized…he wasn’t sure what to do but he knew God knew what to do; that he had been spiritually terrorized but God had never left his side. He recounted how Jesus had been tortured, mocked and murdered but what He did among them, He does in us…He lives! And as long as we know He is alive, we know He loves and lives within us in the same resurrected power that brought Him up out of the grave. He lives to ever make intercession for us before the throne of Almighty God.\n264\nWhat we need to grasp is that He lives! He lives within our body and our life! As long as we live, our “lives will be at a constant risk for Jesus’ sake,” but that’s okay because in the process, it “makes Jesus’ life all the more evident in us!” We may be surrounded and battered by troubles and not know what to do but we know God knows what to do; and when “we’re going through the worst, we are indeed getting in on the best!”\nRead 2 Corinthians4:10-12\n(MSG).\nOCTOBER 18 GOD IS WHO HE SAYS HE IS Beth Moore gives five statements of faith: “God is who He says He is; God can do what He says He can do; I am who Christ says I am; I can do all things through Christ; and God’s Word is alive and active in me!” Say them over and over; so many times you could say them backwards in your sleep! Enforce these truths in your inner Spirit! To get what God has, you have to do what God says, and He can do anything He says He can do. If a moment of fear can render you a whole season of failure, then a moment of supernatural faith can totally reverse it! We so shy away from anything called supernatural but that’s exactly where God works. God is not stirred by my needs, but He is stirred by my faith. We all have a bearing on our own future by the words of our mouth, as that’s what gets lived out in our lives. Our thoughts (meditation of our heart) usually wind up being lived out in our actions. Your Words are seeds and we plant them all the time. You sow and God gives the harvest, as He is the Source of supply. Your actions are\n265\nseeds, i.e., you cut someone off in traffic, you sow a seed; you let someone get in line ahead of you, that’s a seed. You reap what you sow. When you let go of something dear to you; God will let go of something He wants to give you. There is only one proof that you have faith and it’s called obedience. You break the devil’s hold over you every time you obey and do what God says you can do. Remember you are who God says you are and He will always encourage and affirm you. The devil will always remind you of what you are NOT. The most important step of faith is to know that God is who He says He is!\nOCTOBER 19 IS GOD IN THE EVIL OF THIS WORLD Psalms 103:19 (LB) “The Lord has made the heavens his throne; from there he rules over everything there is.” Do you believe that God is in the evil of this world? This verse says that He rules over everything there is and there IS a LOT of evil! If He knows and sees all the sin, why doesn’t He step in and stop it? God has been dealing with sin and sinful people from the beginning of creation. He rules, He reigns, and He is Sovereign Almighty God now and forever. Doesn’t look like it? Well, let’s look at someone who had a lot of evil come against him.\nJoseph’s\nbrothers hated him and cast him in a pit and later sold him into slavery. They didn’t just sell him to anyone but actually sold him to the highest, most important household in all of Egypt. Through acts of sin, he was wrongfully accused and jailed; but there he was\n266\nmade Overseer of the whole jail. The Butler may have forgotten him, but God didn’t and had him brought to Pharaoh, who later made him the highest official, other than himself, in all of Egypt. Step by step God ruled over every evil that came against Joseph. He was able to tell his brothers later that what they meant for evil, God meant for good, because God does rule over everything there is! When evil and sin pile up against you, be encouraged, God is bigger than either of them; and He knows exactly how to deliver you, just as he delivered Joseph.\nEvil runs rampant today, but\nGod has dealt with evil before!\nOCTOBER 20 THE GOODNESS OF THE LORD IN THE LAND OF THE LIVING Psalms 27:13-14 (NKJV) “I would have lost heart, unless I had believed that I would see the goodness of the Lord in the land of the living. Wait on the Lord; be of good courage, and He shall strengthen your heart.” The first time I ever heard anyone quote this verse was my Pastor as he stood in the kitchen of the home of someone whose young son had just taken his life. It was so appropriate and so true.\nYes, in times like that and so many others, we have to\nconcentrate on not only the other living family members but earnestly look for the goodness of the Lord, even when our heart is breaking.\nIn our brokenness He comes to encourage and\nstrengthen us as we lean on Him. He does come; even when it feels like our life has taken wings and flown away. A loved one\n267\nmay be taken away but God goes with him; He also remains with you to comfort you. He is with us through the really hard days of adjustment and difficulties because “He is the Lord in the land of the living.”\nHe is with those living in the emergency room, the\ndelivery room, the rehabilitation center, the nursing home, the unemployment line, through divorce court; in the jail cell…He is with us as we live through our every experience. If we believe that He is truly with us and we turn to focus on Him, He will hold us together even when we think we’re falling apart. He is with us until we’re done…then, He’s there too!\nOCTOBER 21 YOUR LIVING WILL SPILL OVER INTO THANKSGIVING Colossians 2:7 (MSG) “You know your way around the faith. Now do what you’ve been taught.\nSchool’s out, stop studying the subject and start\nliving it, and let your living spill over into thanksgiving!” We are not to rejoice in successful service but rather rejoice in the fact that you know God and He knows you. It is a snare to rejoice in that God has used you. Don’t ever be impressed with yourself.\n1 Corinthians 10:12 (MSG), “You are just as capable of\nmessing it up as they were. Don’t be so naïve and self-confident. You’re not exempt. You could fall on your face as easily as anyone else.\nForget about self-confidence, it’s useless.\nCultivate God\nconfidence.” So, “Now do what you’ve been taught, schools out, stop studying the subject and start living it.” It is not possible to measure what God will do through you if your relationship is right.\n268\nRivers of living water will pour through you when you’re rightly related to Him; it doesn’t matter where you are, God put you there. As God teaches you and you learn your way around the faith,” your “living will spill over into thanksgiving” as God uses you. What God does through you is what counts, not what you do on your own for Him.\nOCTOBER 22 OUR GOD IS GREATER John 16:33b (NKJV) “In the world, you will have tribulation; but be of good cheer, for I have overcome the world.” You are Sovereign God Almighty, our Savior, and our Defender! God will sometimes allow barriers to come into our lives. When that happens, we need to stay focused on Him and He’ll show us how to maneuver around them or else, He will remove them. Get your eyes off the problem and on to the One who has already overcome it. God is great enough to put someone in position instantly. It might take us years in schooling but God can download a lifetime of living in us in an instant. It is God who works in us and if we’re receptive, God can do it all—anything! Mostly, we aren’t “instantly” made heroes or judges. We go through valleys and tunnels but before we know it, He brings us out into light as God is greater than that which comes against us. We all come up against barriers that from all appearances stop the flow of our life and we seem to disappear and are not seen anywhere for a time.\n269\nThen, almost magically we reappear stronger and better than ever. Reversals come but they also go; because greater is He that is in us than he that is in the world!\nOCTOBER 23 YOU ARE CONTINUALLY WITH ME Psalms 73:23-24 (NKJV) “I am continually with you, you hold me by my right hand. You will guide me with your counsel and afterwards receive me to glory.” When I trusted You as Savior, You promised to always be here with me. If I feel that is not true, it’s just a feeling, not reality. Over and over You tell me that You are always here. “I am with you and will watch over you wherever you go,” Genesis 28:15. Since Your Presence is continually with me, “I need not fear even if the whole world blows up and the mountain crumble and fall into the sea,” Psalms. 46:2. Regardless of what else I may lose in this life, I can never lose You or my relationship with You. Thank you, Jesus! Pierce my ear with Your voice and let me hear it above all the others. “Morning by morning you awaken my ear to hear as the learned,” Isaiah 50:4. I belong for You and can never be another’s. Keep my lying tongue from whining and asking for deliverance, except as You are wanting to give it, in Jesus Name, I pray. Thank you for keeping Your promise of always being here with me!\n270\nOCTOBER 24 CONDUCT YOURSELVES HONORABLY 1 Peter 2:12 (HCSB) “Conduct yourselves honorably among the Gentiles, so that in a case where they speak against you as those who do what is evil, they will, by observing your good works, glorify God on the day of visitation.” As believers, we face intense pressure to act as though we are of the world. This is not a time to do finger pointing; it’s a time to encourage and support one another and to conduct ourselves honorably among those who wouldn’t know Christian behavior from a fence post. To act honorably is to walk excellently in a moral upright manner as we interact with unbelievers. You understand an unbeliever a lot better than they understand you because you used to respond very much as they do now. believers, it’s what they do.\nUnbelievers attack\nThey may speak slander, criticize,\nmake false accusations; in short, it’s where they are and how they are. As believers, if we can respond rightly, it’s entirely possible they will “observe your good works and glorify God on the day of visitation,” or the day He returns. This brings out the “who you are” in this scripture…you are to be the one that is to excel, and in doing so, bring glory to God!\nOCTOBER 25 GOD LEADS HIS DEAR CHILDREN ALONG\n271\nMatthew 28:20b (NKJV) “Lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age.” You are a God of miracles. You always act on behalf of Your people. You did this as you led the Israelites out of Egypt, and when Jesus walked in ministry here on this earth. That’s what You do, You lead Your dear children along and You were doing it on 9/11/01. A man by the name of Stanley looked out his window of the Twin Towers in New York City just in time to see a plane headed straight at him; he dived under his desk. It was the only thing in the room left standing…his Bible laid untouched on top of that desk, and it was the only thing left in the room. Another man by the name of Brian was on another floor of the building. Everything was confusion; people didn’t know what to do to try to escape as they were cut off. Some tried to ascend to be picked up by helicopters; some tried to descend. Brian could hear Stanley calling for help but there was a wall between them. He didn’t follow the others out but stopped to see if he could help the man crying out. Stanley had a nail driven in his palm and it was very difficult for him to climb, but finally Brian was able to reach him and to help him up over the wall. Later when they were eventually rescued, Brian was bleeding too and he took his blood stained hand and put it over Stanley’s and said, “I’ve always wanted a brother, now we’re blood brothers.” It was nothing short of a miracle they were ever found.\nSo many lives slipped into eternity that day but God\nperformed many miracles as He led His dear children along! OCTOBER 26 YOU GIVE ME EVERYTHING I NEED\n272\n2 Thessalonians 1:2 (MSG) “Our God gives you everything you need, makes you everything you’re to be.” 2 Thessalonians 2:15-17 (MSG) “Keep a tight grip on what you were taught, whether in personal conversation or by our letter. May Jesus himself and God our Father who reached out in love and surprised you with gifts of unending help and confidence, put a fresh heart in you, invigorate your work, enliven your speech.” You give me everything I need; make me everything I was meant to be. Thank and praise you, Father, for what is right in my life and help me through what is not right. You created me first and foremost to know you and to live in rich communication with You. Rather than trying to evaluate Your way with me, help me to accept it thankfully. You are King of Kings, yet You live within me and walk with me... How awesome You are! Thank You for being Perfect, Holy and True.\nYou continually surprise me with Your gifts of\nunending help. As I tighten my grip on what I’ve been taught, you refresh my heart, invigorate my work and enliven my speech. I’m usually surprised at Your greatness, Your miracles but You know what You’re doing.\nI know nothing except You are Everything!\n“Diffuse through me the fragrance of Your knowledge in every place,” 2 Corinthians 2:14 (NKJV). Thank you, Father, for giving me everything I need and never stop enabling me to become everything I was meant to be.\n273\nOCTOBER 27 WE START AND END WITH YOU John 6:63b (MSG) “Every Word I have spoken to you is a Spirit Word, so it is lifemaking.” The whole human race was created to glorify God and to enjoy Him forever! Sin switched us all onto another track, but that hasn’t altered God’s plan and purpose in the slightest. God’s love is powerful and He can give us a “singleness of heart for Him.” He not only introduces us to His love but the very nature and attributes of Almighty God lives within us. We need to maintain an open mind and Spirit to receive what He freely gives. Don’t muddle it with our own intentions but rely on the tremendous creative purpose of our Great God. Praise You, Lord God Almighty for Your good plan and for your work of grace in our lives. We want to reflect and bring honor to You; the aim of our lives is to do Your will. We start and end with You. Nothing deterred you from Your purpose. You didn’t linger on the mountain top where You were appreciated; nor did your hurry through the villages where You were persecuted. Neither gratitude nor ingratitude turned You away from the Cross that awaited You. Your purpose was to glorify the One Who sent You. Our purpose also is to do the will of the Father and to glorify Him. Help us to realize every day that we started with You and we will end with You; and that every Word You have spoken is a “Spirit Word and so it is life-making!”\nOCTOBER 28\n274\nTHE GIFT OF EMPTINESS 1 Kings 17:7 (NKJV) “And it happened after a while that the brook dried up, because there had been no rain in the land.” We need to understand and experience the fact that God gives the gift of emptiness. That’s hardly what any of us want. We want to be fulfilled always! We want to feel full…whether it is your body (stomach) or your spirit (soul), we want to be satisfied! It is in the insecurities in our lives that we become spiritually established. Elijah’s experience at the dwindling brook is a perfect example. You can absolutely believe that at some point, “your brook will dry up”—it is the history of your yesterday or a true prophecy of your tomorrow. Then you will need to differentiate between trusting in the gift or trusting in the Giver. Gifts sometimes are for a season; our Giver is eternal. Delays, changes, heartache, and tears are interludes in our lives but are not the finale. Elijah found that when the stream dried up (his earthy source); he received help from the God who made heaven and earth. “It happened after a while that the brook dried up;” it happens, its life, and it leaves you feeling empty. Your earthly resources too may fail you, but your God will not. Should you experience the gift of emptiness, turn to the One who gave it to you!\nOCTOBER 29 ENJOY THE BEST OF JESUS\n275\nRomans 16:20 (MSG) “…before you know it the God of peace will come down on Satan with both feet, stomping him into the dirt! Enjoy the best of Jesus!” If you think that Satan has come down on you with both feet, stomping you into the dirt, believe the way it really is and hang in there! Before you know it, God will stomp him into the dirt! Far too many believers are content to live like those who work in the coal mines who never see sun or daylight. Doom and gloom seem to hang over them at every turn; they live out a dungeon mentality and rarely seek a way out, accepting dejection and defeat. Satan seems to have a bulldog grip on their lives. VS. 19b, Paul says, “I want you to be smart; making sure every “good” thing is the real thing.\nDon’t be gullible in regard to smooth-talking evil.\nStay\nalert…” Look for the pure love and light of Jesus as your Source, the One who can light up your life as well as your path. Psalms 139:12 (LB) “To Him the night shines as bright as the day; darkness and light are both alike to Him.” Struggles of life are discouraging but you can climb to new heights with His help and encouragement and really “enjoy the best of Jesus!”\nOCTOBER 30 THE LORD IS SEARCHING FOR YOU 2 Chronicles 16:9 (NIV) “For the eyes of the Lord range throughout the earth to strengthen those whose hearts are fully committed to him.”\n276\nGod is looking for those who will continually trust Him with their lives. The world watches to see what God will do through a life fully committed and God Himself watches to see who will be nothing so that Christ can be everything…never hindering Him but always allowing Him to work. There is no limit to what God can do through you providing you do not seek your own glory. George Mueller said that he lost his love for money, prominence, power, position and worldly pleasures and found that God alone was His all in all. “I found everything I needed and desired nothing else; I care only about the things of God. He revealed the truth to me of Himself and has become an inexpressible blessing.\nFrom the\ndepths of my heart, God has become an infinitely wonderful Being.” If your heart is fully committed to Him, be assured that the eyes of the Lord are continually searching you out, to strengthen and encourage you. OCTOBER 31 WE ALL NEED WISDOM Proverbs 3:7a (NKJV) “Do not be wise in your own eyes.” God educates us by means of people who are better than we are; don’t begrudge their relationship with the Lord, learn from it and be attuned to anyone who can bring you closer to Him. “Do not be wise in your own eyes.” Proverbs 2:2 (MSG) “Tune your ears to the world of Wisdom; set your heart on a life of Understanding.”\nVS. 614:\n277\nGod gives out\nWisdom free; is plainspoken in Knowledge and Understanding. He’s a rich mine of Common Sense for those who live well. He keeps his eye on all who live honestly, and pays special attention to his loyally committed ones. Lady Wisdom will be your close friend, and Brother Knowledge your pleasant companion. Good Sense will scout ahead for danger; Insight will keep an eye out for you. They’ll keep you from making wrong turns or following bad directions.” God’s Words are full of wisdom and insight and are available for the taking.\nWe all need Wisdom, Knowledge,\nUnderstanding and Good Sense to keep us from making those wrong turns and following after bad directions. So says the Lord and we can depend on His Word!\nNOVEMBER 1 HE CAN BRING YOU OUT OF YOUR CAVE 1 Samuel 22:1 (NKJV) “David therefore departed from there and escaped to the cave of Adullam.” David went from being exalted as King to being hounded and hidden in a cave. His life fell apart. We can all relate to similar times in our own lives. We all “do time” when it’s learning time. You all have experiences in which you learn where your help comes from and learn about yourself…your strengths and your limitations. It is where God can do some of His best work. It’s also where your worst inadequacies are confirmed and where God sends His power to help you out. For all David knew, he was going to die in his cave. This is as good as it gets! When you get in a situation you cannot fix, trust God. Never let your sense of security\n278\nbe based on you. God will help you even at your lowest point. Trust God, and then trust God! He can bring you out of your cave! Begin to know Him now and finish never!\nNOVEMBER 2 JESUS IS IN ME AND WITH ME Ephesians 3:20 (NKJV) “Now to Him who is able to do exceedingly abundantly above all that we ask or think…” Oswald Chambers says: “We look for God to manifest Himself to His children: God only manifests Himself in His children.” Yea, Lord, I want to know you! Know how to live before You and not hurt You and not disappoint You. If I completely give this life to You, I have no further claims on it. You be manifested in me. I can stop the struggle…83 years and I’ve done very little right. My only hope is You, Jesus. I praise You and thank You for being the wonderful Savior You are. Help me to walk before and after You, love You, and always be obedient and submissive. Romans 4:19-20 (NIV),”… Abraham faced the fact that his body was as good as dead … but he didn’t waiver in unbelief regarding the promise of God … but was strengthened in his faith, being fully persuaded that God had power to do what He had promised.” You have promised that You will be with me. You are able to do immeasurably more than I can ever ask or imagine.\nHelp me to stop looking for outer\nmanifestations and look for you, Jesus, within me, as You are here!\n279\nNOVEMBER 3 THE SPIRIT MAKES INTERCESSION FOR US Romans 8:26-27 (NKJV) “Likewise the Spirit also helps in our weaknesses. For we do not know what we should pray for as we ought, but the Spirit Himself makes intercession for us with groaning’s which cannot be uttered. Now He who searches the hearts knows what the mind of the Spirit is because He makes intercession for the saints according to the will of God.” How we as humans, sinful as we are, can pray to a Holy God and get answers is a mystery; and even though we can’t explain it, we do know it happens. We cannot even express the longings of our hearts and often they are more of a groan rather than a request; but a groan is interpreted by the One who hears it. The Holy Spirit understands the groan as, “The Spirit makes intercession for the saints according to the will of God.” He hears, understands perfectly and receives our prayer and then separates whatever is in error before bringing it before the Father. When we are troubled and really burdened, we can take comfort in knowing that Jesus ever lives to make intercession for us. We can fully trust Him and be so thankful for the Words of comfort as well as His embrace.\nNOVEMBER 4 GOD CAN DO ANYTHING\n280\nActs 12:5 (KJV) “Peter was kept in prison, but the church was earnestly praying to God for him.” Wicked King Herod and the Jews were ready to draw Peter’s blood and what happened as the church prayed? The prison doors opened and Peter was free, for one thing.\nFor another, as an\nindication of God’s judgment, Herod was “eaten by worms and died.” The power of prayer is unequaled and is a supernatural weapon to be used boldly and with divine confidence. God isn’t looking for great people but He is looking for people who are willing to prove the greatness of our great God! We should never limit God and don’t ever try to think you know what He can do. Look for the unexpected, because our God can do more than you can ever imagine or conceive. What will prayer do? Everything that our Almighty God can do for you! He once told King Solomon: “Ask me for anything, I will give it to you” 2 Corinthians1:7 (LB). The next time you find yourself imprisoned by one of lives “whatever’s,” ask the One who can do anything, to set you free!\nNOVEMBER 5 “I HAVE TO DO WHAT I GOTTA DO” Acts 4:19-20 (NIV) “But Peter and John replied, “Judge for yourselves whether it is right in God’s sight to obey you rather than God. For we cannot help speaking about what we have seen and heard.”\n281\nEvil rulers do not deserve believer’s allegiance and support. Christians should resist government when its dictates go counter to God’s commands; but generally all believers are to be responsible and law abiding. Civil government is ordained of God and it is the duty of Christians to render loyal obedience in all things not contrary to the revealed will of God. Arthur Blessitt walked over 38,000 miles as he took the cross around the world;* he was 28 when he started and 68 when he finished 40 years later. As he approached one war zone (he walked through five wars), the enemy told him that if he came one more block, they would nail him to the cross he was carrying. He explained that he meant them no harm; he was simply carrying the cross around the world and continued his approach. They told him again that they would nail him to that cross. He said, “Well, you do what you gotta do; but I have to do what I gotta do.” He got close enough to put his hand on one of them and said, “You look like really nice guys, you don’t have to live like this, you could let Jesus come into your lives and totally change you, why don’t we just kneel down here and pray?” They were totally stunned by his actions and behavior and told him, “Go! Just get out of here.” Arthur could not help but speak the Wind Words God had told him to say and Jehovah God provided him safety. God’s Word and Presence are as alive as He is alive, so use them today! NOVEMBER 6 REMEMBER HOW GOD HELPED YOU AT A CRITICAL TIME Exodus 15:26-27 (NIV) “He said, ‘If you listen carefully to the voice of the Lord your God and do what is right in his eyes, if you pay attention to his commands and keep all his decrees, I will not bring on you any of\n282\nthe diseases I brought on the Egyptians, for I am the Lord, who heals you.’ Then they came to Elim, where there were twelve springs and seventy palm trees, and they camped there near the water.” The Israelites had traveled three days in the desert without finding water and when they came to Marah, they found that the water was bitter, and grumbled to Moses. Moses cried out to the Lord and He showed him a piece of wood which he threw into the water and it became sweet. Later, they came to Elim and found twelve springs of good water and seventy palm trees. Every one of those springs and trees became a remembrance of how He helped them in a time of crisis. To receive any benefit from adversity, we have to accept a situation and be determined to make the best of it. Anyone who experiences a great difficulty will not be easily parted from their Bible. When you write a few lines on a tear-stained page, it is meaningless to others, but you remember how God helped you when you were desperate; you will recall what God whispered to you and fulfilled His promise, years later. He says, “If you will listen carefully to My voice and do what is right in My eyes …” It’s like: “I will help you and bring you not to one spring but to twelve, and I will let you camp not in the shade of seventy palm trees, but in the shelter of My arms! NOVEMBER 7 GOD REMAINS, FOCUS ON HIM Genesis 18:14 (NIV) “Is anything too hard for the Lord?”\n283\nWhen we grieve and worry over what we have lost or even from what has been taken from us, it never makes it reappear. Worrying never makes things easier and usually prevents us from moving forward to what is better. During times of any loss, focus on that which remains.\nResistance only tightens the noose.\nNothing disastrous will destroy you or bring only evil against you, if you will immediately take it to the Lord in prayer. When you fling yourself honestly and openly before Him, you will not only find shelter in your storm but you will find more love in His Presence than you have ever experienced, seen or known before.\nIt is\nthrough difficulties, trials and tribulations that God gives us fresh and new insight about Himself.\nAsk yourself the question “Is\nanything too hard for the Lord?” If you’re a believer, you know the answer. Every day we are challenged to believe that God can do anything. One of our statements of faith is, “God can do what He says He can do.”\nHis desire is to fill your deepest need. If you\ntruly desire to know Him better and you are striving to do that, know and be prepared for “all hell to break out against you” but it is in the opposition that you learn and experience that indeed there is nothing too hard for God to do. He is so pleased when we want a closer relationship with Him and He will truly move heaven and earth to help you accomplish that purpose. Don’t worry over what falls by the wayside, God could replace it, give you something better or enable you to live joyfully without it. NOVEMBER 8 NOT EVERYONE IS GOING TO LIKE YOU 1 Peter 2:15 (NIV) “For it is God’s will that by doing good you should silence the ignorant talk of foolish men.”\n284\nThose who do not understand true Christian behavior will criticize you with no real basis for that attack. They aren’t being malicious intentionally, it’s just they are religiously ignorant. Sometimes doing good will silence (muzzle) them but sometimes you will infuriate them.\nThat is because they are without\nunderstanding. I like the way the Living Bible states it: “It is God’s will that your good lives should silence those who foolishly condemn the Gospel without knowing what it can do for them, having never experienced it’s power.” Not everyone is going to like you or want to be with you.\nWell, maybe they missed an\nopportunity to know someone really awesome! You will have many disappointments in this life but in God, you can get re-appointed! People you care about will come against you.\nGalatians 6:9\n(NKJV) says, “And do not grow weary while doing good for in due season, we shall reap if we do not lose heart.” My thought is if you continue to do the right thing with the right attitude, it will eventually close the mouths of the unwise and uninformed critics.\nNOVEMBER 9 YOU CAME WITH A PLAN 2 Peter 1:3 (NIV) “His divine power has given us everything we need for life and godliness through our knowledge of him who called us by his own glory and goodness.”\n285\nGod has given us everything we need to look and be like Him, awesome! Read on…we obtain it through our knowledge of Him. We become more like Him as we know Him better and better. What are some of the characteristics you share with your own family members? Some of us have little “look-alikes” from the getgo! They look like us and act like us…that’s scary! Some of these attributes are inherited and some are acquired. Good looks, bad manners…we can’t deny but we are related! Like it or lump it! But God has given us His divine power and everything else we might need in order for us to take on His likeness. And He’s done this so we can live the way we want to? He’s given this to us, “so that through them you may participate in the divine nature and escape the corruption in the world caused by evil desires” as stated in VS. 4. Before you ever begin to breathe, God had a plan in place, something for you to do that no one else will ever do. Every person He ever made came with a plan and a set of blueprints as He has empowered you with whatever you need. You can do whatever God planned for you, and it happens as He processes you in becoming like Him, as you take on His character. It started with your salvation and will continue until you stand in His Presence in eternity. NOVEMBER 10 WE HAVE THE WORDS OF THE PROPHETS 2 Peter 1:19 (RSV) “And we have the prophetic Word made more sure. You will do well to pay attention to this as a lamp shining in a dark place until the day dawns and the Morning Star arises in your heart.”\n286\nEven more than ever before in history, we should be giving heed to prophecy as it has been outlined to us by the prophets and is totally reliable. Every Word God has spoken will surely come to pass.\nWhat God outlined as land belonging to Israel so many\nyears ago was well defined and the most binding real estate contract ever written came with it. Those evading Israel’s territory “would do well to pay attention to it.” Jesus is our “Lamp shining in a dark place (our Light Bearer) until the day dawns and the Morning Star arises in our heart.” When we experience the return of Jesus, we will have such joy and complete enlightenment as only His Presence can provide. False teachers love to distort the scriptures to support what they believe. Man’s prophecy seldom happens but what God has spoken in prophecy, we are to pay attention to it. God is moving across the land today and every message he has given to His prophets will surely come to pass. You can believe what God has inspired to be written concerning things to come…pay attention!\nNOVEMBER 11 BE SUBMISSIVE AND PRACTICE HUMILITY 1 Peter 5:5 (NIV) “Young men, in the same way be submissive to those who are older.\nAll of you, clothe yourselves with humility toward one\nanother, because, God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble.”\n287\nPeter urges the younger men to be submissive to those who are older, their elders. They are to be subject to them, obedient, show honor and respect. For younger people to show honor and respect for the older generation seems to be evaporating in our society today. It is so heartwarming when you do see it, as the younger generation seems to be so much more assertive. The admonition here is that all believers are to clothe themselves in humility much as you would put on a garment and actually fasten or tie it around yourself. Humility is to display true Christian virtues and to be willing to place others’ interests first. God takes a firm stand in opposing proud and arrogant people but grants favor to the humble.\nIf you however, look out for another’s interests, it\ncould result in God looking with favor on yours. Look for ways you can lift others up; it could result in finding yourself elevated! Don’t insist on having it your way. You’ll have much better relationships if you show humility and respect to others. “God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble.”\nNOVEMBER 12 TRUST HIM AND THEN…TRUST HIM 1 Peter 5:6 (NIV) “Humble yourselves, therefore, under God’s mighty hand, that he may lift you up in due time.\nCast all your anxiety on him\nbecause He cares for you.” If you indeed “humble yourself” you will acknowledge God’s lordship, obey Him and serve Him. Oswald Chambers: “Let Him have His way with you; if you do not, instead of being of the\n288\nslightest use to God in His Redemptive work in the world, you will be a hindrance and a clog.” If you will humble yourself before God, in time He will deliver you and He will judge those who oppress you. Your God stands against proud people but always blesses those who will humble themselves before Him. Oswald Chambers: “Why shouldn’t we go through heartbreaks?\nThrough those\ndoorways God is opening up ways of fellowship with His Son. (And who in his right mind doesn’t enjoy that?)\nMost of us fall and\ncollapse at the first grip of pain; we sit down on the threshold of God’s purpose and die away of self-pity, and all so-called Christian sympathy will aid us to our death bed. But God will not. He comes with the grip of the pierced hand of His Son and says—‘Enter into fellowship with Me; arise and shine!’ If through a broken heart God can bring His purposes to pass in the world, and then thank Him for breaking your heart.”\nDon’t you know that the God you love and\nserve always has your best interest at heart? You have no problem submitting to a police officer as it’s the law of the land. It is also most important to humble yourself before God. NOVEMBER 13 THE DEVIL GIVES IT HIS BEST SHOT 1 Peter 5:8-9a (NIV) “Be self-controlled and alert.\nYour enemy the devil prowls\naround like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour. Resist him, standing firm in the faith…” Peter warns against the antics of the evil one and to be selfcontrolled, well balanced, serious, sober, and have a sense of being vigilant, awake, alert and attentive! If you knew you were\n289\napproaching a den of lions, you would do it with a heightened sense of alertness!\nYour adversary comes in many forms, the\nfiercest being the Devil.\nHis name means slanderer or false\naccuser. Accuse means to, “thrust through, to inform against.” He stalks his prey to swallow that person greedily; he is insidious, relentless and gives it his best shot at being destructive. Peter urges you as a believer to resist and to stand up against him and to remain firm in your faith.\nRely totally on God’s strength to\novercome whatever he tosses your way. An animal trainer in the circus risks his life and has no guarantee that the animal won’t strike back. Satan can be just as dangerous as a lion, but you have a guarantee that by totally relying on God and staying humble before Him, the Devil cannot devour you; you can come under attack but he cannot destroy you.\nYou have His Word on it:\n“...after you have suffered a little while, will himself restore you and make you strong, firm and steadfast” 1 Peter 5:10.\nThe Devil\ngives it his best shot; he misses by a mile, when you stand firm in your faith! NOVEMBER 14 THE RIGHTEOUS VS THE WICKED Proverbs 29:2 (NKJV) “When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice; but when a wicked man rules, the people groan.” People will always respond well to good government and justice. But when wicked men rule, the people groan in misery. Proverbs 11:4 (NKJV) “Riches do not profit in the day of wrath but righteousness delivers from death.”\nMany times Proverbs\naddresses death as a time of reward or punishment.\n290\nRiches\ncannot help you at the time of death. Only righteousness has any meaning and power beyond the grave. It is true that righteous people bring justice to ALL those who live in the city and the whole city lives in peace. Proverbs 11:10-11 (NKJV), “When it goes well with the righteous, the city rejoices. By the blessing of the upright, the city is exalted but it is overthrown by the mouth of the wicked.” The fate of an entire city without any righteous people in it is the story of Sodom and Gomorrah. Proverbs 25:5 (NKJV), “Take away the wicked from before the king and his throne shall be established in righteousness.” Wickedness needs to be removed from a king so that his throne can be established rightly. Those who are in authority need to surround themselves with wise godly men who uphold truth and know what God has spoken in His Word. If a righteous man is in authority, the people prosper and rejoice but if a wicked man rules, every man groans! NOVEMBER 15 GOD CHOOSES WELL Genesis 18:19 (KJV) “I have chosen him, so that he will direct his children.” God choses those He knows will direct well; not only his own children, but direct God’s children well.\nThe rest of the verse\nshould be a delight for us all: “…keep the way of the Lord by doing what is right and just, so that the Lord will bring about for Abraham what he had promised him.” Abraham did what was right and just for the sake of God’s people, and it resulted in God’s promises being fulfilled in his own family. God still looks for people he can\n291\nplace in powerful and influential positions that will do “what is right and just.” In order to be used, we often need to go through times of training and discipline in His school of stability and many fail the training sessions. God knows what you need to withstand the test or else He would never have given it to you. God knows your strength as He has already measured it to the last degree. Isaiah 30:18 (RSV), “Therefore the Lord waits to be gracious to you; therefore, He exalts Himself to show mercy to you…” If the Lord has chosen you for something and you are not responding rightly, He waits for two reasons: one is to be gracious to you ,and two, that He may be exalted. How gracious is our God! If He has chosen you for something, it is not only for some purpose that exalts and glorifies Him, but it will also in time be a blessing to you and your family. Don’t think you can be an Abraham? He doesn’t expect it; He just wants you, and you need to believe that He chooses well! NOVEMBER 16 DON’T FRET OR WORRY Philippians 4:6-7 (MSG) “Don’t fret or worry. Instead of worrying, pray. Let petitions and praises shape your worries into prayers, letting God know your concerns.\nBefore you know it, a sense of God’s wholeness,\neverything coming together for good will come and settles you down. It’s wonderful what happens when Christ displaces worry at the center of your life.” What does a believer do in times of darkness…a darkness of perplexities and confusion…not of the heart necessarily, but of the mind? This does happen to faithful believers; there are times when\n292\nwe really don’t know what to do or which way to turn. It’s a time to listen to God, trust in His Name and lean on Him. Ask the Lord to help you and then do nothing. It’s very difficult to do nothing; but when you’re rattled, don’t do a thing because you think you need to be doing something! You may be in a spiritual fog; you don’t need to race ahead, but to slow your pace. The right response is to simply trust God, for when you trust, He can work. Worrying will actually prevent Him from doing His work. Worrying, fretting and being anxious will make you physically ill. Don’t cower in terror, seeking a way of escape from the trial in which God has placed you. Only the peace of God will quiet your mind and put your heart at rest. “Before you know it, a sense of God’s wholeness, everything coming together for good will come and settles you down. It’s wonderful what happens when Christ displaces worry at the center of your life.” NOVEMBER 17 COOPERATE WITH GOD’S LOVE Psalms 139:1-5 (LB) “O Lord, you have examined my heart and know everything about me. You know when I sit or stand. When I am far away, You know my every thought. You chart the path ahead of me and tell me where to stop and rest. Every moment, you know where I am. You know what I am going to say before I even say it. You both precede and follow me and place your hand of blessing on my head.” You have examined my heart and know everything about me and you still love me!\nYour love is everlasting and constantly!\n293\nThat’s hard to comprehend. I don’t, or can’t seem to remember that your love comes all the time from Your gaze.\nHelp me to\nsense it and to respond to it. Your love flows into me continually and my need for it is as constant as the outflow of it. “I can never get away from my God, if I ascend to heaven You are there, if I go to the place of the dead, you are there. If I take my dawn wings and fly to the farthest ocean, even there your hand will guide me and your strength will support me” (VS. 7-10). His hand indicates his nearness; his protection and his power. It gives me pleasure in thinking: “If I lift up dawn wings and fly to the place of sunrise or settle down on the back side of the sea where the sun sets, even there Yahweh’s right hand guides and grasps me firmly.”\nI so\nappreciate the confidence of knowing God’s love! NOVEMBER 18 GOD PROTECTIVELY CARES FOR HIS OWN 1 Samuel 2:4 (MSG) “For God knows what’s going on. He takes the measure of everything that happens. The weapons of the strong are smashed to pieces while the weak are infused with fresh strength.\nVS.6-9:\nGod brings death and God brings life, brings down to the grave and raises up.\nGod brings poverty and God brings wealth; he\nlowers and he also lifts up. He puts poor people on their feet again; he rekindles burned–out lives with fresh hope, restoring dignity and respect to their lives—a place in the sun! For the very structures of earth are God’s; he has laid out his operations on a firm foundation. He protectively cares for his faithful friends, step by step, but leaves the wicked to stumble in the dark. No one makes it in this life by sheer muscle!”\n294\nGod knows what’s going on! He knows what’s going on in your life and He is sovereign. He can bring good out of everything! Offer it all to God for His purposes to be processed. You may have to experience the very worst before you are delivered but you will be delivered.\nHe possesses resourcefulness equal to any\ndifficulty…”He infuses the weak with fresh strength; He lowers but He also lifts up. He gives fresh hope and restores dignity and respect and protectively cares for those who are faithful.”\nIt is\nalways safe to trust Him and His methods. “He will always deliver His own step by step but He leaves the wicked to stumble in the dark.”\nIt’s His Word.\nDifficulty is the atmosphere that usually\nsurrounds a miracle. It means an impossibility is about to become a reality. A desperate situation is a delight to our God. “God will set things right over all the earth...He’ll set His anointed on top of the world!” (VS. 10b)\nGod will protectively care for those who are\nfaithful to Him. You have His Word!\nNOVEMBER 19 GOD’S WORD IS A TREASURE TO BE DESIRED 1 Peter 1:3-5 (MSG) “What a God we have! And how fortunate we are to have him, this Father of our Master Jesus! Because Jesus was raised from the dead, we’ve been given a brand-new life and have everything to live for, including a future in heaven—and the future starts now! God is keeping careful watch over us and the future. The Day is coming when you’ll have it all—life healed and whole. I know how\n295\ngreat this makes you feel, even though you have to put up with every kind of aggravation in the meantime. Pure gold put in the fire comes out of it proved pure; genuine faith put through this suffering comes out proved genuine. When Jesus wraps this all up, it’s your faith, not your gold that God will have on display as evidence of his victory.” I love the richness of the Word; God has given us more than 32,000 promises for us to believe in and has inspired writers to write them down that we may know. You cannot know what they are unless you spend time reading them, so do it! R E A D and heed: •\nR - is to reflect. When you go over the verses, look back over them again and again and determine the meaning.\nI\nhave some notes written in the margin that are over 30 years ago and it is good to remember how God has led, instructed and taught through His Word. •\nE – is to engage. There is a definite message for you. The Bible is as up-to-date as tomorrow’s newspaper and even though written years ago, there is a correlation of what you’re reading and your need for this day.\n•\nA – is to apply. The Word for today was written for you to apply in your own life. My jaw drops sometimes at the truth revealed. God’s Word speaks directly into my life. It truly “discerns the thoughts and intentions of my heart.” Hebrews 4:12b (RSV).\n•\nD – is to disciple. God’s Words will accomplish what He desires and achieve His purpose for you and that purpose is to bring your life into line with His plan of making a disciple out of you, a true follower of Jesus.\n296\nSpend time studying, running references, and memorizing. Read and compare translations; so much is gained in doing so. It is better than “proved” gold. It is more than a guide for your life and a light to your path; it is as necessary as your next breath!\nNOVEMBER 20 GOD SAID TO ABRAHAM, “I WILL…” Genesis 12:1-3 (NKJV) “Now the Lord said to Abram, ‘Get out of your country, from your family and from your father’s house to a land that I will show you. I will make you a great nation; I will bless you and make your name great and you shall be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you and I will curse him who curses you and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed.” Five times in these verses, God said to Abram, “I will” and everything He said came true in Abram’s life. His name means, “Father of Many.” Once his father, Terah died, Abram became the leader and had the responsibility of the family clan.\nGod’s\ncommand was intensely demanding in that it caused Abram to leave his place, people, and family, when that was simply not done. Only the defeated, poverty-stricken, or landless ever left their ancestral homes.\nGod’s promise was to create a great nation\nthrough him and this would be the Hebrew people, His own chosen Israelites.\nGod blessed Abram and Sarai beyond measure\nbecause as they obeyed, they gained His smile and blessings with\n297\na long and healthy life, plus wealth and importance (Genesis 13 & 15). His name is honored even today. We need to know what God is saying and what “He will do” for us, as His will is the key to our life. Is “His will” being done in yours or are you living by the edicts of “your will?” Abram obeyed God and received every promise God had made to him.\nNOVEMBER 21 “COME; LET US MAKE A NAME FOR OURSELVES” Genesis 11:3 (NKJV) “Then they said to one another, Come let us make bricks and bake them thoroughly.\nThey had brick for stone and they had\nasphalt for mortar. And they said, Come let us build ourselves a city and a tower whose top is in the heavens; let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be scattered abroad over the face of the whole earth.” We have the perfect contrast in Genesis 12 of God telling the people what He would do, and then seeing what men decided what they would do. “Come, let us make bricks and bake them; let us build ourselves a city and a tower and let us make a name for ourselves…”\nThese people wanted to become famous and to\nmake a name for themselves; they wanted to achieve their own greatness. They were doing a pretty good job of it until the “Lord came down to see the city and the tower which the sons of men had built” VS. 5. Nothing they proposed happened. The “us” in this passage, their language, culture, values, all came from human arrogance. “The Lord scattered them abroad from there over the\n298\nface of all the earth and they ceased building the city” VS. 8. Everything that God spoke into Abram’s life came to pass and everything that men purposed within themselves to accomplish came to nothing.\nYou need His input “before” you act.\nAs\nbelievers, we create the plan and ask God to bless what we have started; God’s wants it to originate with Him. We are to glorify Him; not make a name for ourselves!\nNOVEMBER 22 LOVE JESUS 1 John 2:15-17 (MSG) “Don’t love the world’s ways. Don’t love the world’s good. Love of the world squeezes out love for the Father. Practically everything that goes on in the world—wanting your own way, wanting everything for yourself, wanting to appear important—has nothing to do with the Father. It just isolates you from him. The world and all it’s wanting, wanting, wanting is on the way out—but whoever does what God wants is set for eternity.” Keep your eyes set on Jesus, not on the world and the things of the world.\nIt is so easy to get caught up in our earthly\nsurroundings, but things only lead to the desire to have more, and all of it “squeezes out love for the Father.” Having your own way, wanting everything for yourself makes you feel exalted and important, but it also isolates or puts bridges between you and the Lord. None of this goes anywhere, but if you do on this earth what God sent you here to do, you “will be set for all eternity”; that’s His\n299\npromise. Nothing Jesus ever said or had written is just common sense, it is revelation sense as in 2 Peter 1:19 (NIV) “you would do well to pay attention to it as a light shining in a dark place until the day dawns and the Morning Star rises in your hearts.” Psalms 33:4 (LB) “All of God’s Words are right, everything He does is worth of our trust.”\nWe want to enjoy life; He just wants us to enjoy Him.\nYour relationship with Jesus is the most “important want” you will ever have, so “don’t love the world’s ways and don’t love the world’s goods.” Love Jesus!\nNOVEMBER 23 A PRICELESS GAIN IN KNOWING JESUS Philippians 3:8-9a (LB) “Yes, everything else is worthless when compared with the priceless gain of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord. I have put aside all else, counting it worth less than nothing, in order that I can have Christ and become one with Him…” Everything that thwarts my plans and desires causes me to talk to Jesus and that strengthens and blesses my relationship. Instead of dragging me down, disappointments are transformed into opportunities for something good. That transformation takes the strength out of the disappointment, making it possible for me to adjust to the adversity. It begins by being disciplined in little things, in minor setbacks; because it is in the little things we are drawn away from our Father’s Loving Presence. When you can reframe setbacks as opportunities, you will find you have been given much more than you lost. It takes time and training to accept losses in a\n300\npositive way. Paul said that compared to knowing Christ Jesus, he considers everything he once treasured to be as insignificant as rubbish. Everything that we once thought was so important could be dumped in the trash compared to knowing Him. “I’ve dumped it all in the trash so that I could embrace Christ and be embraced by Him,” Philippians3:8 (MSG). To have a thriving vibrant relationship with him is life; and everything else is worthless in comparison.\nNOVEMBER 24 GOD IS GREATER THAN OUR WORRIED HEARTS 1 John 3:20 (MSG) “For God is greater than our worried hearts and knows more about us than we do ourselves.” You can live as close to God as you choose. He does not set up any barriers between you; neither will He tear yours down. People tend to think their circumstances determine their quality of life. So we try with all our might to control what happens. We’re happy when it’s good; frustrated when it isn’t. It is possible to be content whatever our situations. Amos 7:1 (NKJV) refers to the king’s mowing’s. Our King has many scythes and constantly uses them.\nIn life, we try to stand before His scythe of pain,\ndisappointments and even death. But just as there is no way to have a beautiful lawn without repeated mowing’s, there is no way to have a balanced life of tenderness and sympathy for others without enduring God’s mowing’s.\nHow many times does God\ncompare us to grass…when grass is cut, it bleeds for a while and\n301\nwhen God mows you, don’t dread the seeming destruction, for He is sure to bring restoration. Cutting grass brings new growth to the grass just as some of the cuts we experience not only bring something new, but something better. Trust the Lord. You can live as close to God as you choose, when you realize “He is greater than our worried hearts and knows more about us than we do ourselves.”\nNOVEMBER 25 BE THANKFUL Habakkuk 3:17-19 (LB) “Even though the fig trees are all destroyed, and there is neither blossom left nor fruit, and though the olive crops all fail, and the fields lie barren; even if the flocks die in the fields and the cattle barns are empty, yet I will rejoice in the Lord: I will be happy in the God of my salvation. The Lord God is my Strength and he will give me the speed of a deer and bring me safely over the mountains.” Regardless of what is going on in your world, “rejoice in the Lord and be happy in the God of your salvation.” Be thankful for what is good in your life and have a thankful attitude as it opens you up to receive spiritual blessings you would otherwise miss. God can bless your heart enough that you can actually get “glimpses” and experience a foretaste of heaven itself. These little samples of glory can not only strengthen you now but give you a hope for your future. Psalms. 46:2 (LB) tells us “even if the whole world blows up and the mountains crumble and fall into the sea” we have a God who\n302\nsits on top and in the midst of the turmoil…so be thankful. If all the crops fail, the fields lie barren, and there’s no cattle left in the barns and when all of life seems to have gone south, we can still rejoice in the Lord and be happy in knowing we are secure in our salvation. We can trust in God as He is our strength; He can give you hind’s feet, as swift as the deer and bring you safely over all your mountains! Hind’s feet are the feet of a red female deer and it’s the only creature God made that puts its hind feet in the exact spot of the front feet when leaping. God made you surefooted!! Be thankful to Jesus!\nNOVEMBER 26 GOD’S ARM Isaiah 53:1b (NKJV) “And to whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?” To whom has the Lord revealed His mighty works? The “arm of the Lord” refers to His great works.\nIsaiah 50:15c (NKJV),\n“Therefore His own arm brought salvation for Him” Isaiah 40:10 (NKJV), “ Behold the Lord is come with a strong hand and His arm shall rule for Him, behold His reward is with Him”\nThe Lord’s\nstrong arm brings His mighty acts of judgment and deliverance. And in Isaiah 48:14b,(NKJV) “He shall do His pleasure on Babylon and His arm shall be against the Chaldeans.” God will defend His people against their enemies. The “hand that laid the foundation of the earth and whose right hand has stretched out the heavens” (Isaiah 48:13) is the same One who planned the redemption of His\n303\nown chosen people but also all who will call upon His Holy Name. “The Lord’s arm is not shortened,” Numbers 11:23 (VKJV). “You have a mighty arm,” Psalms 89:13 (NKJV). “His huge outstretched arms protect you—under them you are perfectly safe; his arms fend off all harm,” Psalms 91:5 (MSG). Shelter and comfort are In His arms!\nNOVEMBER 27 MY EYES ARE UPON YOU Psalms 141:8 (NKJV) “But my eyes are upon You, O God the Lord; in You I take refuse.” We need to keep our eyes on You always.\n“You may not\nalways look where you are going, but you will always end up going where you’re looking! Your perspective determines your choices and direction in life,” Bob Gass. So, we need to keep our eyes on Jesus who has “Commanded us to love one another,” 2 John VS. 5 (NLT). Your prayer each day should be to ask God to help you to spend this day first in loving Him and then loving others, whether you get anything else done or not. The more time you spend with someone will tell them how important they are to you. It is never enough to say, “You’re so important to me,” we need to show them —prove to them that they are—by investing some time with them-the giving of yourself. It’s better than a present. We are so prone to spend our time on what concerns us. None of us know how much time we even have to give; we need to take the opportunity of “now;” it is the only guarantee you have of time. “The very best\n304\nuse you can make of your life is to love and the best expression of love is your time, and the best time to love is now,” Bob Gass. Proverbs 16:9 (NIV), “In his heart, a man plans his course, but the Lord determines his steps.” If your eyes are upon the Lord, you will trust His course as He is the One who determines your steps.\nNOVEMBER 28 BE CAREFUL AND WATCHFUL 1 Peter 5:8-9 (LB) “Be careful—watch out for attacks from Satan your great enemy. He prowls around like a hungry, roaring lion, looking for some victim to tear apart. Stand firm when he attacks. Trust the Lord; and remember that other Christians all around the world are going through these sufferings too.” Peter warns us against the evil one and other translations tell us to be serious, sober, self-controlled, well balanced and have a sense of being vigilant. Be alert, awake and attentive. Peter urges us to resist and to stand up against our adversary and to remain firm, keep up a solid front in your faith and personal commitment to God. Sometimes we feel we are alone but we need to realize that people suffer for Christ throughout the whole world. Nero wrapped oily rags around the early Christians and set them on fire and used them as a torch to view his roses at night. Christians for years have been paying a heavy price and given their lives because of their faith. We are all vulnerable, we just have to resist His attacks; rely totally on God’s strength to overcome. Be aware and watchful\n305\nbut of utmost importance is to trust in the One who watches over you.\nNOVEMBER 29 TRIALS WILL MAKE YOU PARTNERS WITH CHRIST 1 Peter 4:12-14 (LB) “Dear friends, don’t be bewildered or surprised when you go through the fiery trials ahead, for this is no strange, unusual thing that is going to happen to you. Instead, be really glad—because these trials will make you partners with Christ in his suffering, and afterwards you will have the wonderful joy of sharing his glory in that coming day when it will be displayed.” What is your response to a surprise that bewilders you? A “surprise” can stagger, amaze or even shock you! When we are completely stunned by some turn of events, we tend to fix our whole attention on it; we mull it over, can’t seem to think of anything else. We search for a way over it, around it, or a way out of it. And what happens is in our effort to correct, either to make it better or right, we get completely off course. When you are totally stumped, the best thing you can do in any fiery ordeal is to try to minimize the ordeal and put your entire focus on Jesus. If you will do this, the next thing you know, the ordeal is behind you and you haven’t a clue as to how you got through it. A fiery ordeal is just that as fire burns; hurts like sin; and can destroy; which is probably the intent of the one who “set” it. Suffering will improve your character, if you allow it. Does God allow some infliction with the thought, “let’sjustsee-how-you-handle-this-one”…I don’t think so.\n306\nsuffering is connected to your faithfulness to Him, He will always strengthen you.\nDon’t regard it as something unusual that is\nhappening to you. You may think it’s something foreign and only happens to you when multitudes have experienced the same or even worse.\nRather than be amazed, as believers, we are to\nrejoice. Possibly God has allowed you to experience this as you are special; not everyone could handle it. And if you are being persecuted because of your faithfulness to Him, how great your joy will be when He returns! When you are insulted and reproached for His name, you will be blessed. And that is not being “happy” but it is having God congratulate you on your character, which is far more to be desired. Having His approval goes a long way when suffering, as you have the promise that “afterwards, you will share the wonderful joy of His glory as trials will make your partners with Christ,” what could be better than that?\nNOVEMBER 30 WHAT DO YOU SEE 1 Peter 1:8-9 (NIV) “Though you have not seen Him, you love Him and even though you do not see him now, you believe in Him and are filled with an inexpressible and glorious joy for you are receiving the goal of your faith, the salvation of your soul.” In time present or time past, we have not seen Jesus but we believe in Him, believe His Word and His promises. In believing, we are filled with an inexpressible and glorious joy because we are\n307\nin the process of receiving the goal of our faith: which is that appointed time when we will receive the salvation of our soul…our redemption through the blood shed on the cross for our sins by the One in whom we believe. What a glorious gift; there is none other like it. “All honor to God, the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ; for it is his boundless mercy that has given us the privilege of being born again, so that we are now members of God’s own family. Now we live in the hope of eternal life because Christ rose again from the dead. And God has reserved for his children the priceless gift of eternal life; it is kept in heaven for you, pure and undefiled, beyond the reach of change and decay. And God in his mighty power will make sure that you get there safely to receive it, because you are trusting him. It will be yours in that coming last day for all to see,” 1 Peter 1:3-5 (LB). What you have not “seen” in time present or past awaits you in the future.\nYou may not\nphysically see Jesus now, but you can “see” in His Word what lies before you!\nDECEMBER 1 CALL ON THE NAME OF JESUS Philippians 2:9-11 (NKJV) “Therefore God also has highly exalted Him and given Him the name which is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of those in heaven, and of those on earth, and of those under the earth and that every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord to the glory of God the Father.”\n308\nWhen you find yourself totally overwhelmed, call upon the Name of Jesus; His Name is above every name whether it’s in heaven, on earth or under the earth. “In the thick of battle, call upon His Name. At that instant, the battle becomes Mine; your role is simply to trust Me as I fight for you. My Name, properly used, has unlimited Power to bless and protect. At the end of time, every knee will bow when my name is proclaimed. People who have used “Jesus” as shoddy swear Word will fall down in terror on that awesome day. But all those who have drawn near Me through trustingly uttering My Name will be filled with inexpressible and glorious joy,” Jesus Calling. Matthew 5:3 (MSG), “You’re at the end of your rope, you are blessed because there is less of you and more of God and His rule.”\nWe are so limited and He is so\nLimitless! Call on His Name, He has unlimited power to bless and protect. Someone has so wisely said, “Don’t run to the phone, run to the throne!” The one on the other end of the phone is probably a bigger mess than you are; the One on the throne can deliver you! He is mighty to save!\nDECEMBER 2 WHAT DO YOU DO WITH ANTAGONISM Revelation 2:7b (NKJV) “To him who overcomes…” You may or may not believe it, but your life is a war zone, whether you’re talking about the physical, mental, moral, or spiritual aspects of it. You are constantly striving with the things that come\n309\nagainst you. Your health is a balance between what is going on inside your body and what’s happening on the outside. “Everything outside my physical life is designed to put me to death. This is the open fact of life. If I have enough fighting power, I produce the balance of health. The same is true of the mental life. If I want to maintain a vigorous mental life, I have to fight and in that way, the mental balance called thought is produced. Morally it is the same. Everything that does not partake of the nature of virtue is the enemy of virtue in me and it depends on what moral caliber I have whether I overcome and produce virtue. And, spiritually, it is the same. Jesus said, In the world ye shall have tribulation, i.e., everything that is not spiritual makes for my undoing, but—Be of good cheer, I have overcome the world. I have to learn to score off the things that come against me,” Oswald Chambers. With God’s help, you can do this. You have a promise, “To him who overcomes, I will give to eat from the tree of life, which is in the midst of the Paradise of God.” Revelation 2:7b. All your antagonism and aggravation serves a purpose, you’re going to love the results!\nDECEMBER 3 YOU HAVE TODAY Philippians 3:13-14 (NKJV) “Brethren, I do not count myself to have apprehended, but one thing I do, forgetting those things which are behind and reaching forward to those things which are ahead, I press toward the goal for the prize of the upward call of God in Christ Jesus.”\n310\nAre you willing to live in today, or are you stuck in what happened yesterday? Perhaps you had a really good day and you feel you can relax and relish in the glory of it. Maybe it was a disaster. You should never settle for your yesterdays. Little is to be gained by wistful hopes of tomorrow because your future is based on what you accomplish today. Bob Gass: “Between the great things we can’t do and the little things we won’t do, the danger is that we’ll do nothing. between\nfoster\nGeorge spent his early years shuffled until\none\nWatkins,\na\nwasherwoman, found him asleep in her barn. She didn’t just take him in; she took him to church and introduced him to Jesus. When he eventually left her home, he took with him the Bible she’d given him. Maria left her mark on his life and George Washington Carver left his mark on the world.” Helping others is always a big key to your own success. What are your plans today? Yesterday with its goodness or badness is gone but you have today to make a difference in your life and in the life of someone else! You really do need to “forget those things which are behind and reach forward to those things which are ahead!” You have today to do it!\nDECEMBER 4 TREAT EVERYONE WITH DIGNITY 1 Peter 2:17 (LB) “Show respect for everyone. Love Christians everywhere. Fear God and honor the government.”\n311\nThe (MSG) Bible states it this way: “Treat everyone you meet with dignity.”\nThat states that we should honor everyone and\nrespect them, recognizing their worth because all are created in God’s own image.\nThat means even though we may show no\nrespect for others, God loves them and every last one of them need a Savior. We may hate what they do but they have a soul and God wants all people to know Him. We are to honor everyone and love the brotherhood. This refers to all people; at least have a concern for their souls. What we do reflects back on the God who made us. When your children do foolishly, don’t you examine your own lifestyle to see if it somehow came from you? We all are guilty of remaining silent when God gives us an opportunity; and I flunked that one last week. I was in the hospital waiting for some tests when a bedraggled, dirty looking, oversized couple came in. They were both on their cell phones, continuously. He was carrying a heavy winter coat, even though it was 91 degrees at the time. When I left two hours later, they were still in the lobby on their phones.\nYou tell me what was going through my mind; clearly I\nwas looking at the outside when Jesus was peering inside.\nI\nshowed neither respect nor honor. I was puzzled and intimidated by some of their actions. I wish I could tell you that I rose to the occasion, but I did not. Hopefully given another opportunity, I will “treat them with dignity” and will alleviate some need in their lives. Jesus treated everyone with respect and gave of Himself, whatever it took, to meet the need of their soul.\nDECEMBER 5 HE WILL REVIVE YOU AGAIN\n312\nPsalms 71:20-21 (NKJV) “You have shown me great and severe troubles, shall revive me again, and bring me up again from the depths of the earth. You shall increase my greatness and comfort me on every side.” No matter how many troubles, twists/turns it takes, there is always one smooth path ahead for you. Even on the longest day of the year, the sun sets. So keep your focus on the path just ahead of you, and leave the outcome to Jesus. God’s time for mercy will come; in fact, it has already come, if our time for believing has arrived. God doesn’t concentrate on your messes; he concentrates on you, and your destiny. Ask God to either close the door or open it wider, but you keep on walking! Ask in faith and keep asking, don’t cease because of a delay. There is no such thing as an unanswered prayer that is offered rightly in the right Spirit. Prayer is not getting God to do what we want Him to do; it is getting us in line with His plan for our lives. And, He has let us in on His plan as He has said that He will “revive you again and increase your greatness and comfort you on every side.” You have His Word! DECEMBER 6 THE LORD IS IN THIS PLACE Genesis 28:16 (NKJV) “…Surely the Lord is in this place and I was not aware of it.” Jacob awoke from a dream and realized that he had encountered the Living God. So many times, we act as if He is nowhere around and He is always in our “wherevers.” VS. 15, “I\n313\nam with you and will watch over you wherever you go.” Thank you, God. You are ready to give us comfort, insight, understanding and wisdom, wherever we are. You are the Lord God Almighty! Isaiah 41:10 (LB), “Do not fear, for I am with you. Do not be dismayed. I am your God. I will strengthen you; I will help you; I will uphold you with my victorious right hand.” Praise and power belong to you, Lord God. You are here; you see our deepest needs and in Your Presence, we find solace and answers. Grant to us the mercy and grace You have promised to be with us all the days of our lives and give us a balance of holiness in the process. “Surely, You are in this place,” just help us to be aware of it!\nDECEMBER 7 WORK OUT WHAT HE HAS WORKED IN 2 Corinthians 12:9 (NKJV) “And He said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for My strength is made perfect in weakness.” God’s grace is an absolute in your life; it is as eternal as the One who gave it to you. When He died on the cross, it provided a means of salvation to all who will believe; His salvation is complete and perfect. Nothing is lacking in His provision of eternal life to those who believe in Him. If you have confessed your sins and accepted Him into your heart, you aren’t being saved, you are saved. “Salvation is as eternal as God’s throne; the thing for me to do is to work out what God works in. I am responsible for doing it. It means that I have to manifest in this body the life of the Lord Jesus, not mystically, but really and emphatically….Most of us are much sterner with others than we are in regard to ourselves; we\n314\nmake excuses for things in ourselves whilst we condemn in others things to which we are not naturally inclined,” Oswald Chambers. Keep in mind his Words, “My grace is sufficient for you and My strength is made perfect in weakness.” You do that by working out, what He has already worked in.\nDECEMBER 8 HE WANTS YOU TO KNOW HIM Hosea 6:6 (LB) “I don’t want your sacrifices—I want your love; I don’t want your offerings—I want you to know me.” God created you to have fellowship with you; He requires sacrifices and offerings, but He desires us to know Him. Hosea 10:12 (LB), “Plant the good seeds of righteousness and you will reap a crop of my love; plow the hard ground of your hearts, for now is the time to seek the Lord…” Hosea 14:8-9 (LB), “I am living and strong! I look after you and care for you. I am like an evergreen tree, yielding my fruit to you throughout the year. My mercies never fail.\nWhoever is wise, let him understand these\nthings. Whoever is intelligent, let him listen. For the paths of the Lord are true and right and good men walk along them.” How great is the Word of the Lord and the encouragement of His promise to always look after and care for us; His mercies never fail. We just need to use the wisdom and understanding He offers and then listen. When you read His Word, always do it with a listening ear and ask, “What are you saying to me?” Listening and speaking to\n315\nHim is how we get to know Him. That is what He wants as He has said, “I want your love and I want you to know me.”\nDECEMBER 9 HE IS TRUSTWORTHY Proverbs 3:5 (NKJV) “Trust in the Lord with all your heart, and lean not on your own understanding…” When facing a dilemma, do not lean on your own understanding primarily and do not consult anxiety-driven people. Refuse to be depressed, deflected or derailed.\nThink God’s\nthoughts instead of your old thoughts. God thoughts are in His Word. He does a lot of it in His Word. Proverbs 3:6 (NKJV), “In all your ways acknowledge Him, and He shall direct your paths.” Troubles will only seem to destroy your happiness but they definitely build up your character. A hard blow on the outside can actually be a blessing on the inside. The real trouble is what you lose when you rebel against it. Stop focusing on yourself and trust and rest in Jesus. Deep within every one of us is a place of peace where God lives, turn to Him and listen for His still small voice. Thank you, Jesus, for being with us and for being Who and what You are and for being so trustworthy!\nDECEMBER 10 GOD-OF-THE-ANGEL-ARMIES\n316\nAmos 4:13 (MSG) “Look who’s here: Mountain-Shaper! Wind-Maker! He laid out the whole plot before Adam.\nHe brings everything out of\nnothing, like dawn out of darkness. He strides across the alpine ridges. His name is GOD, God-of-the-Angel-Armies.” Amos 5:8-10 (MSG) “Do you realize where you are? You’re in a cosmos, star-flung with constellations by God; A world God wakes up each morning and puts to bed each night. God dips water from the ocean gives the land a drink. GOD, God-revealed does all this. And he can destroy it as easily as make it. He can turn this vast wonder into total waste.\nPeople hate this kind of talk.\nRaw truth is never\npopular.” The Mountain-Shaper/Wind-Maker brought everything out of nothing and is the same who flung the stars in place. He puts the world to bed every night and gets it up every morning! He dips water from the ocean and waters the land. He is indeed God-oftheAngel-Armies. He is LORD and can destroy the earth just as easily as He made it; people hate to be reminded of it, but it is the way it is. He said, “Time’s up, O Israel! Prepare to meet your God!” Amos 4:12 (MSG). Are you prepared? What do you need to do before you stand before the Mountain-Shaper? We need to spend time alone with the Lord, sitting at His feet in the sacred privacy of His blessed Presence. The Commander and Chief of the heavenly army wants an intimate relationship with you. You don’t want to wait to hear Him say, “Time’s up!”\n317\nDECEMBER 11 PROBLEMS ACHIEVE VICTORY 2 Corinthians 4:17 (NIV) “For our light and momentary troubles are achieving for us an eternal glory that far outweighs them all.”” Our life and the world itself seem to be filled with troubles… why is that? Everyone you talk to has so many problems…family, relationships, finances, or health.\n“The answer is found in the\nWord achieving, for these ‘momentary troubles are achieving for us’ something very precious. They are teaching us not only the way to victory, but better still, the law of victory—there is a reward for every sorrow and the sorrow itself produces the reward. It is the very truth expressed in this dear old hymn, ‘Nearer my God to Thee, nearer to Thee, E’en though it be a cross that raiseth me.’ It is comforting to know that sorrow stays only for the night and then takes its leave in the morning. And a thunderstorm is very brief when compared to a long summer day,” Streams in the Desert. Our problems, though painful and difficult, do achieve something very precious because in, through and on the other side of them, we are taught the way to victory! DECEMBER 12 HE WILL DO WHAT HE PROMISED! Revelation 3:11 (LB) “Look, I am coming soon! Hold tightly to the little strength you have—so that no one will take away your crown.”\n318\nPeople for centuries now have read, “Look, I am coming soon!” and believe that You coming soon. George Mueller, in his day, expected You to arrive at any moment; we still wait. It’s a mystery, God, as we have no idea what time You have in mind. Waiting for us to do what you told you to do could be the key! You created us so that we could enjoy You and glorify You. You provide the joy; our part is to glorify You by living close to You. Most of our lives flow from past to present to future. The Bible says our lives should flow from a focus on the future into the present, forgetting the past. We all dwell entirely too much on what “has happened” we need to focus on what is ahead…and that is Jesus! “Though the cherry trees don’t blossom and the strawberries don’t ripen, though the apples are worm-eaten and the fields stunted, though the sheep pens are without sheep and the cattle barns empty, I’m singing joyful praise to God. Counting on God’s rule to prevail, I take heart and gain strength. I run like a deer. I feel like I’m king of the mountain!” Habakkuk 3:17-19 (MSG).\nHelp us Lord to not\nalways be wanting some visible sign that You are coming, but be convinced that You will!\nDECEMBER 13 HELP US TO SEE Matthew 5:8 (NKJV) “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.”\n319\nInstead of yearning for a trouble free life, rejoice that whatever you’re into right now can highlight your awareness of Jesus and enable you to see Him. Keep in mind that you have an eternity of trouble free living awaiting you in heaven. God never promised to remove our struggles but He promised to change the way we look at them, when we’re looking at Him and in His Word. God let Elisha’s servant see a whole army of horses and chariots of fire around them; Jacob saw a ladder that extended to heaven; Saul regained his sight after his experience on the Road to Damascus. Let your prayer be, “Jesus let me see your hand today in my life.” Just beneath the surface of pain is discipline, knowledge and a lot of insight into the limitless possibilities that are before you. Every one of them will strengthen you and equip you to help someone else. Open our eyes and hearts to see You, Lord!\nDECEMBER 14 COMMIT YOUR WAY INTO THE LORD Psalms 37:5 (NKJV) “Commit your way into the Lord, trust also in Him and He shall bring it to pass.” Commit “all” your ways into Him; trust through days of waiting and times of delays, and when it seems as if everything is full of difficulties. There will be times when you sense all have rejected you and everyone you encounter opposes you; even when you cannot understand your way or situation, “trust Him for He will surely bring it to pass.” There is One who will never leave you nor\n320\nforsake you; you will walk out of the darkness and into the light. VS.6, “He shall bring forth your righteousness as the light, and your justice as the noonday.” He is the light that penetrates the darkness of our lives. Psalms 139:11-12 (LB) “If I try to hide in the darkness, the night become light around me. For even darkness cannot hide from God; to you the night shines as bright as day. Darkness and light are both alike to you.” Instead of yearning for a trouble free life, know that whatever you are experiencing can also heighten your awareness of His Presence. As you commit more things to Him, you get to know Him better and you find His Words are true.\nDECEMBER 15 HEAR THE WORD OF THE LORD Hosea 4:1a (NKJV) “Hear the Word of the Lord, people of Israel, for the Lord has a case against the inhabitants of the land.” People have changed over the years but no matter how right and wrong shifts over time, God doesn’t change. And this is His plan: Philippians 2:9-11 (NIV), “Therefore the Lord exalted Him to the highest place and gave Him a name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee shall bow in heaven and on earth and under the earth and every tongue shall confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.” Man may devise all kinds of sordid lifestyles but that doesn’t alter what God Almighty has ordained. If there was ever a time in history when people needed to “hear the Word of the Lord,” it is now. There is\n321\nlittle to be gained by wailing about all that is wrong; you need to recognize evil and when you see it in leadership, pray for them; but you, yourself, need to know what the Lord is saying to you every day.\nThe only way you’ll ever know that is through study and\nprayer. You will never help anyone else or rightly serve God unless you know what He is speaking into your own life. Don’t be the recipient of God bringing a “ case” against you.” Listen for God to speak and hear His Word today.\nDECEMBER 16 THERE IS NO KNOWLEDGE OF GOD IN THE LAND Hosea 4:1b (NKJV) “There is no truth or mercy or knowledge of God in the land.” At the time Hosea wrote this there wasn’t a “little bit” of truth in the land, there was none…nothing absolute, nothing of wholeness or\nintegrity;\ncompassion or doing good for one another.\nkindness,\n“No knowledge of\nGod” doesn’t mean intellectual awareness but there was no recognition of God’s authority as Israel’s covenant Lord. The intent is: “The people do not acknowledge Me as God.” If you pick up a newspaper or walk in our marketplace today, what do you hear? You offend someone if you even mention His Name! What can you do? You can make truth, faithful love and knowledge of God a priority in your life and it will not only affect those around you, but it will let you avoid God’s rebuke. You be genuine and reliable, show kindness and mercy to others. Keep your own heart and life right before God; it will count with the One whose doing the counting.\n322\nKnow what the Lord is saying to you.\nSit down each day and\nspend time studying your Bible, make notes of anything that specifically speaks to you. It is surprising how many times you will be privileged to share what He has spoken into your life with someone else before the day’s end. Spread “some knowledge of the Lord” in the land around you. If there’s, “no knowledge of God in the land;” then you change the land about you.\nDECEMBER 17 THE LAND MOURNS Hosea 4:2-3a (NKJV) “By swearing and lying, killing and stealing and committing adultery, they break all restraint, with bloodshed upon bloodshed. Therefore the land will mourn…” The people of Hosea’s day had turned their backs on God’s Commandments. We don’t need to be in a war torn country to see one murder after another happening every day, sometimes multiple times a day. All creation is affected by God’s wrath, “the land mourns” when sin abounds and restraint is broken.\nThe land\nmourns with earthquakes, drought and floods, as prophecy unfolds the theme of the undoing of creation as a result of God’s judgment. What do we see in our society and environment today that corresponds with these verses?\nNot every natural disaster is\nGod’s judgment but He does use some physical events in the physical world as punishment. Sins against Him do bring physical harm to people and to their environment. All the earth groans\n323\nunder the burden of sin. Sin damages your relationship with God and with others, and it will not only separate you from Him but from others, as well. Our land today mourns under the same burden but our focus is on the One who bore that sin for us and has promised us deliverance.\nDECEMBER 18 GET RID OF DESTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR Hosea 4:14 (NKJV) “People without discernment are doomed.” Billy the Kid lived a wild life in the Wild West. Rumor has it that he killed 21 men, one for each year of his life, as he died sometime before his 21st birthday. He made a name for himself, but not a good one. In the Wild West, it was clear as to who were the good guys and who were the bad ones. People were either outlaws or law-abiding citizens. In our culture today, it’s still true but not so clearly defined. We need to be acutely aware that God sets the standard for all of us and His Word is still the same as when He first spoke His commandments.\nGod’s Word never\nchanges nor does His meaning and purpose for your life. This chapter began with: “Hear the Word of the Lord” and ends with, “People without discernment are doomed.” A personal challenge would be for you to let God’s Word be your standard for right and wrong and if you have within you any destructive behavior, get rid of it!\n324\nDECEMBER 19 KEEP YOUR COVENANT WITH YOUR SPOUSE Hosea 1:2 (NKJV) “When the Lord began to speak to Hosea, the Lord said to Hosea: ‘Go take yourself a wife of harlotry and children of harlotry, for the land has committed great harlotry by departing from the Lord.’” VS. 1 of this chapter says “The Word of the Lord that came to Hosea…”\nGod has asked a lot of people to do a lot of things but\nwhat he required of Hosea was very special.\nGod was\ndemonstrating his grief over Israel’s infidelity by telling Hosea to “go take to yourself an adulterous wife.” The description of the wife God asked Hosea to marry was known to have multiple sexual partners who paid for her affections. Not only that, but she would bear children of unfaithfulness. This marital infidelity would picture Israel’s idolatry and unfaithfulness in their covenant with God. God’s people were currently participating in lewd cult worship practices and courting the favor of other gods, while claiming devotion to their God. Very few transgressions in a marriage equal that of the unfaithfulness of a spouse. The pain it causes is worse than death. Marriage is a covenant relationship, one that you take before God and you need to be true to it. The betrayal and broken trust that occurs when people are unfaithful in their marriage vows is an abomination to the Lord. spouse and with your God!\n325\nKeep your covenant with your\nDECEMBER 20 BE FAITHFUL Hosea 2:19-20 (NKJV) “I will betroth you to Me forever; Yes, I will betroth you to Me in righteousness and justice.\nIn loving kindness and mercy; I will\nbetroth you to Me in faithfulness, and you shall know the Lord.” The Lord regards His relationship with His people as a betrothal agreement which was a strong binding commitment and the last step before the actual wedding takes place. He wanted it to be one that was righteous, just, full of loving kindness, mercy and\nforever”\nThat was the intent of the Lord concerning His\npeople and so it is to be between husband and wife; it is to be a faithful relationship. Bounding back from an unfaithful spouse is almost equal to rising from the dead. It is a far worse sin to be unfaithful to your God and Savior Jesus Christ; yet many gloss over that one! You are unfaithful to God when the things of the world become more important to you than your relationship with Him. You can see others sin; why in the world would you ignore your own waywardness?\nWhen you were raising your children, you\ndisciplined them for their own benefit and\nsanity.\nLikewise,\nbecause God loves you, He will not ignore your unfaithfulness. Just as an unfaithful partner will get caught; God will confront you with your sin, not to punish you, but to restore you.\nHe will show\nyou loving kindness and mercy; He will bind you to Himself in faithfulness…all so that you will learn to know and trust in Him! DECEMBER 21\n326\nTHE WORK OF THE HOLY SPIRIT Luke 1:34 (NKJV) “Then Mary said to the angel, “How can this be…?” Mary, mother of Jesus, was a young girl when the angel appeared to her and explained that she had found favor with God and that she would conceive and bring forth a Son and that His name would be Jesus. She was amazed and did not respond in unbelief but instead asked, “How can this be?”\nShe doesn’t\nunderstand but is fully accepting of her role then as well as in the years to come. Becoming the mother of the Son of God happened only because of the Holy Spirit. She probably asked the same question many times in the events that followed as she rumbled over rough, hilly country roads on the back of the donkey, possibly even walking at times for miles. Again, when she finally arrived and could find no room at the Inn, no hot bath or clean sheets to accommodate her tired, swollen body; and yet again, as she gave birth for the first time amid sheep and cattle.\nHave you ever\nsmelled a sheep or a cow? Going through the pangs of labor is not exactly when you want to inhale that smell for the first time! “How could any of this be?”\nThe next time you think you’re\noverwhelmed, think of what Mary got for her trouble and believe with her that “With God, nothing will be impossible.” Luke 1:34-37 (NKJV). Mary learned that through the work of the Holy Spirit that “all these things could be.”\nAnd, regardless of what you are\nexperiencing, you can know answers to some of the problems that trouble you too…it all happens through the same Holy Spirit working in you.\n327\nDECEMBER 22 SEARCH FOR THE LORD Matthew 2:1 (NKJV) “Now after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of Herod the kind, behold wise men from the East came to Jerusalem.” Jesus who created humans and the planet on which we live became a human being too and came to live for a little while on the planet He had made. It was predetermined years before that He would be born in Bethlehem, a very small village about six miles South of Jerusalem. The wise men had already traveled a very long distance seeking the Promised Messiah. Did it ever occur to you that these were actually pagans that had walked such a long distance to seek the Savior while the chief priests and scribes serving just six miles down the road in Jerusalem weren’t willing or interested enough to seek Him out? These men earnestly sought the Savior. How about you, is it possible that you know this story but still do not know Him as your Savior and Lord? People then, as well as today, seek association with Jesus for all kinds of personal gain; but lasting fulfillment is only found when we seek Jesus with humility and honesty and with an open desire for no other reason than to know more of Him. Jeremiah 29: 13-14 NKJV), “You will seek Me and find Me, when you search for Me with all your heart. I will be found by you, says the Lord….” One scripture says, “The eyes of the Lord range throughout the earth to strengthen those whose hearts are fully committed to Him.” 2 Chronicles 16:9 (NIV).\n328\nWhen you earnestly seek the Lord, know that He is already searching for you! DECEMBER 23 SEARCH FOR HIM FOR THE RIGHT REASONS Matthew 2:8 (NKJV) “And he sent them to Bethlehem and said, “Go and search carefully for the young Child, and when you have found Him, bring back Word to me that I may come and worship Him also.” King Herod asked the wise men to search diligently for the young Child so that He could go and worship Him. He provided them with a piece of vital information they had been missing…the Child had been born in the nearby village of Bethlehem which gave them the endpoint of their pilgrimage. In exchange for supplying them with this, Herod asked them to do him the favor and report back to him.\nHe had no thought of worship; this would simply\nprovide him with an idea of the Child’s current age and thus aid him in determining who would need to be killed by his murderous men. The wise men did not return to Herod with any information. VS. 16: “Then Herod, when he saw that he was deceived by the wise men, was exceedingly angry and sent forth and put to death all the male children who were in Bethlehem and in all its districts, from two years old and under…” This is the time of year when we celebrate the birth of the Christ Child and we need to be so thankful for the wisdom of these men as they were told in a dream to not return to Herod. Don’t be so caught up in your busy plans of the day that you would miss anything He might be speaking into your life right\n329\nnow. Herod sought Jesus for selfish reasons; you want to seek Him for intimacy, love, and companionship. Love Him because He dearly loves you. DECEMBER 24 EXPERIENCE GREAT JOY IN HIS PRESENCE Matthew 2:9b-10 (NKJV) “…And behold, the star which they had seen in the East went before them, till it came and stood over where the young Child was. When they saw the star, they rejoiced with exceedingly great joy.” How incredible is it that the same star they had seen in the East now appeared to them as they again went on their way?! Various attempts have been made to explain this but there is none except God used supernatural means in guiding not only the star, but led them to Bethlehem and miraculously stopped above the place where the Child was born. The Bible says, “when they saw the star, they rejoiced with exceedingly great joy.”\nWhat a\nwonderful experience for them! When was the last time you were totally overcome with joy just to be in His Glorious Presence? With just two remaining days before we celebrate His birth, how much of it are you spending in wonder and amazement of His birth and thanking God for letting Jesus come to earth to be born of men that we might be born of God?\nLet Jesus fill your heart and be\novercome with joy beyond measure! Take time today to just be in His Presence and sense His glory, power and un-surpassing love.\n330\nDECEMBER 25 FALL DOWN AND WORSHIP JESUS Matthew 2:11 (NKJV) “And when they had come into the house, they saw the young Child with Mary His mother, and fell down and worshiped Him.” The wise men fell on their knees and worshipped the Child. Today, we need to do the same thing. During this busy season, there may be a hundred other things clamoring for your attention and some of it needful, but take time to worship Jesus and do it on your knees, if you possibly can. Doing so humbles you and shows total submission. If someone sticks a gun in your back, what do you do? You raise your hands; it’s a universal sign of submission or surrender in ANY language on earth. Psalms. 63:4: “Thus I will bless You while I live; I will lift up my hands in Your name.”\nSo\nraise your hands and bow your knees! While you’re there, bend your heart and your ear, listening for any Word He may be waiting to speak into your life. If you will do this, all the other “things” clamoring for your attention will more likely happen if you pause, fall down and spend some time in true worship!\nDECEMBER 26 GIVE GOOD GIFTS Matthew 2:11b (NKJV) “And when they had opened their treasures, they presented gifts to Him: gold, frankincense and myrrh.”\n331\nWe don’t know how many wise men there were but because three gifts are mentioned, we believe there were three. The gifts they gave to Jesus were of great value; no peasant could have afforded such expensive gifts…gold, frankincense and myrrh. What kind of gifts are you bringing to Jesus today? Are you giving Him the first and the best or does He get what you have left when you’ve taken care of everyone else?\nThey gave Him gifts that\nrepresented His Priestly ministry as well as His sacrificial death, and they did it joyfully. Gold then, as well as today, was of great value; frankincense was a fragrance that came only as a result of fire; myrrh was a fragrant resinous substance obtained from certain species of balsam trees. It has been said that Queen Esther used oil of myrrh for six months before appearing before the King. They not only gave us the example of how to truly worship by bowing low, but they presented meaningful, costly gifts. You may not be able to physically lay yours at His feet, but one of the best gifts you can possibly give is yourself. Live out every day of your life in a way that honors Him and then give sacrificially to whatever and whoever takes the gospel to those who have not heard. It will not only mean life instead of death to those who hear it, but you will be blessed! God honored you by giving you the best gift ever, Jesus, His beloved Son!\nDECEMBER 27 BE OBEDIENT Matthew 2:13 (NKJV) “…Behold an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream saying, “Arise, take the young Child and His mother, flee to\n332\nEgypt and stay there until I bring you Word, for Herod will seek the young Child to destroy Him.” God\ndidn’t do it often, but He used angels in this way,\nthroughout Scripture to give specific instructions. Joseph obeyed unquestionably without delay and escaped with Mary and the Baby during the night. How many times have you hesitated and paused rather than obeyed? Sometimes what He has told you to do is difficult and you wait to see if you can come up with a better plan before deciding.\nHow many times do we miss it altogether\nbecause we don’t even recognize it being from Him? If you check the Scriptures, you’ll find that Joseph obeyed everything God told him to do; he might have had some problem with the scenario at first, but he did obey each time and without hesitation. In the nine months of waiting for the Child to be born, Joseph not only defended Mary but he took care of her and always did what was best for her and the Baby. It was a sign of God’s approval and trust in having the angel appear to Joseph (not Mary), when He gave the instructions to flee to Egypt. How obedient are you and what is your response to the birth of the Savior of the world? Have you accepted Him as your Lord and Savior? If not, why not? This Christmas season is all about knowing and worshiping Him. Come Let Us Worship the King!\nLet us celebrate Jesus, God’s Son!\nListen and obey today!!\nDECEMBER 28 JESUS WAITS\n333\nPsalms 118:24 (NKJV) “This is the day the Lord has made, I will rejoice and be glad in it.” For some, the flurry of shopping, parties, exchanging of gifts, rushing to finish the unobtainable suddenly comes to a halt. The tinsel isn’t so sparkling and the lights seem to lose some of their glow as friends and family leave to go their separate ways. Your life that was spinning out of control comes to a standstill, as you download. That’s what happens if that’s where your heart is. But the realness of Christmas and the joy of our salvation are not found in beautifully wrapped packages, sparkling lights and dainty desserts. Everything you share during the holidays can have a relationship to your relationship with Jesus, if done in the right spirit, and that’s as it should be. Keep in mind though that when you were your busiest, Jesus was with you, giving you strength, fresh ideas and energizing your efforts so that it could all happen. If you slighted Him during those days, He’s still right where you left Him; He loves you and is waiting to spend time with you today. Every day was especially designed for you to delight yourself in Him and to give Him praise and honor. It is always a good day to rejoice and be glad in the Lord! “Therefore the Lord will wait that He may be gracious to you!” Isaiah 30:18 (NKJV).\nDECEMBER 29 WHAT ARE YOU LISTENING TO Ephesians 4:30 (MSG)\n334\n“Don’t grieve God. Don’t break his heart. His Holy Spirit, moving and breathing in you, is the most intimate part of your life, making you fit for Himself. Don’t take such a gift for granted.” You need to be listening to what the Holy Spirit is speaking into your life so that you don’t grieve God and break His heart. What are you listening to today? Are you listening to the cries of despair and discouragement all around you or are you listening to what the Word of God has to say? You listen to ill advice; you listen to bad reports from the doctor; you listen to political schemes that threaten your very existence, when you need to be listening to the One who can make a difference in your life. If you do listen to what God is saying and spend enough time in His Word, the Holy Spirit will enable what is inside of you to be lived out of you. “The Holy Spirit, moving and breathing in you is the most intimate part of your life, making you fit for Himself”…do you believe that? Accepting and believing God’s Word works within you is a powerful source of strength and wisdom that you desperately need. It’s a wonderful gift and one we should never take for granted! Listen to what the Word says to you!\nDECEMBER 30 AT THE SOUND OF YOUR CRY, HE HEARS YOU Isaiah 30:19b-21 (RSV) “He will surely be gracious to you at the sound of your cry; when he hears it, he will answer you. And though the Lord give you the bread of adversity and the water of affliction, yet your\n335",
"PORTERVILLE POST | The Right News at the Right Time\n(Dec 31 2009) - Palm Beach Post : Limbaugh rushed to Honolulu hospital\nHONOLULU -- Conservative talk-show host Rush Limbaugh is resting comfortably in a Hawaii hospital after suffering chest pains while on vacation, his radio program says. \"Rush appreciates your prayers and well wishes and will keep you updated via rushlimbaugh.com and on his radio program,\" the program said in a statement late Wednesday night. Limbaugh was rushed for medical treatment earlier in the day. The statement said \"Rush was admitted to and is resting comfortably in a Honolulu hospital today after suffering chest pains.\"\n(Dec 30 2009) - China Post : Law to ban U.S. beef\nTAIPEI -- The government will strive to communicate with the United States (U.S.) in order to limit possible damage to two-way relations after lawmakers from ruling and opposition camps reached a consensus to revise regulations and ban imports of ground beef and bovine offal from the U.S. Upon learning about the legislative decision, Thomas Hodges, spokesman and public affairs section chief of the American Institute in Taiwan (AIT) expressed disappointment and said Washington would make an announcement later.\n(Dec 29 2009) - Global Post : Magnet for refugees & Al Qaeda ?\nYEMEN -- EDITOR'S NOTE: Yemen's notoriously porous border has allowed this country to become a new hub for Al Qaeda, according to U.S. and European counterterrorism officials. On Monday, Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula claimed responsibility for the attempted Christmas bombing in which a Nigerian man tried to take down a Detroit-bound Northwest Airlines flight with a chemical explosive. Civil war and lawlessness have turned the Arab world's poorest state into an attractive destination for African refugees and, U.S. spy agencies say, an alternative base for Al Qaeda.\n(Dec 28 2009) - Frontier Post : US Defense Chief�s Afghan plans\nKABUL -- In a bit of unpoetic justice, Robert Gates helped create the mess in Afghanistan decades ago and now has to try to clean it up. At the CIA in the '80s, Gates conspired with Charlie Wilson and the Saudis to help the insurgents in Afghanistan turn back the occupation of a superpower. Now he's guiding the attempt of the occupying superpower to turn back the insurgents, some of whom are the same ones he armed to defeat the Soviet Union, New York Times has reported.\n(Dec 27 2009) - New York Post : Bomber was on U.S. watch list\nAMSTERDAM -- US authorities have known for months that the al Qaeda-linked Nigerian who tried to blow up a passenger jet before it landed in Detroit had terrorist ties -- and his own father even alerted them to his extremist behavior, it was revealed yesterday. Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, 23, who was charged in federal court with attempting to destroy Northwest Flight 253 on Christmas Day, remained hospitalized with burns suffered in the failed attempt.\n(Dec 26 2009) - Bangkok Post : Passengers stop bomber on US plane\nAMSTERDAM -- A Nigerian passenger attempted to ignite an incendiary device aboard a Northwest Airlines flight from Amsterdam to Detroit on Friday as the plane began its approach for landing, in what federal officials said was an act of terrorism. The plane landed safely shortly before noon local time on Christmas Day (midnight Thailand time). The suspected would-be bomber suffered burns as the result of his attempt, and two of the other 277 passengers reported minor injuries, authorities said. FBI agents were investigating the incident, which a White House official said was believed to be terrorism.\n(Dec 25 2009) - Christian Post : The Incarnation\nU.S.A. -- Last week, Patty and I attended a performance of a Living Christmas Tree at my church, the First Baptist Church of Naples, Florida. It was the best I�d ever seen. The performers did not simply offer music and a manger scene; they also brought out flags. One read: �The Great I AM�; another proclaimed �King of Kings.� Yet another said �Lord of Lords.� In other words, the program was not confined to warm thoughts about a chubby-cheeked Baby Jesus. It made the point that Christmas is about the Incarnation.\n(Dec 24 2009) - Post & Email : British Law declares Obama a British citizen\nU.K. -- Barack Hussein Obama has written 2 biographies about himself and has publicly spoken of his origins in many public speeches. He claims as his biological and legal father, a man who went by the name Barrack Hussein Obama. That is the more common Kenyan spelling of the name. His claimed father also went by the names �Barak� and �Barack�, the former when he penned an article in an journal on economics, in Nairobi, in the 60�s, the latter when he registered at the University of Hawaii. The latter form appears on the electronic image of Obama�s alleged Certification of Live Birth.\n(Dec 24 2009) - National Post : Yemen says Fort Hood-linked imam may be dead SANAA -- The leader of al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula and a Muslim preacher linked by U.S. intelligence to deaths at a U.S. army base are believed to have died in a Yemen air strike, a security official said on Thursday. Yemen said 30 militants were killed in the strike in the eastern province of Shabwa. Among those believed killed was Anwar al-Awlaki, whom U.S. officials linked to the gunman who killed 13 people at the Fort Hood army base in Texas on Nov. 5.\n(Dec 23 2009) - Liberty Post : Obama caused Housing Bubble\nWASH D.C. -- This week we saw Obama on all the news shows blaming banks for the credit crisis saying that \"you guys caused the problem\" and calling them \"fat cats.\" This is the height of hypocrisy. Let me remind everyone that banks only operate within the regulatory environment that politicians create for them. All throughout the 80's and 90's, leftist groups led by ACORN harassed banks with protests, boycotts and lawsuits, falsely claiming banks were \"discriminating\" against minorities in terms of their lending practices. The allegations were bogus. Banks do discriminate, however, against people with shaky finances regardless of race. And they should. Banks are not a welfare program. They're a business.\n(Dec 22 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Carter apologizes to Jewish community\nISREAL -- Jimmy Carter asked the Jewish community for forgiveness for any stigma he may have caused Israel. In a letter released exclusively to JTA, the former US president sent a seasonal message wishing for peace between Israel and its neighbors, and concluded: \"We must recognize Israel's achievements under difficult circumstances, even as we strive in a positive way to help Israel continue to improve its relations with its Arab populations, but we must not permit criticisms for improvement to stigmatize Israel.\n(Dec 21 2009) - Seattle Post : Google vs. Microsoft ...\nSEATTLE -- Don Dodge, the former Microsoft start-up evangelist whom Google quickly snatched up after his layoff last month, seems to be falling in love with his new company. \"Google's an amazing company, even more so from the inside,\" Dodge wrote on his personal blog Friday. \"To the outside world Google is just search. But Google has made 3 big bets on the future of computing; Chrome OS (browser), Google Apps (cloud), and Android (mobile) that will change everything.\" 5 or 10 years from now, the smartphone will be everyone's primary computer, Dodge wrote.\n(Dec 20 2009) - Washington Post : Democrats health-care debate wounds\nWASH D.C. -- Amid the spectacle that has become the health-care debate, Democrats have taken comfort in the belief that they will be rewarded politically if in the end they pass something -- almost anything. That proposition is being sorely tested in these final days of maneuvering. For all the talk of the damage President Obama has sustained during this long and difficult year, congressional Democrats have suffered at least as much -- and will have to face the voters far sooner than the president.\n(Dec 19 2009) - Post Zambia : US continues imperial conquest � Fidel\nCUBA -- FIDEL Castro has accused the US of continuing its brutal imperial conquest this time under the �nice smile� and Afro-American face of President Barack Obama. In a letter to Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez which he demanded to be read before the ALBA heads of state summit at Havana's Palace of Conventions, Fidel stated that should the US gain control of petroleum and gas resources in Venezuela, then Central American and Caribbean countries receiving preferential oil supplies would be doomed.\n(Dec 18 2009) - Patriot Post : Be Afraid, Very Afraid\nWASH D.C. -- Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke is Time magazine's \"Person of the Year.\" Twelve months ago, the \"honor\" went to then-President-elect Barack Obama. Notably, the 1932 recipient was President-elect Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who asserted in his March 4, 1933, inaugural address, \"The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.\" Mr. Roosevelt went on to describe the economic anxieties of millions left jobless in a deepening depression as \"nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance.\"\n(Dec 17 2009) - Christian Post : Majority of Americans Celebrate Christmas as Religious Holiday AMERICA -- About two thirds of Americans celebrate Christmas as a religious holiday, a new survey reveals. Meanwhile, 20 percent celebrate the event as a secular holiday, according to Rasmussen Reports. Among those who celebrate Christmas, 72 percent say Jesus was born to a virgin and 81 percent believe Jesus Christ is the Son of God sent to die for our sins. Christians believe Christmas is one of the most important days of the year because it celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ, and those who celebrate Christmas overwhelmingly agree with the central tenets of the Christian faith associated with the holiday, the survey says.\n(Dec 17 2009) - Kyiv Post : Air France crash remains a mystery\nPARIS -- Investigators are still unable to pinpoint why an Air France passenger jet crashed into the Atlantic on Jun. 1, killing all 228 people on board, France's official BEA aviation accident authority said on Dec. 17. The BEA said in its latest report into the disaster that speed probes on Air France flight AF 447, which was flying from Rio de Janeiro to Paris, were one factor in a string of events that led to the crash but not the sole cause.\n(Dec 16 2009) - Birmingham Post : Talks to stall British Airways strike\nLONDON -- Fresh talks between British Airways and union leaders will be held today in a bid to avert a series of Christmas strikes by thousands of cabin crew. Unite�s joint leaders Tony Woodley and Derek Simpson will meet the airline�s bosses to try to find a breakthrough in a bitter row over jobs, pay and working conditions. BA said it had offered to meet the union at 3pm today, �without preconditions�, and Unite later confirmed that talks would be held.\n(Dec 15 2009) - Post Chronicle : 22 ml Bush e-mails found\nWASH D.C. -- According to two nonprofit groups, computer technicians have located 22 million White House e-mails from the President George W. Bush administration, reports the Associated Press. The missing email problem was first identified in 2005, when the Office of Administration conducted an internal analysis suggesting that millions of emails from the Executive Office of the President (\"EOP\"), created between March 2003 and October 2005, might be missing. The Monday announcement by the two groups highlight current developments in an ongoing controversy ...\n(Dec 14 2009) - Yemen Post : Yemen Headquarters for Drug Traffickers\nYEMEN -- The onetime conservative country of Yemen is suddenly falling apart morally as poverty, greed, and power is forcing thousands of Yemeni youngsters to turn to drugs for a better future. Yemen is considered today the hub for drugs trafficked to the Gulf, as drug lords today feel it is easier to send drugs to others parts of the world through Yemen than any other country. Over 12 tons of drugs were seized by the government this year alone. Observers believe that the seized amount is only 10% of the total amount of drugs that passes through Yemen.\n(Dec 13 2009) - Jakarta Post : Nearly 1,000 climate protesters released\nDENMARK -- Danish police on Sunday released hundreds of activists who were detained during a mass rally demanding strong action from delegates at the U.N. climate conference. Police said only 13 of the 968 people detained during and after the demonstration in Copenhagen remained in custody Sunday. Of those, three - two Danes and a Frenchman - were set to be arraigned in court on preliminary charges of fighting with police. The conference took a day off Sunday, though environment ministers were meeting for informal talks on greenhouse emissions cuts and financing for poor nations to deal with climate change.\n(Dec 12 2009) - Palm Beach Post : Children walk from hostage situation\nFLORIDA -- An hours-long standoff between Sheriff's deputies and two armed men who had barricaded themselves in an apartment with young children has ended without injury. The two men, suspected also of armed robbery, are in custody, and the children who had been holed up with them walked out of the apartment unharmed just after 7 a.m., Palm Beach County Sheriff's spokesman Deputy Eric Davis said. The situation began when deputies were called about 3 a.m regarding an armed robbery at a Chevron gas station at 6970 Okeechobee Boulevard.\n(Dec 11 2009) - Copenhagen Post : G77 walks out of COP15 meeting\nCOPENHAGEN -- Tension between developing and developed countries builds as climate summit enters its fifth day. The chief negotiator for 134 developing nations left the UN Climate Change Conference (COP15) yesterday in anger. Lumumba Stanislaus Di-Aping from Sudan, the G77 group�s top negotiator, is also accusing Denmark of driving the climate summit into the ground. 'Things are not going well,' he said after walking out from an hour-long negotiation. Commenting he said: 'Your prime minister has chosen to protect the rich countries, and that�s not ok,' referring to Denmark�s Lars L�kke Rasmussen.\n(Dec 10 2009) - China Post : Climate doc,s spark clash between Countries\nCOPENHAGEN -- Developing nations who face huge climate change burdens are demanding that wealthy nations shoulder more of the costs, as a leaked Danish document and fresh evidence of a hotter planet raised temperatures at the U.N. climate conference. Negotiators on Wed. were trying to bridge the difficult gaps among 192 nations and stem a growing chasm between rich and poor on the third day of the U.N. climate conference. A key speaker will be U.S. EPA head Lisa Jackson ...\n(Dec 09 2009) - Denver Post : 100's gather to see Palin\nCOLORADO SPRINGS -- Taylor Schettler could not keep her voice from trailing up into a squeal as she talked about a brief meeting with her hero Sarah Palin during the former Republican vice presidential candidate's book-signing here Tuesday night. Schettler, the 2009 Miss Colorado Teen USA, brought her \"Pageant Queens for Palin\" sign. She had compiled a packet of inspirational quotes, jokes and a letter to Palin. And she bought a new outfit. \"I have so much in common with her. She's a real person,\" said Schettler, 17. \"I just met the next president of the United States. I couldn't even think, I was so excited!\"\n(Dec 08 2009) - Financial Post : OVER-POPULATION : The real inconvenient truth CANADA -- The \"inconvenient truth\" overhanging the UN's Copenhagen conference is not that the climate is warming or cooling, but that humans are overpopulating the world. A planetary law, such as China's one-child policy, is the only way to reverse the disastrous global birthrate currently, which is one million births every four days. The world's other species, vegetation, resources, oceans, arable land, water supplies and atmosphere are being destroyed and pushed out of existence as a result of humanity's soaring reproduction rate.\n(Dec 07 2009) - Global Post : Argentine president feuds with media\nBUENOS AIRES -- Every Sunday Fabian Lopez buys a copy of Clarin, Argentina's most widely read paper, at his neighborhood kiosk. Lopez says he likes Clarin best, but he can't trust everything he reads in it. Its owners, the Clarin Group, have been openly feuding with the government over a new media law that threatens their business. \"Opinions can be bought,\" Lopez shrugged cynically, handing over his coins for the paper. \" Still you need something to inform you!\" Most Argentines like to stay informed. With a nearly universal literacy rate and high cable penetration, Argentina is one of Latin America's largest media markets.\n(Dec 06 2009) - Yorkshire Post : Queen warns paparazzi over photos\nENGLAND -- The Queen has warned newspapers against publishing paparazzi photos of members of the Royal family, it has emerged. The hard line follows growing exasperation about intrusion into the private lives of the Royal family and their friends. The Queen's lawyers have contacted newspapers informing them of privacy obligations under their own code of practice. The move is thought to have the full support of high-profile members of the Royal family ...\n(Dec 05 2009) - Bangkok Post : Thais begin a day of joy\nTHAILAND -- His Majesty the King left the hospital on Saturday to drive through the streets and grant an audience on his 82nd birthday. Tens of thousands of subjects lined the streets to see His Majesty and members of the royal family as they drove from Siriraj Hospital to Chitrlada Palace for the audience. His Royal Highness Crown Prince Maha Vajiralongkorn presided over the ceremonies at the palace. He thanked His Majesty for granting him the responsibility of attending to other parts of the birthday celebration.\n(Dec 04 2009) - India Post : US seeks India role in Afghanistan\nNEW DELHI -- A day after President Barack Obama announced his new Af-Pak policy and a troop surge in Afghanistan, the US said it looks forward to working with India in rebuilding the war-torn country. US Ambassador to India Timothy J Roemer, who was in Washington during Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's state visit to the US, said Obama also sought Singh's \"important\" views on Afghanistan. \"After the PM's very successful visit to Washington and before his statement on the new Af-Pak policy, the President also called the PM and they had a very good talk,\" Roemer told reporters at the US pavilion at a food expo here.\n(Dec 03 2009) - Palm Beach Post : Comcast buying NBC Universal ?\nPHILADELPHIA -- Comcast Corp. announced Thursday it plans to buy a majority stake in NBC Universal for $13.75 billion, giving the nation's largest cable TV operator control of the Peacock network, an array of cable channels and a major movie studio. Although the deal could mean that movies could reach cable more quickly after showing in theaters, and that TV shows could appear faster on cell phones and other devices, it was already raising concerns that Comcast would wield too much power over entertainment. Indeed, if the deal clears regulatory and other hurdles, Comcast would rival the heft of The Walt Disney Co.\n(Dec 02 2009) - Patriot Post : Obama Will Bankrupt America\nWASH D.C. -- In March, the Peter G. Peterson Foundation, led by former U.S. Comptroller General David Walker, calculated the total value of the federal government's \"unfunded liabilities\" as they stood at the end of fiscal 2008. These liabilities include the publicly held portion of the national debt plus the amount the government must pay to cover all the entitlement benefits it has promised to living Americans through Social Security, Medicare and other welfare-state programs minus the tax revenue the government can expect to collect to pay for these entitlements under existing tax law.\n(Dec 01 2009) - Seattle Post : Clemmons reportedly shot, killed by police\nSEATTLE -- Seattle police shot and killed suspected cop killer Maurice Clemmons early Tuesday morning in the Rainier Valley neighborhood, a police spokesman said. Clemmons, the sole suspect in the murders of four Lakewood police officers as they sat in a coffee shop Sunday morning, was the subject of an intense manhunt since shortly after those killings. Investigators said they believed Clemmons -- who had a violent criminal history in Arkansas and Washington -- was being aided by a network of friends and family.\n(Nov 30 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Virus forces PM to delay German trip\nJERUSALEM -- Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu took ill Sunday evening, forcing him to announce the cancellation of a trip to Germany just nine hours before he and six other ministers were scheduled to fly to Berlin. Some three hours after he delivered a speech in Eilat to mark the 29th of November, Netanyahu's spokesman Nir Hefetz issued a statement saying that Netanyahu did not feel well and was diagnosed by his doctor as having a viral infection and a low fever.\n(Nov 29 2009) - Frontier Post : India preparing for Nuke War ?\nPAKISTAN -- Reliable sources disclosed that Pakistani authorities have decided to move her forces from Western to Eastern border. The move of forces would start soon. The decision has been taken after receiving the threat from Indian Army Chief General Deepak Kapoor to strike Pakistan. Indian Chief warned that a limited war under a nuclear overhang is still very much a reality at least in the Indian sub-continent. On November 23, Pakistan Foreign Office spokesman Abdul Basit asked the world community to take notice of remarks passed by the Indian Army Chief. He also said India had set the stage and trying to impose a limited war on Pakistan.\n(Nov 28 2009) - Filipino Post : Ketsana victims head to Canada\nPHILIPPINES -- All Felipe Macabenta could do was cry. His family home was swept away leaving his wife and children homeless. His friends and neighbors were killed by the ferocious storm Ketsana which devastated many parts of the Philippines last September. �My family lost their home and all I did was to cry here because I could not provide immediate help as I am thousands of miles away,� Macabenta, who is trying to make a new life as a civil engineer in Richmond, B.C. told Philboxing.com. But the storm that destroyed everything also brought with it some hope for Macabenta�s family.\n(Nov 27 2009) - Kyiv Post : SOS Ariana\nUKRAINE -- Politicians silent, relatives extra tense amid conflicting reports about the fate of 24 Ukrainian crew members on board a cargo ship hijacked by pirates on May 2. The distress signal coming from the Ariana ship off the Somalian coast is loud, piercing and frightening � to those who want to hear it. Armed pirates have been holding 24 Ukrainian crew members hostage since May 2. After nearly seven months on board, conflicting reports have surfaced about their fate.\n(Nov 26 2009) - Liberty Post : Liberal Democtats Turn on Obama\nWASH D.C. -- After just 10 months in office, President Barack Obama is facing a rebellion on several fronts from his natural base of liberal Democrats. And while it�s too early to measure the political cost, what is striking is how rapidly disaffection is growing. The most recent example of this fallout is the war in Afghanistan, which has alienated liberals who believed that Obama would quickly pull out from Iraq and close the terrorist detention facilities in Guantanamo. Instead, they are now looking at their once cherished candidate poised to announce that he is sending some 30,000 additional troops to Afghanistan.\n(Nov 25 2009) - New York Post : Judge blasts bad bank, erases 525G debt\nNEW YORK -- A Long Island couple is home free after an outraged judge gave them an amazing Thanksgiving present -- canceling their debt to ruthless bankers trying to toss them out on the street. Suffolk Judge Jeffrey Spinner wiped out $525,000 in mortgage payments demanded by a California bank, blasting its \"harsh, repugnant, shocking and repulsive\" acts. The bombshell decision leaves Diane Yano-Horoski and her husband, Greg Horoski, owing absolutely no money on their ranch house in East Patchogue.\n(Nov 24 2009) - Post Chronicle : Drug-Resistant Bacteria On Rise In U.S.\nAMERICA -- Cases of a drug-resistant bacterial infection known as MRSA have risen by 90 percent since 1999, and they are increasingly being acquired outside hospitals, researchers reported on Tuesday. They found two new strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus -- MRSA for short -- were circulating in patients and they are different from the strains normally seen in hospitals. Ramanan Laxminarayan of Princeton University in New Jersey and colleagues studied data on lab tests from a national network of 300 microbiology laboratories in the United States for their study.\n(Nov 23 2009) - Christian Post : Poll Supports Right to Criticize Religion\nWORLDWIDE POLL -- A survey of 20 nations has found strong support for the right to criticize religion. According to the survey of more than 18,000 people, 57 percent agreed that �people should be allowed to publicly criticize religion because people should have freedom of speech.� Meanwhile, 34 percent of all respondents said they supported the right of governments \"to fine or imprison people who publicly criticize a religion because such criticism could defame the religion.� The strongest support for the right to criticize religion came from the United States, with 89 percent ...\n(Nov 22 2009) - Post Zambia : Drug trafficking is a global problem\nCUBA -- FIDEL Castro has accused the United States of using a vulgar excuse of fight against narcotics to finalise a cold war aimed at total domination of the world. Fidel on Wednesday noted that the cultivation, production and trafficking of drugs today constituted a global problem that extended from South America to Africa and that it reigned even in Afghanistan where the US had massive army presence. �For his military origin, precisely, Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez knows that the fight against narcotic trafficking is a vulgar excuse of the US to justify a military agreement with Colombia ...\n(Nov 21 2009) - Yemen Post : Yemen Seeks to Release Japanese Engineer\nYEMEN -- While Yemen is seeking to release a Japanese engineer who was kidnapped by tribesmen in Sana'a early last week, chief mediator on the release said on Saturday that Al-Qaeda took the engineer to Jawf in northeast Yemen, the News Yemen reported. Sheikh Abdul Jalil Sinan said Al-Qaeda affiliates kidnapped the Japanese from the Joub tribe where he was snatched on Sunday by tribesmen demanding the release of one of their relatives held by the authorities in connection with Qaeda links.\n(Nov 20 2009) - Denver Post : U.S. attorney nominee Villafuerte denies any role in accessing restricted database COLORADO -- President Barack Obama's nominee to be Colorado's next U.S. attorney has denied any involvement in the access of a restricted federal database to help Bill Ritter's 2006 campaign for governor. In a letter addressed to U.S. Sen. Mark Udall and forwarded to the Senate Judiciary Committee, Stephanie Villafuerte said the answer to whether she ever used information from the database for campaign purposes \"is emphatically no.\" Villafuerte has consistently declined to answer questions from The Denver Post ...\n(Nov 19 2009) - Post Newsline : Ambassador Assaults Embassy Protesters\nWASH D.C. -- A protest at the Embassy of the Republic of Cameroon turned violent this morning when the Cameroonian ambassador stormed from the building and assaulted two people outside, a well-placed source tells News4. Ambassador Joseph Bienvenu Charles Foe Atangana rushed into the crowd and assaulted the leader of the protest, and then pushed a woman to the ground, witnesses said. The woman, a passer-by not involved in the protest, had been taking pictures. Her camera was thrown to the ground. Both of the injured were transported from the scene by ambulance. Local police and the Secret Service responded to the scene. The matter's now been turned over to the State Department.\n(Nov 18 2009) - China Post : No breakthrough likely at EU-Russia summit\nSTOCKHOLM -- Leaders of the European Union and Russia were holding a summit Wednesday on energy security, climate change, trade and human rights � with both sides hoping the talks would help patch up battered relations. The summit in the Swedish capital, Stockholm, was expected to produce a number of agreements, including on border control, but no significant breakthroughs. EU leaders were also expected to press Russian President Dmitry Medvedev for more assurances on energy supplies and for a bigger commitment to climate change. \"EU-Russia relations aren't the greatest right now ...\n(Nov 17 2009) - Jakarta Post : Thailand should release Hmong refugees\nTHAILAND -- The U.N. refugee agency says Thailand should release 158 ethnic Hmong refugees detained for 3 years and allow them to move to another country. UNHCR says the refugees held in a Thai detention center have committed no crimes. The Geneva-based agency called Tuesday on Thailand to allow these refugees to move to the U.S., Australia, Canada or the Netherlands which have offered to resettle them. The Hmong are an ethnic group from Laos' rugged mountains. Many fought on the side of a pro-U.S. Laotian government in the 1960s and 1970s before the communist takeover of their country in 1975.\n(Nov 16 2009) - Bangkok Post : Grenade caused anti-Thaksin blast\nBANGKOK -- A grenade fired from an M-79 launcher caused the explosion that injured 12 people on Sunday at a Bangkok rally by opponents of fugitive former premier Thaksin Shinawatra, Metropolitan Police said on Monday. Organisers initially thought the explosion at the protest in central Bangkok late Sunday was caused by a large firecracker thrown by men on a motorcycle, but police said they now believed it was a more serious attack. The rally by around 20,000 yellow-shirts was held to condemn Thaksin's visit to neighbouring Cambodia last week and his appointment by Phnom Penh as an economic adviser to the government.\n(Nov 15 2009) - Post Zambia : Fundanga 'Focus on Food Production'\nZAMBIA -- BANK of Zambia (BoZ) Governor Dr Caleb Fundanga says the government must grow the economy at a fast rate if poverty is to be eradicated. And Dr Fundanga says that he strongly feels that women have a lot of qualities when they venture into business than men. Speaking at a Business Forum organised by Visit Livingstone Zambia at New Fairmount Hotel on Friday evening, Dr Fundanga said the government must focus on food production so that the nation can be able to feed itself. \"If there is anything good...is for a nation to feed itself.\n(Nov 14 2009) - Global Post : Obama 'DEEP BOWING' in Japan\nTOKYO -- It was a speech that managed to lift the gloom on a wet, windswept morning. Speaking to a packed concert hall in Tokyo on Saturday, the U.S. president, Barack Obama, assured his hosts that the estrangement of the Bush era was over. Japan and the U.S., he declared, are �equal partners.� Calling himself �America�s first pacific president,� Obama ended the first leg of his nine-day visit to Asia with a foreign policy address that went some way towards calming fears in Japan that its importance is diminishing in the eyes of a White House administration eager to improve ties with China.\n(Nov 13 2009) - Jerusalem Post : US moves to seize 4 mosques\nNEW YORK -- In what could be one of the biggest counterterrorism seizures in US history, federal prosecutors sought to take over four US mosques and a New York City skyscraper owned by a Muslim organization suspected of being controlled by the Iranian government. Prosecutors on Thursday filed a civil complaint in federal court against the Alavi Foundation, seeking the forfeiture of more than $500 million in assets. The assets include bank accounts; Islamic centers consisting of schools and mosques in New York, Maryland, California and Houston; more than 100 acres (40 hectares) in Virginia; and a 36-story Manhattan office tower. Confiscating the properties would be a sharp blow against Iran, which the US government has accused of bankrolling terrorism and trying to build a nuclear bomb.\n(Nov 12 2009) - Cedar Springs Post : God, are you there ?\nMINN -- Has anybody seen God lately? I don�t know about you, but from the look of things, God can�t be found in our society. Even sadder, God can�t be found in some of our churches. Even more shocking, there may be many children of God�s who haven�t found Him lately. Now before you conclude that I'm on a judgmental rampage, let me explain. I believe that we have found God in our lives for the salvation of our souls. We have no problem seeking God and finding Him when we stand in danger of facing an eternity in Hell, but our problem comes when we believe we're saved we have no need to seek after Him on a daily basis.\n(Nov 11 2009) - Patriot Post : THE FOUNDATION OF VETERANS DAY\nAMERICA -- Today is Veterans Day. We encourage all Patriots to set aside time and reflect on the sacrifice of our Patriot veterans and those serving today, and honor them accordingly. More than a million Patriots stand ready, or are actively defending our nation today. These men and women were not drafted into service, but volunteered to serve. To all our veterans: Thank you for your dedicated service to the cause of liberty.\n(Nov 10 2009) - Copenhagen Post : Warning: industrial espionage rising\nDENMARK -- Spies of old with code names and secret handshakes have been replaced with hackers and patent copiers. Companies are being warned by both an industry organisation and the national intelligence agency that industrial spies are ever present. Jakob Scharf, head of the Danish Security and Intelligence Service (PET), recently warned that industrial espionage has been growing steadily in the last number of years and Danish companies are not impervious to it. �The fall of the wall did not lead to a fall in espionage activities � almost the opposite.\n(Nov 09 2009) - New York Post : 9/11 link in Ft. Hood slay Spree\nTEXAS -- Army massacre fiend Nidal Malik Hasan attended a Virginia mosque at the same time as two of the 9/11 hijackers -- and the FBI is now investigating whether there is a connection between the men, an official confirmed yesterday. Maj. Hasan -- the Army psychiatrist accused of fatally shooting 13 people and wounding 29 others at Fort Hood in Texas on Thursday -- had held his mother's funeral at the Dar al Hijrah Islamic Center in Falls Church, Va., in May 2001. The mosque's imam at the time was the ultraradical Anwar Aulaqi, thought to have ties to Osama bin Laden.\n(Nov 08 2009) - Christian Post : House Narrowly Passes Health Care Bill\nWASH D.C. -- The Democratic-controlled House narrowly passed a bill Saturday that aims to expand health care coverage to tens of millions of Americans who lack it. Though the bill, passed on a 220-215 vote, did not include provisions for the funding of abortion, pro-life leaders received news of its passage with caution, noting that there is no guarantee that the final bill will include an amendment barring the federal funding of abortion. Furthermore, they point out that the 1,990-page, $1.2 trillion legislation still has many areas of concern.\n(Nov 07 2009) - Kyiv Post : Russian communists flirt with Medvedev\nMOSCOW -- Russia's communist party denounced powerful Prime Minister Vladimir Putin while cautiously praising President Dmitry Medvedev on Saturday as a man who had brought 'certain hopes' to the country. Putin, who has ruled as \"first among equals\" with his hand- picked successor, was the chief focus of anger in communist marches on the anniversary of the 1917 Bolshevik revolution. \"Medvedev should not look back at Putin,\" said protester Yakub Saidullayev, who held a banner reading 'Putin is the main hurdle for the progress of Russia'.\n(Nov 06 2009) - Liberty Post : Fort Hood soldier describes horrific scene\nUTAH -- The news of the mass shooting at Fort Hood Thursday hit close to home for some Utahns. One man says his daughter heard the shooter exclaim \"Allah Akbar\" as he opened fire. We want to stress that no government or military officials are reporting that and there is no way for us to independently confirm that it is true. The family from northern Utah agreed to talk to us, on the condition we not identify them and blur out some photos they've supplied, because they're worried their daughter could get in trouble with her superiors for making public what she told her family she saw. The soldier's father says his daughter was at Fort Hood Thursday when the shooting happened, and she called him, frantic and upset, soon after.\n(Nov 05 2009) - Post Chronicle : Iowa Cat Is First To Get H1N1 Flu\nIOWA - A cat in Iowa has become the first feline known to be diagnosed with H1N1, The American Veterinary Medical Association said Wednesday. The 13-year-old cat tested positive for the H1N1 virus at the Lloyd Veterinary Medical Center at Iowa State University's College of Veterinary Medicine, the state health department said. The cat, which has recovered, is believed to have contracted it from people in the house where it lives. \"Two of the three members of the family that owns the pet had suffered from influenza-like illness before the cat became ill,\" Dr. Ann Garvey, the state's public health veterinarian, said. \"This is not completely unexpected, as other strains of influenza have been found in cats in the past.\"\n(Nov 04 2009) - Christian Post : Baby's Right-to-Life Case ...\nBRITAIN - Parents of a baby born with a severe birth defect faced off against one another in a British court Monday to determine their child�s fate. While the doctors and mother of the baby want to disconnect his respirator \"to allow him a peaceful, calm and dignified death,\" the child�s father is asking the High Court in London to save the baby�s life. He says the one-year-old baby � who suffers from a rare genetic condition that makes him unable to breathe on his own � can play and recognize his parents.\n(Nov 03 2009) - India Post : RBI buys 200 tonnes of IMF gold\nNEW DELHI - The Reserve Bank of India's gold stock has shot up by more than 55 per cent with the purchase of 200 tonnes of IMF gold at an estimated cost of USD 6.7 billion. RBI, which pledged gold during 1991 crisis with the Bank of England to raise resources to meet external obligations, said it has purchased 200 tonnes of gold from International Monetary Fund (IMF) for USD 6.7 billion. \"The Reserve Bank has decided to buy some gold...about 200 tonnes. That's normally we do (from) time to time. IMF is selling gold so we wanted to buy it\n(Nov 02 2009) - Post Zambia : Castro's understanding of public health impresses WHO chief CUBA � WORLD Health Organisation (WHO) director general Dr Margaret Chan has said Fidel Castro�s understanding of public health is strikingly impressive than most presidents and prime ministers she has met. And Dr Chan has said Cuba has a right vision and direction in public health. Dr Chan warned medical doctors and journalists never to confront former Cuban president Fidel on medical issues unless they fully comprehended with matters they intended to talk about. �I have met presidents and prime ministers and I have to say Mr Fidel Castro�s understanding of public health is impressive,�\n(Nov 01 2009) - China Post : China to map out Africa strategy ...\nBEIJING � China will set the future direction of its burgeoning ties with Africa at a multinational forum in Egypt this month, Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi was quoted as saying on Sunday. Premier Wen Jiabao plans to attend the Nov. 8-9 Forum on China-Africa Cooperation in the resort of Sharm el-Sheikh, Yang said in an interview with the official Xinhua News Agency. No details were given, but at the last forum in 2006, China pledged to double assistance to Africa by 2009, provide $5 billion in preferential loans and credits, cancel debts and establish a $5 billion fund to encourage Chinese investment.\n(Oct 31 2009) - Denver Post : 'Focus on the Family' ends in Feb\nCOLORADO � Focus on the Family founder James C. Dobson will end his 32-year stint as the voice of the conservative Christian ministry at the end of February, the Colorado Springs-based nonprofit announced Friday. Focus on the Family's board and the 73-year-old Dobson, the folksy family therapist who evolved into a key frontman for the religious right, have agreed to a parting of the ways, ministry spokesman Gary Schneeberger said. Dobson's February exit from the airwaves probably doesn't spell his demise as an icon with political clout, experts say. And it isn't known whether his departure will help or hurt the ministry's efforts to attract new and younger families as listeners, readers and donors.\n(Oct 30 2009) - Washington Post : Dozens in Congress under ethics inquiry\nWASH D.C. � House ethics investigators have been scrutinizing the activities of more than 30 lawmakers and several aides in inquiries about issues including defense lobbying and corporate influence peddling, according to a confidential House ethics committee report prepared in July. The report appears to have been inadvertently placed on a publicly accessible computer network, and it was provided to The Washington Post by a source not connected to the congressional investigations. The committee said Thursday night that the document was released by a low-level staffer. The ethics committee is one of the most secretive panels in Congress, and its members and staff members sign oaths not to disclose any activities related to its past or present investigations.\n(Oct 29 2009) - Jakarta Post : Somali pirates hijack Thai fishing vessel\nSEYCHELLES � Somali pirates hijacked a Thai fishing vessel north of the Seychelles islands early on Thursday, the European Union naval force said. The Thai Union 3 reported it was under attack by pirates in two skiffs 200 miles (320 kilometers) north of the Seychelles and 650 miles (1050 kilometers) off the Somali coast, according to a press release issued by the headquarters for the EU's Operation Atalanta. A naval aircraft sent to the scene saw pirates aboard the vessel and two skiffs tied up behind it. The EU force said the ship is now heading toward Somalia.\n(Oct 28 2009) - Global Post : Vigilante justice spreads across Mexico\nMEXICO CITY � The five teenage boys slump against the wall of a dark house and eye the camcorder nervously. Suddenly, a fist enters the frame smacking one of the boys in the face. Then the barrel of an automatic rifle appears and the teenagers� expressions turn to terror. �Why are you here?� shouts a voice. �For robbing,� one of the boys mumbles. �You see. You were little rats and now look at you,� replies the interrogator. The torture video of the five alleged house burglars was posted on the internet last week. It is the latest sign of brutal vigilante justice spreading across Mexico.\n(Oct 27 2009) - Borneo Post : New bill makes govt seizure of US firms easier\nWASH D.C. - A bill to be introduced in Congress by a key ally of President Barack Obama would make it easier for the US government to seize control of troubled financial institutions that are considered too big to be allowed to fail, The New York Times reported late Sunday. Citing a senior administration official, the newspaper said the measure would be proposed this week by Representative Barney Frank, chairman of the House Financial Services Committee, after extensive consultations with Treasury Department officials. The legislation would make it easier for the government to throw out the financial company�s management, wipe out the shareholders and change the terms of existing loans held by the institution, the report said.\n(Oct 26 2009) - Palm Beach Post : Castro's sister worked with CIA ?\nFLORIDA � Juanita Castro, sister of Cuban rulers Fidel and Ra�l Castro, cooperated with the CIA in the 1960s - a time when the U.S. agency was plotting to assassinate Fidel and overthrow his revolution - according to an exclusive Univisi�n-Noticias 23 report on her newly published book. The report also revealed that Juanita, who broke with her brothers' revolution in 1964, hid government opponents in her home; that Fidel refused to visit her because the house was \"surrounded by worms;'' and that their mother often intervened with Ra�l to help Castro critics, jailed or fugitive. Described as the Castro family's best-kept secret in the weeks that preceded the release of her book Monday, Juanita's revelation of her link with the CIA came as a short teaser at the end of a Univisi�n-Noticias 23 report on the book broadcast at 11 p.m. Sunday.\n(Oct 25 2009) - Birmingham Post : Bishop tells Christians to wear crosses\nMIDLAND � A Senior church leader today laid down the gauntlet to the politically correct brigade � by calling on all Christians to wear crosses in the run-up to Christmas. The Anglican Bishop of Lichfield told followers to flaunt their faith by wearing crosses and fish badges, and not to be intimidated by complaining PC campaigners. The Rt Revd Jonathan Gledhill said Christians should wear the symbols of their faith with pride, and not fall victim to killjoy discrimination. �Christians should not be intimidated into putting away their neck crosses or lapel badges,� he said. �The Christian roots to our governance should not be nibbled away without discussion.\n(Oct 24 2009) - Bangkok Post : Asian nations look to 'lead world'\nTHAILAND � Asian leaders discussed plans at a major summit Saturday to \"lead the world\" by forming an EU-style community, while urging action from pariah states North Korea and Burma. The premiers of regional giants China and India also sought to foster unity on the sidelines of the regional summit in Thailand after months of trading barbs over long-standing territorial issues. Japanese Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama's proposal for an East Asian community that could take a leading role in global efforts to recover from the economic crisis took centre stage on Saturday. \"It would be meaningful for us to have the aspiration that East Asia is going to lead the world and with the various countries with different regimes cooperating with each other towards that perspective,\" Hatoyama, who took office last month, told the Bangkok Post newspaper.\n(Oct 23 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Global Agenda: Banking blues revisited\nISRAEL � The banking sector continues to be the focus of greatest concern with regard to the American and European economies - and with good reason. The financial sector - which encompassed institutions formally recognized to be banks, as well as \"nonbanks\" such as GMAC, GE Capital and other companies that conducted financial activities such as loans on a huge scale but were not licensed as banks - was the epicenter of the crisis that began in 2007. If and when this crisis reemerges, it will again begin as a financial upheaval and spread outward to the rest of the economy. It is thus only to be expected that the financial sector, which had been the leader and prime beneficiary of the boom, has also been its leading victim.\n(Oct 22 2009) - African Post : E.U. prepares sanctions against Guinea\nWEST AFRICA � The European Union is preparing to impose an arms embargo and visa ban to punish Guinea's military rulers for a massacre at a pro-democracy rally, an official said Thursday, in the latest effort to step up international pressure on the junta. The move comes days after West African leaders said they were placing an arms embargo on Guinea, where presidential guard troops opened fire on tens of thousands of demonstrators late last month. A Guinean human rights group says 157 people were killed, while the government said 57 died.\n(Oct 21 2009) - Yorkshire Post : Health food zealots destroying childhood ?\nYORKSHIRE � SCHOOLS across Yorkshire have been accused of \"destroying childhood\" after it emerged many have banned birthday cake under healthy eating rules. A survey carried out by the Yorkshire Post has revealed that 24 out of 47 schools did not allow cake and would not permit pupils to hold charity cake sales. The measures were criticised by politicians, children's fitness groups and education commentators who described them as \"ridiculous\" and said the regulations would make no difference in solving obesity problems.\n(Oct 20 2009) - Kyiv Post : Medvedev visits Serbia bearing $1 billion loan\nBELGRADE � Russian President Dmitry Medvedev has arrived in Serbia, bringing a $1-billion loan to the recession-hit country as Moscow seeks to expand its influence in the Balkans. The loan deal is to be signed during Medvedev's one-day visit, � the first-ever by a Russian president to Serbia. It adds to Russia's growing clout in Serbia, which relies on Moscow's diplomatic support in the U.N. Security Council to oppose the secession of Kosovo, Serbia's former province. Thousands of policemen were deployed on Belgrade streets and much of the Serbian capital was blocked to traffic amid tightened security for the visit.\n(Oct 19 2009) - Liberty Post : �bamaCare May be Unconstitutional\nWASH D.C. - President Obama's healthcare proposals face serious legal problems and scholars expect at least some provisions will be ruled unconstitutional. The legal vulnerability of ObamaCare -- assuming some version of healthcare reform is passed -- stems from the unprecedented powers it grants the federal government. Constitutional challenges could arise on several fronts: the government's power to regulate interstate commerce; privacy concerns related to doctor-patient interactions that have their origins in Roe v. Wade; constitutional restrictions on the federal government's authority to levy taxes; and the plan�s numerous clauses promoting racial preferences.\n(Oct 18 2009) - Christian Post : 1 Million Rally Against Abortion in Spain\nMADRID - An estimated one million people participated in a rally in Madrid Saturday to protest a proposed new law that would expand permission for abortion. The overwhelmingly Catholic country currently allows only abortion in the cases of rape, fetal abnormality, or when the mother�s physical or mental health is at risk. But the proposed law, introduced by socialist Prime Minister Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero, would allow abortion for any reason during the first 14 weeks of pregnancy. Furthermore, the bill is proposing to allow girls as young as 16 to have an abortion without parental consent. Under the theme �Every Life Counts,� protesters on Saturday called for the government to withdraw the bill from parliament.\n(Oct 17 2009) - Post Chronicle : Billionaire Arrested In Record Insider Trading NEW YORK - Galleon Group founder Raj Rajaratnam and five others were charged with engaging in the largest ever hedge fund insider-trading scheme, generating profits of more than $20 million over several years, U.S. prosecutors, the FBI and the SEC said Friday. Insider trading by hedge funds Galleon and New Castle and Intel's Intel Capital unit took place in shares of Hilton Hotels Corp, Google Inc, IBM, Advanced Micro Devices Inc and other stocks, according to two complaints filed in U.S. District Court in New York. All six accused have been arrested, a spokeswoman for the federal prosecutor's office in Manhattan said. The case could represent an important development in the government's enforcement of securities laws, she said.\n(Oct 16 2009) - New York Post : Hiram convicted of assault, keeps seat\nNEW YORK - State Sen. Hiram Monserrate is not a felon -- but he's still a jerk, a judge ruled yesterday. The freshman Democrat from Queens was convicted of misdemeanor assault for manhandling his girlfriend, Karla Giraldo, but was cleared on the top felony counts and one lesser charge of brutally slashing her face with a broken glass. Convictions on those charges would have landed him in jail and forced him out of office immediately. Monserrate, 42, a former cop who served in the City Council before heading to Albany this year, said he was relieved he wasn't convicted of a \"terrible accident\" involving a \"person I love.\"\n(Oct 15 2009) - Jakarta Post : Italy denies paying off Taliban ...\nITALY - The Italian government on Thursday denied a newspaper report that its secret services paid the Taliban thousands of dollars to keep an area in Afghanistan controlled by the Italians safe and did not tell allies about the payments. Premier Silvio Berlusconi's office called the report in the Times of London \"completely groundless.\" The defense minister denounced it as \"rubbish\" and said he wanted to sue the newspaper. The Times reported that Italy had paid \"tens of thousands of dollars\" to Taliban commanders and warlords in the Surobi district, east of the capital, Kabul. The newspaper cites Western military officials, including high-ranking officers at NATO, speaking on condition of anonymity.\n(Oct 14 2009) - Pittsburgh Post : Gold Soars to $1069.70\nNEW YORK - After piercing the sky-high, yet psychologically important $1,000-an-ounce barrier two weeks ago, the price of gold hit yet another record high yesterday. The surge in the spot price of gold to $1,069.70 an ounce yesterday comes at a time of international worry about the perceived weakness of the U.S. dollar, the vulnerability of the U.S. economy and the growing potential for runaway inflation. Gold closed yesterday at $1,064.20 an ounce. \"Gold is ultimately the only currency you can't print more of,\" said Natalie Dempster, head of investments for the World Gold Council in New York.\n(Oct 13 2009) - Copenhagen Post : UN slams Danish Justice Ministry\nDENMARK - UN representative describes the Justice Ministry�s decision to lower the age of criminal responsibility in Denmark from 16 to 14 as �misguided�, reports Politiken newspaper. While a 2007 UN report states that having the criminal age between 14 and 16 is �acceptable�, the ministry�s move goes directly against the recommendation of the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child that member countries should be working to raise the criminal age. Committee member Maria Herczog said there was no evidence that lowering the criminal age of responsibility reduced youth crime.\n(Oct 12 2009) - Frontier Post : Hostages freed as bloody siege ends\nISLAMABAD - The operation to eliminate terrorists holding 42 persons hostage, in MI office of the General Headquarters, was successfully completed early Sunday morning. Director General Inter Services Public Relations (ISPR) Major General Athar Abbas told media-persons that 39 hostages were freed safely in two-phased operation launched at dawn. Describing the operation as highly successful, the Major General said that the area has now been cleared of the militants. Nine terrorists were killed while their leader Aqeel alias Dr Usman was captured in injured condition. He, in his last ditch effort, tried to blow up the explosives that he carried injuring himself and some of the security personnel.\n(Oct 11 2009) - Gwinnett Daily Post : Groups organize more tax protests\nLAWRENCEVILLE - They listened once. Debbie Dooley hopes officials will listen again, as she organizes residents to speak out against a Gwinnett County property tax hike, the second proposal to come this year. It is back to work for members of FreedomWorks and Citizens for Responsible Government, who organized tea parties to protest a proposed 3 mill tax increase this spring, and believes residents have a responsibility to ask questions again. \"Far too often when government is denied a tax increase, they will try to cause pain for the taxpayer but cutting essential services and other services that the taxpayer considers a priority (retaliatory cuts),\" she wrote in a press release. \"They do this in hope that the taxpayer will agree to the tax increase.\"\n(Oct 10 2009) - China Post : AP, News Corp bosses say pay up\nOSLO � President Barack Obama won the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize today in a stunning decision designed to encourage his nascent initiatives to reduce nuclear arms, ease tensions with the Muslim world and replace unilateral American action with international diplomacy and cooperation. Nobel observers were shocked by the unexpected choice so early in the Obama presidency, which began less than two weeks before the Feb. 1 nomination deadline. White House press secretary Robert Gibbs said Obama woke up to the news a little before 6 a.m. EDT. The White House had no immediate comment on the announcement, which took the administration by surprise.\n(Oct 09 2009) - Denver Post : Obama wins Nobel Peace Prize : SAY WHAT ?\nOSLO � President Barack Obama won the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize today in a stunning decision designed to encourage his nascent initiatives to reduce nuclear arms, ease tensions with the Muslim world and replace unilateral American action with international diplomacy and cooperation. Nobel observers were shocked by the unexpected choice so early in the Obama presidency, which began less than two weeks before the Feb. 1 nomination deadline. White House press secretary Robert Gibbs said Obama woke up to the news a little before 6 a.m. EDT. The White House had no immediate comment on the announcement, which took the administration by surprise.\n(Oct 08 2009) - Jakarta Post : 305 earthquake victims still missing\nSUMATERA � As of Thursday, the Search and Rescue Team have yet to discover 305 victims, more than a week after a powerful earthquake shook West Sumatera. Col. Mulyono, Commander of Korem 032 Wirabraja of West Sumatera, said that 211 victims were located in Padang Pariaman while 54 others were in Padang. �In Agam regency, local and religious figures have agreed to cease the evacuation process even though 40 people remain missing,� Mulyono told Antara state news agency. As of yesterday, the death toll due to the quake stood at 739 people.\n(Oct 07 2009) - Global Post : Life, death and the Taliban\nBOSTON � It is the most fateful decision of Barack Obama�s presidency, and the most consequential foreign policy question America faces. The issue of whether Obama should escalate the U.S. troop presence in Afghanistan is coming to a head this week on the eight-year anniversary of the start of the war there. The war is faltering, corruption is rampant, an election plagued by fraud has further undercut the legitimacy of President Hamid Karzai, and the Taliban is gaining ground every week.\n(Oct 06 2009) - Bangkok Post : Terrorist attacks in Sungai Kolok\nTHAILAND - Motorcycle gunmen wearing paramilitary ranger uniforms shot and killed a policeman at a food shop on a bypass road in Sungai Kolok district of Narathiwat on Tuesday, and threw a bomb at a shop opposite, Police said. Many other people were wounded. They opened fire on the Sridaeng northeastern food shop about 12.30pm, killing a Sungai Padee policeman and wounding several others, police said. The attackers then threw a bomb into the opposite food shop, Pa Tim, wounding about 12 people.\n(Oct 05 2009) - Patriot Post : A War of Necessity; Not So Necessary\nWASH D.C. - \"This is not a war of choice,\" Barack Obama told the Veterans of Foreign Wars on Aug. 17. \"This is a war of necessity. Those who attacked America on 9-11 are plotting to do so again. If left unchecked, the Taliban insurgency will mean an even larger safe haven from which al-Qaida would plot to kill more Americans. So this is not only a war worth fighting. This is fundamental to the defense of our people.\" But that was nearly seven weeks ago.\n(Oct 04 2009) - Kyiv Post : Chavez-Russia ties spark arms race\nMOSCOW - US-Russia diplomacy is dominated by issues such as Iran, missile defence, and the post-Soviet republics. But the Obama administration must not ignore Moscow's role in facilitating the dangerous Venezuelan arms build-up and the nuclear ambitions of Hugo Chavez. On September 13, Venezuelan President Chavez announced triumphantly that Russia had agreed to extend his government a $US2.2 billion ($2.54bn) credit line for the purchase of sophisticated military hardware, including tanks, missiles, and air-defence systems. Chavez insisted these arms purchases \"are necessary for our national defence\". But US officials think otherwise - and with good reason\n(Oct 03 2009) - African Post : Rio wins hosting 2016 Olympics\nRIO DE JANEIRO - Like sweet, sultry samba music, Rio hit all the right notes. Chicago had Barack Obama. Tokyo had $4 billion in the bank. Madrid had powerful friends. But none of that mattered. Rio de Janeiro had the enchanting story � of about 400 million sports-mad people on a giant untapped and vibrant continent yearning, hoping, that the Olympics finally might come to them. And the International Olympic Committee was hooked. On a chilly Danish evening of high drama, the IOC on Friday sent the games of the 31st Olympiad to Brazil's bustling, fun-loving but crime-ridden city of beaches and mountains, romance and slums.\n(Oct 02 2009) - Liberty Post : Montana AG launches probe of jail deal\nMONTANA - Attorney general launched an investigation Thursday into a California company that wants to take over an empty jail in the rural city of Hardin, following revelations that the company's lead figure is a convicted felon with a history of fraud. Michael Hilton, who formed Santa Ana, Calif.-based American Police Force in March, came to Hardin last month promising to fill the city's never-used jail and build a large military and law enforcement training center. Hilton has a decades-long track record of fraudulent activities and spent several years in a California prison on grand theft charges. A native of Montenegro, he uses at least 17 aliases. { More }\n(Oct 01 2009) - Yemen Post : V.P.'s brother escapes assassination\nYEMEN - Local sources from Abbyan told the Yemen Post that head of the Yemen's political security police in the south and brother of the vice president, Nasser Mansour Hadi, survived Wednesday night an assassination attempt when men alleged to be affiliates of Tareq Al-Fadhli- a tribal leader who switched allegiance to the southern mobility movement last year- opened fire on his car in Zinjibar of Abbyan governorate. According to the same sources, two security officers were wounded in the incident, one of whom is now hospitalized.\n(Sept 30 2009) - National Post : Quake brings down houses in Indonesia\nPADANG - A major earthquake of magnitude 7.6 struck off the city of Padang on the coast of Indonesia's Sumatra island on Wednesday, damaging houses, bringing down bridges and starting fires, a witness said. It was unclear if there were any casualties. The quake was felt around the region, with some high-rise buildings in the city state of Singapore, 275 miles (440 km) to the northeast, evacuating their staff. A regional tsunami warning was issued, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre. Japan said no tsunami was expected there.\n(Sept 29 2009) - Christian Post : Rampaging Typhoon hits Vietnam\nHANOI - Typhoon Ketsana roared into central Vietnam on Tuesday, killing at least 23 people as it brought flooding and winds of up to 90 mph, disaster officials reported. Ketsana, which left more than 200 dead across the northern Philippines as a weaker tropical storm, forced some 200,000 Vietnamese locals to evacuate from its path. �It's very windy and trees have already blown down,\" reported Le Van Duong, World Vision's Relief and Disaster Mitigation Coordinator, from the city of Danang, which is predicted to be the eye of the storm. \"We have seen the evacuation of 3,000 families from our project areas to safer places, including schools and we have already distributed noodle packs to 700 families,\" he added.\n(Sept 28 2009) - Post Chronicle : Audit The Feds - Bigger Than ACORN\nWASH D.C. � For the first time, a hearing is being held on Rep. Ron Paul's Federal Reserve Transparency Act of 2009 (H.R. 1207) by the House Committee on Financial Services. Grass-roots pressure has been credited with forcing the hearing into what has happened to trillions of dollars supposedly spent by the Federal Reserve on the stabilization of the financial system. In prepared testimony, Thomas E. Woods, Jr. of the Ludwig von Mises Institute offers his strong support for the bill and declares, \"...if our monetary system were really as strong, robust, and beyond criticism as its cheerleaders claim, why does it need to rely so heavily on public ignorance? How can it be a sound banking system that depends on keeping the public in the dark about the condition of its financial institutions?\"\n(Sept 27 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Germans vote amid terror threats\nGERMANY � Germans decide Sunday whether to return the nation's first woman chancellor to a second term in office following a lackluster campaign centered largely on economic issues and a rash of last-minute threats by Islamic extremists. Chancellor Angela Merkel is hoping enough of the nation's 62.2 million eligible voters will support her conservative Christian Democratic Party to give them a solid enough standing to form a center-right coalition with their top partners, the Free Democrats.\n(Sept 26 2009) - Jakarta Post : New G20 framework benefits RI\nINDONESIA � Indonesia is upbeat the G20 Summit, which has produced a number of breakthroughs to maintain the recovery of the global economy and prevent further crisis, will strengthen its resilience in the face of the economic downturn. President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono told a press briefing after the summit, which concluded here Friday, that Indonesia would benefit from the tighter international financial standards, which will reduce the negative impacts of the global financial system on the country�s domestic economy.\n(Sept 25 2009) - Palm Beach Post : Manson follower Susan Atkins dies\nLOS ANGELES � Susan Atkins, a follower of cult leader Charles Manson whose remorseless witness stand confession to killing pregnant actress Sharon Tate in 1969 shocked the world, has died. She was 61 and had been suffering from brain cancer. Atkins' death comes less than a month after a parole board turned down the terminally ill woman's last chance at freedom on Sept. 2. She was brought to the hearing on a gurney and slept through most of it. California Department of Corrections spokeswoman Terry Thornton said that Atkins died late Thursday night. She had been diagnosed with brain cancer in 2008, had a leg amputated and was given only a few months to live.\n(Sept 24 2009) - Yorkshire Post : Guidance on assisted suicide ...\nYORKSHIRE � Relatives who help a loved one to die will escape prosecution providing their actions are not malicious, after a landmark battle by a Yorkshire woman. But the new guidelines on assisted suicide announced by the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) yesterday are no guarantee against prosecution and parents who help a child under 18 take their own life are more likely to face charges.\n(Sept 23 2009) - Copenhagen Post : Experts: PM will postpone euro vote\nDENMARK � Prime Minister Lars L�kke Rasmussen will in all likelihood not hold a referendum before a new national election on Denmark adopting the euro currency, despite saying in May he wished to do so. According to Danske Bank�s latest figures, support for the euro has dipped to 48.9 percent while 47.6 percent are against adopting it. In November, support for the currency had reached its highest point in three years, with 53.4 percent in favour of it replacing the krone.\n(Sept 22 2009) - China Post : Zelaya's return reignites Honduras crisis\nHONDURAS � The daring return of deposed President Manuel Zelaya has thrust Honduras back onto the world stage and posed a sharp challenge to interim leaders determined to hold new elections without him after a June coup. Thousands of Zelaya supporters defied a curfew and spent the night surrounding Brazil's embassy, where the leader remained holed up Tuesday, a day after slipping back into the country.\n(Sept 21 2009) - Pittsburgh Post : Closings prevail for G-20 summit\nPITTSBURGH - As world leaders and protesters descend on the Golden Triangle during this week's G-20 summit, numerous government offices, bank branches, schools, cultural attractions and more will close. Trains and buses will be re-routed, and Downtown traffic will be severely restricted. Major closings and information about changes to public transportation and other services are listed below. Several government offices will close from Sept. 23-25, including the federal courthouse, the PennDOT drivers' license and photo center in the State Office Building,\n(Sept 20 2009) - Global Post : Sticky U.S.-Japan issues loom ...\nTOKYO - Japan's new prime minister, Yukio Hatoyama, faces his first diplomatic test this week when he meets President Barack Obama in New York as the two allies grapple with disagreements that investors fear could damage ties. Hatoyama will also seek a high profile for Japan at a U.N. climate change conference by pledging ambitious targets for cuts in greenhouse gas emissions and offering more environmental help to developing nations.\n(Sept 19 2009) - Bangkok Post : Suthep: No need for martial law\nTHAILAND -- The martial law will not be invoked to deal with the People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) protesters near the Thai-Cambodian border in Si Sa Ket province, Deputy Prime Minister Suthep Thaugsuban insisted on Saturday. Mr Suthep, who is in charged of security affairs, said he had ordered deputy police chief Thanee Somboonsap to negotiate with the PAD leaders, as people in Si Sa Ket may retaliate against the yellow-shirted group after one of the villagers was injured from a gunshot. \"Pol Gen Thanee is currently negotiating with the PAD leaders, asking them to return home before tonight as the angry villagers may hit back at the protesters,\" he said.\n(Sept 18 2009) - Denver Post : Homegrown plot worries feds most\nCOLORADO -- While the FBI quizzed a Colorado man on Thursday for a second time in a multistate anti-terrorism probe, security officials and civil-rights leaders began parsing a once-covert case that has raised major fears. FBI agents \"do not know of a specific target or specific time\" of any attack that might have been planned, said Frances Townsend, Homeland Security adviser to President George W. Bush from 2003 through 2007, who said she had conferred with \"senior people in the FBI.\" The FBI stayed officially mum � and produced no warrants for searches of Afghanistan native Najibullah Zazi's home and that of his aunt and uncle in Aurora.\n(Sept 17 2009) - Frontier Post : Al-Qaeda calls for foreign kidnappings\nSYDNEY -- A senior al Qaeda official has called on the Taliban to kidnap foreign civilians in Afghanistan to force U.S.-led forces to negotiate prisoner exchanges, a former Australian police counter-terrorism analyst said. The directive has been issued by veteran al Qaeda adviser Mustafa Hamid, also known as Abu Walid al Masri, and stems from the U.S. detentions in Guantanamo Bay, Leah Farrall told Reuters on Wednesday. Farrall, who had worked for the Australian Federal Police, said she had found the al Qaeda internet document, written in late July, while completing a PhD on al Qaeda at Monash University in Australia.\n(Sept 16 2009) - Puntland Post : Somali rebels call for reinforcements\nMOGADISHU -- Somalia's al Shabaab insurgents called Wednesday for more foreign militants to join them in the failed Horn of Africa state after U.S. forces killed one of the region's most wanted al Qaeda suspects. The U.S. special forces operation that killed Kenyan-born Saleh Ali Saleh Nabhan, 28, in remote southern Somalia Monday has triggered an angry response from Islamist rebels fighting the nation's U.N.-backed government. The raid likely gained Washington valuable counter-terrorism intelligence, but risked further inflaming anti-Western opinion in a country of growing concern, experts say.\n(Sept 15 2009) - Liberty Post : Obama Lied, His Credibility Died\nWASH D.C. -- Last week President Obama threw a universal healthcare Hail Mary. The call? Incomplete pass. His much anticipated address to a joint session of Congress promised to finally � for real, this time � provide details about his �healthcare reform plan� (the government takeover of about 20 percent of America�s once free market). Instead, the President regurgitated the same worn-out talking points, tired platitudes and baseless rhetoric he�s been spouting for months, generating more confusion than clarity.\n(Sept 14 2009) - National Post : Doctors protect pay from swine flu\nCANADA -- As they prepare to treat a possible onslaught of pandemic flu cases this fall, doctors across the country are also taking steps to shield their incomes from the ravages of the new virus and its potential fallout. Several medical associations are in talks with provincial governments over special fees or subsidies to compensate physicians in the event of an H1N1-flu emergency that disrupts their practices -- and hobbles their ability to bill for services. Some are also eyeing new fees that would ensure doctors are reimbursed for a surge of extra patients.\n(Sept 13 2009) - New York Post : Charlie in rental di$order\nNEW YORK -- Rep. Charles Rangel reported no rental income for eight years on his rundown Harlem row house, even though public records show tenants were living there. The powerful chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee said he received nothing from 1993 to 2000 on the six-unit building, according to federal financial disclosure forms. But one current tenant told The Post she had lived at the building for 20 years -- and paid rent during that period, {and} ... His nephew, Christopher Rangel, still lives there.\n(Sept 12 2009) - Washington Post : GOP Sees Protest As an Opportunity\nWASH D.C. -- With tens of thousands { More Like Two Million } of conservative protesters expected to gather in Washington on Saturday for a \"Taxpayer March on D.C.,\" Republican officials are attempting to capitalize on a movement that lately has galvanized anti-Obama activists more effectively than the party's elected leaders in Washington. Searching for ways to compete with Democrats after two consecutive electoral drubbings, Republicans have moved past earlier uncertainty about the protesters, who organized nationwide rallies this summer that have threatened Democratic health-care plans and eroded President Obama's standing with the public.\n(Sept 11 2009) - Christian Post : National Prayer Events Mark 9/11\nAMERICA -- In every state in America, Christians will gather at county courthouses on Friday � the eighth anniversary of the 9/11 attacks � to pray for their community and for the spiritual condition of the nation. Participants of the Cry Out America prayer gatherings will meet at courthouses at noon to remember the terror attacks that killed 2,751 people and to pray for a spiritual revival to occur. �Our stated goal for Cry Out America is to claim this day of prayer to fully awaken America to return to the Lord and to mark this significant day in its history with powerful prayer for every state, every county, and every heart,� stated Billy Wilson, executive chairman for Awakening America, the group organizing the prayer gatherings.\n(Sept 10 2009) - Jerusalem Post : US Jews push Obama to act on Iran\nWASH D.C. -- Several hundred Jewish leaders and activists are planning to arrive here Thursday to urge top Obama administration officials and US congressmen to take action on Iran. They are pushing for Congress to quickly pass an Iran sanctions bill sponsored by US House Foreign Affairs Committee Chairman Howard Berman and otherwise take serious economic and diplomatic steps to pressure Iran to abandon its pursuit of nuclear capabilities that threaten Israel.\n(Sept 09 2009) - India Post : Chinese couples flock to get married on 9/9/9\nBEIJING -- Thousands of young Chinese are flocking to get married believing that the date 9/9/9 will guarantee a life on cloud nine for them. Though Wednesdays are not the popular days in China to enter wedlock, but an estimated 10,000 couples are rushing to get hitched as \"nine, nine, nine\" or \"Jiu, Jiu\" in Chinese also means for a long time. The couples believe that the date considered extremely lucky in Chinese society will bring longevity to their wedding and life, China Daily reported. Hundreds of people were quoted as saying, \"Today has three nines symbolizing extreme good luck.\"\n(Sept 08 2009) - Jakarta Post : Japan's account surplus down 19.4%\nJAPAN -- Japan's current account surplus in July fell 19.4 percent from a year earlier as exports tumbled amid a slowing recovery in the global economy, the finance ministry said Tuesday. The current account surplus, Japan's broadest measure of trade with the rest of the world, was 1.27 trillion yen ($13.6 billion), the first year-on-year fall in two months, the ministry said. Exports in July dropped 37.6 percent to 4.55 trillion yen, marking the 10th consecutive year-on-year decline. \"Unless the U.S. economy fully recovers, we will not see a turnaround in exports,\" he said.\n(Sept 07 2009) - Patriot Post : Obama Cannot Escape Hard Choices ...\nWASH D.C. -- \"Very active.\" That's what White House aides say Barack Obama is going to be this month. That's probably an understatement. Obama faces September deadlines on three issues, on each of which he could get himself in political trouble, not only with those on the right and center but also those on the political left. Only one of those issues is domestic: health care.\n(Sept 06 2009) - Kyiv Post : Russia's Patriarch Becoming More Political\nRUSSIA -- When Patriarch Kirill visited Russia's largest shipyard in late August, he was greeted with full military honors. As a brass band played at the Northern Shipyard in Severodvisnk, the leader of the Russian Orthodox Church strolled past a row of sailors in dress uniform, boarded a nuclear submarine, and presented the crew with an icon of the Mother of God. He later said Russia's defense capabilities need to be bolstered by Orthodox Christian values. \"You should not be ashamed of going to church and teaching the Orthodox faith to your children,\" the patriarch told the Severodvinsk workers. \"Then we shall have something to defend with our missiles.\"\n(Sept 05 2009) - Yorkshire Post : Leaders agree to stimulus packages\nENGLAND -- Finance ministers from the world's leading economies have agreed to keep exceptional anti-recession measures in place for the time being. They are also backing new controls to curb bankers' pay and bonuses, sources close to G20 talks in London said. But European proposals for a cap on bonuses in the financial sector look set to be kicked into the long grass, after Britain and the US resisted the idea as unenforceable.\n(Sept 04 2009) - Post Chronicle : Pfizer's Fine: $2.3 Bl + Criminal Plea\nWASH D.C. -- Pfizer Inc agreed on Wednesday to plead guilty to a U.S. criminal charge relating to promotion of its now-withdrawn Bextra pain medicine and will pay a record $2.3 billion to settle allegations it improperly marketed 13 medicines. The world's biggest drugmaker was slapped with the huge fines after being deemed a repeat offender in pitching drugs to patients and doctors for unapproved conditions.\n(Sept 03 2009) - Yemen Post : Police capture ring smuggling diesel for rebels SAADA -- The police have arrested a three-member ring that has been smuggling diesel for the Houthi rebels in Saada. According to the Interior Ministry's Media Center, the arrests took place in the Bani Al-Harith, Sana'a while trying to traffic diesel for the rebels who have been fighting the government forces in the northern parts for years. The people were aged 25-55. Among the arrested was a filling station owner whose filing station is located at the Hatarish district north of Sana'a.\n(Sept 02 2009) - China Post : 7.0 Quake strikes Indonesian island\nJAKARTA -- A powerful earthquake caused buildings to sway in Indonesia's capital Wednesday, damaging buildings and prompting a regional tsunami alert, witnesses and media said. The quake struck at 2:55 p.m. (0755GMT) on the southern coast of the main island of Java with a preliminary magnitude of 7.4. It had a depth of around 40 miles (60 kilometers), the U.S. Geological Survey said. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center said it was powerful enough to cause a local tsunami, but there were no immediate reports of high waves.\n(Sept 01 2009) - Global Post : Return of the dictators ?\nCOLOMBIA -- Across Latin America, presidents are pulling strings and pressuring lawmakers to change their constitutions to allow for multiple presidential terms � a trend that began in the 1990s. Presidential re-election is a controversial issue in Latin America because many nations were ruled by abusive military dictators who refused to leave office peacefully. In addition, the courts, the media and other institutions that serve as checks on presidential power were often weak.\n(Aug 31 2009) - Huffington Post : FDIC Offers Money to New Banks ?\nNEW YORK -- As the Wall Street Journal reports this morning, in what are called a \"loss-share\" agreements, buyers of failed banks are getting billions of dollars in government guarantees to snatch up the bank's bad assets. To entice buyers, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation is offering to cover around 80 percent of the losses associated with buying a bank. The result, the WSJ points out, is a massive subsidy to the private equity industry, and a huge risk to the American taxpayer. As bank failures have mounted this year, much has been made of the FDIC's dwindling Deposit Insurance Fund.\n(Aug 30 2009) - Denver Post : Seniors fret on health reform\nCOLORADO -- Politicians are finding out just how tricky it is to seek seniors' support for health reform when those on Medicare are precisely the Americans happiest with an insurance stalemate. Seniors in the past two weeks have become the prime battleground in the reform fight, as various forces vie for their endorsement amid fears about threats to Medicare and a pricey expansion of government.\n(Aug 29 2009) - Bangkok Post : North Korea caught smuggling arms\nU.N. -- The United Arab Emirates has seized a ship carrying North Korean weapons bound for Iran in violation of UN sanctions, a diplomatic source said Friday. The diplomat, speaking to the AFP news agency on condition of anonymity, confirmed that UAE government officials had informed the UN Security Council's sanctions committee, which is responsible for implementing sanctions on Pyongyang. \"It is an issue that is being processed by the committee,\" said the source, who declined further comment on details on the weapons. The UAE mission to the United Nations also declined comment on the case.\n(Aug 28 2009) - Liberty Post : Obama's Justice Dept smells Rotten\nWASH D.C. -- Something is starting to stink in the Obama Justice Department. Just the other day I told you about the CIA investigations that have been ordered by Attorney General Eric Holder. Earlier in the year we had the same Attorney General dismiss a case involving the Black Panthers intimidating voters during the 2008 election. Now we get this. The Obama Justice Department has killed the investigation into New Mexico Gov.\n(Aug 27 2009) - Pittsburgh Post : Message of faith to be sent\nPITTSBURGH -- Nancy Lee Cochran, who lives and works Downtown, has rejected the pleas of relatives to flee during the G-20. Instead, she wrote a prayer guide for the economic summit and is sending it to 3,000 area churches. \"Many of my neighbors are fearful and frustrated. I try to remind them that this summit has global implications, particularly for the poor and vulnerable,\" said Ms. Cochran, whose prayer guide can be ordered by calling 412-281-7400. \"I will not be on the streets as a demonstrator, but I am an advocate. I will be praying passionately for daily bread and forgiveness and loving care for all.\"\n(Aug 26 2009) - New York Post : Ted Kennedy has died\nNEW YORK -- Ted Kennedy, the liberal lion of the US Senate -- and the youngest and last surviving brother of the legendary political dynasty heralded as a modern-day Camelot -- died at his home in Hyannis Port, Mass., late last night after a yearlong battle with brain cancer. He was 77. With the assassination of his beloved older brothers, President John F. Kennedy in 1963 and New York Sen. Robert Kennedy in 1968, he was thrust to the forefront of an immensely powerful political family. But his political ascendancy beyond the Senate was always checked by his penchant for wild excess.\n(Aug 25 2009) - Palm Beach Post : Wrongly incarcerated denied comp.\nSARASOTA -- A judge has ruled that a Florida man who was wrongly incarcerated for 20 years won't receive compensation from the state. Administrative Law Judge Linda M. Rigot said James Joseph Richardson had to prove he did not poison his seven children with pesticide, a crime he was convicted of in 1967. She said Richardson's attorney had to establish \"actual innocence.\"\n(Aug 24 2009) - National Post : Parliament recalled over bomber�s release\nEDINBURGH -- Scotland's justice minister faced an angry grilling from lawmakers Monday over his decision to free the convicted Lockerbie bomber -- and the ensuing furious backlash from the United States. Scotland's parliament has been recalled for an emergency debate on Justice Secretary Kenny MacAskill's decision last week to release Abdelbaset Ali Mohmet al-Megrahi, who then flew home to a hero's welcome in his Libyan homeland. A little-known figure before the decision, Mr. MacAskill's now finds himself at the centre of a growing international storm which could damage Edinburgh's ties with Washington -- and could even topple the Scottish government.\n(Aug 23 2009) - Jerusalem Post : 'Swedish officials may be unwelcome'\nISRAEL -- Officials were active on all fronts Sunday in denouncing an article in a Swedish newspaper that accused IDF soldiers of harvesting the organs of Palestinians, and the Swedish government's reluctance to condemn the claims. Ministers at the weekly cabinet meeting expressed outrage at the article and Finance Minister Yuval Steinitz went so far as to say that those who refuse to condemn such libel \"may not be welcome in the state of Israel.\"\n(Aug 22 2009) - Gwinnett Daily Post : Effort seeks input on service problem\nLAWRENCEVILLE -- Citizen outcry to a proposed property tax increase ultimately led the Gwinnett County Board of Commissioners to cut a range of county-provided services. Those service cuts ended up leaving some of those same residents upset. To try to thwart something similar from happening next year, the county this week announced an effort - Engage Gwinnett - that will try to get the citizenry involved in determining how to provide an adequate amount of county government services while also trying to figure out how to pay for those services over the course of the next five years.\n(Aug 21 2009) - African Post : Out of Africa and into China ...\nCHINA -- Sweating heavily and yelling at Chinese police officers, a group of Nigerians dragged the lifeless body of an injured compatriot up to a Guangzhou police station, blood dripping from a deep gash on his head. Around them, a crowd of over one hundred Africans chanted, some holding sticks as others smashed potted plants and blocked traffic, demanding justice from the Chinese police after officers chased the man out of a high-rise window in a tightening security crackdown on illegal overstayers in the city this year.\n(Aug 20 2009) - Huffington Post : Common Sense for 2009\nU.S.A. -- The American government {which we once called our government} has been taken over by Wall Street, the mega-corporations and the super-rich. They are the ones who decide our fate. It is this group of powerful elites, the people President Franklin D. Roosevelt called \"economic royalists,\" who choose our elected officials -- indeed, our very form of government. Both Democrats and Republicans dance to the tune of their corporate masters. In America, corporations do not control the government. In America, corporations are the government.\n(Aug 19 2009) - Patriot Post : Whose Medical Decisions ? : Part II\nU.S.A. -- When famed bank robber Willie Sutton was asked why he robbed banks, he said: \"Because that's where the money is.\"For the same reason, it is as predictable as the sunrise that medical care for the elderly will be cut back under a government-controlled medical system. Because that's where the money is. So long as my insurance company and I are paying for it, it is nobody else's business what my medical expenses are. But once the government is involved, everything is their business.\n(Aug 18 2009) - Post Chronicle : Cocaine Laced Money ?\nILLINOIS -- Study leader Yuegang Zuo of the University of Massachusetts in Dartmouth tested banknotes from more than 30 cities in five countries and found the United States and Canada had the highest contamination rates, with an average of between 85 percent and 90 percent. China and Japan had the lowest, between 12 percent and 20 percent contamination, Zuo said. Zuo said a similar study two years ago found 67 percent of U.S. bills contained traces of cocaine. Paper money can become contaminated with cocaine during drug deals and snorting cocaine through rolled bills. Contamination spreads to other money while in currency-counting machines.\n(Aug 17 2009) - Jakarta Post : Suicide truck bomb kills 20 in Russia\nRUSSIA -- A suicide bomber exploded a truck at a police station in Russia's North Caucasus on Monday, killing at least 20 people and wounding about 60 others, officials said. The bombing was the deadliest in months in the restive southern region, denting Kremlin claims that the area was stabilizing after 15 years of separatist fighting in Chechnya and violence in surrounding provinces. The attacker rammed the gates of the Nazran city police headquarters, in Ingushetia province, and detonated his explosives as police officers were lining up for a morning check, said Svetlana Gorbakova of the regional branch of the Investigative Committee of the Russian Prosecutor General's office.\n(Aug 16 2009) - Frontier Post : Cairo reacts to Obama with perfume\nCAIRO -- �This new perfume sir, its name Obama�, said the perfumer in old Cairo with a smile. His marketing gimmick was no surprise. Egypt is suffering from a strong case of Obamania. Intellectuals and ordinary people need little encouragement to talk about President Obama�s speech. While some are cynical and skeptical, optimism and hope is generally the order of the day. Since President Obama�s speech various intellectual forums in Cairo have held seminars and symposia to discuss and debate the content and the intent of his speech, which both admirers and critics acknowledge was path breaking in substance as well as in style.\n(Aug 15 2009) - China Post : VILLAGE BURIED IN MUD\nSIAOLIN -- Yang Chiu-hsing, magistrate of Kaohsiung, said yesterday he is considering turning the mudslide-destroyed village of Siaolin into a memorial park. �I think we should keep Siaolin as a park in memory of those we believe were buried alive,� said the magistrate of the southern Taiwan county, who opposes the rebuilding of the village. One reason for Yang's consideration to create the memorial park is that most of the residents do not want more excavation of tens of thousands of tons of mud to locate the approximately 200 people buried and presumed dead.\n(Aug 14 2009) - Christian Post : India on list for religious freedom violations WASH D.C. -- A U.S. government agency's decision to place India on a list of potential religious freedom violators is \"regrettable,\" said India's foreign ministry. On Wednesday, the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) had officially placed India on its �Watch List\" - a list countries that the agency says require close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government. Specifically, USCIRF said India earned the Watch List designation due to the disturbing increase in communal violence against religious minorities� specifically Christians in Orissa in 2008 and Muslims in Gujarat in 2002 � and the \"largely inadequate response from the Indian government to protect the rights of religious minorities.\"\n(Aug 13 2009) - Denver Post : Three-strikes laws get a second glance\nSEATTLE -- Stevan Dozier was 25 when he punched a woman in the face to snatch her purse, part of the cash-for-crack crime wave that plagued big cities during the 1980s. Over the next eight years, he would be arrested three more times for the same thing. But just before his last conviction, Washington in 1993 became the first state to pass a law requiring criminals with three serious felony convictions to spend the rest of their lives in prison. Half of the states now have similar laws. Dozier, who never caused a serious injury or used a weapon, disappeared behind bars without a chance for parole � along with more than 290 other Washington inmates convicted under three-strikes.\n(Aug 12 2009) - Bangkok Post : Gen Prawit won�t step down\nTHAILAND -- Defence Minister Gen Prawit Wongsuwon will not quit his post as he understands that the prime minister has the authority to assign police chief Pol Gen Phatcharawat Wongsuwon to perform duties in the far South, Gen Noppadon Inthapanya, secretary general of the defence minister reaffirmed on Wednesday. Gen Noppadon said Gen Prawit was satisfied with the premier�s solution to the current problem in the national police bureau and will continue working as the minister of defence.\n(Aug 11 2009) - Copenhagen Post : New notes issued today\nDENMARK -- The first of Denmark�s new currency series will be making its appearance in wallets everywhere today. If your money doesn�t look quite right today, don�t worry, the new 50 kroner note hits the streets today. The new fifty carries an image of Sallingsund Bridge on one side of the note and of Skarpsalling karret, a stone-age artefact, on the other side. The new 50 is the first of the new notes to be introduced. The central bank will gradually introduce the remaining denominations until 2011.\n(Aug 10 2009) - Palm Beach Post : Air Force Tracking Twitter ?\nWASH D.C. -- As the Pentagon warns of the security risks posed by social networking sites, newly released government documents show the military also uses these Internet tools to monitor and react to coverage of high-profile events. The Air Force tracked the instant messaging service Twitter, video carrier YouTube and various blogs to assess the huge public backlash to the Air Force One flyover of the Statue of Liberty this spring, according to the documents. And while the attempts at damage control failed - \"No positive spin is possible,\" one PowerPoint chart reads - the episode opens a window into the tactics for operating in a boundless digital news cycle. This new terrain has slippery slopes, though, for the military.\n(Aug 09 2009) - Norway Post : NATO wants more troops for Afghanistan\nNORWAY -- NATO's new Secretary General, Danish Anders Fogh Rasmussen insists that more troops are needed in Afghanistan if the alliance is to succeed. Norwegian politician Erling Folkvord representing Red is critical to Norway's presence. Folkvord, standing for the small left wing party Red in the upcoming election, has just visited Afghanistan, and is strongly opposed to the Norwegian military presence in the country. He claims the Norwegian government is hoodwinking the Norwegian people, and that after the visit he is more convinced than ever that Norwegian troops must be pulled out of Afghanistan.\n(Aug 08 2009) - National Post : Indonesia believes top militant dead ...\nKEDU -- Indonesian police shot dead a man suspected to be leading Islamic militant Noordin Mohammad Top after an 18-hour siege in Central Java and planned to confirm his identity using DNA tests, police said on Saturday. Police in a separate raid foiled a plot to attack Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's residence outside the capital, Jakarta, with a car bomb, officials said. Malaysian-born Top is a prime suspect in last month's near simultaneous suicide attacks on Jakarta's JW Marriott and Ritz-Carlton hotels which killed nine people and wounded 53.\n(Aug 07 2009) - Liberty Post : Caltrans settles free-speech law ...\nSAN CLEMENTE -- State transportation officials will have to pay $157,500 in legal fees and damages after settling a federal lawsuit in which the San Diego Minutemen claimed their first amendment rights were violated, the anti-illegal immigration group announced today. Caltrans and the minutemen group reached a settlement Monday over the Adopt-a-Highway volunteer cleanup program on a stretch of I-5, south of San Clemente and near a Border Patrol checkpoint.\n(Aug 06 2009) - Pittsburgh Post : Lawmakers pay themselves first\nHARRISBURG -- State workers will have to wait another week to be paid for days they have worked since July 1, but House Democratic lawmakers have checks in hand. They paid themselves first. Their paychecks were issued Tuesday as they voted on a $27.3 billion budget, which Gov. Ed Rendell yesterday chopped to $11 billion through line-items vetoes. He left intact funding for such items as public safety, state parks and employees' pay. Some 77,000 state workers will have to wait a week or more for their checks to be processed, while lawmakers have their money.\n(Aug 05 2009) - Patriot Post : Tea Party-Bashers Gone Wild\nNEW YORK -- The activist Left can't stand competition. Last week in Long Island, N.Y., opponents of the Democrats' government health care takeover legislation outnumbered Obama supporters 10 to one. The Tea Party activists toted American flags and signs that read \"WE CAN'T AFFORD FREE HEALTH CARE\" -- prompting one foe to stalk into the peaceful crowd, gesticulate wildly and shout unintelligible threats at the top of his lungs.\n(Aug 04 2009) - Kentucky Post : Slick Willy's secret trip to No Korea\nWASH D.C. -- The White House is adopting a tight-lipped stance on former President Clinton's visit to North Korea to press for the release of two jailed Americans arrested in March. A terse statement from Press Secretary Robert Gibbs on Tuesday morning said the Obama administration would have no public comment \"while this solely private mission to secure the release of the two Americans is on the ground.\" The statement also said, \"We do not want to jeopardize the success of former President Clinton's mission.\"\n(Aug 03 2009) - Financial Post : Greying Canada to turn job market upside-down CANADA -- The global recession has done its share of damage to the Canadian job market, with nearly 370,000 employees shed from payrolls since last October. For workers lucky enough to keep their jobs, many have seen pay and benefits reduced. But the job market and compensation packages will recover, partly due to a better economy, but also because of an ageing population. Even those sectors hit hard in the recession know it.\n(Aug 02 2009) - Post Chronicle : Hundreds Arrested In Malaysia Protest\nMALAYSIA -- Riot police in Kuala Lumpur fired tear gas and water cannons at thousands of demonstrators protesting Malaysian security law, authorities said. Police arrested nearly 600 of the estimated 10,000 protesters Saturday, the Malaysia Star reported Sunday. Chanting \"down with the government,\" the throng of mostly ethnic Malays marched across the city to demand Malaysia rescind the Internal Security Act, The Times of London reported. In the name of national security, the ISA allows imprisonment without trial.\n(Aug 01 2009) - Frontier Post : Problems rebuilding war-torn Afghanistan\nWASH D.C. -- US agencies handling reconstruction work in Afghanistan lack direction and communication, problems that risk wasting US tax dollars, says the special inspector general overseeing tens of billions of dollars worth of projects. Inspector General Arnold Fields says that coordination between the Americans and the Afghans is poor, leading to a disjointed effort and slowing progress on critically needed improvements to the country�s transportation, agriculture and energy production.\n(Jul 31 2009) - China Post : No Korea quiet on seized So Korean fishermen\nSEOUL, South Korea -- North Korea was silent Friday about four South Korean fishermen seized off the east coast after their boat strayed into northern waters a day earlier at a time of tension on the divided peninsula. The 29-ton boat drifted into North Korean waters Thursday after its satellite navigation system apparently malfunctioned. North Korean soldiers towed the vessel to the eastern port of Jangjon, just north of the border, South Korean officials said Friday.\n(Jul 30 2009) - Huffington Post : Obama's Military Spying on U.S. Citizens\nWASHINGTON -- Anti-war activists in Olympia, Wash., have exposed U.S. Army spying and infiltration of their groups, as well as intelligence gathering by the U.S. Air Force, the federal Capitol Police and the Coast Guard. The infiltration appears to be in direct violation of the Posse Comitatus Act preventing U.S. military deployment for domestic law enforcement, and may strengthen congressional demands for a full-scale investigation of U.S. intelligence activities, like the Church Committee hearings of the 1970s.\n(Jul 29 2009) - Washington Post : H1N1 Vaccine contains 'Mercury'\nAUSTRAILIA -- Although CDC experts originally suggested making age 18 the ceiling of the healthy-young-people target group, the committee raised the age to 24 to include college students. Some of the vaccine will be stored in multi-dose vials containing thimerosal, an antibacterial additive that contains mercury . But there will also be single-dose syringes without thimerosal, a substance that some assert is harmful to children .\n(Jul 28 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Terror cell planned attacks in Israel\nNO CAROLINA -- A father, his two sons and four other men living in North Carolina are accused of military-style training at home and plotting \"violent jihad\" abroad, including against targets in Israel, federal authorities said Monday. Officials said the men were led by Daniel Patrick Boyd, 39, who resided in a small lakeside home in a rural area south of Raleigh, where he and his family walked their dog and operated a drywall business. Court records, however, indicate Boyd was a veteran of terrorist training camps in Pakistan and Afghanistan who fought against the Soviet Union.\n(Jul 27 2009) - Denver Post : U.S. troops destroy Afghan drugs\nKABUL -- U.S. Marines and Afghan forces have found and destroyed hundreds of tons of poppy seeds, opium and heroin in southern Afghanistan this month in raids that a top American official said show that the new U.S. counternarcotics strategy in Afghanistan is working. U.S. and NATO troops are attacking drug warehouses in Afghanistan for the first time this year, a new strategy to counter the country's booming opium, poppy and heroin trade. NATO defense ministers approved the targeted drug raids late last year, saying the link between Taliban insurgents and drug barons was clear. U.N. officials say Taliban fighters reap 100's of millions of dollars from the drug trade each year.\n(Jul 26 2009) - Christian Post : Evangelical Leaders Rebuke Jimmy Carter\nU.S.A. -- Evangelical leaders chastised former president Carter this week for comments he made regarding the alleged faith-based discrimination of women. �It is true that some have abused Scripture in pursuing oppressive agendas, like arguments for slavery, apartheid, and the denial of rights to women and minorities. But these abuses cannot be supported by an appeal to God�s word, especially when Scripture is interpreted according to the grand tradition of the Church,� said Chuck Colson, founder of Prison Fellowship Ministries. Last week, Carter submitted an op-ed to newspapers -- to draw greater attention to a new initiative launched by The Elders ...\n(Jul 25 2009) - Kyiv Post : IMF welcomes bank resolution adopted by Rada\nUKRAINE -- The International Monetary Fund has welcomed the draft law No. 4630 that the parliament adopted on July 24, which regulates the procedures for improving the financial health of commercial banks. The IMF announced this in a statement, a text of which Ukrainian News obtained. According to the statement, the head of the IMF's mission to Ukraine, Ceyla Pazarbasioglu, said that the adoption of the document would facilitate restoration of banks to solvency and financial stability.\n(Jul 24 2009) - Copenhagen Post : Homosexuality sells at World Outgames\nCOPENHAGEN -- Tourism marketing targeted at homosexuals reinforces stereotypes about a diverse group. As Copenhagen prepares for the arrival of participants in the World Outgames this week, the tourist industry is eagerly rubbing its hands in anticipation of the wealthy, well-educated and stylish influx of people the games will bring. Or such is the popular image that the tourism industry paints of homosexuals � the primary audience for the Outgames and its accompanying conference on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer human rights.\n(Jul 23 2009) - New York Post : FBI arrests Mayors, Rabbis in New Jersey\nNEWARK -- FBI agents are sweeping across northern New Jersey Thursday, making arrests in what reportedly is described as a major corruption probe. WNBC-TV in New York reported and showed images of the mayors of Hoboken and Secaucus being taken into FBI headquarters in Newark. The station also showed rabbis being taken into custody. Radio station New Jersey 101.5 FM reports the sweeps are taking place in Hudson, Bergen, Monmouth and Ocean counties. The stations say the probe centers on money-laundering and political bid rigging.\n(Jul 22 2009) - Bangkok Post : Solar eclipse spreads darkness over Asia\nTHAILAND -- Sky gazers in Bangkok and the South were disappointed when a cloudy sky prevented them from seeing the longest solar eclipse of the 21st century on Wednesday morning - but Chiang Rai had a clear view. Several telescopes with proper shielding were set up at the Dhepsirin School's playing field, where eclipse-watching activities were organised, but seasonal rains brought cloud cover throughout the capital. The partial eclipse occured from 7.06 to 9.08am in Bangkok. However, in northern Chiang Rai province, where more of the Sun was eclipsed, clear skies gave people the best view in Thailand.\n(Jul 21 2009) - Liberty Post : Mexican gov sends 5,500 troops to Michoacan\nMEXICO -- Thousands of heavily armed soldiers have been deployed in Mexico in the government's latest efforts to crack down on the country's drug war. Troops set up roadblocks on major highways in the western state of Michoacan on Saturday in response to a series of drug gang attacks on police. Armed with automatic weapons, soldiers wearing ski masks to shield their identities searched vehicles for signs of drug smuggling after the government ordered 5,500 troops to deploy to the area by land, sea and air in the marijuana-growing region, also the President's home state.\n(Jul 20 2009) - Norway Post : Norwegians spend less income on food\nNORWAY -- Norwegians spend less and less of their income on food. We now work only 1 hour and 53 minutes to earn enough to buy food for a week, against 4.5 hours 25 years ago, Dagsavisen reports. Fifty years ago Norwegians spent 40 per cent of their income on food and alcohol-free drinks, against 11 per cent today. This concerns the environmental organisation \"Future in our hands\". Their spokesman Arild Hermstad says the meat consumption should be no more than 25-30 kg per person annually in order to protect the environment.\n(Jul 19 2009) - Pittsburgh Post : House rejected Jesus Name prayer\nHARRISBURG -- Three weeks ago, a Christian clergyman from Adams County was surprised and upset when state House officials wouldn't let him open a session with a prayer that contained what they termed an \"offensive word\" -- the name of Jesus. He planned to end his prayer with \"In Jesus' name, Amen.\" Now the Rev. Gerry Stoltzfoos of the Freedom Valley Worship Center in Gettysburg is hoping for a different result next week, when he opens a state Senate session with a prayer.\n(Jul 18 2009) - Kentucky Post : CBS Anchor Walter Cronkite Dies At 92\nNEW YORK -- Walter Cronkite, the premier TV anchorman of the networks' golden age who reported a tumultuous time with reassuring authority and came to be called \"the most trusted man in America,\" died Friday. He was 92. Cronkite's longtime chief of staff, Marlene Adler, said Cronkite died at 7:42 p.m. at his Manhattan home surrounded by family. She said the cause of death was cerebral vascular disease. Adler said, \"I have to go now\" before breaking down into what sounded like a sob. She said she had no further comment.\n(Jul 17 2009) - National Post : Two Canadians injured in Jakarta bombings\nJAKARTA -- At least nine killed, more than 50 injured in near-simultaneous Jakarta hotel bombings. Edward Thiessen was getting ready to eat yogurt and eggs during a Friday breakfast meeting in the JW Marriott lounge in Jakarta when the room shuddered and an \"orange flash\" followed by a loud crack sent him sprawling to the floor before everything went black. The 50-year-old St. Catharines, Ont., native then felt water falling on his head from the sprinkler system which cleared the black soot that had filled the hotel lounge which had been sectioned off for his company's monthly breakfast meeting.\n(Jul 16 2009) - Post Chronicle : (BoA) Operating Under Secret Regulations ?\nU.S.A. -- Bank of America Corp (BAC.N: Quote, Profile, Research, Stock Buzz) is operating under a secret U.S. regulatory sanction that requires it to overhaul its board and address perceived problems with risk and liquidity management, The Wall Street Journal reported, citing people familiar with the situation. Rarely disclosed publicly, the so-called memorandum of understanding (MOU) gives banks a chance to work out their problems without the glare of outside attention, the paper said.\n(Jul 15 2009) - China Post : Nigerian oil militants call for cease-fire\nABUJA -- Nigeria's main militant group said Wednesday it is calling an immediate 60-day cease-fire in response to the government's release of an ailing rebel leader. Henry Okah was freed Monday just hours after the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta set fire to an oil depot and loading tankers in the country's economic center, Lagos. Three naval officers and two oil workers were killed in the group's first attack outside the Delta region, officials said.\n(Jul 14 2009) - Yorkshire Evening Post : Violence erupts on Belfast streets\nBELFAST -- North Belfast is picking up the pieces after the worst night of violence for years. Nine officers were injured and a live round was fired at them after a confrontation with dissident republicans in Ardoyne. Petrol bombs, fireworks, stones and bottles were hurled at police and water cannons and baton rounds used to fend off attackers. Crowds gathered ahead of the return parade by Orangemen from their July 12 demonstrations. Two vans were hijacked and pushed at police lines.\n(Jul 13 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Demjanjuk charged with WWII murders\nGERMANY -- German prosecutors formally charged John Demjanjuk on Monday with 27,900 counts of being an accessory to murder at Nazi death camp Sobibor during World War II. The charges against the 89-year-old retired auto worker, who was deported from the US in May, were filed at a Munich state court, prosecutors in the city said in a brief statement. There was no immediate word on when a trial might start. Prosecutors accuse Demjanjuk of serving as a guard at the Nazi death camp in German-occupied Poland during World War II.\n(Jul 12 2009) - Frontier Post : Gilani for effective population plan\nISLAMABAD -- Prime Minister Syed Yusuf Raza Gilani Saturday stressed an effective population management programme to ensure better utilization of resources and provision of better services to the masses. Addressing a function to mark the World Population Day { WikiPedia } here, the Prime Minister said low GDP growth along with high population growth rates had put Pakistan in a situation where it was hard to provide relief to the common man. He said country's diverse problems could not be addressed by economic measures alone and there was a need to supplement these through effective measures to check population growth.\n(Jul 11 2009) - Seattle Post : Chips in official IDs raise privacy fears\nCALIFORNIA -- Climbing into his Volvo, outfitted with a Matrics antenna and a Motorola reader he'd bought on eBay for $190, Chris Paget cruised the streets of San Francisco with this objective: To read the identity cards of strangers, wirelessly, without ever leaving his car. It took him 20 minutes to strike hacker's gold. Zipping past Fisherman's Wharf, his scanner detected, then downloaded to his laptop, the unique serial numbers of two pedestrians' electronic U.S. passport cards embedded with radio frequency identification, or RFID, tags. Within an hour, he'd \"skimmed\" the identifiers of four more of the new, microchipped PASS cards from a distance of 20 feet.\n(Jul 10 2009) - New York Post : New York Times to take Toll on Web\nNEW YORK -- Faced with the prospect of going broke, The New York Times wants to charge $5 a month for access to its Web site -- more than the cost of a share of its weakened stock. The cash-crunched Times began polling subscribers toits print editions in search of backlash on a plan to collect monthly fees for the Web content, which is now free. While ordinary Web users would pay $5 a month, subscribers to print editions would get their fee cut in half to $2.50 a month to access all articles, blogs and multimedia.\n(Jul 09 2009) - Christian Post : G-8 Leaders Urged to Keep Aid Promises\nITALY -- G-8 leaders meeting at the three-day economic summit in L�Aquila, Italy, look set to pull off an �Italian Job,� according to one of the world�s leading aid agencies. \"We had all hoped the new G-8 leaders would push the others to finally meet the key funding promises made in 2005 in Gleneagles,\" said Sue Mbaya, Africa Advocacy Director for World Vision. \"But it's looking like we'll be watching a re-run of the same old movie in which the G-8 fills its communiqu� with reheated aid pledges with no clear timelines ... suggesting that the leaders are taking and running away with the money they pledged to Africa.\"\n(Jul 08 2009) - News Post : Positive self-statements do more harm ?\nU.S.A. -- While self-help books are considered to boost a person�s moral, a piece of research now suggests that positive self-statements in such books may actually leave people with low self-esteem and feeling worse about themselves. Psychologists Joanne V. Wood and John W. Lee from the University of Waterloo, and W.Q. Elaine Perunovic from the University of New Brunswick, found that individuals with low self-esteem actually felt worse about themselves after repeating positive self-statements.\n(Jul 07 2009) - Asian Pacific Post : India's largest meth factory discovered\nCANADA -- The arrest of a Canadian drug don has led police to India�s biggest meth factory, which was supplying party drugs to an international crime syndicate. The racket came to light following the arrest of Xie Jing Feng alias Richard, a Canadian citizen of Chinese origin, Indian police said. He was tracked and detained at a hotel in Vadodara, Gujarat last November 21 by Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) detectives, led by Ahmedabad Zonal Director Ayush Mani Tiwari. Two Malaysians of Indian origin were also arrested at the same time and police seized 1.5 kilos of methamphetamine.\n(Jul 06 2009) - Bangkok Post : China says 140 dead in Uighar riots\nXINJIANJ -- China said at least 140 people were killed in rioting by Muslim Uighurs in its restive Xinjiang region in the deadliest ethnic unrest reported in the country for decades. The violence in the regional capital Urumqi on Sunday involved thousands of people, and the official Xinhua news agency said the death toll was likely to rise. More than 800 other people were injured in the rampage, it added. \"Death toll in Xinjiang riot rises to 140, still climbing,\" Xinhua reported in its latest dispatch, after initially saying only three had died.\n(Jul 05 2009) - Denver Post : Denver Mayor wants to track trends of kids\nCOLORADO -- Denver Mayor John Hickenlooper wants to compile an enormous database to give teachers, social workers and mentors a fuller picture of what the city's children are going through � be it a divorce, a falling algebra grade or an arrest. Hickenlooper is in discussions with a Palo Alto, Calif.-based company to get a computer system donated that could, for example, link data files from Denver Public Schools, the city Department of Human Services and even nonprofits like Big Brothers Big Sisters of America. It would be the first system of its kind in the nation.\n(Jul 04 2009) - Liberty Post : Happy 4th of July !!!\nU.S.A. -- Have you ever wondered what happened to the 56 men who signed the Declaration of Independence? Five signers were captured by the British as traitors and tortured before they died. Twelve had their homes ransacked and burned. Two lost their sons serving in the Revolutionary Army; another had two sons captured. Nine of the 56 fought and died from wounds or hardships of the Revolutionary War. They signed and they pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor. What kind of men were they?\n(Jul 03 2009) - Jakarta Post : British Embassy staff to be tried in Iran\nIRAN -- A top Iranian cleric said Friday that some of the detained Iranian staffers of the British Embassy in Tehran will be put on trial, and he accused Britain of a role in instigating widespread protests that erupted over the country's disputed presidential election. The announcement by Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati came a day after the European Union demanded Iran release the staffers, who were detained on June 27. Britain is pressing EU countries to pull their ambassadors out of Tehran in protest.\n(Jul 02 2009) - Norway Post : Norwegian Embassy in Pakistan closes ...\nNORWAY -- Norway's Embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan, has been closed for security reasons, TV2 reports. The embassy will be closed Thurs and Fri, according to the Department of Foreign Affairs. The reason is the general development and the evaluation of the situation as a whole, says the Department's deputy director Ragnhild Imerslund. Last week plans were revealed of planned terrorist aactions aginst several embassies in Islambad, among them Swedish and Norwegian embassy.\n(Jul 01 2009) - Kyiv Post : Analysis: Hopes fading for Iran nuke talks\nVIENNA -- The fallout from Iran's disputed presidential vote is dimming what were already modest prospects for meaningful negotiations with Tehran over its nuclear program. President Barack Obama's offer of direct U.S.-Iranian talks on nuclear and other issues still stands - but Tehran seems uninterested. Negotiations were stalemated even before Iran's crackdown on citizens demonstrating against what they say was a skewed election in favor of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.\n(Jun 30 2009) - National Post : Afghan police chief killed in shootout\nKANDAHAR -- Two senior Kandahar police officials were killed yesterday when a number of gunmen, identified as U. S.-trained security forces, tried to remove a prisoner from police custody. Police Chief Matieulla Qatey and his head of criminal investigations, AbdulKhaliq Hamdard, were killed in the gunfire that erupted when the guards left the prosecutor's office with the prisoner, according to Ahmad Wali Karzai, head of the Kandahar provincial council and the brother of the President. Canadian troops helped secure the area after the violence, but played no other role in the incident.\n(Jun 29 2009) - China Post : N Korea criticizes U.S. missile defense\nSEOUL -- North Korea criticized the U.S. on Monday for positioning missile defense systems around Hawaii, calling the deployment part of a plot to attack the regime and saying it would bolster its nuclear arsenal in retaliation. U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates has said he ordered the deployment of a ground-based, mobile missile intercept system and radar system to Hawaii amid concerns the North may fire a long-range missile toward the islands, about 4,500 miles away.\n(Jun 28 2009) - Washington Post : Soldiers arrest Honduran president\nTEGUCIGALPA -- More than a dozen soldiers arrested President Manuel Zelaya and disarmed his security guards after surrounding his residence before dawn Sunday, his private secretary said. Protesters called it a coup and flocked to the presidential palace as local news media reported that Zelaya was sent into exile. The chief executive was detained shortly before voting was to begin on a constitutional referendum the president had insisted on holding even though the Supreme Court ruled it illegal and everyone from the military to Congress and members of his own party opposed it.\n(Jun 28 2009) - Seattle Post : Iran detains staff at British Embassy\nIRAN -- Iranian authorities have detained several local employees of the British Embassy in Iran, a move that Britain's foreign secretary Sunday called \"harassment and intimidation\" and reflected a hardening of the regime's stance toward the West. Iranian media said eight local embassy staff were detained for an alleged role in postelection protests, but gave no further details. British Foreign Secretary David Miliband said \"about nine\" employees were detained Saturday and that some had been released. The detentions signaled a further toughening of Iran's dealings with the West ...\n(Jun 27 2009) - Jakarta Post : Russia foreign ministers to open meeting\nNATO -- The foreign ministers of NATO and Russia are set to resume formal military ties when they meet Saturday for the first time since last year's war between Russia and Georgia. Relations between the alliance and the Russian military were frozen in the aftermath of that conflict. Although political ties have thawed considerably over the past five months, there have been no formal military contacts since the war. Saturday's meeting between Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov and his counterparts from NATO's 28 member nations comes as President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev prepare to hold a summit next month.\n(Jun 26 2009) - Pittsburgh Post : Secret Service to secure G-20 in Pittsburgh PITTSBURGH -- Pittsburgh's G-20 summit is now on par with the inauguration of President Barack Obama, the Olympics and the Super Bowl. This week, U.S. Homeland Security Secretary Janet Napolitano named the September gathering of world leaders a \"National Special Security Event,\" or NSSE, making the Secret Service the lead agency for security preparations. Federal officials have given the designation less than 35 times since 1998, when President Clinton created it as a tool for managing security for major events that require the coordination of potentially dozens of law enforcement agencies.\n(Jun 25 2009) - Post Chronicle : Fed's Accused Of \"Cover-Up\" In BoA Deal\nWASH D.C. -- The Federal Reserve sought to hide its involvement in Bank of America Corp's acquisition of Merrill Lynch as Merrill's financial condition worsened, the top Republican on the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee said on Wednesday. The Fed \"engaged in a cover-up and deliberately hid concerns and pertinent details regarding the merger from other federal regulatory agencies,\" Representative Darrell Issa said in a statement released to Reuters.\n(Jun 24 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Obama to reinstate US envoy to Syria\nISRAEL -- US President Barack Obama has decided to reinstate a US ambassador to Syria after an absence of more than four years. The acting assistant secretary of state for Near Eastern affairs, Jeffrey Feltman, informed Syria's ambassador to Washington, Imad Mustafa, of Obama's intention, according to a senior administration official who spoke on the condition of anonymity because the decision had yet to be made public.\n(Jun 23 2009) - Patriot Post : The Obama Effect ?\nWASH D.C. -- It's become almost a parlor game to watch Obamaphiles spin the president's response to events in Iran. Uninfatuated observers have noticed that the president displayed a tepid and unsatisfying neutrality to events in the streets of Iran following the sham election -- just as he had done last summer when the Russians staged an invasion of Georgia. His first instinct was to preserve his bona fides for negotiating with the mullahs -- bona fides that he has been at pains to demonstrate over the past several months.\n(Jun 22 2009) - African Post : Uganda leader rejects opposition election\nUGANDA -- President Yoweri Museveni, Uganda's long-serving president, has dismissed an opposition call for electoral reform that would block him from standing for another term, a government-owned newspaper reported on Monday. Critics accuse the former rebel leader, who has ruled Uganda since 1986, of trying to be president-for-life after parliament scrapped term restrictions. The ruling party is rumoured in local political and media circles to be seeking an end to Uganda's presidential age limit of 75.\n(Jun 21 2009) - Birmingham Post : UN Sec Gen due in Birmingham today\nBIRMINGHAM -- United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon will give a keynote speech at an event in Birmingham today. The UN leader will visit the National Exhibition Centre to address a Rotary International convention, where he is expected to thank the organisation for its role in attempting to eradicate polio. In 1988, Rotary and the UN Children's Fund pledged to work to end cases of the crippling disease across the world and, with the World Health Organisation and the US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, founded the Global Polio Eradication Initiative.\n(Jun 20 2009) - Bangkok Post : WHO flu alerts 'lead to panic' ...\nBANGKOK -- Thailand plans to ask the World Health Organisation (WHO) to revise its system of alerting people to the spread of the H1N1 flu virus as it believes that its current method is misleading the public and causing panic. The WHO has raised the pandemic alert to the highest level on the scale of 6 because the disease has broken out in so many countries. The move from Phase 5 to Phase 6 on the scale signifies the situation has reached a global outbreak, but many people do not perceive this as a spread of the disease.\n(Jun 19 2009) - Liberty Post : Smith & Wesson 4Q tops Wall St outlook\nSPRINGFIELD -- Pistol maker Smith & Wesson Holding Corp. on Thursday reported 4th-quarter revenue above Wall Street expectations, sending shares up nearly 12 % in aftermarket trading. The company said its fiscal 2009 4th-quarter revenue rose 20 % to $99.5 million. Analysts polled by Thomson Reuters had expected revenue of $90.8 million, on average. \"Demand for our handguns and tactical rifles remained strong throughout the 4th quarter, as evidenced by our revenue as well as by our backlog balance,\" the company said in a statement.\n(Jun 18 2009) - Wash Post : Inventory Uncovers 9,200 more Pathogens\nMARYLAND -- An inventory of potentially deadly pathogens at Fort Detrick's infectious disease laboratory found more than 9,000 vials that had not been accounted for, Army officials said yesterday, raising concerns that officials wouldn't know whether dangerous toxins were missing. After four months of searching about 335 freezers and refrigerators at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases in Frederick, investigators found 9,220 samples that hadn't been included in a database of about 66,000 items listed as of February, said Col. Mark Kortepeter, the institute's deputy commander.\n(Jun 17 2009) - Denver Post : AG Holder seeks tougher hate-crimes law\nWASH D.C. -- Citing recent killings in Arkansas, Kansas and the nation's capital, Attorney General Eric Holder on Tuesday said new hate-crimes laws were needed to stop what he called \"violence masquerading as political activism.\" The call for Congress to act came as a civil-rights coalition said there has been a surge in white supremacist activity since the election of the first African-American president and the economic downturn.\n(Jun 16 2009) - News Post : India reluctant to join de-dollarisation\nINDIA -- While China and Russia are likely to pitch for the induction of a new global currency to replace the dollar as the world�s main reserve (de-dollarisation) at the first BRIC summit beginning tomorrow in Yekaterinburg, it is most unlikely that India will join the chorus on this issue, according to government sources. Although India has found congruence in the agenda of other BRIC nations on key international issues like the longstanding demand for restructuring and democratization of international institutions like IMF and the World Bank ...\n(Jun 15 2009) - Frontier Post : Obama wants checks on banks\nWASH D.C. -- President Obama is ready to roll out an overhaul of the intricate rules and systems that govern America's troubled financial institutions, proposing the most ambitious revision since the Great Depression. The goal is to prevent a recurrence of the economic crisis that erupted in the United States and exploded last fall with devastating consequences still reverberating around the world. Unlike the government's temporary ownership stake in automakers and major financial companies, the regulatory changes set to be announced Wednesday are designed to be permanent.\n(Jun 14 2009) - Kyiv Post : Russia-Belarus rift widens\nMINSK -- Belarus on Sunday signalled a growing rift with ally Russia, saying President Alexander Lukashenko would not attend a security summit in Moscow in protest at a Russian ban on dairy imports from Belarus. Ties between former Soviet republics Russia and Belarus have been strained since 2007, with Minsk upset at steadily rising prices for Russian gas and Moscow angered by Lukashenko's growing overtures to the West.\n(Jun 13 2009) - Tripoli Post : Al-Qathafi Makes Historical Visit to Italy\nITALY -- Italy rolled out the red carpet Wednesday for Al-Qathafi, who said he has \"turned the page on the past\". The Leader of the Revolution Muammar Al-Qathafi praised Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi describing him as the \"iron man\" for his courage to undertake a historical, dangerous decision apologize in behalf of the Italian state for the colonization of Libya and the acceptance of the compensation principle. Forty years ago, Al-Qathafi vowed not to visit Italy until it recognized its past and apologized to the Libyan people whose half of them were perished as a result of Italian occupation that lasted from 1911 until 1943.\n(Jun 12 2009) - China Post : After rowdy campaign, Iran choose a president\nTEHRAN -- Iranians voted Friday on whether to keep hard-line President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in power for four more years or replace him with a reformist more open to loosening the country's Islamic restrictions and improving ties with the United States. The rowdy election campaign, which lasted less than a month, electrified many voters here and reshaped how the world sees Iran's political process. The mass street demonstrations, polished campaign slogans and televised debates more closely resembled Western elections than the scripted campaigns in most other Middle Eastern countries.\n(Jun 11 2009) - Palm Beach Post : WHO: Swine flu pandemic has begun\nGENEVA -- The World Health Organization declared a swine flu pandemic Thursday - the first global flu epidemic in 41 years - as infections in the United States, Europe, Australia, South America and elsewhere climbed to nearly 30,000 cases. The long-awaited pandemic announcement is scientific confirmation that a new flu virus has emerged and is quickly circling the globe. WHO will now ask drugmakers to speed up production of a swine flu vaccine. The declaration will also prompt governments to devote more money toward efforts to contain the virus.\n(Jun 10 2009) - Post Chronicle : IT Firms Urge China To Reconsider Filter\nWASH D.C. -- A Washington-based group representing information technology companies called on China on Wednesday to reconsider its requirement that Internet filtering software be bundled with new computers. Chinese regulations mandate \"Green Dam,\" a program developed by Jinhui Computer System Engineering Co., be pre-installed on personal computers manufactured or shipped after July 1. China says the filter is designed to block pornography.\n(Jun 09 2009) - Jerusalem Post : World opinion Israel's No. 1 problem\nISRAEL -- World public opinion is Israel's number one foreign policy problem, Foreign Minister Avigdor Lieberman said Tuesday. Addressing the Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, Lieberman said that limited resources were hampering Israel's ability in the international arena. \"World public opinion about us doesn't reflect the reality and we cannot continue to have foreign policy success without dramatically improving the approach concerning how we are perceived in the eyes of the world by Western countries, the Free World, where we have a fundamental problem of not being perceived well,\" said the foreign minister.\n(Jun 08 2009) - National Post : North Korea jails U.S. journalists\nSEOUL -- North Korea, facing UN sanctions for last month's nuclear test, on Monday raised the stakes in its growing confrontation with Washington by jailing two U.S. journalists to 12 years hard labour for \"grave crime\". The sentence follows U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's warning on Sunday the United States was considering putting the reclusive North back on its list of states that sponsor terrorism, which would further isolate the impoverished country. The journalists, Euna Lee and Laura Ling, of U.S. media outlet Current TV, were arrested in March working on a story near the border between North Korea and China.\n(Jun 07 2009) - Pittsburgh Post : Rooms fit for 'kings' and G-20 leaders\nPITTSBURGH - If ever there's a time when the presidential suites of the city's best hotels will house actual presidents, it will be when the G-20 world economic summit comes to Pittsburgh Sept. 24 and 25. Organizers say it's too early to know who will stay where, but it stands to reason that heads of state for the group of major industrialized nations and the European Union will be snapping up those spacious luxury suites on the top floors with the best views and plushest amenities. Whether President Barack Obama will be in one of them remains to be seen.\n(Jun 06 2009) - Jakarta Post : US military: Teens used in attacks in Iraq\nBAGDAD -- Insurgents are increasingly using teenagers to stage attacks against American and Iraqi security forces, the US military said Saturday. At least five youths between the ages of 14 and 19 have been involved in grenade and suicide attacks in recent weeks in northern Iraq, according to a military statement. The military has frequently said it believes al-Qaida in Iraq and other insurgent groups are recruiting youths and women because of their ability to avoid scrutiny and evade heightened security measures.\n(Jun 05 2009) - Christian Post : Millions Observe Cancer Prayer Day\nU.S.A. -- Today, millions of Christians around the world are uniting in prayer for cancer patients with the belief that \"true healing comes from God.\" On the 10th Anniversary of Worldwide Cancer Prayer Day, ministers will be praying for healing for people who have cancer, prevention for people who do not have cancer, comfort for people who have lost someone to cancer and wisdom for cancer researchers, physicians and nurses, according to Daniel Kennedy, the organizer and co-founder of the annual prayer day. Churches and ministries in the U.S., Mexico, Brazil, the Philippines and South Korea are participating.\n(Jun 04 2009) - Yemen Post : Yemeni Detainee at Guantanamo Bay Dies\nCUBA -- A Yemeni detainee at Guantanamo Bay died in his cell, U.S. military officials said Tuesday. However, investigations have been ongoing to determine how the so-called Mohammed Ahmed Abdullah Saleh Al-Hanashi died. During a routine visit inside the cells on Monday nights, the guardians at Guantanamo Bay have found Al-Hanashi unconscious, the sources said, adding that after intensive procedures have been taken, doctors announced the detainee's death. Al-Hanashi had been held on occasion in the detention center psychiatric ward, although detention center officials would say neither whether he was found dead in a cell there nor how he had died.\n(Jun 03 2009) - Bangkok Post : PM calls meeting on rice mortgage\nTHAILAND -- Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva has called a meeting of the National Rice Policy Committee on Thursday to consider extending the crop mortgage scheme in the face of farmers' demands for increased quotas. Growers in many provinces have demanded the mortgage period be extended, saying they still have off-season rice that will be harvested in June and July. The mortgage period for this year's off-season rice expires on July 31 and the mortgage target has already been increased to 4 million tonnes from 2.5 million tonnes.\n(Jun 02 2009) - News Post : Religious terror attacks rare in US\nNEW YORK -- In a new study, researchers have estimated that in the United States, terror attacks on religious targets are relatively rare, but often deadly. The study was carried out by the University of Maryland-based National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism START. The researchers add that private businesses are the most frequent US target.\n(Jun 01 2009) - Denver Post : Immigration checks rise\nDENVER -- Colorado employers are increasingly trying to weed out illegal workers. The latest data show the number voluntarily using the national electronic system for verifying immigration status has more than doubled in two years � from 2,065 in May 2007 to 4,690 today. Yet there are 155,000 employers in Colorado, and most get by simply by asking new hires for an ID, keeping a copy and signing a statement saying they checked.\n(May 31 2009) - Kyiv Post : Old dissidents still a voice in Russia, but fading\nMOSCOW -- They would meet in secret, terrified of a KGB knock on the door. They laboriously typed out banned publications. Many ended up in prison, labor camps and exile. They were the Soviet dissidents, the human faces of the Cold War, waging nonviolent resistance against a cruel and cynical system. Today, 20 years after Eastern Europe shook off its communist chains, the Berlin Wall fell and the death knell sounded for the Soviet Union, Sergei Kovalyov might have expected to be feted for his role in breaking the chains of communism.\n(May 30 2009) - Wash Post : Fed's Bailout Authority Sat Unused Since 1991\nWASH D.C. - On the day before Thanksgiving in 1991, the U.S. Senate voted to vastly expand the emergency powers of the Federal Reserve. Almost no one noticed. The critical language was contained in a single, somewhat inscrutable sentence, and the only public explanation was offered during a final debate that began with a reminder that senators had airplanes to catch. Yet, in removing a long-standing prohibition on loans that supported financial speculation, the provision effectively allowed the Fed for the first time to lend money to Wall Street during a crisis.\n(May 30 2009) - Yorkshire Post : Fluoride in water study set to raisehackles\nYORKSHIRE - A study is to be carried out into adding fluoride to drinking water in Yorkshire after pleas from two health trusts concerned about the state of children's teeth. The region-wide feasibility study is being commissioned at the request of the West Yorkshire trusts who believe fluoridation may be the best way of improving dental health. Health Secretary Alan Johnson last year urged all parts of the country to consider fluoridation which the Government says is \"safe and cost effective\" and ensures children in deprived areas � who have more rotten teeth � are helped.\n(May 29 2009) - Post Gazette : Pittsburgh hosting G-20 summit in Sept\nPITTSBURGH - A little more than two weeks ago, White House officials contacted Mayor Luke Ravenstahl, Allegheny County Executive Dan Onorato and other officials with two questions: Would they be interested in hosting an international event and could they keep it a secret ? That set off a frenzy of meetings and telephone calls among government, business and hotel officials that culminated with yesterday's announcement that Pittsburgh will host the G-20 world economic summit Sept. 24-25 at the David L. Lawrence Convention Center.\n(May 28 2009) - China Post : North Korean threatens U.S.\nSEOUL, South Korea -- North Korea threatened military strikes on U.S. and South Korean ships and renounced a 1953 truce halting the Korean War fighting � an escalation of tensions in the wake of Pyongyang's nuclear test. The threats Wednesday followed Seoul's decision to join more than 90 nations in stopping and inspecting ships suspected of transporting banned weapons, and raised the prospect of a naval clash off the Korean peninsula's west coast.\n(May 27 2009) - Liberty Post : Iraq bomb kills US State Department official\nBAGHDAD -- A roadside bomb struck a US convoy in western Iraq, killing three Americans, including a senior State Department official, US officials said Tuesday. The blast killed Terence Barnich, the deputy director of the State Department's Iraq Transition Assistance Office in Baghdad, as well as a US soldier and a civilian contractor as their convoy left a construction site near Fallujah on Monday, military and government officials said. Two others were wounded.\n(May 26 2009) - Post Chronicle : North Korea Fires More Rockets ...\nNORTH KOREA -- North Korea, defiant in the face of international condemnation of its latest nuclear test, fired two short-range missiles off its east coast on Tuesday and accused the United States of plotting against its government. In a move certain to compound tensions in the region, South Korea said it would join a U.S.-led initiative to intercept ships suspected of carrying weapons of mass destruction, something Pyongyang has warned it would consider a declaration of war.\n(May 25 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Ministers to vote on 'loyalty oath'\nISRAEL -- Foreign Minister and head of the Israel Beiteinu Party Avigdor Lieberman's proposed \"loyalty oath\" for Israeli citizens will be brought up for a vote at a cabinet meeting early next week. The party said it planned to seek preliminary approval from a ministerial committee on Sunday. If passed, the law would oblige every Israeli citizen, including Arabs, to take the oath and sign a statement. \"Receiving citizenship under law will be contingent on a loyalty oath,\" the proposed draft read. The draft also includes a clause on the wording of the loyalty oath, likely to cause disagreements ...\n(May 24 2009) - Yorkshire Post : Royal driver suspended after expose\nENGLAND -- Royal chauffeur Brian Sirjusingh has been suspended pending an investigation into allegations he allowed undercover reporters into Buckingham Palace in exchange for money, a palace spokeswoman has said. The pair, posing as wealthy Middle-Eastern businessmen, were allowed in the building without security checks. A palace spokeswoman said: \"We can confirm an individual has been suspended pending an investigation.\" The News of the World reported Mr Sirjusingh was paid �1,000 by its reporters in exchange for access to the building.\n(May 23 2009) - Palm Beach Post : NASA scraps landing for shuttle, again\nCAPE CANAVERAL -- Thunderstorms prevented space shuttle Atlantis from returning to its home base Saturday for the second day in a row, and kept the astronauts circling Earth after a successful repair job at the Hubble Space Telescope. The offshore storms prompted NASA to skip both morning landing attempts at Kennedy Space Center. Despite an equally dismal forecast for Sunday, Mission Control opted to wait out the bad weather rather than take a detour to California. A cooling-system problem cropped up aboard Atlantis shortly after Mission Control informed the astronauts of the latest landing plans.\n(May 22 2009) - National Post : Millions sought for Pakistanis displaced ...\nISLAMABAD -- The United Nations launched an appeal on Friday for US$543-million for more than 2 million people displaced by fighting in northwest Pakistan, where officials said villagers were turning against the Taliban. The military launched an offensive this month in the picturesque Swat Valley and neighbouring districts to stop the spread of a Taliban insurgency that had raised fears for nuclear-armed Pakistan's future. The United Nations has warned of a long-term humanitarian crisis ...\n(May 21 2009) - Post Gazette : Franklin Park candidate says councilman hit her PITTSBURGH -- A Franklin Park primary candidate has accused a sitting council member of punching her in the arm during a verbal altercation Tuesday outside the polls. During a public meeting last night, Rose Randolph, who appears to have lost the Republican bid for the borough's second ward council seat, accused Councilman Dick Hartman of hitting her while they were outside of the Franklin Park Volunteer Fire Department on Rochester Road. Ms. Randolph alleges Mr. Hartman and her primary challenger Councilwoman Jane Hopey approached her outside the polls in an overbearing manner.\n(May 20 2009) - Bangkok Post : Asian leaders approve summit dates\nTHAILAND -- Sixteen Asian countries have agreed that Thailand should to host the resumed 14th and the scheduled 15th Association of Southeast Asian Nations (Asean) summits and related summits in October, Asean Affairs Department director-general Vitavas Srivihok said on Wednesday. The Asean Senior Officials Meeting, which concluded in Phuket on Tuesday, resolved that the summits should be held in October. The meeting was attended by delegates from the six Asian dialogue countries, he said. The government will decide on the meeting venue later, Mr Vitavas said.\n(May 19 2009) - New York Post : Banks worry about next rounds of defaults\nNEW YORK -- THE hope in Washington is this: Banks that failed their so-called stress test will raise capital on their own -- as many have already done -- and then go about the business of giving loans to deserving businesses and homeowners. But there are several obstacles, including the fact that the next big wave of loan defaults might be about to occur. And the problem won't be, according to a source, in credit cards. Phillip F. Blumberg, chairman of Blumberg Capital Partners, thinks banks are really worried about the commercial real estate loans they issued during the orgasmic 2000s.\n(May 18 2009) - Copenhagen Post : Church sanctuary for Iraqi asylum seekers DENMARK -- Iraqi asylum seekers whose applications have been rejected and are facing a forcible return to their home country have sought refuge in local city church. Dozens of failed Iraqi asylum seekers have sought refuge in Brorsons Church in the N�rrebro district of Copenhagen after the Danish government agreed with their Iraqi counterparts for the forced repatriation of the refugees. Almost 300 asylum seekers are affected by the agreement and an initial group of 10 had first sought refuge in the Vor Frue Church on Friday evening to highlight their plight.\n(May 17 2009) - Christian Post : Megachurches Unite Against Abortion\nCALIFORNIA -- Evangelical megachurches across San Diego are joining Catholics on Sunday to make a public outcry against abortion in their first ever joint pro-life rally. The demonstration, which will take place after the multiple worship services that typically take place at megachurches, is being held on the same day President Obama will take the stage at the University of Notre Dame to deliver the commencement speech.\n(May 16 2009) - Denver Post : Gov. Ritter vetoes gun bill\nCOLORADO -- Gov. Bill Ritter on Friday vetoed a bill that would have allowed Coloradans with concealed-weapons permits to avoid background checks when they buy guns at shops or shows. In a veto letter, the Gov. called House Bill 1180 \"troubling\" and said it \"significantly weakens the safeguards against the illegal purchase of firearms.\" The bill passed with the support of 19 of Ritter's fellow Dem's in the House and Senate ...\n(May 15 2009) - Kyiv Post : Russia to clinch deals to hasten Europe gas link\nSOCHI -- Russia aims to speed up the new South Stream gas link to Europe by signing deals on Friday with transit states and rebuked the United States and former Soviet satellite states for backing a rival project. Russia expects to sign deals with Italy, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia to outpace the Western-backed Nabucco pipeline, which is designed to bring gas from Central Asia and the Caspian to Europe and ease the continent's heavy dependence on Russian gas.\n(May 14 2009) - Yemen Post : European military intelligence Report Reveals Pirates' Information Sources YEMEN -- A report by a European military intelligence, which was cited by Spanish Radio, revealed that the pirates off the coast of Aden are provided with information by telephone contacts from Londen. The pirates have built up a network of informants in London with access to sensitive data from shipping companies about vessels, routes and cargoes, according to a European military intelligence report that Cadena Ser radio said it had seen. The intelligence report also said that the pirates seem to avoid attacking ships of some nationalities, including British ships.\n(May 13 2009) - India Post : Nepal ends monopoly of Indian priests ...\nKATHMANDU -- Ending the centuries-old monopoly of South Indian Brahmins, Nepal's government has issued a regulation enabling Nepalese citizens and others to become the priests and chief priest of the famed Pashupatinath temple here, one of the eight holiest Hindu shrines. As per the new regulation framed by Ministry of Culture and State Restructure, any person, who is qualified, can become the priest without any nationality bar, according to sources at the Pashupati Area Development Trust (PADT).\n(May 12 2009) - China Post : Hospitalized ex-president returns to detention center TAIPEI -- Former president Chen Shui-bian returned to a detention center in Taipei County Tuesday after being hospitalized for the past three days. Chen left Taipei County Hospital's Banciao branch at 8:27 a.m. in an ambulance under the escort of police and national security personnel. As he left, his supporters gathered outside the hospital shouted \"A-bian Go!\" and other words of encouragement. Chen's departure was arranged at the early hour to avoid disrupting patients arriving at the hospital for outpatient visits, which began at 9 a.m.\n(May 11 2009) - Liberty Post : Obama and Congress to create US emergency centers or prison camps? WASH D.C. -- In an effort to avoid another Hurricane Katrina fiasco or to prepare for a national emergency, President Barack Obama is looking at the possibility of using military troops during a catastrophic and preparing emergency camps for Americans escaping a man-made or natural disaster. Disgraced former Florida judge - now a Democrat Party member of the House of Representatives - Rep. Alcee Hastings introduced what some claim is a disturbing piece of legislation. The new bill calls for the Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano to build at least six facilities that can be designated as \"emergency centers.\" Hastings rationale for such facilities is to gather and \"house\" civilians on what are basically detention centers guarded by armed soldiers or paramilitary troops.\n(May 10 2009) - Jerusalem Post : 'Honk your horn to protest pope'\nJERUSALEM -- Israeli drivers on Sunday were urged to honk their horns in protest of Pope Benedict XVI's visit to Yad Vashem. The Generation to Generation-Bearers of the Holocaust and Heroism Legacy organization issued the call for Israelis to carry out the protest on Monday at 6 p.m., when the pope is due to begin delivering his speech at the Holocaust museum. \"With a short honk, Israeli citizens across the country will express their disgust for the visit of the pope who encourages Holocaust deniers and displays of anti-Semitism,\" read a statement from the group on Sunday.\n(May 09 2009) - Patriot Post : What does the future hold for GOP ?\nWASH D.C. -- Compare and contrast two men: former congressmen Jack Kemp, one of the architects of the Reagan Revolution, who passed away last weekend at the age of 73; and Arlen Specter, the Pennsylvania senator who switched parties to stay alive politically for another term. Specter is famous for believing whatever he needs to \"believe\" to get elected. Dour, Dickensian and mercenary, he is regarded by observers across the aisle as a relentless partisan for the Party of Specter. Kemp, meanwhile, was a man of ideas and relentless, unflagging optimism, beloved on both sides of the aisle. For Kemp, the bigger the pile of manure, the more likely there was a Christmas pony somewhere. With Specter, spreading manure is always its own reward.\n(May 08 2009) - Post Star : Astronauts to make final visit to Hubble ...\nCAPE CANAVERAL -- The Hubble Space Telescope is about to get one last house call. And never before have the risks been higher. On Monday, astronauts will rocket away to the most famous telescope of modern times. They'll be taking up new scientific instruments, replacement parts for broken cameras and fresh batteries that should keep Hubble running for five to 10 years. This cosmic-scale grand finale -- stalled seven months by a telescope breakdown -- will be NASA's most daring overhaul yet of the 19-year-old orbiting observatory, a captivating, twinkling jewel in the sky representing $10 billion of investment.\n(May 07 2009) - Financial Post : GM burns through US$10.2-billion\nDETROIT -- General Motors Corp said it burned through $10.2 billion in the first quarter, operating under a federal bailout, as auto sales fell across the globe and it scrambled to cut costs. The automaker on Thursday posted a quarterly net loss of $6-billion, compared with a loss of $3.3 billion a year earlier. Revenue dropped by almost half to $22.4 billion as sales plunged in North America and fell in Europe, Asia and Latin America. Excluding $73 million of one-time net charges, GM posted a loss of $9.66 per share.\n(May 06 2009) - Post Chronicle : Bank of America Needs $34 Bl In Capital\nNEW YORK -- Bank of America Corp has been deemed to need as much as $34 billion in additional capital, according to the results of a government stress test, a source familiar with the results told Reuters late on Tuesday. Bank of America spokesman Scott Silvestri declined comment. A possible $34 billion capital shortfall is certain to increase pressure on CEO Kenneth Lewis, who was last week ousted by shareholders as chairman of the biggest U.S. bank. That ouster could lay the groundwork for Lewis's eventual departure from the company he worked at for 40 years, including the last eight as chief executive.\n(May 05 2009) - India Post : Obama unveils anti-outsourcing policy ...\nWASH D.C. -- In a move that will hit some 10 lakh Indian IT professionals and a sizable chunk of the country's BPO industry, President Barack Obama has unveiled new proposals to end tax breaks for American companies that shipped jobs overseas to countries like India. Meeting one of his major election promises, Obama said he will end the tax incentives to those US companies which created jobs overseas in places like Bangalore. Instead, the incentives would now go to those creating jobs inside the US. \"For years, we've talked about ending tax breaks for companies that ship jobs overseas and giving tax breaks to companies that create jobs here in America.\n(May 04 2009) - Washington Post : Calif.'s Harman rails against wiretapping\nWASH D.C. -- Rep. Jane Harman vowed yesterday to clear her name after the revelation of a wiretapped conversation in which she reportedly agreed to intervene in the federal investigation of two pro-Israel lobbyists in exchange for help in getting a coveted congressional post. The California Democrat noted that she had called on the Justice Department to release all the information it had about secretly monitored conversations that involved her. \"I want it all out there. I want it in public. I want everyone to understand, including me, what has happened,\" Harman said before a packed auditorium at the opening of the annual policy convention of the American Israel Public Affairs Committee, or AIPAC, the powerful pro-Israel lobby group.\n(May 03 2009) - Bangkok Post : Army to secure Asean summit\nTHAILAND -- The military has been given full authority to provide tough security at the rescheduled Asean summit which is to be held in Phuket in June. The move coincides with a condition set by attending governments that there must be a 5km security zone around the venue. Deputy Prime Minister Suthep Thaugsuban said the Defence Ministry will take charge of providing security at the summit. Mr Suthep met top security agents and military leaders in Phuket yesterday to make early preparations for the rescheduled summit.\n(May 02 2009) - Kyiv Post : Russian steel workers resort to growing potatoes MOSCOW, YEKATERINBURG -- Steel workers in Russia's industrial heartland are returning to the land to dig themselves out of an economic crisis that has pushed national unemployment rates to an 8-year high. Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works is offering 1,000 plots of land around Russia's biggest steel plant on which its employees can grow potatoes free of charge. Transport to the farms and 24-hour security will be included.\n(May 01 2009) - Denver Post : Water war ends in deal\nCOLORADO -- A peace treaty in a decade-long water war between between Grand County and the Front Range has been struck. The agreement among Grand County, Denver Water and the Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District aims to balance Front Range demands with more flow for the Upper Colorado River basin. The deal also is expected to smooth the progress of plans for two new water projects to bring 16 billion gallons of water from Grand County to the Front Range. \"We are at a historic place,\" said Grand County Commissioner James Newberry.\n(Apr 30 2009) - Norway Post : Record defence contract to Kongsberg\nNORWAY -- The Kongsberg Group has acquired a record defence contract worth NOK 3 billion from the Finnish Ministry of Defence, for the delivery of the Kongsberg NASAMS Air Defence System. The contract will fulfill Finland�s future Medium Range Air Defense Missile System (MRADMS) requirements. NASAMS was developed in close cooperation with the Royal Norwegian Air Force during the 1990s and has since then been contracted by the Netherlands, Spain, and the US. The Norwegian Air Defence has used this system since 2007.\n(Apr 29 2009) - Birmingham Post : Swine flu in Birmingham confirmed\nU.K. -- An adult from Birmingham is among the first confirmed cases of swine flu in the UK. Gordon Brown revealed the information during Prime Minister Questions (PMQs) at the House of Commons. He also revealed that a 12-year-old girl from Torbay and another adult from London have also been diagnosed with the deadly disease. Last night one Walsall family were facing an anxious wait for test results after a daughter showed possible symptoms. The family of four, who did not want to be identified, were tested at Walsall Manor Hospital after returning from a two-week trip to Mexico.\n(Apr 28 2009) - Jakarta Post : More Palembang jihadists jailed for murder\nJAKARTA -- The South Jakarta District Court has sentenced two Palembang jihadists, Ali Mashudi and Wahyudi, to serve 10 and 12 years in jail respectively for the killing of a clergyman and another terror attack. At Tuesday's court trial, presiding judge Aswardi said both defendants had violated article 15 of the Law No. 12/2003 on antiterorrism attack. �Both Ali and Wahyudi were involved in the murder of clergyman Dago Simamora and plotted an attack to explode a cafe in Bukittinggi, South Sumatera in June 2007,� Aswardi said. He said the defendants had conducted surveys to decide when and where they would kill the clergyman and explode the cafe,�he said.\n(Apr 27 2009) - China Post : Asian stock markets retreat amid swine flu fears\nHONG KONG -- Asian stock markets retreated Monday as investors worried the outbreak of swine flu in North America could grow into a worldwide pandemic that deepens the global recession. Fears over a virus that has already sickened hundreds, and possibly killed more than 100 in Mexico, led investors to buy drug makers and dump airlines like Qantas Airways and Cathay Pacific. Oil prices and the dollar both fell. In Asia, investors are painfully aware of the toll an epidemic can exact on companies and industries after SARS battered regional economies from Hong Kong to Singapore in 2003.\n(Apr 26 2009) - New York Post : Pig Flu Panic at Queens High School\nNEW YORK -- A group of Queens high school students likely brought Mexico's deadly swine flu epidemic to the city after they went on a wild spring-break party to Cancun earlier this month. Some seniors from St. Francis Prep in Fresh Meadows took the trip over Easter hiatus two weeks ago. Days later, an outbreak of flu-like symptoms erupted at the school, leaving about 200 kids complaining of being ill. Yesterday, city health officials confirmed that eight students \"have probable human swine influenza\" after testing positive for Influenza A, which officials say causes the swine strain of disease.\n(Apr 25 2009) - Jerusalem Post : US flight to Israel diverted to Boston\nNEW YORK -- An airliner carrying 206 people from New York to Tel Aviv was diverted from its destination and landed in Boston after a rowdy passenger attempted to force his way into the cockpit, Reuters reported overnight Friday. The Delta plane landed in the city's Logan International Airport after other passengers managed to subdue him, Boston media cited by the report said. Airport staff said the incident was not terrorism related. Two weeks ago IAF jets were scrambled to a Delta aircraft making its way to Israel after it lost contact with the control tower at Ben Gurion Airport.\n(Apr 24 2009) - Liberty Post : Calls for Homeland Security Chief to Resign\nOKLAHOMA -- A non-profit organization devoted to national security is demanding the resignation of the Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano, or that President Obama fire her immediately. Here's why: Congresswoman Mary Fallin (R-OK) said Homeland Security Secretary Janet Napolitano is �out of touch with mainstream America� if she believes that returning war veterans and people who believe in the Second Amendment pose a terrorism threat to the nation. �Like most Oklahomans I was amazed at her statements and actions this week,� Fallin said.\n(Apr 23 2009) - Patriot Post : Lost in Political Space\nWASH D.C. -- Sen. John McCain's daughter and his presidential campaign manager think they've figured out why McCain lost the 2008 election and what Republicans must do to win in the future. They need to be more like Democrats. Steve Schmidt and Meghan McCain delivered their analyses in separate speeches to the Log Cabin Republicans, whose stated mission \"is to work within the Republican Party to advocate equal rights for all Americans, including gays and lesbians.\" Schmidt said he believes that a political party should not take or argue a position on same-sex marriage based on religious grounds.\n(Apr 22 2009) - National Post : Don�t pay ransoms to pirates\nADDIS ABABA -- Somalia's prime minister said on Wednesday that foreign navies patrolling off Somalia's coast have failed to discourage piracy \"an inch\" and condemned firms paying ransoms to sea gangs hijacking ships. Somali buccaneers have made millions of dollars seizing vessels in the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean, and have driven up insurance rates for merchant ships passing through the waterways linking Europe to Asia. \"The only reason people [become pirates] is because the companies are deciding to pay ransoms,\" Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke told reporters in the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa.\n(Apr 21 2009) - Yemen Post : Egypt Deports 9 Yemeni Children after Human Trafficking Ring Broken up CAIRO -- The Egyptian authorities have deported nine Yemeni children to their homeland after the police in association with the Yemeni community broke up an international human trafficking ring accused of trading in human organs. The authorities found ten Yemeni children early last month in Cairo who the ring could bring to the country where they were expected to undergo surgeries to remove their organs to trade in them. First the children were handed over to the Yemeni community. The children were in good health. 9 out of them have been sent home while the other one was handed over to his family in Egypt.\n(Apr 20 2009) - Christian Post : DHS Sec defends report targeting pro-lifers\nWASH D.C. -- The head of the Department of Homeland Security on Sunday defended the inclusion of pro-life supporters in the agency's report that identifies possible terrorist threats, saying there have been extremist groups within the abortion debate that \"have committed violent acts.\" DHS secretary Janet Napolitano made the comments in an interview on CNN's \"State of the Union\" on Sunday, the anniversary of the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing � considered the deadliest terrorist attack in the United States prior to 9/11.\n(Apr 19 2009) - Post Tribune : Prison may not be kind to former cop\nINDIANA -- Former Gary Police Chief Thomas Houston spent more than four decades putting some of Gary's most violent criminals behind bars. This summer, Houston will head to federal prison himself to serve a 41-month sentence for abusing the civil rights of a burglary suspect. It will be hard time for Houston, a 66-year-old man recently diagnosed with cancer, who choked up at his sentencing hearing Thursday when describing his shame at joining the ranks of convicted felons. And jail time, generally, is not any easier for police officers than it is for other offenders, said Larry Sullivan, a criminology professor at St. John's University in New York.\n(Apr 18 2009) - Bangkok Post : PAD demands better security for its leaders\nTHAILAND -- The People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) yesterday called on Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva to offer better protection to its leaders just hours after top PAD leader Sondhi Limthongkul narrowly survived an assassination attempt. The alliance, however, assured that it would not call a mass rally in response to the attack. PAD member Somkiat Pongpaiboon said the pre-dawn ambush which involved heavy weapons raised questions about the efficiency of those providing security. The assault took place despite the capital being under a state of emergency.\n(Apr 14 2009) - News Post : US to host global finance ministers� meet\nWASH D.C. -- US Treasury Secretary Tim Geithner will host a meeting of finance ministers from the world�s 20 top economies including India next week to discuss plans to increase oversight of the global financial system. The meeting of ministers of Group of 20 advanced economies will follow a smaller gathering of officials from the Group of 7 rich countries in Washington on April 24, the Treasury Department said Monday. After a summit in London earlier this month, G-20 member nations had agreed to increase oversight of the global financial system and pledged more than $1 trillion to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to help economies in need.\n(Apr 13 2009) - China Post : Fiji threatens to expel foreign journalists\nSUVA, Fiji -- Fiji's military government threatened foreign journalists with expulsion Monday as local media protested new censorship by canceling evening news broadcasts and leaving large parts of newspapers blank. The government of Commodore Frank Bainimarama asked an Australian reporter and a New Zealand television reporter and cameraman to leave Monday, in a sign that international coverage of the latest military power grab is being closely scrutinized. Australian Broadcasting Corp. correspondent Sean Dorney said he was initially told he would be deported.\n(Apr 12 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Christians celebrate Easter in Jerusalem\nISRAEL -- Christians prayed at an ancient church and sang in a garden outside the walls of Jerusalem's Old City as they marked Easter Sunday in the city where they believe Jesus was crucified and resurrected. The city buzzed with religious activity. Orthodox Christians, who observe a different calendar, marked Palm Sunday, and thousands of Jewish worshippers celebrating Pessah thronged a plaza opposite the Western Wall for a traditional blessing. Roman Catholics held Mass at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, traditionally believed to mark the site where Jesus was crucified, buried and then resurrected on Easter Sunday.\n(Apr 11 2009) - Gwinnett Post : Men dealt 6 life terms\nLAWRENCEVILLE -- A judge imposed six life sentences plus more than 200 years on the last two captured members of a posse who robbed, sexually assaulted and generally terrorized Gwinnett immigrant communities five years ago. The ruling caps the prosecution of eight men who'll face some of the longest sentences imposed in the history of Gwinnett County. Suffice it to say Superior Court Judge Debra Turner - known for doling harsh penalties - doesn't shine kindly on home invaders.\n(Apr 10 2009) - Denver Post : Man shoulders wooden cross around the globe DENVER -- Arthur Blessitt has walked across every nation, territory and island group on the planet � 38,102 miles, enough to hold the Guinness Book's world record. And he does hold it, although the record keeper doesn't really have a category for what Blessitt did. He walked all those miles between 1969 and 2009, with a heavy wooden cross resting on his shoulder. A small wheel attached to the bottom of the cross helped Blessitt roll it across seven continents, through Middle Eastern war zones, over Antarctic ice and through South American jungle.\n(Apr 09 2009) - African Post : Rights group documents mass rapes, killings\nCONGO -- At least 90 women have been raped and 180 villagers killed over the past two months by rebels as well as government forces in volatile eastern Congo, a top human rights group said in a report Thursday. New York-based Human Rights Watch said it documented the rapes, killings and burning of dozens of villages by the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda, or FDLR. That force is made up primarily of Rwandan nationals who fled across the border into Congo after orchestrating Rwanda's 1994 genocide of a half-a-million people.\n(Apr 08 2009) - Liberty Post : MSNBC poll of 1.8 million: Obama earns 'F' AMERICA -- In less than three months in office, president gets failing grade. With more than 1.8 million responses to a MSNBC poll , President Obama has earned a grade of \"F\" for his performance in office. He received a failing mark in an MSNBC unscientific online survey after having spent less than three months in the White House. In its \"Give President Obama a Grade\" survey, MSNBC asked nearly 2 million respondents, \"If you were grading Barack Obama on his performance as president, what would he get?\" The largest number of respondents � or 43 percent � gave Obama an \"F.\"\n(Apr 07 2009) - News Post : Syrian man arrested for planning to assassinate Obama ANKAKA -- A Syrian national who allegedly planned to stab US President Barack Obama was arrested in Istanbul Friday, Turkish media reported Tuesday. The man had attempted to gain press credentials for Obama�s visit claiming he worked for the Al Jazeera. The Ankara correspondent for Al Jazeera said that they had never heard of the man. Reports said he had confessed to police after his arrest.\n(Apr 06 2009) - National Post : Italy quake 'virtually destroyed' some towns, more than 90 dead L'AQUILA, Italy -- The earthquake that struck central Italy on Monday \"virtually destroyed\" entire towns and left some 15,000 buildings off-limits, the speaker of Italy's lower house of parliament Gianfranco Fini said. A powerful { 6.3 } earthquake struck a huge swath of central Italy as residents slept on Monday morning. The death toll has risen to more than 90, rescue workers were quoted saying by Italy's ANSA news agency. Most of the dead were in L'Aquila, a 13th-century mountain city about 100 km (60 miles) east of Rome, and surrounding towns and villages in the Abruzzo region.\n(Apr 05 2009) - Seattle Post : North Korea launches rocket, defying world pressure SEOUL, South Korea -- North Korea defied international warnings and sent a rocket hurtling over the Pacific on Sunday, a launch President Barack Obama called an illicit test of the regime's long-range missile technology that threatened the security of nations \"near and far.\" Obama and European Union leaders meeting in Prague condemned the move and said North Korea's dangerous defiance demanded an international response. Diplomats at the United Nations scheduled an emergency Security Council session for later Sunday to discuss what Obama called a clear violation of U.N. resolutions.\n(Apr 04 2009) - New York Post : IMMIGRANTS SLAUGHTERED IN BIRMINGHAM\nNEW YORK -- A lunatic armed to the teeth burst into a citizenship class for immigrants yesterday in Binghamton and turned their search for the American dream into a bloody nightmare, slaughtering 13 people before turning his weapon on himself, officials and sources said. In the worst US gun massacre since the 2007 Virginia Tech shootings, a shooter identified by sources as Jiverly Voong, 42, blazed away inside the one-story office of the American Civic Association at 10:30 a.m. Besides the dead, four people were critically wounded, officials said.\n(Apr 03 2009) - Bangkok Post : Blogger jailed for insulting the King\nTHAILAND -- The Criminal Court sentenced a blogger to 10 years in jail on Friday after he pleaded guilty to insulting His Majesty the King in a landmark conviction under the computer crimes law. It was the first sentencing under the new Computer Crimes Act enacted in 2007. Suwicha Thakhor, 34, admitted to doctoring photos of His Majesty and posting them on the Internet, according to a court statement. He was initially sentenced to 20 years, but the court reduced the term to 10 years in prison because of his guilty plea. If he had been charged with lese majeste under the Criminal Code, he would have faced a maximum sentence of 15 years.\n(Apr 02 2009) - Christian Post : Evangelical German Family Seeks U.S. Asylum to Homeschool Kids TENN -- The case of a homeschooling family seeking for political asylum in the United States after fleeing Germany is expected to go before an immigration judge in Memphis, Tenn., Thursday. Uwe and Hannelore Romeike, formerly of Bissingen, Germany, along with their five children, made it to the U.S. last August and say they were persecuted for their evangelical Christian beliefs and for homeschooling their children in a country where school attendance is mandatory. �The persecution of homeschoolers in Germany has dramatically intensified,� said Michael P. Donnelly, an attorney with the Home School Legal Defense Association representing the family.\n(Apr 01 2009) - Post Bulletin : After Red River flood battle comes recovery debate ST. PAUL -- Once the Red River retreats into its banks for good, soggy flood-fighters along its route face a different kind of challenge: Navigating state and federal bureaucracies for help in the recovery. Preliminary estimates suggest tens of millions of dollars in public damages -- not counting losses by homeowners and businesses. It should be enough to put Minnesota and North Dakota in line for federal disaster aid. Some repair costs will fall to state and local governments, and Minnesota officials think a new state law will enable them to get money out faster than usual. The financial toll will climb higher if melting from this week's heavy snowfall causes a second crest at or above record levels seen last weekend.\n(Mar 31 2009) - Kyiv Post : Germany bans far-right youth group\nBERLIN -- German Interior Minister Wolfgang Schaeuble banned right-wing organisation \"Heimattreue Deutsche Jugend\" on Tuesday, saying the group was spreading Nazi propaganda to young people. The organisation, Patriotic German Youth in English, has several hundred members, the ministry said. It called it a cornerstone of the far-right movement with ties to the National Democratic Party (NPD). \"With today's ban we're putting an end to the nauseating activities of the HDJ,\" Schaeuble said in a statement. \"We're going to do everything possible to protect our children and our youths from these rat catchers.\"\n(Mar 30 2009) - Post Chronicle : U.S. Deploys Anti-Missile Ships ...\nU.S.A. -- The United States deployed two missile-interceptor ships from South Korea on Monday, a military spokesman said, days ahead of a North Korean rocket launch widely seen as a long-range missile test that violates U.N. sanctions. The launch presents the first significant challenge by the prickly state to U.S. President Barack Obama, who will discuss Pyongyang's intentions with global leaders including Chinese President Hu Jintao this week at the G20 summit in London. The United States, however, has no intention to shoot down the rocket in a test seen by Washington as part of Pyongyang's goal to eventually develop an intercontinental ballistic missile, U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates said on Sunday.\n(Mar 29 2009) - Post Tribune : U.S. Steel confronts benzene leak into lake\nINDIANA -- For several years, benzene-laden groundwater has been seeping into Lake Michigan from an old tank farm at U.S. Steel Gary Works. The company plans to install a $1.4 million system that would treat the benzene starting in August or September. Officials will present the plan to the public at a meeting on Tuesday in Gary. U.S. Steel discovered the problem last summer when it tested soil and groundwater near an on-site landfill for contamination as part of a federal order.\n(Mar 28 2009) - China Post : Japan deploys ships, will shoot down any debris TOKYO -- Japan's military mobilized Friday to protect the country from any threat if North Korea's looming rocket launch fails, ordering two missile-equipped destroyers to the Sea of Japan and sending batteries of Patriot missile interceptors to protect the northern coastline. Pyongyang plans to launch its Kwangmyongsong-2 satellite April 4-8, a moved that has stoked already heightened tensions in the region. The U.S., Japan and South Korea suspect the North will use the launch to test the delivery technology for a long-range missile capable of striking Alaska.\n(Mar 27 2009) - India Post : Obama rethinking on outsourcing\nWASH D.C. -- US President Barack Obama has hinted that he is not going to insist on bringing back the low-wage, low-skilled jobs outsourced to countries like India and China but would work on creating high-skilled, high-paying jobs, which cannot be off-shored. The suggestion might come as a big relief to thousands of youths in countries like India, China and Philippines, where American companies have outsourced their work.\n(Mar 26 2009) - Jerusalem Post : US planes carried out strike on convoy\nSUDAN -- The bombing of a convoy of trucks that was reportedly carrying weapons bound for the Gaza Strip through Sudan during Operation Cast Lead was carried out by American aircraft, according to Sudanese State Minister for Highways Mabrouk Mubarak Saleem. Saleem, who spoke to Al Jazeera on Thursday was quoted by Israel Radio as having said that the death toll in the bombing was much higher than initial reports, and stood at 800 people. He also claimed that the trucks were filled with people, and did not contain weapons.\n(Mar 25 2009) - Denver Post : U.S. takes on drug cartels at border\nWASH D.C. -- The U.S. is sending more money, technology and manpower to help Mexico fight drug cartels and keep violence from spilling across the southwestern border, Obama administration officials said Tuesday. Violent turf battles among the cartels have wreaked havoc in Mexico in recent years and led to a spate of kidnappings and home invasions in some U.S. cities. The Obama administration's multi-agency plan includes nearly 500 agents and support personnel. However, officials did not say where the additional agents would come from or how long they would stay at the border.\n(Mar 24 2009) - Yorkshire Post : Inflation rise prompts letter from BoE\nENGLAND -- THE UK's annual rate of inflation showed a shock rise in February after retailers pushed higher import costs caused by the weak pound on to shoppers. The Consumer Prices Index (CPI) rose unexpectedly from 3 per cent in January to 3.2 per cent, according to figures from the Office for National Statistics (ONS) today. The rise confounded predictions of a sharp drop and resulted in another letter from Bank of England Governor Mervyn King to Chancellor Alistair Darling explaining why inflation is still more than 1 per cent above the Government's 2 per cent target.\n(Mar 23 2009) - Frontier Post : Deepening conspiracy\nBALOCHISTAN -- For quite a time, the Iranians have been complaining that the Americans are using our Balochistan province as springboard for destabilising Iran and employing their proxy Jundullah there to infiltrate Balochs into their Sistan-Balochistan region to incite insurgency. And now we are hearing the Chinese, too, are miffed that a terrorist outfit is operating from our tribal region to spread terrorism in their Xingjian province, and they want Islamabad to act against it. But who is propping, arming and bankrolling this outfit?\n(Mar 22 2009) - National Post : Aryan Guard, anti-racism protesters clash\nCALGARY -- Downtown police called in reinforcements from nearby districts Saturday when a white pride march through Calgary's core deteriorated into a violent melee as counter-protesters lobbed rocks and tin cans at the group. The neo-Nazi demonstration drew swift condemnation from a downtown alderman who called the Aryan Guard rally a \"completely unacceptable\" move by a divisive fringe organization. \"It's a provocative move by the Aryan Guard to try to engage in a completely unacceptable form of demonstration given the fact that Calgary does not share the values of hate and racism that they're espousing,\" Ald. John Mar said.\n(Mar 21 2009) - News Post : Senior Sea Tiger leader killed in heavy fighting\nCOLOMBO -- A senior leader of the Tamil Tiger rebels� naval wing was killed along with a few others when the troops advancing from various directions towards the fast shrinking rebel strongholds fought pitched battles with the rebels in Sri Lanka�s north, the defence ministry said here Saturday. It said that the troops of the 55 Division have recovered bodies of four Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) cadres including the body of Sindu, a senior leader of the Sea Tigers after fierce clashes south of Patikkarai in the north-eastern Mullaitivu district Friday.\n(Mar 20 2009) - Birmingham Post : Beware of this Government Ponzi scheme BIRMINGHAM -- If it was not so serious, the daily breaking news from the financial world would make a top-rated soap series, which would have us all glued to our television sets. You could not write a better script or make up a more imaginative story than some of the things that are being discovered as investigators dig into the financial affairs of some of the world�s biggest financial institutions. It was truly breathtaking to read the story surrounding the supposed fraudulent activities of Bernard Madoff.\n(Mar 19 2009) - Christian Post : Teen Birth Rate Up Again; Fuels Sex Ed Debate AMERICA -- The U.S. teen birth rate increased for the second consecutive year, and while many have been quick to blame abstinence-only education for the rise, some are questioning the comprehensive sex education that is being taught in many schools. \"When over two-thirds of public schools (68 percent) teach comprehensive sex education and those programs receive more than four times the amount of federal funding than the amount designated for abstinence programs, it's time to ask Dr. Phil's question, 'How's that working for you?'\" posed Dr. Janice Shaw Crouse, director and senior fellow of Concerned Women for America's Beverly LaHaye Institute.\n(Mar 18 2009) - Bangkok Post : LUXEMBOURGH LEGALIZES EUTHANASIA\nLUXEMBOURG -- Luxembourg became on Tuesday the third European country to legalise euthanasia after the Netherlands and Belgium, as a new law went into force. A law published in the official register said that doctors who carry out euthanasia and assisted suicides would not face \"penal sanctions\" or civil suits for damages and interest. The law was the source of great controversy in the tiny country where the head of state, deeply catholic Grand Duke Henri, refused to sign off on the bill, triggering a constitutional crisis.\n(Mar 17 2009) - Liberty Post : The fix is in for private owners of the FED\nWASH D.C. -- As the US Treasury Department continues to brag that the US has not yet been forced to make good on its guarantees of toxic debt held by the major insider banks (Citigroup, JP Morgan, Bank of America, etc) we find they have been using a back door to funnel money to their friends-AIG the world insurance giant holding the largest share of derivative contracts that guarantee those toxic debts against default. In point of fact, those debts are defaulting in ever increasing number, and AIG is having to pay out billions. But, those billions are being replenished by additional bailout funds from the Treasury-while the rest of the nation suffers from lack of credit.\n(Mar 16 2009) - Seattle Post : Suspicion of vaccines spurs debate, worry\nSEATTLE WA. -- Parents rarely worry about measles and rubella these days, but the growing ranks of those who skip vaccinations for their children have health officials concerned that the sometimes deadly diseases could stage a comeback. There are parents who skip at least one shot over fears about vaccine safety and unproven links between vaccinations and autism, worries about overwhelming their baby's immune system and because it's relatively easy to opt out in the state, experts say. Now, the decisions of these parents threaten to create a public health risk. If enough parents forgo vaccinations, measles and other long-contained diseases could return, officials warn.\n(Mar 15 2009) - Post Chronicle : OPEC Considers Full Compliance Or Fresh Cuts VIENNA -- OPEC ministers began talks on Sunday to decide whether to set new output targets or stick to existing curbs against a backdrop of swelling oil inventories and a shattered world economy. Ministers from the 12-member Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries said the first item on the agenda was tighter enforcement of agreements since September to lower supply targets by 4.2 million barrels per day (bpd). But they have yet to rule out also agreeing deeper cuts to stave off further price weakness and pre-empt more rises in inventories as demand sinks.\n(Mar 14 2009) - Jakarta Post : Obama asks Indonesia to �join hands�\nINDONISIA -- US President Barack Obama called his Indonesian counterpart Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono on Friday to express Washington�s willingness to involve Jakarta in tackling global issues, including the environment and the financial crisis. Obama also told Yudhoyono in the 10-minute phone conversation that he wanted to build �a comprehensive partnership� between the two countries, said Indonesian presidential spokesman Dino Patti Djalal. The US president also thanked Indonesia for the �warm� and �friendly� welcome it had extended to US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton when she visited the country last month, Dino said.\n(Mar 13 2009) - China Post : Pakistan blocks anti-government demonstrators ISLAMABAD, Pakistan -- Pakistan's opposition leader predicted President Asif Ali Zardari won't serve his full five-year term as police Friday turned away another convoy of protesters trying to reach the capital for a major anti-government demonstration. Authorities have detained hundreds of political activists and lawyers in recent days, seeking to thwart a protest movement that is challenging the government's shaky year-old rule. The turmoil could dampen Western hopes that Pakistan will stay focused on the fight against al-Qaida and Taliban extremists along its border with Afghanistan.\n(Mar 12 2009) - Minneapolis Post : Formaldehyde present in many kids' bath products, tests find U.S.A. -- Formaldehyde, popularly associated with embalming and taxidermy and used in a variety of building products, is showing up in children's bath products to an alarming degree, according to a report to be issued today by a local advocacy group that has gained prominence in its calls for tighter controls and bans on a range of chemicals. Healthy Legacy, an upstart associated with the Minneapolis-based Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, says that formaldehyde and the lesser known 1,4 dioxane are present in more than half of the children's products tested ...\n(Mar 11 2009) - Jerusalem Post : N. Korea accuses Obama's government of interference NORTH KOREA -- North Korea accused President Barack Obama's government of meddling in its internal affairs Wednesday and vowed to take \"every necessary measure\" to defend itself against what it calls US threats. The statement by North Korea's Foreign Ministry, however, was far less harsh than rhetoric issued by the country's military during the run-up to joint US-South Korean war games that started across the South on Monday. The North's military has threatened South Korean passenger planes and put its troops on standby. Still, the Foreign Ministry's statement was significant in that it was the agency's first on the US since Obama's inauguration, an analyst said.\n(Mar 10 2009) - Courier Post : Ex-lawmaker in child porn case out on bail\nTRENTON -- A former New Jersey lawmaker has pleaded not guilty to child pornography charges. Prosecutors say Neil Cohen has admitted viewing child porn, but rejected a plea bargain. A judge says Cohen can remain free without bail. His freedom comes with conditions. Cohen is not allowed to be around schools or playgrounds, use the Internet other than for business or have unsupervised contact with children under 16. The former assemblyman from Roselle faces up to 30 years in prison if convicted of official misconduct and child pornography charges.\n(Mar 09 2009) - Copenhagen Post : Danes soft on drug use\nCOPENHAGEN -- Opinion polls point to a nationwide public tolerance of drugs that is not shared by politicians. Recent surveys show that 81 percent of Danes support the establishment of �fix rooms� for heroin addicts, while 59 percent believe hash smoking should be legalised. A survey conducted by Vilstrup Analyses for substance-abuse help organisation Gadejuristen indicated broad support for the establishment of public fix rooms, an issue that has been on the political agenda for some time. Opposition parties in parliament have long supported the proposal.\n(Mar 08 2009) - Weekend Post : Streets of fear and terror\nHELENVALE, AFRICA -- AS the family of Aniclito Jenniker mourns and plans his funeral, Helenvale residents go about their lives refusing to co-operate with police combating gangsterism in the area. Aniclito, 13, the latest victim of gang violence, was hit in the head by a stray bullet in Ibek Street, Helenvale, on Wednesday (March 04) night. His death came on the same day The Herald featured an article highlighting gang violence in the Helenvale area. Gelvandale police officers invited The Herald to accompany them yesterday as they visited each house in the notorious street where shooting and gang fighting is the order of the day.\n(Mar 07 2009) - Yorkshire Post : 1,000 B&B jobs could be rescued by 'bad bank' plan YORKSHIRE -- Nationalised Bradford & Bingley could become a \"bad bank\" for the country's toxic assets � saving nearly 1,000 jobs in Yorkshire. Senior public sector figures are understood to support the move which could secure the long-term future of the state-owned bank. As reported in yesterday's Yorkshire Post, a confidential draft report, prepared by Deloitte for the regional financial services task force, recommends the setting up of a financial institution in Yorkshire as one intervention to prevent massive job losses in the region. The \"bad bank\" plan is said to be gathering support. B&B is considered an ideal base as it already has the infrastructure, workforce and skills in place.\n(Mar 06 2009) - Denver Post : Half of state's drill rigs idled\nRIFLE -- The number of rigs drilling for natural gas and oil in Colorado has plunged 46 percent in the past year � one of the steepest declines in the country. But the permits to drill new wells are up, indicating energy companies might be willing to at least bet on a comeback. \"What happens depends on how commodity prices go for the rest of the year,\" David Grisso, an EnCana field operations leader, said to a packed room of anxious-looking energy industry and community officials Thursday in Rifle. Some people at the Northwest Colorado Oil and Gas Forum blamed Colorado's big downturn on the state's plan to institute some of the strictest drilling regulations in the country.\n(Mar 05 2009) - Bangkok Post : Asia to take lead in arms spending\nSINGAPORE -- Asia is expected to outstrip the rest of the world in defence spending within seven years as China and India upgrade their armed forces, a research consultancy said here on Thursday. Asia's overall defence budget will account for 32 per cent of global military spending by 2016, or US$480 billion, up from 24 per cent in 2007, Frost and Sullivan's regional director for defence practice Ratan Shrivastava said. North America, the biggest defence spender in 2007 with 39 per cent of the world arms market, will see its share fall to 29 per cent or $435 billion, he said at a conference organised by the company. In India, about $100 billion will be spent on defence procurement over the next five years, said Shrivastava.\n(Mar 04 2009) - Norway Post : New oil find off Angola\nANGOLA -- StatoilHydro and its partners have announced a new oil discovery in block 31 off Angola. This is the 17th discovery made in block 31, which is operated by BP. The Norwegian company has a 13 per cent interest in the new find. The discovery is located in the central northern portion of block 31, some 415 kilometres north-west of Luanda, and about 12 kilometres to the south-west of the Marte field. The Leda discovery was drilled in a water depth of 2070 metres and reached a total well depth of 5907 metres below sea level. The exploration well was drilled through salt to access the oil bearing sandstone reservoir below. The well was tested at a rate of 5040 barrels of oil a day through a 36/64thns inch choke.\n(Mar 03 2009) - Patriot Post : A Nation Of Sheep\nWASH D.C. -- Up in the air (where it generally stays anyway) went the New York Times' snooty nose. Those conservatives, clucked the Times -- railing the way they do against the Obama administration's lurch toward \"socialism\"! And calling the president \"Comrade Obama\"! What -- so went the strongly implied question -- do we do with such folk? How about, for starters, listen to them? They might be less wacko than the Times often considers people who disagree with the Times. \"Socialism,\" tightly defined, is outright government ownership. It is not, strictly speaking, socialistic to propose that government take over health care policy, redistribute income, prod the automobile industry to make particular kinds of products, and impose a carbon cap-and-trade regime to combat a problem, global warming, that few voters seem to worry about.\n(Mar 02 2009) - Post Chronicle : AIG Enters Records With $61.7 Billion Loss\nNEW YORK -- American International Group Inc posted a $61.7 billion fourth-quarter loss ... the biggest quarterly loss in corporate history -- after reaching a revised rescue deal with the U.S. government that wards off for now the prospect of crippling credit rating downgrades. The massive quarterly loss, equal to $22.95 a share, was AIG's fifth in a row, bringing the total loss over that period to more than $100 billion. The Treasury and Federal Reserve said AIG had posed a systemic risk requiring government action to prevent its problems from damaging the entire financial system. AIG, the recipient of $150 billion in taxpayer aid last year, will get access to an additional $30 billion under the government's revised plan announced on Monday.\n(Mar 01 2009) - Christian Post : Malaysia to Restore 'Allah' Ban for Christians KUALA LUMPUR, Malaysia -- The Malaysian government will issue a new decree restoring a ban on Christian publications using the word \"Allah\" to refer to God, officials said Sunday. Home Affairs Minister Syed Hamid Albar said a previous Feb. 16 decree that allowed Christian publications to use the word as long as they specified the material was not for Muslims was a mistake, the national Bernama news agency reported. The about-turn came after Islamic groups slammed the government and warned that even conditional use of the word by Christians would anger Muslims, who make up the country's majority.\n(Feb 28 2009) - Liberty Post : Chinese Spies Infiltrating US Businesses\nU.S.A. -- The almost legendary MI5 British counterintelligence service is said to be deeply concerned over an increase in spying by Chinese operatives in the United Kingdom. Although intelligence experts aren't certain how widespread the problem is, they believe the espionage is rampant and a serious consequence of the global economy. MI5 suspects upwards of 15 foreign intelligence services are working within the UK and are a threat to the United Kingdom's interests, and the primary focus of their counterespionage efforts are the Chinese and Russians.\n(Feb 27 2009) - National Post : Russian jet chased by Canada before Obama visit OTTAWA -- On the eve of Barack Obama's visit to Ottawa, a Russian jet approached Canada's Arctic air space and had to be turned away by Canadian warplanes, Defence Minister Peter MacKay said Friday at a news conference on Parliament Hill. With Obama poised to leave American soil for the first time as U.S. president on Feb. 19, the joint Canada-U.S. aerospace command, Norad, detected the Russian plane. Two of Canada's CF-18 fighter jets were scrambled to intercept one Russian aircraft, MacKay confirmed.\n(Feb 26 2009) - Prague Post : Anti-Roma activity on the rise\nPRAGUE -- Gov't moves to ban DS party amid surge of far-right movement. A political party best known for targeting the Roma community with frequent violent rhetoric and occasional physical violence faces possible abolition at the hands of the government, but vows to march on regardless. The Czech Supreme Administrative Court is expected to rule on a potential ban for the right-wing Workers' Party (DS) March 4, but the party leadership says the ruling is virtually irrelevant. \"The verdict will hopefully confirm that we have the same rights as everyone else in this democracy,\" said party Chairman Tom� Vandas.\n(Feb 25 2009) - Washington Post : Satellite Crashes After Its Launch\nU.S.A. -- NASA and climate researchers are weighing their options after yesterday's crash of a new satellite designed to monitor atmospheric carbon dioxide with unprecedented accuracy. A malfunction during the rocket ride toward space sent the Orbiting Carbon Observatory plummeting into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica. \"To say that it's extremely disappointing would be an understatement. This was a really important science mission,\" said a dismayed Edward J. Weiler, NASA's associate administrator for science.\n(Feb 24 2009) - China Post : Thai anti-government group stages protest\nBANGKOK -- Thousands of protesters surrounded the prime minister's office Tuesday demanding Thailand's Parliament be dissolved and new elections held. The rally by demonstrators allied with exiled former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra came three days before Thailand is to host the annual summit of the 10-member Association of Southeast Asian Nations. About 7,000 people attended, police said. One of the protest leaders, Jakrapob Penkair, said the demonstration was being staged to show Thailand's Southeast Asian neighbors that the government of Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva had no right to rule.\n(Feb 23 2009) - Kyiv Post : Latvia seeks new government amid economic woes RIGA -- Latvia's president began a search on Monday for a new prime minister who will have to deal with a deepening economic crisis and further painful budget cuts. The government of the small Baltic state collapsed on Friday, following Iceland as a victim of the global economic crisis. Its woes have added to the clouds in the investment climate over eastern Europe. Latvia, with a population of 2.3 million, last year had to take a 7.5 billion euro ($9.69 billion) rescue loan led by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and EU. In January, it was also hit by rioting.\n(Feb 22 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Israel must change \"counterproductive\" Gaza policies ISRAEL -- Banning lentils and pasta from Gaza does not help the cause of peace, two visiting congressmen told The Jerusalem Post on Friday morning, after making a rare visit to Gaza the previous day. \"When have lentil bombs been going off lately? Is someone going to kill you with a piece of macaroni?\" asked Rep. Brian Baird (D-Washington). He and Keith Ellison (D-Minnesota) called on Israel to end the economic isolation of Gaza and to open the crossings into the area, which have been closed since Hamas's coup there in June 2007.\n(Feb 21 2009) - News Post : Taliban accepts Pakistan��s offer of ceasefire\nMINGORA, PAKISTAN -- Taliban and Pakistani officials have agreed to a permanent ceasefire in the Swat Valley, a senior government official said on Saturday. They have made commitment that they will observe a permanent ceasefire and we�ll do the same, said Syed Mohammad Javed, the Commissioner of Malakand. Swat Taliban commander Maulana Fazlullah was expected to announce the ceasefire on the illegal FM radio owned by Taliabn. Taliban spokesman Muslim Khan told Reuters that Fazlullah would make an announcement on the radio shortly. I can�t say what he would say but there would be good news for people of Swat, Khan said.\n(Feb 20 2009) - Frontier Post : End to poppy growing must for economic uplift\nBOSTON -- The Obama administration is committing 30,000 additional troops to Afghanistan. Yet as the United States works to stabilize that country, the most important decisions don't just involve troop and funding levels. Also vital is ending the prohibition on growing opium poppies - for the policy is a key factor in Afghanistan's economic and security crisis. Since the U.S. invasion in 2001, the American and Afghan governments have made the poppy-growing areas of Afghanistan, which produce 90 percent of the world's opium, a major front in the war on drugs.\n(Feb 19 2009) - Bangkok Post : UDD to hold big rally on Feb 24\nTHAILAND -- United Front for Democracy against Dictatorship (UDD) core leaders held a press conference on Thursday, calling on their red-shirt supporters to join the anti-government rally on Tuesday. UDD key member and opposition Puea Thai party MP Jatuporn Prompan said the demonstration next Tuesday will again remind the coalition government led by the Democrat party to follow their four ultimatums, including dismissing Foreign Minister Kasit Piromya, prosecuting People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) leaders for closing Suvarnabhumi and Don Mueang airports late last year, reinstating the 1997 Constitution, and dissolving the lower house.\n(Feb 18 2009) - Denver Post : Mexicans demand army leave\nCIUDAD JUAREZ -- Hundreds of people blocked bridges to the United States in three border cities Tuesday, demanding that the army leave in another challenge for the Mexican government as it struggles to quell escalating drug violence. The protests in Juarez blocked traffic for about two hours across three bridges connecting the city to El Paso, Texas. Similar protests broke out on bridges in the border cities of Nuevo Laredo and Reynosa. Demonstrators blocked city hall and a main avenue in the northern industrial city of Monterrey and roads in the gulf state of Veracruz.\n(Feb 17 2009) - African Post : Outcry at Lloyds �120m bonuses for staff\nSUDAN -- Sudan's government and a leading Darfur rebel faction agreed Tuesday to meet for peace talks, signing a deal with concessions from both sides, and the Qatari mediator urged all other rebels and Chad to come to the table. Tuesday's agreement included measures to aid and protect refugees in Darfur and a commitment by the two sides to continue negotiations in Doha. The Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) also wants a prisoner swap. JEM said it would release some of its Sudanese government detainees as a show of goodwill. The prisoner issue is a thorny one that has come close to frustrating Qatari efforts.\n(Feb 16 2009) - Yorkshire Post : Outcry at Lloyds �120m bonuses for staff\nSCOTLAND -- A storm of outrage has engulfed the Lloyds Banking Group amid suggestions it would splash out �120m on staff bonuses at a time when thousands of Halifax Bank of Scotland (HBOS) jobs are at risk in Yorkshire. Prime Minister Gordon Brown came under growing pressure to intervene after senior Ministers and opposition politicians demanded a freeze on all cash payouts to bosses whose actions helped to trigger the banking crisis. The dispute followed reports that Lloyds, which is 43 per cent state-owned, was preparing to make bonus payments worth �120m for 2008 � a year in which its HBOS subsidiary made estimated losses of �10bn.\n(Feb 15 2009) - Post Chronicle : Australia Mourns Bushfire Victims\nVICTORIA -- Australia mourned the victims of deadly bushfires at church services across the country on Sunday while the government vowed to create an early warning system to try to avoid a repetition of the disaster. The fires in the state of Victoria, the worst natural disaster to hit the country in more than a century, have left at least 181 people dead, a death toll that is expected to rise. The bushfires destroyed more than 1,800 homes and left 7,000 people homeless. In the town of Wandong, where several people died, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd paid tribute to the community for its efforts during a memorial service. \"You, as this community, full of courage, reliance and compassion, I salute each and every one of you,\" he said.\n(Feb 14 2009) - Liberty Post : U.S. missile strike kills 25 militants in Pakistan\nWANA, Pakistan -- A U.S. missile strike killed at least 25 al Qaeda-linked militants in Pakistan's South Waziristan region on the Afghan border on Saturday, a senior Taliban official said. The strike by pilotless drones was the third such attack since U.S. President Barack Obama took office last month and could ignite fresh popular anger in Pakistan over the cross-border raids from Afghanistan. The Taliban official said those killed were mostly Uzbek fighters. \"Our people have informed us that at least 25 people were killed. It could be more,\" the official told Reuters. Missiles hit a sprawling house used by the militants as a training camp in the Zangari area in the South Waziristan region.\n(Feb 13 2009) - Jakarta Post : N. Sulawesi 7.4 quake injures dozens\nSULAWASI -- Hundreds of people fled to the hills and at least 64 were injured when a major quake hit off the North Sulawesi coast early Thursday, officials say. Hundreds of homes and buildings were also damaged in the 7.4-magnitude undersea quake that struck at 1:34 a.m. local time in the waters between North Sulawesi and the southern Philippines. The geophysics agency issued a tsunami alert, which was later revoked. �Initially, there was a possibility of a tsunami,� said Mudjianto of the Meteorology and Geophysics Agency. �But based on the early warning system installed around the Sangihe area, there was no movement of water mass indicating a tsunami; so we announced the earthquake had no tsunami potential as it occurred at a depth of 10 kilometers under the sea.�\n(Feb 13 2009) - Christian Post : Encyclopedia Recalled for Being 'Too Christian' ONLY IN AMERICA -- Wiley-Blackwell, a major academic publisher, is recalling copies of Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization and scrapping the print run after critics said the entries were \"too Christian\" and \"too anti-Muslim.\" The publisher was set to release the four-volume encyclopedia this month after it was completed last September. But a small group of critics that included contributors and some members of the editorial board objected to the final version. \"They determined that the Introduction and many of the entries were 'too Christian, too orthodox, too anti-secular and too anti-Muslim and not politically correct enough for being used in universities,\" said the encyclopedia�s editor, George Thomas Kurian, sounding angry in an e-mail sent last week to nearly 400 contributors.\n(Feb 12 2009) - China Post : Situation is 'very tense' in Tibet: Dalai Lama\nBADEN BADEN, Germany -- The Dalai Lama warned Wednesday of a fresh uprising in Tibet in the �very tense� run-up to the 50th anniversary of the failed rebellion against Chinese rule that prompted his flight into exile. �Today there is too much anger... The situation is very tense,� said the 73-year-old Tibetan Buddhist spiritual leader during a visit to the German spa town of Baden Baden. �At any moment there can be an outburst of violence,� he told a group of journalists. �This is my worry because with more uprising, there will be more crackdown. Things are very sad.�\n(Feb 11 2009) - Asia Pacific Post : India boasts of building a $10 laptop\nINDIA -- The hype surrounding the Indian Education Ministry�s breathless announcement last week that it would be unveiling a $10 laptop aimed at the poor fizzled out like a wet firecracker when officials finally debuted the device. A photo displayed at the press conference in the southern city of Tirupati near Bangalore showed it to be nothing more than an external storage brick, the sort of thing you�d plug into a real laptop to hold your MP3 files. \"There are a lot of things you can do for $10,\" PCMag.com Editor-in-Chief Lance Ulanoff told Fox News. \"Buy 10 cups of coffee. Get a cheap T-shirt or two. What you can�t do, however, is build a PC.\"\n(Feb 10 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Peres urges all citizens to go out and vote\nISRAEL -- With a low predicted voter turnout and a forecast of inclement weather, polling stations across the country prepared to open their doors at 7 a.m. on Tuesday. President Shimon Peres urged all Israelis to turn out to vote. \"Going to the polls tomorrow is doubly important; the significance lies not only in the right to choose the people who will stand at the head of our country and who will be responsible for its future, but also in the duty of every citizen to vote on behalf of the state, which is the only true democracy in the Middle East,\" said Peres.\n(Feb 09 2009) - National Post : Afghan vote may lengthen Canadian battle tours\nAFGHANISTAN -- Security option would see 4,000 troops in country. The general responsible for all Canadian forces deployed overseas said yesterday he had given \"written direction\" to the incoming commander of Task Force Afghanistan to come up with contingency plans to provide additional security during national elections that are slated to take place on Aug. 20. Among the possibilities was to put more Canadian boots on the ground during this crucial period. \"There certainly is no plan to surge in more Canadian forces or extend the tours, but it is Afghanistan. Things can change,\" Lieutenant-General Michel Gauthier said in an interview.\n(Feb 08 2009) - Post Star : Co-worker couples feeling pinch\nGLEN FALLS N.Y. -- It is a well-known risk to lack diversity in an investment portfolio. Now, couples employed by the same company are learning a similar lesson, the hard way. As layoffs mount across the country and in all sectors, couples who are co-workers are increasingly vulnerable to losing their families' twin sources of income at once. The lack of variety in job skills can also make it difficult to bounce back, especially in a struggling industry.\n(Feb 07 2009) - News Post : Violence breaks out in Siliguri\nSILIGURI -- Violence broke out in Siliguri during a 24-hour strike called by an outfit demanding autonomy on Saturday. The indigenous Gorkha people have been demanding a separate state within West Bengal. Police officials said the situation turned violent in Siliguri when the locals chased armed protesters under the banner of Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM). The shutdown was called to protest the recent violence on tribal people in the State. Police officials said 12 people were arrested for inciting violence.\n(Feb 06 2009) - Bangkok Post : BAY taking over AIG bank unit\nTHAILAND -- Bank of Ayudhya, Thailand's fifth-largest bank, announced yesterday that it would buy AIG Retail Bank in a deal valued at 2.055 billion baht. Under the transaction announced yesterday, BAY will take 99.5% of AIG Retail Bank and 100% of AIG Card for 2.055 billion. The acquisition will boost BAY's assets by 32 billion baht to 777 billion, including a 14% increase in its retail loan portfolio and 222,000 new credit card accounts. The deal, subject to approval to the Bank of Thailand and BAY shareholders, is expected to be completed in April.\n(Feb 05 2009) - Prague Post : Prague is a stop for heroin entering Europe\nPRAGUE -- Heroin produced in Afghanistan is now more easily distributed within Europe once smuggled into the open-border Schengen zone. Customs officers suspected something odd about the 20-year-old Bulgarian the moment they spotted him at Prague Ruzyne Airport. The man, who had just arrived on a direct commercial flight from Istanbul, acted edgy and uncertain, and his awkward behavior suggested that he had never really traveled before. Even through the airport's security camera monitor, customs officers could sense that his trendy clothes and carry-on bag belied his provincial demeanor.\n(Feb 04 2009) - African Post : Kadhafi Celebrates Obama Election\nAFRICA -- Libyan leader Moamer Kadhafi on Wednesday lavished uncharacteristic praise on a US leader, describing Barack Obama's accession to the White House as a victory against racism and urging the first black American president to lead his country boldly. \"The black people's struggle has vanquished racism. It was God who created colour. Today Obama, a son of Kenya, a son of Africa, has made it in the United States of America,\" he said. Kadhafi, who has ruled over Libya for four decades, was speaking at the closing ceremony of an African Union (AU) summit in Addis Ababa which saw him take the reins of the 53-nation continental organisation.\n(Feb 03 2009) - Copenhagen Post : SAS to fire 3,000\nSWEDIN -- Nearly 9,000 employees will be adversely affected by the Scandinavian carrier's restructuring plan. Scandinavian Airlines reported on Tuesday that it was preparing to fire 3000 of its employees in light of its 4.9 billion Swedish kroner deficit for 2008. Through a press release the airline presented its new 'Core SAS' plan - a restructuring that will result in the lay-off of 3,000 workers. Another 5,600 SAS employees are expected to be forced out of the company due to previous business transactions ...\n(Feb 02 2009) - Post Chronicle : HGS Inc Starts Shipping New Anthrax Drug\nU.S.A. -- Human Genome Sciences Inc. said on Monday it was beginning delivery of 20,000 doses of ABthrax, which fights anthrax infection, to the U.S. government. It is the first sale for the biotechnology company, which has struggled to get a product onto the market. The drug takes a new approach to fighting bacterial infection by targeting the toxin made by the anthrax bacillus instead of the microbe itself. ABthrax, known generically as raxibacumab, is a human monoclonal antibody -- a lab-engineered immune system protein.\n(Feb 01 2009) - Jakarta Post : Iranian police kill 10 drug smugglers\nAFGANISTAN -- Iran's state television says police have killed 10 drug smugglers in a shootout near the Afghan border. The report says the clash happened when the bandits tried to sneak through the frontier some 750 miles (1,200 kilometers) east of the capital Tehran. After Sunday's shootout, police confiscated more than 2,500 pounds (1,150 kilograms) of drugs, mostly opium. Last week, Iran said bandits killed 12 border guards in an ambush near the frontier with Pakistan.\n(Jan 31 2009) - Yorkshire Post : Fury over six-figure pensions for bank bosses\nBRITAIN -- Bankers who led some of Britain's biggest high street names to the brink of disaster are facing calls to be stripped of their six-figure pensions. Four men at the helm of banks the Government was forced to step in and save are still in line to retire with pension pots worth a combined �15m. The pensions � worth up to �579,000 a year � come on top of nearly �16m the bankers pocketed in bonuses, figures show.\n(Jan 30 2009) - Liberty Post : Exxon Mobil shatters US record for annual profit\nHOUSTON -- Exxon Mobil Corp. on Friday reported a profit of $45.2 billion for 2008, breaking its own record for a U.S. company, even as its fourth-quarter earnings fell 33 percent from a year ago. The previous record for annual profit was $40.6 billion, which the world's largest publicly traded oil company set in 2007. The extraordinary full-year profit wasn't a surprise given crude's triple-digit price for much of 2008, peaking near an unheard of $150 a barrel in July. Since then, however, prices have fallen roughly 70 percent amid a deepening global economic crisis.\n(Jan 29 2009) - Kyiv Post : Ships held by Somali pirates\nSOMALI -- Somali pirates on Thursday hijacked a German-owned tanker carrying liquefied petroleum gas in the Gulf of Aden, the third ship to be taken this year, a maritime group said. Pirates freed at the weekend the MT Biscaglia which had 30 crew on board: 25 Indians, three Britons and two Bangladeshis. It was hijacked on Nov. 28. A Danish general cargo ship was also released earlier this month. The CEC Future was hijacked off Somalia on Nov. 7. Below are some of the ships believed to be still held:\n(Jan 28 2009) - Christian Post : Russian Orthodox Church Elects New Leader\nMOSCOW -- The interim leader of the Russian Orthodox Church, seen as a modernizer who could seek a historic reconciliation with the Vatican and more autonomy from the state, was overwhelmingly elected patriarch Tuesday. Metropolitan Kirill received 508 of the 700 votes cast during an all-day church congress in Moscow's ornate Christ the Savior Cathedral, the head of the commission responsible for the election, Metropolitan Isidor, said hours after the secret ballot was over. Kirill defeated a conservative rival, Metropolitan Kliment, who received 169 votes, Isidor said.\n(Jan 27 2009) - New York Post : PATERSON LYIN' KING OF STATE\nALBANY -- Gov. Paterson yesterday insisted he had no idea who did the slime job on Caroline Kennedy - although the source of the information is about as close to him during the day as his wife is at night. He's a liar. The person responsible for the smear was an individual whose identity is well known to the press, whose full-time job is to do the governor's bidding, and who is intelligent enough not to call reporters to damage Kennedy's reputation without approval from the top - and that means Paterson.\n(Jan 26 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Lauder: Sanctions won't stop Iran\nNEW YORK -- The President of the New York-based World Jewish Congress said Monday that economic sanctions against Iran would not stop the Islamic Republic from seeking to attain nuclear weapons. \"My concern is that they [the sanctions] will not stop Iran from their quest for a bomb,\" Ronald S. Lauder told The Jerusalem Post during a gathering of the organization in Jerusalem. \"Economic sanctions always help [but] the question is how strong they are and what effect they have. They cannot affect a country in the short-term.\"\n(Jan 25 2009) - Frontier Post : No one should be above the law\nPESHAWAR -- From 1945 to 1949, a series of trials were held in Nuremberg, Germany, before the International Military Tribunal. In the dock were 24 major political and military leaders of Nazi Germany, indicted for aggressive war, war crimes and crimes against humanity. The charges included the wanton killing and total disregard for the lives of Poles, Russians, Jews and others. Now that there is a lull in the Holocaust in Gaza, several international organizations including appointees by the United Nations have taken it a step further to charge Israeli leaders ...\n(Jan 24 2009) - Denver Post : Obama reverses Bush abortion-funds policy\nWASH D.C. -- President Barack Obama on Friday struck down the Bush administration's ban on giving federal money to international groups that perform abortions or provide abortion information�an inflammatory policy that has bounced in and out of law for the past quarter-century. Obama's move, the latest in an aggressive first week reversing contentious Bush policies, was warmly welcomed by liberal groups and denounced by abortion rights foes. The ban has been a political football between Democratic and Republican administrations since GOP President Ronald Reagan first adopted it 1984. Democrat Bill Clinton ended the ban in 1993, but Republican George W. Bush re-instituted it in 2001 as one of his first acts in office.\n(Jan 23 2009) - China Post : China shuts 1,250 Web sites; arrests more\nBEIJING -- China has closed down 1,250 Web sites in its latest crackdown on online pornography but still faces an uphill task in regulating the unwieldy Internet for vulgar content, an official said Friday. Liu Zhengrong, deputy director of the Cabinet's Internet Affairs Bureau, said authorities have also arrested 41 people in the monthlong campaign that began Jan. 5. \"We have made apparent achievements but it's only for this phase,\" Liu told reporters. \"We still have a lot of work to do.\"\n(Jan 22 2009) - Bangkok Post : PM vows crackdown on illegal immigrants\nTHAILAND -- Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva Thursday announced a crackdown on illegal immigration as he defended Thailand against allegations the military left a group of boat people to die on the open seas. Survivors and a human rights group have accused the army and navy of detaining and beating up to 1,000 members of the Rohingya minority from Burma late last year, before towing them out to sea with little food and water. \"We have to solve the illegal immigrant problem otherwise it will affect our security, economy and the opportunities of Thai labourers,\" Mr Abhisit told reporters. \"We will push them out of the country,\" he added.\n(Jan 21 2009) - News Post : US negotiates new supply routes to Afghanistan\nISLAMABAD-- The United States has negotiated new supply lines for allied troops in Afghanistan through Central Asia after the Pakistan Taliban attacked and torched supplies passing through the Khyber Pass. US CENTCOM chief General David Petraeus said: Pakistan is the sole route through which NATO and American supplies pass at present. This has caused resentment in sections of Pakistani society and supply trucks passing through the northwest have been attacked and raided on several occasions.\n(Jan 20 2009) - African Post : Obama takes office, saying choose 'hope ...\nWASH D.C. -- Stepping into history, Barack Hussein Obama grasped the reins of power as America's first black president on Tuesday, declaring the nation must choose \"hope over fear, unity of purpose over conflict and discord\" to overcome the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression. In frigid temperatures, an exuberant crowd of more than a million packed the National Mall and parade route to celebrate Obama's inauguration in a high-noon ceremony. Waving and cheering in jubilation, they stretched from the inaugural platform at the U.S. Capitol toward the Lincoln Memorial in the distance.\n(Jan 19 2009) - India Post : US study predicts more Mumbai-type attacks :\nNEW YORK -- India can expect more terror attacks like the Mumbai carnage from Pakistan-based terrorist groups with high body counts and symbolic targets in an escalating terror campaign in South Asia, a study by a leading US think tank has warned. \"India will continue to face a serious jihadist threat from Pakistan-based terrorist groups, and neither Indian nor US Policy is likely to reduce that threat in the near future,\" said Angel Rabasa, lead author of the study and a senior political scientist with RAND Corporation, a nonprofit research organization. \"Other extremist groups in Pakistan likely will find inspiration in the Mumbai attacks, and we can expect more attacks with high body counts and symbolic targets.\n(Jan 18 2009) - Sunday Business Post : Catholic Church may be indemnified against abuse legal action : IRELAND -- The state may agree to indemnify the Catholic Church against legal actions taken by clerics accused of child abuse, The Sunday Business Post has learned. Barry Andrews, the Minister of State at the Department of Health and Children, is understood to be considering indemnifying non-state agencies to allow the sharing of information on alleged child abusers between his office, the Church, the Health Service Executive (HSE) and garda�.\n(Jan 17 2009) - Washington Post : Bailed-Out Firms Have Tax Havens, :\nNEW YORK -- Most of America's largest publicly\ntraded corporations, including several that are receiving billions of dollars from U.S. taxpayers to finance their recovery -- have set up offshore operations that could help them avoid paying U.S. taxes on their profits, a government study { PDF } released yesterday found. American International Group, Bank of America, Citigroup and Morgan Stanley are among the companies that are getting bailed out by U.S. taxpayers while having subsidiaries in locations where they can avoid paying U.S. taxes, according to the Government Accountability Office. Of the 100 largest public companies, 83 do business in tax-haven hotspots like the Cayman Islands, Bermuda and the British Virgin Islands, where they can move their income into tax-free accounts.\n(Jan 16 2009) - Post Chronicle : All Survive Plane Crash In New York River :\nNEW YORK -- A US Airways jet with 155 people on board ditched in the frigid Hudson River off Manhattan after apparently hitting a flock of geese on Thursday and officials said everyone was rescued. \"We've had a miracle on the Hudson,\" New York Gov. David Paterson told a news conference, calling the pilot a hero for landing the Airbus A320 plane in the fast-moving river. \"The pilot somehow, without any engines, was able to land this plane ... without any serious injuries,\" Paterson said.\n(Jan 15 2009) - New York Post : Frightened Bernie Madoff now Bullet Proof : NEW YORK -- Financial scammer Bernard Madoff went to court yesterday dressed in a Kevlar vest,\nfearing the rising tide of ill-will generated by his $50 billion Ponzi scheme. But if the rest of the world is against him, federal Judge Lawrence McKenna came down on his side - allowing the swindler to remain free on $10 million bail. \"I think the chances of Mr. Madoff fleeing at this point are as close to nil as you can get in any bail package,\" McKenna said. His ruling marked the second time in three days that federal prosecutors were thwarted. They argued Madoff was a flight risk, and should be jailed for mailing more than $1 million worth of watches and jewelry to relatives and others over Christmas, violating a court order.\n(Jan 14 2009) - Birmingham Post : Birmingham urged to boycott Israeli productsas Gaza crisis deepens : VICTORIA SQUARE -- War in the Middle East could act as a �recruiting sergeant� for extremists and terrorists in Birmingham according to city councillors. The claim was made in a statement put to the council condemning the conflict in Gaza and calling for the government to allow a local authority boycott of Israeli-supporting companies. City leaders agreed to hold a debate on Gaza at the start of their monthly council meeting � but hopes a joint-statement from all sides could be signed were dashed as the ruling Tory-Liberal Democrat coalition and opposition Labour groups failed to agree on wording.\n(Jan 13 2009) - Denver Post : Treasury pick failed to pay self-employment taxes :\nWASH D.C. -- President-elect Barack Obama's choice to run the Treasury Department and lead the nation's economic rescue failed to pay $34,000 in taxes from 2001 to 2004, but the last-minute disclosure didn't stop Senate Democrats from moving forward with his nomination. Timothy Geithner had paid some of the back taxes in 2006 after the IRS sent him a bill. When the Obama transition team discovered he owed even more back taxes, Geithner paid those additional taxes days before Obama announced his choice in November, according to materials released by the Senate Finance Committee considering his nomination. Obama's staff told senators about the tax issues on Dec. 5.\n(Jan 12 2009) - Liberty Post : Diocese braces itself for flood of new claims :\nVATICAN -� THE Diocese of Cloyne is braced for a flood of new civil claims as controversy over the handling of clerical abuse allegations persuades new complainants to come forward. Allegations of abuse have been made by up to three new individuals since the controversy erupted last December. The diocese is also now reviewing the strict supervisory regime imposed on the clerics at the centre of the claims. In one case, the father of an abuse victim claimed he had information the cleric involved had been in contact with another youngster and now lived close to a school.\n(Jan 11 2009) - Jakarta Post : Israeli troops, militants battle in Gaza suburb : GAZA CITY -� Palestinians receive food aid at a United Nations food distribution center in the Shati refugee camp in Gaza City, Sunday. Israeli troops battled Palestinian gunmen in a suburb of Gaza City on Sunday morning as Israel's military inched closer to Gaza's main population centers despite growing diplomatic pressure to end the conflict. Israeli troops battled Palestinian gunmen in a suburb of Gaza City Sunday in one of the fiercest ground battles so far as Israel's military inched toward Gaza's population centers and residents braced for an expansion of the offensive.\n(Jan 10 2009) - Jerusalem Post : Obama won't deal with Hamas :\nWASH D.C. -� The incoming Obama administration will not abandon US President George W. Bush's doctrine of isolating Hamas, the chief national security spokesperson of the Obama transition team has told The Jerusalem Post. US President-elect Barack Obama \"has repeatedly stated that he believes that Hamas is a terrorist organization dedicated to Israel's destruction, and that we should not deal with them until they recognize Israel, renounce violence, and abide by past agreements,\" said Brooke Anderson in a statement to the Post. Those conditions match the international Quartet's longstanding demands from Hamas, shared by Israel.\n(Jan 09 2009) - Christian Post : Prop. 8 Supporters Want Donors Anonymous : SACRAMENTO, CA. -� Supporters of the ballot measure that banned gay marriage in California have filed a lawsuit seeking to block their campaign finance records from public view, saying the reports have led to the harassment of donors. \"No one should have to worry about getting a death threat because of the way he or she votes,\" said James Bopp Jr., an attorney representing two groups that supported Proposition 8, Protect Marriage.com and the National Organization for Marriage California. \"This lawsuit will protect the right of all people to help support causes they agree with, without having to worry about harassment or threats.\"\n(Jan 08 2009) - Bangkok Post : Explosion at Government House :\nTHAILAND -- A bomb exploded at the Government House on Thursday, when Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva was chairing a meeting. Police said they suspected that the small device was placed near the Thai Ku Fah building inside the Government House compound, when the People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) occupied the complex in August last year to oust the government led by the dissolved People Power party. The explosion happened in the afternoon, when Mr Abhisit was holding a national security meeting with Defence Minister Prawit Wongsuwan, Army Chief Anupong Paojinda and National Police Chief Patcharawat Wongsuwan. It did not cause any injuries.\n(Jan 07 2009) - Copenhagen Post : Politicians stay out of school prayer dispute : VIBORG -- Parents of children at Jutland primary schools have complained about the practice of morning prayer. A state school in northern Jutland has been put in the limelight in recent days, after a parent of one of its students lodged a complaint about the school's practice of having the children recite the 'Our Father' prayer. Children at Houlk�r School in Viborg start each school day with the prayer - something that did not sit well with one parent, who complained about the practice to atheist organisation Humanistisk Samfund.\n(Jan 06 2009) - Post Chronicle : Congress Set To Convene : Economy is Focus : WASH D.C. -- The new U.S. Congress convenes on Tuesday under pressure to deal with a worsening economy by passing a stimulus package that Barack Obama could sign into law soon after being sworn in as president. Obama, who takes office on January 20, has vowed to work with Republicans as well as fellow Democrats to reach an agreement on a package that may cost up to $775 billion over two years to stem a deepening recession. \"We are in a very difficult spot,\" Obama told reporters between meetings with congressional leaders on Capitol Hill on Monday. \"The situation is getting worse.\"\n(Jan 05 2009) - Phnom Pen Post : World recoils at Gaza assault :\nPARIS -- Israel's tank and troop assault on the Gaza Strip unleashed cries of alarm worldwide Sunday, but Israel won heavyweight US backing and moves for an immediate ceasefire foundered at the United Nations. British Prime Minister Gordon Brown echoed grave European concerns when he said the ground offensive was a \"very dangerous moment\" in the conflict, and he called for increased efforts to rapidly secure a ceasefire. The offensive was condemned across the Middle East, with Egypt saying the UN Security Council's silence on Israel's eight-day campaign of airstrikes had effectively given Israel \"a green light\" for the ground assault.\n(Jan 04 2009) - China Post : Series of powerful quakes shake Indonesia :\nJAKARTA, Indonesia -- A series of powerful earthquakes at dawn killed at least three people and injured dozens more in remote eastern Indonesia on Sunday, cutting power lines and badly damaging buildings. A 7.6-magnitude quake struck at 4:43 a.m. local time (1943 GMT) about 85 miles (135 kilometers) from Manokwari, Papua, at a depth of 22 miles (35 kilometers), the U.S. Geological Agency said. It was followed by a strong 7.5 aftershock. Three bodies were found including a 10-year-old girl, hospital director Hengky Tewu told The Associated Press.\n(Jan 03 2009) - Kyiv Post : Ukraine warns EU of natural gas shortages :\nKIEV, Ukraine (AP) -- A senior Ukrainian official says European consumers will see serious natural gas shortages in only two weeks if Moscow and Kiev don't solve their dispute over gas supplies. Bohdan Sokolovsky's statement raises the stakes in an escalating row between the two neighbors. Russia cut off gas supplies to Ukraine on New Year's Day after the two countries failed to resolve payment issues or agree on a price contract for 2009. Most Russian gas bound for Europe travels through Ukraine.\n(Jan 02 2009) - African Post : Ghana Ruling Party Threatens to Boycott :\nACCRA, Ghana �- Ghana's ruling party threatened to boycott a district's presidential revote Friday that could decide the African country's next leader. But there was no indication the vote would be canceled. Ruling party spokesman Arthur Kennedy said Thursday the situation in the western district of Tain is not conducive to a fair vote because the party's supporters were being intimidated. \"The election is supposed to be free and fair and as a result, under the current circumstances ... we won't take part in the election,\" Kennedy told The Associated Press.\n(Jan 01 2009) - Norway Post : No man is an island :\nNORWAY -- In his speech to the nation on New Year's Eve, Norway's King Harald opened by quoting the English poet John Donne: \"No man is an island, entire of itself...\". He also recalled the 60th anniversary of the UN Human Rights Declaration in 2008: \"All men are born equal..\". - If we had really taken this to heart, the King said, the world woul have looked different from how it looks today. - I want to use this last day of the year to reflect over what it is that link us human beings to each other."
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Where in the former Soviet Union was Yul Brynner born?
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"Yul Brynner Statue - Rock Brynner in the Russian Far East\nRock Brynner in the Russian Far East\nMoscow\nYul Brynner Park was opened on September 28th, 2012, when his statue was inaugurated in front of the house where he was born at 15 Aleutskaya St. in Vladivostok, Russia, in the garden where he played as a child.\nThis project took six years of planning and preparation before the granite for the ten-foot statue was transported to Vladivostok from a quarry in China a thousand miles away; appropriate, since Yul spent much of his childhood in China after his family fled Soviet Russia. Sculptor Alexei Bokiy, with whom I had begun discussing the monument in 2006, understood well the enormous challenge confronting him in carving such a very famous face and figure out of a single block of stone.\nThe City of Vladivostok that now owns the land in front of \"Dom Bryner\" contributed the grounds for the park, and financed the landscaping and architectural design. At night, along with the glow of the 1920s street lights, the statue is illuminated by spotlights as Yul Brynner himself was throughout his long career.\nVLADIVOSTOK AND MOSCOW, 2016\nThe Russian edition of my book \"Empire and Odyssey: The Brynners in Far East Russia\" was published in 2016.\nSetting out on the book tour.\nBook signing at the Far East Federal University.\nMy book tour in May began in Vladivostok, Sidimi, and Dalnegorsk in Primorye. . .\n. . . with a formal event at the historic Vladivostok train station, last stop of the Trans-Siberian Express.\nThe Patriarch honored and blessed the event with an Orthodox choir.\nThe Vladivostok International Film Festival \"Pacific Meridian,\" 12-19 September 2015\nThis perspective of Vladivostok helps explain its unusual topography, from the large Amur Bay to the right and the inlet called the Golden Horn on the left, around which sits the heart of the city.\nThe unique topography of the city is easier to understand from the view in Google Earth.\nI had the pleasure of meeting the U.S. Ambassador to Russia, John Tefft, who was visiting Vladivostok while I was there. He especially wanted to see the statue of my father in front of the Bryner residence, where Yul was born in 1920.\nAnbassador Tefft was determined to photograph me with the statue for his wife, a longtime fan.\nI'm the only person from outside Russia who has attended every Vladivostok film festival since the first in 2003. By now I lope up the blue carpet.\nApparently, my dance moves were newsworthy.\nWith actress Thuy Anh, from Hanoi, and film-maker Vanessa Danielson, who was presenting a brilliant short film, \"Guests,\" directed by her husband. My job, as the official talisman for the Film Festival, includes welcoming the guests. It's hard work, but somebody has to do it.\nThis year the luminous British actress Julia Ormond attended our Festival.\nThe admirable and delightful Julia Ormond has made many films in Russia but never visited Vladivostok before.\nAt the Gala night of the Festival I took a selfie from the stage of the Vladivostok Opera House. Julia Ormond is in the front row left.\nAmur Bay from my hotel window.\nThe boardwalk in Vladivostok on a warm, autumn Sunday afternoon.\nI was guest of honor at a conference at the Far Eastern Federal University, at the very conference table where Russian President Putin and U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton at the Asian-Pacific Economic Conference in 2012.\nThe Far East Federal University, with 20,000 students, is the only academic institution I know with its own bottled water.\nAn officer of the Russian merchant navy.\nLocal artist Roman Goloseev painted this beautiful canvass for me, with many of my favorite images of Vladivostok.\nStanding on the Sidimi peninsula across Amur Bay from Vladivostok, where the Bryner country estate was. In the background is one of the lighthouses that Jules Bryner built in the 1890s.\nWith my \"Russian brother\" Sasha Doluda, who first invited me to Vladivostok in 2003. The date \"1915\" over our heads is on a structure at the estate where my father Yul first went swimming, a decade later.\nMOSCOW, 21-27 SEPTEMBER 2015\nThanks to my friend Zhenya Diamantidi, the Swiss Ambassador to Russia, Pierre Helg, offered me the guest house in the courtyard at the Ambassador's official residence in Maliy Kislovskiy Pereulok during my week in Moscow. This was the family home of Turgenev, where the novelist spent his childhood.\nMy Swiss chalet in the center of Moscow, three hundred meters from the Arbat.\nIt's a beautiful two-bedroom house with a pleasant office space and full kitchen.\nAs well, the Ambassador gave a dinner party on my behalf at his official residence.\nAmbassador Helg is a highly cultured gentleman from Geneva, where I grew up.\nMy date for the dinner was my dear friend Liza Arzamasova, of course.\nAlso at the ambassador's dinner party was James Land, the Cultural Attache at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, the Swiss Cultural Attache, my dear friend from Vladivostok Zhenya Diamantidi, my friend and translator (two books so far) Max Nemtsov, and his wife, poet and book store entrpreneur Shashi Martynova.\nNastya Smetanina joined us after I saw Liza's performance in the German play \"Kamen.\"\nNastya and Alexei invited me to their dacha for a few days, 90 km. northeast of Moscow.\nMy dacha family. . . .\nSunset with Nastya at the dacha.\nVictory Day in Dalnegorsk, 9 May 2015\nThe city of Dalnegorsk\nDalnegorsk (pop. 42,000) was founded with the Bryner Mines in 1896 by my Swiss-born great-grandfather Jules Bryner. Jules was one of a half-dozen Europeans who built the city of Vladivostok (pop. 500,000), but he built Dalnegorsk with his own capital and that of his mine's investors. Today, a towering, 12-foot-high statue of him stands in the city center.\nI was invited by the city and the company that now owns the mines, Dalpolymetall, to come celebrate the 70th anniversary of Victory Day. Indeed, at least one out of eight Russian bullets fired at nazi troops came from these mines. And so I found myself as the honored guest, in a proud spot on the review stand where the town's 37 surviving W.W.II veterans and scores of war widows sat to witness the parade in their honor, and to receive the flowers that the children of the city brought to them.\nI watched the Victory Day parade from the review stand with the Mayor, Gleb Zuev and the W.W.II veterans.\nBeneath the statue of Lenin, and behind the veterans and widows.\nAleksander Doluda, his wife Natasha, and their daughters Dina and Sasha - my \"Russian family.\"\nThis was planned as a family trip, and so it was. We flew on this small plane to Kavalierovo, an hour's drive from Dalnegorsk.\nWe stayed with wood artist Oleg Batukhtin and his wife in Kavalierovo, in the beautiful house that he built himself.\nLaying flowers at my great-grandfather's monument.\nThe statue is an extraordinary tribute to Jules Bryner.\nThe plaque upon the pedestal reads \"Jules Ivanovich Bryner (1849-1920), founder of Dalnegorsk and of the Joint Stock Mining Company 'Tetukhe.'\"\nThe city's historian, Victor Tatarnikov, preesented me with a beautiful miniature of the statue, made of the same stone and bronze by the sculptor, my friend Alexey Bokiy, and made possible by Gleb Zuev.\nMy visit to the Jules Bryner monument was as significant to the city as it was to me.\nI paid tribute to Russia's war heroes with Mayor Igor Sakhuta and with a veteran of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.\nThe Mayor and I left flowers at the statue to the heroes of World War II.\nThe parade began with a long wreath carried by youthful escorts.\nAlmost everyone in Dalnegorsk marched, in a variety of World War II uniforms.\nHundreds of dove balloons were freed along the parade route.\nI spent time with a number of the World War II widows of Dalnegorsk.\nVictory Day ended with fireworks over Town Hall.\nGleb Zuev and I beside Lake Bryner, beneath the lighthouse.\nSasha Doluda, my Russian \"brother\" who made this and all my visits possible, beneath Cape Bryner.\nOff the coast from the lighthouse that my great-grandfather built there more than a century ago.\nHere, on Gleb'a speed boat I found myself between Cape Bryner and the Twin Rocks.\nCape Bryner and the Twin Rocks were on the 1,000-Ruble notes that were printed in 1991, when the Soviet Union ended and Russia was born anew.\nBefore leaving Vladivostok for Moscow, I lay flowers at my father's statue.\nA neighbor photographed me and my friends from his apartment.\nAs always, I visited Gorky (Kultura) Park. . .\n. . . and this time with my young old friend Liza Arzamasova.\n. . . and had lunch beside the badminton courts.\nWe strolled through the art-filled paths . . .\n. . . and walked along the Moskva River.\nLiza brought me to Mikhail Bulgakov's home and museum on his 124th birthday.\nI had seen Sergey Aldonin's production of Master and Margarita there two years ago. in the beautiful little basement theatre just below when Bulgakov wrote it decades ago. Thanks to Liza, I feel very much part of the devoted family that keep the great author's memory alive.\nLiza and I were greeted by the headless author.\nThe headless author at work.\nBulgakov's typewriter.\nTime to leave Russia . . . until September.\nYul Brynner Tribute at The Solzhenitsyn House of Russians Abroad, Moscow, November 7-8, 2014\nYul Brynner, The Russian King of Hollywood Exhibit at the Solzhenitsyn Center.\nI was proud to be able to help the Solzhenitsyn Center celebrate Yul's achievements, and to accept the Michael Chekhov Medal on his behalf.\nDr. Viktor Moskvin, the Director of the Solzhentsyn Center, presented the Medal and Certificate . . .\n. . . along with Sergey Zaitsev, renowned documentary film-maker and the head of the Film Festival, and the members of the Chekhov Committee.\nThe Magnificent Seven will forever remain Yul's best loved film in Russia.\nAlexander Solzhenitsyn created the Center to honor the work of Russians who, like himself, were forced to leave their homeland during the Soviet era. This year they honored my father - three times. The \"Russians Abroad Film Festival\" honored Yul with the Michael Chekhov Award -- especially fitting, since it was with Chekhov that he studied for three years and emigrated to the United States. And the Solzhenitsyn Center honored him with a documentary, beautifully filmed by Rita Kuklina, entitled \"Yul - Gypsy Soul,\" which was shown both nights, and will soon be broadcast on the national channel, Kultura. Finally, a two-room exhibit of Yul Brynner and our family's memorabilia was opened, from the collection of Elena Sergeyeva. It will remain at the Center until the end of November.\nNataliya Klevalina, in charge of International Projects at the Center, whose year's work and preparation made the event possible.\nI appeared on Kultura kanal . . .\n. . . to announce the publication in Russian of my book Empire and Odyssey: The Brynners in Far East Russia and Beyond in 2016, as well as Rita Kuklina's documentary, Yul - Gypsy Soul.\nFilmmaker Rita Kuklina and I answering questions about her documentary.\nPart of the extensive collection of documents, photos, and memoribilia. . .\n. . .including Chekhov's 1954 book for which he asked Yul to write the Preface.\nI had time to visit the Arbat with my beloved friend Liza Arzamasova. . .\n. . . and to drive past the Kremlin in the frosty climate of November 2014.\nInauguration of Jules Bryner Statue in Dalnegorsk, Russia September 27th, 2014.\nThe whole city turned out in tribute to Jules Bryner, warmly remembered as the single-handed founder of Dalnegorsk.\nThe cast bronze sculpture is by Alexei Bokiy, who also carved the granite statue of Yul in Vladivostok, 400 miles to the southwest.\nJules Bryner, my great-grandfather, established the Bryner Mines in the wilderness in 1897, and with them the town of Tetukhe, known today as Dalnegorsk.\nI had hoped to attend, but my brief visit to Vladivostok did not make that possible . . .\n. . . but I have accepted the invitation of Dalpolymetall, the company that now owns my family's mines, to visit next spring, and I look forward to it with great anticipation.\n(My thanks to Alexander Borisenko and Sergey Kiryanov for use of all the photos.)\nThis year the Festival was held at the new Vladivostok Opera House, which opened just three months ago.\nArriving on the \"blue carpet\" . . .\n. . . with my friend Michael Madsen, best known for his roles in Tarantino films.\nMichael attended the Festival last year as a guest and enjoyed it so much he returned this year as a competition juror.\nThis year Adrien Brody also came to Vladivostok, where he is best known for his Oscar-winning role in The Pianist, and this year in Wes Anderson's The Grand Budapest Hotel.\nHe chose to present his earlier Anderson film, The Darjeeling Express.\nAdrien and Michael have known each other for years.\nStephen Baldwin was also a guest at the Festival, best remembered in Vladivostok for The Usual Suspects.\nThe St. Petersburg stage actress Anna Astrakhantseva attended, representing her new film Two Women, adapted from Turgeniev's A Month in the Country. Anna co-stars in the film with Ralph Fiennes, whose performance in effortless, impeccable Russian is one of the film's many pleasures.\nOn the final night of the Festival I presented - as I do every year - the Yul Brynner Award for the Most Promising Young Actor or Actress, in the city where he was born.\nOf course, this being 2014, the occasion called for the first onstage selfie at the Opera.\nFor this year's Yul Brynner Award, I chose Anna Levonova, who co-stars with Anna Astrakhantseva and Ralph Fiennes in Two Women, opening worldwide later this year.\nHockey legend Slava Fetisov is a beloved and admired national figure whom I've known for three years.\nA true gentleman, Slava played for his Moscow team for more than a decade, as well as on the national Soviet Union team. Then he became the first former Soviet player to join the NHL, and played for the New Jersey Devils before winning back-to-back Stanley Cups with the Detroit Red Wings. Today Slava serves in the Duma (Parliament) representing Vladivostok and the region of Primorye.\nLecture at the Far East Federal University, Sept. 16th, 2014\nThe Far Eastern Federal University is on Russky Island, where a few years ago only goats roamed.\nPresident Putin ordered the construction of the university to serve as the site for the Asian-Pacific Economic Conference, hosted by Russia for the first time in 2012. Today the university can serve 50,000 students from across Russia and Asia, since it absorbed the three main universities in the city.\nFar Eastern Federal University with Vladivostok in the background.\nThe lecture was \"The Role of Jules Bryner in the Birth of Vladivostok and the History of Imperial Russia.\"\nAgain, in 2014, it seemed a selfie was mandatory.\nAt night, the university is impossibly beautiful.\n2013 - The XIth Vladivostok International Film Festival\nThe designated talisman of the event.\nOpening the Film Festival\nThe transcendent Isabelle Huppert attended . . .\nHer brilliant new film, Tip Top, directed by Serge Bozon (La France), had its Asian and Russian premiere at our Festival. Isabelle left early the next morning for the Paris premiere. I was introduced to her by my \"Russian brother,\" Sasha Doluda, who first invited me to Vladivostok in 2003.\nIt would be impossible to spend enough time with this great artist.\n. . . as did Michael Madsen . . .\nHis career on the screen goes back thirty years. Most recently he has appeared in a number of films by Quentin Tarantino.\nBut it was especially wonderful to have with us the inestimable Pierre Richard. . .\nAt the final Gala . . .\n. . . who told me that he only imagined becoming an actor after seeing a Danny Kaye film: an interesting comedic inspiration. He also explained that he saw Yul's posthumous anti-smoking declaration in 1986 and stopped smoking the next day -- for which he credits his good health and long life.\nWith my friend Governor Miklushevsky of the Primorye region, of which Vladivostok is the capital.\nPresenting the XIth Yul Brynner Award\nEach year it falls to me to choose the winner and present the \"Special Prize in the name of Yul Brynner\" to the Most Promising Young Actor or Actress.\nYul's boots from The Magnificent Seven\nMy sister Victoria gave me these after she bought them at auction in Hollywood, and I wore them to the Gala. After Yul left Vladivostok for China at the age of seven, he had never again walked the streets of the city where he was born. . .\n. . . but now, as I noted onstage, at least his boots had!\nThis year the Yul Brynner Award went to. . .\n. . . Anfisa Chernich, for her role in the Russian film, The Geographer Who Drank The Whole Globe\nA young actress from Moscow, Anfisa gives a heartfelt performance that was passionately embraced by Festival audiences.\nThe Festival's unpaid volunteers\nYear after year, it is only thanks to scores of these devoted, sleep-deprived university students that the Festival is able to exist at all.\nAcross Aleutsakaya St. from Yul's statue\nMy Master Class on Michael Chekhov and Constantin Stanislavsky at Gorky Library\nA peripheral event of the Festival, my lecture covered the important distinction betweeen Stanislavsky's \"System\" or \"Method\" based upon the recall of personal memories, and Chekhov's injunction that the actor must find the character and the emotions through the practiced use of imagination. I further emphasized that, until recently, Stanislavsky's greater renown owed primarily to his willingness to capitulate to any demands Stalin made upon him. By contrast, Michael Chekhov would not collaborate with Stalin's inhumanity, and had to flee his homeland in the 1930s. In 1940, at the age of twenty, Yul first came to the United States to live and study with him.\nMichael Madsen chatting with Consul General Holm-Olsen and myself.\nYUL BRYNNER DAY IN VLADIVOSTOK, JULY 2013\nThe Brynner commemorative silver coin\nOn July 11th, 2013, Yul Brynner's signature role in The King and I came to life in Yul Brynner Park, beside his granite statue . . .\n. . . in front of the Art Nouveau home where he was born ninety-three years ago.\nEach year on his birthday one of his films will be presented in Yul Brynner Park. This new tradition is sponsored by the city of Vladivostok and the Arsenyev State Museum.\nThe King and I is not well known in Russia, where Yul is most revered for The Magnificent Seven, the most popular foreign film of all time.\nRockenteur in the Arbat\nThe House of Actors\nin the Arbat\nMoscow's friendliest street, the Arbat, is a five-hundred-year-old passage, closed to traffic, where Pushkin and generations of independent artists have thrived. It is also where Russian theatre and film actors have gathered at the Actor's House for the past eighty years.\nis where I was invited to perform\nRockenteur:\nA Comedy of Cultural History\nfilmed before a live audience . . .\n. . . including Anastasia Smetanina and Liza Arzamasova, past winners of the Yul Brynner Award at the Vladivostok International Film Festival.\nMay Day parade at the Kremlin, 2013\nVladivostok Spring Lecture Series, 2013\nFar East Federal University\nMy thanks to Governor Miklushevsky, Professor Kusnetzov, Rector Ivanets, and interpreter Ivan Pisarev, who made this lecture tour possible.\nA bouillabaisse of topics:\n\"Mikhail Chekhov, Konstantin Stanislavsky, and the Worldwide Revolution in the Art of Acting, 1900-1960.\"\n\"Global Problems Demand Global Solutions: Terrorism, Climate Change, World Hunger, and Sustainability.\"\n\"The Social and Political Impact of Rock 'n' Roll in the U.S. and Soviet Russia, 1960-1990.\"\n\"The Development of the American Language from Britain's English and the Birth of the American Character.\"\n\"Strengths and Weaknesses of the U.S. Constitution.\"\n\"Jules Bryner's Yalu River Timber Contract and The Russo-Japanese War.\"\n\"Global Problems Demand Global Solutions\"\nPolitical Science Students -- International Relations\n\"The Birth of The American Language\"\nYul Brynner Statue and Park in Vladivostok, Russia\nYul Brynner Park and Statue\nYul, age 3, playing with his nanny (in wolf mask) and cousin Irena beside the Bryner house, 1923.\nYul Brynner was born on July 11th, 1920 in the terraced room above the statue.\nPeople from across the city came for the Inaugural Ceremony in a festive atmosphere with a brass band, balloons, children playing in the park, dignitaries of Vladivostok and Primorye, and the very gracious United States Consul General Sylvia Curran.\nThe statue is a perfect likeness from every angle.\nDom Bryner (red arrow) on Tiger Hill presides over the heart of Vladivostok.\nThe inauguration of the statue was a day for flowers . . .\n. . . families and children.\nThe sculptor Alexei Bokiy, who carved the granite statue\nFrom across Aleutskaya Street\nThis view of the statue will greet every visitor arriving from Moscow on the Trans-Siberian -- the longest railroad in the world -- on their way to the city center. The house built by my great-grandfather is just a block from the railway station where Jules Bryner helped Tsar Nicholas II lay the corner-stone in 1891. The wall above the street is currently being re-faced in granite.\nThe announcement of the Inauguration featured a photo from The Magnificent Seven, which is still today the all-time most popular foreign film in Russia. But though The King and I has been seen by far fewer Russians, everyone who helped create this monument knew that Yul spent an unequalled fourteen years of his life in the theatre performing this role, for which he also won the Oscar.\nThe Mayor and I removed the Inaugural Ribbon . . .\nVladivostok Mayor Igor Pushkariov gave indispensable help to make the park and the statue possible.\n. . . revealing the Russian inscription in gold: \"Yul Brynner - King of Theatre and Film\"\nThanking the hundreds of people who worked on this tribute.\nThe Yul Brynner Park grew out of the love and pride that this city of 600,000 feels toward its most renowned son. Even today, Yul Brynner remains the only Russian-born actor to win the Academy Award, for the title role in \"The King and I,\" which he also played on stage for fourteen years of his life. His last performance on Broadway as the King came thirty-four years after his first. He continued playing eight shows a week until four months before his death from lung cancer in 1985.\nTHOSE WHO MADE THIS STATUE AND PARK POSSIBLE\nLeft to right: Sergei Stepanchenko, Moscow actor and head of the Vladivostok International Film Festival; Alexei Bokii, sculptor of the statue; Alexander Doluda, Rock's \"Russian brother,\" who worked for years to bring Yul Brynner Park into existence; Igor Pushkarev, mayor of Vladivostok; Rock Brynner; Sergei Bogdan, Chairman of Primorye Bank; U.S. Consul General Sylvia Curran, who has done everything possible to support the Brynner legacy; and Anatolii Melnik, Chief Architect of the city of Vladivostok.\nLiza Minnelli and Rock in Vladivostok, 2011\nLiza May arrives in the Russian Far East. . .\n. . . after we flew from New York to Seoul and (skirting North Korea) landed in Vladivostok, the last stop on the Trans-Siberian Railroad, six thousand miles from Moscow.\nLiza Arzamasova, Rock Brynner, Liza Minnelli arrriving at. . .\n. . .the Opening of the Ninth Vladivostok International Film Festival. Our young friend Liza Arzamasova is currently starring in Romeo and Juliette at the Stanislavsky State Theatre in Moscow.\nLiza May waving to the crowd. . .\n\"Priviet, Vladivostok!\"\n. . .\"Maybe This Time\" and \"New York, New York,\" all written for her by Kander and Ebb.\nShe earned a full-throated, Russian ovation.\nI gave her a kiss onstage. . .\n. . .as my father Yul had kissed her mother Judy exactly sixty years earlier, when they both won Tony Awards on Broadway.\nWith that, Liza began a long evening of shirt-signing, first for Sergei Stepanchenko. . .\n. . . as our host, Governor Darkin, watched in amusement.\nFor more on the Brynners in Russia, copies of Empire and Odyssey can be ordered at Amazon.com.\nPublishers Weekly - Starred Review:\nA four-generation family saga�featuring one of the world�s sexiest movie stars�would usually signal a fluffy beach read, but the story of the Brynner patriarchs is too historically complex and fascinating to fall into that genre. Great-grandson Rock Brynner opens by introducing Swiss-born Jules, who started in the import-export business out of Shanghai and then Yokohama, before establishing himself in Vladivostok in the 1870s. Jules took advantage of the city�s Wild West character and the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railroad to expand from shipping into mining and forestry, and created an extraordinary commercial empire. It was Jules�s son Boris who had to negotiate the socialization of the family businesses in the newly created Soviet Union. Boris�s �migr� son Yul learned show business in France before turning his much-touted Genghis Khan genes�and his Russian method acting�into American box office gold. Yul�s American son Rock concludes the volume with his own adventures in the counterculture before becoming an academic. The odyssey comes full circle in 2003 when the city of Vladivostok invites Rock to come and celebrate as a native son. An enthralling family chronicle, the Brynner perspective on Far East Russian history should be important for Pacific Rim historians as well. 165 Photos.\nLibrary Journal:\nBrynner can truly be described as a Renaissance man accomplished in many fields, from street clown and actor to band manager, pilot, historian, professor, and writer. In this personal yet meticulous work, he chronicles the lives of four generations of his own family, beginning with his great-grandfather, Jules Bryner, a Swiss who eventually settled in Vladivostok, where he was greatly responsible for establishing its importance in the Russian Far East. Next, he covers Jules�s son Boris, a major industrialist, and then Boris�s son, the author�s father, actor Yul Brynner. He concludes, full circle, with his own odyssey to Vladivostok in 2003. Brynner expertly paints each era in the context of the family history, showing how each man made his own mark upon his generation, whether through direct involvement in the Russo-Japanese War or as an exemplar of Hollywood glamour. Brynner refers to many well-known celebrities, and he isn�t shy about revealing previously unknown stories involving Sammy Davis Jr., Marlene Dietrich, and Sam Giancana. Illustrated with over 150 photographs, this book can stand by itself as a fascinating tale of a fascinating family.\n\"The enthralling story, across four generations, of a singular dynasty of fathers and sons, all of them gifted, dynamic, complicated and driven, all of them firmly embedded in the history of their times. . . . They include the restless, brilliant, and ambitious Yul Brynner, whose odyssey from the Russian Far East to Paris, New York and Hollywood is chronicled with the flair of a born raconteur, the professional historian�s command of facts, and the memoirist�s firsthand knowledge of intimate family lore. His son, Rock Brynner, brings this dazzling saga full circle with his adoption by the people of Vladivostok.\"\n� Elizabeth Frank, novelist and Pulitzer-prize winning biographer\n\"Empire and Odyssey is the Forsyte Saga of the Russian diaspora, an absorbing story of an extraordinary family adapting to changing times, of ambition, talent, egotism, loyalty, estrangement, and betrayal, set against a tumultuous background of imperial expansion, war, revolution, exile, and homecoming. It captures the characters Jules, Boris, and Yul with candor, humor, and poignancy. Rock Brynner�s curiosity and sensibilities, cultivated no doubt over the course of personal triumphs and travails, have attuned him to lyrical, tragic, ironic, and comic melodies, so that he can feel � and convey � the burden of Russia�s past, of Russia�s tragedies.\"\n� Prof. John J. Stephan, author, The Russian Far East: A History\n\"Yul Brynner was among the most powerful actors of all time. Rock Brynner is one of the most exhilarating story-tellers I have ever read.\"\n� James Earl Jones\n\"Dr. Rock Brynner is a gentleman and a scholar, and during my championship years he was always a true friend and reliable bodyguard.\"\n� Muhammad Ali\n\"Matoushka\" by Aliosha Dimitrievitch (1.1MB)\nVladivostok Station Last stop on the Trans-Siberian Railway\nIn 1891, Jules joined the last Tsar of Russia, Nicholas II, in laying the cornerstone for this station.\nThe broad streets of the old city\nBuilt on a narrow peninsula, Vladivostok is surrounded by two bays.\nVladivostok became home to 750,000 residents.\nThe Bryner Residence\nThe curved, Art Nouveau peak of the Bryner Residence was very daring when Jules had the house designed in 1910, and still looks modern today. Jules built it, Boris lived in it, and in 1920 Yul was born there. Eighty years after my family was forced to flee Stalin,I was welcomed there warmly. Now it is a city landmark.\nThe Bryner Residence (red arrow) overlooks the main square and port of Vladivostok.\nSome years after leaving Vladivostok, Yul joined the circus in Paris as a trapeze acrobat.\nBroadway, 1951\nHow Yul made it by the age of thirty from his childhood in Vladivostok to stardom in The King and I is only one part of the family epic, Empire and Odyssey . . .\n1957\nYul is the only Russian-born actor to have won the Academy Award.\nWith Queen Elizabeth II in 1979\nYul's last performance as King came 34 years after his first. Even authentic royalty was happy to welcome him in their ranks.\n1984\nThis was at the opening of the New York Hard Rock Cafe in 1984, the year before my father died.\nCape Bryner, four hundred miles from Vladivostok, where Jules built his first lighthouse above the port of the Bryner Mines . . .\n. . . and the Twin Rocks beneath Cape Bryner. . .\n. . . appeared on Russia's national currency - the thousand-ruble note - as soon as the Soviet era ended.\nYul on a tiger hunt in North Korea in 1937\nIn the 1930s, my father Yul, then 17, often hunted in North Korea with his father, Boris, and with Valery's father, Yuri Yankovsky, known since the late 1800s as \"the greatest tiger hunter in the world.\"\nTo see the Bryner Mines and country estate, Sidemy, click on the links at the top of this page, all about Russia: Bryner Mines, Sidemy, Bryners, Friends, Moscow.\nOur group.\nAs guest of honor on Victory Day, I was given a special spot on the review stand behind the city's 37 surviving veterans, all in their 90s, and the scores of widows, beside the Mayor and Gleb Zuev, the Director of the (formerly) Bryner Mines, today Dalpolymetall.\nAt the Victory Day parade, I was invited to the review stand with the Mayor, Gleb Zuev, and Dalnegorsk's 37 surviving veterans of W.W. II.",
"1000+ images about for the Russian part of me on Pinterest | Soviet union, Ice fishing and Diamond mines\nForward\nWorld’s Largest Diamond Mine: The Mirny Diamond Mine in Siberia may be one of the scariest mines in the world. It is over a thousand feet deep and thousands of feet wide. It is so large it actually creates its own local weather patterns and the space above it has had to be designated a no-fly zone for helicopters (after this problem was identified the hard way). Gigantic trucks (like the small dot pointed to above) can haul over 200 tons of material out of the mine at a time.\nSee More",
"Amazon.com: Empire and Odyssey: The Brynners in Far East Russia and Beyond (9781586421021): Rock Brynner: Books\nEditorial Reviews\nFrom Publishers Weekly\nStarred Review. A four-generation family saga—featuring one of the world's sexiest movie stars—would usually signal a fluffy beach read, but the story of the Brynner patriarchs is too historically complex and fascinating to fall into that genre. Great-grandson Rock Brynner opens by introducing Swiss-born Jules, who started in the import-export business out of Shanghai and then Yokohama, before establishing himself in Vladivostok in the 1870s. Jules took advantage of the city's Wild West character and the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railroad to expand from shipping into mining and forestry, and created an extraordinary commercial empire. It was Jules's son Boris who had to negotiate the socialization of the family businesses in the newly created Soviet Union. Boris's émigré son Yul learned show business in France before turning his much-touted Genghis Khan genes—and his Russian method acting—into American box office gold. Yul's American son Rock concludes the volume with his own adventures in the counterculture before becoming an academic. The odyssey comes full circle in 2003 when the city of Vladivostok invites Rock to come and celebrate as a native son. An enthralling family chronicle, the Brynner perspective on Far East Russian history should be important for Pacific Rim historians as well. Photos. (Apr.)Look for PW's upcoming q&a with Rock Brynner.\nCopyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved."
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When she died how old was Karen Carpenter?
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"Karen Anne Carpenter (March 2, 1950 – February 4, 1983) was an American singer and drummer. She and her brother, Richard Carpenter, formed the 1970s duo Carpenters. Although her skills as a drummer earned admiration from drumming luminaries and peers, she is best known for her vocal performances. She had a contralto vocal range. \n\nCarpenter suffered from anorexia nervosa, an eating disorder that was little known at the time. She died at age 32 from heart failure caused by complications related to her illness.VH1, Behind the Music: Carpenters (1998). Carpenter's death led to increased visibility and awareness of eating disorders. \n\nEarly life\n\nKaren Anne Carpenter was born in New Haven, Connecticut, the daughter of Agnes Reuwer (née Tatum) (March 5, 1915 – November 10, 1996) and Harold Bertram Carpenter (November 8, 1908 – October 15, 1988). When she was young, she enjoyed playing baseball with other children on the street. On the TV program This Is Your Life, she stated that she liked pitching and later, in the early 1970s, she would become the pitcher on the Carpenters' official softball team.E! Channel, \"True Hollywood Story – Karen Carpenter\" Her brother Richard developed an interest in music at an early age, becoming a piano prodigy. Karen enjoyed dancing and by age 4 was enrolled in tap dancing and ballet classes. The family moved in June 1963 to the Los Angeles suburb of Downey.\n\nWhen Carpenter entered Downey High School, she joined the school band. Bruce Gifford, the conductor (who had previously taught her older brother) gave her the glockenspiel, an instrument she disliked and after admiring the performance of her friend, Frankie Chavez (who idolized famous jazz drummer Buddy Rich), she asked if she could play the drums instead. She and her brother made their first recordings in 1965 and 1966. The following year she began dieting. Under a doctor's guidance, she went on the Stillman Diet. She rigorously ate lean foods, drank eight glasses of water a day, and avoided fatty foods. She was 5' 4\" (163 cm) in height and before dieting weighed 145 lb and afterwards weighed 120 lb until 1973, when the Carpenters' career reached its peak. By September 1975, her weight was 91 lb. \n\nMusic career\n\nFrom 1965 to 1968 Karen, her brother Richard, and his college friend Wes Jacobs, a bassist and tuba player, formed The Richard Carpenter Trio. The band played jazz at numerous nightclubs and also appeared on the TV talent show Your All-American College Show. Karen, Richard and other musicians, including Gary Sims and John Bettis, also performed as an ensemble known as Spectrum. Spectrum focused on a harmonious and vocal sound, and recorded many demo tapes in the garage studio of friend and bassist Joe Osborn. Many of those tapes were rejected by record companies. According to former Carpenters member John Bettis, those rejections \"took their toll.\" The tapes of the original sessions were lost in a fire at Joe Osborn's house, and the surviving versions of those early songs exist only as fragile acetate reference discs. Finally A&M Records signed the Carpenters to a recording contract in 1969. Karen sang most of the songs on the band's first album, Offering (later retitled Ticket to Ride), and her brother wrote 10 out of the album's 13 songs. The issued single (later the title track), which was a cover of a Beatles song, became their first single; it reached #54 on the Billboard Hot 100. Their next album, 1970's Close to You, featured two massive hit singles: \"(They Long to Be) Close to You\" and \"We've Only Just Begun\". They peaked at #1 and #2, respectively, on the Hot 100.\n\nCarpenter started out as both the group's drummer and lead singer, and she originally sang all her vocals from behind the drum set. Because she was just 5 feet 4 inches tall, it was difficult for people in the audience to see her behind her drum kit, so she was eventually persuaded to stand at the microphone to sing the band's hits while another musician played the drums (former Disney Mouseketeer Cubby O'Brien served as the band's other drummer for many years). After the release of Now & Then in 1973, the albums tended to have Carpenter singing more and drumming less. At this time, her brother developed an addiction to Quaaludes. The Carpenters frequently cancelled tour dates, and they stopped touring altogether after their September 4, 1978, concert at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. The Carpenters' Very First TV Special aired December 8, 1976. In 1980, she performed a medley of standards in a duet with Ella Fitzgerald on the Carpenters' television program Music, Music, Music. In 1981, after the release of the Made in America album (which turned out to be their last), the Carpenters returned to the stage and did some tour dates, including their final live performance in Brazil.\n\nIn addition to being a drummer and a singer, Karen Carpenter could also play the electric bass guitar. She played bass guitar on two songs on Offering/Ticket to Ride (the Carpenters first album released by A&M). The two songs were All of My Life and Eve. Although Karen's bass playing is heard on the original album(s), Richard remixed both songs (as he has done with almost every Carpenters song), and Joe Osborn's bass playing was substituted for later \"greatest hits\" releases. \n\nRecognition of drumming skills\n\nCarpenter started playing the drums in 1964. She was always enthusiastic about the drums and taught herself how to play complicated drum lines with \"exotic time signatures,\" according to her brother. Carpenter's drumming was praised by fellow drummers Hal Blaine, Cubby O'Brien, and Buddy Rich and by Modern Drummer magazine. According to her brother, Carpenter always considered herself a \"drummer who sang.\" Despite this, she was not often featured as a drummer on the Carpenters' albums. She was, however, the only drummer on the albums Ticket to Ride and Now & Then (except for one song) and on the songs \"Mr. Guder\", \"I'll Never Fall in Love Again\", \"Love is Surrender\", \"Bacharach/David Medley\", the piano instrumental \"Flat Baroque\" (highlighting her use of brushes), \"Happy\", \"Another Song\" and \"Please Mr. Postman.\" The role of drummer in the Carpenters entourage was mainly taken over by Hal Blaine as she went from behind the drum set to the front of the stage. Karen was known for endorsing Ludwig Drums and she had two setups (20\" bass drum, 14 and 16\" floor toms, 13\" mounted tom, 4, 6, 8 and 10\" concert toms and the Ludwig SuperSensitive snare drum was the one she really liked). She also used a Rogers hi-hat, a Rogers bass drum pedal, Zildjian cymbals, 11A drumsticks (brand unspecified) and Remo drumheads. On Made in America, Karen provided percussion on \"Those Good Old Dreams\" in tandem with Paulinho da Costa and made a final return to playing drums on the song \"When it's Gone (It's Just Gone)\" in unison with Larrie Londin.\n\nSolo album\n\nIn 1979, Richard took a year off to cure his dependency on Quaaludes, and Karen decided to make a solo album with producer Phil Ramone. Her solo work was markedly different from the usual Carpenters fare, consisting of adult-oriented and disco / up-tempo material with more sexual lyrics and the use of Karen's higher vocal register. The project met a tepid response from Richard and A&M executives in early 1980. The album was shelved by A&M Records CEO Herb Alpert, in spite of attempts by producer Quincy Jones to convince Alpert to release the record after a remix. A&M charged the Carpenters $400,000 to cover the cost of recording Karen's solo album, to be paid out of the duo's future royalties. Carpenters fans got a taste of the solo album in 1989 when some of its tracks (as remixed by Richard) were included on the album Lovelines, the final album of Carpenters' unreleased new material. In 1996, the complete album, titled Karen Carpenter, was finally released.\n\nPersonal life\n\nCarpenter lived with her parents until she was 26. In September and October of 1971, two years after the Carpenters' debut album, she and her brother bought two apartment buildings in Downey as a financial investment. Formerly named the \"Geneva\", the two complexes were renamed \"Only Just Begun\" and \"Close to You\" in honor of the duo's first smash hits. The apartment buildings are located at 8353 and 8356 5th Street, Downey, California. In 1976, Carpenter bought two Century City apartments, gutted them, and turned them into one condominium. Located at 2222 Avenue of the Stars, the doorbell chimed the first six notes of \"We've Only Just Begun\". As a housewarming gift, her mother gave her a collection of leather-bound classic works of literature. Carpenter collected Disney memorabilia, loved to play softball and baseball, and counted Petula Clark, Olivia Newton-John, and Dionne Warwick among her closest friends.\n\nCarpenter dated a number of well-known men, including Mike Curb, Tony Danza, Terry Ellis, Mark Harmon, Steve Martin, and Alan Osmond. After a whirlwind romance, she married real-estate developer Thomas James Burris on August 31, 1980, in the Crystal Room of the Beverly Hills Hotel. Burris, divorced with an 18-year-old son, was nine years her senior. A new song performed by Carpenter at the ceremony, \"Because We Are in Love\", was released in 1981. Burris concealed from Carpenter, who desperately wanted children, the fact that he had undergone a vasectomy. Their marriage did not survive the deceit and ended after 14 months. In addition to that, Burris was said to have been broke and living well beyond his means, borrowing up to $35,000 and $50,000 at a time from his wife, to the point that she had only stocks and bonds left. He was also said to have been abusive towards her, often being impatient with Karen, who shared with close friends that she remained fearful when he would occasionally lose his temper with her. Close friend Karen \"Itchie\" Ramone recounted one incident where she and Carpenter went to their normal hangout, Hamburger Hamlet, and Karen appeared to be distant emotionally, sitting not at their regular table but in the dark, and wearing large dark sunglasses, unable to eat and crying. According to Itchie, the marriage was \"the straw that broke the camel's back. It was absolutely the worse thing that could have ever happened to her.\" \n\nIn September 1981, Carpenter revised her will and left everything to her brother and parents. Two months later, following an argument after a family dinner in a restaurant, Carpenter and Burris broke up. Carpenter filed for divorce while staying in Lenox Hill Hospital. \n\nBurris later remarried and now resides in Lincoln, California, with his wife and son. He has not publicly spoken about his marriage to Carpenter due to a confidentiality agreement. \n\nFinal months\n\n\"Now\", recorded in April 1982, was the last song Carpenter recorded. She recorded it after a two-week intermission in her therapy with psychotherapist Steven Levenkron in New York City for her anorexia, during which she had lost a considerable amount of weight. During her illness, in order to lose weight, she had taken thyroid replacement medication (to speed up her metabolism) and laxatives. Despite her participation in therapy, her condition continued to deteriorate and she only lost more weight, leading Carpenter to call her psychotherapist to tell him she felt dizzy and that her heart was beating irregularly. Finally in September 1982, she was admitted to Lenox Hill Hospital in New York and hooked up to an intravenous drip, which caused her to gain a considerable amount of weight (30 pounds) in just eight weeks. The sudden weight gain further strained her heart, which was already weak from years of dietary restriction.\n\nCarpenter returned to California in November 1982, determined to reinvigorate her career, finalize her divorce, and begin a new album with Richard. On December 17, 1982, Karen gave her last singing performance in the multi-purpose room of the Buckley School in Sherman Oaks, California, singing Christmas carols for her godchildren, their classmates who attended the school, and other friends. On January 11, 1983, Karen made her last public appearance at a photocall of past Grammy Award winners to celebrate the award's 25th anniversary. Karen appeared somewhat frail and worn out, but according to Dionne Warwick, she was vibrant and outgoing, exclaiming to everyone, \"Look at me! I've got an ass!\" \n\nDeath\n\nOn February 4, 1983, less than a month before her 33rd birthday, Carpenter intended to sign papers making her divorce from Tom Burris official. Shortly after waking up, Carpenter collapsed in her bedroom at her parents' home in Downey, California. Paramedics called to the scene by Karen's mother found her heart beating once every 10 seconds. She was taken to nearby Downey Community Hospital for treatment, where – by then in full cardiac arrest – she was pronounced dead 20 minutes later at 9:51 a.m.\n\nCause of death \n\nThe acting Los Angeles County coroner Dr. Ronald Kornblum performed the autopsy on Karen Carpenter. The results of the autopsy and cause of death were released to the public on March 11, 1983, by way of a press conference and accompanying press release. A drug or medication overdose was explicitly ruled out. The cause of Karen Carpenter's death was stated as \"emetine cardiotoxicity due to or as a consequence of anorexia nervosa.\" What was not specified in the report was how the emetine got into Carpenter's system. \n\nThe March 11, 1983 press release for the autopsy did not use the word \"Ipecac\", and causation between the use of ipecac syrup and Carpenter's death was not made at that time. Media reports describing the primary cause of Carpenter's death frequently used the phrase \"'heartbeat irregularities brought on by chemical imbalances' associated with anorexia nervosa\", phrasing used by Dr. Ronald Kornblum during the press conference. He explained in a 1985 interview, \"It never occurred to me to mention ipecac. In my mind, emetine and ipecac are the same thing.\" Two years after Carpenter's death, March 21, 1985, Kornblum was a part of a teleconference with other medical doctors. At that time, Kornblum explicitly stated that Carpenter's heart failure was caused by repeated use of ipecac syrup, an over-the-counter emetic often used to induce vomiting in cases of overdosing or poisoning. During the teleconference, the process was explained \"...over time, (emetine) attacks the heart muscle, ultimately causing disorders in the small electric impulses that coordinate the heart's beating. Those disorders lead to heartbeat irregularities, which in turn lead to death.\" Doctors on the 1985 conference call urged making Ipecac syrup available only by prescription, or at the least, the addition of warning labels to the product.\n\nThe conclusion that Carpenter's death was caused by chronic use of ipecac syrup was disputed by her mother and brother, who both stated that they never found empty vials of ipecac in her apartment, and have denied that there was any evidence that she had been vomiting. Richard has also expressed the belief that Karen was not willing to ingest ipecac syrup because of the potential damage that both the syrup and excessive vomiting would do to her vocal cords, and that she relied on laxatives alone to maintain her low body weight.\n\nDr. Richard Shepherd, a forensic pathologist, believed that Karen's abuse of ipecac syrup and synthroid contributed to her death along with the singer's anorexia and shrunken heart. \n\nFuneral and burial \n\nCarpenter's funeral service took place on February 8, 1983, at the Downey United Methodist Church. Dressed in a rose-colored suit, Carpenter lay in an open white casket. Over 1,000 mourners passed through to say goodbye, among them her friends Dorothy Hamill, Olivia Newton-John, Petula Clark, and Dionne Warwick. Carpenter's estranged husband Tom attended her funeral, where he took off his wedding ring and placed it inside the casket. She was entombed at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Cypress, California. In 2003, Richard had Karen re-interred, along with their parents, in a newly constructed outdoor Carpenter family mausoleum at the Pierce Brothers Valley Oaks Memorial Park in Westlake Village, California, which is closer to his Southern California home.\n\nLegacy\n\nCarpenter's death brought media attention to anorexia nervosa and also to bulimia. The general public had little knowledge of anorexia nervosa and bulimia prior to Carpenter's death, making the condition difficult to identify and treat. Her family started the Karen A. Carpenter Memorial Foundation, which raised money for research on anorexia nervosa and eating disorders. Today the name of the organization has been changed to the Carpenter Family Foundation. In addition to eating disorders, the foundation now funds the arts, entertainment and education.\n\nOn October 12, 1983, the Carpenters received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It is located at 6931 Hollywood Blvd., a few yards from the Dolby Theater. Richard, Harold and Agnes Carpenter attended the inauguration, as did many fans.\n\nAccolades\n\n* 1975 – In Playboy magazine's annual opinion poll, its readers voted Carpenter the Best Rock Drummer of the year. \n* 1999 – VH1 ranked Carpenter at #29 on its list of the 100 Greatest Women of Rock and Roll. \n* 2008 – Rolling Stone ranked Carpenter number 94 on its list of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time. \n\nDiscography\n\nStudio albums\n\n* Offering (later reissued as Ticket to Ride) (1969)\n* Close to You (1970)\n* Carpenters (1971)\n* A Song for You (1972)\n* Now & Then (1973)\n* Horizon (1975)\n* A Kind of Hush (1976)\n* Passage (1977)\n* Christmas Portrait (1978)\n* Made in America (1981)\nPosthumous albums\n\n* Voice of the Heart (1983)\n* An Old-Fashioned Christmas (1984)\n* Lovelines (1989)\n* As Time Goes By (2001/2004)\n\nSolo albums\n\n* Karen Carpenter (1996)\n\nBiographical films\n\nThe 43-minute film Superstar: The Karen Carpenter Story (1987) was directed by Todd Haynes and was withdrawn from circulation in 1990, after Haynes lost a copyright infringement lawsuit filed by Karen's brother and musical collaborator, Richard Carpenter. The film's title is derived from The Carpenters' 1971 hit song, \"Superstar\". Over the years, it has developed into a cult film and is included in Entertainment Weeklys 2003 list of top 50 cult movies. \n\nOn January 1, 1989, the similarly titled made-for-TV movie The Karen Carpenter Story aired on CBS with Cynthia Gibb in the title role. Gibb lip-synced the songs to Carpenter's recorded voice, with the exception of \"The End of the World.\" Both films use the song \"This Masquerade\" in the background while showing Carpenter's marriage to Burris.\n\nRichard Carpenter helped in the productions of the documentaries Close to You: Remembering the Carpenters (1997) and Only Yesterday: The Carpenters Story (2007). PBS aired the 1997 documentary with reruns starting in December 2015."
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"Karen was 30 years old. ... Karen Carpenter died on February 4, 1983, a month away from what would have been her 33rd birthday on March 2.",
"karen carpenter, 32, is dead karen carpenter, 32, is dead; singer teamed with brother published: february 5, 1983",
"Karen Carpenter died 30 years ago Monday at age 32, ... Karen much preferred to be outside ... The one thing Karen Carpenter knew she could control was her ...",
"How old was Karen Carpenter when she died? Here you find the age of Karen ... Is Karen Carpenter dead or alive? Karen Carpenter died 33 ... she would be 66 years old.",
"... Karen Carpenter began dieting. When she ... the Grammy-winning band she’d formed with her brother, died ... So we were constantly trying to shove food at Karen. ...",
"A Brother Remembers. By Richard Carpenter. An Account of Karen Carpenter's Brave Battle Over the ... but I had spoken with Karen the day before she died, ...",
"... Karen Carpenter dies of anorexia on Feb 04, ... died on this day in 1983, ... 1983 Karen Carpenter dies of anorexia; Old West;"
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"Karen Carpenter - Biography - IMDb\nKaren Carpenter\nBiography\nShowing all 119 items\nJump to: Overview (5) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (1) | Trade Mark (2) | Trivia (100) | Personal Quotes (10)\nOverview (5)\n4 February 1983 , Downey, California, USA (heart failure caused by chronic anorexia)\nBirth Name\n5' 4\" (1.63 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nBorn in New Haven, Connecticut, Karen Carpenter moved with her family to Downey, California, in 1963. Karen's older brother, Richard Carpenter , decided to put together an instrumental trio with him on the piano, Karen on the drums and their friend Wes Jacobs on the bass and tuba. In a battle of the bands at the Hollywood Bowl in 1966, the group won first place and landed a contract with RCA Records. However, RCA did not see a future in jazz tuba, and the contract was short-lived.\nKaren and Richard formed another band, Spectrum, with four other fellow students from California State University at Long Beach that played several gigs before disbanding. In 1969, Karen and Richard made several demo music tapes and shopped them around to different record companies; they were eventually offered a contract with A&M Records. Their first hit was a reworking of The Beatles hit \"Ticket to Ride\", followed by a re-recorded version of Burt Bacharach 's \"Close to You\", which sold a million copies.\nSoon Richard and Karen became one of the most successful groups of the early 1970s, with Karen on the drums and lead vocals and Richard on the piano with backup vocals. They won three Grammy Awards, embarked on a world tour, and landed their own TV variety series in 1971, titled Make Your Own Kind of Music! (1971).\nIn 1975 the story came out when The Carpenters were forced to cancel a European tour because the gaunt Karen was too weak to perform. Nobody knew that Karen was at the time suffering from anorexia nervosa, a mental illness characterized by obsessive dieting to a point of starvation. In 1976 she moved out of her parents' house to a condo of her own.\nWhile her brother Richard was recovering from his Quaalude addiction, Karen decided to record a solo album in New York City in 1979 with producer Phil Ramone. Encouraged by the positive reaction to it in New York, Karen was eager to show it to Richard and the record company in California, who were nonplussed. The album was shelved.\nIn 1980, she married real estate developer Thomas J. Burris. However, the unhappy marriage really only lasted a year before they separated. (Karen was to sign the divorce papers the day she died).\nShortly afterward, she and brother Richard were back in the recording studio, where they recorded their hit single \"Touch Me When We're Dancing\". However, Karen was unable to shake her depression as well as her eating disorder, and after realizing she needed help, she spent most of 1982 in New York City undergoing treatment. By 1983, Karen was starting to take control of her life and planning to return to the recording studio and to make public appearances again. In February of 1983, she went to her parents' house to sort through some old clothes she kept there when she collapsed in a walk-in closet from cardiac arrest. She was only 32. Doctors revealed that her long battle with anorexia nervosa had stressed her heart to the breaking point.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Matt Patay <[email protected]>\nSpouse (1)\nTrivia (100)\nIn her mid 20s, she was still living with her parents.\nAt age 30, she made a solo album with producer Phil Ramone in 1980, titled \"Karen Carpenter\". However, it was shelved by A&M executive Herb Alpert . 16 years later in 1996, it was finally released.\nWas married at the Beverly Hills Hotel in the Crystal Room.\nOn Thursday, December 11, 2003 she, Agnes and Harold were exhumed from Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Cypress, California and were moved to Pierce Brothers Valley Oaks Memorial Park in Westlake Village, California. Agnes, Karen and Harold remained in their original caskets. At 12:30pm PST, they were all re-interred and entombed in a private family mausoleum in the Tranquility Gardens section of the cemetery.\nRanked #29 on VH1's 100 Greatest Women of Rock N Roll\nSang \"Bless the Beasts and the Children\" with her brother Richard Carpenter at The 44th Annual Academy Awards (1972).\nStarted out singing in two unsuccessful singing bands called \"The Dick Carpenter Trio\" and \"Spectrum\".\n\"A Star on Earth - A Star in Heaven\" is written in her mausoleum.\nAmong her friends were Petula Clark , Olivia Newton-John and Dionne Warwick .\nWhile being treated for anorexia, she embroidered a sign above her hospital bed that read \"You win, I gain!\".\nAttended and graduated from Downey High School in Downey, California.\nDedicated her solo album to her brother Richard Carpenter .\nAs of April 2004, her brother Richard Carpenter has made four new Carpenters albums since her death. This is possible by using songs that were left off previous albums and making new albums out of them. He also uses songs that Karen recorded and then later arranges music to accompany them.\nShe did not like the song \"Superstar\" until after hearing her brother's arrangement for it; she then considered it one of her favorites that the Carpenters had done.\nThe song \"Now\", recorded in April 1982, was the last song she ever recorded.\nThe Carpenters franchise is very big and popular in Japan.\nIn 1976, she bought a Century City condominium. she gutted two separate apartments and turned it into one. The address was 2222 Avenue of the Stars. As a housewarming-gift, her mother Agnes Carpenter gave her a collection of leather-bound classic works of literature.\nCollected Disney memorabilia.\nSongwriter Paul Williams wrote \"Rainy Days and Mondays\" for her.\nRanked #30 on \"E!'s 101 Most Shocking Moments In Entertainment History\".\nHer funeral took place on February 8, 1983 at the United Methodist Church in Downey, California.\nPerformed and sang for Richard Nixon at the White House in 1972.\nAttended and graduated from California State University, Long Beach.\nWas close to her brother Richard Carpenter .\nSongwriter Peter Cetera wrote \"Making Love in the Afternoon\" for her.\nHer favorite Carpenters song was \"I Need to Be In Love\".\nWon the 1966 \"Battle of the Bands\" contest at the Hollywood Bowl.\nLoved to play softball/baseball and played the drums.\nWon three Grammy Awards.\nHad to have surgery on her ear, during the late 1970s, for impaired hearing.\nWent to Bora Bora for her honeymoon.\nHer cover version of \"(They Long to Be) Close to You\" was originally recorded by Dusty Springfield in 1964, shortly before Dionne Warwick recorded it that same year. Dusty's was scheduled for release as a single, and potential follow-up to her No. 3 hit \"I Just Don't Know What to Do with Myself\". However, it was not until three years later, in 1967, that it finally was released on her album \"Where Am I Going?\", with the beginning intro cut from its release.\nDuring her solo endeavor, many of the demos Karen recorded were scrapped and decided not to be used for the album. Despite the rumor that only 11 tracks were completed and/or used, one more is indeed finished. It is a mellowed-out and heartfelt cover of Evie Sands's 1975 #50 Pop charter, \"I Love Makin' Love to You\". When A&M Records folded in 2000, it and 6 of out of the 8 demos began surfacing on the Internet. Fans who have heard Karen's version of \"Makin' Love...\" feel it is probably the best song to come out of her solo sessions. Sadly, it is unlikely it will ever official see the light of day, for many believe A&M discarded of the material when it closed its doors. Another song almost completed (even with backing vocals, but lacking orchestration) is a cover of Vicki Sue Robinson's \"Don't Try to Win Me Back Again\".\nHas four nieces and one nephew: Richard Carpenter 's five children.\nAfter her recovery, she planned to go public about her battle with anorexia.\nHer ex-husband Tom Burris was a real-estate developer. At the time they met, Tom was a 39-year-old divorce with an 18-year-old son. Karen was 30 years old.\nSang \"Because We Are In Love\" at her 1980 wedding. The song was written by her brother Richard Carpenter and friend John Bettis .\nThe rock band, Sonic Youth , wrote a song about Karen, called \"Tunic (Song for Karen)\". They also contributed to a 1994 tribute album for The Carpenters .\nHad her own personalized driver's license plate which was: KAC3.\nShe was portrayed by a Barbie Doll in Superstar: The Karen Carpenter Story (1988)\nWhen she was 17, she went on the \"Stillman Diet\" with a doctor's guidance, and lost between 20 and 25 pounds\nIn 1998, the RIAA certified that \"The Singles 1969 - 1973\" had sold 7 million units since its release in 1973. This makes \"The Singles 1969 - 1973\" the Carpenters' bestselling album ever (as of 2005).\nThe Carpenters' second bestselling album is \"Carpenters (the tan album)\" - it has sold four million units since its release in 1971.\nIn 1975, \"Please Mr. Postman\" became the Carpenters' 10th and last certified Gold single.\nIn 1970, \"(They Long to Be) Close to You\" became the Carpenters' first certified Gold single.\nShe befriended Cherry Boone while getting treated for Anorexia. Boone herself was a recovered anorectic.\nThe Carpenters are still A&M Records' biggest and bestselling artists.\nHer childhood home was 55 Hall Street (in New Haven, Connecticut). She attended school at Nathan Hale Elementary School in Connecticut.\nHer family started the \"Karen A. Carpenter Memorial Foundation\", which raised money for research on anorexia nervosa and eating disorders. Today, the title has been changed to \"Carpenter Family Foundation\"... in addition to eating disorders, the foundation now funds the arts, entertainment and education.\nDied a married woman. She was planning to officially sign divorce papers on the day she died.\nThe doorbell in her Century City condo chimed the first six notes of \"We've Only Just Begun\".\nHer cousin, Mark Rudolph , appears in The Carpenters ' album, \"Now & Then\".\nHer sister-in-law is Mary Carpenter , her cousin.\nBy June 1981, the Carpenters had sold over 55 million albums.\nOn September 4, 1978, the Carpenters gave their last concert at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas, Nevada.\nBy 1977, the Carpenters received 11 gold records from Japan.\nIn 1976, the Carpenters' tour of Japan was the largest grossing in Japanese history.\nThe Carpenters catalog leads all A&M Records artists for the most number of compilation albums created from original material. It is also the catalog most often reissued.\nThe Carpenters' famous Newville house, located at 9828 Newville Avenue, Downey, California, is pictured in their fifth album \"Now & Then\". This was also the same house where Karen died.\nAfter the Carpenters became successful during the early 1970s, she and her brother bought two apartment buildings in Downey, California and called them \"Close to You\" and \"Only Just Begun\". Today, the \"Close to You Apartments\" can still be located at - 8356 East 5th, Downey, California.\nShe was a huge fan of Matt Monro and Spike Jones and His City Slickers .\nThe Carpenter Private Mausoleum in Westlake Village, California is a 46,000-pound, Partenope-style structure and was constructed in Texas over seven months. It is polished sunset red with beautiful warmth and color and lively crystal patterns. Similar structures have a price range of $600,000. Karen, Agnes, and Harold use up 3 out of 6 spaces in the mausoleum.\nShe was managed by Sherwin Bash from 1970 - 1975\nShe was managed by Terry Ellis from 1975 - 1976\nShe was managed by Jerry Weintraub from 1976 - 1983\nRanked #3 on Entertainment Tonight (1981)'s top 25 stories in 25 years.\nArguably, her best performance is a song which was never even released. It was a song opted not to be used on her infamous aborted solo album. It is a song penned by Paul Jabara [\"Last Dance\"] and Jay Asher, and is called \"Something's Missing (In My Life)\". Many who have heard the work-lead feel it truly relates to Karen's personal struggles and depth of her feelings. The song remains unmixed and without strings. The song some people regard as her best Carpenters song is a song which was her personal favorite called \"I Need to Be in Love\".\nBiography in: \"The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives\". Volume One, 1981-1985, pages 133-134. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1998.\nShe and her brother, Richard Carpenter , were both awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Recording at 6931 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California on October 12, 1983.\nThrough her German ancestry, she and her brother are distantly related to Catholic reformer Martin Luther.\nKaren Carpenter died on February 4, 1983, a month away from what would have been her 33rd birthday on March 2.\nEnrolled in tap dance and ballet classes at age 4.\nWas originally offered the songs 'Rock with You' and 'Off the Wall' but declined the offer to do these songs, declaring them 'too funky.' They were later given to Michael Jackson .\nWas born with dark blond hair.\nWas planning to dye her hair bronze when she died.\nHer favorite T.V. shows included Dallas (1978), Marcus Welby, M.D. (1969), and I Love Lucy (1951).\nWas planning to become either a nurse or an artist for her profession.",
"KAREN CARPENTER, 32, IS DEAD - SINGER TEAMED WITH BROTHER - NYTimes.com\nKAREN CARPENTER, 32, IS DEAD\nKAREN CARPENTER, 32, IS DEAD; SINGER TEAMED WITH BROTHER\nPublished: February 5, 1983\nThe pop singer Karen Carpenter, who with her brother Richard sold more than 30 million records as the Carpenters, died Friday of cardiac arrest at Downey Community Hospital in Downey, Calif. The 32-year-old singer was found unconscious by her mother, Agnes Carpenter, at her parents' home in Downey, a suburb of Los Angeles, and was taken to the hospital.\nThe Carpenters were a major pop team for the first part of the 1970's, with 17 million-selling albums. Miss Carpenter's contralto was heard on such soft-rock singles as ''We've Only Just Begun,'' ''Rainy Days and Mondays,'' and a remake of ''Please Mr. Postman.'' Their version of Burt Bacharach's ''Close to You'' won two Grammy awards in 1970, and their album ''The Carpenters'' won a third Grammy in 1971. That same year, their version of ''For All We Know'' won the Academy Award for best song.\nKaren Carpenter was born in New Haven, Conn., on March 2, 1950. She and her older brother, Richard, started a pop-jazz trio with a friend in California in 1965, with Richard on keyboards and Karen on drums. The group won a battle of the bands at the Hollywood Bowl and was signed by RCA Records, but the two albums they recorded for the label were never released; they were considered ''too soft.'' The trio subsequently disbanded. Incorporated Vocals\nIn their next group, the Carpenters began to incorporate vocals. Eventually they developed a smooth, densely layered sound built around Miss Carpenter's voice and Richard Carpenter's arrangements, and were signed to A&M Records in 1970. On the first Carpenters recordings, Karen Carpenter played drums, but she eventually gave that up to concentrate on vocals. Through 1975, two or three singles by the Carpenters regularly placed in the pop Top 10 each year, and in 1974 they performed at the Nixon White House.\nThe Carpenters canceled an extensive European tour in 1975 because Miss Carpenter was suffering from nervous and physical exhaustion; she was bedridden for six weeks. They continued to record through the 1970's, but were less successful commercially. Their last album, ''Made in America,'' was recorded in 1981, and met with only moderate success. According to Paul Bloch, a spokesman for the Carpenters, the brother and sister were planning to tour and record a new album this year.\nIn 1980 Miss Carpenter married a real-estate developer, Thomas J. Burris of Newport Beach, Calif. Mr. Bloch said the couple were getting a divorce. He also said Miss Carpenter had suffered from anorexia during 1981 and 1982, but had recovered. ''She looked great,'' Mr. Bloch said. ''She was anxious to record her new album, and she was in good spirits.''\nIn addition to her mother and brother, Miss Carpenter is survived by her father, Harold, also of Downey.\nIllustrations: photo of Karen Carpenter",
"Remembering Karen Carpenter, 30 Years Later : NPR\nRemembering Karen Carpenter, 30 Years Later\nEmbed\nEmbed\nRemembering Karen Carpenter, 30 Years Later\nRemembering Karen Carpenter, 30 Years Later\nEmbed\nEmbed\nKaren Carpenter, of The Carpenters, performs in London in 1974. Tim Graham/Getty Images hide caption\ntoggle caption\nKaren Carpenter, of The Carpenters, performs in London in 1974.\nTim Graham/Getty Images\nBy the time she was 24, Karen Carpenter was already famous, having released more than a dozen hit records with her brother, Richard, including \"Close to You,\" \"We've Only Just Begun,\" \"Rainy Days and Mondays,\" \"Superstar\" and \"Top of the World.\" Less than 10 years later, she'd be gone, the victim of heart failure brought on by anorexia nervosa. Karen Carpenter died 30 years ago Monday at age 32, and her legacy as one-half of the singing duo The Carpenters is a source of some disagreement.\nToday, there are more than a half-dozen websites devoted to her life and career, while several Carpenters tribute bands tour in both America and the U.K. Rolling Stone rated her velvety contralto voice at No. 94 on its list of the Top 100 greatest singers of all time. Yet every person who enjoys The Carpenters as much as I do knows several others who don't. In fact, my entire household is divided on the issue. Not evenly divided, mind you: I love their music; no one else in my family can stand it.\nArticle continues after sponsorship\nIt reminds me a little of my junior high school days, when The Carpenters were riding high on the charts and two die-hard, acid rock-loving bullies taunted me to name my favorite group. I told them. They laughed and slammed me against a locker.\nYouTube\nBut the fact remains that I'm not alone in my musical estimation of Karen Carpenter's gift — a number of music-industry luminaries have extolled the virtues of her vocals. Paul McCartney , for one, said that she has \"the best female voice in the world: melodic, tuneful and distinctive.\"\nIf you listened only to the radio in the 1970s and didn't buy the albums, you might not know just how far beyond the hits The Carpenters' catalog really travels. There are Great American Songbook classics, golden oldies, torch songs, and even a novelty or two, like \"Calling Occupants of Interplanetary Craft.\" All those multitracked harmonies in the background of many of their hits, all those oboes and French horns and harps — that's not the entire musical story for The Carpenters, and that's a bit surprising to many people. But even then, it isn't always easy to get those people onboard.\nKaren Carpenter was born in 1950, 3 1/2 years after Richard, in New Haven, Conn. Richard was a musical prodigy from the start, and would stay inside listening to records and practicing as a boy. Karen much preferred to be outside playing softball. Their parents, Agnes and Harold, moved the family to Downey, Calif., in 1963, with the idea that the recording scene there would provide good opportunities for Richard.\nYouTube\nBy then, Karen had developed her own love of music, taken up the drums and began singing. Richard formed several combos and always took his sister along for the ride. However, it was actually Karen — not Richard — who got a recording contract first, at 16. Unfortunately, the deal was short-lived because the small record label had little money for promotion.\nBy 1970, Karen and Richard had broken through. Having signed with A&M Records, their singles were dominating the charts, and they would go on to win Grammy Awards the following March for best new artist and best contemporary performance by a duo.\nMost of Karen's friends say that she was a goofy, fun-loving and caring friend — someone who craved stuffed animals and adored children. But she also had serious personal issues. She struggled to feel loved and accepted by her mother, who, by many accounts, was a stern and difficult woman. She also sought a sense of independence, and maybe even a reprieve, from her workaholic brother, who called all the shots and insisted on a grueling recording and touring schedule.\nIn 1979, Karen recorded a solo album with legendary producer Phil Ramone, but Richard and the executives at A&M didn't like the results and shelved it. Not long afterward, she met and married a real estate developer who, it turned out, was mostly interested in her money. What's more, he hadn't told Karen, who wanted to have children more than anything, that he had had a vasectomy.\nThe one thing Karen Carpenter knew she could control was her weight. Never a skinny child or young adult, she was conscious of the way she looked and was dieting obsessively by the mid-1970s. She sought help for anorexia, but apparently never devoted herself fully to a cure. Her mother found her dead on the morning of Feb. 4, 1983, on the floor of a walk-in closet at home. Karen had been taking massive amounts of ipecac syrup, which induces vomiting.\nKaren's own all-time favorite Carpenters song was 1976's \"I Need to Be in Love,\" which can be thought of as the theme of her life. One of the lines goes, \"So here I am with pockets full of good intentions / but none of them will comfort me tonight.\" If nothing else, on the 30th anniversary of her death, those of us who got slammed against a locker simply for liking The Carpenters still have her music — her voice — for some comfort.",
"Dead or alive? How old was Karen Carpenter when she died\nHow old was Karen Carpenter when she died?\nHere you find the age of Karen Carpenter.\nWhen was Karen Carpenter born?\nShe was born on 1950-03-02\nIs Karen Carpenter dead or alive?\nKaren Carpenter died 33 years ago on 1983-02-04. She was only 32 years old.\nIf she would be still alive today she would be 66 years old.\nCause of death: Heart Failure Due to Chronic Anorexia\nDo you think Karen Carpenters age is incorrect? Add the correct age.",
"Karen Carpenter: How Did She Die?\nRedferns/Getty Images Karen Carpenter performing in 1976\nFeb. 4, 1983: Musician Karen Carpenter dies at 32 from health complications related to anorexia\nAfter being called chubby as a teenager, Karen Carpenter began dieting. When she slimmed down from 145 to 120 lbs., her friends and family praised her weight loss. It was only after her weight continued to plummet, dropping to a skeletal 90 lbs. in the mid-1970s, that they realized her health was in jeopardy.\nThe lead singer of The Carpenters, the Grammy-winning band she’d formed with her brother, died on this day, Feb. 4, in 1983, of heart failure related to her years-long struggle with anorexia. She was 32. In her TIME obituary, the magazine called her the “dulcet-voiced singing half, opposite her pianist-arranger brother Richard, of the squeaky-clean Carpenters.” By that point, the duo—having released their first album in 1969—had sold 80 million records and won three Grammy Awards for hits like “Close to You,” “We’ve Only Just Begun” and “Rainy Days and Mondays.”\nCarpenter’s death raised awareness of the dangers of eating disorders, which had until then been little publicized or understood. For a generation of women who saw Twiggy as an icon of the ideal body shape, it also proved— as TIME concluded in 1989 , when summing up the moral of a docudrama about Carpenter’s life—that it was, in fact, possible to be too thin. (The other moral of the film, noted critic Richard Zoglin: “such an illness can often be traced to the failings of Mom and Dad.”)\nCarpenter was the first celebrity casualty of an eating disorder, according to Randy Schmidt, the author of Little Girl Blue: The Life of Karen Carpenter . After her death, however, other public figures shared their own struggles with anorexia and bulimia, most notably Princess Diana.\nTwo years after Carpenter’s death, a group of doctors and therapists who specialized in treating eating disorders lobbied the Food and Drug Administration to ban over-the-counter sales of the vomit-inducing drug ipecac, which Carpenter had reportedly been taking to keep from gaining weight — and which had overtaxed her already weak heart.\nHer therapist told the New York Times he believed tens of thousands of American women, desperate to lose weight, were abusing ipecac, “a drug that was not known until very recently as an abusive drug.” Ipecac had long been used to purge the stomachs of poisoning victims, but its repeated use led to heart problems and muscle weakness.\nWhether from ipecac or from malnourishment alone, Carpenter was so weak by the mid-’70s that she could do little more than lie down between shows. Her exhaustion forced the band to cancel a 1975 European tour while she slept 14 to 16 hours a day, according to Schmidt’s biography.\nWhile everyone around her was worried, no one knew exactly how to help. Schmidt quotes Carpenter’s bandmate John Bettis on their misguided attempts to nurse her back to health. “Anorexia nervosa was so new that I didn’t even know how to pronounce it until 1980,” Bettis told the biographer . “From the outside the solution looks so simple. All a person has to do is eat. So we were constantly trying to shove food at Karen.”\nTheir efforts were in vain, however. Audiences gasped when Carpenter emerged onstage in silky sleeveless dresses, Schmidt writes; concerned fans feared she was dying from cancer. While her voice, a lush contralto, stayed strong, critics took note of her increasingly bony frame.\nA Variety review of one performance, cited by Schmidt, complained, “She is terribly thin, almost a wraith, and should be gowned more becomingly.”\nRead the full review of The Karen Carpenter Story, here in TIME’s archives: The Pulp Message of the Week",
"A Brother Remembers\nA Brother Remembers\nPinterest\nNine months ago singer Karen Carpenter fell victim to heart failure after an eight-year battle with anorexia nervosa. She seemed to be on the verge of recovery when she died at the age of 32. After spending almost all of 1982 undergoing treatment for the eating disorder, the 5’4½” Carpenter had managed to pump her weight from a frail 80 pounds to a nearly normal 110.\nAlthough he had been witness to her long struggle, Richard, her mentor and sole sibling, was stunned by Karen’s sudden death. Shortly before, the two singers had been at work on Voice of the Heart, their 12th album.\nDetermined not to let their final project sink into limbo, Richard returned to the recording studio last March. The months-long task of adding tracks to her completed vocals proved poignant: “Recording’s so sophisticated these days that it sounded as if she were right there,” Richard says. In October, as Voice of the Heart was being released (and he departed on a promotional trip to Japan and Australia), Carpenter, 37, sat with Correspondent Suzanne Adelson in the sunny living room of his suburban Downey, Calif. home and talked for the first time about Karen ‘s troubled final years and about his effort to deal with her death.\nThere’s no preparation for that kind of loss. It would have been enough of a shock if she had been an invalid, but I had spoken with Karen the day before she died, and she sounded absolutely fine—she called me from her condo in Century City to ask about a new videocassette recorder she wanted to buy.\nI was still asleep when I got the telephone call from Mom the next morning. [Karen collapsed in the bedroom that parents Agnes and Harold kept for her in their home. Since she needed a new wardrobe after gaining weight, Karen had planned a shopping trip with her mother and had slept over that night.] Mom was so hysterical I could barely understand what she said. As soon as I could grasp what happened, I tore out of here and drove to my parents’, just a few miles away. I arrived just as Karen was being brought out of the house on a stretcher.\nMom and Dad and I sat in the waiting room [at Downey Community Hospital] after Karen was taken into emergency. After about 45 minutes we were told she was gone. My immediate reaction was anger—anger at the waste of her life and the loss of her talent. Then the grief set in….\nThe shock was tremendous—I knew she was ill, but not that ill. But the more I look back on her life, the more I can see the indications.\nKaren had been a little overweight as a teenager—she loved tacos and chili. But we never teased her—to us, she wasn’t that fat. When she was 17, she went on the Stillman Diet with a doctor’s guidance, and she lost between 20 and 25 pounds. She was at her best weight—between 115 and 120—until 1975, when the illness first became serious.\nThat year we had to cancel a European and Japanese tour because her weight was way down. She was tiring easily—she was exhausted. We’d gone from recording our Horizon album straight on the road for the summer tour, then on to Las Vegas, where we did two shows a night. Finally she went into the hospital for five days of bed rest and then spent almost two months in bed at our parents’.\nIt was right around that time that we heard about anorexia. I don’t recall how we learned about it—mainly we all just encouraged her to eat more. Mom cooked good healthy meals. Karen was never into binge eating—she merely picked at her food.\nPeople are always trying to find a link between Karen’s illness and a single heartbreak, but I don’t associate it with anything. It definitely wasn’t related to a tragic romance, as has been implied. [Before her brief marriage to Tom Burris] she did have a romance with Terry Ellis [an executive with Chrysalis Records], which didn’t work out, but they remained friends.\nWhen her anorexia appeared, things were going well in our careers and she was apparently happy. Still, she didn’t eat enough for the schedule we were keeping—she lived on salads, maybe dry toast for breakfast. From early 1975 on I tried every method I knew to get her to eat. I would scold her, and she would say I was getting upset over nothing. There were times I did lose my temper, but it was always out of love.\nKaren was always worried about the way she looked, so I tried to appeal to that. I told her she was too thin and that people were noticing it. And that she wouldn’t be able to continue our schedule if she didn’t get more fuel. Although her voice was never affected, you could hear gasps from the audience when she came onstage, and there was considerable mail from fans asking what was wrong. Eventually, though, my parents and I realized that there was nothing we could do except state what was on our minds. We never knew how to help her.\nIn late 1981 she reached the stage where she came to me and said, “Richard, I realize I’m sick and I need help.” It was then that she decided to go to New York…someone—I don’t know who—had recommended this treatment to her, and it seemed the only way. She’d never been in therapy before nor felt the need—none of us were great believers in it.\nShe made the trek to New York, which was quite a move, leaving everything behind and living alone for months at the Regency Hotel while she was in therapy. She would call home frequently and talk of being homesick, but she was determined to stick it out.\nI have to be honest—I’m bitter about the treatment she received.\nWhile a therapist is working with an anorexic, it takes months, if not years, to overcome the illness. And during the therapy, the person is literally starving herself. That does a lot of damage to the body.\nKaren had been in therapy for nine months or so, and the therapist was getting nowhere. She wasn’t putting any weight on—if anything, she was losing. I was extremely upset about that. Finally Karen was put into Lenox Hill Hospital [checking in under an assumed name] for force-feeding to put some weight on her.\nWe all went to see her in the hospital. She had been down to 80 pounds, and she was about 110 when she came home to L.A. for Thanksgiving 1982, when we had turkey and all the trimmings. She was definitely improved, but there were signs that she wasn’t 100 percent turned around—she was picking at food, and there were certain rituals in eating. In a restaurant, there were certain things she wouldn’t order and other things—like eggs and potatoes—that she left untouched.\nTo have stayed in a hospital for seven weeks, then come home and take it easy—that wasn’t for Karen. After she was released from the hospital, she was running around, socializing, shopping. She seemed bent on walking as much as she could. [Her therapist reports that she bought at least 30 pairs of jogging shoes in New York.] Obviously that wasn’t good for her.\nThere never was a point where she acted like she was sick. She was her bubbly, energetic self right to the end, and she ate well in her last weeks. For the 25th anniversary of the Grammys [the month before her death] we showed up at CBS Television City for alumni pictures. Afterward I took her to St. Germain [an elegant L.A. restaurant] for dinner. She had an appetizer, French bread, wine, the entree and everything that came with it. I knew she had gotten an urge for tacos earlier and that she was eating chili again—one of her favorites.\nI don’t know that we’ll ever know everything about Karen’s illness, but I think all those years of starvation took their toll—she put weight on too fast in those weeks in the hospital, and it put an undue strain on her heart. I’ve been told by doctors that getting that many calories shot into your system in a comparatively short period of time does that.\nI did a lot of soul-searching after her death, and I realize now that I did as much as I could have done. All of us who loved her did. But I still can’t believe she’s gone. We spent so much time together…. There’s a void there now. I miss her more and more each day.\nThere’s a natural insulation at first—a barrier that comes up for a time—but you never get over a loss like this. You simply have to deal with it. And I’m doing the best I can.\nShow Full Article",
"Karen Carpenter dies of anorexia - Feb 04, 1983 - HISTORY.com\nKaren Carpenter dies of anorexia\nShare this:\nKaren Carpenter dies of anorexia\nAuthor\nKaren Carpenter dies of anorexia\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nKaren Carpenter, a singer who long suffered under the burden of the expectations that came with pop stardom, died on this day in 1983, succumbing to heart failure brought on by her long, unpublicized struggle with anorexia.\nCarpenter had a fixation with her weight from her earliest days performing with her brother, Richard, in and around their hometown of Downey, California. As a teenager, she dropped at least 25 pounds on a popular and severe weight-loss program known as “the Water Diet,” so that by the time she and Richard burst on the pop scene with their smash hit “Close To You” in the summer of 1970, she was a thin but healthy 20-year-old carrying 120 lbs. on a 5′ 5″ frame. She maintained that weight through the early years of the Carpenters’ success, yet it appears that Karen’s insecurities about her appearance only grew, even as she was becoming one of the biggest pop stars of her era.\nIn pictures printed in Rolling Stone magazine in late 1974, when the Carpenters were one of the most successful acts in all of pop music, Karen looks fit and healthy. Yet by mid-1975, the Carpenters were forced to cancel tours of Japan and Europe after Karen collapsed on stage in Las Vegas. Her weight had plummeted to only 90 lbs., and though it would rebound somewhat after a brief hospitalization, the next seven years were a repeating cycle of dramatic weight loss, collapse and then hospitalization. The name of Karen’s condition was virtually unknown to the public at this time, but all that was about to change. Early on the morning of February 4, 1983, while staying in her parents home in Downey, Karen suffered a deadly heart attack, brought on by the physiological stresses placed on her system by the disease whose name soon entered the public consciousness: anorexia nervosa. She was only 32 years old.\nRelated Videos"
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"A Brother Remembers : People.com",
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"Controversy within the Olympics | The MediaPlex\nControversy within the Olympics\nBy The MediaPlex November 22, 2013 14:48\nBy Courtney Turnbull\nEvery four years people from around the world come together for the love of sports, and hope to see their country take home the gold. Whether sitting in front of a big screen stuffing your face with popcorn or getting a front row seat to the games itself, every four years we are assured there will be some sort of drama between nations. This is what we call the Olympics.\nThe first-ever modern Olympics was held in Athens, Greece in 1896. The founder of the International Olympic Committee Baron Pierre de Coubertin once said “The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not winning but taking part, the essential thing in life is not conquering but fighting well.”\nBut are we, as nations, fighting well? Being fair to all athletes? Controversy in the Olympics dates to the early 20th century. In 1916 the Summer Olympics were scheduled to be in Berlin but because of the outbreak of World War 1 they were cancelled.\nIn 1936 Germany got another chance to welcome the world’s athletes and host the Olympics. With Hitler in power it was like stirring a pot of controversial soup. Hitler wanted all black athletes to be banned from competing. In the end African-American athlete Jesse Owens, stood first place on the podium refusing to do the Nazi salute, and went home with four gold medals.\n“I think with the Olympics we have kind of given those (Olympic countries) a pass through the years because it’s been such a joyous occasion,” said Australian Rennae Stubbs, a former Olympic tennis player. “A place where we hope that the quality of sports is an equalizer to all athletes.”\nIn 1972, controversy became tragedy in Munich, when 11 Olympic athletes were held hostage and eventually killed. From black power salutes, to protests, to massacres and boycotting the event altogether, there is to inevitably some sort of issue that detracts from the real focus of the games.\nThe Olympics have turned a spotlight on worldwide human rights issues but the real focus should be on the athletes. The upcoming games will be in Sochi, Russia this February. There is already controversy and concern because of a law that was passed in late June. The new law states that it is punishable to speak openly about gays and lesbians among young people.\nLesbian, gay, bi-sexual and transgender athletes going to Sochi don’t just have to worry about competing, but also face a law that could potentially put them behind bars. Foreign citizens or people coming into the country displaying same-sex affection or distributing information on gay rights can also be fined and/or deported\nStubbs, who has won several Grand Slam tennis titles and represented her country four times, is an openly gay athlete. She said her biggest complaint isn’t necessarily with Russia in particular but with the IOC.\n“I think the IOC really needs to look at themselves,” said Stubbs. “They need to be a little bit more accountable for the decisions that they are making. Maybe one way of being able to help them with the decision making is to make better decisions on where to put the Olympics.”\nAccording to the IOC’s Olympic Charter all segregation is prohibited, whether it “is on the grounds of race, religion, colour or other.”\nJosh Cameron, a championship boxer from the Border City Boxing Club in Windsor, believes the Olympics was first created to end violence between nations and instead compete through sport. He thinks the law is discriminating towards athletes and that it could have an emotional affect on those of the LGBT community competing in Sochi 2014.\n“Sports are for those who have a passion for what they love and not who they are as a person,” said Cameron.\n“I feel that other countries should stand up for the gay community and promote sport over politics. Sports should bring people together, not apart.”\nNo matter who takes home a medal, countries that stay true to sportsmanship and equality will be the real winners.\nThe ultimate reward is for all countries to respect human rights for all people, but perhaps in today’s world that is still not realistic. Openly gay athletes are not being encouraged to start a riot or get arrested but to continue to pursue what they love. No matter who takes home a medal, countries that stay true to sportsmanship and equality will be the real winners.",
"50 stunning Olympic moments No11: Eric Moussambani flails way to glory | Barry Glendenning | Sport | The Guardian\n50 stunning Olympic moments\n50 stunning Olympic moments No11: Eric Moussambani flails way to glory\nThe Equatorial Guinea swimmer had never dipped a toe in an Olympic pool but left a hero despite a hapless performance\nWednesday 25 January 2012 04.59 EST\nFirst published on Wednesday 25 January 2012 04.59 EST\nShare on Messenger\nClose\n“The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not winning but taking part; the essential thing in life is not conquering but fighting well” – Baron Pierre de Coubertin, International Olympic Committee founder and father of the modern Games.\nTen to watch: meet Team GB's sporting superheroes\nRead more\nPoolside or on the track, sprinters always stress the importance of exploding from the starting blocks on the B of the starting pistol’s BANG! In the first qualifying heat of the men’s 100m freestyle at Sydney 2000, two of the three nervous participants bucked the trend, choosing instead to go on the “S” of the starter’s “get set”.\nWith five lanes of the vast Olympic swimming pool unoccupied, Niger’s Karim Bare and Tajikistan’s Farkhod Oripov didn’t just jump the gun, they vaulted it Sergey Bubka- style, such was their overeagerness to immerse their skin-hugging polyurethane bodysuits in the drink.\nCrouched forlornly on the starting block of lane five wearing nothing more aerodynamic than a pair of blue swimming trunks with white go-faster stripes, Equatorial Guinea’s Eric Moussambani looked quizzically across to the starter as if to say: “What now?” An already surreal state of affairs had got weirder, but only the most schmaltzy Hollywood screenwriter could have predicted what would happen next.\nTwelve months previously, Moussambani had been unable to swim and had yet to set foot outside his native country, the tiny oil-rich nation of Equatorial Guinea. Repressively governed then and now by Africa’s longest-serving ruler, the despotic president Teodoro Obiang, the per capita wealth of Equatorial Guinea exceeds that of the UK, but the majority of its 700,000 citizens are impoverished and forced to get by on less than one dollar a day.\nRubbing shoulders with North Korea, Burma and Somalia on the list of the planet’s most despotic hell-holes, Equatorial Guinea under Obiang was recently described by the Observer’s Ian Birrell as “a ruthless one-party state where elections are stolen, opponents jailed and state coffers looted, control of daily life is all-pervasive and the government is accused of gross human rights abuses, including torture and extra-judicial killings.” It was from this hostile environment that Moussambani had emerged to participate at Sydney 2000, having never even seen, let alone dipped a toe in, an Olympic-sized 50metre pool.\nFive days before the race that would make him a household name, Moussambani arrived in Sydney with £50 spending money and enjoyed the honour of carrying the Equatorial Guinea flag in the opening ceremony of the Games. Despite the significant handicap of having been unable to swim eight months previously, he had gained entry to the Olympics via a wild-card scheme, since significantly scaled back, that was established to give athletes from developing countries the opportunity to compete. It was through the same scheme that Eddie “The Eagle” Edwards, then a plasterer, had been allowed to compete in the ski jump at the 1988 Calgary Winter Olympics.\nHis entry secured, Moussambani set about teaching himself to swim in the pool of a hotel in his home town of Malabo. Having mastered the basics and training alone without a coach, he had nobody to help him clock his efforts in a 20m pool that wasn’t even roped into lanes. To make matters worse, in the buildup to the Games, Moussambani had been mistakenly informed that he would be swimming only 50m and had trained accordingly. Upon his arrival in Sydney he was understandably alarmed to discover the discipline in which he was entered was twice that distance, a comparative test of endurance he had never even attempted.\nEric Moussambani of Equatorial Guinea concentrates before his 100m freestyle heat. Photograph: Greg Wood/EPA\nAfter Moussambani’s rivals Bare and Oripov had false-started, confusion reigned in the Sydney International Aquatic Centre. The pair swam back to their blocks and dragged themselves from the pool, only to be disqualified for their overzealousness. With only one competitor left, it was presumed the heat would be abandoned and Moussambani would proceed to the next round, but after conferring, the Olympic authorities announced he would have to compete alone against the clock, in front of 17,000 spectators, in a bid to make the qualifying time of 1min 10sec (the world record at the time was 48.18sec). For the second time that morning, the starter fired his pistol and, for the first time in his 22-year existence, Moussambani dived off a starting block into a 50m pool.\nAlone in such a vast expanse of water, Moussambani made for a peculiar sight, but set off at a fair old clip. However, when it became quickly apparent that he wasn’t much of a swimmer, laughter became audible above the half-hearted cheers of the bemused crowd. Moussambani had looked the part, buff and ripped as he sliced the water with a dive that looked technically adequate to the untrained eye, but as he approached the halfway turn in 40.97sec, it was painfully apparent that he was hopelessly and quite literally out of his depth.\n“This guy doesn’t look like he’s going to make it,” said Adrian Moorhouse, co-commentating for the BBC. “I am convinced this guy is going to have to get hold of the lane rope in a moment,” he continued, as Moussambani inched his way down the pool, veering diagonally across his lane as he flailed in desperation. But with 30 metres to go and the raucous din of the good-natured, highly amused but supportive Australian crowd growing in volume as they roared their encouragement for the hapless underdog, the flailing object of their affection steeled himself for one final big push.\n“He’s going to make it, this is the Olympics, he’s got 17,000 people shouting for him,” enthused Moorhouse, easing growing concern that the waywardly thrashing Moussambani, now practically swimming on the spot, might actually drown. And make it he did, eventually “winning” heat one of the 100m freestyle in a time of 1min 52.72sec, the slowest time in Olympic history, albeit a personal best that was a mite under 43 seconds outside the qualifying time. Indeed, so slow was Moussambani that his time for 100m was seven seconds longer than it had taken the Australian swimmer Ian Thorpe to swim exactly twice the distance in the same pool the previous day.\nThe Dutch swimmer Pieter van den Hoogenband won the final of Moussambani’s event in 48.30sec, setting a new world record in the semi-final.\n“The first 50 metres were OK, but in the second 50 metres I got a bit worried and thought I wasn’t going to make it,” said a dripping, visibly shattered, but elated Moussambani after he had dragged himself out of the pool. “Then something happened. I think it was all the people getting behind me. I was really, really proud. It’s still a great feeling for me and I loved when everyone applauded me at the end. I felt like I had won a medal or something.”\nIf Moussambani had won a medal, it would have been a first for Equatorial Guinea and made him a national hero, but so epic and endearing was the nature of his glorious failure to earn him a place anywhere near the podium that he quickly found himself basking in the kind of global acclaim normally reserved for truly great Olympic stars of track and field.\nSuch was the level of media interest in his heroic effort that Olympic officials were forced to provide him with a translator and personal assistant to help cope with more than 100 interview requests from TV, newspapers and magazines. Labelling Moussambani “Eric The Eel”, the opportunists at the Speedo marketing department kitted him out with one of their Fastskin bodysuits and promised an “ongoing commitment” to the swimmer that resulted in him being ferried around Europe doing promotional work over the next 12 months.\nBack at the Olympic village, Moussambani was hailed as the very embodiment of the Games spirit and his every excursion was soundtracked by spontaneous applause. A giant banner was draped outside the lodgings of the Equatorial Guinea team declaring “Eric the swimmer lives here”, a German TV crew took him on a tour of Sydney Harbour and his hero, the Australian swimmer Michael Klim, sought him out to shake his hand.\n“This is what the Olympics is all about,” said Klim’s team-mate Thorpe, who won three golds and two silvers in the pool at his hometown Games. Not everyone concurred with Thorpe, not least in Equatorial Guinea, where Moussambani’s high-profile failure was considered by those in high places to be a source of much national embarrassment.\nThe International Olympic Committee’s president, Jacques Rogge, also disagreed with Thorpe’s assessment that heroism of the hapless was what the Games were all about, telling the Guardian about his plans to stop handing out wild cards to countries that would otherwise be unable to send competitors on the grounds that “we want to avoid what happened in the swimming in Sydney; the public loved it, but I did not like it.”\nConsidering his diktat that the Olympic Games are for the world and “all nations must be admitted to them”, it’s difficult to imagine that Rogge’s predecessor Baron de Coubertin would have shared such a snooty elitist view.\nWhat happened next\nOnce the clocked ticked down on Moussambani’s 15 minutes of fame, the endorsements dried up and media interest in the Olympic darling inevitably dwindled, the swimmer set about preparing for the next Games in Athens, despite the best attempts of his government and national Olympic body to thwart his progress at every turn. Relentless training helped him slash his personal best from 1min 57.2sec to under 57 seconds, but an offer of a scholarship to a university in Wisconsin was withdrawn when bureaucrats in Equatorial Guinea either couldn’t, or wouldn’t, submit the relevant paperwork.\nShortly before the 2004 Olympics, media interest in Moussambani flickered briefly when it emerged that his efforts to compete in Athens appeared doomed to failure. “I have been training very hard for three years and my goal was wanting to go to Athens and to show people I can do better,” explained the impoverished engineering student, having travelled from his adopted home of Valencia just a couple of days before the Equatorial Guinea team were due to set off for Athens. “The [Speedo] contract is finished now. I don’t have any more sponsors. I have been training very hard but nobody has been helping me. I have a plan to go to Athens but if I can’t go, there is not enough money to continue.” A suspiciously convenient blunder in Malabo government HQ prevented Moussambani from showing the world how much he’d improved, when the passport photograph required for his accreditation was mislaid.\nHow the Guardian reported it: 20 September 2000\nMoussambani mania swept through the Olympics today as the swimmer from Equatorial Guinea, who won his 100 metres freestyle heat in record slow time, became the most sought after athlete at the Games, wrote Vivek Chaudhary.\nEric Moussambani, aged 22, has become the most high-profile Olympian in Sydney and more famous than any gold medal winner as he went down in Olympic folklore for being a heroic failure. The African swimmer won his heat in 1min 52.72sec, the slowest ever time for 100m freestyle swimming in the history of the Games and at times barely managed to keep his head above water. Moussambani only won because the two other swimmers in the race were disqualified for false starts.\nToday, he gave more than 100 interviews to the world’s media and was also given a medal by a British tabloid. A German television crew took him on a cruise around Sydney harbour while scores of fans queued to get his autograph. He was also featured as the main item on American television channel NBC’s Olympic coverage, which is shown across the country. “I really do not understand what all the fuss is about because I have not won anything,” said Moussambani. “But I am very happy that everybody now knows my country. I was very tired in the pool but the Olympic spirit meant that I had to finish the race.\n“I have never been so tired in my life. My muscles were hurting. I had never been in a pool that big before, I was very scared. I feel as if I have won a gold medal. Everybody was clapping and cheering me, it was just like winning.”\nMoussambani said he had telephoned his mother soon after his win but she was not even aware that he was supposed to be racing. “I told her: ‘Mama, I have done it,’” beamed Moussambani. “Many people thought that I would not be able to finish the race. I would have been ashamed had I not been able to finish the race. I would not have been able to live with myself.”\nUnemployed Moussambani usually trains in a 20m pool, the only one of its kind in Equatorial Guinea, and during weekends he swims in a local river, which according to team-mates is sometimes visited by crocodiles. On Tuesday night, Moussambani completed his heat in almost double the world record time of 48.18sec.\nMoussambani, who is already being heralded as one of the Olympic Games’s greatest failures, said he hoped the world would not forget him once the Games were over.\n“I would like somebody to sponsor me and pay for a coach. It is all very well doing these interviews and having all this publicity but it will not be worth anything if nobody is willing to help me.” Moussambani finished well outside the qualifying time of 1min 10sec and was eliminated from the competition. “I think they should let me back into the swimming event because I did win my heat,” he said.",
"Rio 2016: Where does India stand? | debooWORKS\nRio 2016: Where does India stand?\nAbhineet Dey 4 Comments\nThe greatest spectacle in sports, held every four years, the 2016 Olympics is just around the corner and the whole world is excited about this mega sporting event to be held from August the 5th to August the 21st in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . The people of India will be expecting a lot more medals from the Indian contingent. India has been taking part in the Olympics since 1900, before independence and has only won 26 medals so far, which makes for 1 medal per 383 million people. Even countries like Kenya and Ghana have better performance than India in this respect.\nIndia is the world’s 2nd most populous country and the largest democracy. Strangely, this is the reason behind India’s weakness in sports. Democracy, on the other hand, is mounted by corruption and it can be rightly said that ‘India is not the largest democratic, but the largest corrupted nation in the world.’ This is the reason for the gross mismanagement of resources already allocated for sports in India. And although India ranks 129 in terms of per-capita income in the world and still we managed the 50th position in the Beijing Olympics. Hence, the population argument should not be used to disparage India’s performance.\nAnother reason for this shortcoming is the nation’s obsession with cricket. India’s dominance in world cricket has kept the spotlight fixed on this English sport. All this has led to favouritism, poor sports infrastructure and facilities for sports of other categories.\nParents in India give more emphasis on academics. They consider sports to serve only recreational purposes. Work and education are believed to be the only way of livelihood and sports have never been considered for that. This must be changed if India has to become a sporting nation.\nIndia’s chance in Rio Olympics\nThe 2016 Rio Olympics are less than 9 months away. India is planning to better its 2012 tally of six medals. This would be possible only if India is able to send a contingent of at least 100 athletes. According to information available to the government, 57 Indians have qualified so far for the 2016 Olympics, and 32 of them are from Hockey (Men & Women). So we must send a contingent of at least a hundred athletes in 2016.\nThe Government has formulated the ‘Target Olympic Podium Scheme’ ( TOP Scheme ). The funding for this scheme will come from the National Sports Development Fund . The objective of the scheme is to identify and support potential medal prospects for 2016 and 2020 Olympic Games. The selected athletes are being provided financial assistance for their customized training at institutes having world class facilities and other necessary support.So far, 88 sportspersons have applied for assistance and an assistance of ₹6.22 crore has been sanctioned to them. The total outlay for the scheme is about 43 crores.\nThe Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports got a hike of around Rs 384 crore in the budget for 2015-16. Under the sports and games head, Sports Authority of India (SAI) will get an amount of ₹369.39 crore – a hike of ₹17.34 crore. This will definitely help in the development of indoor and outdoor facilities for sports in India.\nSaina Nehwal, P.V. Sindhu in Badminton, Sushil Kumar and Yogeshwar Dutt in wrestling, Gagan Narang in shooting, Shiva Thapa in boxing among others hold promise in winning medals this year. The Indian Hockey Team, which has not won a single medal since 1980 Moscow Olympics will be eagerly waiting to stand on the podium this time.\nAs Pierre de Frédy Baron de Coubertin , Founder of the International Olympic Committee, and father of the modern Olympic Games rightly said:\nThe important thing in the Olympic Games is not winning but taking part. The essential thing in life is not conquering but fighting well.\nby Hirak Jyoti Talukdar & Abhineet Dey\nReference"
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"title": [
"Controversy within the Olympics | The MediaPlex",
"Eric Moussambani’s solo race in the 2000 Olympics",
"Rio 2016: Where does India stand? | debooWORKS"
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"https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2012/jan/25/olympic-games-eric-eel-moussambani",
"https://debooworks.wordpress.com/2016/02/14/rio-2016-where-does-india-stand/"
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In which state was Charles Schulz born?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Charles Monroe Schulz (November 26, 1922 – February 12, 2000), nicknamed Sparky, was an American cartoonist best known for the comic strip Peanuts (which featured the characters Charlie Brown and Snoopy, among others). He is widely regarded as one of the most influential cartoonists of all time, cited as a major influence by many later cartoonists, including Calvin and Hobbes creator Bill Watterson.\n\nEarly life and education\n\nBorn in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Schulz grew up in Saint Paul. He was the only child of Carl Schulz, who was born in Germany, and Dena Halverson, who had Norwegian heritage. His uncle called him \"Sparky\" after the horse Spark Plug in Billy DeBeck's comic strip, Barney Google. \n\nSchulz loved drawing and sometimes drew his family dog, Spike, who ate unusual things, such as pins and tacks. In 1937, Schulz drew a picture of Spike and sent it to Ripley's Believe It or Not!; his drawing appeared in Robert Ripley's syndicated panel, captioned, \"A hunting dog that eats pins, tacks, and razor blades is owned by C. F. Schulz, St. Paul, Minn.\" and \"Drawn by 'Sparky'\" (C.F. was his father, Carl Fred Schulz). \n\nSchulz attended Richards Gordon Elementary School in Saint Paul, where he skipped two half-grades. He became a shy, timid teenager, perhaps as a result of being the youngest in his class at Central High School. One well-known episode in his high school life was the rejection of his drawings by his high school yearbook. A five-foot-tall statue of Snoopy was placed in the school's main office 60 years later.\n\nMilitary service and post-war jobs\n\nIn February 1943, Schulz's mother Dena died after a long illness. At the time of her death, he had only recently been made aware that she suffered from cancer. Schulz had by all accounts been very close to his mother and her death made a strong impression on him. Around the same time, Schulz was drafted into the United States Army. He served as a staff sergeant with the 20th Armored Division in Europe, as a squad leader on a .50 caliber machine gun team. His unit saw combat only at the very end of the war. Schulz said that he only had one opportunity to fire his machine gun but forgot to load it. Fortunately, he said, the German soldier he could have fired at willingly surrendered. Years later, Schulz proudly spoke of his wartime service. \n\nAfter being discharged in late 1945, Schulz returned to Minneapolis. He did lettering for a Roman Catholic comic magazine, Timeless Topix, and then, in July 1946, took a job at Art Instruction, Inc., reviewing and grading lessons submitted by students. Schulz himself had been a student of the school, taking a correspondence course from it before he was drafted. He worked at the school for a number of years while he developed his career as a comic creator, until he was making enough money from comics to be able to do that full-time.\n\nCareer\n\nSchulz's first group of regular cartoons, a weekly series of one-panel jokes entitled Li'l Folks, was published from June 1947 to January 1950 in the St. Paul Pioneer Press, with Schulz usually doing four one-panel drawings per issue. It was in Li'l Folks that Schulz first used the name Charlie Brown for a character, although he applied the name in four gags to three different boys as well as one buried in sand. The series also had a dog that looked much like Snoopy. In May 1948, Schulz sold his first one-panel drawing to The Saturday Evening Post; within the next two years, a total of 17 untitled drawings by Schulz were published in the Post, simultaneously with his work for St. Paul Pioneer Press. Around the same time, he tried to have Li'l Folks syndicated through the Newspaper Enterprise Association; Schulz would have been an independent contractor for the syndicate, unheard of in the 1940s, but the deal fell through. Li'l Folks was dropped from the Pioneer Press in January 1950.\n\nLater that year, Schulz approached the United Feature Syndicate with the one-panel series Li'l Folks, and the syndicate became interested. However, by that time Schulz had also developed a comic strip, using normally four panels rather than one, and reportedly to Schulz's delight, the syndicate preferred this version. Peanuts made its first appearance on October 2, 1950, in seven newspapers. The weekly Sunday-page debuted on January 6, 1952. After a somewhat slow beginning, Peanuts eventually became one of the most popular comic strips of all time, as well as one of the most influential. Schulz also had a short-lived sports-oriented comic strip called It's Only a Game (1957–1959), but he abandoned it due to the demands of the successful Peanuts. From 1956 to 1965 he contributed a single-panel strip (\"Young Pillars\") featuring teenagers to Youth, a publication associated with the Church of God.\n\nIn 1957 and 1961 he illustrated two volumes of Art Linkletter's Kids Say the Darndest Things, and in 1964 a collection of letters, Dear President Johnson, by Bill Adler. \n\nPeanuts \n\nAt its height, Peanuts was published daily in 2,600 papers in 75 countries, in 21 languages. Over the nearly 50 years that Peanuts was published, Schulz drew nearly 18,000 strips. The strips themselves, plus merchandise and product endorsements, produced revenues of more than $1 billion per year, with Schulz earning an estimated $30 million to $40 million annually. During the life of the strip, Schulz took only one vacation, a five-week break in late 1997 to celebrate his 75th birthday; reruns of the strip ran during his vacation, the only time reruns occurred while Schulz was alive.\n\nThe first book collection of Peanuts strips was published in July 1952 by Rinehart & Company. Many more books followed, and these collections greatly contributed to the increasing popularity of the strip. In 2004, Fantagraphics began their Complete Peanuts series. Peanuts also proved popular in other media; the first animated TV special, A Charlie Brown Christmas, aired in December 1965 and won an Emmy award. Numerous TV specials were to follow, the latest being Happiness is a Warm Blanket, Charlie Brown in 2011. Until his death, Schulz wrote or cowrote the TV specials and carefully oversaw production of them.\n\nCharlie Brown, the principal character for Peanuts, was named after a co-worker at the Art Instruction Inc. Schulz drew much more inspiration than this from his own life, some examples being:\n* Like Charlie Brown's parents, Schulz's father was a barber and his mother a housewife.\n* Schulz admitted in interviews that, like Charlie Brown, he had often felt shy and withdrawn in his life. In an interview with Charlie Rose in May 1997, Schulz observed, \"I suppose there’s a melancholy feeling in a lot of cartoonists, because cartooning, like all other humor, comes from bad things happening.\" \n* Schulz reportedly had an intelligent dog when he was a boy. Although this dog was a pointer, and not a beagle as was Snoopy, family photos of the dog confirm a certain physical resemblance.\n* References to Snoopy's brother Spike living outside of Needles, California, were likely influenced by the few years (1928–1930) that the Schulz family lived there; they had moved to Needles to join other family members who had relocated from Minnesota to tend to an ill cousin. \n* Schulz's inspiration for Charlie Brown's unrequited love to the Little Red-Haired Girl was Donna Mae Johnson, an Art Instruction Inc. accountant with whom he fell in love. When Schulz finally proposed to her in June 1950, shortly after he had made his first contract with his syndicate, she turned him down and married another man.\n* Linus and Shermy were named for his good friends Linus Maurer and Sherman Plepler, respectively.\n* Peppermint Patty was inspired by Patricia Swanson, one of his cousins on his mother's side. Schulz devised the character's name when he saw peppermint candies in his house. \n* Lucy was modeled after Schulz's first wife, Joyce Halverson.\n\nInfluences\n\nThe Charles M. Schulz Museum counts Milton Caniff (Terry and the Pirates) and Bill Mauldin as key influences on Schulz's work. In his own strip, Schulz regularly described Snoopy's annual Veterans Day visits with Mauldin, including mention of Mauldin's World War II cartoons. Schulz (and critics) also credited George Herriman (Krazy Kat), Roy Crane (Wash Tubbs), Elzie C. Segar (Thimble Theatre) and Percy Crosby (Skippy) among his influences. In a 1994 address to fellow cartoonists, Schulz discussed several of his influences. His biographer Rheta Grimsley Johnson said, however:\n\nThe Charles M. Schulz Museum and Research Center has stated that Schulz watched the movie Citizen Kane (1941) 40 times. The character Lucy van Pelt also expresses a fondness for the film, and in one strip she cruelly spoils the ending for her younger brother. \n\nPersonal life\n\nIn April 1951, Schulz married Joyce Halverson (no relation to Schulz's mother Dena Halverson Schulz). Later in the same year, Schulz and Joyce moved to Colorado Springs, Colorado. Their first child, a son named Monte, was born in February 1952, and three further children were born later, in Minnesota. \n\nSchulz and his family returned to Minneapolis and stayed until 1958. They then moved to Sebastopol, California, where Schulz built his first studio. (Until then, he'd worked at home or in a small rented office room.) It was here that Schulz was interviewed for the unaired television documentary A Boy Named Charlie Brown. Some of the footage was eventually used in a later documentary, Charlie Brown and Charles Schulz. Schulz's father died while visiting him in 1966, the same year Schulz's Sebastopol studio burned down. By 1969, Schulz had moved to Santa Rosa, California, where he lived and worked until his death. While briefly living in Colorado Springs, Schulz painted a mural on the bedroom wall of his adopted daughter Meredith Hodges, featuring Patty with a balloon, Charlie Brown jumping over a candlestick, and Snoopy playing on all fours. The wall was removed in 2001, donated and relocated to the Charles M. Schulz Museum in Santa Rosa, California.\n\nBy Thanksgiving 1970, it was clear that Schulz's first marriage was in trouble. He was having an affair with a 25-year-old woman named Tracey Claudius. The Schulzes divorced in 1972, and in September of the following year he married Jean Forsyth Clyde, whom he had first met when she brought her daughter to his hockey rink. They remained married for 27 years, until Schulz's death in 2000.\n\nKidnapping attempt\n\nOn Sunday, May 8, 1988, two gunmen wearing ski masks entered the cartoonist's home through an unlocked door, planning to kidnap Jean Schulz, but the attempt failed when Schulz's daughter, Jill, drove up to the house, prompting the would-be kidnappers to flee. She saw what was happening and called the police from a neighbor's house. Sonoma County Sheriff Dick Michaelsen said, \"It was obviously an attempted kidnap-ransom. This was a targeted criminal act. They knew exactly who the victims were.\" Neither Schulz nor his wife was hurt during the incident. \n\nSports\n\nSchulz had a long association with ice sports, and both figure skating and ice hockey featured prominently in his cartoons. In Santa Rosa, he owned the Redwood Empire Ice Arena, which opened in 1969 and featured a snack bar called \"The Warm Puppy\". Schulz's daughter Amy served as a model for the figure skating in the television special She's a Good Skate, Charlie Brown (1980). Schulz also was very active in senior ice-hockey tournaments; in 1975, he formed Snoopy's Senior World Hockey Tournament at his Redwood Empire Ice Arena, and in 1981, Schulz was awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy for outstanding service to the sport of hockey in the United States. Schulz also enjoyed playing golf and was a member of the Santa Rosa Golf and Country Club from 1959 to 2000.\n\nIn 1998, Schulz hosted the first Over 75 Hockey Tournament. In 2000, the Ramsey County Board voted to rename the Highland Park Ice Arena the Charles M. Schulz-Highland Arena in his honor.\n\nArt\n\nIn addition to his lifelong interest in comics, Schulz was interested in art in general; his favorite artist in his later years was Andrew Wyeth. As a young adult Schulz also developed a great passion for classical music. Although the character Schroeder in Peanuts adored Beethoven, Schulz's personal favorite composer was reportedly Brahms. \n\nDeclining health and retirement\n\nIn July 1981, Schulz underwent heart bypass surgery. During his hospital stay, President Ronald Reagan phoned to wish him a quick recovery.\n\nIn the 1980s, Schulz complained that \"sometimes my hand shakes so much I have to hold my wrist to draw.\" This led to the erroneous assumption that Schulz had Parkinson's disease. However, according to a letter from his physician, placed in the Archives of the Charles M. Schulz Museum by his widow, Schulz had essential tremor, a condition alleviated by beta blockers. Despite this, Schulz insisted on writing and drawing the strip by himself.\n\nIn November 1999, Schulz suffered several small strokes along with a blocked aorta, and later it was discovered that he had colon cancer that had metastasized. Because of the chemotherapy and the fact that he could not see clearly, he announced his retirement on December 14, 1999. This was difficult for Schulz, who was quoted as telling Al Roker on The Today Show, \"I never dreamed that this was what would happen to me. I always had the feeling that I would probably stay with the strip until I was in my early eighties. But all of a sudden it's gone. It's been taken away from me. I did not take this away from me.\"\n\nSchulz was asked if, for his final Peanuts strip, Charlie Brown would finally get to kick that certain football after so many decades (one of the many recurring themes in Peanuts was Charlie Brown's attempts to kick a football while Lucy was holding it, only to have Lucy pull it back at the last moment, causing Charlie Brown to fall on his back). His response, \"Oh, no. Definitely not. I couldn't have Charlie Brown kick that football; that would be a terrible disservice to him after nearly half a century.\" Yet, in a December 1999 interview, holding back tears, he recounted the moment when he signed the panel of his final strip, saying, “All of a sudden I thought, 'You know, that poor, poor kid, he never even got to kick the football. What a dirty trick — he never had a chance to kick the football.'” \n\nDeath\n\nSchulz died in his sleep at home on February 12, 2000 at around 9:45 pm, from colon cancer. The last original Peanuts strip was published the very next day, on Sunday, February 13. Schulz had previously predicted that the strip would outlive him, with his reason being that his comic strips were usually drawn weeks before their publication. Schulz was buried at Pleasant Hills Cemetery in Sebastopol, California. \n\nAs part of his will, Schulz requested that the Peanuts characters remain as authentic as possible and that no new comic strips based on them be drawn. United Features had legal ownership of the strip, but honored his wishes, instead syndicating reruns of the strip to newspapers. New television specials have also been produced since Schulz's death; however, the stories are based on previous strips, and Schulz always stated that Peanuts TV shows were entirely separate from the strip. New stories have also been produced for publication as licensed comic books.\n\nSchulz was honored on May 27, 2000, by cartoonists of more than 100 comic strips, who paid homage to him and Peanuts by incorporating his characters into their comic strips on that date. \n\nAwards\n\nSchulz received the National Cartoonists Society's Humor Comic Strip Award in 1962 for Peanuts, the Society's Elzie Segar Award in 1980, and was also the first two-time winner of their Reuben Award for 1955 and 1964, and their Milton Caniff Lifetime Achievement Award in 1999. He was also an avid hockey fan; in 1981, Schulz was awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy for outstanding contributions to the sport of hockey in the United States, and he was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 1993. On June 28, 1996, Schulz was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, adjacent to Walt Disney's. A replica of this star appears outside his former studio in Santa Rosa. Schulz is a recipient of the Silver Buffalo Award, the highest adult award given by the Boy Scouts of America, for his service to American youth. \n\nA proponent of manned space flight, Schulz was honored with the naming of Apollo 10 command module Charlie Brown, and lunar module Snoopy, launched on May 18, 1969.\n\nOn January 1, 1974, Schulz served as the Grand Marshal of the Rose Parade in Pasadena, California.\n\nSchulz was a keen bridge player, and Peanuts occasionally included bridge references. In 1997, according to Alan Truscott, the American Contract Bridge League (ACBL), awarded both Snoopy and Woodstock the honorary rank of Life Master, and Schulz was delighted. According to the ACBL, only Snoopy was awarded the honor. \n\nOn February 10, 2000, Congressman Mike Thompson introduced H.R. 3642, a bill to award Schulz the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian honor the United States legislature can bestow. The bill passed the House (with only Ron Paul voting no and 24 not voting) on February 15, and the bill was sent to the Senate where it passed unanimously on May 2. The Senate also considered the related bill, S.2060 (introduced by Dianne Feinstein). President Bill Clinton signed the bill into law on June 20, 2000. On June 7, 2001, Schulz's widow Jean accepted the award on behalf of her late husband in a public ceremony. \n\nSchulz was inducted into the United States Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2007.\n\nSchulz was the inaugural recipient of The Harvey Kurtzman Hall of Fame Award, accepted by Karen Johnson, Director of the Charles M. Schulz Museum, at the 2014 Harvey Awards held at the Baltimore Comic Convention in Baltimore, Maryland. \n\nBiographies\n\nMultiple biographies have been written about Schulz, including Rheta Grimsley Johnson's Good Grief: The Story of Charles M. Schulz (1989), which Schulz authorized.\n\nThe lengthiest biography, Schulz and Peanuts: A Biography (2007) by David Michaelis, has been heavily criticized by the Schulz family; Schulz's son Monte stated it has \"a number of factual errors throughout ... [including] factual errors of interpretation\" and extensively documents these errors in a number of essays. However, Michaelis maintains that there is \"no question\" his work is accurate. Although cartoonist Bill Watterson (creator of Calvin and Hobbes) feels the biography does justice to Schulz's legacy, while giving insight into the emotional impetus of the creation of the strips, cartoonist and critic R.C. Harvey regards the book as falling short both in describing Schulz as a cartoonist and in fulfilling Michaelis' stated aim of \"understanding how Charles Schulz knew the world\"; Harvey feels the biography bends the facts to a thesis rather than evoking a thesis from the facts. Dan Shanahan's review, in the American Book Review (vol 29, no. 6), of Michaelis' biography faults the biography not for factual errors, but for \"a predisposition\" to finding problems in Schulz's life to explain his art, regardless of how little the material lends itself to Michaelis' interpretations. Shanahan cites, in particular, such things as Michaelis' crude characterizations of Schulz's mother's family, and \"an almost voyeuristic quality\" to the hundred pages devoted to the breakup of Schulz's first marriage.\n\nIn light of Michaelis' biography and the controversy surrounding his interpretation of the personality who was Charles Schulz, responses from Schulz's family reveal some intimate knowledge about the Schulz's persona beyond that of mere artist. [http://www.webcitation.org/5ZeXKbB8I Archived] on July 28, 2008.\n\nLegacy\n\nOn July 1, 1983, Camp Snoopy opened at Knott's Berry Farm, a forested, mountain theme area featuring the Peanuts characters. It has rides designed for younger children and is one of the most popular areas of the amusement park. \n\nWhen the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota opened in 1992, the amusement park in the center of the mall was themed around Schulz's Peanuts characters, until the mall lost the rights to use the brand, in 2006.\n\nThe Jean and Charles Schulz Information Center at Sonoma State University opened in 2000 and now stands as one of the largest buildings in the CSU system and the State of California, with a 400,000-volume general collection and with a 750,000-volume automated retrieval system capacity. The $41.5 million building was named after Schulz and his wife donated $5 million needed to build and furnish the structure.\n\nIn 2000, the Sonoma County Board of Supervisors renamed the county airport as the Charles M. Schulz - Sonoma County Airport in the cartoonist's honor. The airport's logo features Snoopy in goggles and scarf, taking to the skies on top of his red doghouse.\n\nPeanuts on Parade has been St. Paul, Minnesota’s tribute to its favorite native cartoonist. It began in 2000 with the placing of 101 5 ft statues of Snoopy throughout the city of St. Paul. Every summer for the following four years, statues of a different Peanuts character were placed on the sidewalks of St. Paul. In 2001, there was Charlie Brown Around Town, 2002 brought Looking for Lucy, in 2003 along came Linus Blankets St. Paul, ending in 2004 with Snoopy lying on his doghouse. The statues were auctioned off at the end of each summer, so some remain around the city, but others have been relocated. The auction proceeds were used for artist's scholarships and for permanent, bronze statues of the Peanuts characters. These bronze statues are in Landmark Plaza and Rice Park in downtown St. Paul.\n\nThe Charles M. Schulz Museum and Research Center in Santa Rosa opened on August 17, 2002, two blocks away from his former studio, celebrating his life's work and the art of cartooning. A bronze statue of Charlie Brown and Snoopy stands in Depot Park in downtown Santa Rosa.\n\nSanta Rosa, California, celebrated the 60th anniversary of the strip in 2005 by continuing the Peanuts on Parade tradition beginning with It's Your Town Charlie Brown (2005), Summer of Woodstock (2006), Snoopy's Joe Cool Summer (2007), and Look Out For Lucy (2008).\n\nIn 2006, Forbes ranked Schulz as the third-highest earning deceased celebrity, as he had earned $35 million in the previous year. In 2009, he was ranked sixth. According to Tod Benoit, in his book Where Are They Buried? How Did They Die?, Charles M. Schulz's income during his lifetime totaled more than $1.1 billion. \n\nCalvin and Hobbes creator Bill Watterson wrote in 2007: \"Peanuts pretty much defines the modern comic strip, so even now it's hard to see it with fresh eyes. The clean, minimalist drawings, the sarcastic humor, the unflinching emotional honesty, the inner thoughts of a household pet, the serious treatment of children, the wild fantasies, the merchandising on an enormous scale—in countless ways, Schulz blazed the wide trail that most every cartoonist since has tried to follow.\" \n\nReligion\n\nAccording to a 2015 \"spiritual biography,\" Schulz's faith was complex and personal. He often touched on religious themes in his work, including the classic television cartoon, A Charlie Brown Christmas (1965), which features the character Linus van Pelt quoting the King James Version of the Bible to explain \"what Christmas is all about.\" In personal interviews Schulz mentioned that Linus represented his spiritual side, but the spiritual biography points out a much wider array of religious references from Schulz than just what Linus spoke.\n\nSchulz, reared in a nominally Lutheran family, had been active in the Church of God (Anderson, Indiana) as a young adult and then later taught Sunday school at a United Methodist Church. In the 1960s, Robert L. Short interpreted certain themes and conversations in Peanuts as being consistent with parts of Christian theology, and used them as illustrations during his lectures about the gospel, as he explained in his bestselling paperback book, The Gospel According to Peanuts, the first of several books he wrote on religion and Peanuts, and other popular culture items.\n\nFrom the late 1980s, Schulz said in interviews that some people had described him as a \"secular humanist\" though he didn't know one way or another: \n\nIn 2013, Schulz's widow said about his religious views:\n\nNotes"
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"Charles M. Schulz Biography - Charles M. Schulz Museum\nCharles M. Schulz Museum\nFor Store\nCharles M. Schulz Biography\nOn the morning of Sunday, February 13, 2000, newspaper readers opened their comic pages as they had for nearly fifty years to read the latest adventures of Charlie Brown, Snoopy, and the rest of the Peanuts Gang. This Sunday was different, though; mere hours before newspapers hit doorsteps with the final original Peanuts comic strip, its creator Charles M. Schulz, who once described his life as being “one of rejection,” passed away peacefully in his sleep the night before, succumbing to complications from colon cancer. It was a poetic ending to the life of a devoted cartoonist who, from his earliest memories, knew that all he wanted to do was “draw funny pictures.”\nThe poetry of Schulz’s life began two days after he was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on November 26, 1922, when an uncle nicknamed him “Sparky” after the horse Spark Plug from the Barney Google comic strip. Sparky’s father, Carl, was of German heritage and his mother, Dena, came from a large Norwegian family; the family made their home in St. Paul, where Carl worked as a barber. Throughout his youth, father and son shared a Sunday morning ritual reading the funnies; Sparky was fascinated with strips like Skippy, Mickey Mouse, and Popeye. In his deepest desires, he always knew he wanted to be a cartoonist, and seeing the 1937 publication of his drawing of Spike, the family dog, in the nationally-syndicated Ripley’s Believe it or Not newspaper feature was a proud moment in the young teen’s life. He took his artistic studies to a new level when, as a senior in high school and with the encouragement of his mother, he completed a correspondence cartoon course with the Federal School of Applied Cartooning (now Art Instruction Schools).\nAs Schulz continued to study and hone his artistic style from the late 1920s through the 1940s, the genre of comic art experienced a great shift. The full-page comics of the 1920s and 30s afforded artists the space to reflect the Art Deco details and sensibilities of the day, including the highly-stylized illustrations of Dick Tracy and Little Nemo in Slumberland. Newspaper editors in the late 1940s and 50s, however, promoted a post-War minimalist model, pushing their cartoonists to shrink strip size, minimize pen strokes, and sharpen their humor with daily gags and cerebral humor for an ever-increasingly educated audience. Schulz’s dry, intellectual, and self-effacing humor was a natural fit for the evolving cultural standards of the mid-20th century comics.\nTwo monumental events happened within days of each other in 1943 that profoundly affected the rest of Schulz’s life; his mother, to whom he was very close, passed away at age 50 from cervical cancer; and he boarded a troop train to begin his army career in Camp Campbell, Kentucky. Though Schulz remained proud of his achievements and leadership roles in the army for the rest of his life, this period of time haunted him with the dual experiences of the loss of his mother and realities of war.\nAfter returning from the war in the fall of 1945, Schulz settled with his father in an apartment over Carl’s barbershop in St. Paul, determined to realize his passion of becoming a professional cartoonist. He found employment at his alma mater, Art Instruction, sold intermittent one-panel cartoons to The Saturday Evening Post, and enjoyed a three-year run of his weekly panel comic, Li’l Folks, in the local St. Paul Pioneer Press. These early published cartoons focused on concise drawings of precocious children with large heads who interacted with words and actions well beyond their years. Schulz was honing his skills for the national market. The first Peanuts strip appeared on October 2, 1950, in seven newspapers nationwide. Although being a professional cartoonist was Schulz’s life-long dream, at 27-years old, he never could have foreseen the longevity and global impact of his seemingly-simple four-panel creation.\nThe continuing popular appeal of Peanuts stems, in large part, from Schulz’s ability to portray his observations and connect to his audience in ways that many other strips cannot. As each character’s personality has been fleshed out over the years, readers came to intimately understand Linus’ attachment to his Security Blanket, Charlie Brown’s heartache over the Little Red-Haired Girl, Schroeder’s devotion to Beethoven, Peppermint Patty’s prowess in sports and failure in the classroom, and Lucy’s knowledge of … well … everything. The rise in Snoopy’s popularity in the 1960s had a direct correlation to his evolution from a four-legged pet to a two-legged, highly-imaginative and equal character in the strip, which allowed Schulz to take his storylines in increasingly new directions.\nSchulz’s understated genius lay in his ability to keep his well-known and comfortable characters fresh enough to attract new readers while keeping his current audience coming back for more. His humor was at times observational, wry, sarcastic, nostalgic, bittersweet, silly, and melancholy, with occasional flights of fancy and suspension of reality thrown in from time to time. When Schulz announced his retirement in December 1999, the Peanuts comic strip was syndicated in over 2,600 newspapers worldwide, with book collections translated in over 25 languages. He has been awarded with the highest honors from his fellow cartoonists, received Emmy Awards for his animated specials, been recognized and lauded by the U.S. and foreign governments, had NASA spacecraft named after his characters, and inspired a concert performance at Carnegie Hall. And still today, the Peanuts Gang continues to entertain and inspire the young and the young at heart.\nWhat a legacy for us all.",
"Charles M. Schulz - Biography - IMDb\nCharles M. Schulz\nJump to: Overview (5) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (2) | Trivia (52) | Personal Quotes (14)\nOverview (5)\n5' 11½\" (1.82 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nCharles M. Schulz was born on November 26, 1922 in St. Paul, Minnesota, USA as Charles Monroe Schulz. He was a writer and producer, known for A Charlie Brown Christmas (1965), The Peanuts Movie (2015) and Bon Voyage, Charlie Brown (and Don't Come Back!!) (1980). He was married to Jeannie Forsyth and Joyce Halverson. He died on February 12, 2000 in Santa Rosa, California, USA.\nSpouse (2)\n( 18 April 1951 - 1972) (divorced) (4 children)\nTrivia (52)\n2/12/00: Died in his sleep at about 9:45 pm in Santa Rosa, CA. He was suffering from colon cancer, with which he was diagnosed in November 1999. He also had Parkinson's disease.\nHe had a clause in his contract with United Features Syndicate that dictated that the \"Peanuts\" comic strip had to end with his death.\nWon the Reuben Award, comic art's highest honor, in 1955 and 1964\n1978: Named International Cartoonist of the Year.\n1990: Named France's Commander of Arts and Letters, one of that country's highest awards for excellence in the arts.\nReportedly battled depression and anxiety.\nWorld War II veteran.\nNamed Charlie Brown after an instructor at the art correspondence school he attended and taught at.\nThe last original Peanuts strip was published on Sunday, February 13, 2000, just hours after Charles Schulz died in his sleep on the evening of Saturday, February 12, 2000.\nOriginally wanted to name his now-famous strip \"Li'l Folks.\" United Features Syndicate balked at this because there had once been a strip titled \"Little Folks.\" After some brainstorming, a United Features executive came up with the title \"Peanuts.\" Schulz accepted the new title because the first date of publication was fast approaching, but he disliked the title to his dying day. \"Peanuts\" debuted in seven newspapers on 2 October 1950. It went on to be the most-syndicated strip in history.\nWas buried with military honors.\nDespite his poor health in later years, he refused to have ghostwriters draw \"Peanuts.\" These strips are notable by the slight shakiness in the lines.\nAt his burial, four Sopwith Camel biplanes flew overhead in the Missing Man formation.\nHis comic strips featuring the character Snoopy, in his World War One Flying Ace strips, are credited with reviving interest in WWI aircraft, especially the Sopwith Camel, which Snoopy pretended to fly.\nWas a .50-caliber machine gunner in World War II. He forgot to load the thing during the one time he actually had the opportunity to use it; fortunately the German soldier he ran into surrendered.\nOf German and Norwegian descent.\nAs a youth, he had a drawing of his dog appear in Ripley's Believe It or Not (1949).\nOwned a dog (a mutt) named Spike.\n5/27/00: Nearly 100 syndicated cartoonists created special Peanuts-themed comics as a lasting memorial to him, as creator of the enduring and beloved strip.\nWas the only child of Carl and Dena Schulz of St. Paul, Minnesota. His father owned a barbershop in St. Paul. His mother died of cancer in 1943.\nAttended Richards Gordon Elementary School and St. Paul Central High School. Later, he enrolled in an extension class for cartooning with the University of Minnesota.\n\"Li'l Folks\" (later \"Peanuts\") originally ran in the women's section of the St. Paul Pioneer Press. The four original \"Peanuts\" characters were Charlie Brown, Snoopy, Patty (not Patricia \"Peppermint Patty\" Reichardt), and Shermy.\nHis nickname, Sparky, comes from the horse in \"Barney Google.\"\nHis studio in Santa Rosa was One Snoopy Place.\nAt the peak of his popularity, \"Peanuts\" captured as many as 355 million readers, and he was earning from US$30 to US$40 million a year.\nBiography/bibliography in \"Contemporary Authors,\" New Revision Series, Vol. 132, pp. 342-354. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale, 2005.\nBiography in \"American National Biography,\" Supplement 1, pp. 548-550. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.\nSchulz liked to play hockey, which is why hockey and skating were occasionally featured in both the comic strip and the animated programs.\nThe never seen character of the \"Little Red-Haired Girl\" that Charlie Brown has a crush on was based on a girl Schulz knew in his youth, who turned him down when he asked her for a date.\nWas struggling to come up with the name for a new character when he happened to see a bowl of candy, and decided on \"Peppermint Patty.\"\nHe was promoted a couple of grades when he was in school, and this was the cause of his depression and anxiety; the older kids who were now his classmates were constantly teasing him because of his small size, which also fostered a deep competitive streak in him.\nPrior to his health in decline, Schultz used to play in a senior men's hockey league.\nSchulz was the grand marshal of the 1973 Rose Bowl Parade.\nWhen Mad Magazine parodied Schulz's book, \"Happiness is a Warm Puppy\", with their article, \"Being Rich is Better than a Warm Puppy\", Schulz canceled his subscription.\nNo adults ever appeared in Peanuts.\nWhen Schulz created his first black character, Franklin, in 1968, Time Magazine commented, \"It is encouraging to see that even the world of Charlie Brown is not color-blind.\".\nSchulz was invited to appear at the 1989 San Diego Comic-Con, but declined at the last minute.\nSchulz's father was a barber. He made a tribute to his father by having Charlie Brown's father be a barber, too.\nIn the early 1970s, Schulz had an extra-marital affair with an unnamed woman. He allegedly made a homage to the woman by having Snoopy begin seeing a female beagle with soft paws.\nContrary to popular belief, Schulz's chief character, Charlie Brown, is not bald. Schulz insisted that Charlie Brown's hair is blond, but the hair is so light that it is almost transparent.\nIn his youth was a huge fan of the \"Amos and Andy\" radio show.\nFelt that Charlie Brown was the most difficult Peanuts character to draw.\nCharlie Brown first appeared, though unnamed, in Schulz' \"Lil Folks\" and Saturday Evening Post cartoons in 1947.\nHis favorite movie was Citizen Kane (1941). He incorporated many references to the film in his strips over the years.\n60 Minutes (1968) interviewed Schulz right before \"Peanuts\" ended its run. During the interview, Schulz noted that people often called him Sparky, but never Charlie.\nHad an ice rink and a tennis court built a block away from his work studio in Santa Rosa, Calif.\nLike his character Spike, Schulz lived for a time in Needles, Calif., when he was an infant.\nA month after his death, the board of supervisors in Sonoma County, California (where Schulz had lived since 1969) voted to change the name of their commercial airport to \"Charles M. Schulz - Sonoma County Airport\" (baggage code STS). The airport added a statue of \"World War I Flying Ace Snoopy\" in 2007, and a statue of \"World Traveler Lucy\" in 2010.\nIn honor of his love of hockey, the board of supervisors in Ramsey County, Minnesota voted to change the name of the Highland Park Ice Arena in Saint Paul to the \"Charles M. Schulz - Highland Arena\" in 1998.\nHe was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California.\nFollowing his death, he was interred at Pleasant Hills Cemetery in Sebastopol, Sonoma County, California.\nPersonal Quotes (14)\nIt seems beyond the comprehension of people that someone can be born to draw comic strips, but I think I was.\nLife is like a ten-speed bike. Most of us have gears we never use.\nA good education is the next best thing to a pushy mother.\nI have a new philosophy. I'm only going to dread one day at a time.\nNo problem is so big or so complicated that it can't be run away from.\nSome of my best ideas have come from a mood of sadness, rather than a feeling of well-being.\nBig sisters are the crab grass in the lawn of life.\nCartooning is a fairly sort of a proposition. You have to be fairly intelligent - if you were really intelligent, you'd have to be doing something else. You have to draw fairly well well - if you drew really well you'd be a painter. You have to write fairly well - if you wrote really well you'be writing books. It's great for a fairly person like me.\nSnoopy's not a real dog of course - he's an image of what people would like a dog to be. But he has his origins in Spike, my dog I had when I was a kid. White with black spots. He was the wildest and smartest dog I've ever encountered. Smart? Why he had a vocabulary of at least 50 words, I mean it. I'd tell him to go to the basement and bring up a potato and he'd do it.\nI want to keep the strip simple. I like it, for example, when Charlie Brown watches the first leaf of fall float down and then walks over and just says 'Did you have a good summer?'\n[on his favorite strip]: That was the one where the kids are looking at the clouds and Linus says 'See that one cloud over there? It sort of looks like the profile of Thomas Eakins, the famous portrait painter. And that other group over there - that looks as though it could be a map of British Honduras. And then do you see that large group of clouds up there? I see the stoning of Stephen. Over to the side I can see the figure of the apostle Paul standing'. Then Lucy says, 'That's very good, Linus. It shows you have quite a good imagination. What do you see in the clouds , Charlie Brown?' And Charlie says, 'Well I was going to say I saw a ducky and a horsey but I've changed my mind.\nI think Snoopy is the easiest of the characters to draw and probably the most fun. Snoopy represents the dream of a lot of people who would like to be a club champion or to be a world-famous flying ace. But there's another quality about Snoopy that I think makes the whole thing work. This is a quality of innocence combined with a little bit of egotism. You put those qualities together, and I think you have trouble, especially with Snoopy.\nI sometimes wonder when Lucy is staring back at me from the comic strip what she might be thinking. But Lucy's a lot of fun to draw. I like giving her those wild expressions of anger and terror and anxiety that she often expresses. She's fun to work with because she has this violence within her. Lucy's kind of a composite of all the fussbudgets I've known in the world...both men and women.\nAs for Linus...one day I drew this funny little character with funny hair, and I thought he might be a good little brother for Lucy. So that's how Linus got started. Linus is a lot of fun to draw. He is very flexible, especially his hair, and it's fun to draw wild expressions on Linus...like when Lucy is yelling at him. I'm very proud of the overall character of Linus. I think he's the most well-rounded individual in the group.\nSee also",
"Charles Schulz - Illustrator, Writer - Biography.com\nCharles Schulz\nCharles Schulz was the creator and cartoonist behind 'Peanuts,' a globally popular comic strip that expanded into TV, books and other merchandise.\nIN THESE GROUPS\nquotes\n“I love mankind; it's people I can't stand.”\n“I'm astonished at the number of people who write to me saying, 'Why can't you create happy stories for us? Why does Charlie Brown always have to lose? Why can't you let him kick the football?' Well, there is nothing funny about the person who gets to kick the football.”\n“All the loves in the strip are unrequited; all the baseball games are lost; all the test scores are D-minuses; the Great Pumpkin never comes; and the football is always pulled away.”\nCharles Schulz\nCharles Schulz - Peanuts Cartoonist (TV-14; 1:16) Watch a short video about Charles Schulz and draw your conclusions about how this cartoonist came to create the iconic Charlie Brown.\nSynopsis\nCharles Schulz, born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on November 26, 1922, launched his comic strip Peanuts in 1950. Featuring hero Charlie Brown, over the years the strip would run in more than 2,000 newspapers and in many languages. Peanuts also expanded into TV specials like the Emmy-winning A Charlie Brown Christmas, as well as books and a huge merchandise collection. Schulz died on February 12, 2000.\nEarly Life\nCharles Monroe Schulz was born on November 26, 1922, in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The only child of dad Carl, a German immigrant and barber, and mom Dena, a waitress turned homemaker, Schulz spent most of his childhood in the Twin Cities, outside of a two-year stint in Needles, California, after the onset of the Great Depression.\nSchulz realized at an early age that he wanted to become a cartoonist. He sat down with his dad to read the Sunday funny papers every week, becoming a fan of E.C. Segar’s Thimble Theatre (which featured Popeye), Percy Crosby’s Skippy and Al Capp’s L’il Abner. The burgeoning cartoonist received a thrill in 1937, when his drawing of the family dog, Spike, was published in Robert Ripley’s popular Believe It or Not! feature. \nLate in his senior year at St. Paul’s Central High School, Schulz enrolled in a correspondence course at the Federal School of Applied Cartooning in Minneapolis. He worked odd jobs as he began submitting his cartoons to publications, but his career plans were halted when he was drafted into the U.S. Army in the fall of 1942. Shortly after he left for basic training, his mom passed away at age 50 from cervical cancer.\nWar Service and Early Career\nAssigned to Company B in the Eighth Armored Battalion of the Twentieth Armored Infantry Division, Schulz trained as a machine gunner at Kentucky's Fort Campbell, rising to the rank of staff sergeant. His unit was shipped to Europe in February 1945, where they helped lead the charge on Munich and liberate the Dachau concentration camp. After Germany’s surrender, Schulz received the Combat Infantryman Badge for fighting in active ground combat under hostile fire. He was then sent to Camp Cooke in California, before earning his official discharge on January 6, 1946.\nSchulz maintained his interest in cartooning during the war, developing an affinity for Bill Mauldin's Willie and Joe characters in the military publication Stars and Stripes, and afterward he began working as an instructor at his old cartooning school. The job gave him the opportunity to hone his technique, and he finally had one of his pieces published in early 1947. \nThat year also brought the debut of Schulz's weekly panel in the St. Paul Pioneer Press. Titled Li'l Folks, and attributed to the artist's childhood nickname of \"Sparky,\" the cartoon featured prototypes of the soon-to-be iconic characters of Charlie Brown and Snoopy. Additional recognition came in 1948, when Schulz had the first of 17 cartoons published in The Saturday Evening Post. \nAfter multiple attempts to get Li'l Folks syndicated, Schulz scored a breakthrough when United Feature Syndicate purchased his strip in 1950. However, due to conflicts with other similarly named comics, he grudgingly agreed to retitle his strip Peanuts.\n'Peanuts' Fame\nPeanuts made its official debut in seven newspapers on October 2, 1950. The inaugural four-panel comic, in which a boy remarks how he hates \"Good ol' Charlie Brown,\" set the tone for its bald-headed hero. Before long, fans grew attached to the quirky, philosophical cast of characters; the oft-maligned Charlie Brown, who always strikes out and gets his kite stuck in a tree; bossy Lucy, and her security blanket-toting little brother, Linus; the Beethoven-loving Schroeder, his head always buried in his toy piano; and Snoopy, the pet who sleeps atop his doghouse and engages in imaginative midair battles with the Red Baron.\nSchulz funneled his own life experiences into the strip: Snoopy was based on his old family dog, Spike (a name revived later with the introduction of Snoopy's brother). Lucy's cruel tendency to pull a football away from Charlie Brown was inspired by childhood antics. And the Little Red-Haired Girl, the never-seen source of Charlie Brown's romantic anguish, was drawn from an old girlfriend who had spurned Schulz's marriage proposal. \nPeanuts earned Schulz the Reuben Award for Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year in 1955 (and again in 1964), and soon developed an appeal that transcended the boundaries of the funny pages. Exhibits of Peanuts originals were displayed at the Rhode Island School of Design and the University of Minnesota, and Schulz was honored by Yale University as its Humorist of the Year. By 1960, Charlie Brown, Snoopy and the crew were being featured in Hallmark greeting cards and advertisements for Ford automobiles. \nIn the early 1960s, Schulz was approached by a young television producer named Lee Mendelson for the purpose of filming a documentary. Although the documentary never aired, their meeting marked the start of a lifelong collaboration, and they soon teamed up to create the television special A Charlie Brown Christmas (1965). Featuring the animation of Bill Melendez, and a delightful score by jazz musician and composer Vince Guaraldi, the program was honored with both an Emmy and a Peabody Award in 1966. Additional TV specials soon followed, with Charlie Brown's All-Stars and It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown both airing that year. \nUnderscoring their standing as pop culture superstars, the Peanuts characters graced the cover of Time and were the subject of a hit song by The Royal Guardsmen. A stage production of You’re A Good Man, Charlie Brown debuted in New York City in 1967, and two years later, the feature-length film A Boy Named Charlie Brown opened at the Radio City Music Hall.\nPersonal\nSchulz married Joyce Halverson in 1951, and adopted her young daughter, Meredith. The family grew as the couple had children of their own: Charles Jr. (Monte), Craig, Amy and Jill all arrived by 1958. \nAfter several years in Colorado Springs, Schulz turned his sights westward by purchasing a 28-acre property in Sonoma County, California. The family set about renovating the grounds, adding such features as a swimming pool, a miniature golf course and horse stables. In 1969, Schulz opened the Redwood Empire Ice Arena in nearby Santa Rosa. Known as \"Snoopy's Home Ice,\" the arena began hosting an annual hockey tournament in 1975. \nSchulz and Joyce divorced in 1972, and the following year he married his second wife, Jeannie Clyde.\nLater Works, Death and Legacy\nAfter the additions of such new faces as Peppermint Patty, Marcie and Franklin – Peanuts’ first African-American character – Schulz and his team continued to churn out award-winning TV specials to accompany the strip. Additional feature-length movies included Snoopy Come Home (1972) and Bon Voyage, Charlie Brown (and Don’t Come Back!!) (1980). \nResuming his drawing after undergoing quadruple-bypass surgery in 1981, Schulz continued to handle the daily creation of his strip all by himself, even after developing a hand tremor in later years. However, when abdominal surgery brought a diagnosis of colon cancer in late 1999, the cartoonist announced he was retiring. \nOn February 12, 2000, the night before his final Peanuts cartoon was published, Schulz died in his sleep. At the time, Peanuts was reaching readers in 21 languages across some 2,600 newspapers in 75 countries. Altogether, Schulz produced more than 18,000 strips over nearly 50 years of work. \nThe famed cartoonist received several posthumous honors, including the Congressional Gold Medal. In 2002, the Charles M. Schulz Museum and Research Center opened in Santa Rosa, displaying original artwork, letters, photographs and other memorabilia. \nWith its characters continuing to appear in daily newspapers, anniversary books, TV specials and commercials, the Peanuts empire has shown little signs of diminishing. Marking the 65th anniversary of his beloved strip's debut on October 2, 1950, Schulz was inducted into the California Hall of Fame in late September 2015. The honor came on the eve of a brand-new Peanuts 3D movie, set to hit theaters in November 2015.\nRelated Videos\nFact Check\nWe strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us !\nCitation Information",
"Charles M. Schulz Biography - life, family, childhood, children, story, school, mother, young, son\nCharles M. Schulz Biography\nSanta Rosa, California\nAmerican cartoonist\nCartoonist and creator of Peanuts, Charles M. Schulz was the winner of two Reuben, two Peabody, and five Emmy awards and a member of the Cartoonist Hall of Fame.\nEarly life\nCharles Monroe Schulz was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on November 26, 1922, the son of Carl and Dena Halverson Schulz. His father was a barber. Charles loved to read the comics section of the newspaper with his father and was given the nickname \"Sparky\" after Sparkplug, the horse in the Barney Google comic strip. He began to draw pictures of his favorite cartoon characters at age six. At school in St. Paul, Minnesota, he was bright and allowed to skip two grades, which made him often the smallest in his class. Noting his interest in drawing, his mother encouraged him to take a correspondence course (in which lessons and exercises are mailed to students and then returned when completed) from Art Instruction, Inc., in Minneapolis after he graduated from high school.\nDuring World War II (1939–45; a war fought between the Axis: Italy, Japan, and Germany—and the Allies: France, England, the Soviet Union, and the United States), Schulz was drafted into the army and sent to Europe, rising to the rank of sergeant. After the war he returned to Minnesota as a young man with strong Christian beliefs. For a while he worked part-time for a Catholic magazine and taught for Art Instruction, Inc. Some of\nCharles M. Schulz.\nAP/Wide World Photos\n.\nhis work appeared in the Saturday Evening Post, and eventually he created a cartoon entitled Li'l Folks for the St. Paul Pioneer Press.\nCreates \"Peanuts\"\nIn 1950 the United Feature Syndicate of New York decided to publish Schulz's new comic strip, which he had wanted to call Li'l Folks but which was named Peanuts by the company. In 1950 the cartoon began appearing in seven newspapers with the characters Charlie Brown, Shermy, Patty, and Snoopy. Within a year the strip appeared in thirty-five papers, and by 1956 it was in over a hundred. The Peanuts cartoons were centered on the simple and touching figures of a boy, Charlie Brown, and his dog, Snoopy and their family and school friends. Adults were never seen, only hinted at, and the action involved ordinary, everyday happenings.\nCharlie Brown had a round head with half-circles for ears and nose, dots for eyes, and a line for a mouth. Things always seemed to go wrong for him, and he was often puzzled by the problems that life and his peers dealt out to him: the crabbiness of Lucy; the unanswerable questions of Linus, a young intellectual with a security blanket; the self-absorption of Schroeder the musician; the teasing of his schoolmates; and the behavior of Snoopy, the floppy-eared dog with the wild imagination, who sees himself as a fighter pilot trying to shoot down the Red Baron (based on a famous German pilot during World War I) when he is not running a \"Beagle Scout\" troop consisting of the bird, Woodstock, and his friends.\nCharlie Brown's inability to cope with the constant disappointments in life, the failure and renewal of trust (such as Lucy's tricking him every time he tries to kick the football), and his touching efforts to accept what happens as deserved were traits shared to a lesser degree by the other characters. Even crabby Lucy cannot interest Schroeder or understand baseball; Linus is puzzled by life's mysteries and the refusal of the \"Great Pumpkin\" to show up on Halloween. The odd elements and defects of humanity in general were reflected by Schulz's gentle humor, which made the cartoon appealing to the public.\nSchulz insisted that he was not trying to send any moral and religious messages in Peanuts . However, even to the casual reader Peanuts offered lessons to be learned. Schulz employed everyday humor to make a point, but usually it was the intellectual comment that carries the charge, even if it was only \"Good Grief!\" Grief was the human condition, but it was good when it taught us something about ourselves and was lightened by laughter.\nHuge success\nAs the strip became more popular, new characters were added, including Sally, Charlie Brown's sister; Rerun, Lucy's brother; Peppermint Patty; Marcie; Franklin; José Peterson; Pigpen; Snoopy's brother Spike; and the bird, Woodstock. Schulz received the Reuben award from the National Cartoonists Society in 1955 and 1964.\nBy this time Schulz was famous across the world. Peanuts appeared in over twenty-three hundred newspapers. The cartoon branched out into television, and in 1965 the classic special A Charlie Brown Christmas won Peabody and Emmy awards. Many more television specials and Emmys were to follow. An off-Broadway stage production, You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown, was created in 1967 and ran for four years (it was also revived in 1999). Many volumes of Schulz's work were published in at least nineteen languages, and the success of Peanuts inspired clothes, stationery, toys, games, and other merchandise. Schulz also wrote a book, Why, Charlie Brown, Why? (which became a CBS television special) to help children understand the subject of cancer (his mother had died of cancer in 1943).\nBesides the previously mentioned awards, Schulz received the Yale Humor Award, 1956; School Bell Award, National Education Association, 1960; and honorary degrees from Anderson College, 1963, and St. Mary's College of California, 1969. A \"Charles M. Schulz Award\" honoring comic artists was created by the United Feature Syndicate in 1980.\nLater years\nThe year 1990 marked the fortieth anniversary of Peanuts. An exhibit at the Louvre, in Paris, France, called \"Snoopy in Fashion,\" featured three hundred Snoopy dolls dressed in fashions created by more than fifteen world-famous designers. It later traveled to the United States. Also in 1990, the Smithsonian Institution featured an exhibit titled, \"This Is Your Childhood, Charlie Brown … Children in American Culture, 1945–1970.\" By the late 1990s Peanuts ran in over two thousand newspapers throughout the world every day.\nSchulz was diagnosed with cancer in November 1999 after the disease was discovered during an unrelated operation. He announced in December 1999 that he would retire in the year 2000, the day after the final Peanuts strip. Schulz died on February 12, 2000, one day before his farewell strip was to be in newspapers. Schulz was twice married, to Joyce Halverson in 1949 (divorced 1972) and to Jean Clyde in 1973. He had five children by his first marriage.\nIn March 2000 the Board of Supervisors of Sonoma County, California, passed a resolution to rename Sonoma County Airport after Schulz. In June 2000 plans were announced for bronze sculptures of eleven Peanuts characters to be placed on the St. Paul riverfront. That same month President Bill Clinton (1946–) signed a bill giving Schulz the Congressional Gold Medal. In 2002 an exhibition entitled \"Speak Softly and Carry a Beagle: The Art of Charles Schulz\" was held at the Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Also in 2002, it was announced that the proposed Charles M. Schulz Museum and Research Center in Santa Rosa, California, would be completed in August 2003.\nFor More Information\nInge, M. Thomas. Charles M. Schulz: Conversations. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000.\nJohnson, Rheta Grimsley. Good Grief: The Story of Charles M. Schulz. 2nd rev. ed. Kansas City: Andrews and McMeel, 1995.\nSchuman, Michael A. Charles M. Schulz: Cartoonist and Creator of Peanuts. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow, 2000.\nShort, Robert L. The Gospel According to Peanuts. Richmond, VA: John Knox Press, 1964. Reprint, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000.\nUser Contributions:",
"Charles Shulz - Historical records and family trees - MyHeritage\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1861, at birth place , to William Shulz and Chrestina Shulz.\nCharles had 6 siblings: Louisa Shulz, Henry Shulz and 4 other siblings .\nCharles lived in 1880, at address , Texas.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1842, at birth place .\nCharles married Aslena Shulz.\nThey had 6 children: Annie Shulz, Lena Shulz and 4 other children .\nCharles lived in 1880, at address , Minnesota.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1836, at birth place .\nCharles married Ettie Shulz.\nThey had 6 children: Gustave Shulz, Augusta Shulz and 4 other children .\nCharles lived in 1880, at address , Wisconsin.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1846, at birth place .\nCharles married Williamena Shulz.\nThey had 5 children: Lenna Shulz, David Shulz and 3 other children .\nCharles lived in 1880, at address , Minnesota.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1864, at birth place , Pennsylvania, to Edwin Shulz and Catherine Shulz.\nCharles had 4 siblings: Edward Shulz and 3 other siblings .\nCharles lived in 1870, at address , Pennsylvania.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1830, at birth place .\nCharles married Fredrica Shulz.\nThey had 6 children: William Shulz, Mary Shulz and 4 other children .\nCharles lived in 1870, at address , Michigan.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1823, at birth place .\nCharles married Christiana Shulz.\nThey had 6 children: Louisa Shulz, Ch Shulz and 4 other children .\nCharles lived in 1870, at address , Pennsylvania.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1841, at birth place .\nCharles married Wilhelmina Shulz.\nThey had 2 children: Francis Shulz and one other child .\nCharles lived in 1870, at address , Kansas.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1891, at birth place , Illinois, to Gustav Shulz and Minnie Shulz.\nCharles had one sibling: Paul Shulz.\nCharles lived in 1920, at address , Illinois.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1872, at birth place .\nCharles married Gesina Shulz.\nThey had 8 children: Richard Shulz, Ida Shulz and 6 other children .\nCharles lived in 1920, at address , Michigan.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1880, at birth place , Texas.\nCharles had one sibling: Martha Wagner.\nCharles lived in 1920, at address , Texas.\nCharles Shulz was born circa 1907, at birth place .\nCharles lived in 1920, at address , New York.",
"Timeline Archive - Charles M. Schulz Museum\nCharles M. Schulz Museum\n1920s\nNovember 26, 1922\nCharles Monroe Schulz was born at home at 919 Chicago Avenue South, #2, Minneapolis, Minnesota, to Dena Bertina (nee Halverson) Schulz and Carl Fredrich Augustus Schulz.\nREAD MORE ABOUT THIS TOPIC >\n1922-1925\nCharles Schulz was given the nickname “Sparky” after the racehorse character Spark Plug featured in the popular newspaper comic strip, Barney Google by Billy DeBeck.\n \n \n \n “I have been told, an uncle came in and looked at me and said, ‘By golly, we’re going to call him Sparkplug.’ So, I’ve been called Sparky since the day after I was born – named after a comic strip character.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1984)\nAs a young boy, Charles Schulz experienced many of the ups and downs of growing up that he would later incorporate into the lives of the Peanuts characters. One of these memories was of trying to hold the football steady for another child, while resisting the urge to pull the ball away as a prank. Twenty-five years later, this would become a very familiar and beloved theme in Peanuts. MORE >\n“It all started, of course, with a childhood memory of being unable to resist the temptation to pull away the football at the kickoff. We all did it, we all fell for it. In fact, I was told by a professional football player that he actually saw it happen in a college game at the University of Minnesota. The Gophers were leading by a good margin, everyone was enjoying himself, and the man holding the football, like the kids in the neighborhood, could not resist the temptation to pull it away. I wish I had been there to see it.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1975)\n1926-1927\nBlack and white dogs figured prominently in Charles Schulz’s childhood. When Charles Schulz was a small boy, the family got a little Boston Bull Terrier named Snooky, but it was the memory of their next dog, Spike, that would spur the antics of Snoopy for years to come.\n“The first dog I ever had was a Boston bull named Snooky. She got run over by a taxicab when she was about ten years old and I was about twelve…about a year later we got a dog named Spike, and he was the inspiration for Snoopy.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1980)\nThe Schulz family moved from Minneapolis to a rented apartment at 1662 James Avenue in St. Paul, which was much closer to Carl’s business, The Family Barbershop. The barbershop, located at the corner of Selby Avenue and Snelling Avenue, was a place that Charles Schulz spent a great deal of time while growing up.\n“Our life revolved around the shop. My dad was a very hard worker; he always worked six days a week.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1995)\n1928\nAbout a year after moving to the James Avenue apartment, the Schulz family rented a house around the corner at 473 Macalester Street. Charles Schulz attended kindergarten at the Mattocks School on James Avenue, located equidistant between the James Avenue apartment and the Macalester Street home.\n \n \n“My earliest recollection of drawing and getting credit for it and being complimented on it is from kindergarten. I think it was my first day, and the teacher gave us huge sheets of white paper, large black crayons, and told us to draw anything we wanted. I drew a man shoveling snow, and she came around, paused, looked at my picture, and said, ‘Someday, Charles, you’re going to be an artist.’ Now she wasn’t quite right – she didn’t say ‘cartoonist’ – but there was an interesting aspect to this. I had drawn the snow shovel as a square, but I knew this was not right. I knew nothing about perspective, and didn’t know how to fix it, but I knew that something wasn’t right about this picture. I like to think there was some anticipation there of what was to come.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1985)\n1929\nIn 1929, the Schulz family packed up their 1928 Ford and traveled across the country to live in small town Needles, California. Carl, Dena and Charles Schulz rented a house at 503 Palm Way, not far from the Santa Fe Railroad tracks. Carl took a job working alongside his brother-in-law, Monroe “Monte” Halverson, at his barbershop across from Santa Fe Park. Charles attended the D Street School just a few blocks down the street from their home. MORE >\n1930s\n1930-1931\nWhen the Great Depression hit the country in the last months of 1929, it brought extreme poverty and difficulties for many families. To a young Charles Schulz though, life seemed to go on without any disruption to normal family activities.\n“I was raised during the Depression struggle, which didn’t affect me personally, because I don’t think little kids are into what’s going on. If you have pancakes for dinner, you think that’s wonderful because you like pancakes. You don’t realize that you’re probably having them because your parents can’t afford anything more.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1992)\n1931\nAfter a little over a year in Needles, the Schulz family drove back across the country to Minnesota to resume life in the Twin Cities. Charles Schulz was enrolled in Richards Gordon Elementary School on Dayton Avenue in St. Paul and he attended this school through grade 8. The Schulz family lived across the street from the school at the Mayfair Apartments and Carl Schulz re-established The Family Barbershop at its location a few blocks away on the corner of Selby and Snelling Avenues.\n \n1932-1934\n“When I was growing up, the three main forms of entertainment were the Saturday afternoon serials at the movie houses, the late afternoon radio programs and the comic strips. My dad was always a great comic strip reader, and he and I made sure that all four newspapers published in Minneapolis – St. Paul were brought home. I grew up with only one real career desire in life, and that was to someday draw my own comic strip.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1983)\n \nCharles Schulz’s life-long passion for ice hockey began with informal games played during his boyhood in the Twin Cities. Schulz and his friends would play on the backyard outside when it iced over in the winter, and also inside the house, with a little creative play by his grandmother Sophie Halverson. MORE >\n1934\nThe Schulz family was given a black and white mixed breed dog named Spike. Less than two years later Spike would become the subject of Schulz’s first published illustration and over a decade later would become the inspiration for Snoopy.\n“[Spike] was the brightest dog I ever met. He had a vocabulary of at least 50 words – words he understood, that is.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1983)\n1936\nDuring his freshman year, Charles Schulz attended Sanford Junior High School in St. Paul, about ten blocks from their home on Dayton Avenue. He continued to practice his drawing skills and hone his cartooning education by reading the Sunday papers each weekend with his father. MORE >\n \n“I am really a comic strip fanatic and always have been. When I was growing up in St. Paul, Minnesota, we subscribed to both local newspapers and always made sure that we went to the drugstore on Saturday night to buy the Minneapolis Sunday papers so that we would be able to read every comic published in the area. At that time, I was a great fan of Buck Rogers, Popeye, and Skippy.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1969)\n1937\nOn New Year’s Eve of 1936, Carl Schulz penned a letter to Robert Ripley’s Believe It or Not newspaper comics feature describing the family dog’s unique talents to eat all sorts of oddities without adverse results. He noted in a post-script, that, “All these things have been swallowed whole and digested.” Carl included in his letter a small picture of Spike drawn by his son, Charles. The illustration was published alongside a listing of Spike’s strange and unsavory snacks, signed “Sparky”. At age 14, this would mark the point of Charles Schulz’s first published drawing.\n \nThe Schulz family returned to the house at 473 Macalester Street in St. Paul, the same home where they had lived before moving briefly to California in 1929. Charles Schulz also entered high school this year, attending Central High School in St. Paul until he graduated in 1940. The distance between home and school would be the farthest he had to travel to date, but The Family Barbershop was located in the middle of the route so that he probably didn’t feel too far removed from the neighborhood that he knew best.\n \n1938\nDuring his junior year in high school, Charles Schulz’s teacher, Minnette Paro, assigned the class the task of “drawing anything you can think of, in sets of three on one sheet of paper.” The “Drawing of Threes” that Schulz created that day is particularly interesting because it is clear that Charles Schulz was keenly aware of domestic and world events at the time. MORE >\n1939\nLater in the school year, Schulz signed a classmate’s yearbook with the phrase, “the pen is mightier than the sword” and included an illustration of a pen and a figure in a fencing pose holding a sword.\n1940s\nFebruary-March, 1940\nIt was during his senior year at Central High School when Charles Schulz’s mother, Dena, showed him an advertisement which asked, “Do you like to draw?” The ad was for Federal Schools, now known as Art Instruction Schools, Inc., a correspondence school that was a division of the Bureau of Engraving in Minneapolis. Schulz’s parents enrolled him in the correspondence program that spring. Schulz later cited choosing the Federal Schools over other resident art schools in the Twin Cities area as due to the fact that, “it was this correspondence course’s emphasis upon cartooning that won me.”\nJune, 1940\nAfter spending his sophomore through senior years at St. Paul’s Central High School, Charles Schulz graduated on June 14, 1940.\n“I received a special diploma in the second grade for being the outstanding boy student, and in the third and fifth grades I was moved ahead so suddenly that I was the smallest kid in the class. Somehow, I survived the early years of grade school, but when I entered junior high school, I failed everything in sight. High school proved not much better… it was not until I became a senior that I earned any respectable grades at all.”\nCharles m. Schulz (1975)\n1941\nThe summer after graduation, Schulz caddied at the local Highland Park Golf Course, took odd jobs, and continued his coursework with the Federal Schools. He began submitting his cartoon art for publication to magazines and even applied to work for Walt Disney.\n“…The first year or so out of high school, I had very mundane jobs as delivery boys, and I used to send cartoons into magazines and didn’t even come close, I just got nothing but rejection slips. It wasn’t until after World War II, when I came back, that I really was able earnestly to go after what I wanted to do. Those were the formative years, I would say.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1992)\nSummer, 1942\nThe Schulz family moved from their home at 473 Macalester Street in St. Paul to an apartment above Carl’s barber shop at 170 North Snelling Avenue, Apt. 2, in St. Paul.\nFall, 1942\nAt the age of 20, Schulz was drafted into the United States Army to serve in World War II alongside many other men of his generation. The United States had entered the war on December 7, 1941, following the attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.\n“The army taught me all I needed to know about loneliness.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1975)\nFebruary-March, 1943\nWithin days of leaving for induction into the army at Fort Snelling in Minneapolis, Schulz’s mother, Dena, died at the age of 50. Dena had been ill for several years at this point, and likely succumbed to cervical cancer.\n1943-1944\n \nAfter returning home for his mother’s funeral, Schulz began basic training at Camp Campbell, located on the border of Kentucky and Tennessee.\n \nHe was assigned to Company B in the Eighth Armored Battalion of the Twentieth Armored Infantry Division. Schulz spent nearly two years at Camp Campbell training as a machine gunner. After the first 13 weeks, Private Schulz was promoted to private first class and then moved up to corporal in the fall of 1943. On February 11, 1944, Schulz earned his sergeant’s stripes and was designated the assistant leader of the First Platoon’s machine-gun squad. Schulz was promoted to staff sergeant and leader of a light machine gun squad in September 1944.\nWhile at Camp Campbell, Schulz became friends with many of his fellow soldiers from Minnesota as well as Elmer Hagemeyer, a police officer from St. Louis, Missouri. Hagemeyer served as staff sergeant and leader of a mortar squad in the Twentieth Armored Infantry Division.\n \n \nSchulz spent some of his free time sketching life at Camp Campbell in sketchbooks and envelopes sent from Elmer Hagemeyer to his wife Margaret in St. Louis. Schulz would often accompany Hagemeyer home on weekend visits and the two men remained friends after the war.\nFebruary-May, 1945\nFollowing the training at Camp Campbell, the Twentieth Armored Infantry Division was transported to Camp Myles Standish in Massachusetts for about two weeks before shipping out to the European Theater of Operations. On February 5, the unit embarked from Boston aboard the U.S. Army Transport Brazil on a nearly two week voyage across the Atlantic before landing in Le Havre, France. MORE >\n \nWhile stationed at Camp Campbell and then in Europe during the war, Charles Schulz often wrote letters home to his family and friends. Mail sent from GIs passed through government censors before being sent to the addressee. To save space and transportation costs, some of the mail sent home from the European Theater of Operations was photographed and reduced in size for delivery to the United States. This mail, called V-Mail, or “Victory Mail,” no matter how infrequent or mundane, would certainly have been a welcome sight to the receiver.\n \n1950s\nSpring, 1950\nWhile still working as an educator at Art Instruction Schools, Charles Schulz worked diligently to get a comic strip syndication contract. After receiving rejections from several other syndicates, Schulz finally sold Li’l Folks to United Feature Syndicate in 1950.\n“I used to bundle my efforts together and take the train down to Chicago and visit two or three syndicates there and get rejected and get on the train and come home. In the spring of 1950, I took all the best cartoons I’d done for the Pioneer Press and redrew them and submitted them to United Feature Syndicate. They liked them enough to ask me if I’d care to come to New York and talk about it, and I did. I took along six daily comic strips which had a new approach to humor in strips. If you were to see them now they wouldn’t look like much, but at the time it was new.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1971)\nSummer, 1950\nDue to a conflict with an earlier comic strip that had a similar name, (Tack Knight’s Little Folks), before the strip was published the syndicate opted to rename the strip Peanuts, a title Schulz made clear even decades later that he never liked.\n“Although I have always resented the title ‘Peanuts’ which I was forced to use – and I’m still convinced it’s the worst title for any comic strip – it probably doesn’t matter what it is called so long as each effort brings some kind of joy to someone, someplace. My work is extremely satisfying and to be able to draw Snoopy, Charlie Brown, Lucy and all the other little characters and to know that people love them and care about what happens to them makes my work extremely satisfying.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1979)\nOctober 2, 1950\nOn October 2, 1950, the first Peanuts comic strip debuted in a four-panel format in seven newspapers nationwide – The Washington Post, The Chicago Tribune, The Minneapolis Star-Tribune, The Allentown Call-Chronicle, The Bethlehem Globe-Times, The Denver Post, and The Seattle Times. Schulz was paid $90 for his first month of strips, which consisted of a six day per week, Monday through Saturday, format until 1952.\n“To me it was not a matter of how I became a cartoonist but a matter of when. I am quite sure if I had not sold Peanuts at the time I did, then I would have sold something eventually, even if I had not, I would continue to draw because I had to.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1983)\n1951\nTo market the Peanuts comic strip, United Feature Syndicate created subscriber promotions which could be run in the newspapers to generate interest with a newspaper’s readers. If readers liked Peanuts, they were encouraged to write to their local newspaper to request that it be published there.\nApril 18, 1951\nAfter meeting through mutual friends at Art Instruction Schools and dating for several months, Charles Schulz married Joyce Steele Halverson of Minneapolis. They honeymooned in Colorado Springs, Colorado and lived with Carl Schulz and his fiancé, Annabelle, on Edgerton Street in St. Paul. Before long, Charles Schulz adopted Joyce’s one year old daughter Meredith, her child from a previous marriage, born February 5, 1950. Carl married Annabelle Anderson shortly after Charles and Joyce’s wedding.\nMay, 1951\nSubsequent to their honeymoon in Colorado in the spring, the young Schulz family bought a modest suburban home in Colorado Springs at 2321 North El Paso Street. While living in Colorado, Charles Schulz worked out of his home briefly before realizing that the distractions of a one year old were not conducive to working on weekly deadlines. Additionally, the early success of Peanuts made finding a space to work outside the house an affordable option. He soon found an office to rent at the Golden Arrow Building in downtown Colorado Springs.\n“I tried working at home when we moved to Colorado Springs, right after I signed the contract, and I discovered that working at home for me was absolutely impossible. My mother-in-law visited us for awhile and she suggested it might be better if I would just rent a small room someplace downtown in Colorado Springs, which is what I did; and since then I have always worked away from home. Even when we moved out here to California – we had a large place, 28 acres – I still never worked in the house. I don’t know about others, but I just have decided that a man has to get up in the morning and go someplace. I think you have to go to a definite place where you do your work”\nCharles M. Schulz (1987)\nWhile walking through downtown Colorado Springs one day, Charles Schulz ran into Philip “Fritz” Van Pelt, a fellow soldier in the Twentieth Armored Infantry Division who was stationed at Camp Campbell at the same time as Schulz. While the two had never met at Camp Campbell, the men and their wives quickly became weekly bridge playing friends in Colorado Springs. Schulz eventually used the surname “Van Pelt” for his sibling characters Lucy and Linus in Peanuts. The name Lucy possibly arose from Fritz’s wife, Louanne, also referred to as “Lou”, although Schulz was adamant in explaining that while he often took names for his characters from people he knew, the personalities were in fact an extension of Schulz’s own persona and not a reflection on the character’s namesake. MORE >\n \nJanuary 6, 1952\nPrior to 1952, Peanuts comic strips were featured in newspapers in the daily black and white strip format, published Monday through Saturday only. On January 6, 1952, the first Sunday of the year, full color Peanuts Sunday comic strips were introduced. After that, Peanuts ran in most newspapers seven days a week with black and white dailies and full color Sundays. Nowadays, many newspapers print Peanuts in full color seven days per week, and that is also how it can be viewed online at Go Comics .\n“I don’t know where the Peanuts kids live. I think that, originally, I thought of them as living in these little veteran’s developments, where Joyce and I first lived when we got married out in Colorado Springs. Now I don’t think about it at all. My strip has become so abstract and such a fantasy that I think it would be a mistake to point out a place for them to live.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1992)\nFebruary 1, 1952\nCharles Monroe “Monte” Schulz was born in Colorado Springs, bringing the young and quickly growing Schulz family to a total of four members. The following month, a little less than a year after moving to Colorado, the Schulz family packed their belongings and moved back to Minneapolis, Minnesota.\nMarch, 1952\nOne of the first signs that Peanuts was really taking off in popularity was the interest by publishers in licensing the strips to reprint in comic books, published by Dell, Gold Key, Sparkler, and others. After a couple years of reprinting these strips, Schulz was asked to create new original strips, longer stories, and original cover art. With the deadline of the daily and Sunday strips now looming each week, plus obligations to attend book signings, present chalk talks, and provide interviews to newspapers, magazines, and even some television shows, Schulz didn’t have much time to do more original comic strips. As a solution to this, he employed his former Art Instruction Schools’ colleagues Dale Hale, Jim Sasseville, and Tony Pocrnich. The comic books continued to be produced through 1964.\nSummer/Fall, 1952\nAfter they moved back to Minnesota from Colorado, the Schulz family lived in a simple ranch home at 5521 Oliver St. South in Minneapolis for about six months. With another child on the way, the Schulzes moved again to a larger home a few miles away, located at 6228 Wentworth Ave. South in the Richfield area of Minneapolis.\nPerhaps with the aim to appeal to a wider audience than the comic books, which were generally marketed and purchased by children, Rinehart & Co., Inc. was the first to publish a collection of Peanuts comic strip reprints in a bound paperback book format. These books contained selected Peanuts strips, with the first book simply titled, Peanuts. During the early days of successful strip reprint publications, Schulz made himself available to promote his cartoon by attending book signings and offering ‘chalk-talks’ during which he would draw oversized Peanuts characters and offer the drawings to the attendees.\nJanuary 22, 1953\nAs Peanuts grew in popularity, the Schulz family also grew. A second son, Craig Frederick Schulz, was born in Minneapolis and brought the total children in the family now to one girl and two boys. Just as Charles Schulz needed an office away from home in Colorado Springs, he also needed one back in the Twin Cities. His former employers at the Art Instruction Schools offered him use of their penthouse office at the bureau of Engravers Building and Schulz happily accepted the offer. It not only allowed him the space to be able to focus on his art and meet his deadlines, he could easily also meet up with his former colleagues at Art Instruction for lunch, conversation, or a round of billiards.\n1954\nBy 1954, several new characters had been introduced into the Peanuts comic strip – Violet Gray and Schroeder in 1951, Lucy and Linus Van Pelt in 1952, and Pig Pen and Charlotte Braun in 1954. It would be five more years before the next new characters would be introduced into the strip.\n \n“I think anybody who is writing finds he puts a little bit of himself in all of the characters, at least in this kind of a strip. It’s the only way that you can survive when you have to do something every day. You have to put yourself, all of your thoughts, all of your observations and everything you know into the strip.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1984)\n1955\nKodak became the first product sponsor for Peanuts, publishing “The Brownie Book of Picture-Taking” to go along with their popular Brownie cameras. The little booklet utilized the Peanuts characters to demonstrate proper photography techniques in playful ways.\nMarking a true career achievement in cartooning, Charles Schulz won the coveted Reuben award for “Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year” from the National Cartoonists Society. He was presented the statue by the award’s namesake, Reuben Garrett Lucius “Rube” Goldberg, making an already pivotal moment in his success that much more meaningful to Schulz. Rube Goldberg is perhaps best known today for another namesake legacy, the “Rube Goldberg Machine”, contraptions that perform otherwise simple tasks in very complicated ways. Goldberg often depicted these complex and humorous mechanisms in his own cartooning. MORE >\nApril 13, 1955\nWith the success of five years of Peanuts strips behind him and a new five-year contract between Charles Schulz and United Feature Syndicate solidified, the Schulz family purchased an impressive home at 112 West Minnehaha Parkway in the desirable Tangletown neighborhood of Minneapolis.\nAugust 5, 1956\nAnother daughter, Amy Louise Schulz, was welcomed into the Schulz family, balancing out two boys with two girls. To acknowledge this special day, Charles Schulz penned a “Happy Birthday, Amy” message into the Peanuts comic strip on August 5 on several occasions over the years.\n“Peanuts are the grandest people in the world. All children are peanuts. They’re delightful, funny, irresistible, and wonderfully unpredictable. I really hate to see them grow out of the peanut stage.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1977)\n1957-1959\nFor a couple of years in the late 1950s, Charles Schulz was the only comic strip artist to have two different comic strips published in newspapers at the same time. It’s Only a Game was created as a sports-themed strip featuring single panel comics looking at the lighter side of golf, bowling, fishing, bridge, and other sports and games.\nAlthough Schulz proudly worked on the Peanuts comic strip alone, from the ideas themselves to the lettering and drawings, Schulz hired Art Instruction Schools’ colleague Jim Sasseville to assist him on drawing this strip. A total of 63 It’s Only a Game panels were syndicated in about 30 newspapers before it was cancelled.\n1958\nMarking a milestone in Peanuts licensing, the first three-dimensional products came in the form of the Hungerford Plastics Corporation’s well-liked set of Peanuts character dolls. Included in the series of dolls were Charlie Brown, Snoopy, Lucy, Linus, Sally, Pig-Pen, and Schroeder accompanied by his little piano.\n \n \n“Around 1960, I got a call from someone who wanted to make little Peanuts rubberized dolls that stood about six to eight inches high. The sculptor came out here to California from the East with his little bag of clay models and we sat here and he modeled them out. They came out very nicely.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1996)\nJune, 1958\nBy the spring of 1958, the Schulz family unit was complete with the birth of Jill Marie on April 20. Jill joined her siblings, listed eldest to youngest: Meredith, Monte, Craig, and Amy. Charles and Joyce Schulz had already started planning a move to California, traveling out west to view homes in early 1958. They viewed several properties around the San Francisco Bay Area in Northern California, but weren’t sure exactly what town they’d end up in. Just as they were about to leave the “Golden State” to return home to the “Land of 10,000 Lakes” the Schulzes were taken to Sonoma County to view a 28-acre property in Sebastopol that would soon become their home for nearly 15 years, Coffee Grounds. MORE >\n1959\nAn idea from a young granddaughter of advertising executive, Norman Strauss, prompted Ford Motor Company to approach Charles Schulz for permission to license the Peanuts characters. A multi-year advertising campaign promoting their new and efficient Falcon model was created, featuring the Peanuts Gang in print ads and also presenting the characters for the first time in animation on television. Working together for the first time in what would become a longstanding professional relationship, Schulz drew all of the original art for the print ads and Bill Melendez created the animation for the television commercials.\n“J. Walter Thompson got the idea that they wanted to use the Peanuts characters to advertise Ford products and, immediately, they went to the Falcon. The Falcon was the car that was just starting then. So we did animated commercials, newspaper ads, billboards, everything, and I drew them all too. And I used to help them write the newspaper ads and the animated commercials and that’s how I met Bill Melendez.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1992)\n1960s\n1960\nA decade into the publication of Peanuts in newspapers, Hallmark Peanuts-themed greeting cards and party decorations began to be included in many family celebrations. More than 50 years later, Hallmark has now produced a wealth of Peanuts greeting cards, party goods, books, postcards, and ornaments. Charles M. Schulz produced much of the artwork for the early products and often visited the Hallmark offices in Kansas City.\nMarch 6, 1961\nOn March 6, 1961, Schulz introduced Frieda to the Peanuts comic strip. A little girl with “naturally curly hair,” Frieda was often shown holding her cat Faron, whom Schulz named after the country-western musician, Faron Young. Although Faron’s appearance was brief, Frieda became a regular character in the strip.\n \n1962\nAs the popularity of Peanuts grew, United Features Syndicate was approached by numerous companies hoping to capitalize on its success. Requests poured in from all over the country from educators, book publishers, and insurance companies, among others. An enterprising young entrepreneur came knocking at Schulz’s door in 1962 with an idea to use Peanuts on datebook calendars… MORE >\nI know from my own experience that I want my children to be free to do something that’s crazy – as crazy as dedicating their lives to a comic strip.\nCharles M. Schulz, “Redbook Announces a Dialogue Between … Jack Lemmon and Charles Schulz,” Redbook December 1967\n \nJune 1963\nSchulz received an honorary degree in 1963 from Anderson College, a theological seminary and institute of higher learning in Indiana.\n1964\nHaving already been named Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year in 1955, the National Cartoonist Society once again bestowed Schulz with this high honor, making him the first recipient to receive the Reuben twice.\nApril 1965\nThe Peanuts characters appeared on the front page of Time on April 9, 1965.\n \n“Religion, psychiatry, education- indeed all the complexities of the modern world- seem more amusing than menacing when they are seen through the clear, uncompromising eyes of the comic-strip kids from Peanuts. The wry and wistful characters created by Cartoonist Charles M. Schulz have all but come to life for readers in the U.S. and abroad as they demonstrate daily and Sunday an engaging wisdom beyond their years, a simplistic yet somehow impressive understanding of the assorted problems that perplex their elders.”\n“Good Grief,” Time, April 9, 1965, page 80\nOctober 1965\nOne of Snoopy’s most iconic and popular personas–the World War I Flying Ace–makes his debut. Wearing his flying cap, goggles, and a scarf, the Flying Ace rides in his Sopwith Camel (a.k.a. Snoopy’s doghouse) and takes to the skies to dogfight against the infamous Red Baron.\n \nDecember 9, 1965\nA Charlie Brown Christmas, the first Peanuts animated television special, premiered on the CBS network on December 9, 1965. The production team included producer Lee Mendelson, animator/director Bill Melendez, and writer Charles Schulz. Jazz musician Vince Guaraldi composed and performed the score. The program won an Emmy award for Outstanding Individual Achievement, and a Peabody award for Outstanding Children’s and Youth’s Program. MORE>\n1966\nA Charlie Brown Christmas is awarded the George Foster Peabody Award on April 21, 1966.\nThe certificate read, “Gentleness is a quality that is seldom understood by television’s writers or directors. A notable exception was telecast during the holiday season of 1965. It was a little gem of a show that faithfully and sensitively introduced to television the Peanuts collection of newsprint characters created by Charles Schulz. A Charlie Brown Christmas was a delight for the whole family.”\n \n \nOn May 22, 1966, Charles M. Schulz wins the Emmy Award for Outstanding Children’s Program for A Charlie Brown Christmas. This would be Schulz’s first Emmy nomination and win.\nMay 29, 1966\nWinning the Emmy was a bittersweet moment for Schulz, as one week later his father Carl passed away while visiting with his son in California.\nThat same year, Schulz’s art studio was destroyed by fire.\nAs art sometimes follows life, the trauma of the destruction later appeared in the Peanuts comic strip, as Schulz created a storyline about Snoopy’s doghouse burning down.\n \nAugust 22, 1966\nPatricia Reichardt, better known Peppermint Patty was introduced in the Peanuts comic strip. Her distinct personality, athleticism, and trademark sandals, made for a strong new character in the strip..\n© Peanuts Worldwide LLC\n“Patty has been a good addition for me, and I think could almost carry another strip by herself. A dish of candy sitting in our living room inspired her name. So in this case I created the character to fit the name, and Peppermint Patty came into being.”\nCharles M. Schulz, “Charlie Brown, Snoopy and Me,” Family Circle, October 1978, 158.\nMarch 7, 1967\nThe cast of Peanuts made their stage appearance in You’re A Good Man Charlie Brown, which debuted off-Broadway at Theatre 80 St. Marks. The show ran for four years in New York, and productions featuring different casts followed in other cities. Later in 1967, the musical debuted at San Francisco’s Little Fox Theatre, where it ran for five years. Schulz was said to be a frequent attendee of these performances. He even got to know the cast well, inviting them to his home in Sebastopol and on ski trips to Lake Tahoe.\n \n“[You’re a Good Man, Charlie Brown has] become the most performed musical in the history of American theatre…every school and church and high school and grade school and kindergarten you can think of has put this thing on and it had taken a terrible beating but it survives. And, of course, the music is good and it’s not cute. That was the main thing. It was incredible that they could have made so many mistakes putting it together, but everything just fell right into place just right and that’s very gratifying. I used to go down to the theatre in San Francisco and it was a great pleasure to stand out in the lobby when the show was over and seeing the families coming out and everybody smiling because they had had a good time.”\n“Charles Schulz Interview,” Nemo, January 1992, 21.\nMarch 17, 1967\nCharlie Brown and Snoopy were featured on the cover of Life magazine. The magazine article describes the Peanuts craze. The comic strip became widely popular among college students, air force pilots, and rock musicians, among other unique audiences.\nMay 24, 1967\nA resolution from the California Legislative Assembly declaring May 24, 1967 as “Charles Schulz Day” in honor of his success with the comic strip, Peanuts.\n \n1968\nIn 1968, Charles M. Schulz received what he considered a great honor in 1968 when he was approached by NASA to use Snoopy in the Manned Flight Awareness Program. Snoopy’s likeness was used in many workplace motivation posters, on patches and decals, and on the Silver Snoopy pin. The following year, NASA astronauts named the Apollo 10 command module “Charlie Brown,” and the lunar module, “Snoopy”.\n \n“A man named…Al Chop came to me and they had just had that tragic fire where the astronauts were killed and so they wanted to start a new safety program and he had an idea to build the program around a cartoon character and he asked me if Snoopy could be the character and I said, ‘Sure, I’m very flattered.’ So they made posters and all sorts of things. They made beautiful little metal things which were really nice pieces of jewelry and if a person on the assembly line has a good safety record, one of the astronauts would present him or her with the pin and of course, those pins were taken to the moon and the moon landing. So Snoopy, literally, is the first character to go to the moon.”\n“Charles Schulz Interview,” Nemo, January 1992, 22.\n \nJuly 31, 1968\nIn 1968, the world lost two of its most influential men: Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee on April 4, and Robert F. Kennedy, assassinated in Los Angeles, California, on June 6. Civil rights and race relations were major topics throughout the nation. During this period Schulz exchanged correspondence with Harriet Glickman, a teacher and advocate, regarding the addition of a black character in the Peanuts comic strip. Realizing the weight and responsibility such a character would have, Schulz introduced Franklin on July 31, 1968.\n \nNovember 28, 1968\nThe first Peanuts character balloon debuted in the annual Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City in 1968. The parade has included a Snoopy or Charlie Brown balloon each year since then. In 1969, the parade featured an astronaut Snoopy, pictured here, to celebrate the Apollo mission.\nApril 28, 1969\nDesigned by Charles Schulz and his wife Joyce, Redwood Empire Ice Arena opened in Santa Rosa. The arena is located directly across the street from the Charles M. Schulz Museum and Research Center. MORE >\n \nDecember 11, 1969\nA Boy Named Charlie Brown opened at the Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The animated feature would be the first to be shown there in over twenty years.\n“A Boy Named Charlie Brown, the first feature length Peanuts movie debuted at Radio City Music Hall… One December evening in 1969, in New Your City, Charlie Brown simultaneously played before [a] a sellout crowd for the stage show, [b] a sellout audience for the Feature at the Radio City Music Hall, and [c] a repeat network television special, (A Charlie Brown Christmas) that was also seen by fifty-five million other Americans across the country. No performer in the history of show business can make that statement.”\nLee Mendelson, Charlie Brown and Charles Schulz. (New York: Signet, 1970), 254.\n1970s\n1970\nThe February 16th Peanuts strip featured Snoopy’s promotion to Head Beagle. The Mayor of Los Angeles, Sam Yorty, presented Charles M. Schulz with a congratulatory certificate saluting Snoopy’s new position.\n \nA Charlie Brown Thanksgiving wins Emmy for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Children’s Programming in 1974.\nJanuary 1, 1974\nSelecting the theme “Happiness Is…” Charles M. Schulz presides as the Grand Marshal of the 85th Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California.\n1974\nCharles M. Schulz visited the Rogue River in Oregon to conduct research for the upcoming Peanuts animated special, Race For Your Life, Charlie Brown.\nJuly-August 1974\nCharles M. Schulz made his first and only appearance at Comic-Con in San Diego that year. He gave a chalk talk and was presented with the Inkpot award for achievement in the comic art medium. Comic-Con began in 1970 and has grown to become the largest comics gathering in the country.\nSummer 1975\nThe first annual Snoopy’s Senior Hockey Tournament took place at the Redwood Empire Ice Arena. Players from all over the world, including Charles M. Schulz, laced up their skates and took to the ice. Teams within various divisions played for gold, silver, and bronze medals. MORE>\n1975\nPeanuts celebrated its 25th anniversary. Happy Anniversary, Charlie Brown airs on CBS on January 9, 1976. Schulz received congratulatory correspondence from numerous fans, including a special birthday note to Charlie Brown from then President Gerald Ford.\n1976\n \nCharles M. Schulz injured his foot while playing tennis on New Year Eve. The injury required a cast and the use of crutches. He incorporated this injury into the Peanuts strips which featured Snoopy wearing a cast and learning to use crutches.\n1977\nJean Schulz used several terms of endearment for her husband. One of these, “sweet babboo”, became Sally’s preferred moniker for Linus in the Peanuts comic strip.\nAt some point in 1977, Schulz noticed he had trouble keeping his hand steady. The doctors diagnosed him with a benign essential tremor.\n \n1978\nCharles M. Schulz visits France to do research for Bon Voyage Charlie Brown and to visit the Chateau of the Bad Neighbor, where his platoon was stationed during World War II. The trip would be filmed for a PBS documentary entitled, Charles M. Schulz…To Remember. More…\n1979\nSince 1973 Charles and Jean Schulz hosted the Northern California Cartoonists and Humorists Association annual event at their home. Events included Snoopy’s World Famous Cartoonist’s Tennis Tournament and a contest that allowed cartoonist to draw the last panel of a future Peanuts strip. The winning artist would be presented with an award by Schulz. Noted artists in attendance included Cathy Guisewite and Jim Davis.\n1980s\n1980\nThe National Cartoonist Society awarded Charles M. Schulz the Elzie Segar Award for his outstanding contributions to the art of cartooning. The award is named after the creator of one of Schulz’s favorite comic strips, Popeye .\n1981\nIn February, 1981, Charles M. Schulz was the recipient of the Lester Patrick Trophy, presented by the National Hockey League for contributions to hockey in the United States.\nAfter experiencing tightness in his chest, doctors discovered a blockage in Schulz’s arteries. Schulz had heart bypass surgery to clear it. After the surgery Schulz received an outpouring of well wishes and art from fellow cartoonists and fans.\n \n1982\nAfter his surgery Schulz focused on improving his health. He took up jogging and became involved with the Young at Heart race. The race was co-sponsored by the Redwood Empire Ice Arena and Santa Rosa Memorial Hospital. Schulz would lend his Peanuts artwork for the race’s shirt design.\n1983\nOn May 30, 1983, CBS aired What Have we Learned, Charlie Brown. The special highlights many monuments to both World War I and II and emphasizes the sacrifices made by the troops that fought in them.\n \nThe show would eventually travel around the world to great success.\n1989\nSchulz’s alma mater, Central High in St. Paul, Minnesota, honors him by including him in the school’s “Hall of Fame.”\n1990s\nJanuary 1990\nSchulz travels to Paris, France to receive the “Commandeur de l’Ordre Des Artes et Lettres” on December 21, 1989. The distinguished award was presented by the French Minister of Culture, Jack Lang.\nSnoopy in Fashion debuts at the Louvre. The exhibit features 300 Snoopy and Belle plush dolls in fashions by more than 150 world famous designers.\nSchulz returns to Paris for the opening of Snoopy’s 40th Anniversary exhibition.\n \nWhy, Charlie Brown, Why premieres on March 16, 1990. The Emmy nominated special deals with a new character named Janice who is diagnosed with cancer. Schulz would go on to receive an award from the American Cancer Society for bringing hope and understanding to children with cancer.\nNovember 1990\nThis is Your Childhood, Charlie Brown…Children in American Culture, 1945-1970 opened at The National Museum of History in Washington, D.C.\n1992\nSnoopy, the Masterpiece opens at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts.\nIn October, Schulz travels to Italy to receive the Commendatore Della Repubblica Italiana (Order of Merit of the Italian Republic).\n1993\nThe United States Hockey Hall of Fame inducts Charles Schulz into their hall of fame for his contribution to hockey during the course of his career.\n1994\nPeanuts celebrates its 45th anniversary with the book Around the World in 45 Years: Charlie Brown’s Anniversary Celebration by Schulz.\n1995\nAround the Moon and Home Again: A Tribute to the Art of Charles M. Schulz opens at the Houston Space Center.\nJune 28, 1996\nSchulz receives his star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The much deserved award is given by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and honors Schulz for his years of entertainment in various mediums.\nMarch 22, 1997\nPeanuts Gallery, by composer Ellen Taaffe Zwilich, premieres at Carnegie Hall.\nSchulz mentioned Zwilich in a 1990 Peanuts comic strip. This mention started a friendship between the composer and Schulz. Their friendship would lead to them collaborating on critically acclaimed “Peanuts Gallery.” The concerto included “Lullaby for Linus,” “Snoopy Does the Samba,” and “Charlie Brown’s Lament.”\nOctober 16, 1997\nJean and Charles Schulz announce that they will give $1 million toward the construction of a D-Day memorial to be placed in Virginia.\nDecember 14, 1999\nSchulz releases an open letter announcing his retirement.\n“I have always wanted to be a cartoonist and I feel very blessed to have been able to do what I love for almost 50 years. That all of you have embraced Snoopy, Charlie Brown, Lucy and Linus and all the other ‘Peanuts’ characters has been a constant motivation for me.”\nCharles M. Schulz, Charles Schulz, Creator of `Peanuts’ Retires, by Rick Lyman, The New York Times, December 15, 1999\nAt the time of his retirement, the Peanuts comic strip was syndicated in over 2,600 newspapers worldwide, with book collections translated in over 25 languages.\n2000s\nCharles Schulz dies peacefully in his sleep at home, succumbing to complications from colon cancer.\nThe final Peanuts Sunday strip appeared in newspapers the very next day, Sunday, February 13.\nAugust 15, 2002\nThe Charles M. Schulz Museum and Research Center opens its doors to the public. Since its opening, the Museum has welcomed 867,092 visitors from around the world, exhibited 3,500 original comic strips, and hosted 173 Cartoonists-in-Residence.\n2010s",
"Charles Monroe Schulz (1922 - 2000) - Genealogy\nCharles Monroe Schulz\nin Santa Rosa, California, USA\nCause of death:\nHad Colon Cancer, but died of Heart Attack\nPlace of Burial:\nHusband of <private> Schulz (Clyde) and <private> Schulz (Halverson)\nFather of <private> Schulz; <private> Schulz; <private> Johnson (Schulz); <private> Hodges (Schulz) and <private> Transki (Schulz)\nOccupation:\nArtist, Cartoonist, Peanuts Comic Strip\nManaged by:\nNewspaperARCHIVE.com\nText:\n... he never had a favorite Peanuts character Yes the death of Charles M Schulz and the end after a halfcentury of the Peanuts comics he cre...\nDate:\nNov 26 1922 - Minneapolis, Hennepin, Minnesota, United States\nDeath:\nFeb 12 2000 - Santa Rosa, Sonoma, California, United States\nDeath:\nFeb 14 2000 - Pennsylvania, United States\nDeath:\nFeb 14 2000 - Easton, Pennsylvania, United States\nParents:\nCarl Fredrich Augustus Schulz, Dena Bertina Schulz (born Halverson)\nBrother:\nNewspaperARCHIVE.com\nText:\n... weekly Defending America column at his Web Send mall to Box CT Schulz was friend to every one of us With the death of Charles Schulz ......\nDate:\nNewspaperARCHIVE.com\nText:\n... drawing Peanuts in 1950 Continued from Page 1 A portrait of Charles Schulz ... 2A Monday February 14 2000 Robot craft prepares to orbit ...\nDate:\nNewspaperARCHIVE.com\nText:\n... never had a favorite Peanuts character? Yes, the death of. Charles M. Schulz and the end, after a half-century, of the Peanuts comics he...\nDate:\nNewspaperARCHIVE.com\nText:\n... been buying up reminders of their comic strip friends since Charles Schulz's death on Saturday. want something to hold onto.'' said Amaz...\nDate:\nNewspaperARCHIVE.com\nText:\n... heart so dead that he never had a favorite Peanuts the death of Charles M. Schulz and the after a of the Peanuts comics he created leave...\nDate:\n... clamoring for reminders of their comic strip friends since Charles Schulz's death ...\"\nDate:\nNewspaperARCHIVE.com\nText:\n... sad weekend, with the passing of Andy Pappas, Tom Landry and Charles Schulz. All three lost bouts with cancer. Pappas ...\"\nDate:\nNov 26 1922 - Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA\nDeath:\nFeb 12 2000 - Santa Rosa, California, USA\nParents:\nCarl Frederick Schulz, Dena Schulz\nWife:\nJoyce Halverson\nChildren:\nNov 26 1922 - Minneapolis, Hennepin, Minnesota, United States\nDeath:\nFeb 12 2000 - Santa Rosa, Sonoma, California, United States\nDeath:\nFeb 14 2000 - Pennsylvania, United States\nParents:\nCause of death: Colorectal cancer, Myocardial infarction - Feb 12 2000 - Santa Rosa\nParents:\nJoyce Halverson, Jean Forsyth Clyde\nChildren:\nMonte Schulz, Meredith Hodges, Amy Schulz, Jill Schulz, Craig Schulz\nResidences:\nCharles Monroe Schulz (November 26, 1922 – February 12, 2000), nicknamed Sparky, was an American cartoonist, best known for the comic strip Peanuts .\nEarly life and education\nBorn in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Schulz grew up in Saint Paul. He was the only child of Carl Schulz, who was born in Germany, and Dena Halverson, who was Norwegian. His uncle called him \"Sparky\" after the horse Spark Plug in Billy DeBeck's comic strip, Barney Google.\nSchulz loved drawing and sometimes drew his family dog, Spike, who ate unusual things, such as pins and tacks. Schulz drew a picture of Spike and sent it to Ripley's Believe It or Not!; his drawing appeared in Robert Ripley's syndicated panel, captioned, \"A hunting dog that eats pins, tacks and razor blades is owned by C. F. Schulz, St. Paul, Minn.\" and \"Drawn by 'Sparky'\" (C.F. was his father, Carl Fred Schulz.)\nSchulz attended St. Paul's Richard Gordon Elementary School, where he skipped two half-grades.\nHe became a shy, timid teenager, perhaps as a result of being the youngest in his class at Central High School. One episode in his high school life was the rejection of his drawings by his high school yearbook. A five-foot-tall statue of Snoopy was placed in the school's main office 60 years later.\nMilitary service and post-war jobs\nIn 1943, Schulz was drafted into the United States Army. He served as a staff sergeant with the 20th Armored Division in Europe, as a squad leader on a .50 caliber machine gun team. His unit saw combat only at the very end of the war. Schulz said that he only ever had one opportunity to fire his machine gun but forgot to load it. Fortunately, he said, the German soldier he could have fired at willingly surrendered. Years later, Schulz proudly spoke of his wartime service.\nAfter being discharged in late 1945, Schulz returned to Minneapolis. He did lettering for a Roman Catholic comic magazine, Timeless Topix, and then, in July 1946, took a job at Art Instruction, Inc., reviewing and grading lessons submitted by students.[8]:164 Schulz himself had been a student of the school, taking a correspondence course from it before he was drafted. He worked at the school for a number of years while he developed his career as a comic creator, until he was making enough money from comics to be able to do that full time.\n[Career\nSchulz's first regular cartoons, a weekly series of one-panel jokes entitled Li'l Folks, were published from 1947 to 1950 by the St. Paul Pioneer Press; he first used the name Charlie Brown for a character there, although he applied the name in four gags to three different boys as well as one buried in sand. The series also had a dog that looked much like Snoopy. In 1948, Schulz sold a cartoon to The Saturday Evening Post; the first out of 17 one-panel cartoons by Schulz that would be published there. In 1948, he tried to have Li'l Folks syndicated through the Newspaper Enterprise Association. Schulz would have been an independent contractor for the syndicate, unheard of in the 1940s, but the deal fell through. Li'l Folks was dropped from the Pioneer Press in January 1950.\nLater that year, Schulz approached the United Feature Syndicate with the one-panel series Li'l Folks, and the syndicate became interested. However, by that time Schulz had also developed a comic strip, using normally four panels rather than one, and reportedly to Schulz's delight, the syndicate preferred this version. Peanuts made its first appearance on October 2, 1950, in seven newspapers. The weekly Sunday-page debuted on January 6, 1952. After a somewhat slow beginning, Peanuts eventually became one of the most popular comic strips of all time, as well as one of the most influential. Schulz also had a short-lived sports-oriented comic strip called It's Only a Game (1957–1959), but he abandoned it due to the demands of the successful Peanuts. From 1956 to 1965 he contributed a single-panel strip (\"Young Pillars\") featuring teenagers to Youth, a publication associated with the Church of God.\nIn 1957 and 1961 he illustrated two volumes of Art Linkletter's Kids Say the Darndest Things, and in 1964 a collection of letters, Dear President Johnson, by Bill Adler.\nPeanuts\nAt its height, Peanuts was published daily in 2,600 papers in 75 countries, in 21 languages. Over the nearly 50 years that Peanuts was published, Schulz drew nearly 18,000 strips. The strips themselves, plus merchandise and product endorsements, produced revenues of more than $1 billion per year, with Schulz earning an estimated $30 million to $40 million annually. During the life of the strip, Schulz took only one vacation, a five-week break in late 1997 to celebrate his 75th birthday; reruns of the strip ran during his vacation, the only time reruns occurred while Schulz was alive.\nSchulz said that his routine every morning consisted of first eating a jelly donut, and then going through the day's mail with his secretary before sitting down to write and draw the day's strip at his studio. After coming up with an idea (which he said could take anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours), he began drawing it, which took about an hour for dailies and three hours for Sunday strips. Unlike many other successful cartoonists, Schulz never used assistants in producing the strip; he refused to hire an inker or letterer, saying that \"it would be equivalent to a golfer hiring a man to make his putts for him.\"\nCharlie Brown, the principal character for Peanuts, was named after a co-worker at the Art Instruction Inc. Schulz drew much more inspiration than this from his own life, some examples being:\nLike Charlie Brown's parents, Schulz's father was a barber and his mother a housewife.\nLike Charlie Brown, Schulz admitted in interviews that he'd often felt shy and withdrawn in his life.\nSchulz had a dog when he was a boy, reportedly a rather intelligent one at that. Although this dog was a pointer, and not a beagle such as Snoopy, family photos of the dog confirm a certain physical resemblance.\nReferences to Snoopy's brother Spike living outside of Needles, California were likely influenced by the few years (1928–1930) that the Schulz family lived there; they had moved to Needles to join other family members who had relocated from Minnesota to tend to an ill cousin.\nSchulz's inspiration for Charlie Brown's unrequited love to the Little Red-Haired Girl was Donna Mae Johnson, an Art Instruction Inc. accountant with whom he fell in love. When Schulz finally proposed to her in June 1950, shortly after he'd made his first contract with his syndicate, she turned him down and married another man.\nLinus and Shermy were both named for good friends of his (Linus Maurer and Sherman Plepler, respectively).\nPeppermint Patty was inspired by Patricia Swanson, one of his cousins on his mother's side. Schulz devised the character's name when he saw peppermint candies in his house.\nInfluences\nThe Charles M. Schulz Museum counts Milton Caniff (Terry and the Pirates) and Bill Mauldin as key influences on Schulz's work. In his own strip, Schulz regularly described Snoopy's annual Veterans Day visits with Mauldin, including mention of Mauldin's World War II cartoons. Schulz (and critics) also credited George Herriman (Krazy Kat), Roy Crane (Wash Tubbs), Elzie C. Segar (Thimble Theater) and Percy Crosby (Skippy) among his influences. In a 1994 address to fellow cartoonists, Schulz discussed several of his influences. However,\n“It would be impossible to narrow down three or two or even one direct influence on [Schulz's] personal drawing style. The uniqueness of Peanuts has set it apart for years... That one-of-kind quality permeates every aspect of the strip and very clearly extends to the drawing. It is purely his with no clear forerunners and no subsequent pretenders.”\n— Good Grief: The Story of Charles M. Schulz, Rheta Grimsley Johnson, p. 68\nPersonal life\nIn 1951, Schulz moved to Colorado Springs, Colorado. In April the same year, Schulz married Joyce Halverson. His son, Monte, was born the following year, with their three further children being born later, in Minnesota. He painted a wall in that home for his adopted daughter Meredith Hodges, featuring Patty, Charlie Brown, and Snoopy. The wall was removed in 2001 and donated to the Charles M. Schulz Museum in Santa Rosa, California.\nSchulz and his family returned to Minneapolis and stayed until 1958. They then moved to Sebastopol, California, where Schulz built his first studio. It was here that Schulz was interviewed for the unaired television documentary A Boy Named Charlie Brown. Some of the footage was eventually used in a later documentary, Charlie Brown and Charles Schulz. Schulz's father died while visiting him in 1966, the same year his Sebastopol studio burned down. By 1969, Schulz had moved to Santa Rosa, California, where he lived and worked until his death.\nBy Thanksgiving 1970, it was clear that Schulz's first marriage was in trouble, and their divorce was final in 1972. Schulz married Jean Forsyth Clyde in September 1973; they'd first met when Jean brought her daughter to Schulz's hockey rink. They remained married for 27 years, until Schulz's death in 2000.\nSchulz had a long association with ice sports, and both figure skating and ice hockey featured prominently in his cartoons. In Santa Rosa, he was the owner of the Redwood Empire Ice Arena, which opened in 1969 and featured a snack bar called \"The Warm Puppy\". Schulz's daughter Amy served as a model for the figure skating in the 1980 television special She's a Good Skate, Charlie Brown.\nSchulz also was very active in senior ice-hockey tournaments; in 1975, he formed Snoopy's Senior World Hockey Tournament at his Redwood Empire Ice Arena, and in 1981, Schulz was awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy for outstanding service to the sport of hockey in the United States.\nSchulz also enjoyed playing golf and was a member of the Santa Rosa Golf and Country Club from 1959 to 2000.\nIn July 1981, Schulz underwent heart bypass surgery. During his hospital stay, President Reagan called him on the phone to wish him a quick recovery.\nOn Sunday, May 8, 1988, two gunmen wearing ski masks entered the cartoonist's home through an unlocked door, planning to kidnap Jean Schulz, but the attempt failed when the couple's daughter, Jill, drove up to the house, prompting the would-be kidnappers to flee. She saw what was happening and called the police from a neighbor's house. Sonoma County Sheriff Dick Michaelsen said, \"It was obviously an attempted kidnap-ransom. This was a targeted criminal act. They knew exactly who the victims were.\" Neither Schulz nor his wife was hurt during the incident.\nIn 1998, Schulz hosted the first Over 75 Hockey Tournament. In 2001, Saint Paul renamed the Highland Park Ice Arena the Charles M. Schulz Highland Arena in his honor.\nRetirement and death\nIn his later years, Schulz suffered from Parkinson's Disease. As a result, he experienced hand tremors that made his linework shaky. He admitted that the tremors sometimes were so bad that while working, he had to hold onto the side of his desk with one hand to steady himself. He changed the daily strip from four panels to three, starting on February 29, 1988, to reduce the amount of drawing needed.\nIn November 1999 Schulz suffered several small strokes along with a blocked aorta and later it was discovered that he had colon cancer that had metastasized. Because of the chemotherapy and the fact he could not read or see clearly, he announced his retirement on December 14, 1999. This was difficult for Schulz, and he was quoted as saying to Al Roker on The Today Show, \"I never dreamed that this was what would happen to me. I always had the feeling that I would probably stay with the strip until I was in my early eighties. But all of a sudden it's gone. It's been taken away from me. I did not take this away from me.\"\nSchulz was asked if, for his final Peanuts strip, Charlie Brown would finally get to kick that certain football after so many decades (one of the many recurring themes in Peanuts was Charlie Brown's attempts to kick a football while Lucy was holding it; Lucy, of course, always pulled it back at the last moment, causing Charlie Brown to fall on his back). His response: \"Oh, no! Definitely not! I couldn't have Charlie Brown kick that football; that would be a terrible disservice to him after nearly half a century.\" Yet, in a December 1999 interview, holding back tears, he recounted the moment when he signed the panel of his final strip, saying, “All of a sudden I thought, 'You know, that poor, poor kid, he never even got to kick the football. What a dirty trick — he never had a chance to kick the football!'”\nAt around 9:45 pm, Schulz died in his sleep at home on February 12, 2000. Although he was dying of cancer, he suffered a fatal heart attack. The last original Peanuts strip was published the very next day, on Sunday, February 13. Schulz had previously predicted that the strip would outlive him, with his reason being that his comic strips were usually drawn weeks before their publication. Schulz was buried at Pleasant Hills Cemetery in Sebastopol, California.\nAs part of his will, Schulz requested that the Peanuts characters remain as authentic as possible and that no new comic strips based on them be drawn. United Features had legal ownership of the strip, but honored his wishes, instead syndicating reruns of the strip to newspapers. New television specials have also been produced since Schulz's death, but the stories are based on previous strips, and Schulz always stated that Peanuts TV shows were entirely separate from the strip.\nSchulz was posthumously honored on May 27, 2000, by cartoonists of more than 100 comic strips, who paid homage to him and Peanuts by incorporating his characters into their comic strips on that date.\nAwards\nSchulz received the National Cartoonists Society's Humor Comic Strip Award in 1962 for Peanuts, the Society's Elzie Segar Award in 1980, and was also the first two-time winner of their Reuben Award for 1955 and 1964, and their Milton Caniff Lifetime Achievement Award in 1999. He was also an avid hockey fan; in 1981, Schulz was awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy for outstanding contributions to the sport of hockey in the United States, and he was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 1993. On June 28, 1996, Schulz was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, adjacent to Walt Disney's. A replica of this star appears outside his former studio in Santa Rosa. Schulz is a recipient of the Silver Buffalo Award, the highest adult award given by the Boy Scouts of America, for his service to American youth.\nA proponent of manned space flight, Schulz was honored with the naming of Apollo 10 command module Charlie Brown, and lunar module Snoopy, launched on May 18, 1969.\nOn January 1, 1974, Schulz served as the Grand Marshal of the Rose Parade in Pasadena, California.\nOn February 10, 2000, Congressman Mike Thompson introduced H.R. 3642, a bill to award Schulz the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian honor the United States legislature can bestow. The bill passed the House (with only Ron Paul voting no and 24 not voting) on February 15, and the bill was sent to the Senate where it passed unanimously on May 2. The Senate also considered the related bill, S.2060 (introduced by Dianne Feinstein). President Bill Clinton signed the bill into law on June 20, 2000. On June 7, 2001, Schulz's widow Jean accepted the award on behalf of her late husband in a public ceremony.\nSchulz was inducted into the United States Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2007.\nBiographies\nBiographies have been written about Schulz, including Rheta Grimsley Johnson's Good Grief: The Story of Charles M. Schulz (1989), which was authorized by Schulz.\nThe lengthiest biography, Schulz and Peanuts: A Biography by David Michaelis (2007), has been heavily criticized by the Schulz family, with son Monte stating it has \"a number of factual errors throughout ... [including] factual errors of interpretation\" and extensively documenting these errors in a number of essays; for his part, Michaelis maintains that there is \"no question\" his work is accurate. Although cartoonist Bill Watterson (creator of Calvin & Hobbes) feels that the biography does justice to Schulz's legacy, while giving insight into the emotional impetus of the creation of the strips, cartoonist and critic R.C. Harvey regards the book as falling short both in describing Schulz as a cartoonist and in fulfilling Michaelis' stated aim of \"understanding how Charles Schulz knew the world\", feeling the biography bends the facts to a thesis rather than evoking a thesis from the facts. A review of Michaelis' biography by Dan Shanahan in the American Book Review (vol 29, no. 6) faults the biography not for factual errors, but for \"a predisposition\" to finding problems in Schulz's life to explain his art, regardless of how little the material lends itself to Michaelis' interpretations. Shanahan cites, in particular, such things as Michaelis' crude characterizations of Schulz's mother's family, and \"an almost voyeuristic quality\" to the hundred pages devoted to the breakup of Schulz's first marriage.\nIn light of David Michaelis' biography and the controversy surrounding his interpretation of the personality that was Charles Schulz, responses from his family reveal some intimate knowledge about the Schulz's persona beyond that of mere artist.\nLegacy\nWhen the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota opened in 1992, the Amusement Park in the center of the Mall was themed around Schulz' \"Peanuts\" characters, until the Mall lost the rights to use the branding in 2006.\nIn 2000, the Sonoma County Board of Supervisors renamed the county airport as the Charles M. Schulz - Sonoma County Airport in his honor. The airport's logo features Snoopy in goggles and scarf, taking to the skies on top of his red doghouse.\nThe Charles M. Schulz Museum and Research Center in Santa Rosa opened on August 17, 2002, two blocks away from his former studio, celebrating his life's work and art of cartooning. A bronze statue of Charlie Brown and Snoopy stands in Depot Park in downtown Santa Rosa.\nThe Jean and Charles Schulz Information Center at Sonoma State University is one of the largest libraries in the CSU system and the state of California, with a 400,000-volume general collection and with a 750,000-volume automated retrieval system capacity. The $41.5 million building was named after Schulz, and his wife donated $5 million needed to build and furnish the structure. The library opened in 2000 and now stands as one of the largest buildings in the university.\nPeanuts on Parade has been St. Paul, Minnesota’s tribute to its favorite native cartoonist. It began in 2000 with the placing of 101 5-foot-tall (1.5 m) statues of Snoopy throughout the city of St. Paul. Every summer for the next four years, statues of a different Peanuts character were placed on the sidewalks of St. Paul. In 2001, there was Charlie Brown Around Town, 2002 brought Looking for Lucy, then in 2003 along came Linus Blankets St. Paul, ending in 2004 with Snoopy lying on his doghouse. The statues were auctioned off at the end of each summer, so some remain around the city, but others have been relocated. The auction proceeds were used for artists' scholarships and for permanent, bronze statues of the Peanuts characters. These bronze statues are in Landmark Plaza and Rice Park in downtown St. Paul. Santa Rosa, CA celebrated the 60th anniversary of the strip in 2005 by continuing the Peanuts on Parade tradition beginning with It's Your Town Charlie Brown (2005), Summer of Woodstock (2006), Snoopys Joe Cool Summer (2007) & Look Out For Lucy (2008)\nIn 2006, Forbes ranked Schulz as the third highest-earning deceased celebrity, having earned $35 million in the previous year. In 2009, he was ranked 6th. According to Tod Benoit in his book Where Are They Buried? How Did They Die?, Charles M. Schulz's income during his lifetime totaled more than $1.1 billion.\nReligion\nSchulz often touched on religious themes in his work, including the classic television cartoon, A Charlie Brown Christmas (1965), which features the character Linus van Pelt quoting the King James Version of the Bible Luke 2:8–14 to explain \"what Christmas is all about.\" In personal interviews Schulz mentioned that Linus represented his spiritual side.\nSchulz, reared in the Lutheran faith, had been active in the Church of God as a young adult and then later taught Sunday school at a United Methodist Church. In the 1960s, Robert L. Short interpreted certain themes and conversations in Peanuts as being consistent with parts of Christian theology, and used them as illustrations during his lectures about the gospel, as he explained in his bestselling paperback book, The Gospel According to Peanuts, the first of several books he wrote on religion and Peanuts, and other popular culture items.\nFrom the late 1980s, however, Schulz described himself in interviews as a \"secular humanist\":\n“I do not go to church anymore... I guess you might say I've come around to secular humanism, an obligation I believe all humans have to others and the world we live in.\"\n_____________\nLink:",
"Charles Schulz Biography (Cartoonist)\nDied: 12 February 2000 (colon cancer)\nBirthplace: Minneapolis, Minnesota\nBest known as: The creator of Charlie Brown and Peanuts\nCharles Schulz created and drew the long-running comic strip Peanuts. By all accounts a shy child while growing up in Minnesota, Schulz took a correspondence art course, served in the U.S. Army during WWII, and then doggedly pursued a career as a cartoonist. His Minneapolis comic panel Li'l Folks was renamed Peanuts and syndicated nationwide in 1950. By the mid-1960s it had become one of the best-known cartoon strips in the world. Schulz's characters, including the wishy-washy Charlie Brown and his fantastical dog Snoopy , also starred in a popular series of holiday TV specials and in the stage show You're A Good Man, Charlie Brown. Late in 1999 Schulz announced he had colon cancer and would retire after nearly 50 years of drawing Peanuts. He died on February 12, 2000, one day before his final Sunday strip appeared. Schulz did not pass the strip to another artist, but many newspapers continue to publish daily reruns of Schulz's past Peanuts strips.\nExtra credit:\nMusic for many of the Peanuts TV specials was composed by Vince Guaraldi … Other Peanuts characters included the crabby Lucy and her blanket-toting brother Linus, tomboy Peppermint Patty and her friend Marcie, Snoopy’s bird friend Woodstock, and the Beethoven -loving Schroeder… Schulz was married to the former Joyce Halverson from 1951 until their divorce in 1972. He married Jean Forsyth Clyde in 1973, and they remained married until Schulz’s death… Schulz’s nickname was ‘Sparky.’\nCopyright © 1998-2017 by Who2?, LLC. All rights reserved."
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"Who wrote, ""What is this life if full of care, We have no time to stand and stare?"""
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"\"Leisure\" is a poem by Welsh poet W. H. Davies, appearing originally in his Songs Of Joy and Others, published in 1911 by A. C. Fifield and then in Davies' first anthology Collected Poems, by the same publisher in 1916.\n\nWhat is this life if, full of care,\nWe have no time to stand and stare.\n\nNo time to stand beneath the boughs\nAnd stare as long as sheep or cows.\n\nNo time to see, when woods we pass,\nWhere squirrels hide their nuts in grass.\n\nNo time to see, in broad daylight,\nStreams full of stars, like skies at night.\n\nNo time to turn at Beauty's glance,\nAnd watch her feet, how they can dance.\n\nNo time to wait till her mouth can\nEnrich that smile her eyes began.\n\nA poor life this if, full of care,\nWe have no time to stand and stare.\n\nSummary\n\nAlthough it was to become Davies' best known poem, curiously it was not included in any of the five Georgian Poetry anthologies published by Edward Marsh between 1912 and 1922. Thirty two of Davies' other poems were.\n\nIt warns that \"the hectic pace of modern life has a detrimental effect on the human spirit.\" Modern man has no time to spend free time in the lap of nature.\n\nAppraisal\n\nIn his 1963 Critical Biography of Davies, Richard Stonesifer traces the origins of the poem back to the sonnet \"The World Is Too Much with Us\" by William Wordsworth, saying: \n\n\"But he went to school with Wordsworth's sonnet \"The world is too much with us\", and echoes from that sonnet resound throughout his work as from few other poems. Philosophically, no other single poem can be said to form the basis of so much of his poetry. The celebrated opening of his wise little poem \"Leisure\" has its origins here.\" \n\nStonesifer traces the central idea to a number of Davies' other poems - \"The housebuilder\" (from the 1914 The Bird of Paradise), \"A Happy Life\" and \"Traffic\", as well as \"Bells\" and \"This World\".\n\nSignificance and legacy\n\nDavies is generally best known for the opening two lines of this poem. It has appeared in most of the anthologies of his work and in many general poem anthologies, including:\n\n*Oxford Book of Victorian Verse (1971), Oxford University Press\n*Book of a Thousand Poems (1983), Peter Bedrick Books\n*Anglo-Welsh Poetry (1984), Poetry Wales Press\n*Common Ground (1989), Carcanet \n*A Poem a Day (1996), Steerforth Press\n\nThe poem features, in spoken form, on the album Anthology of 20th Century English Poetry (Part I), originally issued in 1960 on the Folkways Records label and has been used in British television advertisements, including those for Center Parcs and Orange Mobile.\n\nThe poem was mis-quoted, by the KGB, in a 1991 secret message to their spy inside the FBI, Robert Hanssen.\nDear Friend:\nTime is flying. As a poet said:\n:\"What's our life,\n:If full of care\n:You have no time\n:To stop and stare?\"\nYou've managed to slow down the speed of Your running life to send us a message. And we appreciate it."
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"W H Davies \"Leisure\" - \"No time to stand and stare\" Poem animation - YouTube\nW H Davies \"Leisure\" - \"No time to stand and stare\" Poem animation\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on Jul 7, 2011\nHeres a virtual movie of Welsh poet William Henry Davies or W H Davies (1871 - 1940) reading his much loved and universally well known poem \"Leisure\" . William Henry Davies or W H Davies (3 July 1871[1] 26 September 1940) was a Welsh poet and writer. William Henry Davies was born in Newport, Monmouthshire, Wales, the son of a publican. After an apprenticeship as a picture-frame maker and a series of labouring jobs, he travelled to America, first to New York and then to the Klondike. He returned to England after having lost a foot jumping a train in Canada, where he led a penurious life in London lodging houses and as a pedlar in the country. He married in 1923, Emma, who was much younger than he. His first poems were published when he was 34. Most of his poetry is on the subject of nature or life on the road and exhibits a natural simple, earthy style. He also wrote two novels and autobiographical works, his best known being Autobiography of a Super-Tramp. Brief biography 2 ........... William Henry Davies (1871-1940), poet and author, was born in Pillgwenlly, Newport, Monmouthshire. After leaving school he trained as a carver and gilder, but remained dissatisfied with his life. He left his work and spent a period working and begging his way across the United States of America and Canada, but in March 1899 he lost his foot while jumping from a train. He returned to Britain and resolved to make his mark as a poet. After experiencing many setbacks he eventually published his first book, 'The Soul's Destroyer and Other Poems' in March 1905. Subsequent volumes included 'New Poems' (1907), 'Nature Poems' (1908), 'Farwell to Poesy' (1910), 'Songs of Joy' (1911), 'Foliage' (1913), and 'The Bird of Paradise' (1914). He also wrote prose and his 'Autobiography of a Super-Tramp' (1908) was based on his experiences of living hand-to-mouth in England and north America. In 1923 he married Helen Payne, a prostitute who was thirty years his junior. They settled in Sussex and later Gloucestershire. He was awarded an Honorary Degree by the University of Wales in 1929 and a plaque in his honour was unveiled at the Church House Inn, Newport, in 1938.\nKind Regards\nAll rights are reserved on this video recording copyright Jim Clark 2011\nLeisure\nWHAT is this life if, full of care, We have no time to stand and stare?— No time to stand beneath the boughs, And stare as long as sheep and cows: No time to see, when woods we pass, Where squirrels hide their nuts in grass: No time to see, in broad daylight, Streams full of stars, like skies at night: No time to turn at Beauty's glance, And watch her feet, how they can dance: No time to wait till her mouth can Enrich that smile her eyes began? A poor life this if, full of care, We have no time to stand and stare\nCategory",
"William Henry Davies - William Henry Davies Poems - Poem Hunter\nWilliam Henry Davies - William Henry Davies Poems - Poem Hunter\nDo you like this poet?\nWilliam Henry Davies Poems\nLeisure What is this life if, full of care, We have no time ...\nJoy And Pleasure Now, joy is born of parents poor, And ...\nMoney When I had money, money, O! I knew no joy till I went ...\nA Plain Life No idle gold -- since this fine sun, my friend, ...\nThe Best Friend Now shall I walk Or shall I ride? \"Ride\",...\nRich Or Poor With thy true love I have more wealth Than ...\nA Fleeting Passion Thou shalt not laugh, thou shalt not romp,...\nAll poems of William Henry Davies »\nSearch in the poems of William Henry Davies:\nWilliam Henry Davies or W. H. Davies (3 July 1871 – 26 September 1940) was a Welsh poet and writer. Davies spent a significant part of his life as a tramp or hobo, in the United Kingdom and United States, but became one of the most popular poets of his time. The principal themes in his work are observations about life's hardships, the ways in which the human condition is reflected in nature, his own tramping adventures and the various characters he met. Davies is usually considered one of the Georgian Poets, although much of his work is atypical of the style and themes adopted by others of the genre.\nThe son of an iron moulder, Davies was born at 6, Portland Street in the Pillgwenlly ... more »\nClick here to add this poet to your My Favorite Poets.",
"W. H. Davies | poetryarchive.org\nTweet Widget\nAbout W. H. Davies\nThe Welsh poet William Henry Davies wrote the poem ‘Leisure’, which famously begins:‘What is this life if, full of care,/We have no time to stand and stare.’\nThe poem’s theme is reflected in Davies’s own outdoor life, which was unconventional. Leaving Wales, he worked and begged his way across America, losing a leg in an accident when jumping from a train. He returned to England and, unfit for physical work, dedicated himself to making a living as a writer. His first collection of poems attractedinfluential admirers, such as George Bernard Shaw, who helped Davies publish a successful memoir, The Autobiography of a Super Tramp, which dealt with his life travelling across America.\nBy 1929 his popularity and literary reputation led to the award of an honorary degree from the University of Wales and, ten years later, his home town of Newport unveiled a plaque in his honour.\nRelated Links"
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In which decade was Charles Schulz born?
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"Charles M. Schulz Biography. On the morning of Sunday, February 13, 2000, ... The poetry of Schulz’s life began two days after he was born in Minneapolis, ...",
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"Charles M. Schulz Biography - Charles M. Schulz Museum\nCharles M. Schulz Museum\nFor Store\nCharles M. Schulz Biography\nOn the morning of Sunday, February 13, 2000, newspaper readers opened their comic pages as they had for nearly fifty years to read the latest adventures of Charlie Brown, Snoopy, and the rest of the Peanuts Gang. This Sunday was different, though; mere hours before newspapers hit doorsteps with the final original Peanuts comic strip, its creator Charles M. Schulz, who once described his life as being “one of rejection,” passed away peacefully in his sleep the night before, succumbing to complications from colon cancer. It was a poetic ending to the life of a devoted cartoonist who, from his earliest memories, knew that all he wanted to do was “draw funny pictures.”\nThe poetry of Schulz’s life began two days after he was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on November 26, 1922, when an uncle nicknamed him “Sparky” after the horse Spark Plug from the Barney Google comic strip. Sparky’s father, Carl, was of German heritage and his mother, Dena, came from a large Norwegian family; the family made their home in St. Paul, where Carl worked as a barber. Throughout his youth, father and son shared a Sunday morning ritual reading the funnies; Sparky was fascinated with strips like Skippy, Mickey Mouse, and Popeye. In his deepest desires, he always knew he wanted to be a cartoonist, and seeing the 1937 publication of his drawing of Spike, the family dog, in the nationally-syndicated Ripley’s Believe it or Not newspaper feature was a proud moment in the young teen’s life. He took his artistic studies to a new level when, as a senior in high school and with the encouragement of his mother, he completed a correspondence cartoon course with the Federal School of Applied Cartooning (now Art Instruction Schools).\nAs Schulz continued to study and hone his artistic style from the late 1920s through the 1940s, the genre of comic art experienced a great shift. The full-page comics of the 1920s and 30s afforded artists the space to reflect the Art Deco details and sensibilities of the day, including the highly-stylized illustrations of Dick Tracy and Little Nemo in Slumberland. Newspaper editors in the late 1940s and 50s, however, promoted a post-War minimalist model, pushing their cartoonists to shrink strip size, minimize pen strokes, and sharpen their humor with daily gags and cerebral humor for an ever-increasingly educated audience. Schulz’s dry, intellectual, and self-effacing humor was a natural fit for the evolving cultural standards of the mid-20th century comics.\nTwo monumental events happened within days of each other in 1943 that profoundly affected the rest of Schulz’s life; his mother, to whom he was very close, passed away at age 50 from cervical cancer; and he boarded a troop train to begin his army career in Camp Campbell, Kentucky. Though Schulz remained proud of his achievements and leadership roles in the army for the rest of his life, this period of time haunted him with the dual experiences of the loss of his mother and realities of war.\nAfter returning from the war in the fall of 1945, Schulz settled with his father in an apartment over Carl’s barbershop in St. Paul, determined to realize his passion of becoming a professional cartoonist. He found employment at his alma mater, Art Instruction, sold intermittent one-panel cartoons to The Saturday Evening Post, and enjoyed a three-year run of his weekly panel comic, Li’l Folks, in the local St. Paul Pioneer Press. These early published cartoons focused on concise drawings of precocious children with large heads who interacted with words and actions well beyond their years. Schulz was honing his skills for the national market. The first Peanuts strip appeared on October 2, 1950, in seven newspapers nationwide. Although being a professional cartoonist was Schulz’s life-long dream, at 27-years old, he never could have foreseen the longevity and global impact of his seemingly-simple four-panel creation.\nThe continuing popular appeal of Peanuts stems, in large part, from Schulz’s ability to portray his observations and connect to his audience in ways that many other strips cannot. As each character’s personality has been fleshed out over the years, readers came to intimately understand Linus’ attachment to his Security Blanket, Charlie Brown’s heartache over the Little Red-Haired Girl, Schroeder’s devotion to Beethoven, Peppermint Patty’s prowess in sports and failure in the classroom, and Lucy’s knowledge of … well … everything. The rise in Snoopy’s popularity in the 1960s had a direct correlation to his evolution from a four-legged pet to a two-legged, highly-imaginative and equal character in the strip, which allowed Schulz to take his storylines in increasingly new directions.\nSchulz’s understated genius lay in his ability to keep his well-known and comfortable characters fresh enough to attract new readers while keeping his current audience coming back for more. His humor was at times observational, wry, sarcastic, nostalgic, bittersweet, silly, and melancholy, with occasional flights of fancy and suspension of reality thrown in from time to time. When Schulz announced his retirement in December 1999, the Peanuts comic strip was syndicated in over 2,600 newspapers worldwide, with book collections translated in over 25 languages. He has been awarded with the highest honors from his fellow cartoonists, received Emmy Awards for his animated specials, been recognized and lauded by the U.S. and foreign governments, had NASA spacecraft named after his characters, and inspired a concert performance at Carnegie Hall. And still today, the Peanuts Gang continues to entertain and inspire the young and the young at heart.\nWhat a legacy for us all.",
"Timeline Archive - Charles M. Schulz Museum\nCharles M. Schulz Museum\n1920s\nNovember 26, 1922\nCharles Monroe Schulz was born at home at 919 Chicago Avenue South, #2, Minneapolis, Minnesota, to Dena Bertina (nee Halverson) Schulz and Carl Fredrich Augustus Schulz.\nREAD MORE ABOUT THIS TOPIC >\n1922-1925\nCharles Schulz was given the nickname “Sparky” after the racehorse character Spark Plug featured in the popular newspaper comic strip, Barney Google by Billy DeBeck.\n \n \n \n “I have been told, an uncle came in and looked at me and said, ‘By golly, we’re going to call him Sparkplug.’ So, I’ve been called Sparky since the day after I was born – named after a comic strip character.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1984)\nAs a young boy, Charles Schulz experienced many of the ups and downs of growing up that he would later incorporate into the lives of the Peanuts characters. One of these memories was of trying to hold the football steady for another child, while resisting the urge to pull the ball away as a prank. Twenty-five years later, this would become a very familiar and beloved theme in Peanuts. MORE >\n“It all started, of course, with a childhood memory of being unable to resist the temptation to pull away the football at the kickoff. We all did it, we all fell for it. In fact, I was told by a professional football player that he actually saw it happen in a college game at the University of Minnesota. The Gophers were leading by a good margin, everyone was enjoying himself, and the man holding the football, like the kids in the neighborhood, could not resist the temptation to pull it away. I wish I had been there to see it.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1975)\n1926-1927\nBlack and white dogs figured prominently in Charles Schulz’s childhood. When Charles Schulz was a small boy, the family got a little Boston Bull Terrier named Snooky, but it was the memory of their next dog, Spike, that would spur the antics of Snoopy for years to come.\n“The first dog I ever had was a Boston bull named Snooky. She got run over by a taxicab when she was about ten years old and I was about twelve…about a year later we got a dog named Spike, and he was the inspiration for Snoopy.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1980)\nThe Schulz family moved from Minneapolis to a rented apartment at 1662 James Avenue in St. Paul, which was much closer to Carl’s business, The Family Barbershop. The barbershop, located at the corner of Selby Avenue and Snelling Avenue, was a place that Charles Schulz spent a great deal of time while growing up.\n“Our life revolved around the shop. My dad was a very hard worker; he always worked six days a week.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1995)\n1928\nAbout a year after moving to the James Avenue apartment, the Schulz family rented a house around the corner at 473 Macalester Street. Charles Schulz attended kindergarten at the Mattocks School on James Avenue, located equidistant between the James Avenue apartment and the Macalester Street home.\n \n \n“My earliest recollection of drawing and getting credit for it and being complimented on it is from kindergarten. I think it was my first day, and the teacher gave us huge sheets of white paper, large black crayons, and told us to draw anything we wanted. I drew a man shoveling snow, and she came around, paused, looked at my picture, and said, ‘Someday, Charles, you’re going to be an artist.’ Now she wasn’t quite right – she didn’t say ‘cartoonist’ – but there was an interesting aspect to this. I had drawn the snow shovel as a square, but I knew this was not right. I knew nothing about perspective, and didn’t know how to fix it, but I knew that something wasn’t right about this picture. I like to think there was some anticipation there of what was to come.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1985)\n1929\nIn 1929, the Schulz family packed up their 1928 Ford and traveled across the country to live in small town Needles, California. Carl, Dena and Charles Schulz rented a house at 503 Palm Way, not far from the Santa Fe Railroad tracks. Carl took a job working alongside his brother-in-law, Monroe “Monte” Halverson, at his barbershop across from Santa Fe Park. Charles attended the D Street School just a few blocks down the street from their home. MORE >\n1930s\n1930-1931\nWhen the Great Depression hit the country in the last months of 1929, it brought extreme poverty and difficulties for many families. To a young Charles Schulz though, life seemed to go on without any disruption to normal family activities.\n“I was raised during the Depression struggle, which didn’t affect me personally, because I don’t think little kids are into what’s going on. If you have pancakes for dinner, you think that’s wonderful because you like pancakes. You don’t realize that you’re probably having them because your parents can’t afford anything more.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1992)\n1931\nAfter a little over a year in Needles, the Schulz family drove back across the country to Minnesota to resume life in the Twin Cities. Charles Schulz was enrolled in Richards Gordon Elementary School on Dayton Avenue in St. Paul and he attended this school through grade 8. The Schulz family lived across the street from the school at the Mayfair Apartments and Carl Schulz re-established The Family Barbershop at its location a few blocks away on the corner of Selby and Snelling Avenues.\n \n1932-1934\n“When I was growing up, the three main forms of entertainment were the Saturday afternoon serials at the movie houses, the late afternoon radio programs and the comic strips. My dad was always a great comic strip reader, and he and I made sure that all four newspapers published in Minneapolis – St. Paul were brought home. I grew up with only one real career desire in life, and that was to someday draw my own comic strip.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1983)\n \nCharles Schulz’s life-long passion for ice hockey began with informal games played during his boyhood in the Twin Cities. Schulz and his friends would play on the backyard outside when it iced over in the winter, and also inside the house, with a little creative play by his grandmother Sophie Halverson. MORE >\n1934\nThe Schulz family was given a black and white mixed breed dog named Spike. Less than two years later Spike would become the subject of Schulz’s first published illustration and over a decade later would become the inspiration for Snoopy.\n“[Spike] was the brightest dog I ever met. He had a vocabulary of at least 50 words – words he understood, that is.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1983)\n1936\nDuring his freshman year, Charles Schulz attended Sanford Junior High School in St. Paul, about ten blocks from their home on Dayton Avenue. He continued to practice his drawing skills and hone his cartooning education by reading the Sunday papers each weekend with his father. MORE >\n \n“I am really a comic strip fanatic and always have been. When I was growing up in St. Paul, Minnesota, we subscribed to both local newspapers and always made sure that we went to the drugstore on Saturday night to buy the Minneapolis Sunday papers so that we would be able to read every comic published in the area. At that time, I was a great fan of Buck Rogers, Popeye, and Skippy.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1969)\n1937\nOn New Year’s Eve of 1936, Carl Schulz penned a letter to Robert Ripley’s Believe It or Not newspaper comics feature describing the family dog’s unique talents to eat all sorts of oddities without adverse results. He noted in a post-script, that, “All these things have been swallowed whole and digested.” Carl included in his letter a small picture of Spike drawn by his son, Charles. The illustration was published alongside a listing of Spike’s strange and unsavory snacks, signed “Sparky”. At age 14, this would mark the point of Charles Schulz’s first published drawing.\n \nThe Schulz family returned to the house at 473 Macalester Street in St. Paul, the same home where they had lived before moving briefly to California in 1929. Charles Schulz also entered high school this year, attending Central High School in St. Paul until he graduated in 1940. The distance between home and school would be the farthest he had to travel to date, but The Family Barbershop was located in the middle of the route so that he probably didn’t feel too far removed from the neighborhood that he knew best.\n \n1938\nDuring his junior year in high school, Charles Schulz’s teacher, Minnette Paro, assigned the class the task of “drawing anything you can think of, in sets of three on one sheet of paper.” The “Drawing of Threes” that Schulz created that day is particularly interesting because it is clear that Charles Schulz was keenly aware of domestic and world events at the time. MORE >\n1939\nLater in the school year, Schulz signed a classmate’s yearbook with the phrase, “the pen is mightier than the sword” and included an illustration of a pen and a figure in a fencing pose holding a sword.\n1940s\nFebruary-March, 1940\nIt was during his senior year at Central High School when Charles Schulz’s mother, Dena, showed him an advertisement which asked, “Do you like to draw?” The ad was for Federal Schools, now known as Art Instruction Schools, Inc., a correspondence school that was a division of the Bureau of Engraving in Minneapolis. Schulz’s parents enrolled him in the correspondence program that spring. Schulz later cited choosing the Federal Schools over other resident art schools in the Twin Cities area as due to the fact that, “it was this correspondence course’s emphasis upon cartooning that won me.”\nJune, 1940\nAfter spending his sophomore through senior years at St. Paul’s Central High School, Charles Schulz graduated on June 14, 1940.\n“I received a special diploma in the second grade for being the outstanding boy student, and in the third and fifth grades I was moved ahead so suddenly that I was the smallest kid in the class. Somehow, I survived the early years of grade school, but when I entered junior high school, I failed everything in sight. High school proved not much better… it was not until I became a senior that I earned any respectable grades at all.”\nCharles m. Schulz (1975)\n1941\nThe summer after graduation, Schulz caddied at the local Highland Park Golf Course, took odd jobs, and continued his coursework with the Federal Schools. He began submitting his cartoon art for publication to magazines and even applied to work for Walt Disney.\n“…The first year or so out of high school, I had very mundane jobs as delivery boys, and I used to send cartoons into magazines and didn’t even come close, I just got nothing but rejection slips. It wasn’t until after World War II, when I came back, that I really was able earnestly to go after what I wanted to do. Those were the formative years, I would say.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1992)\nSummer, 1942\nThe Schulz family moved from their home at 473 Macalester Street in St. Paul to an apartment above Carl’s barber shop at 170 North Snelling Avenue, Apt. 2, in St. Paul.\nFall, 1942\nAt the age of 20, Schulz was drafted into the United States Army to serve in World War II alongside many other men of his generation. The United States had entered the war on December 7, 1941, following the attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.\n“The army taught me all I needed to know about loneliness.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1975)\nFebruary-March, 1943\nWithin days of leaving for induction into the army at Fort Snelling in Minneapolis, Schulz’s mother, Dena, died at the age of 50. Dena had been ill for several years at this point, and likely succumbed to cervical cancer.\n1943-1944\n \nAfter returning home for his mother’s funeral, Schulz began basic training at Camp Campbell, located on the border of Kentucky and Tennessee.\n \nHe was assigned to Company B in the Eighth Armored Battalion of the Twentieth Armored Infantry Division. Schulz spent nearly two years at Camp Campbell training as a machine gunner. After the first 13 weeks, Private Schulz was promoted to private first class and then moved up to corporal in the fall of 1943. On February 11, 1944, Schulz earned his sergeant’s stripes and was designated the assistant leader of the First Platoon’s machine-gun squad. Schulz was promoted to staff sergeant and leader of a light machine gun squad in September 1944.\nWhile at Camp Campbell, Schulz became friends with many of his fellow soldiers from Minnesota as well as Elmer Hagemeyer, a police officer from St. Louis, Missouri. Hagemeyer served as staff sergeant and leader of a mortar squad in the Twentieth Armored Infantry Division.\n \n \nSchulz spent some of his free time sketching life at Camp Campbell in sketchbooks and envelopes sent from Elmer Hagemeyer to his wife Margaret in St. Louis. Schulz would often accompany Hagemeyer home on weekend visits and the two men remained friends after the war.\nFebruary-May, 1945\nFollowing the training at Camp Campbell, the Twentieth Armored Infantry Division was transported to Camp Myles Standish in Massachusetts for about two weeks before shipping out to the European Theater of Operations. On February 5, the unit embarked from Boston aboard the U.S. Army Transport Brazil on a nearly two week voyage across the Atlantic before landing in Le Havre, France. MORE >\n \nWhile stationed at Camp Campbell and then in Europe during the war, Charles Schulz often wrote letters home to his family and friends. Mail sent from GIs passed through government censors before being sent to the addressee. To save space and transportation costs, some of the mail sent home from the European Theater of Operations was photographed and reduced in size for delivery to the United States. This mail, called V-Mail, or “Victory Mail,” no matter how infrequent or mundane, would certainly have been a welcome sight to the receiver.\n \n1950s\nSpring, 1950\nWhile still working as an educator at Art Instruction Schools, Charles Schulz worked diligently to get a comic strip syndication contract. After receiving rejections from several other syndicates, Schulz finally sold Li’l Folks to United Feature Syndicate in 1950.\n“I used to bundle my efforts together and take the train down to Chicago and visit two or three syndicates there and get rejected and get on the train and come home. In the spring of 1950, I took all the best cartoons I’d done for the Pioneer Press and redrew them and submitted them to United Feature Syndicate. They liked them enough to ask me if I’d care to come to New York and talk about it, and I did. I took along six daily comic strips which had a new approach to humor in strips. If you were to see them now they wouldn’t look like much, but at the time it was new.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1971)\nSummer, 1950\nDue to a conflict with an earlier comic strip that had a similar name, (Tack Knight’s Little Folks), before the strip was published the syndicate opted to rename the strip Peanuts, a title Schulz made clear even decades later that he never liked.\n“Although I have always resented the title ‘Peanuts’ which I was forced to use – and I’m still convinced it’s the worst title for any comic strip – it probably doesn’t matter what it is called so long as each effort brings some kind of joy to someone, someplace. My work is extremely satisfying and to be able to draw Snoopy, Charlie Brown, Lucy and all the other little characters and to know that people love them and care about what happens to them makes my work extremely satisfying.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1979)\nOctober 2, 1950\nOn October 2, 1950, the first Peanuts comic strip debuted in a four-panel format in seven newspapers nationwide – The Washington Post, The Chicago Tribune, The Minneapolis Star-Tribune, The Allentown Call-Chronicle, The Bethlehem Globe-Times, The Denver Post, and The Seattle Times. Schulz was paid $90 for his first month of strips, which consisted of a six day per week, Monday through Saturday, format until 1952.\n“To me it was not a matter of how I became a cartoonist but a matter of when. I am quite sure if I had not sold Peanuts at the time I did, then I would have sold something eventually, even if I had not, I would continue to draw because I had to.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1983)\n1951\nTo market the Peanuts comic strip, United Feature Syndicate created subscriber promotions which could be run in the newspapers to generate interest with a newspaper’s readers. If readers liked Peanuts, they were encouraged to write to their local newspaper to request that it be published there.\nApril 18, 1951\nAfter meeting through mutual friends at Art Instruction Schools and dating for several months, Charles Schulz married Joyce Steele Halverson of Minneapolis. They honeymooned in Colorado Springs, Colorado and lived with Carl Schulz and his fiancé, Annabelle, on Edgerton Street in St. Paul. Before long, Charles Schulz adopted Joyce’s one year old daughter Meredith, her child from a previous marriage, born February 5, 1950. Carl married Annabelle Anderson shortly after Charles and Joyce’s wedding.\nMay, 1951\nSubsequent to their honeymoon in Colorado in the spring, the young Schulz family bought a modest suburban home in Colorado Springs at 2321 North El Paso Street. While living in Colorado, Charles Schulz worked out of his home briefly before realizing that the distractions of a one year old were not conducive to working on weekly deadlines. Additionally, the early success of Peanuts made finding a space to work outside the house an affordable option. He soon found an office to rent at the Golden Arrow Building in downtown Colorado Springs.\n“I tried working at home when we moved to Colorado Springs, right after I signed the contract, and I discovered that working at home for me was absolutely impossible. My mother-in-law visited us for awhile and she suggested it might be better if I would just rent a small room someplace downtown in Colorado Springs, which is what I did; and since then I have always worked away from home. Even when we moved out here to California – we had a large place, 28 acres – I still never worked in the house. I don’t know about others, but I just have decided that a man has to get up in the morning and go someplace. I think you have to go to a definite place where you do your work”\nCharles M. Schulz (1987)\nWhile walking through downtown Colorado Springs one day, Charles Schulz ran into Philip “Fritz” Van Pelt, a fellow soldier in the Twentieth Armored Infantry Division who was stationed at Camp Campbell at the same time as Schulz. While the two had never met at Camp Campbell, the men and their wives quickly became weekly bridge playing friends in Colorado Springs. Schulz eventually used the surname “Van Pelt” for his sibling characters Lucy and Linus in Peanuts. The name Lucy possibly arose from Fritz’s wife, Louanne, also referred to as “Lou”, although Schulz was adamant in explaining that while he often took names for his characters from people he knew, the personalities were in fact an extension of Schulz’s own persona and not a reflection on the character’s namesake. MORE >\n \nJanuary 6, 1952\nPrior to 1952, Peanuts comic strips were featured in newspapers in the daily black and white strip format, published Monday through Saturday only. On January 6, 1952, the first Sunday of the year, full color Peanuts Sunday comic strips were introduced. After that, Peanuts ran in most newspapers seven days a week with black and white dailies and full color Sundays. Nowadays, many newspapers print Peanuts in full color seven days per week, and that is also how it can be viewed online at Go Comics .\n“I don’t know where the Peanuts kids live. I think that, originally, I thought of them as living in these little veteran’s developments, where Joyce and I first lived when we got married out in Colorado Springs. Now I don’t think about it at all. My strip has become so abstract and such a fantasy that I think it would be a mistake to point out a place for them to live.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1992)\nFebruary 1, 1952\nCharles Monroe “Monte” Schulz was born in Colorado Springs, bringing the young and quickly growing Schulz family to a total of four members. The following month, a little less than a year after moving to Colorado, the Schulz family packed their belongings and moved back to Minneapolis, Minnesota.\nMarch, 1952\nOne of the first signs that Peanuts was really taking off in popularity was the interest by publishers in licensing the strips to reprint in comic books, published by Dell, Gold Key, Sparkler, and others. After a couple years of reprinting these strips, Schulz was asked to create new original strips, longer stories, and original cover art. With the deadline of the daily and Sunday strips now looming each week, plus obligations to attend book signings, present chalk talks, and provide interviews to newspapers, magazines, and even some television shows, Schulz didn’t have much time to do more original comic strips. As a solution to this, he employed his former Art Instruction Schools’ colleagues Dale Hale, Jim Sasseville, and Tony Pocrnich. The comic books continued to be produced through 1964.\nSummer/Fall, 1952\nAfter they moved back to Minnesota from Colorado, the Schulz family lived in a simple ranch home at 5521 Oliver St. South in Minneapolis for about six months. With another child on the way, the Schulzes moved again to a larger home a few miles away, located at 6228 Wentworth Ave. South in the Richfield area of Minneapolis.\nPerhaps with the aim to appeal to a wider audience than the comic books, which were generally marketed and purchased by children, Rinehart & Co., Inc. was the first to publish a collection of Peanuts comic strip reprints in a bound paperback book format. These books contained selected Peanuts strips, with the first book simply titled, Peanuts. During the early days of successful strip reprint publications, Schulz made himself available to promote his cartoon by attending book signings and offering ‘chalk-talks’ during which he would draw oversized Peanuts characters and offer the drawings to the attendees.\nJanuary 22, 1953\nAs Peanuts grew in popularity, the Schulz family also grew. A second son, Craig Frederick Schulz, was born in Minneapolis and brought the total children in the family now to one girl and two boys. Just as Charles Schulz needed an office away from home in Colorado Springs, he also needed one back in the Twin Cities. His former employers at the Art Instruction Schools offered him use of their penthouse office at the bureau of Engravers Building and Schulz happily accepted the offer. It not only allowed him the space to be able to focus on his art and meet his deadlines, he could easily also meet up with his former colleagues at Art Instruction for lunch, conversation, or a round of billiards.\n1954\nBy 1954, several new characters had been introduced into the Peanuts comic strip – Violet Gray and Schroeder in 1951, Lucy and Linus Van Pelt in 1952, and Pig Pen and Charlotte Braun in 1954. It would be five more years before the next new characters would be introduced into the strip.\n \n“I think anybody who is writing finds he puts a little bit of himself in all of the characters, at least in this kind of a strip. It’s the only way that you can survive when you have to do something every day. You have to put yourself, all of your thoughts, all of your observations and everything you know into the strip.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1984)\n1955\nKodak became the first product sponsor for Peanuts, publishing “The Brownie Book of Picture-Taking” to go along with their popular Brownie cameras. The little booklet utilized the Peanuts characters to demonstrate proper photography techniques in playful ways.\nMarking a true career achievement in cartooning, Charles Schulz won the coveted Reuben award for “Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year” from the National Cartoonists Society. He was presented the statue by the award’s namesake, Reuben Garrett Lucius “Rube” Goldberg, making an already pivotal moment in his success that much more meaningful to Schulz. Rube Goldberg is perhaps best known today for another namesake legacy, the “Rube Goldberg Machine”, contraptions that perform otherwise simple tasks in very complicated ways. Goldberg often depicted these complex and humorous mechanisms in his own cartooning. MORE >\nApril 13, 1955\nWith the success of five years of Peanuts strips behind him and a new five-year contract between Charles Schulz and United Feature Syndicate solidified, the Schulz family purchased an impressive home at 112 West Minnehaha Parkway in the desirable Tangletown neighborhood of Minneapolis.\nAugust 5, 1956\nAnother daughter, Amy Louise Schulz, was welcomed into the Schulz family, balancing out two boys with two girls. To acknowledge this special day, Charles Schulz penned a “Happy Birthday, Amy” message into the Peanuts comic strip on August 5 on several occasions over the years.\n“Peanuts are the grandest people in the world. All children are peanuts. They’re delightful, funny, irresistible, and wonderfully unpredictable. I really hate to see them grow out of the peanut stage.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1977)\n1957-1959\nFor a couple of years in the late 1950s, Charles Schulz was the only comic strip artist to have two different comic strips published in newspapers at the same time. It’s Only a Game was created as a sports-themed strip featuring single panel comics looking at the lighter side of golf, bowling, fishing, bridge, and other sports and games.\nAlthough Schulz proudly worked on the Peanuts comic strip alone, from the ideas themselves to the lettering and drawings, Schulz hired Art Instruction Schools’ colleague Jim Sasseville to assist him on drawing this strip. A total of 63 It’s Only a Game panels were syndicated in about 30 newspapers before it was cancelled.\n1958\nMarking a milestone in Peanuts licensing, the first three-dimensional products came in the form of the Hungerford Plastics Corporation’s well-liked set of Peanuts character dolls. Included in the series of dolls were Charlie Brown, Snoopy, Lucy, Linus, Sally, Pig-Pen, and Schroeder accompanied by his little piano.\n \n \n“Around 1960, I got a call from someone who wanted to make little Peanuts rubberized dolls that stood about six to eight inches high. The sculptor came out here to California from the East with his little bag of clay models and we sat here and he modeled them out. They came out very nicely.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1996)\nJune, 1958\nBy the spring of 1958, the Schulz family unit was complete with the birth of Jill Marie on April 20. Jill joined her siblings, listed eldest to youngest: Meredith, Monte, Craig, and Amy. Charles and Joyce Schulz had already started planning a move to California, traveling out west to view homes in early 1958. They viewed several properties around the San Francisco Bay Area in Northern California, but weren’t sure exactly what town they’d end up in. Just as they were about to leave the “Golden State” to return home to the “Land of 10,000 Lakes” the Schulzes were taken to Sonoma County to view a 28-acre property in Sebastopol that would soon become their home for nearly 15 years, Coffee Grounds. MORE >\n1959\nAn idea from a young granddaughter of advertising executive, Norman Strauss, prompted Ford Motor Company to approach Charles Schulz for permission to license the Peanuts characters. A multi-year advertising campaign promoting their new and efficient Falcon model was created, featuring the Peanuts Gang in print ads and also presenting the characters for the first time in animation on television. Working together for the first time in what would become a longstanding professional relationship, Schulz drew all of the original art for the print ads and Bill Melendez created the animation for the television commercials.\n“J. Walter Thompson got the idea that they wanted to use the Peanuts characters to advertise Ford products and, immediately, they went to the Falcon. The Falcon was the car that was just starting then. So we did animated commercials, newspaper ads, billboards, everything, and I drew them all too. And I used to help them write the newspaper ads and the animated commercials and that’s how I met Bill Melendez.”\nCharles M. Schulz (1992)\n1960s\n1960\nA decade into the publication of Peanuts in newspapers, Hallmark Peanuts-themed greeting cards and party decorations began to be included in many family celebrations. More than 50 years later, Hallmark has now produced a wealth of Peanuts greeting cards, party goods, books, postcards, and ornaments. Charles M. Schulz produced much of the artwork for the early products and often visited the Hallmark offices in Kansas City.\nMarch 6, 1961\nOn March 6, 1961, Schulz introduced Frieda to the Peanuts comic strip. A little girl with “naturally curly hair,” Frieda was often shown holding her cat Faron, whom Schulz named after the country-western musician, Faron Young. Although Faron’s appearance was brief, Frieda became a regular character in the strip.\n \n1962\nAs the popularity of Peanuts grew, United Features Syndicate was approached by numerous companies hoping to capitalize on its success. Requests poured in from all over the country from educators, book publishers, and insurance companies, among others. An enterprising young entrepreneur came knocking at Schulz’s door in 1962 with an idea to use Peanuts on datebook calendars… MORE >\nI know from my own experience that I want my children to be free to do something that’s crazy – as crazy as dedicating their lives to a comic strip.\nCharles M. Schulz, “Redbook Announces a Dialogue Between … Jack Lemmon and Charles Schulz,” Redbook December 1967\n \nJune 1963\nSchulz received an honorary degree in 1963 from Anderson College, a theological seminary and institute of higher learning in Indiana.\n1964\nHaving already been named Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year in 1955, the National Cartoonist Society once again bestowed Schulz with this high honor, making him the first recipient to receive the Reuben twice.\nApril 1965\nThe Peanuts characters appeared on the front page of Time on April 9, 1965.\n \n“Religion, psychiatry, education- indeed all the complexities of the modern world- seem more amusing than menacing when they are seen through the clear, uncompromising eyes of the comic-strip kids from Peanuts. The wry and wistful characters created by Cartoonist Charles M. Schulz have all but come to life for readers in the U.S. and abroad as they demonstrate daily and Sunday an engaging wisdom beyond their years, a simplistic yet somehow impressive understanding of the assorted problems that perplex their elders.”\n“Good Grief,” Time, April 9, 1965, page 80\nOctober 1965\nOne of Snoopy’s most iconic and popular personas–the World War I Flying Ace–makes his debut. Wearing his flying cap, goggles, and a scarf, the Flying Ace rides in his Sopwith Camel (a.k.a. Snoopy’s doghouse) and takes to the skies to dogfight against the infamous Red Baron.\n \nDecember 9, 1965\nA Charlie Brown Christmas, the first Peanuts animated television special, premiered on the CBS network on December 9, 1965. The production team included producer Lee Mendelson, animator/director Bill Melendez, and writer Charles Schulz. Jazz musician Vince Guaraldi composed and performed the score. The program won an Emmy award for Outstanding Individual Achievement, and a Peabody award for Outstanding Children’s and Youth’s Program. MORE>\n1966\nA Charlie Brown Christmas is awarded the George Foster Peabody Award on April 21, 1966.\nThe certificate read, “Gentleness is a quality that is seldom understood by television’s writers or directors. A notable exception was telecast during the holiday season of 1965. It was a little gem of a show that faithfully and sensitively introduced to television the Peanuts collection of newsprint characters created by Charles Schulz. A Charlie Brown Christmas was a delight for the whole family.”\n \n \nOn May 22, 1966, Charles M. Schulz wins the Emmy Award for Outstanding Children’s Program for A Charlie Brown Christmas. This would be Schulz’s first Emmy nomination and win.\nMay 29, 1966\nWinning the Emmy was a bittersweet moment for Schulz, as one week later his father Carl passed away while visiting with his son in California.\nThat same year, Schulz’s art studio was destroyed by fire.\nAs art sometimes follows life, the trauma of the destruction later appeared in the Peanuts comic strip, as Schulz created a storyline about Snoopy’s doghouse burning down.\n \nAugust 22, 1966\nPatricia Reichardt, better known Peppermint Patty was introduced in the Peanuts comic strip. Her distinct personality, athleticism, and trademark sandals, made for a strong new character in the strip..\n© Peanuts Worldwide LLC\n“Patty has been a good addition for me, and I think could almost carry another strip by herself. A dish of candy sitting in our living room inspired her name. So in this case I created the character to fit the name, and Peppermint Patty came into being.”\nCharles M. Schulz, “Charlie Brown, Snoopy and Me,” Family Circle, October 1978, 158.\nMarch 7, 1967\nThe cast of Peanuts made their stage appearance in You’re A Good Man Charlie Brown, which debuted off-Broadway at Theatre 80 St. Marks. The show ran for four years in New York, and productions featuring different casts followed in other cities. Later in 1967, the musical debuted at San Francisco’s Little Fox Theatre, where it ran for five years. Schulz was said to be a frequent attendee of these performances. He even got to know the cast well, inviting them to his home in Sebastopol and on ski trips to Lake Tahoe.\n \n“[You’re a Good Man, Charlie Brown has] become the most performed musical in the history of American theatre…every school and church and high school and grade school and kindergarten you can think of has put this thing on and it had taken a terrible beating but it survives. And, of course, the music is good and it’s not cute. That was the main thing. It was incredible that they could have made so many mistakes putting it together, but everything just fell right into place just right and that’s very gratifying. I used to go down to the theatre in San Francisco and it was a great pleasure to stand out in the lobby when the show was over and seeing the families coming out and everybody smiling because they had had a good time.”\n“Charles Schulz Interview,” Nemo, January 1992, 21.\nMarch 17, 1967\nCharlie Brown and Snoopy were featured on the cover of Life magazine. The magazine article describes the Peanuts craze. The comic strip became widely popular among college students, air force pilots, and rock musicians, among other unique audiences.\nMay 24, 1967\nA resolution from the California Legislative Assembly declaring May 24, 1967 as “Charles Schulz Day” in honor of his success with the comic strip, Peanuts.\n \n1968\nIn 1968, Charles M. Schulz received what he considered a great honor in 1968 when he was approached by NASA to use Snoopy in the Manned Flight Awareness Program. Snoopy’s likeness was used in many workplace motivation posters, on patches and decals, and on the Silver Snoopy pin. The following year, NASA astronauts named the Apollo 10 command module “Charlie Brown,” and the lunar module, “Snoopy”.\n \n“A man named…Al Chop came to me and they had just had that tragic fire where the astronauts were killed and so they wanted to start a new safety program and he had an idea to build the program around a cartoon character and he asked me if Snoopy could be the character and I said, ‘Sure, I’m very flattered.’ So they made posters and all sorts of things. They made beautiful little metal things which were really nice pieces of jewelry and if a person on the assembly line has a good safety record, one of the astronauts would present him or her with the pin and of course, those pins were taken to the moon and the moon landing. So Snoopy, literally, is the first character to go to the moon.”\n“Charles Schulz Interview,” Nemo, January 1992, 22.\n \nJuly 31, 1968\nIn 1968, the world lost two of its most influential men: Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee on April 4, and Robert F. Kennedy, assassinated in Los Angeles, California, on June 6. Civil rights and race relations were major topics throughout the nation. During this period Schulz exchanged correspondence with Harriet Glickman, a teacher and advocate, regarding the addition of a black character in the Peanuts comic strip. Realizing the weight and responsibility such a character would have, Schulz introduced Franklin on July 31, 1968.\n \nNovember 28, 1968\nThe first Peanuts character balloon debuted in the annual Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City in 1968. The parade has included a Snoopy or Charlie Brown balloon each year since then. In 1969, the parade featured an astronaut Snoopy, pictured here, to celebrate the Apollo mission.\nApril 28, 1969\nDesigned by Charles Schulz and his wife Joyce, Redwood Empire Ice Arena opened in Santa Rosa. The arena is located directly across the street from the Charles M. Schulz Museum and Research Center. MORE >\n \nDecember 11, 1969\nA Boy Named Charlie Brown opened at the Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The animated feature would be the first to be shown there in over twenty years.\n“A Boy Named Charlie Brown, the first feature length Peanuts movie debuted at Radio City Music Hall… One December evening in 1969, in New Your City, Charlie Brown simultaneously played before [a] a sellout crowd for the stage show, [b] a sellout audience for the Feature at the Radio City Music Hall, and [c] a repeat network television special, (A Charlie Brown Christmas) that was also seen by fifty-five million other Americans across the country. No performer in the history of show business can make that statement.”\nLee Mendelson, Charlie Brown and Charles Schulz. (New York: Signet, 1970), 254.\n1970s\n1970\nThe February 16th Peanuts strip featured Snoopy’s promotion to Head Beagle. The Mayor of Los Angeles, Sam Yorty, presented Charles M. Schulz with a congratulatory certificate saluting Snoopy’s new position.\n \nA Charlie Brown Thanksgiving wins Emmy for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Children’s Programming in 1974.\nJanuary 1, 1974\nSelecting the theme “Happiness Is…” Charles M. Schulz presides as the Grand Marshal of the 85th Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California.\n1974\nCharles M. Schulz visited the Rogue River in Oregon to conduct research for the upcoming Peanuts animated special, Race For Your Life, Charlie Brown.\nJuly-August 1974\nCharles M. Schulz made his first and only appearance at Comic-Con in San Diego that year. He gave a chalk talk and was presented with the Inkpot award for achievement in the comic art medium. Comic-Con began in 1970 and has grown to become the largest comics gathering in the country.\nSummer 1975\nThe first annual Snoopy’s Senior Hockey Tournament took place at the Redwood Empire Ice Arena. Players from all over the world, including Charles M. Schulz, laced up their skates and took to the ice. Teams within various divisions played for gold, silver, and bronze medals. MORE>\n1975\nPeanuts celebrated its 25th anniversary. Happy Anniversary, Charlie Brown airs on CBS on January 9, 1976. Schulz received congratulatory correspondence from numerous fans, including a special birthday note to Charlie Brown from then President Gerald Ford.\n1976\n \nCharles M. Schulz injured his foot while playing tennis on New Year Eve. The injury required a cast and the use of crutches. He incorporated this injury into the Peanuts strips which featured Snoopy wearing a cast and learning to use crutches.\n1977\nJean Schulz used several terms of endearment for her husband. One of these, “sweet babboo”, became Sally’s preferred moniker for Linus in the Peanuts comic strip.\nAt some point in 1977, Schulz noticed he had trouble keeping his hand steady. The doctors diagnosed him with a benign essential tremor.\n \n1978\nCharles M. Schulz visits France to do research for Bon Voyage Charlie Brown and to visit the Chateau of the Bad Neighbor, where his platoon was stationed during World War II. The trip would be filmed for a PBS documentary entitled, Charles M. Schulz…To Remember. More…\n1979\nSince 1973 Charles and Jean Schulz hosted the Northern California Cartoonists and Humorists Association annual event at their home. Events included Snoopy’s World Famous Cartoonist’s Tennis Tournament and a contest that allowed cartoonist to draw the last panel of a future Peanuts strip. The winning artist would be presented with an award by Schulz. Noted artists in attendance included Cathy Guisewite and Jim Davis.\n1980s\n1980\nThe National Cartoonist Society awarded Charles M. Schulz the Elzie Segar Award for his outstanding contributions to the art of cartooning. The award is named after the creator of one of Schulz’s favorite comic strips, Popeye .\n1981\nIn February, 1981, Charles M. Schulz was the recipient of the Lester Patrick Trophy, presented by the National Hockey League for contributions to hockey in the United States.\nAfter experiencing tightness in his chest, doctors discovered a blockage in Schulz’s arteries. Schulz had heart bypass surgery to clear it. After the surgery Schulz received an outpouring of well wishes and art from fellow cartoonists and fans.\n \n1982\nAfter his surgery Schulz focused on improving his health. He took up jogging and became involved with the Young at Heart race. The race was co-sponsored by the Redwood Empire Ice Arena and Santa Rosa Memorial Hospital. Schulz would lend his Peanuts artwork for the race’s shirt design.\n1983\nOn May 30, 1983, CBS aired What Have we Learned, Charlie Brown. The special highlights many monuments to both World War I and II and emphasizes the sacrifices made by the troops that fought in them.\n \nThe show would eventually travel around the world to great success.\n1989\nSchulz’s alma mater, Central High in St. Paul, Minnesota, honors him by including him in the school’s “Hall of Fame.”\n1990s\nJanuary 1990\nSchulz travels to Paris, France to receive the “Commandeur de l’Ordre Des Artes et Lettres” on December 21, 1989. The distinguished award was presented by the French Minister of Culture, Jack Lang.\nSnoopy in Fashion debuts at the Louvre. The exhibit features 300 Snoopy and Belle plush dolls in fashions by more than 150 world famous designers.\nSchulz returns to Paris for the opening of Snoopy’s 40th Anniversary exhibition.\n \nWhy, Charlie Brown, Why premieres on March 16, 1990. The Emmy nominated special deals with a new character named Janice who is diagnosed with cancer. Schulz would go on to receive an award from the American Cancer Society for bringing hope and understanding to children with cancer.\nNovember 1990\nThis is Your Childhood, Charlie Brown…Children in American Culture, 1945-1970 opened at The National Museum of History in Washington, D.C.\n1992\nSnoopy, the Masterpiece opens at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts.\nIn October, Schulz travels to Italy to receive the Commendatore Della Repubblica Italiana (Order of Merit of the Italian Republic).\n1993\nThe United States Hockey Hall of Fame inducts Charles Schulz into their hall of fame for his contribution to hockey during the course of his career.\n1994\nPeanuts celebrates its 45th anniversary with the book Around the World in 45 Years: Charlie Brown’s Anniversary Celebration by Schulz.\n1995\nAround the Moon and Home Again: A Tribute to the Art of Charles M. Schulz opens at the Houston Space Center.\nJune 28, 1996\nSchulz receives his star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The much deserved award is given by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and honors Schulz for his years of entertainment in various mediums.\nMarch 22, 1997\nPeanuts Gallery, by composer Ellen Taaffe Zwilich, premieres at Carnegie Hall.\nSchulz mentioned Zwilich in a 1990 Peanuts comic strip. This mention started a friendship between the composer and Schulz. Their friendship would lead to them collaborating on critically acclaimed “Peanuts Gallery.” The concerto included “Lullaby for Linus,” “Snoopy Does the Samba,” and “Charlie Brown’s Lament.”\nOctober 16, 1997\nJean and Charles Schulz announce that they will give $1 million toward the construction of a D-Day memorial to be placed in Virginia.\nDecember 14, 1999\nSchulz releases an open letter announcing his retirement.\n“I have always wanted to be a cartoonist and I feel very blessed to have been able to do what I love for almost 50 years. That all of you have embraced Snoopy, Charlie Brown, Lucy and Linus and all the other ‘Peanuts’ characters has been a constant motivation for me.”\nCharles M. Schulz, Charles Schulz, Creator of `Peanuts’ Retires, by Rick Lyman, The New York Times, December 15, 1999\nAt the time of his retirement, the Peanuts comic strip was syndicated in over 2,600 newspapers worldwide, with book collections translated in over 25 languages.\n2000s\nCharles Schulz dies peacefully in his sleep at home, succumbing to complications from colon cancer.\nThe final Peanuts Sunday strip appeared in newspapers the very next day, Sunday, February 13.\nAugust 15, 2002\nThe Charles M. Schulz Museum and Research Center opens its doors to the public. Since its opening, the Museum has welcomed 867,092 visitors from around the world, exhibited 3,500 original comic strips, and hosted 173 Cartoonists-in-Residence.\n2010s"
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In what year was Oliver Stone born?
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"William Oliver Stone (born September 15, 1946) is an American film director, screenwriter, and producer.\n\nStone won an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay as writer of Midnight Express (1978). He also wrote the acclaimed gangster movie Scarface (1983). As a director, Stone achieved prominence as director/writer of the war drama Platoon (1986), for which Stone won the Academy Award for Best Director; the film was awarded Best Picture. Platoon was the first in a trilogy of films based on the Vietnam War, in which Stone served as an infantry soldier. He continued the series with Born on the Fourth of July (1989) - for which Stone won his second Best Director Oscar - and Heaven & Earth (1993). Stone's other notable works include the Salvadoran Civil War-based drama Salvador (1986); the financial drama Wall Street (1987) and its 2010 sequel Money Never Sleeps; the Jim Morrison biopic The Doors (1991); and a trilogy of films based on the American Presidency - JFK (1991), Nixon (1995) and W. (2008). Many of Stone's films primarily focus on controversial American political issues during the late 20th century, and as such that they were considered contentious at the times of their releases. They often combine different camera and film formats within a single scene as evidenced in JFK, Natural Born Killers, and Nixon. \n\nEarly life\n\nStone was born in New York City, the son of Jacqueline (née Goddet) and Louis Stone (born Louis Silverstein), a stockbroker. He grew up in Manhattan and Stamford, Connecticut. His parents met during World War II when his father was fighting as a part of the allied troops in France. His father was a non-practicing Jew, and his French-born mother was a non-practicing Roman Catholic. Stone was raised in the Episcopal Church, and now practices Buddhism. \n\nStone attended Trinity School in New York City before his parents sent him away to The Hill School, a college-preparatory school in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. His parents were divorced abruptly while he was away at school (1962) and this, because he was an only child, marked him deeply. Stone's mother was often absent and his father made a big impact on his life; father-son relationships were to feature heavily in Stone's films. \n\nHe often spent parts of his summer vacations with his maternal grandparents in France, both in Paris and La Ferté-sous-Jouarre in Seine-et-Marne. Stone also worked at 17 in the Paris mercantile exchange in sugar and cocoa — a job that proved inspirational to Stone for his film Wall Street. He speaks French fluently. Stone graduated from The Hill School in 1964.\n\nStone was admitted into Yale University, but left in June 1965 at age 18 to teach high school students English for six months in Saigon at the Free Pacific Institute in South Vietnam. Afterwards, he worked as a wiper on a United States Merchant Marine ship in 1966, traveling to Oregon. He returned to Yale, where he dropped out a second time (in part due to working on an autobiographical novel A Child's Night Dream, published 1997 by St. Martin's Press).\n\nU.S. Army\n\nIn April 1967, Stone enlisted in the United States Army and requested combat duty in Vietnam. From September 16, 1967 to April 1968, he served with 2nd Platoon, B Company, 3rd Battalion, 25th Infantry Division in Vietnam where he was wounded two times, and with the First Cavalry Division participating in long range patrols before being transferred again to a motorized infantry unit of the division in Vietnam driving army vehicles until November 1968. For his service, his military awards include the Bronze Star with \"V\" Device for heroism, the Purple Heart with Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster to denote two awards, the Air Medal, the Army Commendation Medal, the National Defense Service Medal, the Vietnam Service Medal, the Vietnam Campaign Medal and the Combat Infantryman Badge.\n\nWriting and directing career\n\n1970s\n\nStone graduated from New York University with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in film in 1971, where his teachers included director Martin Scorsese (the same year, he had a small acting role in comedy The Battle of Love's Return). Stone made a short, well received 12-minute film Last Year in Viet Nam. He worked as a taxi driver, film production assistant, messenger, and salesman before making his mark in film as a scriptwriter in the late '70s, in the period between his first two films as a director: horror films Seizure and The Hand.\n\nIn 1979, Stone won his first Academy Award, after adapting true-life prison story Midnight Express into a hit film for British director Alan Parker (the two would later collaborate on a 1996 movie of stage musical Evita). Stone's screenplay for Midnight Express was criticized by some for its inaccuracies in portraying the events described in the book and vilifying the Turkish people. The original author, Billy Hayes, around whom the film is set, spoke out against the film, protesting that he had many Turkish friends while in jail. Stone later apologized to Turkey for over-dramatizing the script, while not repudiating the film's stark brutality or the reality of Turkish prisons. \n\n1980s\n\nStone wrote further features, including Brian De Palma's drug lord tale Scarface and Year of the Dragon with Mickey Rourke, before his career took off as a writer-director in 1986. Like his contemporary Michael Mann, Stone is unique in having written or co-written most of the films he has directed. In 1986, Stone directed two films back to back: the critically acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful Salvador, shot largely in Mexico, and his long in development Vietnam project Platoon, shot in the Philippines. Stone loosely based Scarface on his own addiction to cocaine, which he successfully kicked while writing the screenplay. \n\nPlatoon brought Stone's name to a much wider audience. It also finally kickstarted a busy directing career, which saw him making nine films over the next decade. Alongside some negative reaction, Platoon won many rave reviews (Roger Ebert later called it the ninth best film of the 1980s), large audiences, and Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Director. In 2007, a film industry vote ranked it at number 83 in an American Film Institute \"AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies\" poll of the previous century's best American movies. British TV channel Channel 4 voted Platoon as the sixth greatest war film ever made. \n\nPlatoon was the first of three films Stone has made about the Vietnam War: the others were Born on the Fourth of July and Heaven & Earth, each dealing with different aspects of the war. Platoon is a semi-autobiographical film about Stone's experience in combat; Born on the Fourth of July is based on the autobiography of US Marine turned peace campaigner Ron Kovic; Heaven & Earth is based on the memoir When Heaven and Earth Changed Places, in which Le Ly Hayslip recalls her life as a Vietnamese village girl drastically affected by the war and who finds another life in the USA.\n\nStone also directed the acclaimed Wall Street, which won Michael Douglas an Academy Award for Best Actor as a ruthless Wall Street corporate raider, and Talk Radio, based on Eric Bogosian's Pulitzer-nominated play.\n\n1990s\n\nThe Doors, released in 1991, received criticism from former Doors member Ray Manzarek (keyboardist–bass player) during a question and answer session at Indiana University East (in Richmond, Indiana), in 1997. During the discussion, Manzarek stated that he sat down with Stone about The Doors and Jim Morrison for over 12 hours. Patricia Kennealy Morrison—a well known rock critic and author—was a consultant on the movie, in which she also has a cameo appearance, but she writes in her memoir Strange Days: My Life With and Without Jim Morrison (Dutton, 1992) that Stone ignored everything she told him and proceeded with his own version of events. From the moment the movie was released, she blasted it as untruthful and inaccurate. The other surviving former members of the band, John Densmore and Robby Krieger, also cooperated with the filming of Doors, but Krieger distanced himself from the work before the film's release. However, Densmore thought highly of the film, and in fact celebrated its DVD release on a panel with Oliver Stone.\n\nDuring this same period, Stone directed one of his most ambitious, controversial and successful films to date JFK, that depicts the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963. In 1991, Stone showed JFK to Congress on Capitol Hill, which helped lead to passage of the Assassination Materials Disclosure Act of 1992. The Assassination Records Review Board (created by Congress to end the secrecy surrounding Kennedy's assassination) discussed the film, including Stone's observation at the end of the film, about the dangers inherent in government secrecy. Stone published an annotated version of the screenplay, in which he cites references for his claims, shortly after the film's release.I make my films like you're going to die if you miss the next minute. You better not go get popcorn. 1994 saw the release of Stone's satire of the modern media, Natural Born Killers. Originally based on a screenplay by Quentin Tarantino, critics recognized its portrayal of violence and the intended satire on the media. Before it was released, the MPAA gave the film a NC-17 rating; this caused Stone to cut four minutes of film footage in order to obtain an R rating (he eventually released the unrated version on VHS and DVD in 2001).\n\nStone went on to direct the 1995 Richard Nixon biopic Nixon, which was nominated for Oscars for script and Anthony Hopkins' portrait of the title role. Stone followed Nixon with the 1997 road movie/film noir, U Turn, and 1999's Any Given Sunday, a film about power struggles within and without an American football team.\n\n2000s\n\nAfter a period from 1986–1999 where Stone released a new film at least every 1–2 years, Stone slowed down in the 2000s, though still finding some success.\n\nIn 2004, Stone directed the critically savaged Alexander. He later radically re-edited his biopic of Alexander the Great into a two-part, 3 hour 37 minute film Alexander Revisited: The Final Cut, which became one of the highest-selling catalog items from Warner Bros. After Alexander, Stone went on to direct World Trade Center, based on the true story of two PAPD policemen who were trapped in the rubble and survived the September 11 attacks.\n\nIn 2007, Stone was intended to direct his fourth Vietnam War film Pinkville, about a Pentagon investigation into the My Lai Massacre of Vietnamese civilians. The film was to have been made for United Artists, but the company officially cancelled the production start due to the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Shortly after the strike, Stone went on to write and direct the George W. Bush biopic W., that chronicles the controversial President's childhood, relationship with his father, struggles with his alcoholism, rediscovery of his Christian faith, and continues the rest of his life up until the 2003 invasion of Iraq.\n\n2010s\n\nIn 2010, Stone returned to the theme of Wall Street for the sequel Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps. In 2012, Stone directed Savages, based on a novel by Don Winslow.\n\nIn 2014, Stone announced that his Martin Luther King project, which he had worked on for three years, was aborted by the producing studios, Warner Bros and DreamWorks, following the objection of King's estate to his screenplay, which deals with King's adultery. Later Stone commented in a BBC interview: \"These are not rumours; these are facts and Hoover had the tapes.\" \n\nIn 2015, he was presented with an honorific award at the Sitges Film Festival .\n\nStone's next film is Snowden. Based on the life of Edward Snowden, the film sees Stone returning to his controversial roots. Snowden ended filming in May 2015 and is to be released on September 16, 2016.\n\nDocumentaries\n\nStone made three documentaries on Fidel Castro: Comandante (2003), Looking for Fidel, and Castro in Winter (2012). He made Persona Non Grata, a documentary on Israeli-Palestinian relations, interviewing several notable figures of Israel, including Ehud Barak, Benjamin Netanyahu, and Shimon Peres, as well as Yasser Arafat, leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization.\n\nIn 2009, Stone completed a feature-length documentary, South of the Border about the rise of progressive, leftist governments in Latin America, featuring seven presidents: Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, Bolivia's Evo Morales, Ecuador's Rafael Correa, Cuba's Raúl Castro, the Kirchners of Argentina, Brazil's Lula da Silva, and Paraguay's Fernando Lugo (all of whom hold negative views of US manipulations in South America). Stone hoped the film would get the Western world to rethink socialist policies in South America, particularly as it was being applied by Venezuela's Hugo Chávez. Chávez joined Stone for the premiere of the documentary at the Venice International Film Festival in September 2009. Stone defended his decision not to interview Chávez's opponents, stating that oppositional statements and TV clips were scattered through the documentary and that the documentary was an attempt to right a balance of heavily negative coverage. He praised Chávez as a leader of a movement for social transformation in Latin America (the Bolivarian Revolution), along with the six other Presidents in the film. The documentary was also released in several cities in the United States and Europe in the summer of 2010. \n\nIn 2012, the documentary miniseries Oliver Stone's Untold History of the United States premiered on Showtime, Stone co-wrote, directed, produced, and narrated the series, having worked on it since 2008 with co-writers American University historian Peter J. Kuznick and British screenwriter Matt Graham. The 10-part series is supplemented by a 750-page companion book of the same name, also written by Stone and Kuznick, released on October 30, 2012 by Simon & Schuster. Stone described the project as \"the most ambitious thing I've ever done. Certainly in documentary form, and perhaps in fiction, feature form.\" The project received positive reviews from former Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev, The Guardian journalist Glenn Greenwald, and reviewers from IndieWire, San Francisco Chronicle, and Newsday. Hudson Institute adjunct fellow historian Ronald Radosh accused the series of historical revisionism, while journalist Michael C. Moynihan accused the book of \"moral equivalence\" and said nothing within the book was \"untold\" previously. Stone defended the program's accuracy to TV host Tavis Smiley by saying \"This has been fact checked by corporate fact checkers, by our own fact checkers, and fact checkers [hired] by Showtime. It's been thoroughly vetted...these are facts, our interpretation may be different than orthodox, but it definitely holds up.\" \n\nOn March 5, 2014, Stone and teleSUR premiered the documentary film Mi Amigo Hugo (My Friend Hugo), a documentary about Venezuela's late President, Hugo Chávez, one year after his death. The film is also a \"spiritual answer\" and a tribute from Stone to Chávez. At the end of 2014 according to a Facebook post Stone said he had been in Moscow to interview (former Ukrainian president) Viktor Yanukovych, for a \"new English language documentary produced by Ukrainians\" . Stone reportedly also wanted to do a film on Russian president Vladimir Putin. \n\nStone was interviewed in Boris Malagurski's documentary film The Weight of Chains 2 (2014), which deals with neoliberal reforms in the Balkans. \n\nOther work\n\nIn 1993, Stone produced a miniseries for ABC Television called Wild Palms. In a cameo, Stone appears on a television in the show discussing how the theories in his film JFK had been proven correct (the series took place in a hypothetical future, 2007). That same year, he also spoofed himself in the comedy hit Dave, espousing an (accurate) conspiracy theory about the film President's replacement by a near-identical double. In 1997, Stone published A Child's Night Dream (St. Martin's Press), a semiautobiographical novel first written in 1966–1967.\n\nOn September 15, 2008, Stone was named the Artistic Director of New York University's Tisch School of the Arts Asia in Singapore. \n\nPersonal life\n\nStone married three times, first to Najwa Sarkis on May 22, 1971. They divorced in 1977. He then married Elizabeth Burkit Cox, an assistant in film production, on June 7, 1981. They had two sons, Sean Stone/Ali (b. 1984) and Michael Jack (b. 1991). Sean appeared in some of his father's films while a child. Oliver and Elizabeth divorced in 1993. Stone is currently married to Sun-jung Jung, and the couple have a daughter, Tara (b. 1995). \n\nStone is mentioned in Pulitzer Prize-winning American author Lawrence Wright's book Going Clear: Scientology, Hollywood, and the Prison of Belief as having been a member of Scientology for about a month, saying \"It was like going to college and reading Dale Carnegie, something you do to find yourself.\" In 1997, Stone was one of 34 celebrities to sign an open letter to then-German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, published as a newspaper advertisement in the International Herald Tribune, which protested against the treatment of Scientologists in Germany and compared it to the Nazis' oppression of Jews in the 1930s.Drozdiak, William (January 14, 1997). [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/10844567.html?dids\n10844567:10844567&FMTABS&FMTS\nABS:FT&typecurrent&date\nJan+14%2C+1997&authorWilliam+Drozdiak&pub\nThe+Washington+Post&descU.S.+Celebrities+Defend+Scientology+in+Germany&pqatl\ngoogle U.S. Celebrities Defend Scientology in Germany], The Washington Post, p. A11 In 2003, Stone was a signatory of the third Humanist Manifesto. \n\nIn 1999, Stone was arrested and pleaded guilty to alcohol and drug charges. He was ordered into a rehabilitation program. He was arrested again on the night of May 27, 2005 in Los Angeles for possession of an undisclosed illegal drug. He was released the next day on a $15,000 bond. In August 2005, Stone pleaded no contest and was fined $100. \n\nPolitical views\n\nLatin America\n\nStone has had an interest in Latin America since the 1980s when he made his 1986 film Salvador and later returned to make his documentary South of the Border about the left-leaning movements that had been taking hold in the region. He has expressed the view that these movements are a positive step toward political and economic autonomy for the region. \n\nU.S. Presidential politics\n\nAccording to Newsmeat and Entertainment Weekly respectively, Stone voted for Barack Obama as U.S. president in both the 2008 and 2012 elections, instead of John McCain and Mitt Romney, the GOP candidates for the presidency. Stone was quoted as saying at the time: \"I voted for Obama because...I think he's an intelligent individual I think he responds to difficulties well...very bright guy...far better choice yes.\" In 2012, Stone endorsed Ron Paul for the Republican nomination for President. He said that Paul is \"the only one of anybody who's saying anything intelligent about the future of the world.\" then later: \"I supported Ron Paul in the Republican primary... but his domestic policy... made no sense!\" In 2016, Stone wrote on the Huffington Post his support for Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders for the 2016 Democratic nomination. \n\nIran and Holocaust controversy\n\nIn an interview with The Times newspaper on July 25, 2010, Stone claimed that America does not know \"the full story\" on Iran and complained about Jewish \"domination\" in parts of the U.S. media and foreign policy, notably his view that Adolf Hitler was misunderstood due to Jewish control of the media. When Stone was asked why so much of an emphasis has been placed on the Holocaust, as opposed to the 20-plus million casualties the Soviet Union, for example, suffered in World War II, he stated that in Washington the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) was an overly powerful Jewish lobby within the U.S. The remarks were heavily criticized by Jewish groups, including the Simon Wiesenthal Center, from which Yuri Eidelstein described Stone's remarks as what \"could be a sequel to the The Protocols of the Elders of Zion\", and the American Jewish Committee, as well as from Israel's Diaspora Affairs and Public Diplomacy Minister.\n\nA day later, Stone stated: \"In trying to make a broader historical point about the range of atrocities the Germans committed against many people, I made a clumsy association about the Holocaust, for which I am sorry and I regret. Jews obviously do not control media or any other industry. The fact that the Holocaust is still a very important, vivid and current matter today is, in fact, a great credit to the very hard work of a broad coalition of people committed to the remembrance of this atrocity—and it was an atrocity.\" \n\nTwo days later, Stone issued a second apology to the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), which was accepted. \"I believe he now understands the issues and where he was wrong, and this puts an end to the matter,\" said ADL National Director Abraham Foxman. \n\nWikiLeaks\n\nOliver Stone is a vocal supporter of WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange. Stone signed a petition in support of Assange's bid for political asylum in June 2012. In August 2012, he penned a New York Times op-ed with filmmaker Michael Moore on the importance of WikiLeaks and free speech. Stone visited Assange in the Ecuadorian Embassy in April 2013 and commented, \"I don't think most people in the US realize how important WikiLeaks is and why Julian's case needs support.\" He also criticized two upcoming WikiLeaks films from Alex Gibney and Bill Condon. \n\nIn June 2013, Stone and numerous other celebrities appeared in a video showing support for Chelsea Manning. \n\nUkraine\n\nIn December 2014, Stone made statements supporting the Russian government's narrative on Ukraine, portraying the 2014 Ukrainian revolution as a CIA plot and former Ukrainian president (who was ousted as a result of the 2014 Ukrainian revolution) Viktor Yanukovych, whose responsibility for the killing of protesters is claimed by the new Ukrainian government, as a legitimate president forced to leave Ukraine by \"well-armed, neo-Nazi radicals.\" The University of Toronto's Stephen Velychenko, the author of several books on Ukrainian history, and James Kirchick of The Daily Beast criticized Stone's comments and plans for a film.\n\nFilmography\n\nAs director\n\nAs actor\n\n*The Battle of Love's Return (1971)\n*Platoon (1986) (cameo)\n*Wall Street (cameo) (1987)\n*Born on the Fourth of July (cameo) (1989)\n*The Doors (1991) (cameo)\n*Dave (cameo) (1993)\n*Any Given Sunday (1999)\n*Torrente 3: El Protector (cameo) (2005)\n*Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps (cameo) (2010)\n*Greystone Park (actor) (2011)\n*End the War on Animals (narrator, PETA video) (2012)\n\nScreenwriter only\n\n*Midnight Express (1978)\n*Conan the Barbarian (with John Milius) (1982)\n*Scarface (1983)\n*Year of the Dragon (with Michael Cimino) (1985)\n*8 Million Ways to Die (with David Lee Henry) (1985)\n*Evita (with Alan Parker) (1996)\n\nProducer/executive producer only\n\n*Sugar Cookies (1973)\n*Blue Steel (1989)\n*Reversal of Fortune (1990)\n*Zebrahead (1992)\n*South Central (1992)\n*Wild Palms (1993) (TV)\n*The Joy Luck Club (1993)\n*The New Age (1994)\n*Indictment: The McMartin Trial (1995) (TV)\n*Freeway (1996)\n*The People vs. Larry Flynt (1996)\n*Cold Around the Heart (1996)\n*Killer: A Journal of Murder (1996)\n*Gravesend (1997)\n*The Last Days of Kennedy and King (1998)\n*Savior (1998)\n*The Corruptor (1999)\n*The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001) (TV)\n\nAward and Nominations\n\nAcademy Awards"
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"Oliver Stone - Biography - IMDb\nOliver Stone\nBiography\nShowing all 163 items\nJump to: Overview (3) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (3) | Trade Mark (16) | Trivia (71) | Personal Quotes (68) | Salary (1)\nOverview (3)\n6' (1.83 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nOliver Stone has become known as a master of controversial subjects and a legendary film maker. His films are filled with a variety of film angles and styles, he pushes his actors to give Oscar-worthy performances, and despite his failures, has always returned to success.\nWilliam Oliver Stone was born in New York City, to Jacqueline (Goddet) and Louis Stone, a stockbroker. His American father was from a Jewish family (from Germany and Eastern Europe), and his mother, a war bride, was French (and Catholic). After dropping out of Yale University, he became a soldier in the Vietnam War. Serving in two different regiments (including 1rst Cavalry), he was introduced to The Doors , drugs, Jefferson Airplane , and other things that defined the sixties. For his actions in the war, he was awarded a Bronze Star for Gallantry and a Purple Heart. Returning from the war, Stone did not return to graduate from Yale. His first film was a student film entitled Last Year in Viet Nam (1971), followed by the gritty horror film Seizure (1974) for which he also wrote the screenplay. The next seven years saw him direct two films: Mad Man of Martinique (1979) and The Hand (1981), starring Michael Caine . He also wrote many screenplays for films such as Midnight Express (1978), Conan the Barbarian (1982), and Scarface (1983). Stone won his first Oscar for Midnight Express (1978), but his fame was just beginning to show.\n1986 was the year that brought him much fame to the U.S.A. and the world. He directed the political film Salvador (1986) starring Oscar-nominated James Woods . However, his big hit was the Vietnam war film Platoon (1986) starring Charlie Sheen , Willem Dafoe , Tom Berenger , and Francesco Quinn . Berenger and Dafoe received Oscar nominations for their roles as the polar opposite sergeants who each influence the tour of duty of Chris Taylor (Sheen). Stone won his first Oscar for directing this film, which won Best Picture and was a hit at the box office. After Platoon (1986), Stone followed up with the critically acclaimed Wall Street (1987). The movie, starring Charlie Sheen and Michael Douglas , focuses on the business world of tycoons and stock brokers. The film was well received and won an Oscar for Douglas' portrayal of the villainous Gordon Gekko. Stone returned immediately the following year with Talk Radio (1988), which talked of a foul-mouthed radio host (played by Eric Bogosian ) who never fails to talk about the serious issues. Although it was not as successful as his last three films, Stone did not slow down at all. He directed Tom Cruise into an Oscar-nominated role in Born on the Fourth of July (1989).\nThe movie talked about the return of an embittered, crippled Vietnam soldier from the war. Although it failed to win Best Picture or Best Actor, Oliver Stone won an Academy Award for Directing, his third win to date. After Born on the Fourth of July (1989), Stone took a hand in producing several movies, including the Academy Award-winning film Reversal of Fortune (1990). He returned to the director's chair in 1991, once again with two films. Val Kilmer starred as the legendary and controversial Jim Morrison in Stone's psychedelic film The Doors (1991).\nDespised by former Doors member Ray Manzarek , the film is nevertheless a wonderful achievement, with Kilmer pulling off an almost flawless impersonation of Morrison. Regardless of opinion, The Doors (1991) was overshadowed by Stone's colossal film JFK (1991), which Stone himself considers the best of his films. In Stone's movie, Jim Garrison tackles the conspiracy behind the murder of America's president John F. Kennedy . The large cast featured such well-known names as Kevin Costner , Tommy Lee Jones , John Candy , Joe Pesci , Donald Sutherland , and Walter Matthau . This film represented a change in Stone's works, because it was with this film that he really began to explore the different camera styles and combining them together to create a multi-dimensional way of showing a movie. JFK (1991), as with Platoon (1986) and Born on the Fourth of July (1989), earned eight Oscar nominations and was one of Stone's most successful films. However, he failed to win a third Oscar for Best Director.\nAfter this film, Stone directed his third Vietnam film to date. Heaven & Earth (1993) was a film about the war from the viewpoint of a Vietnamese girl, and also co-starred Tommy Lee Jones (who had received an Oscar nomination for JFK (1991)). Despite its new woman's perspective and several positive reviews, it was a box office failure. Stone was unfazed; his next film is perhaps his most notorious film to date. Adapting a screenplay by Quentin Tarantino , Stone made Natural Born Killers (1994) starring Woody Harrelson , Juliette Lewis , Tom Sizemore and Rodney Dangerfield in his only dramatic performance. The film was received well at the box office, while review were very mixed. Because of the violence that people claimed was inspired by the film, it was compared to Stanley Kubrick 's A Clockwork Orange (1971). As usual, Stone was at the center of controversial subjects; his next film Nixon (1995) was no exception. The film focused on the life of President Richard Nixon, played by Anthony Hopkins , while featuring another well-known cast, including Joan Allen in the role of Nixon's wife. Both went on to receive Oscar nominations, while Stone received his sixth Oscar nomination for Screenwriting. The film got mixed reviews, and failed to recoup its budget.\nAside from directing, Stone has worked as a producer on several different films. There was, of course, the successful film Reversal of Fortune (1990), which won Jeremy Irons an Oscar and also nominated the director for an Oscar. There was also the highly praised and successful emotional drama The Joy Luck Club (1993) which centered around four Chinese immigrant women whose relationships with their daughters is affected by their own lives. Another highly praised Oscar nominated film was Milos Forman 's classic film The People vs. Larry Flynt (1996) starring Woody Harrelson , Edward Norton , and Courtney Love . Whether the crime/action film The Corruptor (1999) or the brilliant war epic Savior (1998), Stone has worked in a variety of film genres.\nStone had directed ten films in nine years; now however, he began to slow down. He directed the film U Turn (1997) starring Sean Penn and Jennifer Lopez . As with Natural Born Killers (1994), it was a dark and twisted satire on violence, but did not have the same success as the former. Stone was set to direct several projects in the late 90's but they fell through and were not made. However, success came back to Stone in the Al Pacino film Any Given Sunday (1999). This sports movie centered on the life behind the game of football, and it starred an impressive cast that included frequent Stone collaborators James Woods and John C. McGinley . This film was one of his most successful box office films, and put him back on track.\nThe following years brought Stone no new theatrical films, though he did make three fascinating TV documentaries. Two of them, 'Looking for Fidel' and Comandante (2003) were interviews of Cuban dictator Fidel Castro, while 'Persona Non Grata' was an interview of several Palestinian leaders. Stone was also set to direct American Psycho (2000) with Leonardo DiCaprio and Beyond Borders (2003), starring Angelina Jolie and at the time, Ralph Fiennes . However, Stone dropped out of both projects, as did a number of the actors mentioned. Finally, five years after Any Given Sunday (1999), Stone directed a film he'd long wanted to make; the colossal epic Alexander (2004). Starring Colin Farrell as the Macedonian leader, Stone attempted to capture the essence of Alexander the Great through his conquests of the known world. The film focused on Alexander's relationships with his parents (a brilliant performance by Val Kilmer and a less impressive one by Angelina Jolie ) and his relationships with his wife and childhood friend/ gay lover (played by Rosario Dawson and Jared Leto respectively).\nAlexander (2004) was a critical failure, and failed to win back its budget domestically. Despite being one of 2004's highest grossing films internationally, and recouping its budget through DVD sales, Stone's pet project was heavily criticized. Despite a far superior version (Alexander Revisited) being released on DVD, the film's reputation remains low by the majority. Stone was personally stung at these attacks, but managed to rebound, if mildly, with his hopeful film World Trade Center (2006). The film centers on two firefighters trapped in the rubble of the twin towers. It received good reviews, and allowed Oliver to step forward from his failure towards the possibility of more films.\nIn late 2007, besides a number of projects Stone was set to direct \"Pinkville\", which would have been his fourth Vietnam film to date. It was set to star a large number of well known actors such as Bruce Willis , Toby Jones , Channing Tatum , Michael Pitt , Woody Harrelson , and Michael Peña . However, a week before shooting was to begin, the Writer's Strike was started, and the finance for the film was cut, using the strike as an excuse. After Willis backed out of the project, it was eventually scuttled, much like Stone's early productions of Platoon (1986) and Born on the Fourth of July (1989). Stone turned to another project he had worked on with former Wall Street (1987) collaborator Stanley Weiser . The project was W. (2008), a biography on president George W. Bush. Stone initially cast Christian Bale in the role of Bush but the actor dropped out at the last minute. Josh Brolin was cast, and this followed with a large cast of well known Oscar nominated character actors such as Richard Dreyfuss , James Cromwell , and Ellen Burstyn . The film was made in a record four months, starting in June and released in October. The film opened to mixed reviews, and though film's budget was recouped, it was not a financial hit.\nStone then made the documentary South of the Border (2009), a documentary which focused on bringing to light the positive aspects of the left-wing governments in South America, particularly Hugo Chavez in Venezuela. Stone was much less critical than usual, instead making the documentary as a response to the harsh reputation that Chavez has in the States. The documentary was poorly received in the States. Stone also began work on Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps (2010). Starring Michael Douglas , Shia LaBeouf , Josh Brolin , Carey Mulligan , and Eli Wallach , the film focuses on the 2008 economic crisis, and the return of Gordon Gekko from prison. The film was screened at Cannes to positive reception, and hailed as Stone's triumphant return. After this, Stone made a film adaptation of \"Savages\", a novel by Don Winslow. The movie follows two highly successful marijuana growers ( Taylor Kitsch and Aaron Taylor-Johnson ), whose shared girlfriend ( Blake Lively ) is kidnapped by a Mexican cartel and held for ransom. The movie also starred Salma Hayek , Benicio Del Toro , John Travolta , and Emile Hirsch . The film was a return to the tense action and violence of Stone's earlier films, though it polarized many audience members due to the colorful narrations of Lively's vapid and naive character, as well as the film's ending.\nOliver Stone is a three-time Oscar winner, and although he has mostly been stung by critics of his films, he remains a well-known name today in the film industry. The films he directed have been nominated for 31 Academy Awards, including eight for acting, six for screen writing, and three for directing. There is no denying that Stone has cemented himself a position among the legends of Hollywood.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Bob Stage\nSpouse (3)\nTrade Mark (16)\nStaccato change of camera types, lenses and film stocks used.\nOften directs and writes historical films on controversial subjects, such as Salvador (1986), Platoon (1986), The Doors (1991), JFK (1991), Nixon (1995), Alexander (2004), World Trade Center (2006), W. (2008) and Snowden (2016).\nOpens films with a quotation in white text against a black background.\nOften gives the lead actors in his films a special footage-enhanced credit appearance at the ending of his films (Ex. Platoon (1986), The Doors (1991) and Nixon (1995)).\nHis films feature large casts, featuring many well-known actors in both major and minor roles.\nHis films mostly center on male protagonists. The biggest exceptions are Heaven & Earth (1993) and Natural Born Killers (1994).\nHas worked 11-times with cinematographer Robert Richardson on his feature films. He often works with military consultant Dale Dye , and producers A. Kitman Ho , Richard Rutowski , Edward R. Pressman and Moritz Borman .\nNative Americans are frequently featured in his films.\nTypically ends his films with a closeup of a face or a couple walking away from the camera.\nThe issues of family and fatherhood are frequently featured in his films. In JFK (1991), D.A. Jim Garrison must juggle fatherhood with his job. In Alexander (2004), Alexander is torn between his parents. In Natural Born Killers (1994), both the main characters were abused by their fathers. In Platoon (1986) and Born on the Fourth of July (1989), the two main characters cite that they went to Vietnam to live up to their fathers fighting in the Second World War.\nDuring a dialogue scene, there will be frequent cutaways to details in the background that have symbolic resonance.\nHas cameos in most of his films. When he does not appear, his son Sean Stone does.\nShoots the majority of his films on location, often using practical settings.\nFrequently references classic mythology and literature. For example, William Shakespeare 's \"Richard III\" in his Scarface (1983) screenplay.\nUsually has multiple camera setups rolling in a single take, and encourages a noisy set with a lot of racket. Both are done in order to encourage frenetic and uninhibited performances.\nTrivia (71)\nAttended Yale University and New York University.\nBorn at 9:58am-EDT\nDid a tour of duty in Vietnam.\nIn Vietnam, Stone won the Bronze Star for Valor and the Purple Heart with First Oak Leaf Cluster. Stone was jailed for marijuana possession in Mexico at age 21.\nFather of sons Sean Stone (born December 29, 1984) and Michael Stone (born 1991) with Elizabeth Stone and a daughter, Tara Stone (born November 3, 1995) with Sun-jung Jung.\nHis father Louis Stone was a successful stockbroker on Wall Street, then he suffered some financial setbacks due to bad investments and a bitter divorce from Oliver's mother Jacqueline. The movie Wall Street (1987) is supposed to be modeled after Louis.\nOliver's father met his mother while he was President Dwight D. Eisenhower aide in World War II in France. As a child, he was raised by a nanny because his mother frequently took vacations to France. He grew up as a child of privilege.\nArrested for drunken driving and possession of hashish. [June 1999]\nSays he kicked a cocaine habit by moving to France while writing Scarface (1983).\nFriends since childhood with Lloyd Kaufman , founder and president of Troma.\nSpeaks French fluently.\nUnderwent infantry training at Fort Jackson, South Carolina.\nShares the exact same birthday as good friend and star of some his films, Tommy Lee Jones . Both were born on September 15, 1946.\nThe same drum theme playing in the beginning of JFK (1991) (for which he was a producer), plays three times in The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001) (for which he was an executive producer).\nIs a friend and admirer of Cuban Premier Fidel Castro , and shot a documentary about the world's longest reigning Communist leader, titled Comandante (2003). It was to air on HBO in May 2003, but due to fierce protests by anti-Castro Cuban-American activists, it was shelved and has never been aired on HBO or made available on home video in the United States. Stone then made a new, more pointed documentary titled \"Looking for Fidel\" that aired on HBO in February 2004, in which he asked Castro questions about his human rights record, and included interviews with anti-Castro activists.\nDirected comedian Rodney Dangerfield in his first and only dramatic role in Natural Born Killers (1994).\nOn September 14, 1967, he left for Vietnam and was assigned to the 2nd Platoon of Bravo Company, 3rd Battalion, 25th Infantry Division, stationed near the Cambodian border, as \"Private Bill Stone\" (fearing that \"Oliver\" was too effeminate).\nWrote a collegiate letter of recommendation for Claire Danes when she applied to his alma mater, Yale University. She was quickly accepted.\nOften talks about the experience of his father Louis Stone taking him to lose his virginity to a prostitute in his mid-teens.\nWas voted the 43rd Greatest Director of all time by Entertainment Weekly.\nOliver's American father, Louis Stone, who was born Louis Silverstein, was from a Jewish family (from Germany and Eastern Europe). Oliver's mother, Jacqueline (Goddet), was French.\nWas taught by Martin Scorsese at New York University Film School.\nHis 11-minute student film made at New York University is called Last Year in Viet Nam (1971).\nAs of 2004, Stone is attached to direct several projects. \"Spite House\", which he wrote and will direct about Vietnam. \"The Fountainhead\", based on the Ayn Rand novel. \"Lennon\", a biopic of John Lennon , a biopic of Margaret Thatcher , and a biopic of sorts about an attempted assassination plot by the Republican party against President Franklin D. Roosevelt .\nHas directed eight different actors in Oscar-nominated performances: James Woods , Tom Berenger , Willem Dafoe , Michael Douglas , Tom Cruise , Tommy Lee Jones , Anthony Hopkins and Joan Allen . Douglas won an Academy Award for Wall Street (1987).\nKnown for the political content of his films, Stone was a member of the Class of 1968 at Yale University along with US President Bill Clinton administration adviser Strobe Talbot and future President George W. Bush ( John Kerry was also there at the same time as Stone, though he was several classes ahead of '68). Stone left Yale after only one year (he failed all his second-semester freshman classes) and ended up joining the army and fighting in Vietnam. He never returned to graduate from Yale.\nWas attached to direct American Psycho (2000) with Leonardo DiCaprio in talks to star as Patrick Bateman. After DiCaprio left the project to make The Beach (2000) Stone left it also.\nReceived two Academy Award nominations for best original screenplay in the same year, 1987 ( Salvador (1986) and Platoon (1986)) but lost to Woody Allen for Hannah and Her Sisters (1986).\nHas directed four actors into Best Actor Oscar nominations, and three actors to Best Supporting Actor nominations. Lead roles were James Woods ( Salvador (1986)), Michael Douglas ( Wall Street (1987)), Tom Cruise ( Born on the Fourth of July (1989)) and Anthony Hopkins ( Nixon (1995)). Supporting roles were Willem Dafoe and Tom Berenger ( Platoon (1986)) and Tommy Lee Jones ( JFK (1991)).\nFollowing the furor over JFK (1991), Stone addressed the U.S. Senate over the continued secrecy of documents relating to the John F. Kennedy assassination. Partly through his efforts, the government began declassifying documents.\nInterviewed in \"Directors Close Up: Interviews with Directors Nominated for Best Film by the Directors Guild of America\", ed. by Jeremy Kagan , Scarecrow Press, 2006.\nHe was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7013 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California on March 15, 1996.\nWas planning to make a film about Eva Perón , but after several disagreements with Argentinian President Carlos Saúl Menem he abandoned the project. He later received a token credit as a writer for Evita (1996), despite having made no input to the script.\nAs of May 2008, World Trade Center (2006) is his first film rated \"PG-13\" and his only feature film to receive a rating of less than \"R\". As of September 2008, W. (2008) is his second film to receive a PG-13 rating.\nBecause of his specialty with Vietnam era period pieces, he was one of the first directors to be offered American Gangster (2007) in 2001. After long consideration, he decided to pursue making his passion project, Alexander (2004), instead.\nAlthough he is a three-time Academy Award-winning filmmaker, it's been consistently difficult for him to acquire actors of his preference for most of the films he has directed. Casting Al Pacino in Any Given Sunday (1999), Joseph Gordon-Levitt in Snowden (2016), and Tom Cruise in Born on the Fourth of July (1989) are the most significant exceptions where Stone's top choice was either available or agreed to partake in an Oliver Stone production.\nHas sought Warren Beatty for three of his movies ( Wall Street (1987), Nixon (1995) and W. (2008)). Beatty declined them all, and the roles went to Anthony Hopkins , Michael Douglas and James Cromwell respectively. Hopkins and Douglas received Oscar nominations for their roles.\nAs of May 2008, World Trade Center (2006) is the only one of his war-related films to be made with government cooperation (by the Port Authority).\nWas set to begin filming his fourth Vietnam film \"Pinkville\" in late 2007. However, after the Writers' strike began, the producers pulled out, and Bruce Willis moved on. Stone then turned his attention to making W. (2008) which will star Josh Brolin .\nTook a year's absence from Yale University in 1965 to teach at a Catholic private school in Vietnam.\nSought Marlon Brando for two of his films: U Turn (1997) and Salvador (1986). James Woods who played the character in Salvador (1986) that Brando had turned down, received an Oscar nomination for Best Actor. Jon Voight , who played the role meant for Brando in U Turn (1997), received a Razzie for Worst Supporting Actor.\nAfter graduating from New York University, he worked as a cabdriver and a xerox messenger to support himself.\nHas worked with two generations of two different acting families. Worked with Jon Voight and his daughter Angelina Jolie in U Turn (1997) and Alexander (2004) respectively. He has also worked with Martin Sheen and his son Charlie Sheen in Wall Street (1987).\nAs of 2016, has directed six films where people he based the main characters on were still alive and participated in the making of the film. These are Born on the Fourth of July (1989), World Trade Center (2006), JFK (1991), Snowden (2016), Salvador (1986) and Heaven & Earth (1993). He also worked on W. (2008), a film about George W. Bush while he was still in office.\nAside from directing James Woods in three of his films, Stone has also produced Indictment: The McMartin Trial (1995) and Killer: A Journal of Murder (1995), both starring James Woods.\nHas worked with all of the Baldwin brothers. He cast Alec in Talk Radio (1988) and the other brothers made appearances in Born on the Fourth of July (1989).\nWas flown to Vietnam traveling west from Sacremento, California on the evening of September 14, 1967 and crossed the international date line, arriving in Vietnam September 16, losing his 21st birthday.\nWrote a short film while still a student that was recently turned into a short film by his son Sean Stone . The title of the film is Singularity (2008) and is Sean's first fiction film.\nMidnight Express (1978) and Scarface (1983) were written by him, and in both films, Giorgio Moroder composed the score.\nIn the 1992 Sight & Sound poll, Oliver Stone listed these as his top ten films of all time: The Best Years of Our Lives (1946), Lawrence of Arabia (1962), Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964), 1900 (1976), Raging Bull (1980), Mutiny on the Bounty (1935), On the Waterfront (1954), Paths of Glory (1957), Citizen Kane (1941), The Godfather (1972) and The Godfather: Part II (1974).\nHad previously directed six of the acting nominees of the 81st Academy Awards: Sean Penn , Angelina Jolie , Viola Davis , Josh Brolin , Michael Shannon and Robert Downey Jr. as well as having worked as screenwriter for Mickey Rourke . He directed Brolin and Shannon in W. (2008) that same year (although Shannon's scene was cut).\nReturned to America from his teaching job in Vietnam by serving on board a Merchant Marine vessel that came to port in Oregon.\nIs one of nine directors to win the Golden Globe, Director's Guild, BAFTA, and Oscar for the same movie, winning for Platoon (1986). The other directors to achieve this are Mike Nichols for The Graduate (1967), Milos Forman for One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975), Richard Attenborough for Gandhi (1982), Steven Spielberg for Schindler's List (1993), Ang Lee for Brokeback Mountain (2005), Danny Boyle for Slumdog Millionaire (2008), Alfonso Cuarón for Gravity (2013), and Alejandro G. Iñárritu for The Revenant (2015).\nCredits his tour of duty in Vietnam for turning him toward film instead of literature, which was his education. He found that cameras were much more practical to use in the jungle than books and paper, which got soaked.\nShia LaBeouf , who acted in Stone's Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps (2010), described him as \"Orson Welles and the Easter Bunny all in one guy\".\nDedicated Wall Street (1987) to his father, and Heaven & Earth (1993) to his mother.\nHis father, a retired Army Colonel, opposed his decision to enlist in the Army to fight in Vietnam, and tried to get him assigned non-combat duty. After being transfered out of Bravo Company, Stone was offered a job with the CIA, which he declined, opting to finish his tour of duty in the 1st Cavalry Division.\nHis family's name was originally Silverstein. It was his father Louis Stone who made the decision to change his name to Stone.\n(March 23, 2009) Attended the 3rd Annual Asian Film Awards, in which he presented with Joan Chen the award for Best Director to Hirokazu Koreeda .\nRang the NASDAQ opening bell on September 20, 2010 to celebrate the N.Y.C. premiere of Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps (2010).\nThree of his movies were nominated for AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills: Platoon (1986), JFK (1991) and Natural Born Killers (1994). \"Platoon\" made the list at #72.\nBegan producing his documentary series The Untold History of the United States (2012) in 2008 and continued working on it between other projects it until 2012, making it a four year production, the longest of his career. He also put up $1 million of his own money into the project's budget.\nWrote the novel \"A Child's Night Dream\" when he was 19 years old. The novel was not published until 1998.\nHas been friends with Arnold Schwarzenegger since writing the script for Conan the Barbarian (1982). At one point, they both had offices on the same floor of the same building with Stone's on the left and Schwarzenegger's on the right, which they joked represented their respective political viewpoints.\nParallels with Steven Spielberg : Both directors were born in 1946, to fathers who had served in World War II. Both frequently make historical films, often about U.S. Presidents ( JFK (1991), Nixon (1995), Amistad (1997), W. (2008), Lincoln (2012)). They have both directed Tommy Lee Jones in an Oscar-nominated performance (JFK and Lincoln). They have both earned an Oscar nomination for the actor playing the President ( Daniel Day-Lewis and Anthony Hopkins once each). They have cast David Paymer and Bruce McGill as members of a President's cabinet. They both frequently use John Williams to score their films.\nHas done a director's cameo in Savages (2012). Dances on the map of France.\nIn 2016, Oliver Stone gave the graduate school commencement address at University of Connecticut's main campus in Storrs. He told the graduates of his academic failures that led him to drop out of Yale University before starting fresh at a different university and ultimately launching a successful film career. Stone told graduates he flunked out of Yale, where former President George W. Bush was a classmate. After joining the Army and serving in the Vietnam War, he said a filmmaker friend suggested he go to film school. He did, earning a degree from New York University. Stone encouraged graduates to not be too down on themselves if things don't go their way early on [Hollywood Reporter, 2016].\nAfter his Army service, Stone attended NYU Film School on the government's dime, as about 80% of his tuition was funded by the G.I. Bill. His instructors included Martin Scorsese [2016].\nReceived an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Connecticut. [May 2016]\nCurrently writes the first drafts of his scripts in longhand [2016].\nEndorsed Green Party candidate Jill Stein in the 2016 US Presidential election.\nPersonal Quotes (68)\nI consider my films first and foremost to be dramas about individuals in personal struggles and I consider myself to be a dramatist before I am a political filmmaker. I'm interested in alternative points of view. I think ultimately the problems of the planet are universal and that nationalism is a very destructive force. I also like anarchy in films. My heroes were Luis Buñuel and Jean-Luc Godard . Breathless (1960) was one of the first pictures I really remember being marked by, because of the speed and energy. They say I'm unsubtle. But we need above all, a theatre that wakes us up: nerves and heart.\nNationalism and patriotism are the two most evil forces that I know of in this century or in any century and cause more wars and more death and more destruction to the soul and to human life than anything else.\n[on legacies] Alexander's lasted 2,300 years. Why? He's remembered because of his vision, because of his compassion, because of his generosity, because of his spirit, because he was different. He was a general, a man who was able to weep over his [dead] soldiers on the battlefield. Never before had that happened. So this is a special man who has been remembered. There is a reason this film [ Alexander (2004)] was made. It is bigger than us, bigger than me, bigger than Colin [ Colin Farrell ] and all our team.\n[on Alexander (2004)] But I always liked the Greek outfits. They were sexier than the Romans', you've got to admit. And they didn't wear sandals. They wore boots. So don't call it a sword-and-sandal [movie], for Christ's sake! It's sword-and-boot, okay?\n[on Alexander the Great] This was the golden boy of all history. I've been trying to make Alexander (2004) for a long time. In 1991 with Val Kilmer , in 1996 with Tom Cruise . Then Colin Farrell came along, and he was perfect. He was a tough, Tyrone Power , barstool-looking boy from Dublin. We made him a blond, which was perfect for him, and he became Alexander.\nHe went for the head. Kill the king, and your enemy folds. Alexander would have gone after Osama bin Laden . I'm sorry, but [ John Kerry ] was right.\nI don't believe in this business of chopping up a film and then releasing a \"director's cut\" on DVD. What you see should be the director's cut. This is the director's cut. If you can spend four hours killing Bill, Alexander (2004) deserves some space.\nIf we had to do things the American PG way, then we were screwed. Alexander (2004) had to be an R picture. If you work in Hollywood, you have to get past the studio development committees. The thousands of demands. The previews where they dumb it down for the audience. The system wears you down. It's a monster - demanding, uncompromising. [ Martin Scorsese ] and [ Spike Lee ] have been through hell...\nIf I could talk to Alexander, I'd ask him why he married Roxane. But the Greeks did have a regard for women: Six of the 12 gods are women, after all. Marrying her pissed off all of his men, but he didn't care, he was making a point.\nThe Cold War has been the most irritating thing to me personally. Throughout my life we've been in the grip of militarism and military budgets and a mindset that dictates a war on Communism, and that's a drain on the national energy. The real enemy is nationalism and patriotism.\n[on JFK (1991)] I thought it was a helluva thriller. JFK's [ John F. Kennedy 's] murder marked the end of a dream, the end of a concept of idealism that I associate with my youth. Race war, Vietnam, Watergate. If JFK had lived, the combat situation in Vietnam would never have occurred.\nI love intelligent films that come at you fast. I don't have attention deficit disorder, my mind moves fast. There's a lot to deal with in my films. We had so many facts to go through, so the governing style was flash, cut, flash, repeat.\nIf I were [ George W. Bush ], I would shoot myself. I think he lives in fear of drinking again. There's nothing more dangerous for America than an ex-alcoholic President who tells you to believe in Jesus.\nI wasn't prophetic. It was there all around us. Money was the sex of the 1980s.\nAlexander to me is a perfect blend of male-female, masculine-feminine, yin-yang. He could communicate with both sides of his nature.\nThe Indians once told me that stones are the most revered and ancient of recording devices. And that perhaps I am here on this Earth to write of these mute histories - just another stone, an 'Oliver' stone.\n[on the September 11 terrorist attack on New York City] This attack was pure chaos, and chaos is energy. All great changes have come from people or events that were initially misunderstood, and seemed frightening, like madmen.\nI believed in the John Wayne image of America. My father was a Republican, and he taught me that it was a good war because the Communists were the bad guys and we had to fight them. And then there was the romanticism of the Second World War as it appeared in the films we mentioned. Obviously, the reality was very different.\nThey make prostitutes of us all.\nWhen I go to the movies, and I have to sit through ten previews of films that look [alike] and tell the whole story, you know that we've reached an age of consensus. And consensus is the worst thing for us. We all agree to agree. That's where we lose it as a culture. We have to move away from that.\n[on Platoon (1986)] I wrote the \"Platoon\" script in 1976 in New York City. Primarily because I'd reached a point in my life that if I didn't write about it, I would forget what had happened in the war.\nThe film business? I love film, but the film business is shit.\nJosh [ Josh Brolin ] is actually better looking than George W. Bush ] but has the same drive and charisma that Americans identify with Bush, who has some of that old-time movie-star swagger. I want a fair, true portrait of the man [for my film].\nI should be making movies about the Dulles brothers [ John Foster Dulles , Allen Dulles ], I should be making movies about Dwight D. Eisenhower , I should be making movies about the fifties and the forties. We should be free. I'm hamstrung, I mean, they're always... preordaining, proclaiming... They always make a brouhaha, a controversy, out of nothing. It's like they're trying to keep me away from these areas.\nThe reaction to JFK (1991) was just stunning. I've never spent so much time defending a film after its release.\n[on President John F. Kennedy ] He was the first man who stood up as a world leader and said, \"We are one people, one planet. We must survive together or we will not survive at all.\" And it's a shame, because he was almost 30 years ahead of his time because 30 years later they're saying that.\n[on his Vietnam War experience] You get to a point where you can smell them [the enemy]... I got to a place where I was using all my senses.\n[on his childhood] It was a harsh upbringing in the sense that my parents divorced quickly. I was in a boarding school, so it was all boys in those days... And there was no femininity in my life either. My mother was often in Europe, I didn't see her very much.\n[on casting Charlton Heston in Any Given Sunday (1999)] I wanted to show him he was still loved for all he gave to the movies. I remember his strength while in substantial pain from arthritis, during long shooting hours. He was a gentleman on the 14th hour, as he was on the first.\nIf [ George W. Bush ] had spent some time in Vietnam, he would have a very different view on war.\nI'm tired of defending the accuracy of my movies. JFK (1991) was a case to be proven, Nixon (1995) was a penetrating biography of a complex and dark man. But I'm not bound by those strictures any more. [ George W. Bush ] is not a complex and dark man, so it's different. This movie can be funnier because Bush is funny. He's awkward and goofy and makes faces all the time. He's not your average president. So, let's have some fun with it. What are they going to do? Discredit me again?\nThe film business has always been full of strange characters. Who the hell gets into this business but gamblers and buccaneers and pirates? You don't get Henry Paulson as a producer in this business, that's for sure.\nI'll welcome any sorts of investors in my films, as long as I can keep my freedom and my content free of interference. If you're asking if I would do a movie with a known drug dealer, no, I wouldn't. You don't want to corrupt a movie, though the nature of the film business lends itself to criminal enterprises.\n[on Stanley Kubrick ] The most interesting aspect of a scene is \"controlled uncertainty\". That's what Kubrick got. Everybody else would shoot pretty conventionally, but when I saw [ Jean-Luc Godard ] or Kubrick, in that period when I was studying film with more intensity, there was an unpredictability about Stanley Kubrick. Even as a kid, I didn't know what he would do next. It's the way Kubrick looks at reality. His reality is supercharged.\nNo man dies in vain. You die because you believe for something. You hope that the cause is worth it. And in Vietnam we have reasons to question it. But you die hopefully with honor and with courage. And you should be remembered for your sacrifice. That is not to say the war was right, but you honor the men who fought in the war.\nI thought we [the United States] were going to go to war in Iran. If we had been more successful in Iraq, I have no doubts that we would have been more involved in the Iranian situation now.\n[on Bernie Madoff ] Madoff I consider to a be a sociopath; he was a crook running a Ponzi scheme.\n[on the recession] Wall Street has an important role to play, and it can be a very constructive role in financing, in new business, in financing state bonds and pension plans. But the speculation is the mother of all evils. There have to be regulations. And we're not getting these regulations in place.\nLook, you know something of what I've fought against in the U.S. establishment, but - McDonald's is good for the world, that's my opinion. Because I think war is the most dangerous thing. Nationalism and patriotism are the two most evil forces that I know of in this century or in any century and cause more wars and more death and destruction to the soul and human life than anything else - and can still do it with nuclear war. The prime objective we have in this era is to prevent war, to live in peace. The best way you can do that is to bring prosperity to as many people across the world as you can. And when you spread McDonald's all over the world, food becomes cheaper and more available to more people. Won't it be great when they can have McDonald's throughout Africa?\nThe Pax Americana, to me, is the dollar sign. It works. It may not be attractive. It's not pretty to see American businessmen running all around the world in plaid trousers, drinking whiskey. But what they're doing makes sense. Now it's been picked up more intelligently by the Japanese, the British, the Germans. But it brings education, health, and welfare to the rest of the world.\nI don't feel particularly old, but I feel it in the morning when I wake up. Film is exhausting to make, it's a very tiring process physically.\nYou cannot approach history unless you have empathy for the person you may hate. We can't judge people as only \"bad\" or \"good\". [ Adolf Hitler ] is an easy scapegoat throughout history and it's been used cheaply. He's the product of a series of actions. It's cause and effect.\nI agree with my father that the foundation of a healthy, prosperous and relatively free society is capitalism. The whole Alexander Hamilton idea of capitalism was to make the country grow, and he was essentially right that banks could be used to make the country grow, because we need capital and we need credit. And that is fundamental, and somehow people when they attack Wall Street so blindly, so ignorantly, they lose sight of that function.\nJ.P. Morgan merits enormous attention. He was a pharaoh. He controlled American business and governments in a way that's never been seen since.\n[on Russia and China] When I was researching dissidents during the 1980s in the Soviet Union, there was a form of denial, which was that these people, who were very courageous people opposing the regime, were going to psychiatric institutes. The Russian people did not understand them and I felt very sorry for these people. I tried to do a movie about it but it could not get it financed. But I remember at that time researching the Brezhnev [former Soviet president Leonid Brezhnev ] regime how much of a hero Joseph Stalin was to the average Russian who did not really know about the great purges, and terrors, and famines of that period. Of the 1920s, '30s and '40s. Self-delusion of a population in denial is overwhelming to me still at my age. In China, which I've visited several times, I see a new generation, young people, crippled with amnesia. Unable to gain access to their own history. And then I see a generation my age, older people, men and women, and I'm amazed by what they've been through in their lifetime. Far more than I have, because they have lived a Lewis Carroll life, where it's been a 180-degree turn at the middle of their lives, at the age of 30 or 40 they've moved from collective Communism and worship of one god Mao, to a highly brutal competitive individual consumption and corruption in the name of another god: money.\n[on Alan Parker ] Yes, I did say Alan Parker has no sense of humor, and this comment will haunt me for the rest of my days. But he doesn't, does he? Have I missed something?\n[on his script for Scarface (1983)] Al Pacino intimidated me when I watched him in rehearsals, I saw how he turned Tony Montana into something very feral, something immigrant and hungry and decadent.\n[on taxation] I pay 50% at the end of the day, it's a lot of dough. We work very hard, but we try to create things, we produce things. I think production is the key, I think producers should be encouraged. But when you're a speculator and you don't produce anything, that's where I think you should be taxed differently. I think there should be a bank tax. I think there should be a speculation tax, much higher. There's been proposals to that effect and they get defeated by the Republicans in Congress. I would put a tax on speculation because if you roll over stuff and you're just making money with money, like a casino, that's when you should really be taxed. A \"Casino Tax\", so to speak. But I don't really think taxing productivity is wise beyond a certain point. I'll pay 50%, but when you get to the 60% mark you're really dying, because you give jobs. My dad, who was a stockbroker, used to say, \"No profit without production\".\nWhen I did Platoon (1986) in 1986, I was saying very openly that marijuana helped me survive the war. It helped me keep my humanity in a situation that was dehumanizing.\nIt's not a war on drugs. It's a war for money. There's too much money in it to back out now. Even if they taxed it, and they'd love to, there's so much money on the criminal investigation side with the DEA and the prison system. There are so many people in jail for drugs. They spend billions annually keeping non-violent criminals in jail, many of them drug users. How do you go back after forty years of tactics that haven't worked?\n[on Taylor Kitsch ] He is very laid back. He's got that Canadian attitude. But he's a great athlete. He's a good boxer and apparently a great hockey player. At the same time he's powerful on camera. He conveys what in the old days you'd call a man's man.\nYou see a coarsening of society through war. If you think not showing the coffins that come back to the United States is a solution, that's not so. We have to be more truthful about the nature of violence.\nI gave [my children] the best education I thought they could get... but I realize you have to go through some suffering and pain. People don't appreciate education unless they are an immigrant or coming up the hard way. It's a sense of entitlement.\nI grew up conservative, remember. So I had a William Buckley view of the United States in the '40s and '50s - that we were good guys, and that we were moral, and that we were doing the right thing. And now I think, how did we become this bully - this international terror that dominates the world scene today?\nI do feel that the Jim Crow laws are very important, coming back, by the Suprene Court gutting the Voting Rights Act. The gerrymandering that's going on in the states. I do believe that we owe this Republican legislature to that gerrymandering. And part of that is that ballot security issue. Every time... you've got have IDs for the poor and so forth. It's cutting out the blacks. They are really hanging on to... they don't want the Hispanic, Asian, black mixture to take over. I think that's what the Supreme Court thing is. I think that's what the gun laws are about too. The states want states rights. They want to keep the rules white. That's how I see this Tea Party.\nI grew up conservative, remember. So I had a William Buckley view of the United States in the '40s and '50s - that we were the good guys, and that we were moral, and that we were doing the right thing. And now I think, how did we become this bully - this international terror that dominates the world scene today?\n[on the assassination of President John F. Kennedy ] Like everyone, it was sad for the country. He was a handsome young man with a beautiful family, but the consequences of the act did not have meaning for me until later. Within four years I'd be in Vietnam as a ground soldier. And then as I got older, JFK's presidency became more important to me in retrospect than ever before.\n[on his film Wall Street (1987) and its leading character, the reptilian Gordon Gekko] When I made the movie I thought greed was NOT good. But I learned people really like money. They like to make money. They will even admire the villain with the money - even when he breaks the law.\nThe Hollywood blockbuster is based on the idea of the conquering hero and that we are the exceptional nation, the indispensable nation, the rescuer of nations. But it's a fantasy, and people like Obama haven't really studied their history. They haven't studied cause and effect. Besides, the heroic narrative does not work because everyone thinks they're the hero, and then you end up with crazy heroes around the world trying to be a crusader.\nI grew up living in the heart of the American dream in New York City. My father was conservative. I served in the military and it took several years after that of seeing the world from the point-of-view of people who were exploited and abused to change my perception. And my films have also taught me about aspects of life. With 'Untold History' I had the chance to really study and broaden my knowledge of the American past. And it's not the bill of goods they taught us in school.\nCorruption surrounds us. It's in every part of the American organism now, from Wall Street to the military, to legislators and politics. It's endemic.\n[on President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's warning about an expanding military-industrial complex] It's only gotten worse because the money has gotten much bigger. Now we're in an impossible situation where we find ourselves driven into wars, driven into a hundred and some thirty countries where we have military alliances, military bases. We can't seem to get out of it. I'm not sure that any one single man, one president, can do anything about it.\n[on Talk Radio (1988) as a learning experience] I wasn't thinking of it so much as \"my\" movie as a chance to develop technique. Remember, I was a young director looking for new ways to express myself on film. (...) A lot of it was Robert Richardson and I learning how to use space by shooting in that tight little studio, which was cleverly built by [production designer] Bruno Rubeo . As you noticed, we used a lot of glass and reflections, bringing the lights up and down so that characters would appear and disappear, playing with different levels of reality within the studio. We got very comfortable with the idea of confinement on that set, which meant that then we could apply those ideas to a larger canvas when we moved on to Born on the Fourth of July (1989). There was a lot of location shooting on \"Born...\" and very little on \"Talk Radio\"; we did have the middle section with the basketball game and some scenes in cars, but all of that stuff in the studio was methodically shot. We shot it in around 30 days, and every one of those days was thought out to the max - boarded, rehearsed, with poor Eric Bogosian saying 40 or 50 lines of dialogue while moving and hitting marks. He didn't even know what marks were when we started, coming from the theater. We threw the first few days of rushes away, in fact, because they were so terrible. If you look at the movie we don't introduce him right away, you just see other characters and hear his voice for a while before you see him. (...) It's funny, because you can call it a small movie, but it has a muscularity to it and we really tried to push that as far as it would go. It contributed greatly to \"Born...\" and everything that came after it, because Bob learned a lot about lenses, and I fell in love with the split diopter. Bob didn't like it for some reason, but I loved it and I used it to death. I didn't care how crude it was, I loved the feeling of it. We built a three-sided set with a translight of the Dallas night skyline outside the window, and Bob used light banks with everything on dimmers so that the lights would come in and out at very precise moments, and he had to figure out how to deal with all of those crazy reflections. Often he would find magic in things that weren't expected or planned for, even though we very carefully designed our shots ahead of time. That was part of the discovery process. [2015]\nWall Street (1987) was an unfortunate situation because we fired [composer] Jerry Goldsmith . We paid him a lot of money, and I was unhappy with the music he had written. He was a big composer at the time, and he was really insulted, so I didn't make a lot of friends in the musicians' union when that got around - at that time, replacing a composer that way just wasn't done, I suppose. We were running out of time, and I liked The Police and had some kind of connection to Stewart [ Stewart Copeland ] that I can't quite remember, and he came in and did a nice job very quickly. [2015]\nIt's a dangerous world where one country [the U.S] is telling the world what to do, with the exception of Russia, China and North Korea. (...) Let's hope for a balance of power. [2016]\nWith Trump [ Donald Trump ], I hope that he has the good sense, because he's a businessman, that he would find a way to make a deal with Russia as well as China, and that would be better for everybody. [2016]\nMr. Snowden [ Edward Snowden ] said very clearly, that the mechanism is in place now so that when there is another terror attack, which inevitably there probably will be in this country, the next president, whoever he may be, will have the authority to really close down the system in the most oppressive way than it's ever been. [2016]\nI'd point out to those of you who are struggling to be independent and to stay independent, that's the hard part, staying independent, I'd like to remind you that you can be critical. You can be critical of your government, and we've forgotten that. (...) The 1970s can come back, if you embody that in your own work. So don't go easy on what you think is wrong. Think internationally. There are other values beside our little little echo bowl we have there. [2016]\nSalary (1)",
"Oliver Stone Biography - life, childhood, parents, story, school, young, information, born, college, movie, time\nOliver Stone Biography\nNew York, New York\nAmerican director and writer\nOliver Stone is a writer-director of films with a flashy style that often deal with issues of the 1960s, such as America's involvement with the Vietnam War (1955–75; a war in which the United States aided South Vietnam in its fight against a takeover by Communist North Vietnam). He has won several Academy Awards as a writer and as a director.\nConservative background\nOliver William Stone was born on September 15, 1946, in New York City, the only child of Louis and Jacqueline Goddet Stone. His father was a successful stockbroker. Stone's childhood was marked by all the privileges of wealth—private schooling, summer vacations in France, and most importantly, a sense of patriotism. Stone's father was strongly conservative (one who believes in maintaining social and political traditions and who opposes change). When Stone was a junior at the Hill School, a Pennsylvania college prep academy, his parents decided to divorce. He discovered that his father was actually deeply in debt, which led him to question the values he had been taught. Stone entered Yale University in 1965, but he quit after only one year.\nLate in 1965 Stone took a job teaching English at a school in Saigon, South Vietnam. He arrived there at the same time as did the first major commitment of U.S. troops, which were sent to help fight in Vietnam's civil war. Stone left after six months and returned home. While on his way back, he began to work on a novel, which he continued to work on during a brief stay in Mexico and another failed attempt at college. He was unable to find a publisher for it, and he then decided to join the army. Stone continued to work on the novel, which grew to eleven hundred pages. A Child's Night Dream was finally released in 1997.\nShaped by Vietnam experience\nStone could have avoided the Vietnam War by staying in college, but he joined the service and insisted on combat duty in an attempt to prove to his father that he was a man. He soon discovered that real combat was much different than he expected. \"Vietnam completely deadened me and sickened me,\" he told the Washington Post. Stone was involved in several deadly battles. He was shot once and wounded by shrapnel (bomb fragments) another time, and he often witnessed the brutal treatment of Vietnamese citizens by U.S. soldiers.\nAfter Stone was discharged and returned to the United States, he enrolled at New York University, where he began to study filmmaking with director Martin Scorsese (1942–). Stone decided he wanted to write screenplays and make movies. Stone graduated from the university in 1971 and within two years had sold his first project to a small Canadian film company. His first writing and directing effort was Seizure (1974), a horror story about a writer whose creations come to life.\nSeizure did not make money or receive great reviews, and Stone entered a period marked by heavy drug and alcohol use. He finally pulled himself together in 1976 and decided to write a screenplay about his Vietnam experiences. Between 1976 and 1978 Stone wrote two stories on the war: Platoon, which was based on himself and other soldiers he had known in Vietnam; and Born on the Fourth of July, which was based on the autobiography (the written story of one's own life) of crippled war veteran Ron Kovic. No studio would touch either property; the scripts were considered too violent and too depressing. Stone's writing talents were recognized, however, and he was invited to work on other projects.\nOscars and controversy\nIn 1977 Stone was hired to write the screenplay for Midnight Express, a drama based on the true-life imprisonment of Bill Hayes in a Turkish jail. Many reviewers criticized the film's violence and accused it of racism (unequal treatment based on race) against the Turks. The controversy (open to dispute) helped the movie turn a profit, and it was also nominated (put forward for consideration) for five Academy Awards. Stone himself won an Oscar for his screenplay.\nStone then wrote and directed the horror movie The Hand (1981), and he wrote scripts for other movies, including Scarface. The film Scarface, which told the story of a ruthless cocaine dealer, offended some with its violence. For Stone, who had rid himself of a cocaine habit while writing the screenplay, it was a very important project. In an effort to exercise more control over his work, Stone then began making films independently. With the backing of Hemdale, a small British production company, he filmed Salvador (1986), based on the violence of the United States-supported Salvadoran army. Hemdale then gave Stone the money to make Platoon (1986). Stone used the script he had written in 1976 and the film won a number of Oscars, including best picture and best director.\nStone followed Platoon with Wall Street, his first big-budget project. Wall Street told\nOliver Stone.\nAP/Wide World Photos\n.\nthe story of a young stockbroker and the ruthless older businessman who influences him. By this time Stone had found the money to film Born on the Fourth of July (1989). With Hollywood superstar Tom Cruise (1962–) as the raging Ron Kovic, who endures not only the horror of battle but life in a wheelchair, Born on the Fourth of July brought Stone yet another Academy Award for best director.\nStone explored the 1960s with The Doors (1991) and his most controversial feature, JFK (1991). In JFK Kevin Costner plays Jim Garrison, the Texas Attorney General who battled what the film views as a plot to cover up the real circumstances behind the assassination of President John F. Kennedy (1917–1963). The film's mixture of dreamlike scenes and historical details angered many, but even his critics admitted that Stone's methods were effective. Stone returned to the subject of Vietnam for Heaven and Earth (1993), showing the war from the point of view of a Vietnamese woman. His brutally violent Natural Born Killers (1994), the story of two disturbed young lovers who become famous for their killing spree, was attacked for its casual treatment of violence.\nMajor step forward\nStone's next film was the story of another American president, Richard Nixon (1913–1994), who resigned in disgrace after the Watergate scandal (in which it was revealed that Nixon had broken the law by using bugging devices to listen in on the conversations of his opponents). With British actor Anthony Hopkins (1937–) in the title role, Nixon (1995) earned several Academy Award nominations. Many reviewers praised Stone's newly found ability to overlook his political beliefs and make a universally appealing film.\nStone's more recent film projects include directing U-Turn (1997), writing and directing Any Given Sunday (1999), and serving as executive producer of the TV movie The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001). In 2001 a Louisiana court threw out a lawsuit against Stone and Warner Brothers studios that claimed that viewing Natural Born Killers had led two people to shoot a store clerk, leaving her paralyzed. In 2002 Stone traveled to Cuba, where he spent seventy-two hours filming Cuban leader Fidel Castro (1927–) for a documentary (a completely fact-based film) on the country.\nFor More Information"
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What is Axl Rose's real name?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"... playing in some bands like Hollywood Rose and LA Guns. Some time after Axl and ... learned of his real father and changed ... his name to W. Axl Rose in ...",
"Interesting wiki facts about Axl Rose. ... before hooking up with fellow streetwise rockers Slash (guitar, real name Saul Hudson), Duff McKagan (bass), and ..."
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"Axl Rose - Biography - IMDb\nBiography\nShowing all 57 items\nJump to: Overview (4) | Mini Bio (2) | Spouse (1) | Trade Mark (9) | Trivia (33) | Personal Quotes (8)\nOverview (4)\n5' 9\" (1.75 m)\nMini Bio (2)\nBorn and raised in Lafayette, Indiana, W. Axl Rose is the pure embodiment of decadent late 1980s rockerdom. Brash, slightly misogynistic and notoriously wild, Rose grew up in a maniacally dysfunctional household - molested by his own father at age two; beaten by his abusive stepfather.\nWhen Axl was 17 he fled Indiana on a Greyhound bus destined for Los Angeles (the haven for all that embodies sinnin' and grinnin'). After auditioning for a lion's share of punk bands (many of which he was turned down for because of his uncanny vocal resemblance to Robert Plant ) he joined the seminal rock band L.A. Guns before ultimately forming Guns N' Roses. After Guns N' Roses met with the unprecedented success of their debut album \"Appetite For Destruction\", massive stadium tours soon became a reality, and Axl's status as a bona fide sex symbol was officially cemented. However, internal troubles with the band members and the heavy drug use among them eventually rendered Guns N' Roses obsolete until only recently. Comeback? We'll see.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Brenna ([email protected])\nBorn on February 6th, 1962 in Lafayette, Indiana, USA. He grew up with strict religious teaching, but at the age of seventeen, left his town and headed to Los Angeles. Some time after, his long time friend Izzy Stradlin' joined him in LA and they started playing in some bands like Hollywood Rose and LA Guns. Some time after Axl and his pals Izzy, Slash, Duff McKagan and Steven Adler formed Guns n' Roses. They released several albuns like \"Live?! Like a Suicide\" (86, EP), \"Appetite for Destruction\" (87), \"Gn'R Lies\" (88), Use Your Illusion I and II\" (91), \"Spaghetti Incident?!\" (93- cover album) and \"Live Era 87\n93\" (99-live). In 1990 Steve Adler is out and Matt Sorum is in. In\n1991 Guns 'n' Roses gets a sixth member, keyboarder Dizzy Reed. in November 1991 Izzy leaves and Gilby Clarke joins the band. Between 1994 and 1999 all the other members of the band leave, except Dizzy Reed. In 2000/2001 New Year night Guns n' Roses play live in Las Vegas with a new line up: Axl Rose (vocals), Paul Huge Tobias (guitar), Buckethead (guitar), Robin Finck (guitar), Tommy Stinson (bass), Chris Pitman (keyboards), Dizzy Reed (keyboards), Brian \"Brain\" Mantia (drums). John Freese (drums), Ricahrd Fortus (guitar) and some others have also worked in Guns n' Roses. Between 2002 and 2003 Guns n' Roses had a world tour.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Emerenciano\nSpouse (1)\nWell known for his onstage rants often directed at fans\nOutspoken and confrontational attitude\nLong red hair\nTrivia (33)\nHas been arrested over 30 times for various offenses, mostly drunk and disorderly and assault charges.\nIs manic depressive.\nWas born William Bruce Rose, but when his parents split his mother changed his name to William Bruce Bailey, taking his step-father's last name. Axl claims that when he was 17 he learned of his real father and changed it back to William Bruce Rose, but this is disputed. One of Rose's first music managers in L.A. claims that in the early 1980s Rose was still legally William Bailey.\nUpon signing with Geffen Records in 1986 he had his name legally changed to W. Axl Rose.\nHis mother, Sharon E. Bailey died on May 28th, 1996.\nYounger sister Amy and younger brother Stuart.\nAttended high school with former longtime Guns N' Roses bandmate Izzy Stradlin .\nWhen compiling song selections for the 1999 Guns N' Roses live album \"Live Era\", he communicated with Slash and Duff McKagan only through intermediaries.\n\"Axl Rose\" is an anagram for \"oral sex\".\nWas found guilty in November 1992 of property damage and assault at a 1991 Guns N' Roses concert in Maryland Heights, Missouri. Was given two years probation and ordered to pay $50,000 to community groups.\nHas served as his own lawyer and defended himself at his innumerable trials.\nGrew up in a strict Pentecostal (fundamentalist Christian) household. Was kicked out of his house at age 16 for not cutting his hair.\nPlayed with Guns N' Roses in Rock in Rio II (January '91), Rock in Rio III (January '01) and Rock in Rio IV (October '11) as one of the most expected attractions.\n(August 14, 2002) Has kicked off Guns N' Roses ' \"Chinese Democracy\" world tour in Hong Kong, China. The band will play a series of shows in East Asia and Europe before resuming their tour in Spring 2003, and will keep the tour going for \"two or three years\" according to Rose. The album they're supporting, \"Chinese Democracy\", is in its finishing stages.\n\"Sweet Child O' Mine\" is played in State of Grace (1990).\n\"Welcome to the Jungle\" is played in The Dead Pool (1988).\nGuns N' Roses were voted the 92nd Greatest Rock 'n' Roll Artists of all time by Rolling Stone.\nReleased two albums at the same time with Guns N' Roses . This was the first time a band had ever released more than one album on the same day.\nLegally changed his name to W. Axl Rose in 1986. The 'W' is legal, not an abbreviation, and was chosen because Rose did not wish to share the name William with his biological father.\nPlayed in a band called Hollywood Rose prior to Guns And Roses.\nIs a huge fan of Elton John. The two performed a duet of \"Bohemian Rhapsody\" at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in London in 1991.\nIs of Scottish, German, and Irish descent.\nConsiders Christina Aguilera \"The greatest Vocalist of our time\".\nIs the oldest member of Guns N'Roses, being two months older than Izzy Stradlin.\nLives in Malibu, California.\nIs a huge fan of Queen.\nIs still working on finishing the first album of new Guns 'n Roses material since 1991's 'Use Your Illusion' two-CD set. It is titled 'Chinese Democracy,' and is one of the most delayed releases-to-be in music history. [May 2002]\nStill working in the studio on \"Chinese Democracy\". The album has now been delayed for over a decade. [April 2007]\nHas finally completed the long anticipated new Guns N' Roses album \"Chinese Democracy\". [November 2008]\nW. Axl Rose is back on the road, performing four dates in New York in May, before embarking on a 30+ date tour throughout Europe. [May 2006]\nThe album \"Chinese Democracy\" is currently slated for a November 2004 release. [August 2004]\nBy mid-1991 Stephanie Seymour had become involved with Axl Rose. She appeared in two music videos by Guns N' Roses: \"Don't Cry\" and \"November Rain\". The couple broke up in February 1993 after Rose accused Seymour of being unfaithful. In August 1993, Rose sued Seymour for assaulting him during a 1992 Christmas party, for mental and emotional abuse, and for withholding $100,000 worth of jewelry. Rose claimed he and Seymour were engaged. In turn, Seymour counter-sued Rose for assaulting her and denied they were ever engaged.\nPersonal Quotes (8)\nLife sucks, but in a beautiful kind of way.\nI used to use the Internet a lot, but I got tired of reading all the garbage on there about me. The Internet is just a huge garbage can.\nWe're out there to win at what we do. And if that means going on two hours late and doing a good show, I'm gonna do it. I take what I do very seriously.\nMy growth was stopped at two years old. And when they talk about Axl Rose being a screaming two-year-old, they're right.\nWe want people to realize, man, just play whatever the f*ck you want to play, not what someone else thinks you should play, so that's what we've done.\nSome people say I got a chip on my shoulder.\nWe'd rather be unknown and live in Idaho than have someone tell us what to play and how to \"make it.\"\n[in a letter rejecting his nomination for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame] Let sleeping dogs lie, or lying dogs sleep, or whatever.\nSee also",
"Axl Rose Bio | Axl Rose Career | MTV\nGet the MTV ArtistsApp and discover music wherever you are.\nAbout Axl Rose\nRock\nDepending who you ask, Guns N' Roses vocalist Axl Rose is either considered a rock music icon who is worshipped by millions as an almost Christ-like figure, or hated as a homophobic, misogynistic, and woefully self-indulgent \"rock star\" (in his defense, Rose has denied that he's a homophobe or a misogynist), as well as thought of as a tyrant by his ex-bandmates. William Bruce Rose was born on February 6, 1962, in Lafayette, IN, and suffered sexual abuse from his biological father and physical abuse from his eventual stepfather at an early age (Rose changed his name to William Bailey after his mother remarried). Rose was also an outcast in school, where he was picked on for being \"different,\" but found solace in singing with his school and church vocal choir and eventually rock music. His rough teenage years were eased a bit when he befriended a Keith Richards-worshipping chap by the name of Jeff Isbell, who shared Rose's interest in music. Isbell left Indiana for the streets of Los Angeles in the early '80s with hopes of forming a rock band, and Rose followed shortly thereafter, changing his name to W. Axl Rose (while Isbell soon adopted the name Izzy Stradlin).\nThe L.A. rock music scene at the time was split down the center between rough-and-ready punk rock and hair spray-soaked glam rock/heavy metal, and Rose wanted to form an outfit that borrowed equally from each genre. Stradlin and Rose plowed through several outfits that went nowhere (Hollywood Rose being one) before hooking up with fellow streetwise rockers Slash (guitar, real name Saul Hudson), Duff McKagan (bass), and Steven Adler (drums). After slugging it out on the Sunset Strip and honing their act, the newly christened Guns N' Roses signed a recording contract with Geffen Records after issuing an independent live EP (1986's Live Like a Suicide). Their full-length debut, Appetite for Destruction, was released a year later, and at first the public didn't know what to make of the album or the band. Slowly but surely, rock's fickle audience came around, and by summer 1988, Guns N' Roses was fast becoming one of the world's top rock bands (on the strength of such hit singles/MTV-saturated videos as \"Welcome to the Jungle,\" \"Sweet Child O' Mine,\" and \"Paradise City\").\nBut with fame came death-defying drug and alcohol abuse among all five bandmembers (as well as last-minute tour/concert cancellations) -- it appeared as though the more successful they became, the more problems arose. To fill the void for a new GNR album, Geffen put out the eight-track stopgap EP G N' R Lies in late 1988, amid widespread rumors of an impending band breakup. The album was another big seller (on the strength of the hit acoustic ballad \"Patience\"), but Axl Rose came under immense fire and criticism for the song \"One in a Million,\" in which Rose had derogatory comments for gays, blacks, and immigrants. Undeterred, Rose and co. regrouped and worked on their much-anticipated follow-up to Appetite, which seemed to always miss its numerous projected release dates. Adler was sacked during the recording, while 1991 finally saw the release of the two-part sophomore effort Use Your Illusion. Both discs were massive hits, but the band appeared to have reinvented itself as a bombastic and indulgent rock act, often recalling the music that their punk rock idols attempted to destroy in the mid-'70s. A mammoth two-year tour followed (with Stradlin leaving the band mid-tour) in which GNR found themselves losing their validity as a streetwise rock act in the face of the stripped-down grunge movement (which included such acts as Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, et al.).\nIt only made Rose seem more out of touch from reality when he would hold the band up from going on-stage, resulting in ridiculous multi-hour delays. His public image took a few more shots when several concerts were marred by audience riots caused by Rose's notorious hijinks and when he tried to pick a fight with Nirvana leader Kurt Cobain backstage at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards for disparaging (yet quite on the mark) remarks Cobain made about Rose in the press. When the tour finally ground to a halt in 1993, GNR issued a lukewarmly received collection of covers, The Spaghetti Incident?, and took a well-deserved rest. But after numerous aborted writing/recording sessions for their third proper studio album, the remaining other two original members (Slash and McKagan) either quit the band or were dismissed by Rose. Rose had been granted full ownership of the name Guns N' Roses, so he slowly formed a whole new band around himself.\nWith rumors running rampant that he had become a bloated, bald, and drug-addled hermit (due to the fact that he did not grant a single interview between 1994-1999, staying completely out of the spotlight), Rose continued to work on GNR's next release himself. 1999 saw GNR's first new song released in nearly eight years, the industrial rocker \"Oh My God\" from the End of Days soundtrack, as well as a live compilation of old-school GNR tracks, Live Era: '87-'93, yet both came and went without much fanfare. But all that changed when Rose and his new cohorts (which included ex-Nine Inch Nails guitarist Robin Finck, mask-wearing solo guitarist Buckethead, ex-Replacements bassist Tommy Stinson, ex-Primus drummer Brian Mantia, plus longtime GNR keyboardist Dizzy Reed) played their first live shows together in early 2001, receiving unanimously favorable reviews. With a world tour booked and album nearing completion (reportedly to be titled Chinese Democracy), the GNR/Axl Rose hype machine appeared to be building up to a feverish pitch once again. ~ Greg Prato, Rovi"
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"title": [
"Axl Rose - Biography - IMDb",
"Axl Rose Bio | Axl Rose Career | MTV"
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"http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0741730/bio",
"http://www.mtv.com/artists/axl-rose/biography/"
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What disability did singer Al Hibbler have?
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tc_774
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"filename": [
"List_of_blind_people.txt"
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"title": [
"List of blind people"
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"The following is a list of notable blind people. \n\nActivists and organizers of the blind \n\n*Tilly Aston - Founder of the Victorian Association of Braille Writers. \n*Louis Braille - Known for Braille. \n*Francis Joseph Campbell - Anti-slavery campaigner and co-founder of the Royal National College for the Blind \n*Kenneth Jernigan - Long-time leader of the National Federation of the Blind. \n*Helen Keller - American deaf-blind writer, lecturer, and activist. \n*Tiffany Brar-Social activist,who founded [http://www.jyothirgamayaindia.org/ Jyothirgamaya Foundation] which empowers the blind in all spheres of life\n*Juan Carlos González Leiva - Cuban lawyer, who founded the Fraternity of the Independent Blind of Cuba and the Cuban Foundation of Human Rights. He has been harassed, imprisoned and tortured by the communist regime.\n*Sabriye Tenberken - Braille Without Borders co-founder. \n\nAdventurers \n\n*Miles Hilton-Barber - British traveler and climber. \n*James Holman - British man known as the \"Blind Traveler.\" \n*Tofiri Kibuuka - Ugandan-Norwegian athlete. One of the first three blind people to reach the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro (along with John Opio and Lawrence Sserwambala). First African competitor at the Winter Paralympic Games. \n*Takeichi Nishi - Colonel in the Imperial Japanese Army During World War II. Commander of the 26th Tank Regiment in the Battle of Iwo Jima. He was blinded during battle.\n*Erik Weihenmayer - First blind person to reach the summit of Mount Everest. \n\nArtists \n\nActing and performing \n\n*Jack Birkett - also known as \"Orlando\" and \"The Incredible Orlando\"; camp actor, dancer, mime. Best known for his roles as Borgia Ginz in the Derek Jarman film Jubilee, and as Caliban in Jarman's version of The Tempest. Though his best-known and most prominent roles have been with Jarman, he has had roles in other films, including 1984's The Bride and in televised productions of Shakespeare \n*Dana Elcar - Played Peter Thornton (MacGyver). He lost his vision during this time and it was written into the character's story. \n*S. Robert Morgan - A small role in The Wire. \n\nMusic \n\n*Tsutomu Aragaki, Japanese tenor, blind from just after birth. \n*The Blind Boys of Alabama - Gospel group. \n*Andrea Bocelli - Operatic pop singer. \n*Rudolf Braun - composer and organist\n*Henry Caldera - Sri Lankan singer/songwriter, blind since age 14. \n*Ray Charles - pianist and singer inducted to varied halls of fame. \n*Fanny Crosby - Christian hymn writer. \n*Reverend Gary Davis - gospel blues guitarist. \n*José Feliciano - Grammy Award-winner.[http://www.famousinterview.ca/interviews/jose_feliciano.htm Jose Feliciano]\n*Five Blind Boys of Mississippi - The original line-up of this gospel group was blind, some later members were not. \n*Blind Boy Fuller - Blues guitarist and vocalist. \n*Terri Gibbs - country music singer and musician.\n*Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu - indigenous Australian singer-songwriter.\n*Terry Kelly - Canadian singer \n*Diana Gurtskaya, pop singer from the ex-Soviet country of Georgia\n*Ed Haley - Appalachian old-time fiddler. \n*Jeff Healey - Blues-rock guitarist and vocalist. \n*Al Hibbler - Jazz pop vocalist. \n* Patrick Henry Hughes- multi instrumental musician, recipient of Extreme Makeover: Home Edition.\n*Heather Hutchison - pop singer \n*Blind Lemon Jefferson - \"Father of the Texas Blues\" \n*Blind Willie Johnson - Slide guitarist who's been termed \"influential\" and \"the apogee\" for the instrument. \n*Rahsaan Roland Kirk - Jazz multi-instrumentalist. \n*Lachi - Visually impaired Nigerian American singer-songwriter, pianist and composer out of New York City \n*Francesco Landini - 14th century Italian composer and organist. \n*Blind Willie McTell - Blues guitarist. \n*Raul Midón - Singer-songwriter. \n*Ronnie Milsap - Country and pop singer. \n*Moondog - Outsider musician born \"Louis Thomas Hardin.\" \n*Turlough O'Carolan - harper and composer blinded by smallpox. \n*Paul Pena, American blues musician and throat singer.\n*Joaquín Rodrigo - Spanish composer and pianist. \n*Diane Schuur - Grammy winning jazz singer. \n*Charlotta Seuerling\n*George Shearing - British jazz pianist. \n*Tom Sullivan - American musician, author and motivational speaker. The 1982 film If You Could See What I Hear is based on his autobiography. \n*Bertha Tammelin\n*Art Tatum - Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame, partial sight in one eye. \n*Lennie Tristano - Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame, critics choice. \n*Ostap Veresai - Noted kobzar. \n*Helmut Walcha - German organist, who recorded the complete organ works of Bach.\n*Doc Watson - guitarist in several genres. \n*Stevie Wonder - singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Songwriters Hall of Fame inductee. \n*Ravindra Jain - Indian poet and musician, composed several superhit Hindi film songs in 1970s and 80s.\n\nVisual artists \n\n*Esref Armagan - Turkish painter, born blind. \n*John Bramblitt - American painter & writer, lost sight in 2001, paints realistically through touch techniques with intense color. \n*Keith Salmon - English painter & sculptor, blind through diabetes retinopathy. \n\nWriters \n\n*Homer - Ancient Greek orator of the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey. According to legend, he was blind either at birth or due to disease or injury. \n*Jorge Luis Borges - Argentine writer blind in later part of his career. \n*Didymus the Blind - Ecclesiastical writer of Alexandria. \n*Belo Cipriani - Latino writer, blind at the age of 26.\n*Susanne Krahe - German writer and theologian \n*Ed Lucas - Sports writer. \n*John Milton - Poet who was blind for the last 22 years of life. \n*Helen Keller - American writer who was both blind and deaf\n*Ved Mehta - an Indian/American writer who was born in Lahore (now a Pakistani city) to a Hindu family.\n*Nikolai Ostrovsky - a Soviet socialist realist writer. \n*Aldous Huxley - British philosophical writer, partially blind.\n*Taha Hussein - Egyptian writer and intellectual who became blind at the age of three.\n* Jack Holbrook Vance - highly prolific American master of phantasy.\n\nAthletes and sportspersons \n\n*Lisa Banta - Goalball player. \n*Anthony Clarke (athlete) - World class Judoka. \n*Chris Holmes (swimmer) - He has won multiple Paralympic gold medals for swimming. \n*Cedric Jones - American football player, blind in one eye. \n*Eoin O'Sullivan - Blind basketball player, American football player/coach. \n*Marla Runyan - Legally blind Olympic and Paralympic runner. \n*Zohar Sharon - Blind golfer. \n*Henry Wanyoike - Long-distance runner with 95% vision loss. \n*Trischa Zorn - Swimmer who's the most successful athlete in the history of the Paralympic Games. \n\nEngineers \n\n*John Metcalf\n*T. V. Raman\n\nMathematicians and scientists \n\n*Jacob Bolotin (January 3, 1888 - April 1, 1924), the world's first totally blind physician fully licensed to practice medicine.\n*Gustaf Dalén - Swedish inventor and Nobel Prize winner, who continued to make inventions and lead his company despite being blinded in an accident.\n*Leonhard Euler - Swiss mathematician and physicist who went almost totally blind at fifty-nine, but his productivity on mathematics did not decrease throughout his life.\n*Bernard Morin - topologist from France. \n*Abraham Nemeth - Developed Nemeth Braille for blind students in science and math. \n*Joseph Plateau - Physicist who went blind at forty-two when he gazed too long at the sun. After his blindness his scientific work diminished, but did not entirely end. \n*Lev Pontryagin - Soviet mathematician who went blind at fourteen. He continued mathematical study with the help of his mother Tatyana Andreevna, and made major discoveries in a number of fields of mathematics.\n*Nicholas Saunderson - English mathematician who went blind at the age of twelve months, held in high esteem by Isaac Newton. \n*Claes Wollheim - Swiss scientist of Swedish origin renowned for his work on diabetes.\n\nMedical Professionals \n\n*Dr. Satish Amarnath, an Indian Medical Microbiologist who became totally blind after an acid attack.\n\nPoliticians \n\n*Abdurrahman Wahid otherwise known as Gusdur - former president of Indonesia\n*Richard H. Bernstein - Elected to Wayne State University Board of Governors in Michigan.\n*David Blunkett - Labour Party (UK) politician, former cabinet minister, and Member of Parliament. \n*Kristen Cox - Cabinet secretary in Utah and Maryland. \n*Matthew A. Dunn - Member of the United States House of Representatives. \n*Henry Fawcett - Member of Parliament and Postmaster General of the United Kingdom. \n*Ian Fraser, Baron Fraser of Lonsdale - MP for St Pancras North for eleven non-consecutive years, blinded in World War I. \n*Thomas Gore - US Senator. \n*Louis the Blind, 10th century European king, blinded after being captured.\n*Colin Low, Baron Low of Dalston, Member of the British House of Lords.\n*Floyd Morris, President of the Senate of Jamaica \n*David Paterson - Governor of New York.[http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/03/14/first-legally-blind-governor-not-quite/index.html The New York Times blog]\n*Bob C. Riley - An acting governor of Arkansas.\n*Thomas D. Schall - A US Senator from Minnesota, blinded by an electrical shock before his time in office. \n* Vasily II of Russia, the 15th century Grand Prince of Moscow\n* Béla the Blind, the 12th century King of Hungary \n* Enrico Dandolo, 12th and 13th century 42nd Doge of Venice\n\nPolitical activists \n\n*Shelley Davis - American lawyer and labor advocate.\n*Chen Guangcheng - Lawyer and Ramon Magsaysay Award winner was imprisoned in China on 22 April 2012, Chen escaped from house arrest.[43]. \n*Jacques Lusseyran, French author and political activist during World War II. \n\nSaints \n\n*Lutgardis - Catholic saint, blind in the last 11 years of her life. \n*Surdas - Hindu saint, devotional poet and singer who lived during reign of king Akbar (1542–1606).\n\nDiplomats \n\n*Mariyam Cementwala - political officer at the US embassy in New Delhi. \n*Beno Zephine N L - Indian Foreign Service officer.\n\nOthers \n\n*Mary Ingalls - sister of Laura Ingalls Wilder, author.\n*Gary O'Donoghue - political correspondent for the BBC.\n*Ed Walker - lifelong radio show host/humorist, Washington, DC\n*Akbar Khan - Singer, Composer, Writer and a Banker honored with National Award in 1989, Rajasthan, India. \n*Ashish Goyal - first blind trader in finance\n*Bill Cosby - former comedian \n\nFictional \n\n*Daredevil - Blind Marvel Comics superhero \n*Geordi La Forge was blind since birth but uses a VISOR and later ocular implants that allow him to see the electromagnetic spectrum. The character was created by Gene Roddenberry as a positive role model for the disabled.\n*Toph Bei Fong from the show Avatar: The Last Airbender was born blind, but uses her Earthbending abilities to sense vibrations and \"see\" things that are in contact with the earth. For this reason, she hates flying and sailing, as she lacks contact with the ground and is truly blind.\n*Tommy, the titular character of an album by The Who. His blindness, along with his deafness and muteness, are actually psychosomatic.\n*Phillip Enright - Main character of The Cay who becomes temporarily blind due to a concussion.\n*Jerec was a Star Wars character who served Emperor Palpatine as an Inquisitor. A Miraluka, he was born without eyes.\n*Tahl, a love interest of Qui-Gon Jinn, was rendered blind after being held captive. However, with the use of the Force, she was able to compensate for her blindness.\n*Halcyon \"Hal\" Green, a character from the short story \"The Diary of Luke Castellan\" of the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series, was a blind seer who antagonist Luke Castellan befriended long before his fall from grace."
]
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{
"description": [
"Al Hibbler; Distinctive Jazz Singer With Ellington Band; More stars in... ... Which other stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame have connections to Al Hibbler?",
"Musicians with Disabilities ... Adams did not let his disability stop him. ... 23. AL HIBBLER - Blind Audio - Unchained Melody."
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"Al Hibbler - Hollywood Star Walk - Los Angeles Times\nHollywood Star Walk\nDied April 24, 2001 in Chicago, Ill.\nAl Hibbler, a singer with an idiosyncratic baritone style, was known for his work with the Duke Ellington Orchestra in the 1940s and early '50s.\nA versatile singer who could handle ballads, standards and, at times, an earthy blues number, Hibbler also used a style that Ellington called \"tonal pantomime.\" In this style, Hibbler affected a Cockney accent, which he would often punctuate with odd tonal distortions and growls.\nAnd while tonal pantomime was popular with audiences, Leonard Feather expressed the view of many jazz critics that the affectation did little to enhance Hibbler's ability to sing a first-rate blues song or a vibrant unmannered ballad.\nBorn in Little Rock, Ark., and blind from birth, Hibbler attended the Conservatory for the Blind in his hometown and sang in the school's choir.\nAfter winning an amateur talent contest in Memphis, Hibbler started his own band in San Antonio before joining Jay McShann's big band in 1942. A year later, Hibbler started an eight-year association with Ellington. During the Ellington years, he won the Downbeat magazine award as best band vocalist and the New Star Award from Esquire magazine.\nAppearing on several Ellington recordings, he was known for his renditions of songs such as \"Do Nothing Til You Hear From Me\" and \"I'm Just a Lucky So and So.\"\nHibbler left the Ellington organization in 1951 in an apparent dispute over his desire to freelance. He went on to record with Ellington's son, Mercer, as well as with Billy Taylor, Count Basie, Gerald Wilson and Rahsaan Roland Kirk.\nHis versions of \"The Very Thought of You,\" \"Stardust\" and \"Unchained Melody\" became popular favorites, with \"Unchained Melody\" hitting No. 3 on the record charts.\nIn the early 1960s, Hibbler was one of the first artists signed by Frank Sinatra to record on his new label, Reprise.\nActive in the civil rights movement, Hibbler led demonstrators in desegregation marches in 1963 in downtown Birmingham, Ala. But while others in the protest march were jailed by the city's public safety commissioner, Eugene \"Bull\" Conner, Hibbler was detained briefly and released because he was blind.\nHibbler was disappointed at the police response, saying: \"I went downtown simply to be arrested, but they even segregated me. . . . That is segregation at its highest level.\"\nIn 1971, Hibbler performed \"When the Saints Go Marching In\" at the funeral of jazz trumpeter Louis Armstrong.\n— Jon Thurber in the Los Angeles Times April 28, 2001\nRelated",
"Musicians With Disabilities Top 25 Americans\nMusicians With Disabilities Top 25 Americans\nThese are the most famous musicians with disabilities from the United States.They are the Top 25 American musicians with disabilities from the Electrofied Era. The disability and the artist's success and contrubtion to American popular music are listed.\nSTAR TRACKS\nSTAR/TRACKS- American Blues legend Johnny Winter dies in Switzerland at age 70 following performances in Austria. He and his brother Edgar are among the elite Blues guitarist of the 20th. Century. Since 1988 he has been in the Blues Foundation Hall Of Fame. To learn more about Johnny and view a video scroll down to artist 38 on the list.\nSaturday, November 7, 2015\n1. Introduction\nMusicians with Disabilities - The Top 25 Americans\nHandicapped musicians, physically challenged musicians, mentally/emotionally challenged musicians, musicians with disabilities, its all the same, a serious inconvenience to finding success in life. These are the Greatest, Best, Most Famous or the Top 25 American Musicians with Disabilities of the Electrofied Era*. They had an extra hurdle to leap to find success.The musicians on this list have had to cope with, being Bipolar, having Polio, permanent disabling injuries, Birth Defects, Multiple Sclerosis, Blindness, Hearing loss, Speech impediments, Spina Bifida, Albinism, Lupus, Asthma, Anorexia Nervosa, Dyslexia, and Vitiligo. These musicians have found it within themselves to say, \"YES, I CAN\". They have pushed themselves to the limit and have beat the odds. They are not only an inspiration to people with disabilities but are also an inspiration to those facing what seems to be overwhelming odds. They all have experienced and understand failure, but have refused to accept the word, can't. If you are looking for hope and inspiration you have come to the right place. These people and their music can and will provide both.\n2. Directory\n5. TOP 40\n40. Paul Pena (1950 - 2005) - Blind\nHe has a history in Jazz, Folk, Blues and Rock 'n' Roll. He graduated from the Perkins School for the Blind and attended Clark University. He is best remembered for writing the song \"Jet Airliner\" which the Steve Miller Band turned into a mega hit. He recorded with stars like Bonnie Raitt and Jerry Garcia (Graetful Dead) among-st others.\nFor more on Paul Pena CLICK\n \n39. Teddy Pedergrass (1950 - 2010) Paralyzed\nHe was an established Soul singer having been the lead singer of Harold Melvin and The Blue Notes. He also had developed as a solo artist. In 1982 at the pinnacle of his career he was involved in an auto accident which left him paralyzed from the chest down. His star power began to fade following the accident. He did continue to release singles and albums for most of the remainder of the century. He was not one to give up. He did manage to chart several songs after his accident and had several albums do well. He died of cancer. His ranking is based on his post accident career.\n38. Johnny Winter - Albinism (photophobia)(1944 - 2014)\nHe is a Blues/Rock guitarist and singer. He has well over a dozen albums to his name and numerous others as producer for other artists. He has worked with many of the biggest names in the music industry. He performed at Woodstock. Some of the people he worked with were Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin and Muddy Waters. He also performed with his brother Edgar. He has produced several Grammy Award winning albums. His older brother Edgar is also on this list.\nFor more on Johnny Winter CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\n37. Doc Watson (1923 - 2012) - Blind\nArthel Lane \"Doc\" Watson is a musicians musician. He is an eight time Gammy award winner. This includes the prestigious Lifetime Achievement Award. He has over 50 albums to his credit. He is not well known outside of the South except in professional musicians circles where he is highly regarded. He has helped to keep popular, Southern music art forms. He is most famous for his guitar styling and his work in Bluegrass, Country, Gospel and the Blues. He attended the Morehead (North Carolina) School for the Blind. He is the recipient of the National Medal of Arts, presented to him by President Bill Clinton.\nFor more on Doc Watson CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\n36. Jimmy Scott a.k.a. \"Little \" Jimmy Scott - Kallmann's Syndrome\nHis medical disability has both hurt and helped Jimmy in the music industry. It has helped in that it prevented him from reaching puberty and as a result he has an unusually high contralto voice. This condition has profound effect on the sociological and psychological development of the person coping with the genetic disorder. The failure to mature sexually is a problem that the vast majority of the population can not grasp, making it difficult for a person with the problem to fit in society. The ailment results in the loss of smell and can cause deformities. He faced the challenges and became a highly respected Jazz vocalist performing with some of the biggest names in the business, Lou Reed, Lionel Hampton and Wynton Marsalis to name a few.\n35. Ginny Owens - Blind\nShe is a Christian/Gospel singer. Ginny has a degree in music education from Belmont University. Her music has been featured on the television series \"Felicity\" and \"Roswell\". She has over a half dozen albums to her credit. The Christian music industry has awarded her three Dove Awards.\nFor more on Ginny Owens CLICK\n \n34. Vic Chesnutt - (1964 - 2009) paralyzed and wheel chair bound\nHe has is best known for Country. He was severely injured in a car accident that basically left him wheel chair bound. It did not stop him from being a singer/songwriter. Some of his material was very dark in tone and other songs were mysterious in nature, but what they all were, just plain good.\n33. David Sanborn - Polio\nVIDEO - Chicago Song\nToday Polio is a ll but eradicated in the United States and the industrialized world. That was not the case when David was a young child. Polio attacked his chest and he is lucky to have survived. It restricted his ability to breath. He took up the saxophone to improve his breathing. Today, Jazz, and the world is blessed by the music of a man who said, \"I Can'.\n32. Art Tatum (1909 - 1956) - Blind\nArt was not totally blind. His vision was little more than light perception. At a very early age he taught himself to play the piano. Both parents were skilled musicians. During his high school years he attended the Ohio School for the Blind. He studied braille and music. He has over four dozen albums to his credit. His piano styling has had a lasting impact on Jazz musicians. He is noted for his impressive speed playing of the piano. he has been inducted into the The Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame He has been called \"The Greatest Jazz Pianist of all time\". He was honored after his death by being given the prestigious Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. \nFor more on Art Tatum CLICK\nVIDEO - Fall\nA degenerative disease that often results in death. It has in recent years become more of a chronic disease that is manageable but remains potentially dangerous. For a musician that leads a frantic lifestyle on the road this is a disease that can restrict a popular artist from meeting obligations and performing to top ability. Most people would not even try. Clay is another of a multitude of minorities that perform Country music which runs counter to the the stereotype of Country music. Clay is clearly a fighter.\n30. Clarence Carter - Blind\nHe attended the Alabama School for the Blind and earned a degree in music from Alabama State College. Like the Blind Boys of Alabama, he had to contend with segregation and racial discrimination early in his career. He gained his fame in the Blues genre. He had the hits \"Patches\", \"Slip Away\" and the mobile DJ favorite \"Strokin\". The 1991 \"Strokin' was not a true blues song. It was much closer to Disco which is ironic in that some believe that Disco nearly killed Carter's career.\nFor more on Clarence Carter CLICK\nVIDEO - Somebody's Knockin'\nCountry music star that also performs Gospel. As a youth she had the vision of becoming a recording star. Blindness was an inconvenience not a roadblock. She has faith in herself and in God. She has not only over come her disability but she also gives back to the community with her time and talent.\n Her Hits included \"Somebody's Knockin'\", \"Rich Man\", \"Mis'ry River\", \"I Wanna Be Around\", and \"Anybody Else's Heart But Mine\". \nFor more on Terri Gibbs CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\n28. Diane Schuur - Blind\nTwo time Grammy award winning Jazz singer. She was a student at the Washington State School for the Blind. While she was self taught on the piano, at the school she got a formal education in music. She has had several hit albums in the Jazz genre. While Jazz is her forte, she has performed in nearly every popular genre.\nFor more on Diane Schuur CLICK\nVIDEO - Wonderwall (Live)\nHe is a Country music star challenged with hearing loss. In a field where singing on pitch and being in the right key is important so to then is hearing. Adams did not let his disability stop him. He has helped to broaden the appeal of Country/Rock.\n26. SAMMY DAVIS Jr.- Blind in one eye\nVIDEO - Candy Man (Live)\nSome would say he had three strikes against him. He was Black, Jewish and Blind in one eye. He sang, \"The Candyman can,\" and he did. He could belt out a Pop Standard with the best of them. He was a member of the notorious \"Rat Pack\". Frank Sinatra, Joey Bishop, Sammy Davis Jr. and Dean Martin they set the standard for entertainment on the Las Vegas Strip. Perhaps more than any performers they saved Pop Standards from extinction during the crushing assault of Rock 'n' Roll. He like the others in the \"Rat Pack\" was doing Television, and films to help keep his career alive. The \"Rat Pack\" was multi-talented, able to act, sing and dance. They were also comedians. Some of his were \"Hey There, \"That Old Black Magic\", \"What Kind Of Fool Am I\", \"The Shelter Of Your Arms\", \"I Got To Be Me\", and \"The Candy Man\". He can be heard on over 50 albums. \nFor more on Sammy Davis CLICK\n6. TOP 25 WITH VIDEOS\n25. BILL WITHERS - Stuttering\nVideo - Ain't No Sunshine\nWhen it came to getting the word out he did. The \"Lean On Me\" guy over came his speech impediment to become a successful singing star. He learned that when striving for success that \"to know\" is, and \"no\" is not the answer. There are few who can equal the soulful vocals of this talented and determined artist.\n24. Itzhak Perlman - Polio\nVIDEO - Schindler's List\nHe was born in what is today Israel. At age four he contracted Polio and lost the use of his legs. By age 13 he immigrated to the United States. He had studied the violin in Israel. In The U.S. he did further study at Juilliard. He has become one of the worlds greatest violinists. He travels the world performing. He was awarded the Medal of Liberty by President Ronald Reagan and President Bill Clinton awarded him the National Metal of Arts. Beside being one of the world's greatest violinist he is also one the most respected teachers of the instrument. His work has required him to live and work in numerous countries. He has been called \"A Citizen of the World\". \n23. AL HIBBLER - Blind\nAudio - Unchained Melody\nHe had a string of hits performed in the Pop Standard style. The religious themed \"He\" and the secular \"Unchained Melody\" were big hits for him and latter for the Righteous Brothers. He set the standard. While he could not see he was not \"short sighted\" and forged a path to success. Al was one of the last of the great Pop Standard crooners before Rock 'n' Roll nearly destroyed the genre. He was a dedicated activist for civil rights. He had nearly 20 albums to his credit. \nFor more on Al Hibbler CLICK\n100 American Pop Standards songs 60 and 5.\n22. Sir George Shearing, OBE - Blind\nHe was born in England (United Kingdom) and attended a school for the blind. He, as an adult immigrated to the United States following World War II. He became one of the world's greatest jazz composer and musician. He recorded around 100 albums. He is best remembered for the song \"Lullaby of Birdland\". He is among the Top Ten Blind American musicians. He literally invented the modern Jazz quintet sound melding The piano, Vibes, electric guitar, bass and drums, with the piano (doing lead), vibes and electric guitar playing melody in harmony with the piano. He had joint citizenship in the United Kingdom and the United States.\nFor more on George Shearing CLICK\nSee Artist #8 on the list.\n21. ROSEMARY CLOONEY - Bipolar\nVideo - Come On-A My House (Live - 1981)\nWhile most of us have our \"ups\" and \"downs\" the bipolar/Manic-depressive can have massive mood swings that can inhibit them from doing their work and living a normal life. It is more than just coping with days of feeling really good and days of being severely depressed. It can profoundly effect matters of judgment, concentration, and decision making. A break down in the late 1960's due to her bipolar condition lead to her being hospitalized for several years. She ultimately returned to record and perform again. After her hospitalization she recorded and released over 25 albums. Most artist would be happy to have a dozen albums in a lifetime. She was one of the consummate female Pop Standards and Jazz singers of the 20th. century. Yes, her nephew is actor George Clooney.\n \n VIDEO - Frankenstein\nThe song \"Frankenstein\" was one of the most popular instrumentals of the 20th. Century making The Top 100 American Instrumentals. Albinism is the lack of pigmentation in the skin and hair. This also means in the Retina of the Eye. Lack of pigmentation frequently means poor visual acuity and photophobia. When people think of visual impairment, they think of reduced visual acuity. They are right, but they also think that more light is needed in many cases for a person to see clearly. People with photophobia usually need less light. Edgar Winter performs on stage with intense light aimed at him and his band. People in the audience are flashing cameras. All of this can be very painful to the eyes. Photophobia usually means the more light the less you see. It is similar to an over exposed photo in which you can't see anything. Bright stage lighting can create \"White Blindness\" it can also be painful. Edgar is credited with having come up with the idea of putting a strap, like a guitar strap, (see video) on an electronic keyboard. This idea gave the keyboardist more flexibility when it came to being a stage entertainer. He has nearly 20 albums to his credit. Some of his singles were \"River's Risin'\", \"Free Ride\", \"Frankenstein\",and \"Hangin' Around\". His biggest LP's were \"They Come Out At Night\" and \"Shock Treatment\".\nFor more on Edgar Winter and this song CLICK\nVIDEO - Every Rose Has It's Thorn\nHe is a multi-talented entertainer who is a singer-songwriter, director, actor, screenwriter and reality TV star. He was the front man for the Rock band Poison and is perhaps best known for the song \"Every Rose Has Its Thorn\". He has several albums as a solo artist. He has had diabetes since the age of six. He was injured during the Tony Awards show in 2009 and has survived a brain hemorrhage since which he said was caused by the incident at the Tony Awards. He gives of his time and talent in support of our troops and their families. He has also raised money for the American Diabetes Association.\n18, HANK WILLIAMS - Spina Bifida \nVIDEO - Hey Good Lookin'\nHe virtually created modern Country music during the Electrofied Era. He profoundly influenced the emergence of Rockabilly and thus Rock 'n' Roll. His songs have been recorded by the biggest names in music, Ray Charles, Frank Sinatra and Elvis Presley. Spina Bifida is a painful ailment as the result of a birth defect where the spine does not properly close. There is often intense pain associated with it. Other common problems associated with it are poor bladder and bowl control. Depending on the severity of the birth defect it can cause problems with the legs and pelvic area which can result in restricted mobility. For more on Hank Williams CLICK\nVIDEO - Just Waling In The Rain\nHe is most famous for the songs \"Cry\" and \"Walking In The Rain\". He foreshadowed the coming Rock Era. He did not let his hearing impairment keep him from singing. Some have speculated that it contributed to his singing style. He sang full voice (power vocals) nearly all the time and often definitively split words up by their syllables. This helped to create a unique singing style that separated him from the other crooners of the day. Power vocals would become a trademark for Rock singers. When viewing the video notice the hearing aid.\nFor more on Johnny Ray CLICK\nVIDEO - Feliz Navidad (Live)\nBorn a Puerto Rican/American and blind, Jose has become one of America's best known entertainers internationally. He has a strong following in Europe and especially in Latin America. When people think of great American guitar artists they think of Duane Eddy, The Ventures, Jimi Hendrix, Eddie VanHalen and others, over looking one of the truly great guitar artist, Jose Feliciano. He belongs in the upper echelon of the great guitarist of our time. His version of the national anthem performed at Tiger Stadium in Detroit in the late 1960's was controversial at the time but has become recognized as one of great interpretation's of the song. In the United States he is best known for his million selling hit \"Light My Fire\" and the Christmas classic \"Feliz Navidad\" He has over 50 singles and over 50 albums to his credit. He helped to mainstream Latin music influence on Rock 'n' Roll. Some of his singles were \"Chico And The Man\", \"Light My Fire\", \"Goin' Crazy\", \"Suzie Q\", \"Hi-Heel Sneakers\" and \"Hey Baby\".\nFor more on Jose Feliciano CLICK\nRock \"n\" Roll All Nite by KISS (Paul Stanley- star on right eye)\nHe was born with microtia which resulted in the right ear not developing properly and leaving him deaf in that ear. This also meant a deformed ear which left him open for ridicule and teasing. Paul faced several hurdles in rising to stardom as the front man of KISS. He had a mentally ill sister and parents which were not always supportive of his goals. The deformity and hearing loss were such a problem he devised a plan to not only cope but to succeed. He set out to make one small success after another building courage and confidence with each little victory in life. He became one of America's premier Rock singers. He also became a songwriter, painter, and author. He clearly believes \"Can do\" beats \"Can not\" by one bite at a time. Some of the songs KISS is best known for are \"Beth\", \"Rock 'n' Roll All Nite\", \"Forever\", \"Calling Dr. Love\", \"Christine Sixteen\", \"Detroit Rock City\" and \"Hard Luck Woman\". Paul is in the Rock 'n' Roll Hall of Fame as a member of KISS. They were inducted in 2014 and it was long over due. \n14. MEL TILLIS - Stuttering\nVIDEO - Coca Cola Cowboy\nCountry music opened their doors to let him in, but like any area of business he had to prove himself. Stuttering was a problem for Mel Tillis from childhood. His speech impediment did not hurt his ability to sing, but clearly he had to convince people he could sing. Personal appearances and radio and TV interviews would also be a problem. He has over come, and can be proud that his daughter Pam Tillis has had a successful singing career.\n13. KENNY G. - Asthma\nVIDEO - Songbird\nPlaying a wind instrument requires the full power of the lungs. If you have asthma that can be a real problem. You never know when an attack will occur or how severe it will be. Touring and performing in different venues exposes the asthma suffer to all kinds of unknown hazards. To become a world famous recording artist with asthma is a great accomplishment, but one who has done it playing a wind instrument is an even greater achievement. Since the heyday of Duane Eddy, Henry Mancini, and the Ventures the instrumental has found little success in the popular music world. Kenny G. nearly single handedly brought it back For more on Kenny G. click\nVIDEO - Smokey Mountain Rain (Live in Branson, MO.)\nBorn with a visual impairment Ronnie soon lost all vision and entered the state school for the blind in North Carolina. Ronnie believed excessive disciplinary measures left a lasting impact on him, but the school promoted the development of his musical talents. He learned the basics of music theory by studying classical music. He listened to Country, Gospel and R&B radio. Ronnie attended a college briefly before leaving to become a professional musician. He worked with some of the biggest names in music, Ray Charles, Stevie Wonder and Elvis Presley. He played piano on Elvis Presley's hit song \"Kentucky Rain\". Despite coming from abject poverty and blindness he has succeeded. Most people don't know that his first recordings were in the R&B/Soul music field. Finding little success there he turned to Country, where he found a home. He had a string of blockbuster Country hits with several crossing over into Pop/Rock. He is very versatile. Ronnie released an album of Pop Standards \"Just For A Thrill\" which included great versions of \"Teach Me Tonight\" and \"I Don't Want Nobody To Have My Love But You\". His hit \"Lost In The Fifties Tonight\" displayed his ability to perform Doo Wop styled Rock. He has had over forty Top Ten singles in the country genre. He has also released over forty albums. He did not let poverty, blindness, his mother's desertion of him, or music stereotyping keep him from finding his full musical talent. Some of his hits are \"Smokey Mountain Rain\", \"(There's) No Gettin' Over Me\", \"Any Day Now\", \"Stranger In My House\", \"Make No Mistake, She's Mine\" (with Kenny Rogers), \"He Got You\", \"Day Dreams About Night Things\", \"(I'm A) Stand By Your Woman Man\", \"It Was Almost Like A Song\" and \"Only One Love In My Life\".\nFor more on Ronnie Milsap CLICK\nVIDEO - Boom Boom Pow\nHe is a Filipino/American . Those that are legally blind live in a no mans land. The world views people as either sighted or blind. Trying to comprehend the gray in-between is difficult because there are so many variants. Peoples expectations of what you can or cannot do are constantly being challenged by reality. When you succeed at something they think you are faking your blindness and when you fail at something they think you are using your vision as an excuse not to do things. Alan has for the most part been able to over come the misperceptions of his visual capabilities and he has come to terms with his visual limitations. He has forged ahead to be the successful Rapper for one of the most successful American bands in the last fifteen years.\nFor more on apl.de.ap (Alan Pineda Lindo Jr. CLICK\nVIDEO - Un-Break My Heart\nToni Braxton is one of the must famous people with Lupus. This debilitating disease is where the person with it usually looks the picture of health. Toni has the most dangerous form of Lupus (SLE - Systemic Lupus) in which the auto-immune system attacks the body. The heart, lungs, joints, kidneys and the central nervous system are common targets. Lupus is a serious chronic disease that can be life threatening. It is very difficult to plan ones life. The Lupus patient ability to function, fatigue and pain levels, can change hourly or they can be fine for weeks, months even years and then all of a sudden they are knocking on heavens door. There is no known cure and the medications are often fraught with serious hazards. Most sufferers experience pain and many with very high levels. Toni has experienced some of the more traumatic aspects of the disease. She has suffered from pericarditis, an inflammation of the lining of the heart. It is painful and life threatening. The disease is very difficult to diagnose and many people go for years before finally being accurately diagnosed. Ultra violet light, florescent lights and sun light, is potentially dangerous and have been known to cause the disease to flare up. The recent banning of incandescent lights will make life more difficult for people with Lupus that are impacted by Ultra Violet light. Touring and performing will be a constant problem for Toni and could even be life threatening.\n8. KAREN CARPENTER (Primary vocalist of the Carpenters) - Anorexia Nervosa\nVideo - We've Only Just Begun\nKaren was a very successful singing star with more than just a few hit songs. Some of her hits were \"(They Long To Be) Close To You\", \"We've Only Just Begun\" and \"Hurting Each Other\". Anorexia Nervosa is referred to as an eating disorder, but is more of a physiological disorder. There is as of yet no clearly defined cause for the problem, but there has been some studies suggesting a genetic link. Treatment is difficult, because in general it has to be tailored to the individual and there are no all purpose drugs. Effectiveness of treatment varies from patient to patient. It is difficult for doctors as well as the patient. It is generally believed that this disorder was in part responsible for her untimely death at age thirty two.\n \n VIDEO - Believe\nCher has had a long and illustrious career. Success as a singing star began in the mid 1960's as a part of Sonny & Cher. She, and her partner and latter husband Sonny Bono, had a string of hits. By the mid seventies their marriage began to fail. She continued her career as a singer and Sonny would eventually become a Republican Congressman from California. He died while in office as the result of a skiing accident. Cher is a Democrat. After their break up she had numerous relationships. Her dyslexia has not stopped her and she has also found success in acting, appearing in several films. For more on Cher click\nVideo - Grease\nDuring the 1970's he suffered hearing loss. It was at this time he recorded the hit songs \"My Eyes Adored You\", \"Swearin' to God\", and \"Grease\". Due to new surgical techniques he has had some improvement in his hearing. He is best known for his work with the group the Four Seasons (aka The Wonder Who) He also had a very successful solo career. Frankie Valli's roots was in Doo Wop. He transformed into mainstream Rock, Pop Standards and Disco/Electronic Music. The life of Frankie Valli & The four Seasons is presented in the stage play/musical, \"The Jersey Boys\".\nFor more on Frankie Valli CLICK\n100 American Pop Standards see songs 47, 46, & 3\n5. BRIAN WILSON (solo artist & with The Beach Boys)- Hearing Impaired\nAUDIO - Good Vibrations\nBrian fulfilled the dream of Les Paul, Inventor of the electric guitar and eight track recording equipment, of turning the recording studio into an instrument. Some believe that his work on the song \"Good Vibrations\" in the studio was impart due to his hearing disability. Working in the confines of the studio he could shut out all ambient noise. This allowed him to set volumes, tones, pitches etc.at his best hearing ability. He could concentrate on one sound at a time. Virtually everyone in the music industry recognizes \"Good Vibrations\" as a breakthrough in recording technology. His approach to recording profoundly impacted the recording industry. Its greatest influence would be on the rise of Disco/Electronic Music.The Beach Boys were one of the must successful recording acts of all time. Brian was one of the most influential of the Beach Boys. The 2015 film \"Love & Mercy\" is about Brian Wilson. It tackles his drug issues, hearing lose and production work in the recording studio. For more on Brian Wilson click\n100 Most Important American Songs see songs 5 and 1.\n4. Les Paul (1915 - 2009)- disabled right arm\n2. VIDEO - Les Paul & Jose Feliciano at 90th Birthday Party for Les Paul \nLes Paul the inventor of the solid body electric guitar was nearly killed in 1948 in a car accident on old Route 66 in Oklahoma. His injuries were so severe the doctors talked of amputating his right arm. It was ultimately agreed they would try and save the arm but the bones would have to be set in such a way that he would never be able to change its position He had the bones set so the arm was always at a near 90 degree angle. This would allow him to play the guitar, but he would have very limited movement. He would have to learn to play the guitar all over again. He would go on to sell tens of millions of recordings and be recognized as one of the greatest guitarist of all time. The Rock 'n' Roll Hall of Fame has named him one of the \"architects\" of Rock 'n' Roll and thus he has a permanent display.\nFor more on Les Paul CLICK\nVIDEO - What'd I Say (Live)\nRay Charles was born into poverty and began to lose his sight at an early age. By the age of seven he was blind. Ray attended the Florida School for the Blind where he learned the basics in music. His studies surrounded Classical music. With this base and his growing interest in Jazz and Blues he began to develop his musical style. That style was heavily influenced by the great Nat King Cole. Ray finally came out on his own with the recordings of \"I Got A Woman\" and \"What'd I Say\". Ray never let his blindness stand in his way. He went on to become one of the greatest recording artist of all time. In the era of Rock and Pop Soul he still believed in the Big Band and Pop Standards. He was also a pitch man for Pepsi and did several jingles for the cola brand. His recording career included Big Band, Pop Standards, Jazz, R&B and Country. He loved how music allowed him complete freedom of expression. Some of his hits are \"I can't Stop Loving You\", \"Your Cheatin' Heart\", \"You Are My sunshine\", \"Busted\", \"Born To Lose\", \"I'm Movin' On\", \"What i'd Say\", \"Unchain My Heart\", \"You Don't Know Me\", \"Crying Time\", \"Together Again\", \"Booty Butt\", \"Yesterday\", \"Eleanor Rigby\", \"Lets Go Get Stoned\", \"Here We Go Again\", \"Take These Chains From My Heart\", \"Ruby\" and \"Sticks and Stones\". \nFor more on Ray Charles CLICK\n100 Most Important American Songs see songs 38,31, and also 68, 58, 33, 28.\n2. STEVIE WONDER - Blind\nVIDEO - Superstition \n One of America's most creative songwriters and performers. He has contributed to the growth and development of Soul and Pop music. He has not let his music be pigeon holed into just one genre. Some today credit or blame him for vocal styling of contemporary pop music. Many of his songs require \"vocal gymnastics\" and some listeners have complained that the singers sounds like they have the \"stomach flu\". His style of writing and performing has influenced composers and performers from Jazz to Country. What ever your opinion he has had a big impact on the modern music scene. Here are some of his hits \"Fingertips\", \"Overjoyed\", \"Uptight (everything's alright)\", \"Blowin' In The Wind\", \"I Was Made To Love Her\", 'Skeletons\", \"Part Time Lover\", \"Sir Duke\", \"Master blaster (Jammin')\"', \"I Wish\", \"Ebony And Ivory\" (with Paul McCartney), \"I Just called To Say I Love you\", \"Isn't She Lovely\", \"Superstition\", \"Send One Your Love\", \"Do I Do\", \"You Are The Sunshine Of My Life\", \"Boogie On Reggae Woman\", \"Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours\", \"Higher ground\", \"For Once In My Life\", and \"Living For The City\". \nFor more on Stevie Wonder CLICK\n100 Most Important American Songs see songs 38 and 28.\n1. MICHAEL JACKSON (1958 - 2009)(solo artist & with The Jackson Five) - Lupus & Vitiligo\nVIDEO - Billie Jean ((Live)\nOne of the most famous celebrities with Lupus and Vitiligo is Michael Jackson. His odd behavior may not have been odd after all. Lets start with the famous white glove. It may have been introduced to cover the discoloration of his hand from the disease Vitiligo. The disease causes discoloration and skin blotches. It is unsightly. For a person who performs in public it was a serious problem. He battled this skin problem and the under educated of both Black and White Americans perceived his slowly turning white as a elaborate bleaching method to disavow being black. Nothing could have been further from the truth. He was proud of his racial heritage as much as he was proud of his national heritage. Those who suffer from Lupus are profoundly impacted from Ultra Violet light from the sun and florescent lights. This would explain why he carried an umbrella. He needed to keep the sun off his skin. The combination of both afflictions would explain most of his public behavioral issues. Lupus symptoms and conditions are unpredictable and can strike suddenly. The normal response to Lupus often seems odd to those who do not have the illness. For more on Michael Jackson click\nDrugs, Booze, Death - American Musicians see artist 2\n7. Honorable Mention\nKim Wickes - Blind\nShe is a Korean/American blinded in the Korean War. She was adopted by Americans and grew up in Indiana. She attended the Indiana School for the Blind in Indianapolis. She has two degrees from Indiana University and studied music in Vienna, Austria. Her music is faith based as she is a singing evangelist and she sings in an operatic style. She tours the world performing and has several albums to her credit.\nfor more on Kim Wickes CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians \nLefty Williams - Birth Defect\nHe was born without his right hand. He is a songwriter and guitarist. In order to be able to play the guitar he needed a way to be able to use his right arm. He and his maternal grandfather invented a pick that could be attached to his right arm. They worked on it and found ways to improve it. This is reflective of his attitude \"Never give up\". He graduated from Atlanta Institute of Music and then taught there for several years. His music interest is varied but his love is Jazz fusion and Rock. He tours performing his music.\nReverend Gary Davis (1896 - 1972) - Blind\nHe lost sight very early in life. He was highly regarded for his Ragtime, Blues and Gospel guitar work. He was equally capable on banjo. In the mid thirties he converted to Christianity and became a Baptist minster. He backed away from playing the Blues. When the Electrofied Era began in 1940 he was performing Gospel in Churches and on streetcorners in New York. In the 1950's he began to seriously record. There have been three dozen albums produced of his music. From the fifties to near the end of his life he also taught guitar. \nFor more on Rev. Gary Davis CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nPatrick Henry Hughes - Multiple Disabilities\nHe is a multi-instrument musician and vocalist. He was born with extremely limited movement in both the arms and legs. He also has no eyes. He is an alumnus of the University of Louisville where he played in the Marching Band with the help of his father. He is best known for his cover of great Pop Standards and performing Country.\nFor more on Patrick CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nBill Clements - Amputee\nHe is a bass guitarist from Kalamazoo, Michigan. He was inspired to play bass at age 13 by listening to the great bass players from Canada, Ireland, the United Kingdom and the United States. His right hand and forearm were amputated as the result of an industrial accident. This did not stop him from becoming a successful bass player in the Rock and Jazz genres. He has also had an ongoing battle with alcohol. He has proven that disabilities are not dead end barriers.\nBlind John Davis - (1913 - 1985) Blind\nHe was born in Mississippi in 1913 and lost his sight by age nine while living Chacago. He father owned \"speakeasies\" in Chicago during prohibition. It was there that he honed his musical interests and skill on the piano. He played Blues/Jazz/ Boogie-Woogie piano. He worked for several record labels playing the piano for other artists at recording sessions. He latter recorded on his own and toured Europe.\nFor more on Blind John Davis CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nMark Goffeney a.k.a. Big Toe - Birth Defect (No Arms)\nHe is a San Diego based musician who plays the bass with his feet. He is the vocalist and bassist for \"Big Toe Band\".\nJoesph Manone - Amputee\nHe lost his arm in an accident at age ten. He was a famous trumpet player and composer of \"Tar Paper Stomp\" the song that would become the basis of the most popular instrumental of the Electrofied Era, \"In The Mood\". He played with Benny Goodman and Bing Crosby. He became a fixture in Las Vegas as a casino entertainer. For more on the song \"In The Mood\". Click\n2. Top 100 American Instrumentals\nThe Blind Boys Of Alabama - Blind\nOne of America's leading Gospel groups. They formed in 1939 during the segregation era of American History The Blind Boys formed at the Alabama Institute for the Negro Blind. In building a career they had to over come segregation as much as their blindness. They have had a lasting impact on R&B , Rock and even Country. They have performed or recorded with some of the biggest names in the Electrofied Era.\nFor more on The Blind Boys of Alabama CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nMatt Savage - Autism\nHe is an autistic savant from Massachusetts. He is essentially self taught on the piano. Matt is a rising Jazz phenomenon.just beginning a life career. Autism creates serious problems in socialization which is so important in any career. He is not letting that stand in his way, and we will be hearing more from him in the future.\nConnie Francis - Bipolar\nNote - She is by any standard an international superstar. Connie Francis was one of the very biggest American recording artist of the last half of the 20th. century. She was among the first of the Rock era to record in foreign languages, Italian, Spanish, German and Japanese. She is in the elite of American recording artists which are true Global Artists. She does not make the Top 25 because she was diagnosed with Bipolar problems long after her biggest career success. Her career in the United States was huge from 1958 to 1965 but dropped off after that. She did have success internationally in the years that followed. In 1974 while on tour in New York (state) she was brutally raped and nearly killed. This happened about a year after a miscarriage. In 1977 her aunt was murdered. Then in 1981 her brother was murdered by a Mafia hit man. These four events and stress over her career are believed to have contributed to her being diagnosed with a Bipolar disorder. In the years following treatment she toured and performed for her fans around the world. She made several appearances in Las Vegas.\nMarcus Roberts - Blind\nMarcus lost his sight to cataracts by age five. He was self taught on the piano. He attended the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind, and then went on to college at Florida State University. He is a highly regarded Jazz pianist and was Keyboard player with world famous Jazz artist, Wynton Marsalis. On his own he has made well over two dozen recordings. He is an Assistant Professor of Jazz Studies at Florida State University.\nFor more on Marcus Roberts CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nJimmy McGriff - Multiple Sclerosis\nNote - Like Connie Francis his illness was diagnosed after the high point of his career Most of his musical accomplishments occurred long before his diagnosis. He was one of America's greatest artist on the Hammond Organ. His musical expertise was in Jazz/Blues and Disco/Electronic Music. He was diagnosed with Multiple Sclerosis in 1996 and died in 2008 from complications of the disease.\nVictoria Williams - Multiple Sclerosis\nShe has toured with Neil Young and Lou Reed. She was in the film \"Even Cowgirls Get The Blues\". Her musical style is hard to pigeon hole. She is a guitarist that is capable of crossing genres and mixing genres. She tends to play a cross of Folk and Alternative Rock.\nTom Sullivan - Blind\nActor, author and musician. He had a recurring role in the television series \"Highway to Heaven\". He sang on the show and on other nationally televised events including performing the \"Star Spangled Banner\" at a Super Bowl and Indianapolis 500 events. He also has at least one album sold nationally\nFor more on Tom Sullivan CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nCharles Atkins - Blind\nHe attended the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind and the New York institute for the Blind and Florida State University. It was at FSU he earned a degree in music education. Charles is famous for his Blues styling. While in Florida he worked with Sam and Dave world famous R&B artists. He has made his own mark as an artist and is currently performing with his own band \"The Charles Atkins Band. \nFor more on Charles Atkins CLICK\nVIDEO - Smile by Mandy Harvey\nSince birth she has dealt with increasing hearing loss. While attending Colorado State University she went totally deaf. She had been focusing her education on music. With her loss of hearing she dropped out of school to deal with health issues and regroup. She ultimately came back to music. She has recorded several albums. Her forte is singing Jazz which is difficult for the normal hearing person. Her success in this area of music sets her apart from many singers. She has at least four albums to her credit.\nAlec Templeton (1909 - 1963) - Blind\nHe was a Welsh/American. He was born blind. He immigrated in 1936 to the United States. He hosted several national radio shows and recorded for several large record companies. His music was Jazz and the Classics. \nFor more on Alec Templeton CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nJessica Callahan - Blind\nShe is Pop singer/songwriter who is also proficient on the keyboard. She is truly a rising talent in the Pop music genre. She has two albums under her belt and more on the way. She is best known in the Las Angeles area but her music is gaining recognition across America.\nFor more on Jessica Callahan CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nLennie Tristono (1919 - 1978) - Blind\nHe was born in Chicago and was one of the nations leading Jazz educators. He acknowledged fellow brother in blindness, Art Tatum, as influential in his music. He also credited Charlie Parker and Nat King Cole. He had more than a hand full of recordings to his credit. \nFor more on Lennie Tristono CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nBlind \"Willie\" McTell (1898 - 1959) - Blind\nHe was born blind and attended the Georgia School for the Blind. He was a singer/songwriter of the blues was also a Gospel singer. In 1940, the beginning of the Electrofied Era, he made a series of recordings for the Library of Congress.He made other recordings in 40's and 50's for record companies. His music influenced Bob Dylan and the Allman Brothers Band among others. \nFor more on Blind \"Willie\" McTell CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nLachi - Legally Blind\nShe is a singer/songwriter from New York. As America has matured musically it has become increasingly difficult to classify artists because of the plethora of genres and sub-genres that have evolved out of our national experience. Lachi falls into that circumstance. She clearly has strong Jazz ties and yet she often has a strong Alternative Rock sound and then she can have a Pop Standards feel. She has three albums to her credit, but her career is just getting up a head of steam. There is certainly more to come. \nFor more on Lachi CLICK\nTop 40 Blind and Visually Impaired American Musicians\nSonny Terry (1911 - 1986) - Blind\nHe lost most of his sight by age 16 from injuries. His vision was little more than light perception. He was a harmonica and Juice Harp (Jaw Harp) player who played varying forms of the Blues and Folk music. Sonny also performed vocals. He made his first recordings in 1940 at the beginning of the Electrofied Era. he worked with Woody Guthrie and Moses Asch. He has over a half dozen albums and has been inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame.\nFor more Sonny Terry CLICK\nNathan Beaugard (189? - 1970) - Blind\nHe was a singer guitar player, Blues legend, born blind in Mississippi. \nFor more on Nathan CLICK"
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"Which writer said, "" An atheist is a man who has no invisible means of support?"""
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"Said to a graduate student worried about others stealing the ... An atheist is a man who has no invisible means of support. ... English writer of Sherlock Holmes ...",
"\"An Atheist is a man who has no invisible means of support.\" ... ethnologist, and writer. Said to have spoken 29 European ... there's no bigger atheist than me."
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"Quotations\nQuotations\nAssembled quotations about science, anti-science, evolution, creationism, religion, atheism, agnosticism, skepticism, mathematics, computer science, politics, censorship, law, academia, etc. Send corrections or suggestions to the address at the end of the list.\nNote that inclusion of a quotation does not necessarily imply agreement with the point of view expressed therein. In fact, some quotes are deliberately included for their fatuousness. It is up to the reader to discover which quotes they are.\nI assembled this page because of my dissatisfaction with well-known compendiums of quotations such as Bartlett's and The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations. Neither of these, it seems to me, captures the kinds of quotations that appeal to the skeptical and scientific mind.\nHoward Aiken\nAmerican computer pioneer.\nDon't worry about people stealing an idea. If it's original, you will have to ram it down their throats.\nSaid to a graduate student worried about others stealing the results in his thesis. Quoted in Robert Slater, Portraits in Silicon , page 88.\nRichard D. Alexander\nBiologist.\nThe answer to the age-old riddle that even ordinary humans ask themselves [Are people basically selfish, or basically altruistic?] appears to be that we are selfish individualists in the sense and to the extent that this maximizes the survival by reproduction of the genes residing in our own bodies, and we are group altruists in the sense and to the extent that this maximizes the survival by reproduction of the copies of our genes residing in the bodies of others--that is, in the bodies of our genetic relatives, both descendant and non-descendant.\nDarwinism and Human Affairs , University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1979, pages xii-xiii.\nEthan Allen (1738-1789)\nAmerican revolutionary.\nThose who invalidate reason ought seriously to consider whether they argue against reason with or without reason; if with reason, then they establish the principle that they are laboring to dethrone: but if they argue without reason (which, in order to be consistent with themselves they must do), they are out of reach of rational conviction, nor do they deserve a rational argument.\nCited in Carl Sagan, The Demon-Haunted World, Ballantine Books, 1996, p. 255.\nGordon W. Allport (1897-1967)\nProfessor of psychology, Harvard University.\nCollege professors are suspect because whenever emotion is in control, anti-intellectualism prevails.\nFrom The Nature of Prejudice, Doubleday Anchor Books, 1958, p. 246.\nAlphonso the Wise (1221-1289)\nIf the Lord Almighty had consulted me before embarking on Creation, I should have recommended something simpler.\nQuoted in J. D. Murray, Mathematical Biology, Springer-Verlag, 1989.\nSusan B. Anthony (1820-1906)\nCautious, careful people, always casting about to preserve their reputation and social standing, never can bring about reform. Those who are really in earnest must be willing to be anything or nothing in the world's estimation, and publicly and privately, in season and out, avow their sympathy with despised and persecuted ideas and their advocates, and bear the consequences.\n1860. From Lynn Sherr, Failure is Impossible: Susan B. Anthony in Her Own Words (1995).\nThe religious persecution of the ages has been done under what was claimed to be the command of God. I distrust those people who know so well what God wants them to do to their fellows, because it always coincides with their own desires.\nA defense of Elizabeth Cady Stanton against a motion to repudiate her Woman's Bible at a meeting of the National-American Woman Suffrage Association 1896 Convention, HWS, IV (1902), p. 263.\nIsaac Asimov\nProperly read, the bible is the most potent force for atheism ever conceived.\n1966. From Stanley Asimov, ed., Yours, Isaac Asimov, Doubleday, 1995, p. 316.\nI am prejudiced against religion because I know the history of religion, and it is the history of human misery and of black crimes.\n1976. From Stanley Asimov, ed., Yours, Isaac Asimov, Doubleday, 1995, p. 319.\nMy feeling is, quite simply, that if there is a God, He has done such a bad job that He isn't worth discussing.\n1990. From Stanley Asimov, ed., Yours, Isaac Asimov, Doubleday, 1995, p. 319.\nSt. Augustine (354-430)\nIt very often happens there is some question as to the earth or sky, or other elements of this world ... respecting which, one who is not a Christian has knowledge ... and it is very disgraceful and mischievous and of all things to be carefully avoided, that a Christian speaking of such matters as being according to the Christian Scriptures, should be heard by an unbeliever talking such nonsense that the unbeliever perceiving him to be as wide from the mark as east from west, can hardly restrain himself from laughing.\nA. J. Ayer\nPhilosopher.\nAn entity which is neither observable nor fulfills any explanatory function can have no interest for us.\nEmmon Bach\nAmerican linguist.\nThe best argument in favor of the universality of natural language expressive power is the possibility of translation. The best argument against universality is the impossibility of translation.\nFrom a Distinguished Faculty Lecture in the 1980's, as reported by Barbara Partee.\nJeremy Bentham (1748 - 1832)\nIn the darkness of secrecy, sinister and evil in every shape shall have full swing. Only in proportion as publicity has place can any of the checks applicable to judicial injustice operate. Where there is no publicity, there is no justice. Publicity is the very soul of justice. It is the keenest spur to exertion and the surest of all guards against improbity. It keeps the judge himself while trying under trial.\nAmbrose Bierce (1842 - 1914?)\nConservative (n.) - A statesman who is enamoured of existing evils, as distinguished from the Liberal, who wishes to replace them with others.\nThe Devil's Dictionary\nCynic (n.) - a blackguard whose faulty vision sees things as they are, not as they ought to be.\nThe Devil's Dictionary\nFaith (n.) - Belief without evidence in what is told by one who speaks without knowledge, of things without parallel.\nThe Devil's Dictionary\n\"Josh Billings\" (Henry Wheeler Shaw) (1818-1885)\nAmerican humorist.\nI honestly beleave it iz better tew know nothing than two know what ain't so.\nThe Complete Works of Josh Billings, 1876, p. 286.\nBion (c. 325 - c. 255 B.C.E.)\nBoys throw stones at frogs in sport, but the frogs do not die in sport. They die in earnest.\nFrom Plutarch, Water and Land Animals, 7.\nNiels Henrik David Bohr (1885-1962)\nDanish physicist.\nIt is, indeed, perhaps the greatest prospect of humanistic studies to contribute through an increasing knowledge of the history of cultural development to that gradual removal of prejudices which is the common aim of all science.\nFrom his Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge, Wiley, 1958, p. 31.\nRobert H. Bork\nFomer judge and failed US Supreme Court nominee.\nThe fossil record is proving a major embarrassment to evolution. Though there is ample evidence of evolution and adaptation to environment within species, there is not evidence of the gradual change that is supposed to slowly change one species into another.\nDemonstrating his deep mastery of biology, from Slouching Towards Gomorrah, page 294.\nLouis Brandeis (1856-1941)\nU. S. Supreme Court Justice.\nThe greatest dangers to liberty lurk in insidious encroachment by men of zeal, well meaning but without understanding.\nOlmstead v. United States, 277 U. S. 438,479 [1928].\nFear of serious injury cannot alone justify suppression of free speech and assembly. Men feared witches and burnt women. It is the function of speech to free men from the bondage of irrational fears.\nWhitney v. California, 274 U. S. 357 [1927].\nDaniel R. Brooks\nEvolution has been the unifying concept of biology for more than 130 years.\nDaniel R. Brooks and Deborah A. McLennan, Phylogeny, Ecology, and Behavior: A Research Program in Comparative Biology.\nMartin Buber\nI'm not sure I can take your advice. You are dealing with English gentlemen. We are dealing with monsters.\nThe philosopher's response to Mahatma Gandhi's suggestion that passive resistance be used to combat the Nazi government in Germany, as was used against the British in India.\nJohn Buchan (1875-1940)\nAn atheist is a man who has no invisible means of support.\nPatrick Buchanan\nAmerican speechwriter and Republican political candidate.\nOur culture is superior because our religion is Christianity and that is the truth that makes men free.\nSpeech to the Christian Coalition. Quoted in the New York Times, September 12 1992, Sect. 1, page 20.\nMacfarlane Burnet\nAustralian scientist, winner of the 1960 Nobel Prize in Medicine.\n[Of gene therapy] The chance of doing this will remain infinitely small to the last syllable of recorded time.\nRemark, 1971 (cf. New York Times Book Review, October 19 1997, p. 33). Gene therapy clinical trials began in 1990.\nGeorge Herbert Walker Bush\nFormer U. S. President.\nNo, I don't know that atheists should be considered as citizens, nor should they be considered patriots. This is one nation under God.\nDemonstrating his understanding of the Bill of Rights to Illinois atheist David Sherman, in response to a question posed at O'Hare airport in Chicago. From Free Inquiry 8 (4), (Fall 1988), 16. Note: some have cast doubt on the accuracy of this quote.\nSamuel Butler (1612-1680)\nEnglish satirical poet.\nA credulous mind ... finds most delight in believing strange things, and the stranger they are the easier they pass with him; but never regards those that are plain and feasible, for every man can believe such.\nCharacters, 1667-1669.\nAda Augusta Byron, Countess of Lovelace\nIn almost every computation a great variety of arrangements for the succession of the processes is possible, and various considerations must influence the selections amongst them for the purposes of a calculating engine. One essential object is to choose that arrangement which shall tend to reduce to a minimum the time necessary for completing the calculation.\nMany persons who are not conversant with mathematical studies imagine that because the business of [Babbage's Analytical Engine] is to give its results in numerical notation, the nature of its processes must consequently be arithmetical and numerical, rather than algebraical and analytical. This is an error. The engine can arrange and combine its numerical quantities exactly as if they were letters or any other general symbols; and it fact it might bring out its results in algebraical notation, were provisions made accordingly.\n1844.\nHerb Caen\nHumor columnist for the San Francisco Chronicle.\nThe trouble with born-again Christians is that they are an even bigger pain the second time around.\nCharles, Baron Bowen (1835-1894)\nThe rain it raineth on the just\nAnd also on the unjust fella:\nBut chiefly on the just, because\nThe unjust steals the just's umbrella.\nCited in the New York Times, March 3 1985, letter to the editor, by Barbara Celarent.\nJohn Maurice Clark (1884-1963)\nKnowledge is the only instrument of production that is not subject to diminishing returns.\nFrom Studies in the Economics of Overhead Costs, University of Chicago Press, 1923, p. 120.\nArthur C. [Charles] Clarke (1917-)\nI would defend the liberty of consenting adult creationists to practice whatever intellectual perversions they like in the privacy of their own homes; but it is also necessary to protect the young and innocent.\nFrom 1984: Spring, page 265.\nWhen a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible, he is almost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong.\nFrom a chapter entitled \"Hazards of Prophecy: The Failure of Imagination\", in his book Profiles of the Future, 1962, revised 1973, 1984. Also known as Clarke's First Law; see the chapter entitled \"Technology and the Future\" in Report on Planet Three and Other Speculations, Harper & Row, 1972, pp. 138-139. Also see Jeremy Bernstein, \"Profiles: Out of the Ego Chamber\", New Yorker 45 (25) (August 9 1969), 40-65.\nCharles Alfred Coulson (1910-1974)\nThere is no `God of the gaps' to take over at those strategic places where science fails; and the reason is that gaps of this sort have the unpreventable habit of shrinking.\nFrom Science and Christian Belief, University of North Carolina Press, 1955, p. 20.\nFrancis Crick (1916-2004)\nBritish biologist and Nobel prize-winner.\nAnybody who believes that the earth is less than 10,000 years old needs psychiatric help.\nQuoted in Richard Dawkins, \"Fossil fool\", New Statesman & Society, Vol. 5, No. 217 (August 28, 1992), p. 33.\nEveryone likes to show that philosophers are wrong.\nFrom The Astonishing Hypothesis, Simon & Schuster, 1994, p. 54.\nPhilosophers have had such a poor record over the last two thousand years that they would do better to show a certain modesty rather than the lofty superiority that they usually display.\nFrom The Astonishing Hypothesis, Simon & Schuster, 1994, p. 258.\nClarence Darrow (1857-1938)\nThe fear of God is not the beginning of wisdom. The fear of God is the death of wisdom. Skepticism and doubt lead to study and investigation, and investigation is the beginning of wisdom.\nFrom a Columbus, Ohio symposium, March 12, 1929. Reprinted in Freethought Today, Vol. 21, No. 1 (January/February 2004), pp. 12-13.\nCharles Darwin (1809-1882)\nEnglish naturalist.\n[I]gnorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge: it is those who know little, and not those who know much, who so positively assert that this or that problem will never be solved by science.\nIntroduction, The Descent of Man, 1871.\nFor my own part I would as soon be descended from that heroic little monkey, who braved his dreaded enemy in order to save the life of his keeper; or from that old baboon, who, descending from the mountains, carried away in triumph his young comrade from a crowd of astonished dogs -- as from a savage who delights to torture his enemies, offers up bloody sacrifices, practices infanticide without remorse, treats his wives like slaves, knows no decency, and is haunted by the grossest superstitions.\nThe Descent of Man, 1871, chapter 21.\nRichard Dawkins (1941-)\nBritish evolutionary biologist.\nIn a universe of blind physical forces and genetic replication, some people are going to get hurt, other people are going to get lucky, and you won't find any rhyme or reason in it, nor any justice. The universe we observe has precisely the properties we should expect if there is, at bottom, no design, no purpose, no evil and no good, nothing but blind, pitiless indifference.\nRiver Out of Eden\n...it is true that scientists, more than others, impress their peers by admitting their mistakes.\nA formative influence on my undergraduate self was the response of a respected elder statesmen of the Oxford Zoology Department when an American visitor had just publicly disproved his favorite theory. The old man strode to the front of the lecture hall, shook the American warmly by the hand and declared in ringing, emotional tones: \"My dear fellow, I wish to thank you. I have been wrong these fifteen years.\" And we clapped our hands red. Can you imagine a government minister's being cheered in the House of Commons for a similar admission? \"Resign, resign\" is a much more likely response!\nFrom \"Science, Delusion and the the Appetite for Wonder\", Reports of the National Center for Science Education, January/February 1997, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 8-14.\nIn practice, no civilized person uses Scripture as ultimate authority for moral reasoning.\nFree Inquiry, Summer 1997.\nRobertson Davies (1913-1995)\nCanadian author.\nWe [Canadians] don't go for heroes. As soon as a man begins to achieve some sort of high stature, we want to cut him down and get rid of him, embarrass him.\nQuoted in New York Times, December 15, 1994, page A4.\nBenjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)\nYes, I am a Jew, and when the ancestors of the Right Honorable Gentleman were brutal savages on an unknown island, mine were priests in the temple of Solomon.\nA reply to an Irish opponent who taunted him about his Jewish heritage, 1837.\nAll sensible men are of the same religion. But what religion that is, no sensible man will ever say.\nTheodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975)\nNothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.\nTitle of article, 1973 (see below).\nThe business of proving evolution has reached a stage when it is futile for biologists to work merely to discover more and more evidence of evolution. Those who choose to believe that God created every biological species separately in the state we observe them, but made them in a way calculated to lead us to the conclusion that they are the products of an evolutionary development are obviously not open to argument. All that can be said is that their belief is an implicit blasphemy, for it imputes to God an appalling deviousness.\n\"Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution\", American Biology Teacher vol. 35 (March 1973), reprinted in Evolution versus Creationism , J. Peter Zetterberg ed., ORYX Press, Phoenix, 1983.\nRobert J. Dole (1923-)\nFormer U. S. Senator and unsuccessful presidential candidate.\nPoliticians like Steve Forbes and Bill Clinton are uncomfortable with religious conservatives. They think people of faith have no place in politics, but they're wrong.\nNew York Times, February 10, 1996, page A1. Here Dole is exhibiting his characteristic meanness and dishonesty -- Clinton is a Southern Baptist who attends church every week.\nRussell F. Doolittle\n...the next time you hear creationists railing about the \"impossibility\" of making a particular protein, whether hemoglobin or ribonuclease or cytochrome c, you can smile wryly and know that they are nowhere near a consideration of the real issues.\nFrom \"Probability and the origin of life\", in Laurie R. Godfrey, Scientists Confront Creationism, W. W. Norton and Company, New York, 1983.\nSir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930)\nEnglish writer of Sherlock Holmes mysteries.\nHow often have I said to you that when you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth?\nThe Sign of Four.\nYet we must exhaust all natural explanation before we fall back upon such a theory as this.\nThe Adventure of the Devil's Foot .\n\"Is there any point to which you would wish to draw my attention?\"\n\"To the curious incident of the dog in the night-time.\"\n\"The dog did nothing in the night-time.\"\n\"That was the curious incident,\" remarked Sherlock Holmes.\nSilver Blaze .\nRonald M. Dworkin\n'Balanced' is code for 'denied': a right to free speech that must be 'balanced' against so exhaustive a list of other supposed values means a right that can be exercised only when those in power judge that the speech in question is innocuous to them.\nFrom \"Forked tongues, faked doctrines\", Index on Censorship, March 1997.\nAlbert Einstein (1879-1955)\nThe word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honourable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this.\nLetter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, January 3 1954, sold at auction, May 2008.\nGreat spirits have always found violent opposition from mediocrities. The latter cannot understand it when a man does not thoughtlessly submit to hereditary prejudices but honestly and courageously uses his intelligence.\nAppendix to Why I am Not a Christian by Bertrand Russell, written by Prof. Paul Edwards, New York University.\nThe scientist finds his reward in what Henri Poincare calls the joy of comprehension, and not in the possibilities of application to which any discovery may lead.\nFrom The Quotable Einstein, Alice Calaprice, ed., Princeton University Press, 1996.\nI cannot imagine a God who rewards and punishes the objects of his own creation.\nThe World as I See It.\nA man's ethical behavior should be based effectually on sympathy, education, and social ties and needs; no religious basis is necessary. Man would indeed be in a poor way if he had to be restrained by fear of punishment and hope of reward after death.\n\"Religion and Science\", New York Times Magazine, November 9, 1930.\nI cannot conceive of a personal God who would directly influence the actions of individuals, or would directly sit in judgment on creatures of his own creation. I cannot do this in spite of the fact that mechanistic causality has, to a certain extent, been placed in doubt by modern science.\nMy religiosity consists in a humble admiration of the infinitely superior spirit that reveals itself in the little that we, with our weak and transitory understanding, can comprehend of reality. Morality is of the highest importance -- but for us, not for God.\n5 August 1927. Albert Einstein: The Human Side, Helen Dukas and Banesh Hoffmann, eds., Princeton University Press, 1979, p. 58.\nIt was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious convictions, a lie which is being systematically repeated. I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly. If something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for the structure of the world so far as our science can reveal it.\n24 March 1954. In Albert Einstein: The Human Side, Helen Dukas and Banesh Hoffmann, eds., Princeton University Press, 1979, p. 38.\nEpicurus (341 BCE-270 BCE)\nGreek philosopher.\nIs God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then he is not omnipotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Then whence cometh evil? Is he neither able nor willing? Then why call him God?\nRichard Feynman\nAmerican physicist.\nThe first principle is that you must not fool yourself—and you are the easiest person to fool.\nAllan Fotheringham (1932-)\nGrown-up nations do not need, as head of state, a woman - however nice - who lives across a large ocean in a castle in a foreign country.\nLast Page First, 2000.\nAnatole France (1844-1924)\nThe law, in its majestic equality, forbids the rich as well as the poor to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal bread.\nAnatole France [Jacques Anatole Francois Thibault] Le Lys Rouge, 1894, ch. 7.\nFelix Frankfurter (1882-1965)\nU. S. Supreme Court Justice.\n[Of Michigan's anti-obscenity legislation] The State insists that, by thus quarantining the general reading public against books not too rugged for grown men and women in order to shield juvenile innocence, it is exercising its power to promote the general welfare. Surely, this is to burn the house to roast the pig...\nWe have before us legislation not reasonably restricted to the evil with which it is said to deal. The incidence of this enactment is to reduce the adult population of Michigan to reading only what is fit for children.\nButler v. Michigan 352 U.S. 380 (1957).\nOtto Robert Frisch (1904-1979)\nAustrian-British physicist.\nUranium burning stations, plutonium breeders, even reactive lithium in hydrogen power stations will always be dangerous to human beings. I look forward to a world where men no longer depend on fossil fuels -- not on coal, wood, oil -- nor uranium or hydrogen. It may take a long time, but man must break the bad habit of using whatever happens to be lying around to meet his growing energy needs. In the end, he will be compelled to stop his wanderings into such thickets of danger and to turn back to the source of all energy. He must turn to the sun. I am sure that, finally, there will be dramatic advance in development of techniques for storing and using this natural font of power.\nQuoted in Lennard Bickel, The Deadly Element: The Story of Uranium, Stein and Day, 1979, p. 288.\nDavid Frost\nA conservative is someone who demands a square deal for the rich.\nAttributed.\nRobert Fulford (1932-)\nCanadian columnist.\nMetaphor, the life of language, can be the death of meaning. It should be used in moderation, like vodka. Writers drunk on metaphor can forget they are conveying information and ideas.\nGlobe & Mail (Toronto), December 4 1996.\nJohn Kenneth Galbraith (1908-)\nThe modern conservative is engaged in one of man's oldest exercises in moral philosophy, that is the search for a superior moral justification for selfishness.\nIn all life one should comfort the afflicted, but verily, also, one should afflict the comfortable, and especially when they are comfortably, contentedly, even happily wrong.\nThe Guardian (London), July 28, 1989.\nGalileo Galilei (1564-1642)\nI do not feel obliged to believe that same God who endowed us with sense, reason, and intellect had intended for us to forgo their use.\nI. [Irving] J. [John] Good\nWhen I hear the word `gun' I reach for my culture.\nFrom I. J. Good, The Scientist Speculates: An Anthology of Partly-Baked Ideas , Capricorn Books, New York, 1965, p. 188. [A play on the line \"When I hear the word `culture', I reach for my gun\", frequently attributed to Hermann Goering. Actually, this line originated in Schlageter, a 1933 German play. See Ralph Keyes' Nice Guys Finish Seventh.]\nStephen Jay Gould (1941-2002)\nAmerican paleontologist.\n\"Creation science\" has not entered the curriculum for a reason so simple and so basic that we often forget to mention it: because it is false, and because good teachers understand exactly why it is false. What could be more destructive of that most fragile yet most precious commodity in our entire intellectual heritage -- good teaching -- than a bill forcing honorable teachers to sully their sacred trust by granting equal treatment to a doctrine not only known to be false, but calculated to undermine any general understanding of science as an enterprise?\nThe Skeptical Inquirer, Vol. 12, page 186.\nIt is infuriating to be quoted again and again by creationists -- whether through design or stupidity, I do not know -- as admitting that the fossil record includes no transitional forms. Transitional forms are generally lacking at the species level but are abundant between larger groups. The evolution from reptiles to mammals....is well documented.\n\"Evolution as Fact and Theory\", Discover, May 1981.\nThe rise of creationism is politics, pure and simple; it represents one issue (and by no means the major concern) of the resurgent evangelical right. Arguments that seemed kooky just a decade ago have reentered the mainstream.\nThe basic attack of modern creationists falls apart on two general counts before we even reach the supposed factual details of their assault against evolution. First, they play upon a vernacular misunderstanding of the word `theory' to convey the false impression that we evolutionists are covering up the rotten core of our edifice. Second, they misuse a popular philosophy of science to argue that they are behaving scientifically in attacking evolution. Yet the same philosophy demonstrates that their own belief is not science, and that `scientific creationism' is a meaningless and self-contradictory phrase, an example of what Orwell called `newspeak'.\nIn the American vernacular, `theory' often means `imperfect fact' -- part of a hierarchy of confidence running downhill from fact to theory to hypothesis to guess. Thus creationists can (and do) argue: evolution is `only' a theory, and intense debate now rages about many aspects of the theory. If evolution is less than a fact, and scientists can't even make up their minds about the theory, then what confidence can we have in it? ...\nWell, evolution is a theory. It is also a fact. And facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty. Facts are the world's data. Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts. Facts do not go away while scientists debate rival theories for explaining them. Einstein's theory of gravitation replaced Newton's, but apples did not suspend themselves in mid-air pending the outcome. And human beings evolved from apelike ancestors whether they did so by Darwin's proposed mechanism or by some other, yet to be discovered.\nMoreover, `fact' does not mean `absolute certainty'. The final proofs of logic and mathematics flow deductively from stated premises and achieve certainty only because they are not about the empirical world. Evolutionists make no claim for perpetual truth, though creationists often do (and then attack us for a style of argument that they themselves favor). In science, \"fact\" can only mean \"confirmed to such a degree that it would be perverse to withhold provisional assent\". I suppose that apples might start to rise tomorrow, but the possibility does not merit equal time in physics classrooms.\n\"Evolution as Fact and Theory\", in Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes, W. W. Norton, 1984.\nJohn Burdon Sanderson Haldane (1892-1964)\nI'd lay down my life for two brothers or eight cousins.\nNew Scientist, 8 Aug 1974, p. 325.\nNow, my suspicion is that the universe is not only queerer than we suppose, but queerer than we can suppose.\nFrom Possible Worlds, 1927.\nA single skeleton of a mammal in Silurian rock would wreck the theory of Evolution.\nFrom Fact and Faith, Watts & Co., London, 1934, p. vi.\n[Religion] endows excerpts from the laws of primitive peoples with an eternal significance, and stands in the way of any attempt to deal with the problem on constructive lines.\nFrom Fact and Faith, Watts & Co., London, 1934, p. viii.\nHe must have an inordinate fondness for beetles.\nAttributed. Said to a clergyman who asked what a life of studying biology revealed about the character of the Creator. See G. Evelyn Hutchinson, Homage to Santa Rosalia, or why are there so many kinds of animals? American Naturalist 93 (1959), 143-159. Also see Stephen Jay Gould's essay, \"A special fondness for beetles\" in his collection, Dinosaur in a Haystack, Harmony Books, New York, 1995.\nButch Hancock (1945--)\nAmerican country/folk musician.\nLife in Lubbock, Texas, taught me two things: One is that God loves you and you're going to burn in Hell. The other is that sex is the most awful, filthy thing on Earth and you should save it for someone you love.\nFrom James Moore, \"The Lies of Texas Are Upon You\", September 4 2009, Huffington Post.\nSam Harris\nAmerican philosopher and writer.\nWe need to cease to reward people for pretending to know things they do not know. And the only area of discourse where we do this is on the subject of God.\nDebate with Rabbi David Wolpe, 2009.\nHeinrich Heine (1797-1856)\nWhere they have burned books, they will end in burning people.\nHippocrates (c. 460 B.C.E. -- 377 B.C.E.)\nGreek physician.\nMen think epilepsy divine, merely because they do not understand it. But if they called everything divine which they do not understand, why, there would be no end of divine things.\nQuoted in Carl Sagan, The Demon-Haunted World, Ballantine Books, 1996, p. 8.\nChristopher Hitchens (1949-)\nIt is of course the height of conceit to believe that there is a divine being who takes a personal and immediate interest in your doings (only astrology comes close to this illusion, with its vulgar assertion that the heavens are arranged for our convenience).\nThe Nation, 259 (4) (July 25/August 1, 1994), p. 115.\nThat which can be asserted without evidence, can be dismissed without evidence.\nOliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. (1841-1935)\nWhen men have realized that time has upset many fighting faiths, they may come to believe even more than they believe the very foundations of their own conduct that the ultimate good desired is better reached by free trade in ideas--that the best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market, and that truth is the only ground upon which their wishes safely can be carried out. That at any rate is the theory of our Constitution. It is an experiment, as all life is an experiment.\nAbrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, 630 [1919].\nEvery idea is an incitement.\nGitlow v. New York, 268 U.S. 652, 673 [1925].\nIf there is any principle of the Constitution that more imperatively calls for attachment than any other it is the principle of free thought -- not free thought for those who agree with us but freedom for the thought that we hate.\nU.S. v. Schwimmer [1928].\nWaterloo! Waterloo! Waterloo! morne plaine!\nLes Châtiments, Livre V. L'autorité est sacrée. XIII. L'Expiation. II.\nTr.: Waterloo! Waterloo! Waterloo! dismal plain!\nDavid Hume (1711-1776)\nScottish philosopher.\nEpicurus's old questions are yet unanswered.\nIs he [God] willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then is he malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?\nDialogues Concerning Natural Religion, Part X.\n[On doctrinaire religions] Men dare not avow, even to their own hearts, the doubts which they entertain on such subjects. They make a merit of implicit faith; and disguise to themselves their real infidelity, by the strongest asseverations and the most positive bigotry.\nQuoted in Carl Sagan, The Demon-Haunted World, Ballantine Books, 1996, p. 207.\nNo testimony is sufficient to establish a miracle, unless the testimony be of such a kind that its falsehood would be more miraculous than the fact which it endeavors to establish.\nAn Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 1748, pt. I, Of Miracles.\nThomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895)\nI assert that a man has no reason to be ashamed of having an ape for a grandfather. If there were an ancestor whom I should feel shame in recalling, it would rather be a man endowed with great ability and a splendid position who used those gifts to obscure the truth.\nAttributed, from the debate with Bishop Wilberforce. The quote may be apocryphal.\nIt is the customary fate of new truths to begin as heresies and to end as superstitions.\nThe Coming of Age of The Origin of Species, 1880.\nLeopold Infeld (1898-1968)\nPolish physicist.\nIt is probably unthinkable that in Canada a scientific lecture would be attended by a premier or a national hero.\nWhy I Left Canada: Reflections on Science and Politics, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978, p. 35.\nIt must be good to die in Toronto. The transition between life and death would be continuous, painless, and scarcely noticeable in this silent town. I dreaded the Sundays and prayed to God that if he chose for me to die in Toronto he would let it be on a Saturday afternoon to save me from one more Toronto Sunday.\nQuest:An Autobiography, Chelsea, 1990, p. 324.\nRobert Ingersoll (1833-1899)\nHands that help are better than lips that pray.\nRobert H. Jackson (1892-1954)\nUS Supreme Court justice.\nThe very purpose of a Bill of Rights was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities ... One's right to life, liberty and property, to free speech, a free press, freedom of worship and assembly and other fundamental rights... depend on the outcome of no elections.\nFlag salute case, 1943.\nIf there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion, or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.\nWest Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 1943.\nWilliam James (1842-1910)\nA great many people think they are thinking when they are merely rearranging their prejudices.\nThomas Jefferson (1743-1826)\nU. S. President.\nShake off all fears of servile prejudices, under which weak minds are servilely crouched. Fix reason firmly in her seat, and call on her tribunal for every fact, every opinion. Question with boldness even the existence of God; because, if there be one, he must more approve of the homage of reason, than that of blindfolded fear.\nLetter to his nephew Peter Carr, August 10, 1787.\nBelieving with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between man and his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legislative powers of government reach actions only, and not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, thus building a wall of separation between Church and State.\nLetter to the Danbury Baptist Association, 1802. From The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. A. E. Bergh, Thomas Jefferson Memorial Assoc. 1907, pp. 281-282.\nSamuel Johnson (1709-1784)\nYour manuscript is both good and original, but the part that is good is not original, and the part that is original is not good.\nAttributed.\nPatriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel.\nFrom Boswell's Life of Johnson, vol. 2, p. 344 (6 Apr 1775).\nJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy\nAssassinated US president, 1960-63.\nI believe in an America where the separation of church and state is absolute --- where no Catholic prelate would tell the President (should he be Catholic) how to act, and no Protestant minister would tell his parishioners for whom to vote --- where no church or church school is granted any public funds or political preference --- and where no man is denied public office merely because his religion differs from the President who might appoint him or the people who might elect him.\nI believe in an America that is officially neither Catholic, Protestant, nor Jewish --- where no public official either requests or accepts instructions on public policy from the Pope, the National Council of Churches or any other ecclesiastical source --- where no religious body seeks to impose its will directly or indirectly upon the general populace or the public acts of its officials --- and where religious liberty is so indivisible that an act against one church is treated as an act against all.\nAddress to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association, Rich Hotel, Houston, Texas, September 12, 1960.\nClark Kerr (1911-)\nThe purpose of a university is to make students safe for ideas -- not ideas safe for students.\nClark Kerr was President of the University of California.\nStephen Cole Kleene (1909-1994)\nAn algorithm is a finite answer to an infinite number of questions.\nAttributed.\nDonald E. Knuth (1938-)\n[In the terminology used for describing trees] Some authors use the feminine designations \"mother, daughter, sister\" instead of \"father, son, brother\"; but for some reason the masculine words seem more professional.\nDonald E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Volume I: Fundamental Algorithms, page 307.\nLeslie Lamport\nA distributed system is one in which the failure of a computer you didn't even know existed can render your own computer unusable.\nFrom an e-mail message dated May 28 1987 . (Thanks to Trevor Grove for pointing this out.) Sometimes quoted as ``A distributed system is one in which I cannot get something done because a machine I've never heard of is down.''\nDerrick Henry Lehmer (1905-1991)\nThe real difficulty lies in the fact that only a finite number of angels can dance on the head of a pin, whereas the mathematician is more apt to be interested in the infinite angel problem only.\nFrom \"Mechanized mathematics\", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 72 (1966) 744.\nTom Lehrer\nAmerican mathematician and satirical songwriter.\nPolitical satire became obsolete when Henry Kissinger was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.\nNew York Times Magazine, November 2 1997, page 50.\nSinclair Lewis\nAmerican novelist.\nI am convinced that everything that is worthwhile in the world has been accomplished by the free, inquiring, critical spirit, and that the preservation of this spirit is more important than any social system whatsoever. But the men of ritual and the men of barbarism are capable of shutting up the men of science and of silencing them forever.\nFrom It Can't Happen Here.\nAbbott Joseph Liebling (1904-1963)\nFreedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one.\nQuoted in Richard Kluger, The Paper: The Life & Death of the NY Herald Tribune, Knopf, 1986.\nMartin Luther (1483-1546)\nGerman Christian theologian.\nReason must be deluded, blinded, and destroyed. Faith must trample underfoot all reason, sense, and understanding, and whatever it sees must be put out of sight and ... know nothing but the word of God.\nV, 1312\nReason is the greatest enemy that faith has; it never comes to the aid of spiritual things, but -- more frequently than not -- struggles against the divine Word, treating with contempt all that emanates from God.\nPeople gave ear to an upstart astrologer [Copernicus] who strove to show that the earth revolves, not the heavens or the firmament, the sun and the moon. Whoever wishes to appear clever must devise some new system, which of all systems is of course the very best. This fool wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy; but sacred scripture tells us [Joshua 10:13] that Joshua commanded the sun to stand still, and not the earth.\nWorks, Volume 22, c. 1543.\nReason is the Devil's greatest whore; by nature and manner of being she is a noxious whore; she is a prostitute, the Devil's appointed whore; whore eaten by scab and leprosy who ought to be trodden under foot and destroyed, she and her wisdom ... Throw dung in her face to make her ugly. She is and she ought to be drowned in baptism... She would deserve, the wretch, to be banished to the filthiest place in the house, to the closets.\nErlangen Edition, v. 16, pp. 142-148.\nTherefore be on your guard against the Jews, knowing that wherever they have their synagogues, nothing is found but a den of devils in which sheer selfglory, conceit, lies, blasphemy, and defaming of God and men are practiced most maliciously and veheming his eyes on them.\nFrom The Jews and Their Lies, 1543.\n... set fire to their synagogues or schools and to bury and cover with dirt whatever will not burn, so that no man will ever again see a stone or cinder of them. This is to be done in honor of our Lord and of Christendom, so that God might see that we are Christians, and do not condone or knowingly tolerate such public lying, cursing, and blaspheming of his Son and of his Christians. For whatever we tolerated in the past unknowingly and I myself was unaware of it will be pardoned by God. But if we, now that we are informed, were to protect and shield such a house for the Jews, existing right before our very nose, in which they lie about, blaspheme, curse, vilify, and defame Christ and us (as was heard above), it would be the same as if we were doing all this and even worse ourselves, as we very well know.\nFrom The Jews and Their Lies, 1543.\nWhat harm would it do, if a man told a good strong lie for the sake of the good and for the Christian church...a lie out of necessity, a useful lie, a helpful lie, such lies would not be against God, he would accept them.\nMax Lenz, ed., Briefwechsel Landgraf Philips des Grossmüthigen von Hessen mit Bucer, S. Hirzel, Leipzig, 1880-91, vol. 1, p. 373.\nRoyce MacGillivray (1936-)\nWe come now to one of the most distinctive characteristics of the Ontario mind. This way of dealing with ideas distinguishes us from the four founding nations. This is, that ideas are, in general, considered as orthodox or heretical, not as true or false. They fail or pass the test not of facts or logic, but of some dogmatic system, normally constructed by the user out of bits and pieces of the other dogmatic systems lying around. This way of dealing with ideas is naturally most evident in those classes of people who use ideas, the intelligentsia, academics, school teachers, journalists, and so forth.\nThe Mind of Ontario, Mika Publishing Company, Belleville, Ontario, 1985, p. 95.\nJohn McCarthy\nArtificial intelligence pioneer.\nAn atheist doesn't have to be someone who thinks he has a proof that there can't be a god. He only has to be someone who believes that the evidence on the God question is at a similar level to the evidence on the werewolf question.\nFrom a posting to Usenet, April 14 1998.\nH. L. Mencken (1880-1956)\nAmerican journalist.\nThe most curious social convention of the great age in which we live is the one to the effect that religious opinions should be respected. Its evil effects must be plain enough to everyone.\nFrom an article \"Immune\", American Mercury, March 1930.\nAs democracy is perfected, the office of President represents, more and more closely, the inner soul of the people. On some great and glorious day, the plain folks of the land will reach their heart's desire at last and the White House will be adorned by a downright moron.\nAnticipating the results of the 2004 US Presidential election.\nWe must respect the other fellow's religion, but only in the sense and to the extent that we respect his theory that his wife is beautiful and his children smart.\nMinority Report : H.L. Mencken's Notebooks, 1956.\nOne horselaugh is worth ten thousand syllogisms.\nFaith may be defined briefly as an illogical belief in the occurrence of the improbable.\nPrejudices, Third Series, 1922, ch. 14.\nGod is the immemorial refuge of the incompetent, the helpless, the miserable. They find not only sanctuary in His arms, but also a kind of superiority, soothing to their macerated egos; He will set them above their betters.\nMinority Report : H.L. Mencken's Notebooks, 1956.\nMen become civilized, not in proportion to their willingness to believe, but in proportion to their readiness to doubt.\nTo sum up: 1. The cosmos is a gigantic fly-wheel making 10,000 revolutions a minute. 2. Man is a sick fly taking a dizzy ride on it. 3. Religion is the theory that the wheel was designed and set spinning to give him the ride.\nCoda from Smart Set, December 1920\nThe effort to reconcile science and religion is almost always made not by theologians, but by scientists unable to shake off the piety they absorbed with their mother's milk.\nMichel Mendès France\nA talk in mathematics should be one of four things: beautiful, deep, surprising... or short.\nRemark, c. 1986.\nThomas Merton\nTrappist monk.\nIt sometimes happens that men who preach most vehemently about evil and the punishment of evil, so that they seem to have practically nothing else on their minds except sin, are really unconscious haters of other men. They think the world does not appreciate them, and this is their way of getting even.\nFrom Seeds of Reflection.\nConservatives are not necessarily stupid, but most stupid people are conservatives.\nJohn Milton\nLet her and Falsehood grapple; who ever knew Truth put to the worse, in a free and open encounter?\nFrom Areopagitica.\nMalcolm Muggeridge (1903-1990)\nNor, as far as I am concerned, is there any recompense in the so-called achievements of science. It is true that in my lifetime more progress has been made in unravelling the composition and the mechanism of the material universe than previously in the whole of recorded history. This does not at all excite my mind, or even my curiosity. The atom has been split; the universe has been discovered, and will soon be explored. Neither achievement has any bearing on what alone interests me -- which is why life exists, and what is the significance, if any, of my minute and so transitory part in it.\nQuoted in Mark Booth, ed., What I Believe, Crossroad Publishing Company, New York, 1984, pp. 63-64. Also in Things Past, ed. by Ian Hunter.\nIsaac Newton\nWe are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearance.\nJohn von Neumann (1903-1957)\nHungarian-American mathematician.\nYou insist that there is something a machine cannot do. If you will tell me precisely what it is that a machine cannot do, then I can always make a machine which will do just that!\nTalk given at Princeton, in 1948, in response to question from the audience (\"But of course, a mere machine can't really think, can it?\"). Quoted in E. T. Jaynes, Probability Theory: The Logic of Science, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 7.\nThomas Paine (1737-1809)\nWhenever we read the obscene stories, the voluptuous debaucheries, the cruel and torturous executions, the unrelenting vindictiveness, with which more than half the bible is filled, it would seem more consistent that we called it the word of a demon than the Word of God. It is a history of wickedness that has served to corrupt and brutalize mankind.\nI do not believe in the creed professed by the Jewish church, by the Roman church, by the Greek church, by the Turkish church, by the Protestant church, nor by any church that I know of. My own mind is my own church. All national institutions of churches, whether Jewish, Christian, or Turkish, appear to me no other than human inventions, set up to terrify and enslave mankind, and monopolize power and profit.\nBlaise Pascal (1623-1662)\nMen never do evil so completely and cheerfully as when they do it from religious conviction.\nFrom Pensées (1670), no. 894.\nEmo Philips (1956-)\nWhen I was a kid, I used to pray every night for a new bike. Then I realised, the Lord doesn't work that way. So I just stole one and asked Him to forgive me ... and I got it!\nSource : the Guardian, 29 September 2005.\nMax Planck (1858-1947)\nGerman physicist.\nA new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.\nScientific Autobiography and Other Papers, Frank Gaynor, transl., pp. 33-34, 1950.\nChet Raymo\nEnglish mathematician and philosopher.\nObviousness is always the enemy of correctness.\nI wish to propose for the reader's favourable consideration a doctrine which may, I fear, appear wildly paradoxical and subversive. The doctrine in question is this: that it is undesirable to believe a proposition when there is no ground whatever for supposing it true, I must of course admit that if such an opinion became common it would completely transform our social life and our political system; since both are at present faultless, this must weigh against it.\nFrom his Sceptical Essays .\nMany people would rather die than think; in fact, most do.\nIf I had control of education, I should expose children to the most vehement and eloquent advocates on all sides of every topical question, who should speak to the schools from the B. B. C. The teacher should afterwards invite the children to summarize the arguments used, and should gently insinuate the view that eloquence is inversely proportional to solid reason. To acquire immunity to eloquence is of the utmost importance to the citizens of a democracy.\nAtlantic Monthly, October 1938.\nIn any case, the argument against the persecution of opinion does not depend upon what the excuse for persecution may be. The argument is that we none of us know all truth, that the discovery of new truth is promoted by free discussion and rendered very difficult by suppression, and that, in the long run, human welfare is increased by the discovery of truth and hindered by action based on error. New truth is often inconvenient to some vested interest; the Protestant doctrine that it is not necessary to fast on Fridays was vehemently resisted by Elizabethan fishmongers. But it is in the interest of the community at large that new truth should be freely promulgated.\nAnd since, at first, it cannot be known whether a new doctrine is true, freedom for new truth involves equal freedom for error.\nReligion and Science, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1935, pp. 262-263.\nAnd if there were a God, I think it very unlikely that He would have such an uneasy vanity as to be offended by those who doubt His existence.\nErnest Rutherford (1871-1937)\nNew Zealand-born English physicist.\nWe cannot control atomic energy to an extent which would be of any value commercially, and I believe we are not likely ever to be able to do so.\nSpeech to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1933. The first commercial nuclear power plant began operation in 1956.\nCarl Sagan (1934-1997)\nAmerican astrophysicist.\nWhere skeptical observation and discussion are suppressed, the truth is hidden. The proponents of such borderline beliefs, when criticized, often point to geniuses of the past who were ridiculed. But the fact that some geniuses were laughed at does not imply that all who are laughed at are geniuses. They laughed at Columbus, they laughed at Fulton, they laughed at the Wright brothers. But they also laughed at Bozo the Clown.\nBroca's Brain, Random House, 1979, p. 64.\nNo contemporary religion and no New Age belief seems to me to take sufficient acount of the grandeur, magnificence, subtlety and intricacy of the Universe revealed by science. The fact that so little of the findings of modern science is prefigured in Scripture to my mind casts further doubt on its divine inspiration.\nThe Demon-Haunted World, Ballantine Books, 1996, p. 35.\nWilliam Shakespeare (1564?-1616)\nTake him and cut him out in little stars,\nAnd he will make the face of heaven so fine\nThat all the world will be in love with night,\nAnd pay no worship to the garish sun.\nRomeo and Juliet, III, ii, 21.\nRoger C. Shank (1946-)\nAmerican computer scientist.\nWhat most people really want to do in a conversation is to tell you their favorite stories about themselves and have you like them for it.\nIn David G. Stork, ed., HAL's Legacy: 2001's Computer as Dream and Reality, MIT Press, 1997, p. 185.\nGeorg Scheutz\nAnd even if the larger and more complete engine [of Babbage] should later on remain the only example of its kind, it would suffice for the needs of the whole world.\nQuoted in Michael Lindgren, Glory and Failure, The Difference Engines of Johann Müller, Charles Babbage, and Georg and Edvard Scheutz, MIT Press, 1990, p. 272.\nGeorge Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)\nEnglish playwright.\nWhen astronomers tell me that a star is so far off that its light takes a thousand years to reach us, the magnitude of the lie seems to me inartistic.\nQuoted by G. K Chesterton, 1910. In Chris Morgan and David Langford, Facts and Fallacies: A Book of Definitive Mistakes and Misguided Predictions, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Toronto, 1981, p. 25.\nThe medical broadcasters and writers of leading articles still keep repeating like parrots that vaccination abolished smallpox, though vaccinia is now killing more children than smallpox.\nEverybody's Political What's What, 1944. Quoted in Chris Morgan and David Langford, Facts and Fallacies: A Book of Definitive Mistakes and Misguided Predictions, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Toronto, 1981, p. 77.\nIn the first frenzy of microbe killing, surgical instruments were dipped in carbolic oil ... Microbes are so fond of carbolic oil that they swarm in it.\nPreface to The Doctor's Dilemma, 1911. Quoted in Chris Morgan and David Langford, Facts and Fallacies: A Book of Definitive Mistakes and Misguided Predictions, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Toronto, 1981, p. 78.\nYou know, Tolstoy, like myself, wasn't taken in by superstitions like science and medicine.\nQuoted in Chris Morgan and David Langford, Facts and Fallacies: A Book of Definitive Mistakes and Misguided Predictions, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Toronto, 1981, p. 114.\nThe poor old theater is done for! ... [T]here will be nothing but `talkies' soon.\nQuoted in New York Herald Tribune, August 7, 1930. Quoted in Christopher Cerf and Victor Navasky, The Experts Speak: The Definitive Compendium of Authoritative Misinformation, Pantheon Books, New York, 1984, p. 170.\nThe reasonable man adapts himself to the world; the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore all progress depends on the unreasonable man.\nThe fact that a believer is happier than a skeptic is no more to the point than the fact that a drunken man is happier than a sober one.\nGeorge Gaylord Simpson (1902-)\nAmerican paleontologist.\nOrganic evolution is one of the basic facts and characteristics of the objective world. From one point of view it is the basic thing about that world, because it is the process by which the universe's greatest complexities arise and systematic organization culminates. Being the process by which we ourselves came to be, it is crucial for comprehension of our place in and relationship to the objective world.\nThis View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New York, 1964, p. vii.\nIt is obvious that the great majority of humans throughout history have had grossly, even ridiculously, unrealistic concepts of the world. Man is, among many other things, the mistaken animal, the foolish animal. Other species doubtless have much more limited ideas about the world, but what ideas they do have are much less likely to be wrong and are never foolish. White cats do not denigrate black, and dogs do not ask Baal, Jehovah, or other Semitic gods to perform miracles for them.\nThis View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New York, 1964, p. viii.\nThe influence of Darwin, or more broadly of the concept of evolution, has had effects more truly profound [than other aspects of civilization]. It has literally led us into a different world.\nThis View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New York, 1964, p. 3.\nThe fact -- not theory -- that evolution has occurred and the Darwinian theory as to how it occurred have become so confused in popular opinion that the distinction must be stressed.\nThis View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New York, 1964, p. 10.\nUntil comparatively recently, many -- probably most -- biologists agreed with Darwin that the problem of the origin of life was not yet amenable to scientific study. Now, however, almost all biologists agree that the problem can be attacked scientifically. The consensus is that life did arise naturally from the nonliving and that even the first living things were not specially created.\nThis View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New York, 1964, p. 11.\nFew doubt that his [man's] closest living relatives are the apes. On this subject, by the way, there has been too much pussyfooting. Apologists emphasize that man cannot be a descendant of any living ape -- a statement that is obvious to the verge of imbecility -- and go on to state or imply that man is not really descended from an ape or monkey in popular speech by anyone who saw it... It is pusillanimous if not dishonest for an informed investigator to say otherwise.\nThis View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New York, 1964, p. 12.\nSuppose that the most fundamental and general principle of a science had been known for over a century and had long since become a main basis for understanding and research by scientists in that field. You would surely assume that the principle would be taken as a matter of course by everyone with even a nodding acquaintance with the science. It would obviously be taught everywhere as basic to the science at any level of education. If you think that about biology, however, you are wrong. Evolution is such a principle in biology. Although almost everyone has heard of it, most Americans have only the scantest and most distorted idea of its real nature and significance.\nThis View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New York, 1964, p. 26.\nIt cannot be intellectually honest to undertake to teach a subject but to omit its most important principle. It [teaching biology without evolution] would, nowadays, be like teaching physics but leaving out atoms.\nThis View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New York, 1964, p. 34.\nThe opposition to teaching evolution is, of course, almost always given a religious reason. That may usually be its real basis, but I think it is often a mask, perhaps unconscious, for underlying anti-intellectualism or antiscientism.\nThis View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New York, 1964, p. 35.\nIf a sect does officially insist that its structure of belief demands that evolution be false, then no compromise is possible. An honest and competent biology teacher can only conclude that the sect's beliefs are wrong and that its religion is a false one. It is not the teacher's duty to point this out unnecessarily, but it is certainly his duty not to compromise the point.\nThis View of Life: The World of an Evolutionist, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New York, 1964, p. 35.\nThe question \"What is man?\" is probably the most profound that can be asked by man... The point I want to make now is that all attempts to answer that question before 1859 [when Darwin's Origin of Species was published] are worthless and that we will be better off if we ignore them completely. The reason is that no answer had a solid, objective base until it was recognized that man is the product of evolution from primeval apes and before that through billions of years of gradual but protean change from some spontaneously, that is, naturally, generated primordial monad.\n\"The Biological Nature of Man\", Science 152 (1966), 472-478. The quote appears on page 472.\nUpton Sinclair (1878-1968)\nAmerican writer and muckraker.\nIt is difficult to get a man to understand something, when his salary depends upon his not understanding it!\nI, Candidate for Governor: And How I Got Licked, repr. University of California Press, 1994, p. 109.\nJimmy Swaggart\nAmerican evangelical preacher.\nEvolution is a bankrupt speculative philosophy, not a scientific fact. Only a spiritually bankrupt society could ever believe it. ... Only atheists could accept this Satanic theory.\nMortimer Taube (1910-)\n[Alan Turing displayed] a common form of scientific aberration, namely, the tendency of computer experts to be pontifical about subjects in which they have no competence.\nFrom Computers and Common Sense: The Myth of Thinking Machines, Columbia University Press, p. 51.\nEdwin Way Teale (1899-)\nIt is morally as bad not to care whether a thing is true or not, so long as it makes you feel good, as it is not to care how you got your money as long as you have got it.\nCircle of the Seasons, 1953.\nWilliam Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907)\nWhen you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind: it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science.\nPopular Lectures and Addresses, 1891-4.\nHeavier-than-air flying machines are impossible.\nc. 1895? Quoted in Chris Morgan and David Langford, Facts and Fallacies: A Book of Definitive Mistakes and Misguided Predictions , John Wiley & Sons Canada, Toronto, 1981, p. 28.\nRadio has no future.\nc. 1897? Quoted in Chris Morgan and David Langford, Facts and Fallacies: A Book of Definitive Mistakes and Misguided Predictions, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Toronto, 1981, p. 19.\nX-rays will prove to be a hoax.\nc. 1900? Quoted in Chris Morgan and David Langford, Facts and Fallacies: A Book of Definitive Mistakes and Misguided Predictions , John Wiley & Sons Canada, Toronto, 1981, p. 116. Also in Wayne Coffey, 303 of the World's Worst Predictions, Tribeca Communications, New York, 1983, p. 59, where it is quoted as \"X-rays are a hoax.\"\nRobert Traver (1903-1991)\nWe write to show what life looks like through our own little broken piece of beer bottle.\nAuthor of Anatomy of a Murder, heard on obituary of author on NPR's \"Morning Edition\", March 20, 1991.\nPierre Trudeau (1919-2000)\nCanadian prime minister.\nI've been called worse things by better men.\nIn response to hearing that Nixon had called him an \"asshole\". Reported by Canadian Press, December 8 2008.\nMarcello Truzzi\nAnd when such claims are extraordinary, that is, revolutionary in their implications for established scientific generalizations already accumulated and verified, we must demand extraordinary proof.\nEditorial, The Zetetic, vol. 1 (1) (Fall/Winter 1976), page 3-6. The quote appears on page 4. Often abbreviated to \"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof\".\nAlan Turing\nIn the time of Galileo it was argued that the texts, 'And the sun stood still ... and hasted not to go down about a whole day' (Joshua x. 13) and 'He laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not move at any time' (Psalm cv. 5) were an adequate refutation of the Copernican theory.\nFrom \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\", Mind 59 (October 1950), p. 443.\nMark Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens) (1835-1910)\nAmerican author and humorist.\nAlways do right. This will gratify some people, and astonish the rest.\nTo the Young People's Society, Greenpoint Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn, 1901.\nI heard a Californian student in Heidelberg say, in one of his calmest moods, that he would rather decline two drinks than one German adjective.\n\"The Awful German Language\", from A Tramp Abroad, 1880.\nI believe that our Heavenly Father invented man because he was disappointed in the monkey. I believe that whenever a human being, of even the highest intelligence and culture, delivers an opinion upon a matter apart from his particular and especial line of interest, training and experience, it will always be an opinion of so foolish and so valueless a sort that it can be depended upon to suggest to our Heavenly Father that the human being is another disappointment and that he is no considerable improvement upon the monkey.\nThe Autobiography of Mark Twain.\nMan has been here 32,000 years. That it took a hundred million years to prepare the world for him is proof that that is what it was done for. I suppose it is, I dunno. If the Eiffel Tower were now representing the world's age, the skin of paint on the pinnacle-knob at its summit would represent man's share of that age; and anybody would perceive that that skin was what the tower was built for. I reckon they would, I dunno.\nThe Damned Human Race.\nA lie can travel halfway around the world while the truth is still putting on its shoes.\nAttributed. The real source may be a similar quote from Charles Haddon Spurgeon.\nMichael Valpy\nWhen Gallup asked Canadians a few years ago what they were proudest of in their country, the number one response was the Charter. The Charter has been decried as `Americanizing' us. In fact, it has kept us going.\n(Toronto) Globe & Mail, October 12, 1994, page A2\nFrans de Waal\nDutch primatologist.\nForgiveness is not, as some people seem to believe, a mysterious and sublime idea that we owe to a few millennia of Judeo-Christianity. It did not originate in the minds of people and cannot therefore be appropriated by an ideology or a religion. The fact that monkeys, apes, and humans all engage in reconciliation behavior means that it is probably over thirty million years old, preceding the evolutionary divergence of these primates.\nPeacemaking Among Primates, Harvard University Press, 1990, p. 270.\nJames D. Watson (1928-)\nAmerican biologist and Nobel prize-winner.\nToday, evolution is an accepted fact for everyone but a fundamentalist minority, whose objections are not based on reasoning but on doctrinaire adherence to religious principles.\nFrom the first page of the first chapter of Watson, Hopkins, Roberts, Steitz and Weiner, Molecular Biology of the Gene, Fourth edition, Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, CA, 1987.\nMax Weber (1864-1920)\nGerman sociologist.\nIt is characteristic of patriarchal and of patrimonial authority, which represents a variety of the former, that the system of inviolable norms is considered sacred; an infraction of them would result in magical or religious evils. Side by side with this sytem there is a realm of free arbitrariness and favor of the lord, who in principle judges only in terms of `personal', not `functional', relations. In this sense, traditionalist authority is irrational.\nFrom \"The Social Psychology of the World Religions\", in H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, Oxford University Press, 1958, p. 296.\nSteven Weinberg\nAmerican Nobel laureate, physics.\nThe effort to understand the universe is one of the few things that lifts human life a little above the level of farce, and gives it some of the grace of tragedy.\nFrom The First Three Minutes, 1977.\nThe fact that Newton and Michael Faraday and other scientists of the past were deeply religious shows that religious skepticism is not a prejudice that governed science from the beginning, but a lesson that has been learned through centures of experience in the study of nature.\nFrom Facing Up: Science and Its Cultural Adversaries, Harvard University Press, 2001, pp. 26-27.\nIt seems a bit unfair to my relatives to be murdered in order to provide an opportunity for free will for Germans, but even putting that aside, how does free will account for cancer? Is it an opportunity of free will for tumors?\nFrom Facing Up: Science and Its Cultural Adversaries, Harvard University Press, 2001, p. 240.\nWith or without religion, good people can behave well and bad people can do evil; but for good people to do evil---that takes religion.\nFrom Facing Up: Science and Its Cultural Adversaries, Harvard University Press, 2001, p. 242.\nPeople ought to be religious or not religious according to whether they believe in the teachings of religion, not because of any illusion that religion raises the moral level of society.\nFrom Facing Up: Science and Its Cultural Adversaries, Harvard University Press, 2001, p. 256.\nJoseph N. Welch\nBoston trial lawyer.\nHave you no sense of decency, sir? At long last, have you left no sense of decency?\nQuestioning Senator Joseph McCarthy at the Army-McCarthy hearings in 1954, in his role as Counsel for the Army.\nTom Weller\nSeveral thousand years ago, a small tribe of ignorant near-savages wrote various collections of myths, wild tales, lies, and gibberish. Over the centuries, these stories were embroidered, garbled, mutilated, and torn into small pieces that were then repeatedly shuffled. Finally, this material was badly translated into several languages successively. The resultant text, creationists feel, is the best guide to this complex and technical subject.\nFrom Science Made Stupid.\nJohn Wheelock (1754-1817)\nOh, Lord, we thank Thee for the Oxygen Gas; we thank Thee for the Hydrogen Gas; and for all the gases. We thank Thee for the Cerebrum; we thank Thee for the Cerebellum; and for the Medulla Oblongata. Amen!\nPrayer given at meeting of medical students at Dartmouth College. Quoted in Howard Atwood Kelly, A Cyclopedia of American Medical Biography, W. B. Saunders, 1912, p. 389. (See here .)\nLynn White, Jr.\n[W]e shall continue to have a worsening ecologic crisis until we reject the Christian axiom that nature has no reason for existence save to serve man.\nFrom \"The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis\", Science 155 No. 3767 (10 March 1967), pp. 1203-1207.\nOscar Wilde (1854-1900)\nWhat is a cynic? A man who knows the price of everything and the value of nothing.\nLady Windermere's Fan, 1892, Act III.\nH. H. Williams\nFurious activity is no substitute for understanding.\nQuoted in Jon Bentley, More Programming Pearls: Confessions of a Coder, Addison-Wesley, 1988, p. 64.\nRobert S. Wistrich (1945-)\n`Antisemitism' is a problematic term, first invented in the 1870s by the German journalist Wilhelm Marr to describe the `non-confessional' hatred of Jews and Judaism which he and others like him advocated...\n`Antisemitism' -- a term which came into general use as part of this politically motivated anti-Jewish campaign of the 1880s -- was never directed against `Semites' as such....\n...As a result, for the last hundred years, the illogical term `antisemitism', which never really meant hatred of `Semites' (for example, Arabs) at all, but rather hatred of Jews, has come to be accepted in general usage as denoting all forms of hostility towards Jews and Judaism throughout history.\nAntisemitism: The Longest Hatred , Thames Mandarin, 1992.\nWalter Wriston (1919-)\nSatellites are no respecters of ideology.\nThe Twilight of Sovereignty, Charles Scribner's, 1992, p. 14.\nE-mail:",
"THE QUOTABLE ATHEIST Ammunition for nonbelievers political junkies gadflies and those generally hell-bound - Документ - стр. 4\nTHE QUOTABLE ATHEIST Ammunition for nonbelievers political junkies gadflies and those generally hell-bound\nСмотреть полностью\n\"By and large the lowest achieving community in this country are Muslims. When you talk to [Muslims] about why this is happening, the one reason they give you, the only reason, is Islamophobia. Uh-uh. It is not Islamophobia that makes parents take 14-year-old bright girls out of school to marry illiterate men....\"\nRobert Browning (1812-1889), British poet and playwright. Fluent in French, Greek, Italian, and Latin by age 14. Became an atheist and a vegetarian (nonbeliever in the existence of meat) in imitation of his hero, PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY. Brazenly declared, \"I am no Christian\"!!\n\"Who knows most, doubts most.\"\n\"There's a new tribunal now / Higher than God's-the educated man's!\"\nLenny Bruce (born Leonard Schneider, 1925-1966), American comedian/satirist. His first of many arrests (generally for obscenity) was for impersonating a priest while soliciting donations for a leper colony (which actually existed) in British Guyana. Made around $8,000 in three weeks, sending $2,500 to the leper colony and keeping the rest: probably a more honest ratio than most religious charities.\n\"Every day, people are straying away from the church and going back to God.\"\n\"If Jesus had been killed twenty years ago, Catholic school children would be wearing little electric chairs around their necks instead of crosses.\"\nGiordano Bruno (1548-1600), Italian philosopher, priest, astronomer, occultist. Revered by the irreverent as a freethought martyr. Argued that the stars are just like our sun; that there are many worlds inhabited by intelligent beings; and that both space and time are infinite, leaving no room for Creation or Last Judgment. Burned at the stake by the Inquisition as a heretic. At his execution, wrote one biographer, \"He turned his face away from the proffered crucifix and died in silence.\"\n\"Perchance you who pronounce my sentence are in greater fear than I who receive it.\"\nAround 420 b.e. (before Einstein): \"There is no absolute up or down ... no absolute position in space; but the position of a body is relative to that of other bodies. . . . there is incessant relative change in position throughout the universe, and the observer is always at the center of things.\"\nWilliam Jennings Bryan (1860-1925), American lawyer, three-time Democratic Party nominee for president, Progressive Movement leader, champion of the little guy, scourge of big business, peace advocate ... and fundamentalist ignoramus who prosecuted John Scopes for teaching evolution (see CLARENCE DARROW) and said things like:\n\"If the Bible had said that Jonah swallowed the whale, I would believe it.\"\n\"If we have to give up either religion or education, we should give up education.\"\n\"All the ills from which America suffers can be traced to the teaching of evolution.\" Especially poverty and racial discrimination.\nMartin Buber (1878-1965), Influential Austrian Jewish existentialist philosopher and scholar of Hasidic Judaism. Held that we generally relate to others and the world in \"I-it\"mode; the much rarer \"I-thou \"or \"I-you\" relationship is in effect an interaction with God, the eternal \"you.\" (Not, as you might think, the eternal \"who?\")\n\"I don't like religion much, and am glad that in the Bible the word is not to be found.\"\n\"The atheist staring from his attic window is often nearer to God than the believer caught up in his own false image of God. My question is, why are atheists forced to live in attics?\"\n\"Since the primary motive of the evil is disguise, one of the places evil people are most likely to be found is within the church. What better way to conceal one's evil from oneself, as well as from others, than to be a deacon or some other highly visible form of Christian within our culture?\"\nJohn Buchan (1875-1940), Canadian-born British government administrator in South Africa, member of Parliament, governor general of Canada, and a popular novelist whose most famous book, The Thirty Nine Steps, was filmed by HitchcocK.\n\"An Atheist is a man who has no invisible means of support.\"\nJames Buchanan (1791-1868), 15th U. S. president (1857-1861). Considered by many historians the worst president before George W. Bush, for letting the nation slide into civil war.\n\"I have seldom met an intelligent person whose views were not narrowed and distorted by religion.\"\nRobert William Buchanan (1841-1901), Scottish-British poet, novelist, and playwright.\n\"The gods are dead, but in their name / Humanity is sold in shame. / While (then as now!) the tinsel'd Priest / Sitteth with robbers at the feast, / Blesses the laden blood-stain'd board, / Weaves garlands round the butcher's sword, / And poureth freely (now as then) / The sacramental blood of men.\"\nPearl S. Buck (1892-1973), American author. Brought up in China where her parents were Presbyterian missionaries. First American woman to win the Nobel Prize for Literature. Adopted seven children and established the first adoption agency dedicated to the placement of bi-racial children. A non-faith-based initiative.\n\"I feel no need for any other faith than my faith in human beings.\"\n\"We send missionaries to China so the Chinese can get to heaven, but we won't let them into our country.\"\n\"Be born anywhere, little embryo novelist, but do not be born under the shadow of a great creed, not under the burden of original sin, not under the doom of Salvation.\"\nHenry Thomas Buckle, British historian. Author of History of Civilization, which he worked on ten hours a day for 17 years. So when he tells you the progress of civilization is directly proportional to the level of skepticism and inversely proportional to \"credulity,\" you may depend upon it. One of the worlds best chess players before he was 20.\n\"The clergy ... have in all modern countries been the avowed enemies of the diffusion of knowledge, the danger of which to their own profession they, by a certain instinct, seem always to have perceived.\"\nBuddha (born Siddhartha Gautama c. 623-- 543 B.C.E.), Indian spiritual teacher. Following a midlife crisis, became Buddha at age 35, having already accumulated enough dharma and karma points (and having sat under a tree and vowed not to arise until he had found the Truth). May have been an avatar or incarnation of Lord Vishnu. But without DNA testing....\n\"Do not believe in anything simply because you have heard it (or because it has) been handed down for many generations [or] because it is found written in your religious books [or] merely on the authority of your teachers and elders. But after observation and analysis, when you find that anything agrees with reason, and is conducive to the good and benefit of one and all, accept it and live up to it.\"\n\"Doubt everything. Find your own light.\"\nNikolai Ivanovich Bukharin, Russian Bolshevik revolutionary, Politburo member, Pravda editor; author of the textbook The ABC of Communism, still in use in most American elementary schools. Executed during Stalin's purges.\n\"Science has shown that religion began with the worship of dead ancestors.... The worship of dead rich men is thus the basis of religion.\"\nCharles Bukowski (1920-1994), American poet, novelist, and legendary boozer. At age 49, quit his job as a post office clerk in Los Angeles to write full time. Finished his first novel-titled Post Office-a month later. Eventually wrote more than 50 books. His funeral rites were conducted by Buddhist monks.\n\"I am my own God. We are here to unlearn the teachings of the church, state and our education system. We are here to drink beer. We are here to kill war. We are here to laugh at the odds and live our lives so well that Death will tremble to take us.\" It's one of the Commandments. Thou shalt drink beer.\nThomas E. Bullard (1949-), American folklorist and collector of UFO abduction stories.\n\"Abduction reports sound like rewrites of older supernatural encounter traditions with aliens serving the functional roles of divine beings. Science may have evicted ghosts and witches from our beliefs, but it has just as quickly filled the vacancy with aliens having the same functions-it is business as usual in the legend realm where things go bump in the night.\"\nLuis Bunuel (1900-1983), Spanish-born filmmaker. Had a strict Jesuit education. It didn't take. His films are full of insults and injuries to priests, nuns, saints, why, to piety itself. Liked to walk around Paris dressed as a nun.\n\"God and Country are an unbeatable team; they break all records for oppression and bloodshed.\"\nNear the end of his life:\n\"Thank god I'm still an atheist.\"\nLuther Burbank (1849-1926), American horticulturist. Improved the world's food supply by developing new varieties of grains, fruits, vegetables-when he could have been spreading the word of God. Kept his views on religion to himself until the 1925 Scopes trial (see CLARENCE DARROW), then declared: \"I am an infidel.\"\n\"Mr. [WILLIAM JENNINGS] BRYAN [who prosecuted John Scopes for teaching evolution] was an honored friend of mine, yet this need not prevent the observation that the skull with which nature endowed him visibly approached the Neanderthal type.... Those who would legislate against the teaching of evolution should also legislate against gravity, electricity and the unreasonable velocity of light, and also should introduce a clause to prevent the use of the telescope, the microscope and the spectroscope....\"\nAnthony Burgess (1917-1993), British novelist, poet, screenwriter, critic, essayist, translator, composer, librettist, prodigious drinker and smoker. His best-known novel, A Clockwork Orange, was inspired by an incident during World War II when his wife was assaulted and robbed in London by U.S. Army deserters. Knew eight languages and some of five more. Known in Argentina as the British BORGES, who was known in Britain as the Argentine Burgess. (The two names are actually cognates.) When the two polyglots (believers in more than oneglot) met, the story goes, rather than converse in English or Spanish, they settled on Old Norse. His writing method: \"I start at the beginning, go to the end, then stop.\"\n\"A perverse nature can be stimulated by anything. Any book can be used as a pornographic instrument, even a great work of literature. . . . I once found a small boy masturbating in the presence of the Victorian steel-engraving in a family Bible.\"\nOn the Vatican:\n\"All human life is here, but the Holy Ghost seems to be somewhere else.\"\nRobert Burns (1759-1796), The national poet of Scotland. Freemason. Inspired the founders of both liberalism and socialism. Alienated many of his friends by sympathizing with the French Revolution. Found a rhyme for purple. (I'm not telling.)\n\"All religions are auld wives' fables.\"\n\"Why has a religioso [sic] turn of mind always a tendency to narrow and illiberalize the heart?\"\nJohn Burroughs (1837-1921), American naturalist, writer, and poet. Native of New York's Catskill Mountains, where a range is named after hint. Friend and biographer of WALT WHITMAN. Has been labeled a scientific pantheist (see ERNST HAECKEL).\n\"Science has done more for the development of western civilization in one hundred years than Christianity did in eighteen hundred years.\"\n\"It is always easier to believe than to deny. Our minds are naturally affirmative.\"\n\"When I look up at the starry heavens at night ... it is not the works of some God that I see there. I am face to face with a power that baffles speech. I see no lineaments of personality.... The universe is so unhuman ... it goes its way with so little thought of man.... We must adjust our notions to the discovery that things are not shaped to him, but that he is shaped to them. The air was not made for his lungs, but he has lungs because there is air; the light was not created for his eye, but he has eyes because there is light. All the forces of nature are going their own way; man avails himself of them, or catches a ride as best he can.... We must and will get used to the chill ... the cosmic chill.... Our religious instincts will be all the hardier for it.\"\n\"Every day is a Sabbath to me. All pure water is holy water, and this earth is a celestial abode.\"\nWilliam S. Burroughs (1914-1997), American novelist/ essayist/social critic. His cadaverous presence and wry, largely autobiographical narratives of drug addiction, homosexuality, and extreme alienation inspired/haunted two or three generations of outsiders and hipsters, from Beats to postmoderns and cyberpunks. Theonly American novelist living today who may conceivably be possessed by genius,\" said NORMAN MAILER. Collaborated with Alan Ginsburg, Jack Kerouac, Laurie Anderson, John Giorno, Keith Haring, Kurt Cobain, Sonic Youth, and R.E.M. Shared an apartment with Kerouac in the 1940s, after his discharge from the Army for mental instability. Junkie for the last 40 years of his life. Shot and killed his common-law wife in a drunken game of William Tell in 1951. His novel Naked Lunch (1959) features a stainless steel dildo called the Steely Dan. A Scientologist during the 1970s.\n\"Son, never listen to a priest or a policeman ... the only thing they have is the key to the shithouse.\"\n\"If you're doing business with a religious son-of-a-bitch, get it in writing. His word isn't worth shit. Not with the good lord telling him how to fuck you on the deal.\"\n\"The mark of a basic shit is that he has to be right.\" In a good way?\n\"The perpetrating of miracles constitutes a brazen attempt to loosen up the universe. When you set up something as miracle, you deny the very concept of fad, establish a shadowy and spurious court ... beyond the Court of Fact.\"\nQuoting a favorite figure, Hassan i Sabah, eleventh-century Persian religious leader/warlord, founder of the Hashashin sect, which used hashish in the initiation of killers and gave us the word \"assassin\": \"Nothing is true, everything is permitted.\"\nSir Richard Burton (1821-1890), British explorer, ethnologist, and writer. Said to have spoken 29 European, Asian, and African languages. Translated the Arabian Nights and the Kama Sutra into English. As a soldier serving in India, his expertise in local cultures and languages earned him the title \"the White Nigger\" among fellow soldiers. Made the Hadj to Mecca disguised in Eastern dress; even had himself circumcised to reduce the risk of well, exposure.\n\"The more I study religions, the more I am convinced that man never worshipped anything but himself.\"\nSamuel Butler (1835-1902), English novelist, author of Erewhon and The Way of All Flesh. Was preparing for ordination to the Anglican clergy when he discovered that baptism made no apparent difference to the morals and behaviour of his peers and began questioning his faith.\"\nReversing Alexander Pope: \"An honest God's the noblest work of man.\"\n\"If God wants us to do a thing, he should make his wishes sufficiently clear. Sensible people will wait till he has done this before paying much attention to him.\"\n\"Prayers are to men as dolls are to children. They are not without use and comfort, but it is not easy to take them seriously.\"\n\"Belief like any other moving body follows the path of least resistance.\"\n\"What is faith but a kind of betting or speculation after all? It should be, 'I bet that my Redeemer liveth.\"'\n\"People are equally horrified at hearing the Christian religion doubted, and at seeing it practiced.\"\n\"Christ: I dislike him very much; still I can stand him. What I cannot stand is the wretched band of people whose profession is to hoodwink us about him.\"\n\"Christ and The Church: If he were to apply for a divorce on the grounds of cruelty, adultery and desertion, he would probably get one.\"\n\"I really do not see much use in exalting the humble and meek; they do not remain humble and meek long when they are exalted.\"\n\"Christ was only crucified once, and for a few hours. Think of the thousands he has been crucifying in a quiet way ever since.\"\n\"He has spent his life best who has enjoyed it most. God will take care that we do not enjoy it any more than is good for us.\"\n\"There is nothing which at once affects a man so much and so little as his own death.\"\n\"Death is only a larger kind of going abroad.\"\n\"Theist and Atheist. The fight between them is as to whether God shall be called God or shall have some other name.\"\nLord Byron (born George Noel Gordon, 1788-1824), English Romantic poet and adventurer. Kept a bear while a student at Trinity College, Cambridge, in compliance with the rule forbidding pet dogs.\n\"Of religion I know nothing-at least, in its favor.\"\n\"All are inclined to believe what they covet, from a lottery ticket up to a passport to Paradise.\"\nA religious zealot in his poem Childe Harold: \"I hope to merit Heaven by making earth a Hell.\"\n\"The basis of your religion is injustice. The Son of God the pure, the immaculate, the innocent, is sacrificed for the guilty. This proves his heroism, but no more does away with man's sin than a school boy's volunteering to be flogged for another would exculpate a dunce from negligence.\"\nOn those to be damned at the Last Judgment: \"When the World is at an end, what moral or warning purpose can eternal tortures answer?\"\nC\nHerb Caen (1916-1997), American journalist/columnist. Spent most of his career with the San Francisco Chronicle. Pulitzer Prize, 1996. Credited with inventing the words \"beatnik \"and \"hippie\"\n\"The trouble with born-again Christians is that they are an even bigger pain the second time around.\"\nL. Sprague de Camp (1907-2000), American science fiction and fantasy author. Wrote over 100 novels as well as nonfiction on topics such as racism. (Pointed out that no scholar had ever sought to prove that his own ethnicity was inferior to others.) Enjoyed debunking claims of the supernatural.\n\"It does not pay a prophet to be too specific.\"\nJoseph Campbell (1904-1987), American scholar of mythology. Believed all religions and deities are \"masks\" of the same transcendent, ''unknowable '' truth, and have a common ancestry. Read for nine hours a day for five straight years during the Great Depression, which in fact was named for the state of mind he thus achieved. His book The Hero with a Thousand Faces was inspired by James Joyce's Finnegan's Wake and in turn inspired the insufferable cartoon mythology of George Lucas' Star Wars. (See BBC ONLINE.)\n\"Mythology is what we call someone else's religion.\"\n\"Religion can be defined as misinterpreted mythology.... [It attributes] historical references to symbols which properly are spiritual in their reference.\"\nAlbert Camus (1913-1960), French existentialist author. Preached a heroic atheism. In his story \"The Myth of Sisyphus,\" the hero, who is condemned to spend eternity trying to push a boulder up a mountain, fully conscious that he has no hope of success or of a decent wage, represents man in a godless world. But he is scornful of the gods, his tormentors. No sissyphus, this Sisy:\n\"The lucidity that was to constitute his torture at the same time crowns his victory.... Crushing truths perish from being acknowledged.... All Sisyphus' silent joy is contained therein. His fate belongs to him.... The struggle itself toward the heights is enough to fill a man's heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy.\"\n\"There is only one religion that exists throughout all history, the belief in eternity. This belief is a deception.\"\n\"If there is a sin against life, it consists perhaps not so much in despairing of life as in hoping for another life and in eluding the implacable grandeur of this life.\"\n\"Don't wait for the Last Judgment. It takes place every day.\"\nCarlo Cardinal Caraffa (1519-1561), Roman Catholic cardinal; nephew (Gr. nepos > nepotism) of Pope Paul IV.\n\"Populus vult decipi, decipiatur.\" \"The people want to be deceived. Let them be deceived.\" (Often misattributed to Karl Rove.)\nAsia Carerra (born Jessica Andrea Steinhauser, 1973), Retired \"adult\" film actress with 275 films, uh, under her belt. Most recommended: Whoriental Sex Academy 6 and Bangkok Booberella.Performed as a pianist at Carnegie Hall at age 13. Ran away from home at 17. Member of Mensa. Really. (Membership requires a minimum score of 38C. No, sorry, that's Immensa.)\n\"I've always been an atheist. Science explains everything. There is no meaning in life except to be the best at something. If only I could be the best at something, perhaps my parents would love me.\"\n\"People around the world are extremely gullible ... I need to get off my ass [or did she say \"back] and start a religion of my own!\"\nGeorge Carlin (1937-2008), American comedian. First-ever host of Saturday Night Live (1975). Author of When Will Jesus Bring the Pork Chops? (2004).\n\"When it comes to believing in God, I really, really tried ... but ... the more you look around, the more you realize ... something is wrong here. War, disease, death, destruction, hunger, filth, poverty, torture, crime, corruption, the Ice Capades.... This is not good work. If this is the best God can do, I am not impressed. Results like these do not belong on the resume of a Supreme Being.\"\n\"Atheism is a non-prophet organization.\"\n\"You know who I pray to? Joe Pesci.... He looks like a guy who can get things done. Joe Pesci doesn't fuck around. . . . For years I asked God to do something about my noisy neighbor with the barking dog. Joe Pesci straightened that cocksucker out with one visit.\"\nThomas Carlyle (1795-1881), Scottish essayist and historian. His lament that society was being dehumanized and communal values were being destroyed by impersonal economic forces and ruthless capitalism, and his distaste for democracy and belief in charismatic leadership, influenced socialism, conservatism, and fascism-including Hitler himself. The completed manuscript for his two-volume French Revolution, A History was accidentally burned by JOHN STUART MILL'S maid; Carlyle rewrote it from scratch. All this from a non-atheist, or non-non-theist:\n\"God does nothing.\" (Doesn't even protect manuscripts ...)\n\"Just in the ratio that knowledge increases, faith diminishes.\"\n\"If Jesus Christ were to come today, people would not even crucify him. They would ask him to dinner, and hear what he had to say, and make fun of it.\"\n\"If I had my way, the world would hear a pretty stern command-Exit Christ.\"\n\"There is one true church of which at present I am the only member.\"\nAndrew Carnegie (1835-1919), Scottish-American steel magnate and philanthropist. Professed atheist.\n\"I have not bothered Providence with my petitions for about forty years.\"\n\"I give money for church organs in the hope that the organ music will distract the congregation's attention from the rest of the service.\"\nAdam Carolla (1964-), American comedian. Former cohost of the radio show Loveline and The Man Show, the TV show for irreverent male chauvinist swine; host of the Adam Carolla morning radio show; which replaced HOWARD STERN on some stations. Graduated high school (where he majored in ceramics) with a 1. 75 GPA.\n\"Nah, there's no bigger atheist than me. Well, I take that back. I'm a cancer screening away from going agnostic and a biopsy away from full-fledged Christian.\" (No atheist in oncology clinics? See LANCE ARMSTRONG, MELISSA ETHERIDGE, RUTH HURMENCE GREEN...)\n\"I'm very insulted when people say, 'Well, without religion what's to stop people?'.... How many people on death row are atheists? They all love Jesus and they all put a shiv into a Korean liquor store owner.... I'll tell you where God is. God is in jail! Someone does time, then all of a sudden he's a Born-Again Christian!\" (See WT ROOT)\nAngela Carter (1940-1992), English journalist, and post-feminist magical realist novelist.\n\"Mother goddesses are just as silly a notion as father gods. If a revival of the myths of these cults gives women emotional satisfaction, it does so at the price of obscuring the real conditions of life. This is why they were invented in the first place.\" Is that decoded clearly enough for you, Dan Brown? (And you, RIANE EISLER and ROBERT GRAVES?)\nDick Cavett (1936-), American talk show host. Grandson of a fundamentalist Baptist preacher. His most famous stand-up line: \"I went to a Chinese-German restaurant. The food is great, but an hour later you're hungry for power.\"\n\"It would be wonderful to believe.... It would make life easier, it would explain everything, it would give meaning. . . . But something about knowing it could instantly make me much happier makes it somehow unworthy of having.\"\nCharlie Chaplin (1889-1977), British-born American film actor, producer, and director. At age 28, married a 16-year-old. At 35, married another 16-year-old. (Yes, he'd divorced the first one. What kind of tramp do you think he was?) HITLER watched Chaplin 's satire The Great Dictator (1940) twice. Three months after his death, his body was stolen in a failed attempt to extort money from his family.\n\"By simple common sense, I don't believe in God.\"\n\"I would love to play the part of Jesus! I fit it perfectly because I am a comedian.\" (And Jewish, and left wing.)\nNoam Chomsky (1928-), American linguist, MIT professor, and left-wing political activist. The most important theoretical linguist of the past century. Grew up immersed in Hebrew culture and literature. An anarcho-syndicalist from the age of 12 or 13-when most boys are still Spartacist- Trotskyist. Especially critical of U.S. foreign policy.\n\"Do I believe in God? ... I don't understand the question.\"\n\"How do I define God? I don't.... I see no need.... As for 'First Principles,' basing them on divinities is, I think, a very bad idea. That leaves anyone free to pick the 'first principles' they choose on other grounds, and to disguise the choices as 'what God commands.' . . . Nothing is gained ... and a great deal is lost: specifically, the opportunity to question, elaborate, modify, or reject them. . . . If you want to use the word 'God' to refer to 'what you are and what you want'-well, that's a terminological decision, not a substantive one.\"\n\"I would agree with the classic anarchist slogan 'Ni dieu, ni maitre' [No god, no master].\"\n\"That 'religion is inherently irrational' is surely true. Why one set of beliefs that are offered without argument or evidence rather than another?\"\n\"The Bible is basically polytheistic, with the warrior God demanding of his chosen people that they not worship the other Gods and destroy those who do.... It would be hard to find a more genocidal text in the literary canon....\"' Also see epigraph at the top of this volume's Introduction.\nJesus Christ (c. 4 B.C.-33 A.D.), Jewish religious teacher, reformer, reputed miracle worker and Messiah who founded a new sect of Judaism.\n\"Think not that I am come to send peace on earth; I came not to send peace, but a sword.\"-,Matthew 10:34.\nSir Winston Churchill (1874-1965), British Conservative (mostly) politician and historian. Prime minister, 1940-1945, 1951-1955. Tried to convince President Truman to drop atomic bombs on major Soviet cities after WWII. Voted Greatest Briton ever in a 2002 BBC poll. Described on the Churchill Centre Web site as \"having made so many deposits in the bank of Religion as a youth that he had been \"confidently withdrawing from it ever since, never bothering to check the balance-there might indeed be an overdraft\"-which could have meant a fine and suspension of check-writing privileges. Called himself an \"optimistic agnostic\" and \"not a pillar of the Church but more of a flying buttress-I support it from the outside.\"\n\"Man will occasionally stumble over the truth, but most of the time he will pick himself up and continue on.\"\nUpon meeting with Saudi King An Saud and being told that the king would not allow strong drink:\n\"[I understand but] my religion prescribed as an absolute sacred rite smoking cigars and drinking alcohol before, after, and if need be during all meals and the intervals between them.\"\nMarcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.), Roman statesman/ philosopher/lawyer; considered the greatest Latin orator and prose stylist. His political enemy Marc Antony had him executed. His head and hands were displayed in the Forum. They say Antony's wife pulled out his tongue and jabbed it repeatedly with her hairpin, taking a final revenge against his oratorical prowess. Roman women, man.\n\"Without the hope of immortality, no one would ever face death for his country.\" (Or his Allah.)\n\"I wonder that a soothsayer doesn't laugh whenever he sees another soothsayer.\"\n\"When we call corn Ceres or wine Bacchus, we use a common figure of speech, but do you imagine that anyone is so mad as to believe the thing he feeds upon is a god?\" Or that what he drinks (at communion) is the god's blood?\nEmil Cioran (1911-1995), Romanian-born French philosopher, writer, essayist. Son of an Orthodox priest. Flirted with Romania's far-right Iron Guard in the 1930s and early 1940s, but never actually asked it out on a date. Joined a philosophical movement that fused existentialism with elements of fascism. His mother reportedly told him if she had known he was going to be so unhappy she would have aborted him. This \"made an extraordinary impression which led to an insight about the nature of existence and to his statement:\n\"I'm simply an accident. Why take it all so seriously?\"\n\"Bach's music is the only argument proving the creation of the Universe can not be regarded a complete failure. . . . Without Bach, God would be a second-rate figure.\"\n\"The fact that life has no meaning is a reason to live-moreover, the only one.\"\n\"Life inspires more dread than death-it is life which is the great unknown.\"\n\"What does the future, that half of time, matter to the man who is infatuated with eternity?\"\n\"The fear of being deceived is the vulgar version of the quest for Truth.\" (He's talking about us atheists among others, isn't he?)\n\"No human beings are more dangerous than those who have suffered for a belief: the great persecutors are recruited from the martyrs not quite beheaded.\"\nArthur C. Clarke (1917-), British science-fiction author and inventor. Ardent atheist. The film 2001: A Space Odyssey was based on his short story \"The Sentinel.\" In the future envisioned in his novel 3001, religion has become taboo; the blood-soaked religions of the past, are viewed as barbaric. The dinosaur species Serendipaceratops arthurcclarkei is named after him, or else its an extraordinarily serendipitous coincidence.\n\"I don't believe in God but I'm very interested in her.\"\n\"I suspect that religion was some random by-product of mammalian reproduction ... a necessary evil in the childhood of our species.... but why was it more evil than necessary? Isn't killing people in the name of God a pretty good definition of insanity?\"\n\"I would defend the liberty of consenting adult creationists to practice whatever intellectual perversions they like in the privacy of their own homes; but it is also necessary to protect the young and innocent.\"\nNoting that in Sri Lanka, where he lives, \"everyone\" believes in reincarnation: \"The problem with reincarnation is that it's hard to imagine what the storage medium for past lives would be. Not to mention the input-output device.\" You're an inventor? Invent one, damn it!\nJeremy Clarkson (1960-), British automotive writer/critic. Host of the BBC car show Top Gear, which has 350 million viewers worldwide and won an International Emmy in 2005. Described by a UK. newspaper as a \"dazzling hero of political incorrectness.\" Known for publicly smoking as much as possible on National No Smoking Day. Boasted on TV of eating whale topped with grated puffin, and seal flipper, which he said tastes \"exactly like licking a hot Turkish urinal.\" (Thinking eco-green yet?) Installed a vintage fighter jet on his front lawn; tried telling the irate town council it was a leaf blower. Has said Mark Chapman's hit list should have listed Paul McCartney above JOHN LENNON. Wrote in an editorial that \"most Americans barely have the brains to walk on their back legs.\" His book I Know You Got Soul is about the soul he believes many machines have.\n\"The church, to me, is just loathsome. I really do object to the fact that it's so powerful. Even though it actually represents fewer people than the local Tufty Club. And they quote from this book which is a fucking fairy tale. It's all just rubbish. You can't walk on water 'cause you'd sink. When you're dead, you can't come back to life. It's that simple.\"\nVoltairine de Cleyre (1866-1912), American women's rights and labor activist, renowned atheist lecturer, and \"the most gifted and brilliant anarchist woman America ever produced,\" according to socialist/anarchist EMMA GOLDMAN, who wrote her biography. Her father named her after his favorite skeptic but, unable to support the family, sent her to a Catholic convent/boarding school, an experience that, naturally, pushed her toward atheism.\n\"The question of souls is old-we demand our bodies, now. We are tired of promises, God is deaf, and his church is our worst enemy.\"\nWilliam Kingdon Clifford (1845-1879), Pioneering English mathematician and philosopher. Proposed a geometric, \"curved space\" theory of gravitation decades before Einstein. Argued that mind is the ultimate reality; an atom of matter is ultimately an atom of the same \"mind-stuff\" that thought and feeling are made of. Regarded by the clergy as a dangerous champion of anti-spiritual scientific tendencies.\n\"If a man, holding a belief which he was taught in childhood or persuaded of afterwards, keeps down and pushes away any doubts which arise about it in his mind, purposely avoids the reading of books and the company of men that call in question or discuss it ... the life of that man is one long sin against mankind.\"\nAlexander Cockburn (1941-), Scottish-born U.S. - based Irish left-wing journalist. Nation magazine columnist, CounterPunch coeditor. On Los Angeles school officials pulling an edition of the Koran from the district's libraries because of \"complaints\" that the footnotes are anti-Semitic (oh, surely not):\n\"It surely won't be long before the Bible is pulled as well, since the Old Testament is rough on the Palestinians [sic] and the New Testament rough on the Jews.... Though my basic view is that any childish mind not innoculated [sic] by compulsory religion is open to any infection, by all means let us sweep the Bible and the Koran off every bookshelf whither might stray the hand of impressionable youth. Such a cleansing act would return us to the very roots of the European enlightenment.\"\nJean Cocteau (1889-1963), French writer, dramatist, filmmaker, designer, and of course, boxing manager. (Really.) Openly gay, openly Surrealist.\n\"Mystery has its own mysteries, and there are gods above gods. We have ours, they have theirs. That is what's known as infinity.\"\n\"Man seeks to escape himself in myth, and does so by any means at his disposal. Drugs, alcohol, or lies. Unable to withdraw into himself, he disguises himself. Lies and inaccuracy give him a few moments of comfort.\"\nAndrei Codrescu (1946-), Romanian-born American poet, commentator for National Public Radio, professor of English at Louisiana State University, and former editor of the online journal The Exquisite Corpse.\n\"The evaporation of four million [people] who believe in this crap [Christian Rapture, or Crapture] would leave the world a better place.\"\nChapman Cohen (1868-1954), President of the National Secular Society, Britain's largest atheist organization, 1915-1949. Editor of Freethinker magazine.\n\"Gods are fragile things; they may be killed by a whiff of science or a dose of common sense.\"\n\"There are still many who continue to marvel at the wisdom of God in so planning the universe that big rivers run by great towns, and that death comes at the end of life instead of in the middle of it.\"\n\"Atheists decline to be as miserable as Christians assure them they ought to be.... Christians are not only perplexed at the sight of happy atheists, they are annoyed. If atheists are happy, it must be because they lack the fine moral development of the Christian. If they were only better, they should know how poor is the happiness they feel.... But the happiness of an atheist [expresses] a disposition that has ceased to torture itself with foolish fancies, or perplex itself with useless beliefs.\"\nEdmund D. Cohen, American psychologist, lawyer, and one-time fundamentalist Christian. Author of The Mind of the Bible Believer (1988), which displays this blurb by FRANK ZAPPA: \"Edmund Cohen was the first, to my knowledge, to sort out the hints of ominous intentions in Pat Robertson's antics.... I expect Cohen to be the first to detect it when the next of these cockroach-messiahs is hatched and descends from the baseboards.\"\n\"The content of the [fundamentalist] teaching, as well as the form of social relations, is set up so as to dig a psychological moat around the believers.... The supposed renewal of the mind so that it thinks only godly thoughts, the fatuous peace and tepid joy of the person exhibiting euphoric calm, the apparent absence of friction with other people, these are side effects of a dissociated state of mind.\"\n\"[If one is mindful of the biblical God's] vengefulness and his extravagant sadomasochism ... one ends up straightjacketing one's thoughts and feelings lest something taboo be exhibited [to God's] unremitting scrutiny. At the seminary, the constant effort I expended to censor my thoughts and feelings began to exhaust me-a real self-induced neurosis.... Devoutness had brought out some of my worst tendencies. I had grown not in righteousness, but in rigidness, not in purity, but in priggishness-not in holiness, but in ass-holiness! I had been on my way to becoming a regular little Savonarola, a regular little Calvin itching to get a Servetus burned at the stake.... No wonder that the accomplishments of contemporary fundamentalists in the arts and sciences are so pathetically few ...\"\nLarry Cohen (1938-), American filmmaker. Gave the world It's Alive; It Lives Again; It's Alive III: Island of the Alive; and God Told Me To, in which murderers who believe God told them to kill but who are in fact possessed by a Demon from Outer Space commit a series of bizarre homicides.\n\"Everybody's got a different idea what God thinks and what God likes and what God is; the crazy guy on the corner knows about as much as the guy in St. Patrick's Cathedral-none of them know anything. People say, 'Reverend Moon-what a crook!' and I say, 'But what about the Pope?' It's all the same. Anybody who starts telling you what God thinks should be locked up immediately.\" Speaking of which: also wrote the classic Women of San Quentin, or as it might be called, Les Ms.\nMorris R. Cohen (1880-1947), American professor of philosophy and of law at City College of New York (whose reputation as the \"proletarian Harvard\" he helped build) and the University of Chicago. Studied with WILLIAM JAMES at Harvard. Legendary or his ability to demolish philosophical systems-but also had a positive message.\n\"There is obviously an important difference between an establishment [i.e., science] that is open . . . and one that regards the questioning of its credentials as due to wickedness of heart, such as [Cardinal] Newman attributed to those who questioned the infallibility of the Bible. Rational science treats its credit notes as always redeemable on demand, while nonrational authoritarianism regards the demand for the redemption of its paper as a disloyal lack of faith.\""
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"title": [
"Quotations - Cheriton School of Computer Science",
"THE QUOTABLE ATHEIST Ammunition for nonbelievers political ..."
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Which country does the airline Ansett come from?
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tc_776
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Ansett Australia also known as Ansett-ANA and Ansett was a major Australian airline group, based in Melbourne. The airline flew domestically within Australia and from the 1990s to destinations in Asia. The airline was placed into administration in 2001 after suffering financial collapse, and subsequent organised liquidation in 2002, subject to deed of company arrangement. Ansett became an icon and greatly contributed to the advancement of aviation within Australia during its 66-year life.\n\nHistory\n\nBeginnings\n\nThe company was founded by Reg Ansett in 1935 as Ansett Airways Pty Ltd. This was an offshoot of his road transport business which had become so successful it was threatening the freight and passenger revenue of Victorian Railways. This led the state government to legislate to put private road transport operators out of business. Reg Ansett countered by establishing an airline as aviation was under control of the federal government and beyond the reach of the state government.\n\nAnsett's first route between Hamilton and Melbourne operated by a Fokker Universal monoplane commenced on 17 February 1936. The rapid success of the airline led Ansett to float the business in 1937. As the route network expanded, Ansett Airways imported Lockheed Electra aircraft. During World War II Reg Ansett opted to suspend all scheduled services, except the Hamilton service, in favour of more lucrative work for the United States Army Air Forces. After the war Ansett battled to re-establish his domestic routes using war-surplus Douglas DC-3s, converted from C-47s and the remaining L-10s.\n\nAt this time, the Australian domestic airline travel sector was dominated by Australian National Airways (ANA), established in 1936 by a consortium of British-financed Australian shipowners. The Chifley Federal Government was determined to establish a state-owned airline to operate all domestic and international services. It was eventually thwarted in this aim by the High Court of Australia, and so it established Trans Australia Airlines (TAA) to operate in competition with ANA.\n\nTowards a duopoly\n\n \n\nAnsett Airways remained a big player as ANA and TAA battled for supremacy in the 1940s and 1950s. Ansett operated around the big two, maintaining budget fare interstate operations with DC-3s and later Convair CV-340s. The airline was backed up by extensive road transport operations, including Ansett Freight Express and Ansett Pioneer Coaches, as well as the Ansair coach building operation.\n\nThe Menzies government, while supporting TAA, because of the excellent dividends it paid to the government, wanted to avoid TAA having a monopoly on domestic services if ANA collapsed, as seemed likely. The only alternative, as it transpired, was for Ansett to buy the ANA operation. Ansett's bid had a number of financial supporters, most prominent of these being the Shell Oil Company. Douglas Aircraft Company was also concerned about ANA's demise, as TAA had ceased to be a customer for their aircraft. The ANA directors fiercely resisted this initially, but in October 1957 succumbed to Ansett's offer of £3.3 million for their airline. The new entity was called Ansett-ANA, the name it retained until 1 November 1968, when it became Ansett Airlines of Australia.\n\nAnsett-ANA's excellent profit record was, at least in part, courtesy of the Menzies government's Two Airlines Policy. The policy effectively blocked any other domestic interstate operators by way of a ban on importation of aircraft without a government licence. From 1957 until the 1980s, under the strict rules set down by the Two Airlines Policy, Ansett and TAA operated as virtual carbon copies of each other, operating the same aircraft at the same times, to the same destinations, at fares, which were identical (under strict Federal Government policy). If either airline wished to change their fares, they had to obtain Federal Government approval.\n\nReg Ansett then set out to ensure no other competitors could rise up to challenge his airline. He took control of Adelaide based Guinea Airways (renamed Airlines of South Australia) and Sydney based Butler Air Transport (renamed Airlines of New South Wales). The takeover of Butler was achieved with covert support from the Menzies government and by Ansett engineering his employees' purchases of Butler shares (in a similar way as had just been attempted by Butler). He then flew the employees to a general meeting in Sydney and forced a vote in favour of selling out to Ansett.\n\nFollowing the takeover of ANA, Reg Ansett lobbied the government to block TAA's purchase of Sud Aviation Caravelle jet aircraft. He was concerned about his airline's ability to finance equivalent jet aircraft, and the major engineering leap required to go from an all-piston fleet direct to pure jet aircraft, TAA had been operating prop-jet Vickers Viscounts since 1954, and so had expertise in jet technology. Ansett was successful in convincing the government to authorize the importation of more Viscounts and the new Lockheed L-188 Electra. This action delayed the introduction of pure jet aircraft to Australian skies until 1964, when the Boeing 727–100 began flying.\n\nAn unusual feature of Ansett's operations was the flying boat service from Rose Bay in Sydney to Lord Howe Island. This was operated by Ansett Flying Boat Services using Short Sandringham four-engined aircraft. The service ceased in 1974 when the Lord Howe Island Airport was completed.\n\nExpansion beyond domestic aviation\n\nAnsett lost control of the company to Peter Abeles' TNT and Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation in 1979, with Abeles taking operational control of the airline. The airline prospered in the 1980s, however a number of substantial investments performed badly, including a share in the US airline America West Airlines (which filed for bankruptcy, but survived) and its Hamilton Island resort (which went into receivership). Ansett also paid millions of dollars for the right to be official airline of the Sydney 2000 Olympics, an investment generally regarded as unwise. This destabilised the financial position of the company considerably. In 1984, Ansett was embroiled in controversy after it banned HIV-positive individuals from travelling on their planes in order to protect their staff. The Australian Flight Attendants Association ultimately rejected the bans. \n\nAnsett expanded into New Zealand in 1987 through its subsidiary Ansett New Zealand after the Government of New Zealand opened its skies to the airline. After the Government of Australia reneged on an agreement to reciprocate, Air New Zealand tried to acquire a share of Qantas when it was floated in 1995, but was not allowed. Instead it bought a 50% stake in Ansett Australia for A$540 million in 1996, though managerial control remained in the hands of News Corporation. Ansett Australia then had to divest itself of Ansett New Zealand to avoid creating a monopoly. \n\nAnsett commenced international service on 11 September 1993 to Bali, followed by Osaka and Hong Kong in 1994, Jakarta on 12 January 1996, and Shanghai on 8 June 1997. Later Seoul, Taipei and Kuala Lumpur flights were suspended.\n\nAir New Zealand merger and collapse\n\nIn February 2000 Air New Zealand acquired full ownership of Ansett, buying out News Corporation's stake for A$680 million, surpassing Singapore Airlines's A$500 million bid.[http://www.aeroworldnet.com/4ls02220.htm AeroWorldNet(tm)– AA 2000: SIA's Next Move [22 February 2000]]\n\nThe Australian government then changed the rules to allow foreign airlines to fly domestic routes. Competition from Qantas and a succession of start-up airlines (Impulse Airlines and Virgin Blue), top-heavy and substantially overpaid staff, an aging fleet and grounding of the Boeing 767 fleet due to maintenance irregularities left Ansett seriously short of cash, losing $1.3 million a day.\n\nAir New Zealand attempted to cut Ansett's costs while maintaining the same level of revenue. This did not work, as the cost cutting hurt Ansett. Additionally, Ansett's fleet had been allowed to deteriorate, a situation which came to a head with a partial grounding of its Boeing 767 fleet during the Christmas 2000 season and a full grounding in Easter 2001. Ansett was thus unable to compete with the low cost carriers and Qantas, who were able to run at a loss on some routes, as they could not maintain revenue while cutting their costs, which included laying off staff.\n\nA deal made in April 2001 for Ansett to purchase Virgin Blue was repudiated by Virgin chief Richard Branson in August, and Singapore Airlines, which was initially blocked from buying Ansett, was also prevented from investing further in Air New Zealand/Ansett by the New Zealand government. It then declined to take up an earlier proposed deal to inject over $500 million into Air New Zealand and Ansett after talks collapsed.\n\nIn early September 2001, as the trouble worsened, the New Zealand government prepared to rescue Air New Zealand (eventually buying 83% of the company for NZ$885 million) but cut Ansett adrift. Despite public pleas, the Australian government refused to bail out Ansett. \n\nQuickly running out of both lines of credit and options, Air New Zealand placed the Ansett group of companies into voluntary administration with PriceWaterhouseCoopers on 12 September 2001. In the early hours of 14 September, the administrator determined that Ansett was not viable to continue operations (primarily due to the apparent lack of any funds to cover fuel, catering or employee wages) and grounded the fleets of Ansett and its subsidiaries Hazelton Airlines, Kendell, Skywest and Aeropelican. Flights already in the air at the time the decision was made continued on to their destinations, most unaware of the devastating news that would greet them at the other end. Customers and few employees had any warning of the stoppage in operations. An Ansett Boeing 767-200 operating on behalf of Ansett Airfreight due to depart Melbourne for Launceston, Tasmania was the first aircraft to be stopped from flying. It was unable to be unloaded until midday the next day as no paid staff were on duty.\n\nEveryone had been told in the days leading up to 14 September that flights would continue on schedule, and most Ansett employees did not find out until they showed up for work at dawn that day. Thousands of passengers were left stranded and more than 16,000 people found themselves out of a job, making this the largest mass job loss event in Australian history. Widespread protests were held by workers, including the blockade of an Air New Zealand plane about to carry New Zealand's Prime Minister Helen Clark home from Melbourne. \n\nIt was alleged by the then administrators that Air New Zealand had engaged in asset stripping of the airline as well as charging of its fuel costs due to Air New Zealand failing to hedge its fuel costs thus leaving it susceptible to major fluctuations in fuel charges during 2000. This claim was strongly denied by Air New Zealand, noting it had funded Ansett's loss of A$180 million in the last year, and Ansett's administrators soon admitted there was no evidence of any asset stripping. However, Ansett engineers working on Ansett aircraft were aware that Air New Zealand had allegedly orchestrated a large number of equipment replacements, such as engine and avionics modules.\n\nAnsett Mark II and Tesna\n\nAfter receiving a federal government guarantee, Ansett resumed limited services between major cities on 1 October 2001, utilising only the Airbus A320 fleet. This was referred to as Ansett Mark II, an operation run and financed by Ansett Australia under administration. The purpose of getting Ansett back into the air was aimed directly at attracting a buyer for the business and generating positive cash flow. Attempts by Ansett's Voluntary Administrators to re-engage Singapore Airlines to consider a role in resurrecting Ansett through a meeting on 6 October 2001 resulted in it agreeing to play a consultancy role in this effort. [http://www.aph.gov.au/LIBRARY/Pubs/online/ansettchron_PartA.htm ansett chronology] The scaled-back operation ran on a tight budget, and its product reflective of that.\n\nIt consisted of single class seating with no catering, interlining baggage, valet parking or frequent flyer points. After a month back in the air, the Golden Wing Club Lounges re-opened, however like the scaled-back flying operation, provided no refreshments or other amenities apart from coffee and water. Ansett was essentially in \"lock down\" mode, while the administrators tried to source buyers in a very challenging market. Ansett Mark II traded only as \"Ansett\" (minus the Australia) in a different font to separate it from the former operation. It traded from Ansett terminals, with Ansett ground staff, crew and baggage handlers working around the clock to make it a success with limited resources. Designated gates at each of Ansett's terminals were used for the operation, while aircraft not being utilised were moved away to more distant gates, with the disused concourses being sealed off.\n\nIn November 2001, Ansett creditors voted to allow the Tesna consortium, led by Melbourne businessmen Solomon Lew and Lindsay Fox, to purchase Ansett's mainline assets. The plan involved creating a whole \"new\" Ansett out of the ashes of the old (with the \"Australia\" dropped from the name as per Ansett Mark II), but the trademark font and \"Star Mark\" logo re-instated. It would be a full-service, two-class single-fleet-type domestic airline. It included very reduced staff numbers and an all new Airbus A320 fleet. The new Ansett would operate out of the old Ansett terminals, and temporarily lease the former Ansett's A320 fleet until younger replacements arrived. Loyalty products such as the Golden Wing Club and Frequent Flyer program would be relaunched.\n\nThose members of Golden Wing Club at the time of the collapse would have their memberships re-instated for a six-month period if they used the new Ansett. A new CEO was sourced and hired, and began to put together a new management team. A new head office was planned, and Airbus showcased a new A320 to the consortium. A new catering company was selected, with new Business and Economy Class in-flight meals trialed on passengers on select Mark II services in readiness for the new operation.\n\nThe agreement with Ansett's administrators, although well-advanced, collapsed in late February 2002. Without any prior warning, the administrators announced on 27 February that Fox and Lew had withdrawn their bid, citing \"Inability to complete the transaction on legal advice\". A subsequent press conference with Fox and Lew the same day announced that they had received no support from the government for their bid, thus withdrawing their proposal.\n\nWith no other saviours, and any chance for Ansett as an airline to be revived now gone, the administrators had no choice but to cease all Ansett flying operations at 23:59 on 4 March 2002, with the very last commercial flight, AN152 from Perth to Sydney, operated by A320-211 VH-HYI, touching down at 06:53 on 5 March. Staff filled Golden Wing Lounges across the country for mass wakes as the final flights came into land.\n\nEntitlements\n\nBy this point, the administration of the company had transferred to newly formed insolvency firm KordaMentha. The Australian Securities and Investment Commission (ASIC) began an investigation of whether Ansett had traded while insolvent, and eventually determined in July 2002 that it would be too expensive and difficult to proceed with an action which would in any case, need to be many separate actions on behalf of individual creditors rather than just one.\n\nWith Ansett now grounded again, the administrators began selling off Ansett's assets. This included its regional subsidiary airlines, which still continued to trade despite Ansett being grounded. A creditors meeting post March 2002 voted in favour of an organised wind-up of the operation, under a deed of company arrangement, as opposed to an immediate liquidation. It was viewed that a deed of arrangement would give creditors a greater return than liquidation would provide.\n\nLaid-off Ansett workers were eventually paid most of their entitlements, partly from an A$150 million compensation package offered by Air New Zealand in return for having the ASIC inquiry dropped, but mostly through asset sales and leasing revenue. The Federal Government did provide a A$350 million loan which is being repaid by the Administrators at the same time as the staff are being repaid however, to ensure that there is no exposure to taxpayers, a $10 per seat levy was imposed by the Federal Government on Australian airline passengers. Employees ended up receiving 96% of their entitlements. \n\nAdministration and asset sales\n\nAnsett's administrators, KordaMentha, initially advised creditors that it was unlikely that much more money would be realised, due to the depression of the global aviation industry after the September 11 attacks in New York City had the effect of reducing the value of aircraft from A$300 million to A$70 million. In the months following the final flight, the administrators negotiated the sale of the terminal leases back to the airport owners, recouping millions. Auctions were held to sell Ansett's airport furniture and equipment. Its headquarters at 465/489 and 501 Swanston Street, Melbourne were sold to PDG Corporation. Some aircraft stored in heavy maintenance were broken up, as it was not cost-effective to restore them to an airworthy state.\n\nThe disposal of the former fleet did not progress quickly, given the depressed aviation market and the subsequent lack of demand by other carriers around the world whose operations had been crippled by the 9/11 attacks only months before. Following the final flight, nearly all of the A320 fleet was ferried back empty to Melbourne, where they sat at abandoned gates in storage. The Airbus A320 and Boeing 737 fleets ultimately found new owners first, and departed Australia between March 2002 and December 2006 as the banks finally reclaimed them, or as new owners were found.\n\nThe two Boeing 747s that were leased from Singapore Airlines were reclaimed within weeks of the collapse and returned to Singapore Airlines, where they were repainted back into the colours of their owner. They subsequently found new lives and were leased to Fiji's national carrier Fiji Airways. The more modern Boeing 767–300, of which Ansett had two, were reclaimed by the lessors in the following months, while two new Boeing 767–300 aircraft which arrived too late to enter service with Ansett, departed soon after. One aircraft was wet leased on a short term basis by Qantas to bring additional aircraft to cover the loss of Ansett, but the aircraft retained its Ansett registration while under lease to them. Another new 767-300 which was halfway through its ferry from Canada never made it to Australia and returned to Canada. The Kendell CRJ-200 jets departed back from Canada within twelve months of the initial collapse.\n\nWith the newer aircraft gone, most of the older Boeing 767–200 fleet were moved from the Melbourne terminal gates as Virgin Blue moved into the former Ansett Terminal, and were placed into long term storage at the Ansett Engineering Base until late 2004, when most were sold off to Aeroturbine and flown to the United States to be broken up into spare parts. Many of the British Aerospace 146 aircraft were also stored but broken up at Melbourne. As of 2008 the remains of one BAe 146 sit derelict at Brisbane Airport, and another BAe 146 remains at Perth Airport, although neither of them are still owned by Ansett or expected to fly again. A lone Boeing 767–200 survived the scrappers cull, was sold and continues to fly in the United States as a charter aircraft.\n\nAccording to media reports, there are still in excess of 217,000 items and two properties belonging to the airline remaining for sale. In June 2011, it was announced that the Special Employee Entitlements Scheme for Ansett employees had finished making payments to former staff and the administration of Ansett had come to an end. Staff received roughly 96% of their entitlements. \n\nFleet\n\nThe Ansett Australia fleet as of 13 September 2001 (last day of trading) was made up of the following aircraft: \n\nOnly the Airbus A320 was utilised from Ansett's original fleet during the brief re-launch of operations as \"Ansett Mark II\" from October 2001 to March 2002. The Boeing 737, Boeing 767, and Boeing 747 fleet was grounded from September 2001 onwards as were the BAe 146 fleet, with the exception of a one-off revenue flight from Cairns to Brisbane in November 2001, operating off the back end of a charter flight for the government. Two other Ansett BAe 146 aircraft were chartered by the federal government in late 2001 during the federal election campaign.\n\nSeveral of the defunct fleet types did operate ferry flights back to Melbourne from wherever they ended up across Australia in the months after the collapse, and operated the occasional test flight around Melbourne to retain currency.\n\nOf the subsidiary fleets, only the Kendell Bombardier CRJ200 did not return to active flying. The Fokker 50, Saab 340, Twin Otter and Metro 23 regional aircraft were all back flying for Skywest, Kendell, Hazelton and Aeropelican in the weeks following the collapse. Both Kendell and Hazelton merged to create Regional Express Airlines. As of 2013, five former Kendell Saab 340's are in service with Regional Express with the others phased out. Three of the former Hazelton Airlines Saab 340's are in service Regional Express.\n\nHistorical fleet\n\nAt various times Ansett Australia and its predecessors and partnering carriers operated the Boeing 727, -100, -200 Advanced and the purpose built 727 LR, Bristol Freighter, Cessna 550, Convair 340, Convair 440, de Havilland Dragon, de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou, de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter, de Havilland Canada Dash 7, de Havilland Heron, Douglas DC-3 and C-47 Skytrain, Douglas DC-4, Douglas DC-6, Fokker F-27, Fokker F-28, Fokker Universal, Lockheed Model 10 Electra, Lockheed L-188 Electra, Douglas DC-9, Mohawk 298, Piaggio P.166 and Vickers Viscount.\n\nAnsett Flying Boat Services operated the Consolidated PBY Catalina, Short Sandringham and Short Sunderland.\n\nAt various times the Ansett-ANA helicopter division operated the Bell 47J Ranger, Bell 206, Bristol Sycamore, Sikorsky S-61 and Sikorsky S-62.\n\nAnsett Worldwide Aviation Services owned the Airbus A300, Airbus A310 and Boeing 757 for leasing.\n\nOne of the most unusual aircraft that was operated by Ansett was the Aviation Traders ATL-98 Carvair from the 1960s. Three of the airline's own DC-4s were delivered to the United Kingdom for conversion by Aviation Traders Limited, the company run by Sir Freddie Laker as Managing Director.\n\nHistorically, whichever aircraft carried the registration VH-RMA (the initials of Reginald Miles Ansett) was the unofficial flagship of the airline. The code was carried by a Douglas C-47 Skytrain from 1948 to 1956, a Lockheed L-188 Electra from 1959 to 1984 and a Boeing 767-200 (Ansett Worldwide Aviation Services) from 1992 to 1997. The registration VH-RMA was purchased by Tesna Holdings in January 2002 but never used.\n\nCabin services\n\nAnsett Australia offered up to three cabin classes (First, Business and Economy Classes) in varied seat configurations throughout its 66-year run. At the time of its collapse, this had reverted to just two travel classes (Business and Economy), both domestically and internationally:\n\nInternational fleet: (B747-400/767-300ER)\n* International Business Class\n* International Economy Class\n\nDomestic Fleet: (B767-200/B767-300ER/B737-300/A320-200/BAe-146-200)\n* Domestic Business Class\n* Domestic Economy Class\n\nInternational business class\n\nAnsett International's last business class was introduced with the arrival of the Boeing 747-400. It offered 42 single recliner seats in a 2-2-2 configuration on the main deck, with around 160 degrees of recline. Ansett Australia's retrofitted two Boeing 747-400 series aircraft equipped with these recliner seats mostly served the Australia-Asia (Hong Kong and Osaka) international flights. The recliner seats were equipped with inflight entertainment including personal televisions/touch screens with AVOD, personal telephones in every seat and laptop 110 V AC power outlets.\n\nOn Ansett International's 767 fleet, Business seating was in a 1-2-2 configuration, with recliner seats and AVOD similar, but not identical to those on the B747.\n\nDomestic business class\n\nOriginally launched as BusinessFirst in 1997, and then reverting to just Business Class in 1999, Ansett Domestic's last business class offered 24 single lounge chair seats grouped in groups of two allowing a more spacious area on its domestic configured 767-300ER and 200ER/200 fleet in a 2-2-2 configuration. Ansett Australia's domestic business class seats were also installed on the Airbus A320-200 series, the Boeing 737-300 series, and the BAe-146 fleet in a 2–2 layout. These aircraft mostly served Australian domestic flights, however select 767-200ER, A320 and 737 services were also used on the Australia-Asia/Fiji (Denpasar, Hong Kong and Nadi) international flights as demand dictated.\n\nInternational economy class\n\nThe new international economy class was introduced with the arrival of the Boeing 747-400. It offered 398 seats equipped with adjustable wings in the headrest and an adjustable footrest to provide extra comfort. Ansett Australia's international economy class seats were also installed on some of the Boeing 767-200s, and some of the Boeing 767-300s. Seat rows were in a 3-4-3 configuration on the Boeing 747-400s lower deck and mostly a 3–3 configuration on the upper deck, a 2-3-2 configuration on the Boeing 767-200 and Boeing 767-300s. The Airbus A320 and Boeing 737s retained their domestic configuration for international service. These aircraft mostly served Australian domestic flights and some of the Australia-Asia/Fiji (Denpasar, Hong Kong, Osaka and Nadi) international flights. The seats were equipped with inflight entertainment including personal televisions and personal telephones in every seat.\n\nDomestic economy class\n\nThe new domestic economy class was also introduced with the arrival of the Boeing 767-300ER, offering 224 seats. Ansett Australia's domestic economy class seats were also installed on some of the Airbus A320s, some of the BAe-146 series, some of the Boeing 737-300 series, some of the Boeing 767-200 series and some of the Boeing 767-300 series aircraft. Seat rows were in a 3–3 configuration on the Airbus A320 and the Boeing 737-300s, a 2–2 configuration on the BAe 146 series aircraft and a 2-3-2 configuration on the Boeing 767-200 and Boeing 767-300s. These aircraft mostly served Australian domestic flights and some of the Australia-Asia/Fiji (Denpasar, Hong Kong and Nadi) international flights.\n\nAnsett Mark II cabin\n\nFollowing Ansett's limited re-launch under administration, it operated only Economy Class with a scaled back no-frills service. Those A320s with convertible Business Class seating were configured back to all Economy, while the A320 cabins with fixed Business Class seating retained the Business seat but was considered all one cabin. Bottled water was offered throughout the flight.\n\nDestinations and Routes\n\nAnsett Australia operated to many destinations in Australia and Asia prior to its collapse in 2001. This list does not include destinations only served by subsidiaries Aeropelican, Ansett New Zealand, Kendell Airlines, Skywest Airlines and Hazelton Airlines. \n\nOceania\n\n* Australia\n**Australian Capital Territory\n***Canberra (Canberra Airport)\n**New South Wales\n***Sydney (Sydney Airport)\n**Northern Territory\n***Alice Springs (Alice Springs Airport)\n***Darwin (Darwin International Airport)\n***Uluru (Ayers Rock Airport)\n**Queensland\n***Brisbane (Brisbane Airport)\n***Cairns (Cairns Airport)\n***Gold Coast/Coolangatta (Gold Coast Airport)\n***Hamilton Island (Hamilton Island Airport)\n***Mount Isa (Mount Isa Airport)\n***Proserpine (Whitsunday Coast Airport)\n***Sunshine Coast/Maroochydore (Sunshine Coast Airport)\n***Townsville (Townsville Airport)\n**South Australia\n***Adelaide (Adelaide Airport)\n**Tasmania\n***Hobart (Hobart International Airport)\n***Launceston (Launceston Airport)\n**Victoria\n***Melbourne (Melbourne Airport)\n**Western Australia\n***Argyle (Argyle Airport)\n***Broome (Broome International Airport)\n***Kalgoorlie (Kalgoorlie-Boulder Airport)\n***Karratha/Dampier (Karratha Airport)\n***Kununurra (Kununurra Airport)\n***Newman (Newman Airport)\n***Geraldton (Geraldton Airport)\n***Paraburdoo (Paraburdoo Airport)\n***Perth (Perth)\n***Port Hedland (Port Hedland Airport)\n* New Zealand\n**Auckland (Auckland Airport)\n* Fiji\n**Nadi (Nadi International Airport)\n\nAsia\n\n* Malaysia\n**Kuala Lumpur (Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport) \n* Indonesia\n**Jakarta (Soekarno-Hatta International Airport) \n**Denpasar (Ngurah Rai Airport)\n* People's Republic of China\n**Shanghai (Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport) \n* Hong Kong (Hong Kong International Airport) and Kai Tak Airport before 1998\n* Republic of China\n**Taipei (Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport) (formerly Chiang Kai Shek International Airport) \n* Japan\n**Osaka (Kansai International Airport)\n* South Korea\n**Seoul (Gimpo International Airport) \n\n: Terminated prior to Air New Zealand takeover.\n: Terminated during the Asian financial crisis. \n\nStar Alliance\n\nOn 30 March 1999 Ansett Australia joined the Star Alliance, a global network of carriers, opening up interline agreements with a dozen different carriers connecting to over 100 countries across the world. Reciprocal rights for certain Star Alliance membership tiers was offered, including earning frequent flyer points and a wide selection of lounge access. The Star Alliance logo was added to every aircraft in the Ansett fleet, as well as its regional subsidiary airlines. Other Star member carriers like United Airlines benefited greatly by Ansett's membership, with seamless feeder connections from its trans-Pacific services.\n\nServices\n\nAnsett Australia offered travellers a range of services up to the time of 14 September 2001:\n\nGolden Wing Club\n\nGolden Wing Club was the airport lounge service owned and operated by Ansett. Members received a bi-monthly magazine called \"Travelling Life\", as well as many other features. Golden Wing Club Lounges were located throughout Australia in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, Canberra, Cairns, Darwin, Gold Coast, Alice Springs, and Hamilton Island. Ansett also ran international Golden Wing Clubs at Sydney and Perth, with an added \"First Class\" section of the Sydney Club for those travelling International First Class from 1994–1998. Access was available to Golden Wing Club members travelling on an Ansett or subsidiary service (e.g. – Kendell, Aeropelican and Skywest) on the day of travel. Complimentary access was granted for Global Rewards Diamond and Sapphire members, as well as Star Alliance Gold (and above) members.\n\nLounges were for a time, located in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch with members being able to access all Star Alliance Lounges as well. The lounges initially closed following the appointment of administrators and subsequent grounding of the group in September 2001, however select lounges re-opened in a scaled-back capacity in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth only from November 2001 until March 2002 while Ansett Mark II was operating.\n\nFollowing Ansett's final flights in March 2002, the lounges permanently closed. In the weeks that followed they were emptied of their expensive artwork and other items of value in subsequent auctions, leaving behind furniture and a variety of fittings, most of which was purchased by the various airport owners who bought the terminals back from Ansett's administrators. Today, many of the former Golden Wing Clubs in Australia live on as new lounges, occupied by Virgin Australia as its member lounge in Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane, through leases secured with the airport owners. The former Golden Wing in Cairns was used by Qantas as a temporary Qantas Club while the Cairns terminal underwent redevelopment, before being demolished in the terminal redevelopment. The Perth Golden Wing was used firstly by charter airline Alliance and became Virgin's sixth lounge, before being vacated in late 2015 when Virgin relocated to the new Domestic T1 terminal. The Canberra Lounge was used by Virgin Blue and eventually closed and demolished to make way for the new Canberra Terminal redevelopment. The Adelaide and Gold Coast lounges have both, in the process of terminal redevelopments, been demolished.\n\nAnsett Executive Lounge\n\nThe Ansett Executive Lounge, also known as \"Ansett Pass\" and \"Ansett Managers Lounge\" was an exclusive airport lounge service owned and operated by Ansett. Membership was via invitation only, and offered opulence and luxury to that of the world's finest five-star hotels. As membership was quite select, the lounges were significantly smaller than that of Golden Wing Clubs. Executive Lounges were located throughout Australia (Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, Adelaide, Canberra and Perth) and New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch).\n\nThese lounges closed at time of administration and did not reopen. In the years since the collapse, many of the former Executive lounges were demolished after the airport owners purchased the leasing rights back off Ansett's administrators. For a time regional carrier Regional Express Airlines utilised the former Canberra lounge as a lounge area for its passengers. Virgin Blue utilised the former Executive Lounge in Sydney for its initial \"Blue Room\" and later on \"The Lounge\" product, but relocated to the former Golden Wing Club lounge in 2008.[http://www.express.bcdtravel.com.au/corporate-travel/virgin-blue-opens-flagship-lounge-sydney-airport/ Virgin Blue opens new flagship \"The Lounge\" at Sydney airport|Corporate Travel Management] The former lounges are still in existence in Sydney, Brisbane and Perth, but are now utilised for other purposes and not accessible to passengers.\n\nGlobal Rewards\n\nGlobal Rewards was Ansett Australia's Frequent Flyer Program from 1991 to 2001. It was formerly known as \"Ansett Frequent Flyer\". Points could be used for services from Ansett Australia and their partners including flights, upgrades, holidays, hotel stays and car rentals. Diners Club was a significant financial services partner in Global Rewards. Points held at the time of the airline's collapse lost their value as no other airline took over the program as had taken place with the collapse of some other airlines. \n\nChauffeur drive\n\nAnsett offered a limousine service, for those wishing to hire for journeys to and from the airport to the CBD in Adelaide, Brisbane, Cairns, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney. It also offered airport-to-suburb service in Melbourne, Perth and Sydney.\n\nValet parking\n\nAnsett offered a valet parking service in major Australian and New Zealand airports. This also offered the convenience of kerbside check-in, and car cleaning for additional cost.\n\nCapital Shuttle\n\nAnsett's Capital Shuttle operated between Sydney and Canberra. This service mainly used Saab 340 and Bombardier CRJ-200 aircraft, with small use of A320 and 737 aircraft mostly in peak periods. 'Capital Shuttle' services departed from a specially marked gate at Sydney Airport, Gate 14.\n\nAir cargo\n\nAlso known as Ansett Air Freight during its time, Ansett ran a significant freight operation which specialised in the transport of items too large for normal carriage, along with heavy-freight contracts with numerous suppliers and contractors.\n\nTerminal transfers\n\nAnsett ran a scheduled terminal transfer service at Sydney Airport, which offered seamless connection from its Domestic terminal to the International terminal for Ansett Australia services connecting to Ansett International. An Ansett bus operated the shuttle service which departed from a transfer lounge located between its two domestic concourses. The shuttle would route across the airside tarmac and runways and arrive near customs at Terminal 1.\n\nAccidents and incidents\n\n*On 17 May 1946, VH-UZP Lockheed 10B Electra \"Ansalanta\", Essendon to Parafield (Ansett Airways inaugural direct service). Controlled flight into terrain on an instrument approach, aircraft ended inverted - 12 on board survived without serious injury.\n*On 30 November 1961, Ansett-ANA Flight 325, a Vickers Viscount, crashed into Botany Bay shortly after take-off from Kingsford-Smith Airport, Sydney, New South Wales. The starboard wing failed in a thunderstorm. All 15 people on board were killed.\n*On 22 September 1966, Ansett-ANA Flight 149, a Vickers Viscount, crashed at Winton, Queensland after a mid-air fire caused structural failure of the port wing. All 24 people on board were killed.\n*On 19 October 1994, Boeing 747-300 VH-INH landed at Sydney without the nose wheel extended. Approximately one hour after departure the crew shut down the number one engine because of an oil leak. They returned the aircraft to Sydney where the approach proceeded normally until the landing gear was selected. With selection of the landing gear and selection of the flap beyond a setting of flaps 20, the landing gear warning horn began to sound because the nose landing gear had not extended. The flight crew unsuccessfully attempted to establish the reason for the warning. Believing the gear to be down, the crew elected to complete the landing, with the result that the aircraft was landed with the nose gear retracted. There was no fire and the pilot in command decided not to initiate an emergency evacuation. All passengers and crew were evacuated safely \n*On 19 May 2000, Boeing 767-200 VH-RMO suffered a nose wheel collapse at Sydney Terminal during an overnight service. The aircraft was not occupied by passengers or crew at the time \n\nSponsorship\n\nSport\n\nAnsett Australia was one of the major sponsors of the Australian Football League, holding the naming rights to the AFL pre-season competition, the Ansett Australia Cup. It was also a major sponsor of Waverley Park. The logo was visible around the stadium.\n\nAnsett was also a Major Sponsor of Australian Cricket, with the Ansett Australia Test Series a prominent fixture of the Australian summer. Ansett's logo (called the StarMark) appeared on all players' training and game shirts, as well as around the boundary and on the field during Test Series.\n\nThe airline was the official airline of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Boeing 767-300 ER VH-BZF carried the Olympic Flame from Athens to Guam for the start of the torch relay through Oceania. An A320-211 carried the Olympic Torch from Auckland to Uluru, to commence the Olympic Torch relay in Australia.\n\nSince Qantas's Take over of Australian Airlines in 1992, Ansett acquired the rights to selective sponsorship of various teams involved in the Australian Touring Car Championship and Seven Networks commentary team between various airports close to racing venues around Australia from 1994 to Ten Network's takeover of V8 Supercar Series AVESCO (V8 Supercars Australia) launched the new series in 1997, but the insignia remained on various cars until Ansett folded in 2001.\n\nIt was also the sleeve / major sponsor of the Brisbane Broncos National Rugby League team from 1996 until 2001.\n\nFilm and television\n\nAnsett Australia sponsored the soap opera Neighbours in the late 1980s, having previously received publicity when its aircraft were used in the filming of another production by Reg Grundy — 1977's ABBA: The Movie. Ansett often sponsored Channel 9's Nightline late night news program from 1994–1997.\n\nAnsett also offered on-board News and movies, entitled (Ansett Sky Show). It consisted of a twice daily 30 minute news service (AM and PM), which was recorded by Channel 7 studios in Sydney entitled Seven Ansett News, which was then transmitted by satellite to all Ansett capital city, and some regional airport locations. The news service was then dubbed to video cassettes, and was then distributed onto Ansett aircraft first thing in the morning and exchanged halfway during the operational day for the second afternoon/evening broadcast. For the domestic fleet, movies and television shows were recorded to tape and distributed to each aircraft once a month.\n\nOn international aircraft, the news was available in one edition (usually morning). Movies and television shows were recorded onto a central data system on both 747-400 and one 767-300ER aircraft, which was changed monthly.\n\nAnsett's safety demonstration was done via TV screens throughout the aircraft as well as in person, at the time of its demise.\n\nDocumentaries and books\n\nDocumentaries about Ansett and the company's background include Air Australia: War in suites and The Ansett Story. Books have also been written, including Ansett: The Collapse and Ansett: The Story Of The Rise And Fall Of Ansett 1936–2002.\n\nRelated companies\n\nAnsett Worldwide Aviation Services (AWAS)\n\nAnsett Worldwide Aviation Services or simply Ansett Worldwide is one of the world's largest commercial jet aircraft leasing companies. It was Ansett Australia's subsidiary and leasing arm from 1985 until February 2000. \n\nAnsett Flight Simulator Centre / Ansett Aviation Training\n\nThe Ansett Australia Flight Simulator Centre located in Melbourne had continued trading under administration, following the company's insolvency as it was one of the few Ansett businesses that could operate profitably, independent of the airline. An agreement was reached by the Deed Administrators in October 2004 for its sale to Aviation Training Australasia Pty Ltd. The sale included the business, related buildings, land and the Ansett owned Flight Simulators. Nineteen former Ansett Australia employees jobs were saved in the sale, and Aviation Training Australasia elected to operate the centre under the trading name of Ansett Flight Simulator Centre and later Ansett Aviation Training, dropping the \"Australia\" off the end of Ansett, but retaining the well recognised Ansett Star Mark logo, reflective of Ansett's last livery.[http://businesssunday.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id\n67270 Ansett still flying]\n\nIn April 2008, it announced that it was undergoing a major expansion and will be getting simulators for the current-generation Boeing 737, Fokker 100, Beechcraft King Air and Embraer EMB-120 Brasília, as well as a second Airbus A320 simulator due an extension to centre's existing building.[http://globalaviationexpress.blogspot.com/2008/04/ansett-flight-simulator-centre-adding.html Global Aviation Express: Ansett Flight Simulator Centre: Adding Five More Simulators]\n\nJohn Holland Aviation Services\n\nWith the demise of Ansett airline operations in 2002, the engineering services business, formerly known as the Ansett Australia Maintenance Base located at Melbourne Airport, was retained under the name of Ansett Aviation Engineering Services (AAES), primarily to care for the Ansett aircraft held in storage having mandatory ongoing maintenance, and also for other airlines supplying third party maintenance. Through five years of administration, AAES continued to operate despite Ansett Australia no longer trading. \n\nNew business was secured and the engineering skills base continued to grow. The AAES business was acquired by the John Holland Group in June 2007 under the banner of John Holland Aviation Services. As part of the sale to John Holland Group, 155 AAES staff and management had the opportunity for ongoing employment. \n\nAnsett Aircraft Spares and Services\n\nAnsett Aircraft Spares and Services is a company that serves the aviation community by selling aircraft spares as well as maintenance work for airplanes such as Airbus, Boeing, Bombardier, British Aerospace, Douglas aircraft and Fokker types, with offices in Sylmar, California, Surrey, the United Kingdom and Melbourne. Ansett Aircraft Spares and Services also has a logistics division. \n\nList of associated businesses\n\n*Ansett New Zealand, a defunct airline, originally a subsidiary of Ansett Australia\n*Kendell Airlines, subsidiary of Ansett Australia\n*Hazelton Airlines, subsidiary of Ansett Australia\nBoth of Kendell & Hazelton were merged each other and became Regional Express Airlines after collapse of Ansett Australia.\n*Aeropelican Air Services, former subsidiary of Ansett Australia\n*Skywest Airlines, former subsidiary of Ansett Australia\n*East-West Airlines, former subsidiary of Ansett Australia ceased October 1993\n*Ansett Aviation Engineering Services\n*Ansett Aircraft Finance Limited\n*Ansett Australia and Air New Zealand Engineering Services Limited\n*Ansett Aviation Equipment Pty Ltd\n*Ansett Equipment Finance Limited\n*Ansett Flying Boat Services\n*Ansett Pioneer, interstate coach operator\n*Ansett Worldwide Aviation Services, an aircraft leasing organisation which used to be a subsidiary of Ansett Australia\n*Diners Club Australia, credit card provider. 68.2% share owned, was sold back to Diners Club USA in 1999.\n*National Instrument Company (later renamed Ansett Technologies), originally part of ANA, an aircraft instrument and avionics servicing business. Also involved in defence electronics systems integration.\n*Austrama Television Pty Ltd, which commenced television broadcasting in Melbourne in 1964 as ATV-0 (later ATV-10).\n*Universal Telecasters Queensland (TVQ-0 Brisbane), 49.9% was purchased in 1964, with full control gained in 1970.\n*Ansair, originally a manufacturer of aircraft seats, the business diversified into bus and coach manufacturing.\n*Ansett Wridgways\n*Ansett International Travel\n*Transport Industries Insurance\n\nLegacy\n\nThe Ansett Transport Museum is housed in the company's first aircraft hangar at Hamilton Airport."
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"The other 10th anniversary: Ansett's demise\nThe other 10th anniversary: Ansett's demise\nSep 12 2011\nIt has been 10 years since Ansett collapsed. \nPhoto: Dallas Kilponen\nShare on Google Plus\nIf you want the exact date, this Wednesday, September 14, will be the 10th anniversary of the greatest crisis the Australian travel industry has ever faced, which was masked by the other great disaster America is commemorating today.\nNine eleven, as it has come to be known, collapsed the American domestic air travel business into a hole from which it did not re-emerge for years.\nSee Also\nAustralia travel guide\nOn the other side of the world, the bankruptcy of Ansett – mismanaged in the 1990s by its lazy Australian management, then taken over by greedy New Zealand raiders in 2000 – not only collapsed the Australian domestic market, but initially gifted more than 90 per cent of what was left to Qantas, whose domestic division in the 1990s had more often than not been the straggler to Ansett’s market leader.\nSHARE\nThe end ... a tearful Ansett employee during the final days of the airline. \nPhoto: Craig Abraham\nQantas eventually drew “a line in the sand” at 65 per cent of the domestic market as the little backpackers’ budget airline, Virgin Blue, grew to become its only viable opposition.\nThe fact that the renamed Virgin Australia did not even have a business-class product until three months ago gave Qantas a 10-year free ride as the airline of choice for corporate Australia, a goldmine that still subsidises the disaster that Qantas International has become.\nAnsett was not quite a carbon copy, but similar to what became of some of travel’s greatest names in America, when the US deregulated the airline industry in 1978.\nAnsett had had more than a decade to get its sky-high operating costs under control after the Australian industry was deregulated in 1989. It cost Ansett and Australian Airlines (the government-owned domestic carrier taken over by Qantas in 1993) hundreds of millions of dollars in losses to outlast Australia’s first generation of budget carriers, Compass Mark I and II between 1990 and 1993.\nAfter the first raiders were seen off, Qantas and Ansett continued to behave like the born-to-rule: the cheapest fare between Melbourne and Sydney was $239 return and if you didn’t like it, you could walk.\nIt cost the incumbents around $120 to fly a Melbourne-Sydney seat compared with around half that for today’s low-cost carriers like Tiger and Jetstar, even with the astronomical airport fees they are forced to pay.\nWhen the aggressive Brierley Investments had control of Ansett in the last days, there was massive cost-cutting as a New Zealand razor gang went through Ansett headquarters in Franklin Street, Melbourne.\nAnsett’s 16,000 staff were demoralised and fearful of the future. The cost-cutting is thought to have caused defective book-keeping in the maintenance records department, which led to the grounding of Ansett’s Boeing 767 fleet in April 2001, barely a day before the busy Easter holidays.\nAnsett lost public confidence and never regained it. It was a coincidence that air travel on the other side of the world would also be decimated by unrelated events in September 2001.\nWhat are you memories of Ansett? Do you remember them as the bad old days when flying was much more expensive, or something more benign? Were you one of many who caught the bus or train instead of the plane?",
"History - About Air New Zealand | Air New Zealand\nAbout Air New Zealand\nNew routes and exciting initiatives\nThe story begins...\nAir New Zealand's story began in April 1940 when its forerunner airline, Tasman Empire Airways Limited (TEAL) was incorporated. TEAL began its first trans-Tasman services with flying boats, and over the years steadily expanded the size and scope of its operations and the extent of its international network. The route network was expanded from Australia and the Pacific to Asia, the USA, the UK and Europe. In October 1953 TEAL became jointly owned by the New Zealand and Australian Governments, and in April 1961 the New Zealand Government assumed full ownership.\nIn addition to TEAL operating international services, the New Zealand Government established NZ National Airways Corporation (NAC) in 1947. NAC was the primary operator of domestic air services between major centres and provincial cities and towns, and along with TEAL would later form the basis for today's Air New Zealand.\nPacific Coral Route\nZK-AMA Aotearoa, Short S.30 Empire-class flying boat, Evans Bay, Wellington. This was TEAL’s first aircraft in 1940, a strong beginning for Air New Zealand.\nIn December 1951 a flying boat service from Auckland via Fiji and the Cook Islands to Tahiti began - it was known as the \"Coral Route\". Samoa became part of this route in 1952. The inaugural flight was made in a MK III Solent Flying Boat called Aparima. Solents were used to fly the Coral Route until September 1960, when the world's last scheduled international flying boat service was discontinued. The 50th anniversary of the Coral Route was celebrated by Air New Zealand on the 15th of December 2001.\nA national carrier is born\nDC-8 inflight with Air New Zealand Five-Star Jetline branding, c1965.\nIn April 1965 TEAL was renamed Air New Zealand Limited, and continued operating solely international services. 1965 also heralded the beginning of the jet era for Air New Zealand, with the arrival in July of the first DC-8 jet aircraft. The new jets meant that Air New Zealand could expand operations to North America and Asia, becoming a truly international airline. In 1973, Air New Zealand also introduced the larger DC-10. The airline operated with a combined DC-8 and DC-10 fleet until the 1980s, when the larger Boeing 747 began to replace the older jets. The first 747 arrived in May 1981.\nSunset in Christchurch, New Zealand.\nIn the meantime, NAC's early piston-engined aircraft such as the DC3, were replaced by turbo-props, and in 1968 the jet age for domestic aviation was ushered in by the Boeing 737.\nThirteen years after TEAL was renamed Air New Zealand, Air New Zealand and NAC merged in April 1978, forming the first New Zealand carrier to offer both international and domestic services.\nTragedy struck Air New Zealand on November 28th 1979 when a DC 10 on a sightseeing flight to Antarctica crashed into Mt Erebus, resulting in the loss of all 257 passengers and crew onboard. The tragedy deeply affected New Zealand and everyone that worked at the airline.\nIn April 1989, the New Zealand Government privatisation of Air New Zealand was completed through the outright sale of the company for NZ$660 million, to a consortium comprising of Brierley Investments, Qantas, Japan Airlines and American Airlines. Air New Zealand shares were listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchange as \"A\" shares (could only be held by New Zealand nationals) in October 1989 and \"B\" shares (no restriction on nationality of ownership) in December 1991.\nDuring the 1980s and 1990s Air New Zealand continued to expand its international network, particularly to Asian cities like Taipei, Nagoya, Osaka and Fukuoka.\nThe Isabel Harris of Thornton Hall uniform worn from 1987 to 1992. Models on Mt Victoria, Devonport, Auckland.\nGlobal alliance\nIn March 1999 Air New Zealand became a full member of the Star Alliance group. The Star Alliance, which includes Air Canada, ANA, Asiana Airlines, Austrian Airlines, bmi, LOT Polish Airlines, Lufthansa, Singapore Airlines, SAS, South African Airways, Spanair, SWISS, TAP Portugal, Thai Airways, United Airlines, US Airways and Varig is the world's largest global alliance and provides valuable network and loyalty benefits to customers.\nBeyond the Star Alliance, Air New Zealand has strong commercial partnerships with airlines serving key markets which complement and strengthen Air New Zealand's airline network. These relationships are managed at a bilateral level.\nAir New Zealand and Ansett Australia\nIn September 1996, Air New Zealand announced a conditional agreement to purchase 50% of Ansett Holdings for a total outlay of A$475 million. The purchase was completed in October 1996. Ansett Holdings owned 100% of Ansett Australia (the domestic airline) and 49% of Ansett International.\nIn February 2000, Air New Zealand announced the conditional purchase of the remaining 50% of Ansett Holdings Limited from News Corporation Limited for A$580m, with a further deferred consideration equivalent to 10.5% of issued capital to be settled between two and four years. The purchase was completed in June 2000 creating a new world top twenty airline.\nAnsett had an extensive network throughout Australia and provided Air New Zealand customers with a greatly enhanced offering.\nFollowing a significant downturn in Ansett's performance, leading to unsustainable levels of losses, Ansett was placed into Voluntary Administration in September 2001. On the 4th of October 2001 the Air New Zealand Board, its major shareholders and the New Zealand Government announced a new proposal which provided a substantial capital injection from the New Zealand Government into Air New Zealand. Following shareholder approval of the new proposal in December 2001, Air New Zealand was recapitalised in January 2002.\nShort-haul remodelling\nIn July 2002, Air New Zealand began a fleet renewal programme and confirmed an order for 14 new Airbus A320s. The Airbus aircraft replace Boeing 767-200 and Boeing 737-300 aircraft that are being progressively retired from the fleet.\nIn October 2004, the airline announced an upgrade to the turbo-prop fleet, with an agreement to acquire 17 new Bombardier 50 seat Q300 turbo-prop aircraft, and options to purchase a further 10 Q300 and 13 Q400 aircraft. The new aircraft will replace the fleet of 17 33-seater Saab 340A aircraft.\nBeing there is everything\nAir New Zealand is transforming its business to firmly put the customer at the front of all its processes. The domestic business was the first to undergo dramatic transformation.\nFrom November 2002, the way people travelled within New Zealand changed dramatically. The airline remodelled its business to offer substantially lower fares, simplified booking rules, a focus on internet sales and ease of booking, additional seat availability and improved loyalty benefits for frequent flyers.\nShort haul international services (Tasman and South Pacific) were next. In October 2003, the concept was extended to Tasman travel. With the move, Air New Zealand became the first airline to introduce everyday, low-cost travel across the Tasman and continued its efforts to encourage more people to travel more often. Pacific routes followed in May 2004.\nNew long-haul fleet and product\nIn June 2004, the addition of 12 Boeing aircraft to the fleet and plans to transform the long-haul flying experience were announced.\nThe Boeing deal saw Air New Zealand acquiring eight new Boeing 777-200ER and four Boeing 7E7 aircraft, as well as rights to acquire a further 46 long-haul aircraft. The aircraft began arriving in October 2005 and have allowed Air New Zealand to develop new routes, increase frequency on existing routes and increase both passenger and cargo capacity, while improving efficiency and emission ratings.\nIn 2010 Air New Zealand’s first Boeing 777-300 aircraft touched down in Auckland on Christmas Eve morning, bringing the Kiwi designed Skycouch to New Zealand for the first time. The aircraft were brought in to service the Auckland – Los Angeles – London route.\nBoeing 787-9 Skycouch.\nThe new Air New Zealand inflight product features the revolutionary lie-flat seats for business class passengers –each with direct aisle access; Skycouch options for economy passengers, video screens in every seat and movies on demand; new slimline economy seats; new soft furnishings, refurbished bathrooms and a new food and beverage experience. In addition, a new premium economy service offers additional leg room, more seat recline and in-seat power. The premium economy offering is unique among carriers to and from New Zealand.\nThe landscape shifted again in July 2014 when Air New Zealand debuted the first 787-9 Dreamliner in Seattle – making history as the first airline to launch the stretch version of Boeing’s new aircraft. The Dreamliner touched down in Auckland on July 11 2014 and began its first scheduled flights in October 2014. As of December 2014, Air New Zealand has two 787-9 aircraft in service with a further nine on firm order.\nNew routes and exciting initiatives\nIn addition to the new long-haul aircraft and inflight product, Air New Zealand has also launched new international routes.\nOn June 30 2004 direct services between Auckland and San Francisco were launched, with services from Wellington to Fiji and Christchurch to the Cook Islands beginning in late 2004.\nLess than two years later, in June 2006, the airline announced it was to commence direct services between Auckland and Shanghai – mainland China’s fastest growing and most affluent commercial hub. The following year Air New Zealand launched direct flights between Auckland and Vancouver.\nIn January 2014 Air New Zealand announced it would begin flying direct to Singapore via an alliance with Singapore Airlines, with the first tickets going on sale in September 2014. More recently, the airline also announced plans to operate direct flights between Auckland and Argentina’s vibrant capital, Buenos Aires. The three times weekly return service will be operated by a Boeing 777-200 aircraft with tickets on sale in March and flights commencing in December 2015, subject to necessary approvals.\nAlongside ongoing efforts to market New Zealand as a destination to existing markets, Air New Zealand has renewed its focus on growing potential markets and earlier this year opened a sales office in Beijing, China. Direct flights between Auckland and Shanghai are also planned once the necessary regulatory approvals are received.\nIn September 2010, Air New Zealand debuted ‘Seats to Suit’ which offers customers the choice of Seat, Seat + Bag, The Works and Works Deluxe on flights between New Zealand, Australia and the Pacific Islands.\nAir New Zealand's loyalty programme, Airpoints™, was relaunched in November 2004 as Airpoints Dollars™. In a world first, customers can use their Airpoints Dollars to book any seat, at any time, on any Air New Zealand ticketed and operated flight, just like cash. In September 2013, Air New Zealand teamed with Kiwibank to launch a ground breaking Airpoints earning credit card.\nWith all these initiatives and the many more to follow Air New Zealand remains committed to delivering a uniquely Kiwi experience to its customers.\nUnited StatesUSD",
"Ansett Australia Boarding Pass | eBay\nAnsett Australia Boarding Pass:\nAnsett Australia Boarding Pass0 results. You may also like\n \neBay determines this price through a machine-learned model of the product's sale prices within the last 90 days.\neBay Premium Service\nTrack record of excellent service\nFree postage\n30+ day money back returns\nFast handling; Express postage option\nTrack record of excellent service\nFree postage\n30+ day money back returns\nFast handling; Express postage option\nPlease enter a minimum and/or maximum price before continuing.\nAU $\nCopyright © 1995-2017 eBay Inc. All Rights Reserved. User Agreement , Privacy , Cookies and AdChoice\nThis page was last updated: 08-Jan 09:44. Number of bids and bid amounts may be slightly out of date. See each listing for international postage options and costs.",
"Australia and asylum seekers: the key facts you need to know | News | theguardian.com\nBlog home\nAustralia and asylum seekers: the key facts you need to know\nWhere do Australia's asylum seekers come from – and how does the country compare with the rest of the world?\n• More data journalism and data visualisations from the Guardian\nAsylum seekers from Sri Lanka at a police station in Colombo, after being arrested for attempting to sail to Australia by boat. Photograph: Dinuka Liyanawatte / Reuters/REUTERS\nDoes Australia have a problem with refugees ? Both major parties believe it does, agreeing that offshore processing is necessary to deter asylum seekers arriving by boat. In 2007 Labor dismantled the previous Coalition government's policies, but has progressively hardened its stance over the past five years. The Coalition promises to \"stop the boats\" by turning them back on the high seas, where possible, and by denying boat arrivals any hope of ever gaining permanent residency.\nSo what are the facts about people seeking asylum in Australia? The latest data from the Department of Immigration and Citizenship for year-on-year numbers shows that applications for asylum in Australia have never been higher.\nThe latest quarterly figures show the first three quarters of 2012-13 are already ahead of the entire 2011-12 total, with 17,698 asylum seekers as of March 2013.\nAustralia divides its refugees into two groups: those that arrive by boat, defined as \"irregular maritime arrivals\" (IMA), and those that arrive by air (non-IMA). This data, which covers 2011-12, shows that, for the first time, boat refugees outnumber asylum seekers arriving at airports.\nAustralia compared with other countries\nEven with recent increases in the numbers of asylum seekers, Australia takes a very small percentage of the world's refugees: just 3% in the latest figures for 2012, although that is up from 1% in 2008.\nBut how does that really compare? According to the UN high commission for refugees , there are 30,083 refugees living in Australia. Relative to the country's geographical size, that gives Australia one of the lowest rates in the industrialised world (although this does not take into account that large areas of the country are uninhabitable). Australia, incidentally, produced 39 refugees of its own in 2010.\nIf we look at the figures in relation to population, they show that for every 1,000 Australian citizens, there are 1.4 refugees.\nArrivals by air\nIn the past, most arrivals were by air, but now more come on a boat. The government says that in 2011-12 there were 7,036 applications for asylum by people who originally arrived by air, an increase of 11% on 2010-11. The increase was almost exclusively attributable to applications from international students, which tapered off during the second half of the financial year after the government changed the rules to make it harder for students to apply for permanent residency.\nThe number of people arriving by air and seeking protection has been rising since 2004-05 after falling from just over seven thousand in 2001-02.\nThe list of troubled countries reflects the origins of refugees around the world – and if the boat applications were included, Afghanistan would be top. Applications by citizens of India, Pakistan, Libya and Syria were significantly higher than in previous years, says the government, reflecting in part the large number of students in those caseloads.\nBut while there are more applications, the rate of people being approved is down on two years ago.\nArrivals by boat\nSo, arrivals by boat are up – and the latest figures suggest that next year there will be even more .\nBut where do these people come from? They tend to be from poorer and more troubled countries than the airborne arrivals.\nThey are also younger – and predominantly male. In 2011-12, 6,512 of the 7,379 applicants were male.\nThe full data is below for you to download. What can you do with it?\nUpdate: for information about the distinction between asylum seekers and refugees, see the Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship's fact sheet or the Australian Human Rights Commission's FAQ on the subject.\nData summary",
"The 5 Best Airlines in Africa\nThe 5 Best Airlines in Africa\nApril 23, 2013 by Lee Abbamonte 82 Comments\nThe 5 best airlines in Africa can be as contentious a topic as airlines in Africa in general. Some people are afraid to fly airlines in Africa period. That is obviously because of their own ignorance and fear but not all the fears are self conjured. Many African airlines do not have good safety records and many are not sanctioned to fly anywhere outside of Africa or even their own country. However, there are some airlines that have pretty good International reputations and several have even become full members of global airline alliances .\nNow keep in mind, I write this as someone who has flown dozens and dozens of African airlines (good, bad and awful) and has traveled to every country in Africa. These are the 5 best airlines in Africa.\n1. South African Airways\nSouth African Airways is the clear number one airline on the African continent. It is the shining star that brings Africa to the world. South African has direct flights to five other continents and a great hub at Johannesburg Airport. South African is Africa’s world-class airline and you should expect what you’d expect from any world-class airline.\nSouth African Airways is a full member of the Star Alliance and has direct flights from New York, London, Dubai, Sydney, Sao Paolo and Beijing. This is what keeps the South African economy going-the accessibility of the world. The only drawback with South African Airways is it is far from just about everywhere. But the same can be said for Australia and they seem to manage pretty well!\n2. Egypt Air\nEgypt Air has transformed itself over the past 10 years unlike any airline in the world in my view. After a terrible crash in early 2004, Egypt Air has rebounded to become a global player in Africa and the Middle East. They have improved their planes, routes and they have even become a full member of the Star Alliance. I have flown them several times over the past few years via their Cairo hub and they have always been pretty good.\nTheir lounges are OK and to me the biggest drawback is the fact that you always have to take a bus from the airport in Cairo to the plane. They never park at the gate and I hate that. On a connection, you have to do it twice but Egypt Air often has very cheap fares so you make due. Just as Egypt Air has done in improving themselves.\n3. Ethiopian Airlines\nEthiopian Airlines is secretly one of my favorite airlines. Not because they are so great but because of where they are located. I love Ethiopia and their hub city of Addis Ababa and have flown there and through many times. Ethiopian Airlines itself is very good for African standards but not quite up to par with South African or even Egypt Air but is 100% in the 5 best airlines in Africa.\nEthiopian Airlines, a full Star Alliance member, has a great route map within Africa and the Middle East. They even have a direct flight from Addis Ababa to Washington DC and London. That said, there are often very good deals around Africa and the Middle East if you go through Addis so keep an eye out. Just remember the planes aren’t that great as many are old and not well kept. However, the service is pretty good and they’ll get you to some places many airlines can’t take you.\n4. Kenya Airways\nKenya Airways is a good airline for Africa. It is the flagship carrier of the nation of Kenya and has its hub in Nairobi. It has become a full member of Sky Team and is the only African airline with this distinction. The planes are not bad and many are quite new. The service is OK and the airline lounges in Nairobi are very poor for a global airline standard.\nThe biggest issue for me with Kenya Airways is that Nairobi Airport is terrible. It is over crowded, old and planes are often delayed. Literally when I walk through the airport, the place is littered with people sleeping on the floor in the narrow dark hallways. So while the planes themselves are pretty good, the overall experience is not my favorite. But again, Kenya Airways definitely belongs in the 5 best airlines in Africa.\n5. Royal Air Maroc\nRoyal Air Maroc barely made this list as the fifth airline. In my view, the top 4 are easy to pick but the fifth best airline in Africa is basically a toss up between a bunch of OK airlines. To me, Royal Air Maroc edged out Air Mauritius, Tunisair and Air Algerie because of its connections to Europe and the US.\nRoyal Air Maroc is good for domestic destinations within Morocco but the flight times are often in the middle of the night and you almost always have to connect through their hub in Casablanca and almost always for several hours. This is really annoying to me. Also, the customer service I’ve experienced with them is not very good, nor are their lounges. Royal Air Maroc or RAM may be in my top 5 airlines in Africa list but it’s definitely not my favorite.",
"Airport Tracker\nAirport Tracker\nVisit the Developer Center\nTrack Airports with FlightStats\nThe FlightStats Airport Tracker lets you see the location and track the progress of most commercial flights for most US, Canadian, and European airports on a Google™ map.\nKey Features:\nDisplays altitude, position, speed and distance from airports\nThe map supports both automatic and manual pan/zoom\nFlightStats collects information from a large number of sources (government, airline, airport and others) and presents an intuitive display of data. Registered users can explore details collected from each data source. For more details, see an in-depth explanation below, but in summary FlightStats:\nTracks flight status in near real-time for most US, Canadian, and European airports\nCombines runway and gate Times\nHas global coverage based on information from airlines and airports\nProvides excellent codeshare mapping\nLinks US airport delay information to the affected flight\nStores information historically and calculates on-time performance ratings\nAirport Tracking FAQ\nWhere does FlightStats get its flight status information?\nComplete, accurate data is the cornerstone of our business, and what sets us apart from competitive solutions:\nGeographic Coverage - FlightStats provides definitive information for approximately 99.5% of U.S. flights, and better than 86% of flights worldwide.\nCompleteness - FlightStats queries multiple sources to create a record for each flight, enabling us to offer a broader range of information (for example, gate information).\nAccuracy - We have invested heavily in the areas of parsing, interpretation and error checking, and we have developed the logic that enables handling of difficult issues such as cancellations, diversions and changing schedules.\nCodeshare Support - Our codeshare logic enables us to deliver flight information for both the operating and the marketing carriers, filling what is often a major gap in coverage.\nReal-time data sources include:\nGDS (Sabre, Amadeus, Apollo, Galileo)\nDirect Airport / Airline Data Feeds\nBatch data sources include:\nIs the information accurate?\nThere are many factors that can affect a flight while it's in the air. Weather, air traffic control directives, congestion on the taxi-ways and more. The arrival times we publish are estimates give the best information we can get. We update that information every few minutes. We can't guarantee the accuracy of the information. But our estimates are rarely off by more than a few minutes.\nWhere does flight positional information come from?\nMost flight tracking applications use a single source of data - the US Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Aircraft Situation Display to Industry (ASDI) data feed. The ASDI data feed tracks flights primarily within the United States' controlled airspace and contains information for flights controlled by air traffic control.\nPilots file a flight plan with air traffic control before take off that contains information such as:\nthe expected departure time\nroute\nestimated arrival time\nOnce the flight departs, the FAA publishes information about the position, altitude and speed of the flight as well as estimates on arrival times. For security reasons the information published on the ASDI feed is delayed for 5 minutes. FlightStats supplements FAA data with data from other sources including airport and airline data feeds to give you both runway and gate times whenever possible.\nWhat if I don't know the flight number?\nThat's not a problem. You can get a list of all flights arriving at a given airport by selecting the \"By Airport\" tab. Or you can see a list of all flights on a given route by selecting \"By Route\". You can usually figure out which flight you should track from the route and timing information.\nWhat if the flight is a code share (marketed by one airline and operated by another)?\nFlightStats can help you find the right flight to track even if it's a code share. A code share is essentially a marketing agreement between two airlines such that the flight operated by carrier A is marketed as flight by carrier B. For example, Lufthansa 9355 is operated by (UA) United Airlines 938. The only information that comes across the ASDI stream is the information for the operated by flight (for example US 938). Some flight tracker tools require the user to know the operated by flight number. FlightStats does the mapping so that the code share flight number can be used instead.\nCan I see the flight's location on a map?\nYes. All you need to know is what airline they're using and their departure or arrival cities to zero in on the precise geographic position and estimated arrival time of their flight. The new flight tracker combines the power of Google™ Maps with FlightStats up-to-the minute flight data to show you the exact location of the flight over a standard, satellite or hybrid map of North America or North America. And our airport trackers show the current location of all flights in the vicinity of a specified airport. Please note that the location data is delayed by five minutes for the safety and security of the flight and its passengers.\nWhy don't all flight trackers give you the same information?\nTo be useful to travelers and family members, flight trackers often have to fill in some of the gaps in the FAA data, gate times, for example. There are other variables, too. There is typically, but not always, a message sent to the FAA on departure. In the cases where that message is not sent, a flight tracker needs to make a best guess about the actual departure time. The same goes for arrival times. The methods that the various flight trackers use to guess vary causing discrepancies in information provided by different flight tracker tools.\nCan I track international flights?\nOur coverage of global flights is the best in the industry. We cover more commercial passenger flights than anyone in the world. In addition to our complete coverage of North American flights, we cover flights operating in Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa and just about everywhere else. Our coverage varies from continent to continent. But we are continually seeking data sources to help us fill in the gaps. Our coverage spans the globe and we show you more in-depth information than anyone.\nCan I schedule alerts by email or to my mobile phone?\nYes. All you have to do is register with FlightStats and fill in your notification preferences in your profile. Once you've done that, you can receive notices by email or text message to a PC or mobile device. We'll notify you if anything changes and when the flight arrives.\nIs the arrival time runway time or gate time? What's the difference?\nFlight status tools are available on airlines' websites, at airports and other websites show the flight's published departure and arrival time, as well as the estimated or actual times. Most, but not all, flight status tools show gate times not runway times. Some tools like ours will show you both the gate times and the runway times. On arrivals, the runway time is the time the plane touches down on the runway. The arrival gate time includes the time it takes to taxi to the gate. On departures, the gate time is the time at which the plane pulls back from the gate. The runway time for departures is the time at which it takes off and includes the time it takes for the plane make its way from the gate through the queue of planes waiting to take off.\nCan I see data for all arrivals at my airport?\nYes. Click the \"By Airport\" tab. Type in the airport code if you know it. If not, type in the city name and select the airport code from the drop-down box. Select the date and the time period for the flights you want to see, and hit \"Go\". You'll be able to scroll through an entire list of arriving flights. If you see a flight you want to track, click on the flight number for detailed status information. For flights that haven't yet departed or are en route, you can click on the cell phone or email icons to schedule alerts.\nCan I track all flights on a particular route?\nYes. Select the \"By Route\" tab. Type in the airport names or codes for the departure and arrival airports, specify the date you want to use for the search, and select \"Go\". You'll see a list of all flights on that date for connecting those two airports. If you see a flight you want to track, click on the flight number for detailed status information. For flights that haven't yet departed or are en route, you can click on the cell phone or email icons to schedule alerts."
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"History - About Air New Zealand - Company Information ...",
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"https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/jul/02/australia-asylum-seekers",
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Where is New York's Empire State College located?
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tc_777
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"New York is a state in the Northeastern United States and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U.S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. The state has a maritime border in the Atlantic Ocean with Rhode Island, east of Long Island, as well as an international border with the Canadian provinces of Quebec to the north and Ontario to the west and north. The state of New York, with an estimated 19.8 million residents in 2015, is often referred to as New York State to distinguish it from New York City, the state's most populous city and its economic hub.\n\nWith an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States and the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States. The New York City Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City is a global city, exerting a significant impact upon commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and entertainment, its fast pace defining the term New York minute. The home of the United Nations Headquarters, New York City is an important center for international diplomacy and has been described as the cultural and financial capital of the world, as well as the world's most economically powerful city. \n New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State. Two-thirds of the state's population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th century Duke of York, future King James II of England. The next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany.\n\nNew York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade and proselytizing. In 1609, the region was claimed by Henry Hudson for the Dutch, who built Fort Nassau in 1614 at the confluence of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers, where the present-day capital of Albany later developed. The Dutch soon also settled New Amsterdam and parts of the Hudson Valley, establishing the colony of New Netherland, a multicultural community from its earliest days and a center of trade and immigration. The British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state.\n\nMany landmarks in New York are well known to both international and domestic visitors, with New York State hosting four of the world's ten most-visited tourist attractions in 2013: Times Square, Central Park, Niagara Falls (shared with Ontario), and Grand Central Terminal. New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a global node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance, and environmental sustainability. New York's higher education network comprises approximately 200 colleges and universities, including Columbia University, Cornell University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, which have been ranked among the top 35 in the world. \n\nHistory\n\n16th century\n\nIn 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian explorer in the service of the French crown, explored the Atlantic coast of North America between the Carolinas and Newfoundland, including New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay. On April 17, 1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the Strait now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita, in honour of the King of France's sister. Verrazzano described it as \"a vast coastline with a deep delta in which every kind of ship could pass\" and he adds: \"that it extends inland for a league and opens up to form a beautiful lake. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats\". He landed on the tip of Manhattan and perhaps on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazanno's stay in this place was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Martha's Vineyard. \n\nIn 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany; due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, which they called Fort Nassau. Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse. Located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary \"fort\" was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange (New Netherland) was built nearby in 1623.\n\n17th century\n\nHenry Hudson's 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area. Sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year. Word of his findings encouraged Dutch merchants to explore the coast in search for profitable fur trading with local Native American tribes.\n\nDuring the 17th century, Dutch trading posts established for the trade of pelts from the Lenape, Iroquois, and other tribes were founded in the colony of New Netherland. The first of these trading posts were Fort Nassau (1614, near present-day Albany); Fort Orange (1624, on the Hudson River just south of the current city of Albany and created to replace Fort Nassau), developing into settlement Beverwijck (1647), and into what became Albany; Fort Amsterdam (1625, to develop into the town New Amsterdam which is present-day New York City); and Esopus, (1653, now Kingston). The success of the patroonship of Rensselaerswyck (1630), which surrounded Albany and lasted until the mid-19th century, was also a key factor in the early success of the colony. The English captured the colony during the Second Anglo-Dutch War and governed it as the Province of New York. The city of New York was recaptured by the Dutch in 1673 during the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674) and renamed New Orange. It was returned to the English under the terms of the Treaty of Westminster a year later. \n\n18th century, the American Revolution, and statehood\n\nThe Sons of Liberty were organized in New York City during the 1760s, largely in response to the oppressive Stamp Act passed by the British Parliament in 1765. The Stamp Act Congress met in the city on October 19 of that year, composed of representatives from across the Thirteen Colonies who set the stage for the Continental Congress to follow. The Stamp Act Congress resulted in the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, which was the first written expression by representatives of the Americans of many of the rights and complaints later expressed in the United States Declaration of Independence. This included the right to representative government. At the same time, with strong trading between Britain and the United States on both business and personal levels many New York residents were Loyalists. The Capture of Fort Ticonderoga provided the cannon and gunpowder necessary to force a British withdrawal from the Siege of Boston in 1775.\n\nNew York was the only colony to not vote for independence, as the delegates were not authorized to do so. New York then endorsed the Declaration of Independence on July 9, 1776. The New York State Constitution was framed by a convention which assembled at White Plains on July 10, 1776, and after repeated adjournments and changes of location, terminated its labors at Kingston on Sunday evening, April 20, 1777, when the new constitution drafted by John Jay was adopted with but one dissenting vote. It was not submitted to the people for ratification. On July 30, 1777, George Clinton was inaugurated as the first Governor of New York at Kingston.\n\nAbout one-third of the battles of the American Revolutionary War took place in New York; the first major battle after U.S. independence was declared—and the largest battle of the entire war—was fought in New York at the Battle of Long Island (a.k.a. Battle of Brooklyn) in August 1776. After their victory, the British occupied New York City, making it their military and political base of operations in North America for the duration of the conflict, and consequently the focus of General George Washington's intelligence network. On the notorious British prison ships of Wallabout Bay, more American combatants died of intentional neglect than were killed in combat in every battle of the war, combined. Both sides of combatants lost more soldiers to disease than to outright wounds.The first of two major British armies were captured by the Continental Army at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777, a success that influenced France to ally with the revolutionaries.The state constitution was enacted in 1777. New York became the 11th state to ratify the United States Constitution, on July 26, 1788.\n\nIn an attempt to retain their sovereignty and remain an independent nation positioned between the new United States and British North America, four of the Iroquois Nations fought on the side of the British; only the Oneida and their dependents, the Tuscarora, allied themselves with the Americans. In retaliation for attacks on the frontier led by Joseph Brant and Loyalist Mohawk forces, the Sullivan Expedition of 1779 destroyed nearly 50 Iroquois villages, adjacent croplands and winter stores, forcing many refugees to British-held Niagara. \n\nAs allies of the British, the Iroquois were forced out of New York, although they had not been part of treaty negotiations. They resettled in Canada after the war and were given land grants by the Crown. In the treaty settlement, the British ceded most Indian lands to the new United States. Because New York made treaty with the Iroquois without getting Congressional approval, some of the land purchases have been subject to land claim suits since the late 20th century by the federally recognized tribes. New York put up more than 5 e6acre of former Iroquois territory for sale in the years after the Revolutionary War, leading to rapid development in upstate New York. As per the Treaty of Paris, the last vestige of British authority in the former Thirteen Colonies—their troops in New York City—departed in 1783, which was long afterward celebrated as Evacuation Day. \n\nNew York City was the national capital under the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, the first government. That organization was found to be insufficient, and prominent New Yorker Alexander Hamilton advocated a new government that would include an executive, national courts, and the power to tax. Hamilton led the Annapolis Convention (1786) that called for the Philadelphia Convention, which drafted the United States Constitution, in which he also took part. The new government was to be a strong federal national government to replace the relatively weaker confederation of individual states. Following heated debate, which included the publication of the now quintessential constitutional interpretation—The Federalist Papers—as a series of installments in New York City newspapers, New York was the 11th state to ratify the United States Constitution, on July 26, 1788. New York remained the national capital under the new constitution until 1790, and was the site of the inauguration of President George Washington, the drafting of United States Bill of Rights, and the first session of the United States Supreme Court. Hamilton's revival of the heavily indebted United States economy after the war and the creation of a national bank significantly contributed to New York City becoming the financial center of the new nation.\n\nBoth the Dutch and the British imported African slaves as laborers to the city and colony; New York had the second-highest population of slaves after Charleston, SC. Slavery was extensive in New York City and some agricultural areas. The state passed a law for the gradual abolition of slavery soon after the Revolutionary War, but the last slave in New York was not freed until 1827.\n\n19th century\n\nTransportation in western New York was by expensive wagons on muddy roads before canals opened up the rich farm lands to long-distance traffic. Governor DeWitt Clinton promoted the Erie Canal that connected New York City to the Great Lakes, by the Hudson River, the new canal, and the rivers and lakes. Work commenced in 1817, and the Erie Canal opened in 1825. Packet boats pulled by horses on tow paths traveled slowly over the canal carrying passengers and freight. Farm products came in from the Midwest, and finished manufactured moved west. It was an engineering marvel which opened up vast areas of New York to commerce and settlement. It enabled Great Lakes port cities such as Buffalo and Rochester to grow and prosper. It also connected the burgeoning agricultural production of the Midwest and shipping on the Great Lakes, with the port of New York City. Improving transportation, it enabled additional population migration to territories west of New York. After 1850, railroads largely replaced the canal. \n\nNew York City was a major ocean port and had extensive traffic importing cotton from the South and exporting manufacturing goods. Nearly half of the state's exports were related to cotton. Southern cotton factors, planters and bankers visited so often that they had favorite hotels. At the same time, activism for abolitionism was strong upstate, where some communities provided stops on the Underground Railroad. Upstate, and New York City, gave strong support for the American Civil War In terms of finances, volunteer soldiers, and supplies. The state provided more than 370,000 soldiers to the Union armies. Over 53,000 New Yorkers died in service, roughly one of every seven who served. However, Irish draft riots in 1862 were a significant embarrassment. \n\nImmigration\n\nSince the early 19th century, New York City has been the largest port of entry for legal immigration into the United States. Immigration has built the city and nation. In the United States, the federal government did not assume direct jurisdiction for immigration until 1890. Prior to this time, the matter was delegated to the individual states, then via contract between the states and the federal government. Most immigrants to New York would disembark at the bustling docks along the Hudson and East Rivers, in the eventual Lower Manhattan. On May 4, 1847 the New York State Legislature created the Board of Commissioners of Immigration to regulate immigration. \n\nThe first permanent immigration depot in New York was established in 1855 at Castle Garden, a converted War of 1812 era fort located within what is now Battery Park, at the tip of Lower Manhattan. The first immigrants to arrive at the new depot were aboard three ships that had just been released from quarantine. Castle Garden served as New York's immigrant depot until it closed on April 18, 1890 when the federal government assumed control over immigration. During that period, more than 8 million immigrants passed through its doors (two out of every three U.S. immigrants). \n\nWhen the federal government assumed control, it established the Bureau of Immigration, which chose the three-acre Ellis Island in Upper New York Harbor for an entry depot. Already federally controlled, the island had served as an ammunition depot. It was chosen due its relative isolation with proximity to New York City and the rail lines of Jersey City, New Jersey, via a short ferry ride. While the island was being developed and expanded via land reclamation, the federal government operated a temporary depot at the Barge Office at the Battery. \n\nEllis Island opened on January 1, 1892, and operated as a central immigration center until the National Origins Act was passed in 1924, reducing immigration. After that date, the only immigrants to pass through were displaced persons or war refugees. The island ceased all immigration processing on November 12, 1954 when the last person detained on the island, Norwegian seaman Arne Peterssen, was released. He had overstayed his shore leave and left on the 10:15 a.m. Manhattan-bound ferry to return to his ship.\n\nMore than 12 million immigrants passed through Ellis Island between 1892 and 1954. In the 21st century, more than 100 million Americans across the United States can trace their ancestry to these immigrants.\n\nEllis Island was the subject of a contentious and long-running border and jurisdictional dispute between New York State and the State of New Jersey, as both claimed it. The issue was settled in 1998 by the U.S. Supreme Court which ruled that the original island was New York State territory and that the balance of the added after 1834 by landfill was in New Jersey. The island was added to the National Park Service system in May 1965 by President Lyndon B. Johnson and is still owned by the Federal government as part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Ellis Island was opened to the public as a museum of immigration in 1990. \n\nSeptember 11, 2001 attacks\n\n \nOn September 11, 2001, two of four hijacked planes were flown into the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan, and the towers collapsed. 7 World Trade Center also collapsed due to damage from fires. The other buildings of the World Trade Center complex were damaged beyond repair and demolished soon thereafter. The collapse of the Twin Towers caused extensive damage and resulted in the deaths of 2,753 victims, including 147 aboard the two planes. Since September 11, most of Lower Manhattan has been restored. In the years since, many rescue workers and residents of the area have developed several life-threatening illnesses, and some have already died. \n\nA memorial at the site was opened to the public on September 11, 2011. A permanent museum later opened at the site on March 21, 2014. Upon its completion in 2014, the new One World Trade Center became the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere, at . Other skyscrapers are under construction at the site.\n\nHurricane Sandy, 2012\n\nOn October 29 and 30, 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction of the state's shorelines, ravaging portions of New York City and Long Island with record-high storm surge, with severe flooding and high winds causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of New Yorkers, and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems. The storm and its profound effects have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of New York City and Long Island to minimize the risk from another such future event. This is considered highly probable due to global warming and rise in sea levels. \n\nGeography\n\nNew York covers 54555 sqmi and ranks as the 27th largest state by size. The Great Appalachian Valley dominates eastern New York and contains the Lake Champlain Valley as its northern half and the Hudson Valley as its southern half within the state. The rugged Adirondack Mountains, with vast tracts of wilderness, lie west of the Lake Champlain Valley. The Hudson River begins near Lake Tear of the Clouds and flows south through the eastern part of the state without draining Lakes George or Champlain. Lake George empties at its north end into Lake Champlain, whose northern end extends into Canada, where it drains into the Richelieu River and then ultimately the Saint Lawrence River. Four of New York City's five boroughs are situated on three islands at the mouth of the Hudson River: Manhattan Island; Staten Island; and Long Island, which contains Brooklyn and Queens at its western end.\n\nMost of the southern part of the state rests on the Allegheny Plateau, which extends from the southeastern United States to the Catskill Mountains; the section in New York State is known as the Southern Tier. The Tug Hill region arises as a cuesta east of Lake Ontario. The western section of the state is drained by the Allegheny River and rivers of the Susquehanna and Delaware River systems. The Delaware River Basin Compact, signed in 1961 by New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the federal government, regulates the utilization of water of the Delaware system. The highest elevation in New York is Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks, at above sea level; while the state's lowest point is at sea level, on the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nMuch of New York State borders water, as is true for New York City as well. Of New York State's total area, 13.5% consists of water. The state's borders touch (clockwise from the west) two Great Lakes (Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, which are connected by the Niagara River); the provinces of Ontario and Quebec in Canada, with New York and Ontario sharing the Thousand Islands archipelago within the Saint Lawrence River; Lake Champlain; three New England states (Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut); the Atlantic Ocean, and two Mid-Atlantic states, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. In addition, Rhode Island shares a water border with New York. New York is the second largest of the original Thirteen Colonies and is the only state that touches both the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nIn contrast with New York City's urban landscape, the vast majority of the state's geographic area is dominated by meadows, forests, rivers, farms, mountains, and lakes. New York's Adirondack Park is the largest state park in the United States and is larger than the Yellowstone, Yosemite, Grand Canyon, Glacier, and Olympic National Parks combined. New York established the first state park in the United States at Niagara Falls in 1885. Niagara Falls is shared between New York and Ontario as it flows on the Niagara River from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario.\n\nUpstate and downstate are often used informally to distinguish New York City or its greater metropolitan area from the rest of New York State. The placement of a boundary between the two is a matter of great contention. Unofficial and loosely defined regions of Upstate New York include the Southern Tier, which often includes the counties along the border with Pennsylvania, and the North Country, which can mean anything from the strip along the Canadian border to everything north of the Mohawk River. \n\nClimate\n\nIn general, New York has a humid continental climate, though under the Köppen climate classification, New York City has a humid subtropical climate. Weather in New York is heavily influenced by two continental air masses: a warm, humid one from the southwest and a cold, dry one from the northwest.\n\nDownstate New York, comprising New York City, Long Island, and lower portions of the Hudson Valley, has rather warm summers, with some periods of high humidity, and cold, damp winters which, however, are relatively mild compared to temperatures in Upstate New York, secondary to the former region's lower elevation, proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, and relatively lower latitude compared to the latter. Upstate New York experiences warm summers, marred by only occasional, brief intervals of sultry conditions, with long and cold winters. Western New York, particularly the Tug Hill region, receives heavy lake-effect snows, especially during the earlier portions of winter, before the surface of Lake Ontario itself is covered by ice. The summer climate is cool in the Adirondacks, Catskills, and at higher elevations of the Southern Tier.\n\nSummer daytime temperatures usually range from the upper 70s to mid-80s °F (25 to 30 °C), over much of the state. In the majority of winter seasons, a temperature of or lower can be expected in the northern highlands (Northern Plateau) and 5 F or colder in the southwestern and east-central highlands of the Southern Tier.\n\nNew York ranks 46th among the 50 states in the amount of greenhouse gases generated per person. This relative efficient energy usage is primarily due to the dense, compact settlement in the New York City metropolitan area, and the state population's high rate of mass transit use in this area and between major cities. \n\nStatescape\n\nRegions\n\nDue to its long history, the state of New York has several overlapping (and often conflicting) definitions of regions within the state. This is further exacerbated by the colloquial use of such regional labels. The New York State Department of Economic Development provides two distinct definitions of these regions. The department divides the state into ten economic regions, which approximately correspond to terminology used by residents:\n\nThe Department of Economic Development also groups the counties into eleven regions for tourism purposes: \n\nAdjacent geographic entities\n\n*The Atlantic Ocean lies south, southeast, and east of Long Island.\n\nState parks\n\nNew York has many state parks and two major forest preserves. Adirondack Park, roughly the size of the state of Vermont and the largest state park in the United States, was established in 1892 and given state constitutional protection to remain \"forever wild\" in 1894. The park is larger than Yellowstone, Everglades, Glacier, and Grand Canyon national parks combined. The thinking that led to the creation of the Park first appeared in George Perkins Marsh's Man and Nature, published in 1864.\n\nThe Catskill Park was protected in legislation passed in 1885, which declared that its land was to be conserved and never put up for sale or lease. Consisting of 700000 acre of land, the park is a habitat for bobcats, minks, and fishers. There are some 400 black bears living in the region. The state operates numerous campgrounds, and there are over 300 mi of multi-use trails in the Park.\n\nThe Montauk Point State Park boasts the 1797 Montauk Lighthouse, commissioned under President George Washington, which is a major tourist attraction on the easternmost tip of Long Island. Hither Hills park offers camping and is a popular destination with surfcasting sport fishermen.\n\nNational parks, monuments, and historic landmarks\n\nThe State of New York is well represented in the National Park System with 22 national parks, which received 16,349,381 visitors in 2011. In addition, there are 4 National Heritage Areas, 27 National Natural Landmarks, 262 National Historic Landmarks, and 5,379 listings on the National Register of Historic Places.\n* African Burial Ground National Monument in Lower Manhattan is the only National Monument dedicated to Americans of African ancestry. It preserves a site containing the remains of more than 400 Africans buried during the late 17th and 18th centuries in a portion of what was the largest colonial-era cemetery for people of African descent, both free and enslaved, with an estimated tens of thousands of remains interred. The site's excavation and study were called \"the most important historic urban archeological project in the United States.\" \n* Fire Island National Seashore is a United States National Seashore that protects a 26 mi section of Fire Island, an approximately 30 mi long barrier island separated from the mainland of Long Island by the Great South Bay. The island is part of Suffolk County.\n* Gateway National Recreation Area is more than 26000 acres of water, salt marsh, wetlands, islands, and shoreline at the entrance to New York Harbor, the majority of which lies within New York. Including areas on Long Island and in New Jersey, it covers more area than that of two Manhattan Islands.\n* General Grant National Memorial is the final resting place of President Ulysses S. Grant and is the largest mausoleum in North America.\n* Hamilton Grange National Memorial preserves the home of Alexander Hamilton, Caribbean immigrant and orphan who rose to be a United States founding father and associate of George Washington.\n* Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site, established in 1945, preserves the Springwood estate in Hyde Park, New York. Springwood was the birthplace, lifelong home, and burial place of the 32nd President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt.\n* Niagara Falls National Heritage Area was designated by Congress in 2008; it stretches from the western boundary of Wheatfield, New York to the mouth of the Niagara River on Lake Ontario, including the communities of Niagara Falls, Youngstown, and Lewiston. It includes Niagara Falls State Park and Colonial Niagara Historic District. It is managed in collaboration with the state.\n* Saratoga National Historical Park preserves the site of the Battles of Saratoga, the first significant American military victory of the American Revolutionary War. In 1777, American forces defeated a major British Army, which led France to recognize the independence of the United States, and enter the war as a decisive military ally of the struggling Americans.\n* Statue of Liberty National Monument includes Ellis Island and the Statue of Liberty. The statue, designed by Frédéric Bartholdi, was a gift from France to the United States to mark the Centennial of the American Declaration of Independence; it was dedicated in New York Harbor on October 28, 1886. It has since become an icon of the United States and the concepts of democracy and freedom.\n* Stonewall National Monument, in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan, is the first U.S. National Monument dedicated to LGBTQ rights, designated on June 24, 2016. The monument comprises the Stonewall Inn, commonly recognized to be the cradle of the gay liberation movement as the site of the 1969 Stonewall Riots; the adjacent Christopher Park; and surrounding streets and sidewalks.\n* Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site is the birthplace and childhood home of President Theodore Roosevelt, the only US President born in New York City.\n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nNew York is divided into 62 counties. Aside from the five counties of New York City, each of these counties is subdivided into towns and cities. Towns can contain incorporated villages or unincorporated hamlets. New York City is divided into five boroughs, each coterminous with a county.\n\nDownstate New York (New York City, Long Island, and the southern portion of the Hudson Valley) can be considered to form the central core of the Northeast megalopolis, an urbanized region stretching from New Hampshire to Virginia.\n\nThe major cities of the state developed along the key transportation and trade routes of the early 19th century, including the Erie Canal and railroads paralleling it. Today, the New York Thruway acts as a modern counterpart to commercial water routes. \n\nDemographics\n\nPopulation\n\nThe distribution of change in population growth is uneven in New York State; the New York City metropolitan area is growing considerably, along with Saratoga County and the Capital District, collectively known as Tech Valley. New York City gained more residents between April 2010 and July 2014 (316,000) than any other U.S. city. Conversely, outside of the Rochester and Ithaca areas, population growth in much of Western New York is nearly stagnant. According to immigration statistics, the state is a leading recipient of migrants from around the globe. Between 2000 and 2005, immigration failed to surpass emigration, a trend that has been reversing since 2006. New York State lost two House seats in the 2011 congressional reapportionment, secondary to relatively slow growth when compared to the rest of the United States. In 2000 and 2005, more people moved from New York to Florida than from any one state to another, contributing to New York becoming the U.S.'s fourth most populous state in 2015, behind Florida, Texas, and California. However, New York State has the second-largest international immigrant population in the country among the American states, at 4.2 million ; most reside in and around New York City, due to its size, high profile, vibrant economy, and cosmopolitan culture.\n\nThe United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of New York was 19,795,791 on July 1, 2015, a 2.16% increase since the 2010 United States Census. Despite the open land in the state, New York's population is very urban, with 92% of residents living in an urban area, predominantly in the New York City metropolitan area.\n\nTwo-thirds of New York State's population resides in New York City Metropolitan Area. New York City is the most populous city in the United States, with an estimated record high population of 8,550,405 in 2015, incorporating more immigration into the city than emigration since the 2010 United States Census. More than twice as many people live in New York City as in the second-most populous U.S. city (Los Angeles), and within a smaller area. Long Island alone accounted for a Census-estimated 7,838,722 residents in 2015, representing 39.6% of New York State's population. \n\nMost populous counties\n\nThese are the ten counties with the largest populations as of 2010:\n# Kings County (Brooklyn): 2,504,700\n# Queens County (Queens): 2,230,722\n# New York County (Manhattan): 1,585,873\n# Suffolk County: 1,493,350\n# Bronx County (the Bronx): 1,385,108\n# Nassau County: 1,339,532\n# Westchester County: 949,113\n# Erie County: 919,040\n# Monroe County: 744,344\n# Richmond County (Staten Island): 468,730\n\nMajor cities\n\nThere are 62 cities in New York. The largest city in the state and the most populous city in the United States is New York City, which comprises five counties (boroughs): Bronx, New York County (Manhattan), Queens, Kings County (Brooklyn), and Richmond County (Staten Island). New York City is home to more than two-fifths of the state's population. Albany, the state capital, is the sixth-largest city in New York State. The smallest city is Sherrill, New York, in Oneida County. Hempstead is the most populous town in the state; if it were a city, it would be the second largest in New York State, with over 700,000 residents.\n\nMetropolitan areas\n\nThe following are the top ten metropolitan areas in the state as of the 2010 Census:\n\n# New York City and the Hudson Valley (19,567,410 in NY/NJ/PA, 13,038,826 in NY)\n# Buffalo-Niagara Falls (1,135,509)\n# Rochester (1,079,671)\n# Albany and the Capital District (870,716)\n# Syracuse (662,577)\n# Utica-Rome (299,397)\n# Binghamton (251,725)\n# Kingston (182,493)\n# Glens Falls (128,923)\n# Watertown-Fort Drum (116,229)\n\nRacial and ancestral makeup\n\nAccording to the U.S. Census Bureau, the 2010 racial makeup of New York State was as follows by self-identification:\n* White American – 65.7%\n* Black or African American – 15.9%\n* Asian American – 7.3% (3.0% Chinese, 1.6% Indian, 0.7% Korean, 0.5% Filipino, 0.3% Pakistani, 0.3% Bangladeshi, 0.2% Japanese, 0.1% Vietnamese)\n* Multiracial Americans – 3.0%\n* Native American/American Indian – 0.6%\n* Some other race - 7.5%\n\nIn 2004, the major ancestry groups in New York State by self-identification were Hispanic and Latino Americans (17.6%), African American (15.8%), Italian (14.4%), Irish (12.9%), German (11.1%) and English (6%). According to a 2010 estimate, 21.7% of the population is foreign-born.\n\nThe state's most populous racial group, non-Hispanic white, has declined as a proportion of the state population from 94.6% in 1940 to 58.3% in 2010. , 55.6% of New York's population younger than age 1 were minorities. New York's robustly increasing Jewish population, the largest outside of Israel, was the highest among states both by percentage and absolute number in 2012. It is driven by the high reproductive rate of Orthodox Jewish families, particularly in Brooklyn and communities of the Hudson Valley.\n\nNew York is home to the second-largest African American population (after Georgia) and the second largest Asian-American population (after California) in the United States. New York's uniracial Black population increased by 2.0% between 2000 and 2010, to 3,073,800. The Black population is in a state of flux, as New York is the largest recipient of immigrants from Africa, while established African Americans are migrating out of New York to the southern United States. The New York City neighborhood of Harlem has historically been a major cultural capital for African-Americans of sub-Saharan descent, and Bedford-Stuyvesant in Brooklyn has the largest such population in the United States. Meanwhile, New York's uniracial Asian population increased by a notable 36% from 2000 to 2010, to 1,420,244. Queens, in New York City, is home to the state's largest Asian-American population and is the most ethnically diverse county in the United States; it is the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world. \n\nNew York's growing uniracial Hispanic-or-Latino population numbered 3,416,922 in 2010, a 19% increase from the 2,867,583 enumerated in 2000. Queens is home to the largest Andean (Colombian, Ecuadorian, Peruvian, and Bolivian) populations in the United States. In addition, New York has the largest Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Jamaican American populations in the continental United States.\n\nThe Chinese population constitutes the fastest-growing nationality in New York State; multiple satellites of the original Manhattan Chinatown (曼哈頓華埠), in Brooklyn (布鲁克林華埠), and around Flushing, Queens (法拉盛華埠), are thriving as traditionally urban enclaves, while also expanding rapidly eastward into suburban Nassau County (拿騷縣), on Long Island (長島). New York State has become the top destination for new Chinese immigrants, and large-scale Chinese immigration continues into the state. A new China City of America is also planned in Sullivan County. Long Island, including Queens and Nassau County, is also home to several Little Indias (लघु भारत) and a large Koreatown (롱 아일랜드 코리아타운), with large and growing attendant populations of Indian Americans and Korean Americans, respectively. Brooklyn has been a destination for West Indian immigrants of African descent, as well as Asian Indian immigrants.\n\nIn the 2000 Census, New York had the largest Italian American population, composing the largest self-identified ancestral group in Staten Island and Long Island, followed by Irish Americans. Albany and the Mohawk Valley also have large communities of ethnic Italians and Irish Americans, reflecting 19th and early 20th-century immigration. In Buffalo and western New York, German-Americans comprise the largest ancestry. In the North Country of New York, French Canadians represent the leading ethnicity, given the area's proximity to Quebec. Americans of English ancestry are present throughout all of upstate New York, reflecting early colonial and later immigrants.\n\n6.5% of New York's population were under five years of age, 24.7% under 18, and 12.9% were 65 or older. Females made up 51.8% of the state's population.\n\nLanguages\n\nIn 2010, the most common American English dialects spoken in New York, besides General American English, were the New York City area dialect (including New York Latino English and North Jersey English), the Western New England accent around Albany, and Inland Northern American English in Buffalo and western New York State. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York City, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. \n\n, 70.72% (12,788,233) of New York residents aged five and older reported speaking only English at home, while 14.44% (2,611,903) spoke Spanish, 2.61% (472,955) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.20% (216,468) Russian, 1.18% (213,785) Italian, 0.79% (142,169) French Creole, 0.75% (135,789) French, 0.67% (121,917) Yiddish, 0.63% (114,574) Korean, and Polish was spoken by 0.53% (95,413) of the population over the age of five. In total, 29.28% (5,295,016) of New York's population aged five and older reported speaking a language other than English. \n\nReligion\n\nIn 2010, the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) reported that the largest denominations were the Catholic Church with 6,286,916; Orthodox Judaism with 588,500; Islam with 392,953; and the United Methodist Church with 328,315 adherents. \n\nSexual and gender orientation\n\nRoughly 3.8 percent of the state's adult population self-identifies as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender. This constitutes a total LGBT adult population of 570,388 individuals. In 2010, the number of same-sex couple households stood at roughly 48,932. New York was the fifth state to license same-sex marriages, after New Hampshire. Michael Bloomberg, the Mayor of New York City, stated that \"same-sex marriages in New York City have generated an estimated $259 million in economic impact and $16 million in City revenues\" in the first year after the enactment of the Marriage Equality Act\". Same-sex marriages in New York were legalized on June 24, 2011 and were authorized to take place beginning 30 days thereafter. New York City is also home to the largest transgender population in the United States, estimated at 25,000 in 2016. \n\nEconomy\n\nNew York's gross state product in 2015 was $1.44 trillion. If New York State were an independent nation, it would rank as the 12th or 13th largest economy in the world, depending upon international currency fluctuations. However, in 2013, the multi-state, New York City-centered Metropolitan Statistical Area produced a gross metropolitan product (GMP) of nearly US$1.39 trillion, while in 2012, the corresponding Combined Statistical Area generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion, both ranking first nationally by a wide margin and behind the GDP of only twelve nations and eleven nations, respectively. \n\nWall Street\n\nAnchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world. Lower Manhattan is the third-largest central business district in the United States and is home to the New York Stock Exchange, on Wall Street, and the NASDAQ, at 165 Broadway, representing the world's largest and second largest stock exchanges, respectively, when measured both by overall average daily trading volume and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013. Investment banking fees on Wall Street totaled approximately $40 billion in 2012, while in 2013, senior New York City bank officers who manage risk and compliance functions earned as much as $324,000 annually. In fiscal year 2013-14, Wall Street's securities industry generated 19% of New York State's tax revenue. New York City remains the largest global center for trading in public equity and debt capital markets, driven in part by the size and financial development of the U.S. economy. New York also leads in hedge fund management; private equity; and the monetary volume of mergers and acquisitions. Several investment banks and investment managers headquartered in Manhattan are important participants in other global financial centers. New York is also the principal commercial banking center of the United States. \n\nMany of the world's largest media conglomerates are also based in the city. Manhattan contained approximately 520 million square feet (48.1 million m2) of office space in 2013, making it the largest office market in the United States, while Midtown Manhattan is the largest central business district in the nation. \n\nSilicon Alley\n\nSilicon Alley, centered in New York City, has evolved into a metonym for the sphere encompassing the New York City metropolitan region's high technology and entrepreneurship ecosystem; in 2015, Silicon Alley generated over US$7.3 billion in venture capital investment. High tech industries including digital media, biotechnology, software development, game design, and other fields in information technology are growing, bolstered by New York City's position at the terminus of several transatlantic fiber optic trunk lines, its intellectual capital, as well as its growing outdoor wireless connectivity. In December 2014, New York State announced a $50 million venture-capital fund to encourage enterprises working in biotechnology and advanced materials; according to Governor Andrew Cuomo, the seed money would facilitate entrepreneurs in bringing their research into the marketplace. On December 19, 2011, then Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg announced his choice of Cornell University and Technion-Israel Institute of Technology to build a US$2 billion graduate school of applied sciences on Roosevelt Island in Manhattan, with the goal of transforming New York City into the world's premier technology capital. \n\nMicroelectronic hardware, photographic processing, and biotechnology\n\nAlbany, Saratoga County, Rensselaer County, and the Hudson Valley, collectively recognized as eastern New York's Tech Valley, have experienced significant growth in the computer hardware side of the high-technology industry, with great strides in the nanotechnology sector, digital electronics design, and water- and electricity-dependent integrated microchip circuit manufacturing, involving companies including IBM and its Thomas J. Watson Research Center, GlobalFoundries, Samsung, and Taiwan Semiconductor, among others. The area's high technology ecosystem is supported by technologically focused academic institutions including Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and the SUNY Polytechnic Institute. In 2015, Tech Valley, straddling both sides of the Adirondack Northway and the New York Thruway, generated over US$163 million in venture capital investment. The Rochester area is important in the field of photographic processing and imaging as well as incubating an increasingly diverse high technology sphere encompassing STEM fields, similarly in part the result of private startup enterprises collaborating with major academic institutions, including the University of Rochester and Cornell University. Westchester County has developed a burgeoning biotechnology sector in the 21st century, with over US$1 billion in planned private investment as of 2016, earning the county the nickname Biochester. \n\nMedia and entertainment\n\nCreative industries, which are concerned with generating and distributing knowledge and information, such as new media, digital media, film and television production, advertising, fashion, design, and architecture, account for a growing share of employment, with New York City possessing a strong competitive advantage in these industries. , New York State was offering tax incentives of up to $420 million annually for filmmaking within the state, the most generous such tax rebate among the U.S. states. New York has also attracted higher-wage visual-effects employment by further augmenting its tax credit to a maximum of 35% for performing post-film production work in Upstate New York. The filmed entertainment industry has been growing in New York, contributing nearly US$9 billion to the New York City economy alone as of 2015. \n\nTourism\n\nI Love New York (stylized I ❤ NY) is both a logo and a song that are the basis of an advertising campaign and have been used since 1977 to promote tourism in New York City, and later to promote New York State as well. The trademarked logo, owned by New York State Empire State Development, appears in souvenir shops and brochures throughout the state, some licensed, many not. The song is the state song of New York. The Broadway League reported that Broadway shows sold approximately US$1.27 billion worth of tickets in the 2013–2014 season, an 11.4% increase from US$1.139 billion in the 2012–2013 season. Attendance in 2013–2014 stood at 12.21 million, representing a 5.5% increase from the 2012–2013 season's 11.57 million.\n\nExports\n\nNew York exports a wide variety of goods such as prepared foods, computers and electronics, cut diamonds, and other commodities. In 2007, the state exported a total of $71.1 billion worth of goods, with the five largest foreign export markets being Canada (US$15 billion), the United Kingdom (US$6 billion), Switzerland (US$5.9 billion), Israel (US$4.9 billion), and Hong Kong (US$3.4 billion). New York's largest imports are oil, gold, aluminum, natural gas, electricity, rough diamonds, and lumber. The state also has a large manufacturing sector that includes printing and the production of garments, mainly in New York City; and furs, railroad equipment, automobile parts, and bus line vehicles, concentrated in Upstate regions.\n\nNew York is the nation's third-largest grape producing state, and second-largest wine producer by volume, behind California. The southern Finger Lakes hillsides, the Hudson Valley, the North Fork of Long Island, and the southern shore of Lake Erie are the primary grape- and wine-growing regions in New York, with many vineyards. In 2012, New York had 320 wineries and 37,000 grape bearing acres, generating full-time employment of nearly 25,000 and annual wages of over US$1.1 billion, and yielding US$4.8 billion in direct economic impact from New York grapes, grape juice, and wine and grape products. \n\nNew York is a major agricultural producer overall, ranking among the top five states for agricultural products including maple syrup, apples, cherries, cabbage, dairy products, onions, and potatoes. The state is the largest producer of cabbage in the U.S. The state has about a quarter of its land in farms and produced $3.4 billion in agricultural products in 2001. The south shore of Lake Ontario provides the right mix of soils and microclimate for many apple, cherry, plum, pear and peach orchards. Apples are also grown in the Hudson Valley and near Lake Champlain. A moderately sized saltwater commercial fishery is located along the Atlantic side of Long Island. The principal catches by value are clams, lobsters, squid, and flounder.\n\nEducation\n\nThe University of the State of New York oversees all public primary, middle-level, and secondary education in the state, while the New York City Department of Education manages the New York City Public Schools system. In 1894, reflecting general racial discrimination then, the state passed a law that allowed communities to set up separate schools for children of African-American descent. In 1900, the state passed another law requiring integrated schools. \n\nAt the level of post-secondary education, the statewide public university system is the State University of New York, commonly referred to as SUNY. New York City also has its own City University of New York system, which is funded by the city. The SUNY system consists of 64 community colleges, technical colleges, undergraduate colleges, and doctoral-granting institutions, including several universities. New York's largest public university is the State University of New York at Buffalo, which was founded by U.S President and Vice President Millard Fillmore. The four SUNY University Centers, offering a wide array of academic programs, are the University at Albany, Binghamton University, Stony Brook University, and the University at Buffalo.\n\nNotable large private universities include the Columbia University in Upper Manhattan and Cornell University in Ithaca, both Ivy League institutions, as well as New York University in Lower Manhattan, and Fordham University in the Bronx, Manhattan, and Westchester County. Smaller notable private institutions of higher education include Rockefeller University, New York Institute of Technology, Yeshiva University, and Hofstra University. There are also a multitude of postgraduate-level schools in New York State, including Medical, Law, and Engineering schools. West Point, the service academy of the U.S. Army, is located just south of Newburgh, on the west bank of the Hudson River.\n\nDuring the fiscal 2013 year, New York spent more on public education per pupil than any other state, according to U.S. Census Bureau statistics. \n\nTransportation\n\nNew York has one of the most extensive and one of the oldest transportation infrastructures in the country. Engineering challenges posed by the complex terrain of the state and the unique infrastructural issues of New York City brought on by urban crowding have had to be overcome perennially. Population expansion of the state has followed the path of the early waterways, first the Hudson River and Mohawk River, then the Erie Canal. In the 19th century, railroads were constructed along the river valleys, followed by the New York State Thruway in the 20th century.\n\nThe New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) is the department of the government of New York responsible for the development and operation of highways, railroads, mass transit systems, ports, waterways, and aviation facilities within New York State. The NYSDOT is headquartered at 50 Wolf Road in Colonie, Albany County. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) is a joint venture between the States of New York and New Jersey and authorized by the US Congress, established in 1921 through an interstate compact, that oversees much of the regional transportation infrastructure, including bridges, tunnels, airports, and seaports, within the geographical jurisdiction of the Port of New York and New Jersey. This 1,500 square mile (3,900 km²) port district is generally encompassed within a 25-mile (40 km) radius of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. The Port Authority is headquartered at 4 World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan.\n\nIn addition to the well known New York City Subway system – which is confined within New York City – four suburban commuter railroad systems enter and leave the city: the Long Island Rail Road, Metro-North Railroad, Port Authority Trans-Hudson, and five of New Jersey Transit's rail lines. The New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT) is the agency of the government of New York City responsible for the management of much of New York City's own transportation infrastructure. Other cities and towns in New York have urban and regional public transportation. In Buffalo, the Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority runs the Buffalo Metro Rail light-rail system; in Rochester, the Rochester Subway operated from 1927 until 1956, but fell into disuse as state and federal investment went to highways.\n\nThe New York State Department of Motor Vehicles (NYSDMV or DMV) is the governmental agency responsible for registering and inspecting automobiles and other motor vehicles, as well as licensing drivers in the State of New York. , the NYSDMV has 11,284,546 drivers licenses on file and 10,697,644 vehicle registrations in force. All gasoline-powered vehicles registered in New York State are required to have an emissions inspection every 12 months, in order to ensure that environmental quality controls are working to prevent air pollution. Diesel-powered vehicles with a gross weight rating over 8,500 lb that are registered in most Downstate New York counties must get an annual emissions inspection. All vehicles registered in New York State must get an annual safety inspection.\n\nPortions of the transportation system are intermodal, allowing travelers to switch easily from one mode of transportation to another. One of the most notable examples is AirTrain JFK which allows rail passengers to travel directly to terminals at John F. Kennedy International Airport as well as to the underground New York City Subway system.\n\nGovernment and politics\n\nGovernment\n\nThe Government of New York embodies the governmental structure of the State of New York as established by the New York State Constitution. It is composed of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.\n\nThe Governor is the State's chief executive and is assisted by the Lieutenant Governor. Both are elected on the same ticket. Additional elected officers include the Attorney General, and the Comptroller. The Secretary of State, formerly an elected officer, is currently appointed by the Governor.\n\nThe New York State Legislature is bicameral and consists of the New York State Senate and the New York State Assembly. The Assembly consists of 150 members, while the Senate varies in its number of members, currently having 63. The Legislature is empowered to make laws, subject to the Governor's power to veto a bill. However, the veto may be overridden by the Legislature if there is a two-thirds majority in favor of overriding in each House. The permanent laws of a general nature are codified in the Consolidated Laws of New York.\n\nThe highest court of appeal in the Unified Court System is the Court of Appeals whereas the primary felony trial court is the County Court (or the Supreme Court in New York City). The Supreme Court also acts as the intermediate appellate court for many cases, and the local courts handle a variety of other matters including small claims, traffic ticket cases, and local zoning matters, and are the starting point for all criminal cases. The New York City courts make up the largest local court system.\n\nThe state is divided into counties, cities, towns, and villages, all of which are municipal corporations with respect to their own governments, as well as various corporate entities that serve single purposes that are also local governments, such as school districts, fire districts, and New York state public-benefit corporations, frequently known as authorities or development corporations. Each municipal corporation is granted varying home rule powers as provided by the New York Constitution. The state also has 10 Indian reservations.\n\nCapital punishment\n\nCapital punishment was reintroduced in 1995 under the Pataki administration, but the statute was declared unconstitutional in 2004, when the New York Court of Appeals ruled in People v. LaValle that it violated the state constitution. The remaining death sentence was commuted by the court to life imprisonment in 2007, in People v. John Taylor, and the death row was disestablished in 2008, under executive order from Governor Paterson. No execution has taken place in New York since 1963. Legislative efforts to amend the statute have failed, and death sentences are no longer sought at the state level, though certain crimes that fall under the jurisdiction of the federal government are subject to the federal death penalty. \n\nFederal representation\n\nThe State of New York sends 27 members to the House of Representatives in addition to its two United States Senators. As of the 2000 census and the redistricting for the 2002 elections, the state had 29 members in the House, but the representation was reduced to 27 in 2013 due to the state's slower overall population growth relative to the overall national population growth. From 2016, New York will have 29 electoral votes in national presidential elections (a drop from its peak of 47 votes from 1933 to 1953).\n\nNew York is represented by Chuck Schumer and Kirsten Gillibrand in the United States Senate and has the nation's third equal highest number of congressional districts, equal with Florida and behind California's 53 and Texas's 36.\n\nThe state has a strong imbalance of payments with the federal government. According to the Office of the New York State Comptroller, New York State received 91 cents in services for every $1 it sent in taxes to the U.S. federal government in the 2013 fiscal year; New York ranked in 46th place in the federal balance of payments to the state on a per capita basis. \n\nPolitics\n\nAs of April 2016, Democrats represented a plurality of voters in New York State, constituting over twice as many registered voters as any other political party affiliation or lack thereof. Since the second half of the 20th century, New York has generally supported candidates belonging to the Democratic Party in national elections. Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama won New York State by over 25 percentage points in both 2012 and 2008. New York City, as well as the state's other major urban locales, including Albany, Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, are significant Democratic strongholds, with liberal politics. Rural portions of upstate New York, however, are generally more conservative than the cities and tend to favor Republicans. Heavily populated suburban areas downstate, such as Westchester County and Long Island, have swung between the major parties since the 1980s, but more often than not support Democrats.\n\nNew York City is the most important source of political fundraising in the United States for both major parties. Four of the top five zip codes in the nation for political contributions are in Manhattan. The top zip code, 10021 on the Upper East Side, generated the most money for the 2000 presidential campaigns of both George W. Bush and Al Gore. \n\nNew York City is an important center for international diplomacy. The United Nations Headquarters has been situated on the East Side of Midtown Manhattan since 1952.\n\nSports\n\nNew York State is geographically home to one National Football League team, the Buffalo Bills, based in the Buffalo suburb of Orchard Park. Although the New York Giants and New York Jets represent the New York metropolitan area and were previously located in New York City, they play in MetLife Stadium, located in East Rutherford, New Jersey. New York also has two Major League Baseball teams, the New York Yankees (based in the Bronx) and the New York Mets (based in Queens). Minor league baseball teams also play in the State of New York, including the Long Island Ducks. New York is home to three National Hockey League franchises: the New York Rangers in Manhattan, the New York Islanders in Brooklyn, and the Buffalo Sabres in Buffalo. New York has two National Basketball Association teams, the New York Knicks in Manhattan, and the Brooklyn Nets in Brooklyn. New York is the home of a Major League Soccer franchise, New York City FC, currently playing in the Bronx. Although the New York Red Bulls represent the New York metropolitan area, they play in Red Bull Arena in Harrison, New Jersey.\n\nNew York hosted the 1932 and 1980 Winter Olympics at Lake Placid. The 1980 Games are known for the USA–USSR ice hockey match dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", in which a group of American college students and amateurs defeated the heavily favored Soviet national ice hockey team 4–3 and went on to win the gold medal against Finland. Along with St. Moritz, Switzerland and Innsbruck, Austria, Lake Placid is one of the three cities to have hosted the Winter Olympic Games twice. New York City bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics but lost to London.\n\nSeveral U.S. national sports halls of fame are or have been situated in New York. The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum is located in Cooperstown, Otsego County. The National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in Saratoga Springs, Saratoga County, honors achievements in the sport of thoroughbred horse racing. The physical facility of the National Soccer Hall of Fame in Oneonta, also in Otsego County, closed in 2010, although the organization itself has continued inductions. The annual United States Open Tennis Championships is one of the world's four Grand Slam tennis tournaments and is held at the National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows-Corona Park in the New York City borough of Queens.",
"Empire State College, one of the 13 arts and science colleges of the State University of New York, is a multi-site institution offering associate, bachelor's, and master's degrees, and distance degrees worldwide through the Center for Distance Learning. The School for Graduate Studies offers master's degrees. Empire State College's Center for International Programs also has special programs for students in Lebanon through the American University of Science and Technology, Czech Republic, and Greece. From 2005 to until 2010, Empire State College and Anadolu University in Turkey offered a joint MBA program. It also has arranged learning opportunities with UAW-Ford University, United Steelworkers of America, Corporate Noncredit Training, eArmyU, Navy College Program and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (Local Union #3).\n\nThe College is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools. Empire State College administrative offices are located in Saratoga Springs, New York.\n\nHistory\n\nEmpire State College was designed by then SUNY Chancellor Ernest Boyer in a document titled \"Prospectus for a New University College.\" In 1971, Ernest L. Boyer, chancellor of the State University of New York, conceived a new college for the state’s public university: a college dedicated to adult, student-centered education. Empire State College would invite people into higher education by removing impediments to access such as time, location, institutional processes, and even curricular custom, as well as habits of learning and teaching. Students individually would define their academic needs, purposes and efforts. The college would be flexible in supporting them, through its faculty, policies and procedures, to achieve demonstrable college-level learning. This is the animating idea and the root of Empire State College.\n\nOrientation\n\nEmpire State College fulfills this mission by providing learning opportunities designed to accommodate students with family, work and community responsibilities. At the core of the learning-teaching environment is individualized study and the creation of an individual degree plan that is supported by a faculty mentor to whom each student is assigned. Empire State College students can take advantage of multiple modes of study including guided independent studies, study groups, intensive residencies, online courses and blended-learning experiences. The college also was one of the first institutions in the United States to develop a program of prior learning assessment, whereby students may earn college credit through assessment of prior learning from their work and life experiences.\n\nThe undergraduate degrees within broad areas of study offered by Empire State College are individualized to support a learner's academic, career or personal goals. The college offers flexible programs, including distance education, extensive transfers of credits from other universities, prior-learning assessment for knowledge gained through independent studies, standardized evaluations, and the opportunity to design one's own degree with an academic advisor or mentor. \n\nDegree Programs\n\nCertificate Programs\n\nLocations\n\nNotable alumni\n\n*Amy Arbus, photographer\n*Ita Aber, artist and curator \n*Kenny Barron (1978), jazz pianist\n*Ginny Brown-Waite (1976), US Congresswoman\n*Dawoud Bey (1990), photographer\n*Alice Fulton (1978), English professor, winner of the 1991 John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation fellowship for poetry\n*Deborah Gregory (1986), author of Cheetah Girls\n*Bob Herbert (1988), New York Times columnist\n*Kathleen M. Jimino, Rensselaer county executive\n*Bernard Kerik, former NYPD commissioner under Mayor Rudolph Giuliani\n*James J. LeCleir (1974), U.S. Air Force Major General\n*Mae Ngai historian, Columbia University\n*Alan Rachins (1974), television actor\n*Mark J.F. Schroeder, New York State Assemblyman and Buffalo City Comptroller-Elect\n*Herb Trimpe (1997), artist on \"The Incredible Hulk\" comic series\n*Bob Watson (1999), major league baseball player\n*Reggie Witherspoon, coach of University at Buffalo men's basketball team"
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"Locations | SUNY Empire State College\nNew Search Show All Locations\nLearn Where You Live\nSUNY Empire brings the classroom to you. Study part-time or full-time, onsite or online. You can even combine onsite and online learning and experience the best of both worlds.\nTake your pick. SUNY Empire offers more than 500 online courses, 35 learning centers across New York state, and collaborative three-day residencies in Albany and Saratoga Springs.\n800-847-3000\nTake the Next Step\nReady to advance your education and career? There’s no time like the present. Apply now, or learn more about SUNY Empire at one of our information sessions.",
"SUNY Empire State College | Ranking & Review\nReview and web ranking of SUNY Empire State College.\nSUNY Empire State College\nTo put this University ranking on your site or blog simply copy the code\nbelow and paste it into the webpage where you would like it to appear.\n<!-- 4icu.org University Ranking -- > <iframe src =\"http://www.4icu.org/reviews/rankings/university-ranking-6169.htm\" width=\"150\" height=\"60\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" > </iframe > <!-- end -- >\nOVERVIEW\nreport error\nFounded in 1971, SUNY Empire State College is a non-profit public higher education institution located in the the suburban setting of the medium-sized town of Saratoga Springs (population range of 10,000-49,999 inhabitants), New York. Officially accredited/recognized by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education, SUNY Empire State College (ESC) is a large (enrollment range: 15,000-19,999 students) coeducational higher education institution. SUNY Empire State College (ESC) offers courses and programs leading to officialy recognized higher education degrees such as associate degrees, bachelor degrees, master degrees in several areas of study. This 45 years old HE institution has a selective admission policy based on students' past academic record and grades. The admission rate range is 60-70% making this US higher education organization a somewhat selective institution. International students are welcome to apply for enrollment. ESC also provides several academic and non-academic facilities and services to students including a library, financial aids and/or scholarships, online courses and distance learning opportunities, as well as administrative services.\nSITE SEARCH\nSearching this University website at esc.edu\nGENERAL INFO"
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"Nelson Mandela's Spear of the Nation: the ANC's armed resistance - Telegraph\nSouth Africa\nNelson Mandela's Spear of the Nation: the ANC's armed resistance\nNelson Mandela set up the African National Congress' armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), in 1961 when he lost hope that passive and non-violent resistance to the apartheid government would bear fruit.\nNelson Mandela outside Westminster Abbey in 1962 Photo: REX\nFollow\nIt was launched on December 16, the same day as the Afrikaners defeated the Zulus at the Battle of the Blood River 100 years earlier, not long after the massacre in Sharpeville of 69 unarmed protesters by the security police.\nWith no military training himself, and in hiding from the government, Mr Mandela travelled abroad where he was offered financial and practical help by countries including Ethiopia and Algeria.\nMr Mandela was adamant that MK, as the armed unit was called, would not kill people but its tactics would be aimed at sabotage. In his own words, the aim was to \"hit back by all means within our power in defence of our people, our future and our freedom\".\nOn his return to South Africa, Mr Mandela and his colleagues set up regional command units and set about training their army in bomb making and clandestine operations.\nMK carried out numerous bombings during the next 20 years and the pledge not to kill became redundant – in the whole campaign, at least 63 people died and 483 people were injured.\nRelated Articles",
"uMkhonto weSizwe (MK) | South African History Online\nSouth African History Online\nJabulile Nyawose\nUmkhonto weSizwe (MK) logo\nOn 16 December, 1961, Umkhonto weSizwe (MK) was launched as an armed wing of the African National Congress (ANC).\nThe formation of the MK\nUmkhonto weSizwe (\"Spear of the Nation\") or 'MK' as it was more commonly known, was launched on the 16th December 1961. On the same day in 1838, the Afrikaners had defeated the Zulus at the Battle of the Blood River and it was perhaps significant that the armed struggle was launched on this particular day, more than one hundred years later. The formation of MK followed a series of events that made it necessary for the national liberation movements in South Africa to move towards a more significant challenge to the white minority government. The African National Congress (ANC) , together with the South African Communist Party (SACP) and the members of the Congress Alliance, the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured People’s Congress and the Congress of the Democrats, had been engaged in peaceful acts of resistance which aimed at forcing the government to eventually recognise the rights of Black people in South Africa. However, the 1950s and the early 1960s, showed the intension by the South African government to further isolate the country’s black people through various laws and severe repressive measures. In addition, in the face of repressive measures by the state, came the need to change tactics in the manner in which the ANC, SACP and the Congress Alliance had been approaching the struggle for freedom and equality.\nCrowds fleeing from bullets on the day of the Massacre\nChanging tactics was not going to be a simple and easy thing for the ANC, because for a long time it had embraced the ‘non-violence’ approach, an approach favored by Chief Albert Luthuli , President of the ANC at that time. Apart from the ‘non-violence’ stance that the ANC embraced, there were other issues that did not support the idea of an armed struggle, for instance at the time when the decision was made to form the MK, the ANC was banned under the Unlawful Organisations Bill of 1960 therefore, if the decision to take up arms became the decision of the ANC as the organisation, that would have put its Congress Alliance in danger of being banned.\nEvents leading to the decision to take up arms by the ANC\nIn the 1950s it became clear to some members of the ANC and the SACP that passive resistance and non-violence were not working. A factor that undoubtedly had an influence on the thinking of the ANC and the SACP, and which probably had a bearing on their shift towards political violence in 1961, was the general failure of the ANC directed campaigns of the 1950s to bring about meaningful political changes based on the policy of non-violence and moderation, following the moderate successes of the Defiance Campaign of 1952 and the Western Areas Campaign.\nSome sources site that the reason for these ‘moderate’ successes were due to unproductive and unfocused meetings. The ANC also showed a shift in its policies during the Annual National Congress on 26 June 1955 in Kliptown where the Freedom Charter was adopted. The significance of the Freedom Charter, was that the perception of the ANC as an African-only organisation shifted to one that embraces a growing unity amongst all Black peoples. However this multi-racial ideology did lead to a split within the ANC by those members like Robert Sobukwe who espoused the Pan-Africanist view of “Africa for Africans”. He went on to form the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) .\nThe most significant catalyst that led to the taking up of arms was the Sharpeville Massacre on 21 March 1960 , where the government violently crushed a peaceful anti-pass demonstration organised by the Pan African Congress. This demonstration lead to the deaths of 69 people, with 186 wounded. Also in the Western Cape Township, Langa, 3 people were killed and 27 injured in clashes with police over the burning of passes. The states’ heavy-handed response to the peaceful demonstrations and the subsequent banning of the ANC and SACP the following month, dealt a serious blow to the ANC and its allies.\nTherefore, in 1960 after the Sharpeville massacre and the banning of liberation organisations many more ANC and SACP members were convinced. The time had come to rethink the approach towards the struggle and move from ‘passive resistance’ to the ‘armed struggle’.\n“Mandela’s” proposal\nBy the end of 1960, popular resistance seemed to be crushed. The flames of the burning passes had been put out by the bullets of Sharpeville and Langa. The week long stay-away called for the 19 April 1960 failed to raise the spirit of a dejected people. Those liberation leaders who escaped the massive state clampdown slipped out of the country to begin re-organising resistance from abroad. For Mandela, this was the turning point. \"If the government reaction is to crush by naked force our non-violent struggle,\" he told a gathering of local and foreign press in a safe house, \"we will have to reconsider our tactics. In my mind we are closing a chapter on this question of a non-violent policy.\"\nVarious suggestions have been given on who and how the idea and the decision to take up arms came into being. One is that the proposal was first made to the ANC by Mandela in June, but Ben Turok suggests that it was in one private meeting between April and May 1960, which comprised of a handful of SACP activists, Yusuf Dadoo , Jack Hugson , Joe Matthews , Michael Hermal, Moses Kotane , Ben Turok, and Ruth First . Bram Fischer and Bartholomew Hlapane. At this meeting Michael Hermel presented a proposal of a move towards armed struggle. The proposal, according to Ben Turok, suggested that:\n“”¦peaceful methods of struggle were over; that one had to now look at alternatives; and that the alternative was armed struggle - violence. And it set this in the context of Marxist theory and communist theory, and revolutionary practice.\"\nThis proposal was later presented to individuals within the ANC, and it therefore pre-dates the 1961 decision of the ANC to begin the armed struggle.\nAt an ANC Working Committee meeting in June 1961 Mandela presented the proposal for a military wing, initially Moses Kotane disagreed. He argued that: \"There is still room for the old methods if we are imaginative and determined enough.\" Eventually, however, Kotane agreed to the matter being raised with the National Executive.\nLater that month the National Executive met in Durban. Like all ANC meetings at the time, the meeting was secret and held at night in order to avoid the police. Mandela anticipated difficulties. There was no doubt that the timing was poor. At the Treason Trial, the ANC had contended that non-violence was an inviolate principle of the movement, not simply a tactic. He knew, furthermore, that Chief Luthuli's commitment to non-violence was deeply moral and feared his opposition. However, Luthuli was ultimately persuaded. \"If anyone thinks I am a pacifist\", he said, \"let him try to take my chickens, and he will know how wrong he is!\" Luthuli’s suggestion was that the military movement should be a separate and independent organ, linked and under the overall control of the ANC but fundamentally autonomous. In this way the legality of the unbanned allies would not be jeopardised. The NEC agreed.\nThe following night, the Joint Executive met in Durban including representatives from the Indian Congress, the Coloured People's Congress, the South African Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of Democrats. Chief Luthuli opened the meeting by saying that even though the ANC had endorsed the decision on violence, \"it is a matter of such gravity, I would like my colleagues here tonight to consider the issue afresh”.\nFor Mandela, this was a sign that the chief was not one hundred percent convinced by his proposal. However, when the session opened at 8pm, Mandela presented his arguments once again. Maulvi Cachalia pleaded with the ANC not to take up arms, arguing that the state would slaughter the whole liberation movement. \"Non-violence has not failed us, we have failed non-violence\", pleaded JN Singh.\n\"We argued the entire night\", recalled Mandela, but then suddenly MD Naidoo, a member of the South African Indian Congress, said to his Indian colleagues: \"Ah, you are afraid of going to jail, that is all!\" By dawn, Mandela had his authority.\nNelson Mandela of the ANC and Joe Slovo of the SACP were mandated to form the new military organisation and its high command, separate from the ANC. The policy of the ANC would still be that of non-violence. They were authorised to join with whomever they wanted or needed to create this organisation and they would not be under the direct control of the mother organisation (ANC).\n“At the time when MK was formed a decision was taken that it should be an independent organisation. There is however, no certainty as to the precise terms in which the decision was formulated. This enabled the ANC and any of its leaders to deny any involvement in armed activity, while allowing those organising MK to do so in the ANC’s name”.\nThe name of the new organisation would be Umkhonto weSizwe, Zulu and Xhosa for the Spear of the Nation. Its short name would be the MK. The MK’s aim was to \"hit back by all means within our power in defence of our people, our future and our freedom\".\nPlanning for the first phase\nThe first phase of armed action was to be the December 1961 sabotage campaign against government installations. Instructions were issued to avoid attacks that would lead to injury or loss of life.\nJoe Slovo wrote: \"No one believed that the tactic of sabotage could, on its own, lead to the collapse of the racist state. It would be the first phase of 'controlled violence' designed to serve a number of purposes. It would be a graphic pointer to the need for carefully planned action rather than spontaneous or terrorist acts of retaliation which were already in evidence ”¦ And it would demonstrate that the responsibility for the slide towards bloody civil war lay squarely with the regime\".\nIn the six or so months between making the decision to form the organisation (June) and the first acts of sabotage (December), the MK high command set up regional commands in the main centres. The people chosen to be part of these commands were chosen either because they had the necessary technical or military skills or because they were members of the Congress Alliance organisations.\nCurnick Dlovu led the Natal region. Looksmart Ngudle (who died in security police detention in 1963) and Fred Carneson were leaders in the Western Cape. Washington Bongco (who was hanged for MK activities in August 1963) was Border regional commander. Vuyisile Mini (who was executed in 1964) was one of the key figures in the Eastern Cape command. Jack Hogson , Ahmed Kathrada , Arthur Goldreich and Dennis Goldberg were in Johannesburg.\nRonnie Kasrils recalls his recruitment to the newly formed MK: \"During July 1961, MP Naicker took me for a walk along the [Durban] beach front ”¦ 'I have been asked to approach you,' he said, above the roar of the surf smashing against the rocks, ' to sound you out. Are you willing to get involved?'\n\"Theory apart\" wrote Slovo, \"this venture into a new era of struggle found us ill-equipped at many levels. Among the lot of us we did not have a single pistol. No one we knew had ever engaged in urban sabotage with home made explosives ”¦\"\nIt was Jack Hodgson, appointed to the Johannesburg military command of MK, who showed them the ropes. A veteran of the Abyssinian campaign and a 'desert rat' during the early stages of the North African war, Jack Hodgson taught the cadres the rudiments. \n\"Sacks of permanganate of potash were brought\", wrote Slovo, \"and we spent days with pestles and mortars grinding this substance to a fine powder\".\nKasrils continues: \"He (Hodgson) placed a chemical mixture with icing sugar into a spoon and carefully added a drop of acid with an eye dropper. The powder burst into flame and we were as impressed as pupils in a science class. The problem, of course, was how to achieve the result without directly applying the acid. For that one required a timing device.\" \"With a huge grin he produced a condom\". First he placed a teaspoon of the chemical mixture into the condom. Next he produced a small, gelatine capsule ”¦ Opening the capsule, he added a few drops of acid, carefully put the cap back on the capsule and dropped it into the condom. He told us that it normally took up to 50 minutes for the acid to eat through the capsule ”¦”\nReferences:\n• Niemann, M. (1993). 'Diamonds are State's Best Friend: Botswana's Foreign Policy in Southern Africa'.\n• Africa Today, vol 40. No 1.Magubane, B. (1983). 'Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland: South Africa's Hostages in Revolt'. (Eds)\n• Callaghy, T. M. South Africa in Southern Africa: The Intensifying Vortex of Violence, Praeger: New York.\n• Urnov, A. (1982). South Africa against Africa, Progress: Moscow.\n• O'Meara, P. and Carter, G. M. (1982). 'Interchapter--Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland: The Common Background and Links'. (Eds)\n• O'Meara, P. and Carter, G.M. Southern Africa: The Continuing Crisis (second edition), Indiana University Press: Bloomington.\n• ANC official website (history and documents section). anc.org.za\n• African National Congress (undated). The History of Umkhonto weSizwe, timeline. anc.org.za (accessed 12 December 2003).",
"Project MUSE - Spear of the Nation\nSpear of the Nation\nJanet Cherry\nPublication Year: 2012\nUmkhonto we Sizwe, Spear of the Nation, was arguably the last of the great liberation armies of the twentieth century—but it never got to “march triumphant into Pretoria.” MK—as it was known—was the armed wing of the African National Congress, South Africa’s liberation movement, that challenged the South African apartheid government. A small group of revolutionaries committed to the seizure of power, MK discovered its principal members engaged in negotiated settlement with the enemy and was disbanded soon after.\nThe history of MK is one of paradox and contradiction, of successes and failures. In this short study, which draws widely on the personal experiences of—and commentary by—MK soldiers, Janet Cherry offers a new and nuanced account of the Spear of the Nation. She presents in broad outline the various stages of MK’s thirty-year history, considers the difficult strategic and moral problems the revolutionary army faced, and argues that its operations are likely to be remembered as a just war conducted with considerable restraint.\nDownload PDF\np. 7\nI should like to thank Howard Barrell, Mzolisi Dyasi, Kholi Mhlana, Madeleine Fullard and Ronnie Kasrils for their comments on the manuscript, as well as the South African...\n1. Introduction\nDownload PDF\npp. 9-12\nHailed as heroes by many South Africans, demonised as evil terrorists by others, Umkhonto weSizwe, the Spear of the Nation, is now part of history. Though the organisation no longer exists, its former members are represented by the MK Military Veterans’ Association, which still carries...\n2. The turn to armed struggle, 1960–3\nDownload PDF\npp. 13-34\nIt is hard to find anyone in South Africa today who will argue with conviction that the armed struggle for liberation from apartheid was not justified. This was not always the case, especially among whites. Even so, most South Africans...\n3. The Wankie and Sipolilo campaigns, 1967–8\nDownload PDF\npp. 35-46\nThose who left the country for military training in the early 1960s, including the young Chris Hani, who was later to become MK Chief of Staff, did not have an easy time of it. After receiving military training in various...\n4. Struggling to get home, 1969–84\nDownload PDF\npp. 47-84\nFollowing the Wankie and Sipolilo campaigns, the ANC held a decisive national conference at Morogoro in Tanzania in 1969 to deal with the unprecedented level of criticism and dissatisfaction within the organisation. Survivors of the Rhodesian campaigns were...\n5. Reaping the whirlwind, 1984–9\nDownload PDF\npp. 85-112\nThe 1980s, the third decade of the armed struggle, opened up greater opportunities for MK and the ANC than ever before and, at the same time, greater challenges. The new decade began with exciting developments inside South...\n6. The end of armed struggle\nDownload PDF\npp. 113-132\nUnderlying the desperate accounts of the battles, skirmishes and bombings, urban and rural, which we have described, is a great irony: that while MK cadres were being exhorted to ‘escalate the armed struggle’ in preparation...\n7. A sober assessment of MK\nDownload PDF\npp. 133-144\nThere is a strong case to be made that MK’s armed struggle will be remembered as an example of a just war conducted with considerable restraint. The argument is all the more compelling if the South African liberation struggle...\nSources and further reading",
"Armed Resistance Movement - Nelson Mandela\nArmed Resistance Movement\nProcess Paper\nIn 1961, Nelson Mandela co-founded and became the first leader of Umkhonto we Sizwe (\"Spear of the Nation\"), also known as MK, a new armed wing of the ANC. Under Mandela's leadership, MK launched a sabotage campaign against the government, which had recently declared South Africa a republic and withdrawn from the British Commonwealth. In January 1962, Mandela traveled aboard illegally to attend a conference of African nationalist leaders in Ethiopia, visit the exiled Oliver Tambo in London and undergo guerilla training in Algeria. On August 5, shortly after his return, he was arrested and subsequently sentenced to five years in prison for leaving the country and inciting a 1961 workers strike. The following July, police raided an ANC hideout in Rivonia, a suburb on the outskirts of Johannesburg, and arrested a racially diverse group of MK leaders who had gathered to debate the merits of a guerilla insurgency. Evidence eas found implicating Mandela and other activists, who were brought to stand trial for sabotage, treason and violent conspiracy alongside their associates.Mandela and other seven defendants narrowly escaped the gallows and were instead sentenced to life imprisonment during the so-call Rivonia Trial, which lasted eight months and attracted substantial international attention. In a stirring opening statement that sealed his iconic status around the world, Mandela admitted to some of the charges against him while defending the ANC's actions and denouncing the injustices of apartheid. \nCreate a free website",
"Nelson Mandela - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com\nGoogle\nNelson Mandela’s Childhood and Education\nNelson Mandela was born on July 18, 1918, into a royal family of the Xhosa-speaking Thembu tribe in the South African village of Mvezo, where his father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa (c. 1880-1928), served as chief. His mother, Nosekeni Fanny, was the third of Mphakanyiswa’s four wives, who together bore him nine daughters and four sons. After the death of his father in 1927, 9-year-old Mandela—then known by his birth name, Rolihlahla—was adopted by Jongintaba Dalindyebo, a high-ranking Thembu regent who began grooming his young ward for a role within the tribal leadership.\nDid You Know?\nAs a sign of respect, many South Africans referred to Nelson Mandela as Madiba, his Xhosa clan name.\nThe first in his family to receive a formal education, Mandela completed his primary studies at a local missionary school. There, a teacher dubbed him Nelson as part of a common practice of giving African students English names. He went on to attend the Clarkebury Boarding Institute and Healdtown, a Methodist secondary school, where he excelled in boxing and track as well as academics. In 1939 Mandela entered the elite University of Fort Hare, the only Western-style higher learning institute for South African blacks at the time. The following year, he and several other students, including his friend and future business partner Oliver Tambo (1917-1993), were sent home for participating in a boycott against university policies.\nAfter learning that his guardian had arranged a marriage for him, Mandela fled to Johannesburg and worked first as a night watchman and then as a law clerk while completing his bachelor’s degree by correspondence. He studied law at the University of Witwatersrand, where he became involved in the movement against racial discrimination and forged key relationships with black and white activists. In 1944, Mandela joined the African National Congress (ANC) and worked with fellow party members, including Oliver Tambo, to establish its youth league, the ANCYL. That same year, he met and married his first wife, Evelyn Ntoko Mase (1922-2004), with whom he had four children before their divorce in 1957.\nNelson Mandela and the African National Congress\nNelson Mandela’s commitment to politics and the ANC grew stronger after the 1948 election victory of the Afrikaner-dominated National Party, which introduced a formal system of racial classification and segregation—apartheid—that restricted nonwhites’ basic rights and barred them from government while maintaining white minority rule. The following year, the ANC adopted the ANCYL’s plan to achieve full citizenship for all South Africans through boycotts, strikes, civil disobedience and other nonviolent methods. Mandela helped lead the ANC’s 1952 Campaign for the Defiance of Unjust Laws, traveling across the country to organize protests against discriminatory policies, and promoted the manifesto known as the Freedom Charter, ratified by the Congress of the People in 1955. Also in 1952, Mandela and Tambo opened South Africa’s first black law firm, which offered free or low-cost legal counsel to those affected by apartheid legislation.\nOn December 5, 1956, Mandela and 155 other activists were arrested and went on trial for treason. All of the defendants were acquitted in 1961, but in the meantime tensions within the ANC escalated, with a militant faction splitting off in 1959 to form the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). The next year, police opened fire on peaceful black protesters in the township of Sharpeville, killing 69 people; as panic, anger and riots swept the country in the massacre’s aftermath, the apartheid government banned both the ANC and the PAC. Forced to go underground and wear disguises to evade detection, Mandela decided that the time had come for a more radical approach than passive resistance.\nNelson Mandela and the Armed Resistance Movement\nIn 1961, Nelson Mandela co-founded and became the first leader of Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”), also known as MK, a new armed wing of the ANC. Several years later, during the trial that would put him behind bars for nearly three decades, he described the reasoning for this radical departure from his party’s original tenets: “[I]t would be wrong and unrealistic for African leaders to continue preaching peace and nonviolence at a time when the government met our peaceful demands with force. It was only when all else had failed, when all channels of peaceful protest had been barred to us, that the decision was made to embark on violent forms of political struggle.”\nUnder Mandela’s leadership, MK launched a sabotage campaign against the government, which had recently declared South Africa a republic and withdrawn from the British Commonwealth. In January 1962, Mandela traveled abroad illegally to attend a conference of African nationalist leaders in Ethiopia, visit the exiled Oliver Tambo in London and undergo guerilla training in Algeria. On August 5, shortly after his return, he was arrested and subsequently sentenced to five years in prison for leaving the country and inciting a 1961 workers’ strike. The following July, police raided an ANC hideout in Rivonia, a suburb on the outskirts of Johannesburg, and arrested a racially diverse group of MK leaders who had gathered to debate the merits of a guerilla insurgency. Evidence was found implicating Mandela and other activists, who were brought to stand trial for sabotage, treason and violent conspiracy alongside their associates.\nMandela and seven other defendants narrowly escaped the gallows and were instead sentenced to life imprisonment during the so-called Rivonia Trial, which lasted eight months and attracted substantial international attention. In a stirring opening statement that sealed his iconic status around the world, Mandela admitted to some of the charges against him while defending the ANC’s actions and denouncing the injustices of apartheid. He ended with the following words: “I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”\nNelson Mandela’s Years Behind Bars\nNelson Mandela spent the first 18 of his 27 years in jail at the brutal Robben Island Prison, a former leper colony off the coast of Cape Town, where he was confined to a small cell without a bed or plumbing and compelled to do hard labor in a lime quarry. As a black political prisoner, he received scantier rations and fewer privileges than other inmates. He was only allowed to see his wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela (1936-), who he had married in 1958 and was the mother of his two young daughters, once every six months. Mandela and his fellow prisoners were routinely subjected to inhumane punishments for the slightest of offenses; among other atrocities, there were reports of guards burying inmates in the ground up to their necks and urinating on them.\nThese restrictions and conditions notwithstanding, while in confinement Mandela earned a bachelor of law degree from the University of London and served as a mentor to his fellow prisoners, encouraging them to seek better treatment through nonviolent resistance. He also smuggled out political statements and a draft of his autobiography, “Long Walk to Freedom,” published five years after his release.\nDespite his forced retreat from the spotlight, Mandela remained the symbolic leader of the antiapartheid movement. In 1980 Oliver Tambo introduced a “Free Nelson Mandela” campaign that made the jailed leader a household name and fueled the growing international outcry against South Africa’s racist regime. As pressure mounted, the government offered Mandela his freedom in exchange for various political compromises, including the renouncement of violence and recognition of the “independent” Transkei Bantustan, but he categorically rejected these deals.\nIn 1982 Mandela was moved to Pollsmoor Prison on the mainland, and in 1988 he was placed under house arrest on the grounds of a minimum-security correctional facility. The following year, newly elected president F. W. de Klerk (1936-) lifted the ban on the ANC and called for a nonracist South Africa, breaking with the conservatives in his party. On February 11, 1990, he ordered Mandela’s release.\nNelson Mandela as President of South Africa\nAfter attaining his freedom, Nelson Mandela led the ANC in its negotiations with the governing National Party and various other South African political organizations for an end to apartheid and the establishment of a multiracial government. Though fraught with tension and conducted against a backdrop of political instability, the talks earned Mandela and de Klerk the Nobel Peace Prize in December 1993. On April 26, 1994, more than 22 million South Africans turned out to cast ballots in the country’s first multiracial parliamentary elections in history. An overwhelming majority chose the ANC to lead the country, and on May 10 Mandela was sworn in as the first black president of South Africa, with de Klerk serving as his first deputy.\nAs president, Mandela established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate human rights and political violations committed by both supporters and opponents of apartheid between 1960 and 1994. He also introduced numerous social and economic programs designed to improve the living standards of South Africa’s black population. In 1996 Mandela presided over the enactment of a new South African constitution, which established a strong central government based on majority rule and prohibited discrimination against minorities, including whites.\nImproving race relations, discouraging blacks from retaliating against the white minority and building a new international image of a united South Africa were central to President Mandela’s agenda. To these ends, he formed a multiracial “Government of National Unity” and proclaimed the country a “rainbow nation at peace with itself and the world.” In a gesture seen as a major step toward reconciliation, he encouraged blacks and whites alike to rally around the predominantly Afrikaner national rugby team when South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup.\nOn his 80th birthday in 1998, Mandela wed the politician and humanitarian Graça Machel (1945-), widow of the former president of Mozambique. (His marriage to Winnie had ended in divorce in 1992.) The following year, he retired from politics at the end of his first term as president and was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki (1942-) of the ANC.\nNelson Mandela’s Later Years and Legacy\nAfter leaving office, Nelson Mandela remained a devoted champion for peace and social justice in his own country and around the world. He established a number of organizations, including the influential Nelson Mandela Foundation and The Elders, an independent group of public figures committed to addressing global problems and easing human suffering. In 2002, Mandela became a vocal advocate of AIDS awareness and treatment programs in a culture where the epidemic had been cloaked in stigma and ignorance. The disease later claimed the life of his son Makgatho (1950-2005) and is believed to affect more people in South Africa than in any other country.\nTreated for prostate cancer in 2001 and weakened by other health issues, Mandela grew increasingly frail in his later years and scaled back his schedule of public appearances. In 2009, the United Nations declared July 18 “Nelson Mandela International Day” in recognition of the South African leader’s contributions to democracy, freedom, peace and human rights around the world. Nelson Mandela died on December 5, 2013 from a recurring lung infection.\nTags",
"Spear of the Nation : Janet Cherry : 9780821420263\nAdd to basket Add to wishlist\nDescription\nUmkhonto we Sizwe, Spear of the Nation, was arguably the last of the great liberation armies of the twentieth century-but it never got to \\u201cmarch triumphant into Pretoria.\\u201d MK-as it was known-was the armed wing of the African National Congress, South Africa's liberation movement, that challenged the South African apartheid government. A small group of revolutionaries committed to the seizure of power, MK discovered its principal members engaged in negotiated settlement with the enemy and was disbanded soon after. The history of MK is one of paradox and contradiction, of successes and failures. In this short study, which draws widely on the personal experiences of-and commentary by-MK soldiers, Janet Cherry offers a new and nuanced account of the Spear of the Nation. She presents in broad outline the various stages of MK's thirty-year history, considers the difficult strategic and moral problems the revolutionary army faced, and argues that its operations are likely to be remembered as a just war conducted with considerable restraint. show more\nProduct details\n106.68 x 175.26 x 10.16mm | 113.4g\nPublication date",
"Pretoria Presses Mandela's Group To Disband Army and Yield Arms - NYTimes.com\nPretoria Presses Mandela's Group To Disband Army and Yield Arms\nBy CHRISTOPHER S. WREN,\nPublished: March 27, 1992\nJOHANNESBURG, March 26— The policy of armed struggle against white minority rule that the African National Congress suspended more than 19 months ago, has re-emerged as the latest obstacle to negotiations between the Government and the congress.\nThe Government of President F. W. de Klerk has intensified its insistence that the African National Congress renounce armed struggle altogether, disband its guerrillas and disclose its arms caches before an interim government now under discussion can be achieved.\nThe congress agreed on Aug. 6, 1990, to suspend armed struggle, long dormant, to create a climate for negotiations. But it insists upon keeping its military wing, Spear of the Nation, intact until an interim government is in place.\nThe deadlock, while primarily symbolic, has nonetheless complicated the negotiations under way on South Africa's future, as each side maneuvers to wring new concessions. 'Here and Now'\nThe Government contends that that no participant in transitional arrangements can maintain a private army. The Minister of Defense, Roelf Meyer, said on Wednesday that \"disbanding of M.K. cadres is something that should be attended to here and now.\" Spear of the Nation is popularly called M.K., a phonetic abbreviation of Umkhonto we Sizwe, its name in Xhosa.\nThe congress has accused the Government of seeking excuses to delay multi-racial transitional rule.\n\"The A.N.C. is not going to abandon Umkhonto we Sizwe,\" said the congress's spokeswoman, Gill Marcus.\nCuriously, the Government's public pressure on the African National Congress has coincided with private progress reported at talks on the fate of Spear of the Nation.\n\"Things are going so well that we are confident that agreement will be reached soon,\" Cyril Ramaphosa, the congress's secretary general, said Monday. And Mr. Meyer told journalists Wednesday that \"I think it can be resolved.\" Armed Struggle Began in 1961\nThe African National Congress began its armed struggle from exile in 1961 under conditions that did not favor a war of liberation. Its bases lay far beyond South Africa's borders, and guerrillas infiltrating back were routinely intercepted by South African security forces. Many guerrillas ended up fighting for the congress's friends in Angola and Zimbabwe, as the campaign inside South Africa turned to random terror bombings. The armed struggle, in effect, died out long before the congress announced its suspension.\nThe agreement reached between the Government and the African National Congress in Pretoria in 1990 stipulated that \"no further armed actions and related activities by the A.N.C. and its military wing Umkhonto we Sizwe will take place.\" The Government defines \"related activities\" to include the stockpiling of arms and the recruitment of new guerrillas. The congress says these fall outside the agreement's scope.\nAt its national conference last July, the African National Congress vowed to keep its guerrillas \"combat ready\" until they were integrated into South Africa's armed forces and a nonracist constitution was enacted. Several thousand guerrillas remain in Uganda, Tanzania and several other African countries, where they are being retrained as a conventional army. Symbol of Resistance\nFor many black South Africans, the armed struggle symbolizes their resistance to apartheid, and it has been accorded near mythic dimensions in the rhetoric of the African National Congress. If the congress disbanded its military wing to accommodate the Government, it would lose support in the townships, particularly among militant youth, and would become vulnerable to criticism from more radical groups like the Pan-Africanist Congress.\nThe Government has not made clear why it is hammering publicly at an issue that is under private discussion with the congress. President de Klerk may want to show whites, who gave him an overwhelming mandate in a national referendum last week to negotiate change, that he is not giving in to the African National Congress. Or the Government may have adopted a more aggressive stance to counteract the congress's threat last week to unleash crippling new \"mass action\" -- strikes, boycotts and other protests -- unless the Government repeals a tax on basic foodstuffs and yields to an interim government in the next few months.\nThe Government is also feeling pressure from the Inkatha Freedom Party, the congress's leading rival among blacks. Inkatha's chairman, Frank Mdlalose, said his party would not agree to an interim government until political violence ended and Spear of the Nation was disbanded.\nInkatha has accused the guerrillas of causing some of the violence. The congress blames Inkatha and Government security forces.\nThe ultimatums apparently have not halted progress in the working groups of the Convention for a Democratic South Africa, as the negotiating forum that began last December is titled. The convention will likely consider arrangements for an interim government at its next full session, probably at the end of April.",
"Night of the generals | Article | Africa Confidential\nNight of the generals\n1st April 2016\nIncreasing surveillance of ANC dissidents and burglaries of journalists and activists point to paranoia at the top\nA veteran of the pre-liberation African National Congress armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK, Spear of the Nation), General Siphiwe 'Gebuza' Nyanda doesn't scare easily. Yet when a well armed hijacker decided on 23 March to make off with his Porsche luxury car, he didn't offer any resistance. Nyanda survived without a scratch and the car was found without serious damage a few hours later. Another random hijacking? Perhaps, but it has emerged that Nyanda is the spokesman for a group known as Senior Commanders and Commissars of the ANC's former military wing.\nJust days before the attack, this group published a memorandum highly critical of President Jacob Zuma 's style of government (AC Vol 57 No 6, Gordhan and Zuma slug it out ). It ran through the familiar charge sheet: December's damaging and arbitrary sacking of Nhlanhla Nene as Finance Minister; the orchestrated harassment of current and previous Finance Minister Pravin Gordhan by the Hawks, the specialist police unit. Then the group declared its support for Mcebisi Jonas, who said that the Gupta family had offered him the post of Finance Minister before Zuma sacked Nene (AC Vol 55 No 11, A loyalist cabinet and Vol 57 No 4, Zupta Inc. ).\nThen came the coup de grâce which removed any ambiguity about the group's intentions. The memo concluded, '…in the light of the many challenges facing the ANC and the state, we further call for the leadership of the ANC to urgently convene a special National Conference.' In today's febrile political climate, the idea of a special ANC conference would have but one aim: to sack Zuma from the presidency, a rerun of the recall of ex-President Thabo Mbeki at the Polokwane National Elective Conference of 2007.\nFighters fight back\nThe call had special weight, given Nyanda's history as an MK commander. The other signatories had their standing, too, both as liberation fighters and security apparatchiks who had fallen foul of Zuma. Riaz 'Mo' Shaik , former MK fighter and then head of the National Intelligence Agency (NIA), was a long-time Zuma ally. Indeed, his brother Schabir Shaik was a close business ally of Zuma's and was gaoled for involvement in 1999's US$6 billion arms procurement scandal (AC Vol 52 No 25, High unit costs ).\nAlso among the signatories was another former NIA boss, Gibson Njenje (AC Vol 52 No 14, Zuma and the securocrats ). Both Shaik and Njenje split with Zuma after they had tried to block what they saw as the Gupta family's growing power. Amid the rising chorus of Zuma critics, Nyanda's group is the most forthright and probably carries the most political weight. For some, that could mean that the theft of his car was the first warning shot. There's no sign that he and his battle-hardened friends are ready to back off.\nA more prosaic sign of skulduggery was a break-in at the Helen Suzman Foundation on the afternoon of 20 March (AC Vol 44 No 9, Looking down the line ). Again, the timing was important: it was three days after the Foundation had filed an application with the Pretoria High Court for the suspension of Lieutenant General Berning Mthandazo Ntlemeza as Director of the Hawks anti-corruption unit. Among the claims in the application is that Ntlemeza was found to have lied under oath by Judge Elias Matojane in the Gauteng High Court.\nAs Ntlemeza is a key ally of Zuma's and has played a leading role in the Hawks' bizarre pursuit of Gordhan for setting up an 'illegal fiscal monitoring unit' at the South African Revenue Service, the Foundation's application has great resonance currently. This month's robbers padlocked the Foundation's security guard to the railings outside the building, then carried away several computers, hard disk drives and paper files. They seemed to have a clear objective.\nCome in Number One\nAccusations and suspicions extend far beyond these two cases. Senior ANC officials have told Africa Confidential that their telephones are bugged. Some National Executive Committee members said they believed conversations were being monitored by State Security Agency (SSA) officials who pass the information to Zuma's office.\n'Senior ANC members are so paranoid that Number One [Zuma] is listening to them that they prefer not to have conversations on their cell phones,' said a former intelligence officer. An ANC provincial leader said that 'the preferred communication is via WhatsApp. That is the safest. No one can really monitor that.' There is also a long-held belief that state security officers have been used as proxies to settle internal battles in the governing party. Several senior South African Communist Party members, including Blade Nzimande , have complained bitterly that their telephones are being monitored.\nThe State Security Minister, David Mahlobo, insists that that the interception of citizens' phone calls 'is lawful and South Africa's intelligence services can only bug people when there is good reason to do so'. Having headed the ANC intelligence organisation during the struggle against apartheid, Zuma knows a lot about surveillance.\nThe training and assistance ANC intelligence operatives received from East Germany's State Security Ministry, the Ministerium für Staatssicherheit, commonly known as the Stasi, instilled a lasting ethic. Zuma takes a close interest in the intelligence chiefs: he ensures they are part of his inner circle, either from KwaZulu-Natal or people who owe him politically.\nThe reputation of the intelligence services is suffering in other ways. Last Christmas, there was a series of burglaries at the SSA headquarters in Pretoria. At least 50 computers were stolen from Defence Intelligence Headquarters at the same time, the local press reported. On 26 December, more than 50 million rand (US$3.2 mn.) in cash was stolen from a safe on the premises. Two agency officials were arrested and on are on bail but there is no news of the missing millions. An SSA insider said that the case was not as 'clear-cut' as it seemed and heads were likely to roll in the coming months. 'For now, no one inside the Agency is saying anything and we are watching the next move in the state's case and want to hear what the arrested officials will be arguing in court.'\nAt the same time, there is a crisis in the parliamentary scrutiny of the intelligence services. Zuma has been eager to appoint another old ally, Cecil Burgess, as Inspector General of Intelligence (IGI), a post which is meant to hold the services to account and report to Parliament. It was soon clear that the opposition to his appointment meant that it would not receive the necessary two-thirds support in the House.\nAccordingly and at the last minute, the ANC Chief Whip withdrew the Joint Standing Committee on Intelligence's report supporting the appointment. Earlier, the Speaker, Baleka Mbete , had written to all parties, pleading with the opposition to put aside their differences and fill the important post.\nThis was the ANC's third attempt to have the report adopted and the second to end in a withdrawal. The IGI oversees the SSA as well as military and police criminal intelligence, investigates illegal espionage and keeps a check on intelligence operatives both at home and abroad. The post has been vacant for a year and the list of uninvestigated complaints is piling up.\nState Security Minister Mahlobo had left it to Mbete and the new acting Chief Whip, Dorris Eunice Dlakude, to get cross-party support for their candidate as he has been too busy keeping tabs on the President's detractors before next year's bruising ANC leadership battle.\nIn January. it emerged that Zuma had met members of the parliamentary Joint Standing Committee on Intelligence and had made it clear he wanted to see former ANC MP Cecil Burgess appointed as IGI. While the Committee recommends a candidate for this powerful post to the President, Zuma has the final say before the recommendation goes to Parliament for ratification or rejection.\nZuma is set on appointing Burgess, who showed his loyalty to him and the ANC when he used his lawyer's wit to steamroll the controversial Protection of State Information Bill – widely derided as the 'secrecy bill' – through Parliament in 2013 (AC Vol 55 No 16, Jobs for the boys – and girls ). Burgess is a former ally of the Cape Town Mayor, Patricia de Lille, and was an MP for her now-defunct party, The Independent Democrats.\nBurgess defected to the ANC in 2005 and rose quickly up the ranks, chairing Parliament's special ad hoc committee on the Information Bill. He also chaired the ad hoc committee that found no wrongdoing on the part of the President when it looked into the spending of taxpayers' money on upgrading his homestead at Nkandla (AC Vol 56 No 5, No-fly zone for legal eagles ).\nBurgess is Zuma's favourite for the post on a shortlist of eight that included former MK veterans such as Clinton Davids. In June, the ANC could not get Parliament's approval. Not everyone in the party was happy with the choice: some saw Burgess as a pro-Zuma hawk and others said he had no history in the ANC's underground structures. The Intelligence Committee denied that Zuma has applied pressure over the appointment. Zuma's special pleading was reported in the Committee's confidential proceedings.\nThe Intelligence Committee is one of the few that meets behind closed doors. Cornelia 'Connie' September, the veteran trades unionist and former Human Settlements Minister who chairs the Committee, argues that opposition politicians don't understand the sensitive nature of the Committee's work. The Democratic Alliance's John Steenhuisen lambasts the selection process, arguing that Burgess isn't qualified for the job. He wants legislation to ensure the post is filled by a retired judge. That would 'prohibit the back-alley lobbying, cadre deployment and political interference', he says.\nThe sudden resignation on 2 March of the ANC Chief Whip, Stone Sizani, pointed to the high stakes in the row over the IGI. He was seen as not supporting Burgess's appointment and therefore as hostile to Zuma. The ANC has now referred the matter back to the Committee to 'ensure there is sufficient consultation around the candidate'.\nMahlobo on the rise\nPoliticians across the political divide were shocked by the 2014 appointment of Mahlobo, an unknown civil servant from Mpumalanga who was parachuted in to head the powerful SSA and who, says the SSA website, 'was sent by the ANC to China for Political Education'. In the past, senior ANC National Executive members, such as Lindiwe Sisulu and Ronnie Kasrils, held the portfolio. Mahlobo worked under Kasrils as a Director at the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry from 2002 until Kasrils left in 2004, and for two years thereafter. He is now seen as one of Zuma's closest lieutenants and staunch defenders on the National Executive Committee and shielding Zuma from the Nkandla homestead fiasco. Mhlobo has been vocal about the ANC leadership battle.\nIn 2015, Mahlobo came under fire for jamming mobile telephone and internet services during the opening of Parliament (AC Vol 56 No 4, A rowdy state of the nation ). He travels abroad regularly with Zuma and was one of the few ministers to accompany him to Russia in 2014 to meet President Vladimir Putin. Those meetings are understood to have included discussions about Russia's multi-billion dollar bids for contracts to expand South Africa's nuclear power industry, an issue of great sensitivity to international intelligence agencies. \nCopyright © Africa Confidential 2017",
"Umkhonto we Sizwe | South African military organization | Britannica.com\nSouth African military organization\nTHIS IS A DIRECTORY PAGE. Britannica does not currently have an article on this topic.\nAlternative Title: Umkonto we Sizwe\nLearn about this topic in these articles:\n \nin South Africa: Resistance to apartheid\n...of their white sympathizers came to the conclusion that apartheid could never be overcome by peaceful means alone. PAC established an armed wing called Poqo, and the ANC set up its military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”), in 1961. Although their military units detonated several bombs in government buildings during the next few years, the ANC and PAC did not pose a...\nin South Africa: Security\n...However, from the 1970s an increasing number of black troops were recruited. Compulsory military service, formerly for white males only, ended in 1994. Guerrillas of the ANC’s military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”), and of the PAC’s military have been incorporated into a renamed South African National Defence Force. This integration has not been entirely...\nin African National Congress (ANC): Move toward militancy\n...the PAC. Denied legal avenues for political change, the ANC first turned to sabotage and then began to organize outside of South Africa for guerrilla warfare. In 1961 an ANC military organization, Umkhonto we Sizwe (\"Spear of the Nation\"), with Mandela as its head, was formed to carry out acts of sabotage as part of its campaign against apartheid. Mandela and other ANC leaders were sentenced...\nin Nelson Mandela: Underground activity and the Rivonia Trial\n...acts of sabotage against the South African regime. He went underground (during which time he became known as the Black Pimpernel for his ability to evade capture) and was one of the founders of Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”), the military wing of the ANC. In 1962 he went to Algeria for training in guerrilla warfare and sabotage, returning to South Africa later that...\nin Britannica Remembers Nelson Mandela\n...of the African National Congress (banned since 1960). He was actively engaged in the defiance campaign against apartheid in 1952 and was a founder (Nov. 1961) of the sabotage organization known as Umkonto we Ziswe (“Spear of the Nation”). Mandela was one of the accused in the South African treason trial which, with preliminary hearings, lasted from Dec. 1956 to March 1961. He..."
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"Night of the generals | Article | Africa Confidential",
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Where in Italy did a US military aircraft slice through the steel wire of a cable car in 1998?
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"20 Die in Italy As U.S. Jet Cuts A Ski Lift Cable - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nWorld |20 Die in Italy As U.S. Jet Cuts A Ski Lift Cable\nSearch\nContinue reading the main story\nA low-flying United States military jet on a training flight over the craggy Dolomite mountains here cut the cable of a ski lift today, sending a cable car plunging 260 feet into a snowy meadow and killing everyone aboard.\nThe authorities said 20 bodies had been recovered from the wreckage on a slope just south of this Alpine hamlet.\nThe Marine Corps plane made an emergency landing safely, and none of the four crew members were injured, a Marine spokesman said.\nLocal officials said they had complained repeatedly of low-flying military aircraft -- stunt-flying, some called it -- near these mountain cable systems, including instances when pilots flew below the cable lines on their way back to a NATO air base at Aviano, in northern Italy.\nIn nearby Trento, the President of the regional government, Carlo Andreotti, was quoted by the Italian news agency ANSA as saying, ''The military aircraft must stop playing war games, putting people's safety in grave danger.''\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\n''Many people say the military planes even play games by actually passing under the cables of the ski lifts,'' said Mr. Andreotti, who was among officials who arrived here this afternoon.\nThe Pentagon's spokesman, Kenneth H. Bacon, said, ''There will have to be a full investigation.'' He added that it was premature to discuss the cause of the accident or any complaints about previous flights.\nA Marine Corps spokesman in Washington, Maj. David LaPan, said tonight that reports of civilian complaints would be considered by an accident investigation team that was to leave the Marine Corps air station at Cherry Point, N.C., this evening.\nThe accident was the third involving cable cars here in little more than 20 years. The last incident, in 1987, involved a low-flying civilian plane that also sliced a cable and left 24 passengers hanging in a stranded car. That time, no one was killed.\nThe aircraft involved in today's accident, a sophisticated electronic surveillance jet known as an EA-6B ''Prowler,'' ordinarily used to patrol the skies over Bosnia to the east, returned to the Aviano base. The plane was only slightly damaged, the authorities said.\nItalian television reported that 14 of the 20 dead had been identified. They included Italian, German, Belgian and Polish vacationers.\nSoldiers of the Italian Army who carried the first bodies from the site of the crash described a scene of horror inside the crushed and overturned cable car. Bodies were twisted, they said, and the faces of the dead were described as contorted in terror.\nSeveral rescuers, who worked with the help of a hydraulic crane, broke down during the work. A local Catholic priest blessed the bodies as they were taken away.\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nThe crash occurred at about 3:30 P.M. local time, when residents of Cavalese said they heard a enormous boom at about the time the plane was thought to have hit the cable. Some people said the force of the boom was strong enough to shake light vehicles, much like a sonic boom.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nWith cranes and helicopters, rescue teams worked to remove bodies from the wreckage of the cable car. By late this evening, scraps of yellow steel lay scattered over a snowy meadow amidst fir and larch trees.\nPools of blood could be seen in the light of floodlights that illuminated the site. A pile of twisted and broken skis, ski poles, boots goggles and gloves, some smeared with blood, had been collected by rescuers.\nAt the time of the accident, a second cable car was brought to a halt by an emergency braking system, and its sole passenger, an operator, was removed by helicopter. He was taken to a local hospital and treated for shock.\nThe site of the accident is wedged into a corner of northern Italy between the Austrian and Swiss borders. The cable car, which carried skiers regularly in winter from the tiny town of Cavalese to the slopes of Mount Cermis, to the south, was the scene of a major accident in 1976, when a cable car crashed to the ground because of a mechanical fault, killing 42 people.\nIn addition to the Marine investigation, Italian judicial officials said they were opening a separate inquiry into the cause of the accident.\nIn Rome, parliamentary deputies of the Party of the Democratic Left, the former Communists, called for an emergency session of Parliament's defense committee for Wednesday. The parliamentary whip of the Democratic left, Fabio Mussi, said he had requested the urgent meeting, noting that in months past various deputies had drawn attention to the dangers posed by the military flights.\nMr. Mussi's group was acting at least in part to blunt an offensive by the more radical Communist Refounding Party, which took the incident as an occasion to denounce the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's presence in Italy. Marco Rizzo, a parliamentary deputy of Communist Refounding and a supporter of the center-left Government of Prime Minister Romano Prodi, said, ''The presence of United States bases in Italy makes no sense and is only interference.''\nReferring to tensions between the United States and Iraq, Mr. Mussi said, ''We would not want other Italians to pay the price of preparations for an attack on Saddam Hussein.''\nPrime Minister Prodi, who returned today from a visit to Estonia, spoke by phone with President Clinton, who expressed his condolences and assured him that Italian authorities would be fully involved in an investigation into the tragedy.\nAdvertisement"
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What star sign is shared by Meatloaf and Luciano Pavarotti?
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tc_782
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"Amazon.com: Pavarotti & Friends Together For The Children Of Bosnia: Bono and Brian Eno and Dolores O'Riordan and Gam Gam and Jovanotti and Luciano Pavarotti and Meat Loaf and Michael Bolton and Nenad Bach and Passengers and Simon Le Bon and The Edge and Zucchero: MP3 Downloads\nBono and Brian Eno and Dolores O'Riordan and Gam Gam and Jovanotti and Luciano Pavarotti and Meat Loaf and Michael Bolton and Nenad Bach and Passengers and Simon Le Bon and The Edge and Zucchero\nMP3 Music, April 2, 1996\n\"Please retry\"\nYour Amazon Music account is currently associated with a different marketplace. To enjoy Prime Music, go to Your Music Library and transfer your account to Amazon.com (US).\nFix in Music Library\nSold by Amazon Digital Services LLC. Additional taxes may apply. By placing your order, you agree to our Terms of Use .\nPopular Albums\nOriginal Release Date: February 12, 1996\nRelease Date: April 2, 1996\nLabel: Decca\nCopyright: ℗© 1996 Decca Music Group Limited\nRecord Company Required Metadata: Music file metadata contains unique purchase identifier. Learn more .\nTotal Length: 1:18:49\nSee all verified purchase reviews\nTop Customer Reviews\nBy Arlene C on December 3, 2016\nFormat: Audio CD|Verified Purchase\nThis was the first Pavarotti and Friends disc that I had heard. This is my second purchase of this disc (the first met an unfortunate end). While some of the songs don't really appeal to me most I like.\nBy A well shod girl on June 9, 2013\nFormat: Audio CD|Verified Purchase\nAmazing, inspiring, enchanting, great sound. This is my third purchase of this cd, yes cd, I'm old school. I absolutely love the selection and variations of the modern and spiritual pieces offered. Children will also love this, and it is a great introduction to the most notable voice of this earth. Will also stimulate conversation to educate children and adults of strife endured by countries and people's at war and how the most simple of life's daily activities become a blessing to accomplish .\nBy Bookarelife on July 28, 2016\nFormat: Audio CD|Verified Purchase\nWonderful Concert. Michael Bolton will shock you.\nBy Leslie Swartz on November 21, 2014\nFormat: Audio CD|Verified Purchase\nA speedy delivery and awesome CD. I had a tape of this performance, so have been missing hearing\nall the wonderful selections. Thanks!\nBy Thomas on January 10, 2012\nFormat: Audio CD|Verified Purchase\nyou want some good music and love a change of pace this album is worth it. pavarotti sings lioke an angel bringing out some true music. i feel it was worth it to have in my collection. its a hard find and now that pavarotti is gone its going to get harder to find his music.\nBy Donna Driscoll on May 5, 2015\nFormat: Audio CD|Verified Purchase\nIt's good\nBy Holly Delohery/Rosebud Carroll on February 7, 2014\nFormat: Audio CD|Verified Purchase\nI wish I had known the songs which were on CD. I would have had a better idea as to what I was selecting on this CD.\nBy Gilly Bean on January 3, 2001\nFormat: Audio CD\nA wonderful concert for a wonderful cause. The previous reviewer only gave it 4 stars because he said there were too many different styles of music. Well, that's the whole point. It is the music community, regardless of genre, getting together to raise funds to build a Music Centre in Bosnia-Hercegovina, which will provide music therapy, tuition and a space where music will be used to enable young people to learn, to grow and to be healed. Music is for everyone, and all these different artists getting together for the common good, regardless of genre, is wonderful. And on this album are a number of suprises. Dolores O'Riordan of The Cranberries singing with Pavorotti on \"Ave Maria\", Meat Loaf and Pavarotti duetting on \"Come back to Sorrento\", to name just two. A must have for music fans in general.\nBono and Brian Eno and Luciano Pavarotti and Michael Kamen and Orchestra Filarmonica Di Torino and The Edge\n$0.99\nBono and Brian Eno and Dolores O'Riordan and Jovanotti and Luciano Pavarotti and Marco Armiliato and Meat Loaf and Michael
\n$1.29"
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Where was Pablo Casals buried before he was finally laid to rest in Spain?
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tc_784
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"Pau Casals i Defilló (; December 29, 1876 - October 22, 1973), better known in some countries as Pablo Casals, was a Spanish cellist and conductor from Catalonia. He is generally regarded as the pre-eminent cellist of the first half of the 20th century, and one of the greatest cellists of all time. He made many recordings throughout his career, of solo, chamber, and orchestral music, also as conductor, but he is perhaps best remembered for the recordings of the Bach Cello Suites he made from 1936 to 1939.\n\nBiography\n\nChildhood and early years\n\nCasals was born in El Vendrell, Catalonia. His father, Carles Casals i Ribes (1852–1908), was a parish organist and choirmaster. He gave Casals instruction in piano, song, violin, and organ. He was also a very strict disciplinarian. When Casals was young his father would pull the piano out from the wall and have him and his brother, Artur, stand behind it and name the notes and the scales that his father was playing. At the age of four Casals could play the violin, piano and flute; at the age of six he played the violin well enough to perform a solo in public. His first encounter with a cello-like instrument was from witnessing a local traveling Catalan musician, who played a cello-strung broom handle. Upon request, his father built him a crude cello, using a gourd as a sound-box. When Casals was eleven, he first heard the real cello performed by a group of traveling musicians, and decided to dedicate himself to the instrument. \n\nIn 1888 his mother, Pilar Defilló de Casals, who was born in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico of Catalonian ancestry, took him to Barcelona, where he enrolled in the Escola Municipal de Música. There he studied cello, theory, and piano. In 1890, when he was 13, he found in a second-hand sheet music store in Barcelona a tattered copy of Bach's six cello suites. He spent the next 13 years practicing them every day before he would perform them in public for the first time. Casals would later make his own version of the six suites. \nHe made prodigious progress as a cellist; on February 23, 1891 he gave a solo recital in Barcelona at the age of fourteen. He graduated from the Escola with honours five years later.\n\nYouth and studies\n\nIn 1893, Catalan composer Isaac Albéniz heard him playing in a trio in a café and gave him a letter of introduction to the Count Guillermo Morphy, the private secretary to María Cristina, the Queen Regent. Casals was asked to play at informal concerts in the palace, and was granted a royal stipend to study composition at the Madrid Royal Conservatory in Madrid with Víctor Mirecki. He also played in the newly organized Quartet Society.\n\nIn 1895 he went to Paris, where, having lost his stipend from Catalonia, he earned a living by playing second cello in the theater orchestra of the Folies Marigny. In 1896, he returned to Catalonia and received an appointment to the faculty of the Escola Municipal de Música in Barcelona. He was also appointed principal cellist in the orchestra of Barcelona's opera house, the Liceu. In 1897 he appeared as soloist with the Madrid Symphony Orchestra, and was awarded the Order of Carlos III from the Queen. \n\nInternational career\n\nIn 1899, Casals played at The Crystal Palace in London, and later for Queen Victoria at Osborne House, her summer residence, accompanied by Ernest Walker. On November 12, and December 17, 1899, he appeared as a soloist at Lamoureux Concerts in Paris, to great public and critical acclaim. He toured Spain and the Netherlands with the pianist Harold Bauer from 1900 to 1901; in 1901/02 he made his first tour of the United States; and in 1903 toured South America.\n\nOn January 15, 1904, Casals was invited to play at the White House for President Theodore Roosevelt. On March 9, of that year he made his debut at Carnegie Hall in New York, playing Richard Strauss's Don Quixote under the baton of the composer. In 1906 he became associated with the talented young Portuguese cellist Guilhermina Suggia, who studied with him and began to appear in concerts as Mme. P. Casals-Suggia, although they were not legally married. Their relationship ended in 1912.\n\nThe New York Times of April 9, 1911, announced that Casals would perform at the London Musical Festival to be held at the Queen's Hall on the second day of the Festival (May 23). The piece chosen was Haydn's Cello Concerto in D and Casals would later join Fritz Kreisler for Brahms's Double Concerto for Violin and Cello.\n\nIn 1914, Casals married the American socialite and singer Susan Metcalfe; they were separated in 1928, but did not divorce until 1957.\n\nAlthough Casals made his first recordings in 1915 (a series for Columbia), he would not release another recording until 1926 (on the Victor label).\n\nBack in Paris, Casals organized a trio with the pianist Alfred Cortot and the violinist Jacques Thibaud; they played concerts and made recordings until 1937. Casals also became interested in conducting, and in 1919 he organized, in Barcelona, the Pau Casals Orchestra and led its first concert on October 13, 1920. With the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, the Orquesta Pau Casals ceased its activities.\n\nCasals was an ardent supporter of the Spanish Republican government, and after its defeat vowed not to return to Spain until democracy was restored. Casals performed at the Gran Teatre del Liceu on October 19, 1938, possibly his last performance in Catalonia during his exile. \n\nIn the last weeks of 1936, he already settled in the French Catalan village of Prada de Conflent, near the Spanish Catalan border; between 1939 and 1942 he made sporadic appearances as a cellist in the unoccupied zone of southern France and in Switzerland. So fierce was his opposition to the dictatorial regime of Francisco Franco in Spain that he refused to appear in countries that recognized the authoritarian Spanish government. He made a notable exception when he took part in a concert of chamber music in the White House on November 13, 1961, at the invitation of President John F. Kennedy, whom he admired. On December 6, 1963, Casals was awarded the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom. \n\nThroughout most of his professional career, he played on a cello that was labeled and attributed to \"Carlo Tononi ... 1733\" but after he had been playing it for 50 years it was discovered to have been created by the Venetian luthier Matteo Goffriller around 1700. It was acquired by Casals in 1913. He also played another cello by Goffriller dated 1710, and a Tononi from 1730.\n\nPrades Festivals\n\nIn 1950 he resumed his career as conductor and cellist at the Prades Festival in Conflent, organized in commemoration of the bicentenary of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach; Casals agreed to participate on condition that all proceeds were to go to a refugee hospital in nearby Perpignan.\n\nIn 1952, Casals met Marta Angélica Montañez y Martinez, a 15-year-old Puerto Rican student who had gone to Spain to participate in the Festival. Casals was very impressed with her and encouraged her to return to Mannes College of Music in New York to continue her studies. He continued leading the Prades Festivals until 1966. \n\nPuerto Rico\n\nCasals traveled extensively to Puerto Rico in 1955, inaugurating the annual Casals Festival the next year. In 1955 Casals married as his second wife long-time associate Francesca Vidal de Capdevila, who died that same year. In 1957, at age 80, Casals married 20-year-old Marta Montañez y Martinez. He is said to have dismissed concerns that marriage to someone 60 years his junior might be hazardous by saying, \"I look at it this way: if she dies, she dies.\" Pablo and Marta made their permanent residence in the town of Ceiba, and lived in a house called \"El Pessebre\" (The Manger). He made an impact in the Puerto Rican music scene, by founding the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra in 1958, and the Conservatory of Music of Puerto Rico in 1959.\n\nLater years\n\nCasals appeared in the 1958 documentary film Windjammer. In the 1960s, Casals gave many master classes throughout the world in places such as Gstaad, Zermatt, Tuscany, Berkeley, and Marlboro. Several of these master classes were televised.\n\nIn 1961, he performed at the White House by invitation of President Kennedy. This performance was recorded and released as an album.\n\nCasals was also a composer. Perhaps his most effective work is La Sardana, for an ensemble of cellos, which he composed in 1926. His oratorio El Pessebre was performed for the first time in Acapulco, Mexico, on December 17, 1960. He also presented it to the United Nations during their anniversary in 1963. He was initiated as an honorary member of the Epsilon Iota Chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia music fraternity at Florida State University in 1963. He was later awarded the fraternity's Charles E. Lutton Man of Music Award in 1973.\n\nOne of his last compositions was the \"Hymn of the United Nations\". He conducted its first performance in a special concert at the United Nations on October 24, 1971, two months before his 95th birthday. On that day, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, U Thant, awarded Pablo Casals the U.N. Peace Medal in recognition of his stance for peace, justice and freedom. Casals accepted the medal and made his famous \"I Am a Catalan\" speech, where he stated that Catalonia had the first democratic parliament, long before England did.\n\nIn 1973, invited by his friend Isaac Stern, Casals arrived at Jerusalem to conduct the youth orchestra and the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra. The concert he conducted with the youth orchestra at the Jerusalem Khan Theater was the last concert he conducted in his life. \n\nCasals' memoirs were taken down by Albert E. Kahn, and published as Joys and Sorrows: Pablo Casals, His Own Story (1970).\n\nDeath \n\nCasals died in 1973 at Auxilio Mutuo Hospital in San Juan, Puerto Rico, at the age of 96, from complications of a heart attack he had three weeks earlier. He was buried at the Puerto Rico National Cemetery. He did not live to see the end of the Franco dictatorial regime, which occurred two years later, but he was posthumously honoured by the Spanish government under King Juan Carlos I which in 1976 issued a commemorative postage stamp depicting Casals, in honour of the centenary of his birth. In 1979 his remains were interred in his hometown of El Vendrell, Catalonia. In 1989, Casals was posthumously awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. \n\nLegacy\n\nThe southern part of the highway C-32 in Catalonia is named Autopista de Pau Casals.\n\nThe International Pablo Casals Cello Competition is held in Kronberg and Frankfurt am Main, Germany, under the auspices of the Kronberg Academy once every four years, starting in 2000, to discover and further the careers of the future cello elite, and is supported by the Pau Casals Foundation, under the patronage of Marta Casals Istomin. One of the prizes is the use of one of the Gofriller cellos owned by Casals. The first top prize was awarded in 2000 to Claudio Bohórquez.\n\nAustralian radio broadcaster and social commentator Phillip Adams often fondly recalls Pablo's 80th birthday press conference where, after complaining at length about the troubles of the world, he paused to conclude with the observation: \"The situation is hopeless. We must take the next step\". \n\nAmerican comedian George Carlin, in his interview for the Archive of American Television, refers to Casals when discussing the restless nature of an artist's persona. As Carlin states, when Casals (then aged 93) was asked why he continued to practice the cello three hours a day, Casals replied, \"'I'm beginning to notice some improvement...' [A]nd that's the thing that's in me. I notice myself getting better at this,\" Carlin continued.\n\nIn Puerto Rico, the Casals Festival is still celebrated annually. There is also a museum dedicated to the life of Casals located in Old San Juan. On October 3, 2009, Sala Sinfonica Pablo Casals, a symphony hall named in Casals' honor, opened in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The $34 million building, designed by Rodolfo Fernandez, is the latest addition to the Centro de Bellas Artes complex. It is the new home of the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra.\n\nIn Tokyo, the Casals Hall opened in 1987 as a venue for chamber music. Pablo Casals Elementary School in Chicago is named in his honor. \n\nCasals' motet ', composed in 1932, is frequently performed today.\n\nPartial discography\n\n*1926–1928: Casals, Jacques Thibaud and Alfred Cortot – the first trios of Schubert, Schumann and Mendelssohn, the Beethoven Archduke, Haydn's G major and Beethoven's Kakadu Variations (recorded in London)\n*1929, Brahms: Double Concerto with Thibaud and Cortot conducting Casals' own orchestra.\n*1929: Dvorak and Brahms Concerti\n*1929: Beethoven: Fourth Symphony (Recorded in Barcelona)\n*1930: Beethoven: Cello Sonata Op. 69, with \n*1936–1939: Bach: Cello Suites\n*1936: Beethoven: Cello Sonata Op. 102 No. 1; and Brahms: Cello Sonata Op. 99, both with Mieczysław Horszowski.\n*1936: Boccherini: Cello Concerto in B-flat; and Bruch: Kol Nidrei – London Symphony conducted by Landon Ronald.\n*1937: Dvořák: Cello Concerto – Czech Philharmonic conducted by George Szell.\n*1939: Beethoven: Cello Sonatas Nos. 1, 2, and 5, with Mieczysław Horszowski.\n*1945: Elgar and Haydn Cello Concertos – BBC Symphony conducted by Sir Adrian Boult.\n*1950: The first of the Prades Festival recordings on Columbia, including:\n**Bach: Sonatas for Viola da Gamba, BWV 1027–1029, with Paul Baumgartner\n**Schumann: Fünf Stücke im Volkston, with Leopold Mannes\n**Schumann: Cello Concerto, with Casals conducting from the cello.\n*1951: At the Perpignan Festival, including:\n**Beethoven: Cello Sonata Op. 5 No. 2, and three sets of Variations, with Rudolf Serkin\n**Beethoven: Trios, Op. 1 No. 2, Op. 70 No. 2, Op. 97, and the Clarinet Op. 11 transcription; also\n**Schubert: Trio No. 1, D.898, all with Alexander Schneider and Eugene Istomin.\n*1952: At Prades, including:\n**Brahms: Trio Op. 8, with Isaac Stern and Myra Hess\n**Brahms: Trio Op. 87, with Joseph Szigeti and Myra Hess\n**Schumann: Trio Op. 63, and Schubert: Trio No. 2, D.929, both with Alexander Schneider and Mieczysław Horszowski\n**Schubert: C major Quintet, with Isaac Stern, Alexander Schneider, Milton Katims, and Paul Tortelier\n**Brahms: Sextet No. 1, again with Stern, Schneider, and Katims, plus Milton Thomas and Madeline Foley\n*1953: At Prades, including:\n**Beethoven: Cello Sonatas Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 5, with Rudolf Serkin\n**Beethoven: Trios Op. 1 No. 1, and Op. 70 No. 1, with Joseph Fuchs and Eugene Istomin\n**Schumann: Cello Concerto in A minor, Op. 129, with Eugene Ormandy conducting the Festival orchestra\n*1954: At Prades (all live performances), including:\n**Beethoven: Cello Sonata No. 5, and Op. 66 Variations, with Mieczysław Horszowski\n**Beethoven: Trios Op. 70 No. 1, and Op. 121a, with Szymon Goldberg and Rudolf Serkin\n*1955: At Prades (all live performances), including:\n**Brahms: Trios Nos. 1–3, with Yehudi Menuhin and Eugene Istomin\n**Brahms: Clarinet Trio Op. 114, with clarinetist David Oppenheim and Eugene Istomin\n**Beethoven: Trio Op. 70 No. 2, with Szymon Goldberg and Rudolf Serkin\n*1956: At Prades (all live performances), including:\n**Bach: Sonata BWV 1027 for Viola da Gamba, with Mieczysław Horszowski\n**Schumann: Trio No. 2, with Yehudi Menuhin and Mieczysław Horszowski\n**Schumann: Trio No. 3, with Sándor Végh and Rudolf Serkin\n*1958: At Beethoven-Haus in Bonn (all live performances), including:\n**Beethoven: Sonata Op. 5 No. 1, with Wilhelm Kempff\n**Beethoven: Sonatas Op. 5 No. 2, Op. 102 No. 2, and the Horn Op. 17 transcription, with Mieczysław Horszowski\n**Beethoven: Trios Op. 1 No. 3, and Op. 97, with Sándor Végh and Mieczysław Horszowski\n**Beethoven: Trio Op. 70 No. 1, with Sándor Végh and Karl Engel\n*1959: At Prades (all live performances), including:\n**Haydn: \"Farewell\" Symphony (No. 45) and Mozart \"Linz\" Symphony (No. 36)\n**Beethoven: Trio Op. 1 No. 3, with Yehudi and Hephzibah Menuhin\n**Schubert: String Quintet, with the Budapest String Quartet\n*1961: Mendelssohn: Piano Trio No. 1 with Alexander Schneider and Mieczysław Horszowski (Recorded live November 13, 1961 at the White House)\n*1963: Beethoven: Eighth Symphony\n*1963: Mendelssohn: Fourth Symphony, at Marlboro\n*1964–65: Bach: Brandenburg Concerti, at Marlboro\n*1966: Bach: Orchestral Suites, at Marlboro\n*1969: Beethoven: First, Second, Fourth, Sixth (\"Pastorale\"), and Seventh Symphonies\n*1974: El Pessebre (The Manger) oratorio",
"Spain (; ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a sovereign state largely located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe, with archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, and several small territories on and near the North African coast. Its Mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north and northeast by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Along with France and Morocco, it is one of only three countries to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. Extending to , the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union.\n\nSpanish territory includes two archipelagos: the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, and the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast. It also includes two major exclaves, Ceuta and Melilla, in continental North Africa; and the islands and peñones (rocks) of Alborán, Alhucemas, Chafarinas and Vélez de la Gomera. With an area of 505990 km2, Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe, the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union, and the fourth largest country in the European continent. By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union.\n\nModern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago. Iberian cultures along with ancient Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian settlements developed on the peninsula until it came under Roman rule around 200 BCE, after which the region was named Hispania. In the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain emerged as a unified country in the 15th century, following the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs and the completion of the centuries-long reconquest, or Reconquista, of the peninsula from the Moors in 1492. In the early modern period, Spain became one of history's first global colonial empires, leaving a vast cultural and linguistic legacy that includes over 500 million Spanish speakers, making Spanish the world's second most spoken first language, after Chinese and before English.\n\nSpain is a democracy organised in the form of a parliamentary government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a middle power and a developed country with the world's fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and sixteenth largest by purchasing power parity. It is a member of the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO) and many other international organisations.\n\nEtymology \n \nThe origins of the Roman name Hispania, from which the modern name España was derived, are uncertain due to inadequate evidence. Down the centuries there have been a number of accounts and hypotheses:\n\nThe Renaissance scholar Antonio de Nebrija proposed that the word Hispania evolved from the Iberian word Hispalis, meaning \"city of the western world\".\n\nJesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the term span is the Phoenician word spy, meaning \"to forge metals\". Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean \"the land where metals are forged\". It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania, meaning \"island of rabbits\", \"land of rabbits\" or \"edge\", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet, and Strabo called it the \"land of the rabbits\". \n\nHispania may derive from the poetic use of the term Hesperia, reflecting the Greek perception of Italy as a \"western land\" or \"land of the setting sun\" (Hesperia, Ἑσπερία in Greek) and Spain, being still further west, as Hesperia ultima.\n\nThere is the claim that \"Hispania\" derives from the Basque word Ezpanna meaning \"edge\" or \"border\", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.\n\nTwo 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abrabanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had been given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, who also ruled over a kingdom in Spain. Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España (Spain) took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c. 350 BCE. \n\nHistory \n\nIberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came under the rule of the Roman Empire. During the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process that took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas. A global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries.\n\nContinued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire and left the country politically unstable. Prior to the Second World War, Spain suffered a devastating civil war and came under the rule of an authoritarian government, which oversaw a period of stagnation that was followed by a surge in the growth of the economy. Eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a cultural renaissance and steady economic growth.\n\nPrehistory and pre-Roman peoples \n\nArchaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.2 million years ago. In Atapuerca fossils have been found of the earliest known hominins in Europe, the Homo antecessor. Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 35,000 years ago. The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon. Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age.\n\nThe largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula, from the northeast to the southeast. The Celts inhabited much of the inner and Atlantic sides of the peninsula, from the northwest to the southwest. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas, the Tartessians were in the southwest and the Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. A number of trading settlements of Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians developed on the Mediterranean coast.\n\nRoman Empire and the Gothic Kingdom \n\nDuring the Second Punic War, an expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast from roughly 210 to 205 BCE. It took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, though they had control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road. \n\nThe cultures of the Celtic and Iberian populations were gradually Romanised (Latinised) at differing rates in different parts of Hispania. Local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century CE. Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.\n\nThe weakening of the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when the Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans, crossed the Rhine and ravaged Gaul until the Visigoths drove them into Iberia that same year. The Suebi established a kingdom in what is today modern Galicia and northern Portugal. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified: but even in modified form, the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity.\n\nThe Alans' allies, the Hasdingi Vandals, established a kingdom in Gallaecia, too, occupying largely the same region but extending farther south to the Douro river. The Silingi Vandals occupied the region that still bears a form of their name—Vandalusia, modern Andalusia, in Spain. The Byzantines established an enclave, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving the Roman empire throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule.\n\nIsidore of Seville, archbishop of Seville, was an influential philosopher and was much studied in the Middle Ages in Europe. Also, his theories were vital to the conversion of the Visigothic Kingdom to a Catholic one, in the Councils of Toledo. This Gothic kingdom was the first Christian kingdom ruling in the Iberian Peninsula, and in the Reconquista it was the referent for the different kingdoms fighting against the Muslim rule.\n\nMiddle Ages: Muslim invasion and Reconquista \n\nIn the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711–718) by largely Moorish Muslim armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion.\n\nUnder Islamic law, Christians and Jews were given the subordinate status of dhimmi. This status permitted Christians and Jews to practice their religions as People of the Book but they were required to pay a special tax and had legal and social rights inferior to those of Muslims. \n\nConversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century. \n\nThe Muslim community in the Iberian Peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East. Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, the Ebro River valley and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of Granada.\n\nCórdoba, the capital of the caliphate since Abd-ar-Rahman III, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city in western Europe. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played an important part in reviving and expanding classical Greek learning in Western Europe. Some important philosophers at the time were Averroes, Ibn Arabi and Maimonides. The Romanised cultures of the Iberian Peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, giving the region a distinctive culture. Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to an expansion of agriculture.\n\nIn the 11th century, the Muslim holdings fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories. The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads restored unity upon the Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and saw a revival in Muslim fortunes. This re-united Islamic state experienced more than a century of successes that partially reversed Christian gains.\n\nThe Reconquista (Reconquest) was the centuries-long period in which Christian rule was re-established over the Iberian Peninsula. The Reconquista is viewed as beginning with the Battle of Covadonga won by Don Pelayo in 722 and was concurrent with the period of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula. The Christian army's victory over Muslim forces led to the creation of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias along the northwestern coastal mountains. Shortly after, in 739, Muslim forces were driven from Galicia, which was to eventually host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela and was incorporated into the new Christian kingdom. The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188 the first modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in León (Cortes of León). The Kingdom of Castile, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism.\n\nMuslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees but they were defeated by Frankish forces at the Battle of Poitiers, Frankia. Later, Frankish forces established Christian counties on the southern side of the Pyrenees. These areas were to grow into the kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon. For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of Iberia was along the Ebro and Douro valleys.\n\nThe break-up of Al-Andalus into the competing taifa kingdoms helped the long embattled Iberian Christian kingdoms gain the initiative. The capture of the strategically central city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. Following a great Muslim resurgence in the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Christian Spain in the 13th century—Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. The last Nasrid sultanate of Granada, a Muslim tributary state would finally surrender in 1492 to the Catholic monarchs Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon. \n\nFrom the mid 13th century, literature and philosophy started to flourish again in the Christian peninsular kingdoms, based on Roman and Gothic traditions. An important philosopher from this time is Ramon Llull. Abraham Cresques was a prominent Jewish cartographer. Roman law and its institutions were the model for the legislators. The king Alfonso X of Castile focused on strengthening this Roman and Gothic past, and also on linking the Iberian Christian kingdoms with the rest of medieval European Christendom. He worked for being elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and published the Siete Partidas code. The Toledo School of Translators is the name that commonly describes the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic, Ancient Greek, and Ancient Hebrew. The Islamic transmission of the classics is the main Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe. The Castilian language—more commonly known (especially later in history and at present) as \"Spanish\" after becoming the national language and lingua franca of Spain—evolved from Vulgar Latin, as did other Romance languages of Spain like the Catalan, Asturian and Galician languages, as well as other Romance languages in Latin Europe. Basque, the only non-Romance language in Spain, continued evolving from Early Basque to Medieval. The Glosas Emilianenses founded in the monasteries of San Millán de la Cogolla contain the first written words in both Basque and Spanish, having the first become an influence in the formation of the second as an evolution of Latin.\n\nIn the 13th and 14th centuries, the Marinid Muslim sect based in North Africa invaded and established some enclaves on the southern coast but failed in their attempt to re-establish Muslim rule in Iberia and were soon driven out. The 13th century also witnessed the Crown of Aragon, centred in Spain's north east, expand its reach across islands in the Mediterranean, to Sicily and even Athens. Around this time the universities of Palencia (1212/1263) and Salamanca (1218/1254) were established. The Black Death of 1348 and 1349 devastated Spain. \n\nImperial Spain \n\nIn 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. 1478 commenced the completion of the conquest of the Canary Islands and in 1492, the combined forces of Castile and Aragon captured the Emirate of Granada, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule in Iberia.\nThat same year, Spain's Jews were ordered to convert to Catholicism or face expulsion from Spanish territories during the Spanish Inquisition. \nThe Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance toward Muslims, and although the tolerance was only partial, it was not until the beginning of the 17th century, following the Revolt of the Alpujarras, that Muslims were finally expelled. \n\nThe year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas, although he remained convinced that he had reached the Orient. The colonisation of the Americas started, with conquistadores like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro. Miscegenation was the rule between the native and the European cultures and people.\n\nAs Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralised royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the word España, whose root is the ancient name Hispania, began to be commonly used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms.\nWith their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first world power.\n\nThe unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country, in social, political, laws, currency and language. \n\nSpain was Europe's leading power throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period saw the Italian Wars, the Revolt of the Comuneros, the Dutch Revolt, the Morisco Revolt, clashes with the Ottomans, the Anglo-Spanish War and wars with France. \n\nThrough exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded to include vast areas in the Americas, islands in the Asia-Pacific area, areas of Italy, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of what are now France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. The first circumnavigation of the world was carried out in 1519–1521. It was the first empire on which it was said that the sun never set. This was an Age of Discovery, with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Spanish explorers brought back precious metals, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants, and played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise of humanism, the Counter-Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the School of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law and human rights.\n\nIn the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century, Spain was confronted by unrelenting challenges from all sides. Barbary pirates, under the aegis of the rapidly growing Ottoman Empire, disrupted life in many coastal areas through their slave raids and the renewed threat of an Islamic invasion. This was at a time when Spain was often at war with France.\n\nThe Protestant Reformation dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean. \n\nBy the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal (with whom it had been united in a personal union of the crowns from 1580 to 1640) and the Netherlands, and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War. \n\nIn the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and the Netherlands; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.\n\nThe decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent. \nDuring this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king, Philip V, united the crowns of Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the old regional privileges and laws. \n\nThe 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Military assistance for the rebellious British colonies in the American War of Independence improved the kingdom's international standing. \n\nLiberalism and nation state \n\nIn 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic as a member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against the gallicised elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. The Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, then ensured that Spain allied herself with France in the brief War of the Third Coalition which ended with the British victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. Napoleon's troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The ridiculed Spanish king abdicated in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte.\n\nJoseph Bonaparte was seen as a puppet monarch and was regarded with scorn by the Spanish. The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many nationalist uprisings across the country against the Bonapartist regime. These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime. Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanish armies, guerrillas and Wellington's British-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from Spain in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII. \n\nDuring the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled to co-ordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution. It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire. In 1812 a constitution for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime Ferdinand VII dismissed the Cortes Generales and was determined to rule as an absolute monarch. These events foreshadowed the conflict between conservatives and liberals in the 19th and early 20th centuries.\n\nSpain's conquest by France benefited Latin American anti-colonialists who resented the Imperial Spanish government's policies that favored Spanish-born citizens (Peninsulars) over those born overseas (Criollos) and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 Spain's American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of independence that ended Spanish control over its mainland colonies in the Americas. King Ferdinand VII's attempt to re-assert control proved futile as he faced opposition not only in the colonies but also in Spain and army revolts followed, led by liberal officers. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were Cuba and Puerto Rico.\n\nThe Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s Anti-liberal forces known as Carlists fought against liberals in the Carlist Wars. Liberal forces won, but the conflict between progressive and conservative liberals ended in a weak early constitutional period. After the Glorious Revolution of 1868 and the short-lived First Spanish Republic, a more stable monarchic period began characterised by the practice of turnismo (the rotation of government control between progressive and conservative liberals within the Spanish government).\n\nIn the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of 98 who were conducting an analysis of the country.\n\nAlthough the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little peace; Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa, with the colonisation of Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco and Equatorial Guinea. It remained neutral during World War I (see Spain in World War I). The heavy losses suffered during the Rif War in Morocco brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.\n\nA period of authoritarian rule under General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923–1931) ended with the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic. The Republic offered political autonomy to the linguistically distinct regions of Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia and gave voting rights to women and was increasingly dominated by left wing political parties. In the worsening economic situation of the Great Depression, Spanish politics became increasingly chaotic and violent.\n\nSpanish Civil War and dictatorship \n\nThe Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936. For three years the Nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco and supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy fought the Republican side, which was supported by the Soviet Union, Mexico and International Brigades but it was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of Non-Intervention. The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. In 1939, General Franco emerged victorious and became a dictator.\n\nThe state as established under Franco was nominally neutral in the Second World War, although sympathetic to the Axis. The only legal party under Franco's post civil war regime was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, formed in 1937; the party emphasized falangism, a form of fascism that emphasized anti-communism, nationalism and Roman Catholicism. Given Franco's opposition to competing political parties, the party was renamed the National Movement (Movimiento Nacional) in 1949.\n\nAfter World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled by industrialization, a mass internal migration from rural areas to cities and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterized by authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, the favouring of a very conservative form of Roman Catholicism known as National Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies.\n\nRestoration of democracy \n\nIn 1962, Salvador de Madariaga, founder of the Liberal International and the College of Europe, met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich with members of the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in the exile. There were 118 politicians from all factions. At the end of the meetings a resolution in favour of democracy was made. \n\nWith Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities.\n\nIn the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism has coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but has continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.\nOn 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.\n\nDuring the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña. On 30 May 1982 Spain joined NATO, following a referendum. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) after the latter won the 1996 General Elections; at that point the PSOE had served almost 14 consecutive years in office.\n\nOn 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse. \n\nOn 11 March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Spanish history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in Madrid. Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque group ETA, evidence soon emerged indicating Islamist involvement. Because of the proximity of the 2004 election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident. At 14 March elections, PSOE, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, obtained a plurality, enough to form a new cabinet with Rodríguez Zapatero as the new Presidente del Gobierno or Prime Minister of Spain, thus succeeding the former PP administration. \n\nThe proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly from around 1 in 50 in 2000 to almost 1 in 8 in 2010 but has since declined. In 2005 the Spanish government legalised same sex marriage. The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–15 Spanish financial crisis and high levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and Catalan independentism served as a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests. In 2011 Mariano Rajoy's conservative People's Party won elections with 44.6% of votes and Rajoy became the Spanish Prime Minister after having been the leader of the opposition from 2004 to 2011. On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI.\n\nGeography \n\nAt 505992 km2, Spain is the world's fifty-second largest country and Europe's fourth largest country. It is some 47000 km2 smaller than France and 81000 km2 larger than the US state of California. Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base.\n\nSpain lies between latitudes 26° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5° E.\n\nOn the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered by Gibraltar (a British overseas territory) and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla, and the peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France and the Principality of Andorra. Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France.\n\nIslands \n\nSpain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as (\"places of sovereignty\", or territories under [Spanish] sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas. The peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de soberanía. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium.\n\nLargest inhabited islands of Spain:\n\nMountains and rivers \n\nMainland Spain is a mountainous country, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478 m high Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3718 m active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central (often translated as \"Inner Plateau\") is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain.\n\nThere are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (Duero), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho (Miño). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.\n\nClimate \n\nThree main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and orographic conditions: \n* The Mediterranean climate, characterised by warm and dry summers. It is dominant in the peninsula, with two varieties: Csa and Csb according to the Köppen climate classification. The Csb Zone, with a more extreme climate, hotter in summer and colder in winter, extends to additional areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. Valladolid, Burgos, León).\n* The semi-arid climate (Bsh, Bsk), located in the southeastern quarter of the country, especially in the region of Murcia and in the Ebro valley. In contrast with the Mediterranean climate, the dry season extends beyond the summer.\n* The oceanic climate (Cfb), located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the region of Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias and partly Galicia. In contrary to the Mediterranean climate, winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.\n\nApart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine climate in the Pyrenees and Sierra Nevada, and a typical desert climate in the zone of Almería and in most parts of the Canary Islands; while in higher areas of the Canary Islands the predominant climate is subtropical.\n\nThe below-listed list covers the average temperatures of three major cities in Spain; Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia along with Santa Cruz de Tenerife which has a significantly different climates to the predominant climate in Spain. More information regarding temperature can be found in city articles and the main article about the Spanish climate.\n\nFauna and flora \n\nThe fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.\n\nThe vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the relief, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different phytogeographic regions, each with its own floristic characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, biotic factors.\n\nPolitics \n\nAccording to the Democracy Index of the EIU, Spain is one of the 20 full democracies in the world.\n\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy.\nThe constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. Impatient with the slow pace of democratic political reforms in 1976 and 1977, Spain's new King Juan Carlos, known for his formidable personality, dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister. The resulting general election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978. After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution.\n\nAs a result, Spain is now composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities with varying degrees of autonomy thanks to its Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation. The constitution also specifies that Spain has no state religion and that all are free to practice and believe as they wish.\n\nThe Spanish administration approved legislation in 2007 aimed at furthering equality between genders in Spanish political and economic life (Gender Equality Act). However, in the legislative branch, as of July 2010 only 128 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (36.3%). It places Spain 13th on a list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the lower house. In the Senate, the ratio is even lower, since there are only 79 women out of 263 (30.0%). The Gender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United Nations Human Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world. \n\nGovernment \n\nSpain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales (General Courts). The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers of Spain presided over by the Prime Minister, nominated and appointed by the monarch and confirmed by the Congress of Deputies following legislative elections. By political custom established by King Juan Carlos since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have all been from parties who maintain a plurality of seats in the Congress.\n\nThe legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.\n* Head of State\n** King Felipe VI, since 19 June 2014\n* Head of Government\n** Prime Minister of Spain (Presidente del Gobierno, literally President of the Government): Mariano Rajoy Brey, elected 20 November 2011.\n*** Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for the Presidency: Soraya Sáenz de Santamaría.\n* Cabinet\n** Council of Ministers (Consejo de Ministros) designated by the Prime Minister.\n\nSpain is organisationally structured as a so-called Estado de las Autonomías (\"State of Autonomies\"); it is one of the most decentralised countries in Europe, along with Switzerland, Germany and Belgium; for example, all Autonomous Communities have their own elected parliaments, governments, public administrations, budgets, and resources. Health and education systems among others are managed regionally, and in addition, the Basque Country and Navarre also manage their own public finances based on foral provisions. In Catalonia, the Basque Country, Navarre and the Canary Islands, a full-fledged autonomous police corps replaces some of the State police functions (see Mossos d'Esquadra, Ertzaintza, Policía Foral and Policía Canaria).\n\nHuman rights \n\nThe Government respects the human rights of its citizens; although there are a few problems in some areas, the law and judiciary provide effective means of addressing individual instances of abuse. There are allegations that a few members of the security forces abused detainees and mistreated foreigners and illegal immigrants. According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of such alleged abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light. Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.\n\nSpain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT community. Among the countries studied by Pew Research Center in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with an 88% of society supporting the gay community compared to 11% who do not. \n\nAdministrative divisions \n\nThe Spanish State is integrated by 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities, both groups being the highest or first-order administrative division in the country. Autonomous communities are integrated by provinces, of which there are 50 in total, and in turn, provinces are integrated by municipalities. In Catalonia, two additional divisions exist, the comarques (sing. comarca) and the vegueries (sing. vegueria) both of which have administrative powers; comarques being aggregations of municipalities, and the vegueries being aggregations of comarques. The concept of a comarca exists in all autonomous communities, however, unlike Catalonia, these are merely historical or geographical subdivisions.\n\nAutonomies \n\nAutonomous communities are the first level administrative division in the country. These were created after the 1979 and current constitution came into effect in recognition of the right to self-government to the \"nationalities and regions of Spain\". Autonomous communities were to be integrated by adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economical traits. This territorial organisation, based on devolution, is known in Spain as the \"State of Autonomies\".\n\nThe basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the Statute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical identity, the limits of their territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution. \n\nThe government of all autonomous communities must be based on a division of powers comprising:\n* a Legislative Assembly whose members must be elected by universal suffrage according to the system of proportional representation and in which all areas that integrate the territory are fairly represented;\n* a Government Council, with executive and administrative functions headed by a president, elected by the Legislative Assembly and nominated by the King of Spain;\n* a Supreme Court of Justice, under the Supreme Court of the State, which head the judicial organisation within the autonomous community.\n\nCatalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as \"nationalities\" were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also took that denomination in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance to their historical regional identity, such as the Valencian Community, the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands, and Aragon. \n\nThe autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own parliaments and regional governments. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. Only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy. Aside of fiscal autonomy, the \"historical\" nationalities—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, Catalonia and Navarre have police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Mossos d'Esquadra and the Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the Policía Autónoma Andaluza in Andalusia or the BESCAM in Madrid.\n\nNonetheless, recent amendments to existing Statutes of Autonomy or the promulgation of new Statutes altogether, have reduced the asymmetry between the powers originally granted to the \"historical nationalities\" and the rest of the regions.\n\nFinally, along with the 17 autonomous communities, two autonomous cities are also part of the State of Autonomies and are first-order territorial divisions: Ceuta and Melilla. These are two exclaves located in the northern African coast.\n\nProvinces and municipalities \n\nAutonomous communities are subdivided into provinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are integrated by municipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State. \n\nThe current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833 territorial division by Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that are integrated by a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In this cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.\n\nForeign relations \n\nAfter the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West.\n\nAs a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to co-ordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.\n\nSpain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the Philippines. Its policy emphasises the concept of an Ibero-American community, essentially the renewal of the historically liberal concept of \"Hispanidad\" or \"Hispanismo\", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture.\n\n;Territorial disputes\nSpain claims Gibraltar, a 6 km2 Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula. Then a Spanish town, it was conquered by an Anglo-Dutch force in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of Archduke Charles, pretender to the Spanish throne.\n\nThe legal situation concerning Gibraltar was settled in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, in which Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown stating that, should the British abandon this post, it would be offered to Spain first. Since the 1940s Spain has called for the return of Gibraltar. The overwhelming majority of Gibraltarians strongly oppose this, along with any proposal of shared sovereignty. UN resolutions call on the United Kingdom and Spain, both EU members, to reach an agreement over the status of Gibraltar. \n\nThe Spanish claim makes a distinction between the isthmus that connects the Rock to the Spanish mainland on the one hand, and the Rock and city of Gibraltar on the other. While the Rock and city were ceded by the Treaty of Utrecht, Spain asserts that the \"occupation of the isthmus is illegal and against the principles of International Law\". The United Kingdom relies on de facto arguments of possession by prescription in relation to the isthmus, as there has been \"continuous possession [of the isthmus] over a long period\". \n\nAnother claim by Spain is about the Savage Islands, a claim not recognised by Portugal. Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, therefore claiming that there is no Portuguese territorial waters around the disputed islands. On 5 July 2013, Spain sent a letter to the UN expressing these views. \n\nSpain claims the sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited rocky islet located in the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. The island lies 250 m just off the coast of Morocco, 8 km from Ceuta and from mainland Spain. Its sovereignty is disputed between Spain and Morocco. It was the subject of an armed incident between the two countries in 2002. The incident ended when both countries agreed to return to the status quo ante which existed prior to the Moroccan occupation of the island. The islet is now deserted and without any sign of sovereignty.\n\nBesides the Perejil Island, the Spanish-held territories claimed by other countries are two: Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the plazas de soberanía islets off the northern coast of Africa; and Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza.\n\nMilitary \n\nThe armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their Commander-in-chief is the King of Spain, Felipe VI. \n\nThe Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches: \n* Army (Ejército de Tierra)\n* Navy (Armada)\n* Air Force (Ejército del Aire)\n\nEconomy \n\nSpain's capitalist mixed economy is the 16th largest worldwide and the 5th largest in the European Union, as well as the Eurozone's 4th largest.\n\nThe centre-right government of former prime minister José María Aznar worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 7.6% in October 2006, a rate that compared favourably to many other European countries, and especially with the early 1990s when it stood at over 20%. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include high inflation, a large underground economy, and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, together with the United States and UK. \n\nBy the mid-1990s the economy had recommenced the growth that had been disrupted by the global recession of the early 1990s. The strong economic growth helped the government to reduce the government debt as a percentage of GDP and Spain's high unemployment began to drop steadily. With the government budget in balance and inflation under control Spain was admitted into the Eurozone in 1999.\n\nSince the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America. Spain is the second biggest foreign investor there, after the United States. Spanish companies have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India. This early global expansion is a competitive advantage over its competitors and European neighbours. The reason for this early expansion is the booming interest toward Spanish language and culture in Asia and Africa and a corporate culture that learned to take risks in unstable markets.\n\nSpanish companies invested in fields like renewable energy commercialisation (Iberdrola was the world's largest renewable energy operator ), technology companies like Telefónica, Abengoa, Mondragon Corporation, Movistar, Hisdesat, Indra, train manufacturers like CAF, Talgo, global corporations such as the textile company Inditex, petroleum companies like Repsol and infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest international construction firms specialising in transport being Spanish, like Ferrovial, Acciona, ACS, OHL and FCC.\n\nIn 2005 the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life survey placed Spain among the top 10 in the world. In 2013 the same survey (now called the \"Where-to-be-born index\"), ranked Spain 28th in the world. \n\nIn 2010, the Basque city of Bilbao was awarded with the Lee Kuan Yew World City Prize, and its mayor at the time, Iñaki Azkuna, was awarded the World Mayor Prize in 2012. The Basque capital city of Vitoria-Gasteiz received the European Green Capital Award in 2012. \n\nAgriculture \n\nCrop areas were farmed in two highly diverse manners. Areas relying on non-irrigated cultivation (secano), which made up 85% of the entire crop area, depended solely on rainfall as a source of water. They included the humid regions of the north and the northwest, as well as vast arid zones that had not been irrigated. The much more productive regions devoted to irrigated cultivation (regadío) accounted for 3 million hectares in 1986, and the government hoped that this area would eventually double, as it already had doubled since 1950. Particularly noteworthy was the development in Almería—one of the most arid and desolate provinces of Spain—of winter crops of various fruits and vegetables for export to Europe.\n\nThough only about 17% of Spain's cultivated land was irrigated, it was estimated to be the source of between 40-45% of the gross value of crop production and of 50% of the value of agricultural exports. More than half of the irrigated area was planted in corn, fruit trees, and vegetables. Other agricultural products that benefited from irrigation included grapes, cotton, sugar beets, potatoes, legumes, olive trees, mangos, strawberries, tomatoes, and fodder grasses. Depending on the nature of the crop, it was possible to harvest two successive crops in the same year on about 10% of the country's irrigated land.\n\nCitrus fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, olive oil, and wine—Spain's traditional agricultural products—continued to be important in the 1980s. In 1983 they represented 12%, 12%, 8%, 6%, and 4%, respectively, of the country's agricultural production. Because of the changed diet of an increasingly affluent population, there was a notable increase in the consumption of livestock, poultry, and dairy products. Meat production for domestic consumption became the single most important agricultural activity, accounting for 30% of all farm-related production in 1983. Increased attention to livestock was the reason that Spain became a net importer of grains. Ideal growing conditions, combined with proximity to important north European markets, made citrus fruits Spain's leading export. Fresh vegetables and fruits produced through intensive irrigation farming also became important export commodities, as did sunflower seed oil that was produced to compete with the more expensive olive oils in oversupply throughout the Mediterranean countries of the EC.\n\nTourism \n\nThe climate of Spain, its geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture and excellent infrastructure, has made Spain's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006. \n\nEnergy \n\nSpain is one of the world's leading countries in the development and production of renewable energy. In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near Alvarado, Badajoz. Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy. In 2010 its wind turbines generated 42,976 GWh, which accounted for 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain. On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached an instantaneous historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14 nuclear reactors. Other renewable energies used in Spain are hydroelectric, biomass and marine (2 power plants under construction). \n\nNon-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.Energy in Sweden, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, (in Swedish: Energiläget i siffror), Table for figure 49. Source: IEA/OECD [http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p\nEnergimyndigheten&viewdefault&cat\n/Broschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f]. \n\nTransport \n\nThe Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country, Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts. Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency. The Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastian said that \"the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution.\" \n\nSpain has the most extensive high-speed rail network in Europe, and the second-most extensive in the world after China. As of October 2010, Spain has a total of 3500 km of high-speed tracks linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with the trains reaching speeds up to 300 km/h. On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese bullet train and the French TGV. Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.54% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%). Should the aims of the ambitious AVE program (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have 7000 km of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial cities to Madrid in less than three hours and Barcelona within four hours.\n\nThere are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of Madrid (Barajas), with 50 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union's fourth busiest. The airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 35 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 31st-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca (23 million passengers), Málaga (13 million passengers), Las Palmas (Gran Canaria) (11 million passengers), Alicante (10 million passengers) and smaller, with the number of passengers between 4 and 10 million, for example Tenerife (two airports), Valencia, Seville, Bilbao, Ibiza, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura. Also, more than 30 airports with the number of passengers below 4 million.\n\nScience and technology \n\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries science in Spain was held back by severe political instability and consequent economic underdevelopment. Despite the conditions, some important scientists and engineers emerged. The most notable were Miguel Servet, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Narcís Monturiol i Estarriol, Celedonio Calatayud, Juan de la Cierva, Leonardo Torres y Quevedo and Severo Ochoa.\n\nSee also ASCAMM, Associació Catalana d'Empreses constructores de Motlles i Matrius\n\nWater supply and sanitation \n\nWater supply and Sanitation in Spain is characterized by universal access and generally good service quality, while tariffs are among the lowest in the EU. \nAlmost half of the population is served by private or mixed\nprivate-public water companies, which operate under concession contracts\nwith municipalities. The largest of the private water companies, with a\nmarket share of about 50% of the private concessions, is Aguas de\nBarcelona (Agbar). However, the large cities are all served by public companies except Barcelona and Valencia. The largest public company is Canal de Isabel II, which serves the metropolitan area of Madrid.\n\nDroughts affect water supply in Southern Spain, which increasingly is turning towards seawater desalination to meet its water needs.\n\nDemographics \n\nIn 2008 the population of Spain officially reached 46 million people, as recorded by the Padrón municipal (Spain's Municipal Register). Spain's population density, at 91/km² (235/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain more than doubled since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s. \n\nNative Spaniards make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After the birth rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward, based initially on the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa (4%). In 2005, Spain instituted a three-month amnesty program through which certain hitherto undocumented aliens were granted legal residency.\n\nIn 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco. A sizeable portion of foreign residents in Spain also comes from other Western and Central European countries. These are mostly British, French, German, Dutch, and Norwegian. They reside primarily on the Mediterranean coast and the Balearic islands, where many choose to live their retirement or telecommute.\n\nSubstantial populations descended from Spanish colonists and immigrants exist in other parts of the world, most notably in Latin America. Beginning in the late 15th century, large numbers of Iberian colonists settled in what became Latin America and at present most white Latin Americans (who make up about one-third of Latin America's population) are of Spanish or Portuguese origin. Around 240,000 Spaniards emigrated in the 16th century, mostly to Peru and Mexico. Another 450,000 left in the 17th century. Between 1846 and 1932 it is estimated that nearly 5 million Spaniards emigrated to the Americas, especially to Argentina and Brazil. Approximately two million Spaniards migrated to other Western European countries between 1960 and 1975. During the same period perhaps 300,000 went to Latin America. \n\nUrbanisation \n\n;Metropolitan areas\n\nSource: \"Áreas urbanas +50\", Ministry of Public Works and Transport (2013) \n\n|- style=\"background: #efefef;\"\n!rowspan=\"2\"| Rank\n!rowspan=\"2\"| Metro area\n!rowspan=\"2\"| Autonomouscommunity\n!colspan=\"2\"| Population\n|- style=\"background: #efefef;\"\n!Government data\n!Other estimates\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 1 || Madrid || Madrid || 6,052,247 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| 5.4 – 6.5 m \n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 2 || Barcelona || Catalonia || 5,030,679 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| \n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 3 || Valencia || Valencia || 1,551,585 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| 1.5 – 2.3 m \n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 4 || Seville || Andalusia || 1,294,867 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| 1.2 – 1.3 m\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 5 || Málaga || Andalusia || 953,251 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 6 || Bilbao || Basque Country || 910,578 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 7 || Oviedo–Gijón–Avilés || Asturias || 835,053 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 8 || Zaragoza || Aragon || 746,152 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 9 || Alicante–Elche || Valencia || 698,662 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 10 || Murcia || Murcia || 643,854 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|}\n\nPeoples \n\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978, in its second article, recognises historic entities—nationalities (a carefully chosen word to avoid the more politically charged \"nations\")—and regions, within the context of the Spanish nation. For some people, Spain's identity consists more of an overlap of different regional identities than of a sole Spanish identity. Indeed, some of the regional identities may even conflict with the Spanish one. Distinct traditional regional identities within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, Galicians, Andalusians and Valencians, although to some extent all of the 17 Autonomous Communities will claim a distinct historic identity.\n\nIt is this last feature of \"shared identity\" between the more local level or Autonomous Community and the Spanish level which makes the identity question in Spain complex and far from univocal.\n\nAccording to the CIA World Factbook (2011), Spain's racial description is presented as \"composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types\" under \"ethnic groups\" instead of the usual breakdown of ethnic composition. \n\nMinority groups \n\nSpain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Britons, Germans, French and others. \n\nThe arrival of the gitanos, a Romani people, began in the 16th century; estimates of the Spanish Gitano population fluctuate around 700,000. There are also the mercheros (also quinquis), a formerly nomadic minority group. Their origin is unclear.\n\nHistorically, Sephardi Jews and moriscos are the main minority groups originated in Spain and with a contribution to Spanish culture. The Spanish government is offering Spanish nationality to sephardi Jews. \n\nImmigration \n\nAccording to the Spanish government there were 5.7 million foreign residents in Spain in 2011, or 12% of the total population. According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 were Ecuadorian. Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, Bulgarian, and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians. Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension. \n\nWithin the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008. The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million. In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people. There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.\n\nAnother statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived. In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU. \n\nIn 2008, the government instituted a \"Plan of Voluntary Return\" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security. The program had little effect; during its first two months, just 1,400 immigrants took up the offer. What the program failed to do, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis has done from 2010 to 2011 in that tens of thousands of immigrants have left the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain. For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.[http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/580000/personas/van/Espana/elpepisoc/20111008elpepisoc_2/Tes 580.000 personas se van de España]. El País. Edición Impresa. 8 October 2011\n\nLanguages \n\nSpain is openly multilingual, and the constitution establishes that the nation will protect \"all Spaniards and the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions.Preamble to the Constitution \n\nSpanish (español)—officially recognised in the constitution as Castilian (castellano)—is the official language of the entire country, and it is the right and duty of every Spaniard to know the language. The constitution also establishes that \"all other Spanish languages\"—that is, all other languages of Spain—will also be official in their respective autonomous communities in accordance to their Statutes, their organic regional legislations, and that the \"richness of the distinct linguistic modalities of Spain represents a patrimony which will be the object of special respect and protection.\"Third article. \n\nThe other official languages of Spain, co-official with Spanish are:\n* Basque (euskara) in the Basque Country and Navarre;\n* Catalan (català) in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and in the Valencian Community, where its distinct modality of the language is officially known as Valencian (valencià); and\n* Galician (galego) in Galicia\n\nAs a percentage of the general population, Basque is spoken by 2%, Catalan (or Valencian) by 17%, and Galician by 7% of all Spaniards. \n\nIn Catalonia, Aranese (aranés), a local variety of the Occitan language, has been declared co-official along with Catalan and Spanish since 2006. It is spoken only in the comarca of Val d'Aran by roughly 6,700 people. Other Romance minority languages, though not official, have special recognition, such as the Astur-Leonese group (Asturian – asturianu, also called bable – in Asturias and Leonese – llionés – in Castile and León) and Aragonese (aragonés) in Aragon.\n\nIn the North African Spanish autonomous city of Melilla, Riff Berber is spoken by a significant part of the population. In the tourist areas of the Mediterranean coast and the islands, English and German are widely spoken by tourists, foreign residents, and tourism workers. \n\nEducation \n\nState education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system was established by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education.[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/lo2-2006.html La Ley Orgánica 2/2006]. Retrieved 23 September 2009 In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law).[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/517990-lo-8-2013-de-9-dic-para-la-mejora-de-la-calidad-educativa.html Ley Orgánica 8/2013]. Retrieved 9 December 2013 Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE). \n\nReligion \n\nRoman Catholicism has long been the main religion of Spain, and although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class, and Catholicism is the only religion officially taught. According to an April 2014 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research about 69% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 2% other faith, and about 26% identify with no religion. Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. This same study shows that of the Spaniards who identify themselves as religious, 59% hardly ever or never go to church, 15% go to church some times a year, 8% some time per month and 14% every Sunday or multiple times per week. Recent polls and surveys have revealed that atheists comprise anywhere from 8% to 20% of the Spanish population. \n\nAltogether, about 22% of the entire Spanish population attends religious services at least once per month. Though Spanish society has become considerably more secular in recent decades, the influx of Latin American immigrants, who tend to be strong Catholic practitioners, has helped the Catholic Church to recover.\n\nThere have been four Spanish Popes. Damasus I, Calixtus III, Alexander VI and Benedict XIII. Spanish misticism was an important intellectual fight against Protestantism with Teresa of Ávila, a reformist nun, ahead. The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius of Loyola.\n\nProtestant churches have about 1,200,000 members. There are about 105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations in all regions of the country and has a temple in the Moratalaz District of Madrid. \n\nA study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that there were about 1,700,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain , accounting for 3-4% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from Morocco and other African countries. More than 514,000 (30%) of them had Spanish nationality. \n\nThe recent waves of immigration have also led to an increasing number of Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Muslims.\nAfter the Reconquista in 1492, Muslims did not live in Spain for centuries. Late 19th-century colonial expansion in northwestern Africa gave a number of residents in Spanish Morocco and Western Sahara full citizenship. Their ranks have since been bolstered by recent immigration, especially from Morocco and Algeria.\n\nJudaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population. Most are arrivals in the past century, while some are descendants of earlier Spanish Jews. Approximately 80,000 Jews are thought to have lived in Spain prior to its expulsion. \n\nCulture \n\nCulturally, Spain is a Western country. Almost every aspect of Spanish life is permeated by its Roman heritage, making Spain one of the major Latin countries of Europe. Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to Catholicism, which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity. Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music has been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.\n\nMonuments and World Heritage Sites \n\nIt should be noted that after Italy (49) and China (45), Spain is the third country in the world with the most World Heritage Sites. At the present time it has 44 recognised sites, including the landscape of Monte Perdido in the Pyrenees, which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with Portugal (the Portuguese part being in the Côa Valley, Guarda), and the Heritage of Mercury, shared with Slovenia. In addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or \"Human treasures\", Spain ranks first in Europe according to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage List, tied with Croatia. \n\n* 1984 — Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín (Granada, Andalusia).\n* 1984 — Burgos Cathedral (Burgos, Castile-León).\n* 1984 — Historic Centre of Córdoba (Córdoba, Andalusia).\n* 1984 — Monastery and Royal Site of El Escorial (Madrid).\n* 1984 — Works of Antoni Gaudí (Barcelona, Catalonia).\n* 1985 — Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain (Asturias, Basque Country and Cantabria regions).\n* 1985 — Monuments of Oviedo and the Kingdom of Asturias (Asturias).\n* 1985 — Old Town of Ávila with its Extra-Muros Churches (Ávila, Castile-León).\n* 1985 — Old Town of Segovia and its Aqueduct (Segovia, Castile-León).\n* 1985 — Santiago de Compostela (Old Town) (A Coruña, Galicia).\n* 1986 — Garajonay National Park (La Gomera, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands).\n* 1986 — Historic City of Toledo (Toledo, Castile-La Mancha).\n* 1986 — Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon (Provinces of Teruel and Zaragoza in Aragon).\n* 1986 — Old Town of Cáceres (Cáceres, Extremadura).\n* 1987 — Cathedral, Alcázar and Archivo de Indias in Seville (Seville, Andalusia).\n* 1988 — Old City of Salamanca (Salamanca, Castile-León).\n* 1991 — Poblet Monastery (Tarragona, Catalonia).\n* 1993 — Archaeological Ensemble of Mérida (Badajoz, Extremadura).\n* 1993 — Route of Santiago de Compostela (Provinces of Burgos, León and Palencia in Castile-León, Provinces of A Coruña and Lugo in Galicia, La Rioja, Navarre, and the Province of Huesca in Aragon).\n* 1993 — Royal Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe (Cáceres, Extremadura).\n* 1994 — Doñana National Park (Provinces of Cádiz, Huelva and Seville in Andalusia).\n* 1996 — Historic Walled Town of Cuenca (Cuenca, Castile-La Mancha).\n* 1996 — Silk Exchange of Valencia (Valencia).\n* 1997 — Las Médulas (León, Castile-León).\n* 1997 — Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau in Barcelona (Barcelona, Catalonia).\n* 1997 — Pirineos – Monte Perdido (Huesca, Aragon – Spanish part / Midi-Pyrénées and Aquitaine – French part). (Shared with France).\n* 1997 — San Millán Yuso and Suso Monasteries (La Rioja).\n* 1998 (2010) — Prehistoric Rock Art Sites in the Côa Valley (Guarda, Norte Region – Portuguese part) and Siega Verde (Salamanca, Castile-León – Spanish part). (Shared with Portugal).\n* 1998 — Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin on the Iberian Peninsula (Andalusia, Aragon, Castile-La Mancha, Catalonia, Murcia and Valencia regions).\n* 1998 — University and Historic Precinct of Alcalá de Henares (Madrid).\n* 1999 — Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture (Ibiza, Balearic Islands).\n* 1999 — San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands).\n* 2000 — Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco (Tarragona, Catalonia).\n* 2000 — Archaeological Site of Atapuerca (Burgos, Castile-León).\n* 2000 — Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí (Lleida, Catalonia).\n* 2000 — Palmeral of Elche (Alicante, Valencia).\n* 2000 — Roman Walls of Lugo (Lugo, Galicia).\n* 2001 — Aranjuez Cultural Landscape (Madrid).\n* 2003 — Renaissance Monumental Ensembles of Úbeda and Baeza (Jaén, Andalusia).\n* 2006 — Vizcaya Bridge (Biscay, Basque Country).\n* 2007 — Teide National Park (Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands).\n* 2009 — Tower of Hercules (A Coruña, Galicia).\n* 2011 — Cultural Landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana (Majorca, Balearic Islands).\n* 2012 — Heritage of Mercury. Almadén (Ciudad Real, Castile-La Mancha – Spanish part) and Idrija (Slovene Littoral – Slovenian part). (Shared with Slovenia).\n\nLiterature \n\nThe earliest recorded examples of vernacular Romance-based literature date from the same time and location, the rich mix of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures in Muslim Spain, in which Maimonides, Averroes, and others worked, the Kharjas (Jarchas).\n\nDuring the Reconquista, the epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid was written about a real man—his battles, conquests, and daily life.\n\nOther major plays from the medieval times were Mester de Juglaría, Mester de Clerecía, Coplas por la muerte de su padre or El Libro de buen amor (The Book of Good Love).\n\nDuring the Renaissance the major plays are La Celestina and El Lazarillo de Tormes, while many religious literature was created with poets as Luis de León, San Juan de la Cruz, Santa Teresa de Jesús, etc.\n\nThe Baroque is the most important period for Spanish culture. We are in the times of the Spanish Empire. The famous Don Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina.\n\nDuring the Enlightenment we find names such as Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos or Leandro Fernández de Moratín.\n\nDuring the Romanticism, José Zorrilla created one of the most emblematic figures in European literature in Don Juan Tenorio. Other writers from this period are Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, José de Espronceda, Rosalía de Castro or Mariano José de Larra.\n\nIn Realism we find names such as Benito Pérez Galdós, Emilia Pardo Bazán, Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) or Vicente Blasco Ibáñez and Menéndez Pelayo. Realism offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were'. In the spirit of general \"Realism\", Realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of romanticised or stylised presentations.\n\nThe group that has become known as the Generation of 1898 was marked by the destruction of Spain's fleet in Cuba by US gunboats in 1898, which provoked a cultural crisis in Spain. The \"Disaster\" of 1898 led established writers to seek practical political, economic, and social solutions in essays grouped under the literary heading of Regeneracionismo. For a group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), the Disaster and its cultural repercussions inspired a deeper, more radical literary shift that affected both form and content. These writers, along with Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Antonio Machado, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Ángel Ganivet, came to be known as the 'Generation of 98'.\n\nThe Generation of 1914 or Novecentismo. The next supposed \"generation\" of Spanish writers following those of '98 already calls into question the value of such terminology. By the year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation's leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset—a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within the Spanish cultural field.\n\nLeading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Gregorio Marañón, Manuel Azaña, Maria Zambrano, Eugeni d'Ors, and Ortega y Gasset, and the novelists Gabriel Miró, Ramón Pérez de Ayala, and Ramón Gómez de la Serna. While still driven by the national and existential questions that obsessed the writers of '98, they approached these topics with a greater sense of distance and objectivity. Salvador de Madariaga, another prominent intellectual and writer, was one of the founders of the College of Europe and the composer of the constitutive manifest of the Liberal International.\n\nThe Generation of 1927, where poets Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Dámaso Alonso. All were scholars of their national literary heritage, again evidence of the impact of the calls of regeneracionistas and the Generation of 1898 for Spanish intelligence to turn at least partially inwards.\n\nThe two main writers in the second half of the 20th century were the Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Camilo José Cela and Miguel Delibes. Spain is one of the countries with the most number of laureates with the Nobel Prize in Literature, and with Latin American laureates they made the Spanish language literature one of the most laureates of all. The Spanish writers are: José Echegaray, Jacinto Benavente, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Vicente Aleixandre and Camilo José Cela. The Portuguese writer José Saramago, also awarded with the prize, lived for many years in Spain and spoke both Portuguese and Spanish. He was also well known by his Iberist ideas.\n\nArt \n\nArtists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Moorish heritage in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today and European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Baroque and Neoclassical periods.\n\nDuring the Golden Age we find painters such as El Greco, José de Ribera and Francisco Zurbarán. Also inside Baroque period Diego Velázquez created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, like Las Meninas or Las Hilanderas.\n\nFrancisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the Spanish Independence War, the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the raise of state-nations.\n\nJoaquín Sorolla is a well-known impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and Joan Miró.\n\nCinema \n\nSpanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for recent films such as Pan's Labyrinth and Volver. In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker Luis Buñuel was the first to achieve world recognition, followed by Pedro Almodóvar in the 1980s. Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by directors like Segundo de Chomón, Florián Rey, Luis García Berlanga, Carlos Saura, Julio Medem, Isabel Coixet, Alejandro Amenábar, Icíar Bollaín and brothers David Trueba and Fernando Trueba.\n\nActresses Sara Montiel and Penélope Cruz are among those who have become Hollywood stars.\n\nArchitecture \n\nDue to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. An important provincial city founded by the Romans and with an extensive Roman era infrastructure, Córdoba became the cultural capital, including fine Arabic style architecture, during the time of the Islamic Umayyad dynasty. Later Arab style architecture continued to be developed under successive Islamic dynasties, ending with the Nasrid, which built its famed palace complex in Granada.\n\nSimultaneously, the Christian kingdoms gradually emerged and developed their own styles; developing a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic streams. There was then an extraordinary flowering of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The Mudéjar style, from the 12th to 17th centuries, was developed by introducing Arab style motifs, patterns and elements into European architecture.\n\nThe arrival of Modernism in the academic arena produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.\n\nMusic and dance \n\nSpanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound in Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Castile, the Basque Country, Galicia and Asturias. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.\n\nIn the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid. Major opera houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía.\n\nThousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals Sónar which often features the top up and coming pop and techno acts, and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts. Both festivals mark Spain as an international music presence and reflect the tastes of young people in the country.\n\nThe most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain. Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or gaiteros, mainly in Asturias and Galicia.\n\nCuisine \n\nSpanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:\n\nMediterranean Spain – all such coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as pescaíto frito (fried fish); several cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-based dishes like paella from Valencia and arròs negre (black rice) from Catalonia. \n\nInner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with substantious stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally conserved by salting, like Spanish ham, or immersed in olive oil, like Manchego cheese.\n\nAtlantic Spain – the whole Northern coast, including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine – vegetable and fish-based stews like caldo gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, like the Basque-style cod, albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based polbo á feira and shellfish dishes.\n\nSport \n\nWhile varieties of football had been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by English style association football since the early 20th century. Real Madrid C.F. and FC Barcelona are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. The country's national football team won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1964, 2008 and 2012 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is the first team to ever win three back-to-back major international tournaments.\n\nBasketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Formula One are also important due to the presence of Spanish champions in all these disciplines. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Barcelona, which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing.\n\nRafael Nadal is the leading Spanish tennis player and has won several Grand Slam titles including the Wimbledon 2010 men's singles. In north Spain, the game of pelota is very popular.\nAlberto Contador is the leading Spanish cyclist and has won several Grand Tour titles including two Tour de France titles.\n\nPublic holidays and festivals \n\nPublic holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and regional observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally. Spain's National Day (Fiesta Nacional de España) is 12 October, the anniversary of the Discovery of America and commemorate Our Lady of the Pillar feast, patroness of Aragon and throughout Spain.\n\nThere are many festivals and festivities in Spain. Some of them are known worldwide, and every year millions of people from all over the world go to Spain to experience one of these festivals. One of the most famous is San Fermín, in Pamplona. While its most famous event is the encierro, or the running of the bulls, which happens at 8:00 am from 7 to 14 July, the week-long celebration involves many other traditional and folkloric events. Its events were central to the plot of The Sun Also Rises, by Ernest Hemingway, which brought it to the general attention of English-speaking people. As a result, it has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.\n\nOther festivals include the carnivals in the Canary Islands, the Falles in Valencia or the Holy Week in Andalusia and Castile and León."
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"| Master The Cello\nPablo Casals (1876 –1973)\nPablo Casals was actually named Pau Casals and was born in El Vendrell , Catalonia, Spain.\nHis father, was a parish organist, choirmaster and strict disciplinarian and he became Casals' first teacher in piano, song, violin, and organ. At age four Casals could play the violin, piano and flute and at the age of six he performed his first violin solo in public. He first encountered a cello-like instrument from a local traveling Catalan musician, who played a cello-strung broom handle. Upon request, his father built him a crude cello, using a gourd as a sound-box. When Casals was eleven, he heard a real cello performed by a group of traveling musicians, and his passion and dedication to teh instrument was ignited.\nIn 1888 his mother, took him to Barcelona, where he enrolled in the Escola Municipal de Música. There he studied cello, theory, and piano. At thirteen, he discovered, in a second-hand music store in Barcelona, a tattered copy of Bach's six cello suites. He spent the next 13 years practicing them every day before he would perform them in public for the first time.He is perhaps best remembered for the recordings of the Bach Cello Suites he made from 1936 to 1939.\nOne day a Spanish composer Isaac Albéniz heard him playing in a trio in a café and gave him a letter of introduction to the private secretary of María Cristina, the Queen Regent. Casals played many informal concerts in the palace, and was granted a royal stipend to study composition at the Conservatorio de Música y Declamación in Madrid.\nAfter Madrid he had a short engagement in Paris as second cello in a theater orchestra and returned to Catalonia as part of the faculty of the Escola Municipal de Música in Barcelona.\nFrom 1899 he began touring and played in England for Queen Victoria, Spain, France, Netherlands, South America and United States, to great public and critical acclaim. In 1911 he played Brahms's Double Concerto for Violin and Cello with Fritz Kreisler .\nHe made his debut at Carnegie Hall in New York in 1904 and was invited to play at the White House for President Theodore Roosevelt.He returned to the White House in 1961 at the invitation of President John F. Kennedy\nBack in Paris, Casals organized a trio with the pianist Alfred Cortot and the violinist Jacques Thibaud; they played concerts and made recordings until 1937.\nIn 1936, the Spanish Civil War began and Casals was exiled from Spain following the defeat of the Spainsh Republican government. He vowed not to return to Spain until democracy was restored.\nHe settled in the French village of Prada de Conflent, on the Spanish frontier and during WWII he made sporadic appearances as a cellist in the unoccupied zone of southern France and in Switzerland. He fiercely opposed the dictatorial regime of Francisco Franco and refused to appear in countries that recognized the authoritarian Spanish government. After marrying his third wife in 1957, 20-year-old Marta Montañez y Martinez from Puerto Rico, he resided in the town of Ceiba making an impact in the Puerto Rican music scene, by founding the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra in 1958, and the Conservatory of Music of Puerto Rico in 1959.\nAs a composer Casals created various peices his most famous being La Sardana, for an ensemble of cellos and El Pesebre that he presented to the United Nations during their anniversary in 1963.\nOne of his last compositions was the \"Hymn of the United Nations\". He conducted its first performance in a special concert at the United Nations on October 24, 1971, two months before his 95th birthday. On that day, he was awarded the U.N. Peace Medal in recognition of his stance for peace, justice and freedom.\nDuring his lifetime he received many awards some of the most notable being the Order of Carlos III from the Queen Regent (1897), U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom (1963), Charles E. Lutton Man of Music Award in 1973.\nCasals died in 1973 in San Juan, Puerto Rico, at the age of 96 and was buried at the Puerto Rico National Cemetery. He did not live to see the end of the Franco dictatorial regime, In 1979 his remains were laid to rest in his hometown of El Vendrell, Catalonia.\nCasals' Cello\nAmong some people it is thought of as the best cello ever made.\nIt is a Goffriller cello made around 1700 and Casals had it from around 1913. He also had two other cellos, another Goffriller dated 1710 and a Tononi from 1730",
"Ongoing Serial: THE LIFE AND INFLUENCE OF CASALS--Part 4\nTHE LIFE AND INFLUENCE OF CASALS--Part 4\nby Marshall St. John\nAn ongoing serial story of the most influential cellist of the early 20th century.\nCasals, page 17\nAn Excerpt from Casals, a book of photographs by Vytas Valaitis, with text selected and arranged by Theodore Strongin.\n\"What I think is that sensibility has been lost today, so many things have happened in the world lately. Today we see fantastic things in science, in everything, in machines that do a lot of things.\n\"I will say only elemental things--nothing complex--as everything ought to be, beginning with life. But you must know that the simplest things are the ones that count.\n\"But the world has forgotten sadly the most elemental things. What I feel very deeply is that the world has retrogressed, gone back in many ways, and especially in sensibility. I remember, for instance, the time of the Dreyfus case. It was only one man, and everyone--everyone!--at that time was interested in this case. If an injustice was committed to one man, everyone questioned it.\n\"Today we forget the millions of lives lost in the last wars. We rather tend to think of other things that refer to our physical needs, to our amusement. That is why I think that the world is going backwards.\n\"We have more and more people that think they know everything there is to be known, except Pater Noster.\"\nCasals, page 18\nTo a certain extent, every human being is shaped by the historical events taking place around him. Our generation has been very much affected, for example, by the Vietnam War, the assassination of President Kennedy, and the musical influence of both the Beatles and Motown. Pablo Casals' life was caught up into the whirlwind of the Spanish Civil War, and everything Casals did and said following the rise of General Francisco Franco to power in Spain, was directed and colored by that event.\nKing Alfonso XIII, a personal friend of Casals, was a weak king, and found his kingdom gradually falling away from him as the people of Spain began a grassroots movement toward a republic with elected rulers. By 1931 all but four Spanish provinces had voted to make Spain a republic, and Alfonso left the country. A new government was formed then, but there were problems with failed attempts to reform education, religious affairs, banking and agriculture. The government was alternately controlled by both left and right, and by 1936 Spain was dissolving into chaos.\nThe Spanish Civil War began on July 17, 1936, led by General Francisco Franco, who quickly received large supplies of both materials and troops from Mussolini in Italy, and Hitler, who had come to power in 1933 in Germany. Casals quit playing his cello in Germany, as he realized what Hitler and the Nazis were doing to his Jewish friends and colleagues.\nThe Civil War lasted three years, and much of Spain was laid waste. H. L. Kirk, in his tremendous biography of Casals wrote: \"The country was bathed in blood; it is estimated that some seventy-five thousand people were killed in other than military engagements in Republican territory in the six weeks between July 18 and September 1, 1936, and the number of murdered grew as insurgent forces moved inland...\" (pages 399-400). By 1939 Franco was total dictator of a bloody totalitarian state.\nPablo Casals was devastated. He was a strong believer in peace, in freedom, and in the rights of the common man. Now it had all been trampled on, and even his beloved Catalonia was under the dictator's heel. Casals was forced to flee Spain with the other refugees, just steps ahead of Franco's army. He rented a hotel room in Prades, a small town in the French Pyrenees, just north of the Spanish/French border. There he personally helped to distribute truckloads of food and clothing to nearby refugee camps.\nCasals, page 19\nCasals full name was Pablo Carlos Salvador Casals y Defillo. That name is full of interesting information. One coincidence is that his name \"Salvador\" is also the name of a beach about four kilometers south of Vendrell, and a place of great importance in Casals' life. Casals first memory was of awakening from sleep, to the sound of the sea, and to the shifting dappled light in his room, reflected from the sea outside the guest house where he was vacationing with his family. Casals was only one year old then. The Playa San Salvador became the one spot on earth that Casals loved most, and to which he returned at least once a year for the first sixty years of his life.\nIt was in San Salvador as a boy that Casals learned to swim, and where he eagerly soaked up stories of pirates and buried treasure, told him by an old crippled ex-sailor who had become caretaker of a museum there. The old sailor spoke Catalan, as did Casals, and bore the same given name, Pau.\nIn 1908 while he was playing the viola da gamba obbligato to the Bach aria \"It Is Finished,\" in the cathedral in Basel, Casals suddenly felt an overwhelming certainty that his father, Carlos, was dying. After the performance he canceled all his other obligations, and set off for Vendrell. When he arrived he found that his father had indeed died in Bonastre at the same time he was playing his cello in Switzerland. He was already buried in the cemetery in Vendrell at the time that Casals arrived at home.\nAfter Pablo's father died, his mother, Dona Pilar, lived for a time in Bonastre, then in an apartment in Barcelona. But she was homesick for Puerto Rico, and nostalgic for earlier, happier years, and she asked Pablo to find a place for her, and for him, to live near the sea. Casals bought a piece of land at the farthest end of the empty beach in San Salvador (and later bought more, until he eventually owned fourteen acres there on the beach). Casal's mother began to design his home in San Salvador which would become an extremely important place in his life, and to which he would later devote much time and money.\nCasals, page 20.\nRostropovich Speaks About Casals:\nJust this year, 1996, EMI has released both a 2 CD audio production of Rostropovich playing the six Bach Suites, and a two cassette video edition. There is a booklet included with the 2 audio CDs that puts in print what Rostropovich speaks and demonstrates on the video. By all means, buy the video! Not only does Rostropovich give a warm, meaningful performance of the suites on his cello, but he also sits at the piano and lectures on each suite before performing it. (He speaks in Russian, and there are English subtitles.) These lectures are only on the video, not on the audio CDs. Many thanks are due to EMI for presenting cellists with this wonderful examination and performance of Bach's greatest work for the cello. Here is an excerpt from the booklet, in which Rostropovich recalls Pablo Casals.\n\"To my mind the greatest name in cello history is that of Pablo Casals. I had already heard his recordings in friends' homes in Moscow. Then in 1957 I was invited to attend the Casals Competition in Paris. I was to meet the great man himself beforehand, and he invited me to his hotel in Paris. I came and met this affable man, pipe in mouth, with a bald head--although now I realize that there's nothing wrong with being bald! He embraced me and said: \"How can I thank you for coming? Let me play for you.\" He was only a couple of feet away from me--not a bit nervous about playing for me, but here he was with his bow and cello so close to me that my hands and legs started to tremble from sheer agitation because of the veneration in which I held this greatest of artists. He started to play the Allemande from the First Suite. His playing had an incredibly powerful effect on me.After each phrase Casals had paused to observe intently (from behind his glasses) Rostropovich's reaction. He would then smile at seeing the agitation in Rostropovich's face before continuing with the next phrase.\" It was a rhapsodic interpretation of Bach, I'd say, like a dialogue, keenly aware phrase-by- phrase of the listener's reaction. When Casals played it seemed to me impossible to interpret Bach in any other way, such was the force of his personality and his nature as an artist, his total conviction in what he was doing. Therefore no copy can be authentic. A copy cannot reflect your own feelings or your own sense of phrasing, and is like a bottle without any wine in it. Casals played a great part in my life and in my love of Bach and music in general.\"\nThe words above are from the booklet accompanying Rostropovich's recent recording of the Bach Suites, copyright by SGOL Music Limited, under exclusive license to EMI Records, Ltd. The CD's are great, but I highly recommend that all cellists purchase these wonderful video tapes, in which Rostropovich's personality is captured so well.\nCasals, page 21\nOne of the truly great cellists of the Twentieth Century was Gregor Piatigorsky, a Russian cellist who eventually immigrated to the United States. Piatigorsky was a terrific story teller, and his autobiography, simply titled \"Cellist,\" is filled with stories about himself, the historic times in which he lived, and his friends and acquaintances. This is a book that every cellist will want to own, or at least check out at the library. It is worth reading more than once. (It was published by Doubleday and Company, and copyrighted by Piatigorsky himself in 1965. Several of the chapters had been published earlier in The Atlantic Monthly, in 1957 and 1962).\nHere is an excerpt from Piatigorsky's book, in which he writes of an encounter with Pablo Casals, that reveals Casal's prodigious memory, attention to minute detail, and human warmth:\nMy great wish was to hear Pablo Casals. One day my desire was\nalmost fulfilled and I met him. But ironically, it was I who had to\nplay. It was in the home of the Von Mendelssohns, a house filled\nwith El Grecos, Rembrandts, and Stradivarius. Francesco von\nMendelssohn, the son of the banker, who was a talented cellist,\ntelephoned and asked if he could call for me; they had a guest in\nthe house who would like to hear me play.\n\"Mr. Casals,\" I was introduced to a little bald man with a pipe. He\nsaid that he was pleased to meet young musicians such as Serkin\nand me. Rudolf Serkin, who stood stiffly next to me, seemed , like\nmyself, to be fighting his diffidence. Rudi had played before my\narrival, and Casals now wanted to hear us together. Beethoven's D-\nMajor Sonata was on the piano. \"Why don't you play it?\" asked\nCasals. Both nervous and barely knowing each other, we gave a\npoor performance that terminated somewhere in the middle.\n\"Bravo! Bravo! Wonderful!\" Casals applauded. Francesco brought\nthe Schumann Cello Concerto, which Casals wanted to hear. I\nnever played worse. Casals asked for Bach. Exasperated, I obliged\nwith a performance matching the Beethoven and Schumann.\n\"Splendid! Magnifique!\" said Casals, embracing me.\n\"Bewildered, I left the house. I knew how badly I had played, but\nwhy did he, the master, have to praise and embrace me? This\napparent insincerity pained me more than anything else.\n\"The greater was my shame and delight when, a few years later, I\nmet Casals in Paris. We had dinner together and played duets for\ntwo cellos, and I played for him until late at night. Spurred by his\ngreat warmth, and happy, I confessed what I had thought of his\npraising me in Berlin. He reacted with sudden anger. He rushed to\nthe cello, \"Listen!\" He played a phrase from the Beethoven sonata.\n\"Didn't you play this fingering? Ah, you did! It was novel to me...it\nwas good...and here, didn't you attack that passage with up-bow,\nlike this? he demonstrated. He went through Schumann and Bach,\nalways emphasizing all he liked that I had done. \"And for the rest,\"\nhe said passionately, \"leave it to the ignorant and stupid who judge\nby counting only the faults. I can be grateful, and so must you be,\nfor even one note, one wonderful phrase.\" I left with the feeling of\nhaving been with a great artist and a friend.\nBibliography\nPablo Casals, Lillian Littlehales, 1929, W. W. Norton & Company\nHistory of the Violoncello, Lev Ginsburg, 1983, Paganiniana Publications\nPablo Casals, Frederic V. Grunfeld, 1982, Time-Life Records, Great Men\nof Music\nThe Great Cellists, Margaret Campbell, 1989, Trafalgar Square Publishing\nCopyright Marshall C. St. John\nSend comments on the content of this server to John Michel at [email protected].",
"PUERTO RICO HERALD: Celebrating The Legacy Of Casals In His Beachfront Villa\nCelebrating The Legacy Of Casals In His Beachfront Villa\nBy EMMA DALY\nCopyright © 2001 THE NEW YORK TIMES. All Rights Reserved.\n----------\nVisitors at the recently renovated Pablo Casals Museum in Spain.\n[PHOTO: The Associated Press]\n----------\nSANT SALVADOR, Spain Pablo Casals, one of the great cellists of the 20th century and one of its toughest crusaders against political oppression, died almost 30 years ago, but his legacy is preserved in an extensively renovated museum in his former summer home here on the Costa Dorada.\nThe small museum has reopened and in June was inaugurated by King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofía. The event featured a concert in Casals's honor by old friends the soprano Montserrat Caballé, the cellist and conductor Mstislav Rostropovich and the pianist Eugene Istomin, among others.\nThe white beachfront villa with green shutters was, Casals once said, \"the expression and the synthesis of my life as a Catalan and an artist.\" His widow, Marta, now married to Mr. Istomin, is the president of the Manhattan School of Music and the former artistic director of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. She has created a charming museum containing artifacts, documents and photographs belonging to Casals, some of which were buried by his family for safety during Francisco Franco's dictatorship. The complex, the Museu Pau Casals, about 45 miles south of Barcelona along the Pau Casals Highway (Pau is Catalan for Pablo), includes a research center, an educational center and an auditorium.\n\"He was a lover he loved people and he wanted to be loved and he gave it through his playing and through his actions,\" Mr. Istomin said. \"That was his magic.\"\nPhotographs in the museum show Casals with musicians like Arthur Rubinstein and Mr. Rostropovich, but also with Lyndon B. Johnson and John F. Kennedy, who as president awarded him the Medal of Freedom.\nBefore opening the museum, Marta Istomin invited friends and colleagues to view the display of objects, which were enhanced by films and slide shows.\nFirst on view when entering the museum is the pumpkin, a hollow gourd with a single string, made by Casals's father, \"the first thing that he scratched,\" Mr. Istomin explained. Although his father taught him to play the piano, violin and organ, Casals did not even hear a cello until he was 11. His talents were obvious, and at 17 he won a royal scholarship to study music in Madrid under the aegis of Queen María Cristina, whom, his widow said, \"he loved like a second mother.\"\nWithin two years, though, the deal soured because the royal tutors wanted to push the young Casals toward composing rather than performing. He refused, gave up his scholarship and returned to Barcelona. \"Even then he was making stands,\" Mrs. Istomin said.\nMr. Istomin said: \"He was a genius, the first of the really virtuoso cellists. Because of him the cello became a star. In his youth he had fantastic virtuosity, and the important thing was he had the personality that could communicate through music.\"\nIn the village of Sant Salvador, a mile or so from the house in Vendrell where he was born in 1876, Casals built his Villa Casals in 1909. (His birthplace is also open to the public.) Graced by a small formal flower garden, classical statuary and magnificent views of the Mediterranean, the villa was to be a place to relax and play music with friends. In the music room of the villa, Mr. Istomin pounced on a handsome instrument and recalled: \"This is the piano I played with him when I went to see him for the first time. I was so nervous when he asked me to play, I had the nerve to suggest to him to play something for four hands, so I could touch the piano.\" And he picked out a few bars.\nIn the early 20th century Casals visited Russia many times, but the violent aftermath of the Bolshevik revolution shocked him. \"When he saw the oppression in that country,\" Mrs. Istomin recalled, \"he said, `I will not come back.' \"\nHe turned his back on Hitler as early as 1933 and declared his intent to stay out of Germany, where he was popular. A quotation from Casals projected onto the museum wall attests to his sentiments: \"I detest having lived in a time when the law of man is killing.\"\nThe issue closest to his heart was the longed-for defeat of Fascism in Spain, but once in exile from the Franco dictatorship, Casals never returned to his homeland, and during the civil war of 1936-39, he organized benefit concerts for victims on the Republican side. In 1938 he gave his last concert in Barcelona; a year later he went into voluntary exile in France and spent the war in Prada de Conflent, a Catalan village on the French side of the Spanish border, where he visited Spaniards in refugee camps and played benefit concerts for the Free French, forces who opposed the Nazis and the Vichy rule in Paris.\nIn 1946 Casals went into musical exile as well, choosing to give no more public concerts except at his music festivals while the Allies supported Franco. He stuck with that decision for the rest of his life, performing only in his musical festivals and conducting \"The Manger,\" the oratorio for peace that he composed in 1960. A short film showing in the museum depicts him in 1971, vigorous and passionate at 94, speaking at the United Nations, which awarded him the Peace Medal and for which he composed a hymn. In the film he talked about peace, calling it \"my greatest concern,\" and about his beloved homeland.\nAs Mrs. Istomin said, \"He was, of course, a citizen of Spain, but his heart was in Catalonia.\"\nCasals died in Puerto Rico in 1973 at 96, and he was finally returned in 1979 to Catalonia, where he is buried in the Vendrell graveyard. \"He was like a hero coming home,\" Mrs. Istomin said. \"It was so moving, and so sad that he couldn't see it.\"",
"ARTS ABROAD; Celebrating the Legacy of Casals in His Beachfront Villa - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nArts |ARTS ABROAD; Celebrating the Legacy of Casals in His Beachfront Villa\nSearch\nContinue reading the main story\nPablo Casals, one of the great cellists of the 20th century and one of its toughest crusaders against political oppression, died almost 30 years ago, but his legacy is preserved in an extensively renovated museum in his former summer home here on the Costa Dorada.\nThe small museum has reopened and in June was inaugurated by King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofía. The event featured a concert in Casals's honor by old friends -- the soprano Montserrat Caballé, the cellist and conductor Mstislav Rostropovich and the pianist Eugene Istomin, among others.\nThe white beachfront villa with green shutters was, Casals once said, ''the expression and the synthesis of my life as a Catalan and an artist.'' His widow, Marta, now married to Mr. Istomin, is the president of the Manhattan School of Music and the former artistic director of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. She has created a charming museum containing artifacts, documents and photographs belonging to Casals, some of which were buried by his family for safety during Francisco Franco's dictatorship. The complex, the Museu Pau Casals, about 45 miles south of Barcelona along the Pau Casals Highway (Pau is Catalan for Pablo), includes a research center, an educational center and an auditorium.\n''He was a lover -- he loved people and he wanted to be loved and he gave it through his playing and through his actions,'' Mr. Istomin said. ''That was his magic.''\nPhotographs in the museum show Casals with musicians like Arthur Rubinstein and Mr. Rostropovich, but also with Lyndon B. Johnson and John F. Kennedy, who as president awarded him the Medal of Freedom.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nBefore opening the museum, Marta Istomin invited friends and colleagues to view the display of objects, which were enhanced by films and slide shows.\nFirst on view when entering the museum is the pumpkin, a hollow gourd with a single string, made by Casals's father, ''the first thing that he scratched,'' Mr. Istomin explained. Although his father taught him to play the piano, violin and organ, Casals did not even hear a cello until he was 11. His talents were obvious, and at 17 he won a royal scholarship to study music in Madrid under the aegis of Queen María Cristina, whom, his widow said, ''he loved like a second mother.''\nWithin two years, though, the deal soured because the royal tutors wanted to push the young Casals toward composing rather than performing. He refused, gave up his scholarship and returned to Barcelona. ''Even then he was making stands,'' Mrs. Istomin said.\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nMr. Istomin said: ''He was a genius, the first of the really virtuoso cellists. Because of him the cello became a star. In his youth he had fantastic virtuosity, and the important thing was he had the personality that could communicate through music.''\nIn the village of Sant Salvador, a mile or so from the house in Vendrell where he was born in 1876, Casals built his Villa Casals in 1909. (His birthplace is also open to the public.) Graced by a small formal flower garden, classical statuary and magnificent views of the Mediterranean, the villa was to be a place to relax and play music with friends. In the music room of the villa, Mr. Istomin pounced on a handsome instrument and recalled: ''This is the piano I played with him when I went to see him for the first time. I was so nervous when he asked me to play, I had the nerve to suggest to him to play something for four hands, so I could touch the piano.'' And he picked out a few bars.\nIn the early 20th century Casals visited Russia many times, but the violent aftermath of the Bolshevik revolution shocked him. ''When he saw the oppression in that country,'' Mrs. Istomin recalled, ''he said, 'I will not come back.' ''\nHe turned his back on Hitler as early as 1933 and declared his intent to stay out of Germany, where he was popular. A quotation from Casals projected onto the museum wall attests to his sentiments: ''I detest having lived in a time when the law of man is killing.''\nThe issue closest to his heart was the longed-for defeat of Fascism in Spain, but once in exile from the Franco dictatorship, Casals never returned to his homeland, and during the civil war of 1936-39, he organized benefit concerts for victims on the Republican side. In 1938 he gave his last concert in Barcelona; a year later he went into voluntary exile in France and spent the war in Prada de Conflent, a Catalan village on the French side of the Spanish border, where he visited Spaniards in refugee camps and played benefit concerts for the Free French, forces who opposed the Nazis and the Vichy rule in Paris.\nIn 1946 Casals went into musical exile as well, choosing to give no more public concerts except at his music festivals while the Allies supported Franco. He stuck with that decision for the rest of his life, performing only in his musical festivals and conducting ''The Manger,'' the oratorio for peace that he composed in 1960. A short film showing in the museum depicts him in 1971, vigorous and passionate at 94, speaking at the United Nations, which awarded him the Peace Medal and for which he composed a hymn. In the film he talked about peace, calling it ''my greatest concern,'' and about his beloved homeland.\nAs Mrs. Istomin said, ''He was, of course, a citizen of Spain, but his heart was in Catalonia.''\nCasals died in Puerto Rico in 1973 at 96, and he was finally returned in 1979 to Catalonia, where he is buried in the Vendrell graveyard. ''He was like a hero coming home,'' Mrs. Istomin said. ''It was so moving, and so sad that he couldn't see it.''",
"Pablo Casals\nP\nPablo Casals\nPau Casals i Defilló (December 29, 1876–October 22, 1973), best known during his professional career as Pablo Casals, was a Spanish Catalan cellist and later conductor. He made many recordings throughout his career, of solo, chamber, and orchestral music, also as conductor, but Casals is perhaps best remembered for the recording of the Bach Cello Suites he made from 1936 to 1939.\nCasals was an ardent supporter of the Spanish Republican government. After its defeat in 1939, Casals vowed not to return to Spain until democracy had been restored, although he did not live to see the end of the Franco dictatorial regime.\nBiography\nChildhood and early years\nCasals was born in El Vendrell, Catalonia , Spain. His father, Carles Casals i Ribes (1852-1908), was a parish organist and choirmaster . He gave Casals instruction in piano, violin, and organ. He was also a very strict disciplinarian. When Casals was young his father would pull the piano out from the wall and have him and his brother, Enrique, stand behind it and name the notes and the scales that his father was playing. At age four Casals could play the violin, piano and flute. When Casals was eleven, he first heard the cello performed by a group of traveling musicians, and decided to dedicate himself to the instrument.\nIn 1888 his mother, Pilar Defilló de Casals, who was born in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico of Catalonian ancestry, took him to Barcelona , where he enrolled in the Escola Municipal de Música. There he studied cello, theory, and piano. He made prodigious progress as a cellist; on February 23, 1891 he gave a solo recital in Barcelona at the age of fourteen. He graduated from the Escola with honours two years later.\nYouth and studies\nIn 1893, the Spanish composer Isaac Albéniz heard him playing in a trio in a café and gave him a letter of introduction to the private secretary to María Cristina, the Queen Regent, in Madrid , Spain. Casals was asked to play at informal concerts in the palace, and was granted a royal stipend to study composition at the Conservatorio de Música y Declamación in Madrid with Víctor Mirecki. He also played in the newly organized Quartet Society.\nIn 1895 he went to Paris, where, having lost his stipend from Catalonia, he earned a living by playing second cello in the theater orchestra of the Folies Marigny. In 1896, he returned to Catalonia and received an appointment to the faculty of the Escola Municipal de Música in Barcelona. He was also appointed principal cellist in the orchestra of Barcelona's opera house, the Liceu. In 1897 he appeared as soloist with the Madrid Symphony Orchestra, and was awarded the Order of Carlos III from the Queen.\nInternational career\nIn 1899, Casals played at The Crystal Palace in London , and later for Queen Victoria at Osborne House, her summer residence, accompanied by Ernest Walker. On November 12 and December 17, 1899, he appeared as a soloist at Lamoureux Concerts in Paris, to great public and critical acclaim. He toured Spain and the Netherlands with the pianist Harold Bauer in 1900-1901; in 1901-1902 he made his first tour of the United States ; and in 1903 toured South America .\nOn January 15, 1904, Casals was invited to play at the White House for President Theodore Roosevelt . On March 9 of that year he made his debut at Carnegie Hall in New York, playing Richard Strauss 's Don Quixote under the baton of the composer. In 1906 he became associated with the talented young Portuguese cellist Guilhermina Suggia, who studied with him and began to appear in concerts as Mme. P. Casals-Suggia, although they were not legally married. Their relationship ended in 1912.\nThe New York Times of April 9, 1911 announced that Pablo Casals would perform at the London Musical Festival to be held at the Queen's Hall on the second day of the Festival (May 23). The piece chosen was Haydn 's Cello Concerto in D and Casals would later join Fritz Kreisler for Brahms 's Double Concerto for Violin and Cello.\nIn 1914 Casals married the American socialite and singer Susan Metcalfe; they were separated in 1928, but did not divorce until 1957.\nAlthough Casals made his first recordings in 1915 (a series for Columbia), it would not be until 1926 that he again released a recording (on the Victor label).\nBack in Paris, Casals organized a trio with the pianist Alfred Cortot and the violinist Jacques Thibaud; they played concerts and made recordings until 1937. Casals also became interested in conducting, and in 1919 he organized, in Barcelona, the Orquesta Pau Casals and led its first concert on October 13, 1920. With the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, the Orquesta Pau Casals ceased its activities.\nCasals was an ardent supporter of the Spanish Republican government, and after its defeat vowed not to return to Spain until democracy was restored. Casals performed at the Gran Teatro del Liceo on October 19, 1938, possibly his last performance in Spain before his exile.\nHe settled in the French village of Prada de Conflent, on the Spanish frontier; between 1939 and 1942 he made sporadic appearances as a cellist in the unoccupied zone of southern France and in Switzerland . So fierce was his opposition to the dictatorial regime of Francisco Franco in Spain that he refused to appear in countries that recognized the authoritarian Spanish government. He made a notable exception when he took part in a concert of chamber music in the White House on November 13, 1961, at the invitation of President John F. Kennedy , whom he admired. On December 6, 1963, Casals was awarded the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom.\nThroughout most of his professional career, he played on a cello that was labeled and attributed to \"Carlo Tononi ... 1733\" but after playing it for 50 years it was discovered to have been created by the Venetian luthier , Matteo Goffriller around 1700. It was acquired by Casals in 1913.\nPrades Festivals\nIn 1950 he resumed his career as conductor and cellist at the Prades Festival in Conflent, organized in commemoration of the bicentenary of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach; Casals agreed to participate on condition that all proceeds were to go to a refugee hospital in nearby Perpignan.\nIn 1952, Casals met Marta Montañez Martínez, a young Puerto Rican student that had gone to Spain to participate in the Festival. Casals was very impressed with her and encouraged her to return to Mannes College of Music in New York to continue her studies.\nHe continued leading the Prades Festivals until 1966.\nPuerto Rico\nCasals first traveled to Puerto Rico in 1955, inaugurating the annual Casals Festival the next year. On August 3, 1957, at 80, Casals married Marta Montañez. They made their permanent residence in the town of Ceiba, and lived in a house called \"El Pesebre\" (The Manger).\nCasals made an impact in the Puerto Rican music scene, by founding the Puerto Rico Symphonic Orchestra in 1958, and the Musical Conservatory of Puerto Rico in 1959.\nLater years\nIn the 1960s, Casals gave many master classes throughout the world in places such as Zermatt, Tuscany , Berkeley, and Marlboro. Several of these events were televised.\nIn 1961, he performed at the White House by invitation of President Kennedy. This performance was recorded and released as an album.\nCasals was also a composer. Perhaps his most effective work is La Sardana, for an ensemble of cellos, which he composed in 1926. His oratorio El Pesebre was performed for the first time in Acapulco , Mexico , on December 17, 1960. He also presented it to the United Nations during their anniversary in 1963.\nOne of his last compositions was the Himne a les Nacions Unides (Hymn of the United Nations); he conducted its first performance in a special concert at the United Nations on October 24, 1971, two months before his 95th birthday.\nCasals' memoirs were taken down by Albert E. Kahn, and published as Joys and Sorrows: Pablo Casals, His Own Story (1970).\nDeath\nCasals died in 1973 in San Juan, Puerto Rico, at the age of 96 and was buried at the Puerto Rico National Cemetery. He did not live to see the end of the Franco dictatorial regime, but he was posthumously honoured by the Spanish government under King Juan Carlos I which, in 1976, issued a commemorative postage stamp to Pau Casals in honour of the centenary of his birth. In 1979 his remains were laid to rest in his hometown of El Vendrell, Catalonia.\nIn 1989, Casals was posthumously awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.\nLegacy\nThe International Pau Casals Cello Competition is held in Germany under the auspices of the Kronberg Academy once every four years, starting in 2000, in order to discover and further the careers of the future cello elite, and is supported by the Pau Casals Foundation, under the patronage of Marta Casals Istomin. One of the prizes is the use of one of the Gofriller cellos owned by Casals.\nThe first top prize was awarded in 2000 to Claudio Bohórquez.\nAmerican comedian George Carlin, in his interview for the Archive of American Television, refers to Casals when discussing the restless nature of an artist's persona. As Carlin states, when Casals (then age 93) was asked why he continued to practice the cello three hours a day, Casals replied \"I'm beginning to notice some improvement.\" Carlin continues, \"And that's the thing that's in me. I notice myself getting better at this.\"\nIn Puerto Rico, the Casals Festival is still celebrated annually. There is also a museum dedicated to the life of Casals located in Old San Juan.\nOn October 3, 2009 Sala Sinfonica Pablo Casals, a new symphony hall named in Casals’ honor, opened in San Juan , PR. The $34 million building, designed by Rodolfo Fernandez, is the latest addition to the Centro de Bellas Artes complex. It is the new home of the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra. Acentech Incorporated's Studio A served as acoustical consultant for architectural acoustics and sound system design of the hall.\nDiscography\n1926–1928: Casals, Jacques Thibaud and Alfred Cortot – the first trios of Schubert, Schumann and Mendelssohn, the Beethoven \"Archduke,\" Haydn's G Major and Beethoven's \"Kakadu\" Variations (Recorded in London)\n1929, Brahms: Double Concerto with Thibaud and Cortot conducting Casals' own orchestra.\n1929: Dvorak and Brahms Concerti\n1929: Beethoven: Fourth Symphony (Recorded in Barcelona)\n1936-1939: Bach: Cello Suites''\n1936: Bruch: ''Kol Nidrei'' - London Symphony conducted by Landon Ronald.\n1937: Dvořák: Cello Concerto - Czech Philharmonic conducted by George Szell .\n1945: Elgar: Cello Concerto - BBC Symphony conducted by Sir Adrian Boult.\n1950: The first of the Prades Festival recordings on Columbia\n1950s Schubert: C Major Quintet with Isaac Stern , Alexander Schneider, Milton Katims, and Paul Tortelier\n1953: Schumann: Cello Concerto in A minor, Op. 129. Casals festival at prades 1953\n1959: Haydn: \"Farewell\" Symphony (No. 45) and Mozart \"Linz\" Symphony (No. 36) (Recorded live at the 3rd Prades Festival)\n1961: Mendelssohn: Piano Trio No. 1 with Alexander Schneider and Mieczysław Horszowski (Recorded live November 13, 1961 at the White House)\n1963: Beethoven: Eighth Symphony",
"Pablo Casals: Biography - Classic Cat\nPablo Casals\n29 dec 1876 (Vendrell) - 22 oct 1973 (Puerto Rico)\nBuy sheetmusic from Casals at SheetMusicPlus\nPau Casals\nPau Casals i Defilló (\nCatalan pronunciation: \n[ˈpaw kəˈzaɫs] ) (December 29, 1876 – October 22, 1973), known during his professional career as Pablo Casals, [1] [2] [3] was a Spanish Catalan cellist and conductor. He made many recordings throughout his career, of solo, chamber, and orchestral music, also as conductor, but Casals is perhaps best remembered for the recording of the Bach Cello Suites he made from 1936 to 1939.\nCasals was an ardent supporter of the Spanish Republican government. After its defeat in 1939, Casals vowed not to return to Spain until democracy had been restored, although he did not live to see the end of the Franco dictatorial regime.\nContents\nBiography\nChildhood and early years\nCasals was born in El Vendrell , , Catalonia . His father, Carlos Casals i Ribes (1852-1908), was a parish organist and choirmaster . He gave Casals instruction in piano, song, violin, and organ. He was also a very strict disciplinarian. When Casals was young his father would pull the piano out from the wall and have him and his brother, Arturo, stand behind it and name the notes and the scales that his father was playing. At age four Casals could play the violin, piano and flute; at the age of six he played the violin well enough to perform a solo in public. His first encounter with a cello-like instrument was from witnessing a local travelling Catalan musician, who played a cello-strung broom handle. Upon request, his father built him a crude cello, using a gourd as a sound-box. When Casals was eleven, he first heard the real cello performed by a group of traveling musicians, and decided to dedicate himself to the instrument.\nIn 1888 his mother, Pilar Defilló de Casals, who was born in Mayagüez , Puerto Rico of Catalonian ancestry, took him to Barcelona , where he enrolled in the Escola Municipal de Música. [4] There he studied cello, theory, and piano. In 1890, when he was 13, he discovered in a second-hand sheet music store in Barcelona a tattered copy of Bach's six cello suites. He spent the next 13 years practicing them every day before he would perform them in public for the first time. [5] He made prodigious progress as a cellist; on February 23, 1891 he gave a solo recital in Barcelona at the age of fourteen. He graduated from the Escola with honours five years later.\nYouth and studies\nIn 1893, another Spanish composer Isaac Albéniz heard him playing in a trio in a café and gave him a letter of introduction to the private secretary to María Cristina , the Queen Regent. Casals was asked to play at informal concerts in the palace, and was granted a royal stipend to study composition at the Conservatorio de Música y Declamación in Madrid with Víctor Mirecki . He also played in the newly organized Quartet Society.\nIn 1895 he went to Paris, where, having lost his stipend from Catalonia, he earned a living by playing second cello in the theater orchestra of the Folies Marigny. In 1896, he returned to Catalonia and received an appointment to the faculty of the Escola Municipal de Música in Barcelona. He was also appointed principal cellist in the orchestra of Barcelona's opera house, the Liceu . In 1897 he appeared as soloist with the Madrid Symphony Orchestra , and was awarded the Order of Carlos III from the Queen.\nInternational career\nIn 1899, Casals played at The Crystal Palace in London , and later for Queen Victoria at Osborne House , her summer residence, accompanied by Ernest Walker . On November 12 and December 17, 1899, he appeared as a soloist at Lamoureux Concerts in Paris , to great public and critical acclaim. He toured Spain and the Netherlands with the pianist Harold Bauer in 1900-1901; in 1901-1902 he made his first tour of the United States ; and in 1903 toured South America .\nOn January 15, 1904, Casals was invited to play at the White House for President Theodore Roosevelt . On March 9 of that year he made his debut at Carnegie Hall in New York, playing Richard Strauss 's Don Quixote under the baton of the composer. In 1906 he became associated with the talented young Portuguese cellist Guilhermina Suggia , [6] who studied with him and began to appear in concerts as Mme. P. Casals-Suggia, although they were not legally married. Their relationship ended in 1912.\nThe New York Times of April 9, 1911 announced that Pablo Casals would perform at the London Musical Festival to be held at the Queen's Hall on the second day of the Festival (May 23). The piece chosen was Haydn 's Cello Concerto in D and Casals would later join Fritz Kreisler for Brahms 's Double Concerto for Violin and Cello . [2]\nIn 1914 Casals married the American socialite and singer Susan Metcalfe ; they were separated in 1928, but did not divorce until 1957.\nAlthough Casals made his first recordings in 1915 (a series for Columbia ), it would not be until 1926 that he again released a recording (on the Victor label). [3]\nBack in Paris, Casals organized a trio with the pianist Alfred Cortot and the violinist Jacques Thibaud ; they played concerts and made recordings until 1937. Casals also became interested in conducting, and in 1919 he organized, in Barcelona, the Orquesta Pau Casals and led its first concert on October 13, 1920. With the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, the Orquesta Pau Casals ceased its activities.\nCasals was an ardent supporter of the Spanish Republican government , and after its defeat vowed not to return to Spain until democracy was restored. Casals performed at the Gran Teatre del Liceu on October 19, 1938, possibly his last performance in Catalonia before his exile. [7]\nHe settled in the French village of Prada de Conflent , on the Spanish frontier; between 1939 and 1942 he made sporadic appearances as a cellist in the unoccupied zone of southern France and in Switzerland . So fierce was his opposition to the dictatorial regime of Francisco Franco in Spain that he refused to appear in countries that recognized the authoritarian Spanish government. He made a notable exception when he took part in a concert of chamber music in the White House on November 13, 1961, at the invitation of President John F. Kennedy , whom he admired. On December 6, 1963, Casals was awarded the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom . [8]\nPresidential Medal of Freedom\nThroughout most of his professional career, he played on a cello that was labeled and attributed to \" Carlo Tononi ... 1733\" but after playing it for 50 years it was discovered to have been created by the Venetian luthier Matteo Goffriller around 1700. It was acquired by Casals in 1913. [9] . He also played another cello by Goffriller dated 1710, and a Tononi of 1730.\nPrades Festivals\nIn 1950 he resumed his career as conductor and cellist at the Prades Festival in Conflent , organized in commemoration of the bicentenary of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach ; Casals agreed to participate on condition that all proceeds were to go to a refugee hospital in nearby Perpignan . [3]\nIn 1952, Casals met Marta Montañez Martínez , a young Puerto Rican student who had gone to Spain to participate in the Festival. Casals was very impressed with her and encouraged her to return to Mannes College of Music in New York to continue her studies.\nHe continued leading the Prades Festivals until 1966.\nPuerto Rico\nCasals first traveled to Puerto Rico in 1955, inaugurating the annual Casals Festival the next year. On August 3, 1957, at 80, Casals married 20 year old Marta Montañez. They made their permanent residence in the town of Ceiba , and lived in a house called \"El Pesebre\" (The Manger). [10]\nCasals made an impact in the Puerto Rican music scene, by founding the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra in 1958, and the Conservatory of Music of Puerto Rico in 1959.\nLater years\nIn the 1960s, Casals gave many master classes throughout the world in places such as Zermatt , Tuscany , Berkeley , and Marlboro (where he also conducted and recorded unique versions of the six Brandenburg Concerti )[ citation needed ]. Several of these master classes were televised.\nIn 1961, he performed at the White House by invitation of President Kennedy . This performance was recorded and released as an album.\nCasals was also a composer. Perhaps his most effective work is La Sardana , for an ensemble of cellos, which he composed in 1926. His oratorio El Pesebre was performed for the first time in Acapulco , Mexico , on December 17, 1960. He also presented it to the United Nations during their anniversary in 1963.\nHe was initiated as an honorary member of the Epsilon Iota Chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia music fraternity at The Florida State University in 1963. [11] . He was later awarded the fraternity's Charles E. Lutton Man of Music Award in 1973.\nOne of his last compositions was the \"Hymn of the United Nations \". [12] He conducted its first performance in a special concert at the United Nations on October 24, 1971, two months before his 95th birthday. On that day, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, U Thant awarded Pau Casals the U.N. Peace Medal in recognition of his stance for peace, justice and freedom. [13] Casals accepted the medal and made his famous \"I am a Catalan\" speech [14] , where he explained that Catalonia had the first democratic parliament , long before England did.\nCasals' memoirs were taken down by Albert E. Kahn , and published as Joys and Sorrows: Pablo Casals, His Own Story (1970).\nDeath\nCasals died in 1973 in San Juan, Puerto Rico , at the age of 96 and was buried at the Puerto Rico National Cemetery. He did not live to see the end of the Franco dictatorial regime, but he was posthumously honoured by the Spanish government under King Juan Carlos I which, in 1976, issued a commemorative postage stamp to Pau Casals in honour of the centenary of his birth. [15] In 1979 his remains were laid to rest in his hometown of El Vendrell, Catalonia.\nIn 1989, Casals was posthumously awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . [16]\nLegacy\nA centenary statue at Montserrat .\nThe International Pablo Casals Cello Competition is held in Kronberg and Frankfurt am Main , Germany, under the auspices of the Kronberg Academy once every four years, starting in 2000, in order to discover and further the careers of the future cello elite, and is supported by the Pau Casals Foundation, under the patronage of Marta Casals Istomin . One of the prizes is the use of one of the Gofriller cellos owned by Casals.\nThe first top prize was awarded in 2000 to Claudio Bohórquez .\nAmerican comedian George Carlin , in his interview for the Archive of American Television, refers to Casals when discussing the restless nature of an artist's persona. As Carlin states, when Casals (then age 93) was asked why he continued to practice the cello three hours a day, Casals replied \"I'm beginning to notice some improvement.\" Carlin continues, \"And that's the thing that's in me. I notice myself getting better at this.\"\nIn Puerto Rico , the Casals Festival is still celebrated annually. There is also a museum dedicated to the life of Casals located in Old San Juan .\nOn October 3, 2009 Sala Sinfonica Pablo Casals, a new symphony hall named in Casals’ honor, opened in San Juan, Puerto Rico . The $34 million building, designed by Rodolfo Fernandez, is the latest addition to the Centro de Bellas Artes complex. It is the new home of the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra . Acentech Incorporated's Studio A served as acoustical consultant for architectural acoustics and sound system design of the hall [17] .\nDiscography\n1926–1928: Casals, Jacques Thibaud and Alfred Cortot – the first trios of Schubert, Schumann and Mendelssohn, the Beethoven \"Archduke,\" Haydn's G Major and Beethoven's \"Kakadu\" Variations (Recorded in London)\nBust for Pau Casals in Wolfenbüttel , Germany\n1929, Brahms: Double Concerto with Thibaud and Cortot conducting Casals' own orchestra.\n1929: Dvorak and Brahms Concerti\n1929: Beethoven: Fourth Symphony (Recorded in Barcelona)",
"Pablo Casals music | Artists\nCello\nBiography\nPau Casals i Defilló (December 29, 1876 – October 22, 1973), known during his professional career as Pablo Casals, was a Spanish Catalan cellist and conductor. He is generally regarded as the pre-eminent cellist of the first half of the 20th century, and one of the greatest cellists of all time. He made many recordings throughout his career, of solo, chamber, and orchestral music, also as conductor, but he is perhaps best remembered for the recordings of the Bach Cello Suites he made from 1936 to 1939.\nCasals was born in El Vendrell, Catalonia, Spain. His father, Carlos Casals i Ribes (1852–1908), was a parish organist and choirmaster. He gave Casals instruction in piano, song, violin, and organ. He was also a very strict disciplinarian. When Casals was young his father would pull the piano out from the wall and have him and his brother, Arturo, stand behind it and name the notes and the scales that his father was playing. At age four Casals could play the violin, piano and flute; at the age of six he played the violin well enough to perform a solo in public. His first encounter with a cello-like instrument was from witnessing a local traveling Catalan musician, who played a cello-strung broom handle. Upon request, his father built him a crude cello, using a gourd as a sound-box. When Casals was eleven, he first heard the real cello performed by a group of traveling musicians, and decided to dedicate himself to the instrument.\nIn 1888 his mother, Pilar Defilló de Casals, who was born in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico of Catalonian ancestry, took him to Barcelona, where he enrolled in the Escola Municipal de Música. There he studied cello, theory, and piano. In 1890, when he was 13, he discovered in a second-hand sheet music store in Barcelona a tattered copy of Bach's six cello suites. He spent the next 13 years practicing them every day before he would perform them in public for the first time. Casals would later make his own personal version of the six suites. He made prodigious progress as a cellist; on February 23, 1891 he gave a solo recital in Barcelona at the age of fourteen. He graduated from the Escola with honours five years later.\nIn 1893, another Spanish composer Isaac Albéniz heard him playing in a trio in a café and gave him a letter of introduction to the private secretary to María Cristina, the Queen Regent. Casals was asked to play at informal concerts in the palace, and was granted a royal stipend to study composition at the Conservatorio de Música y Declamación in Madrid with Víctor Mirecki. He also played in the newly organized Quartet Society.\nIn 1895 he went to Paris, where, having lost his stipend from Catalonia, he earned a living by playing second cello in the theater orchestra of the Folies Marigny. In 1896, he returned to Catalonia and received an appointment to the faculty of the Escola Municipal de Música in Barcelona. He was also appointed principal cellist in the orchestra of Barcelona's opera house, the Liceu. In 1897 he appeared as soloist with the Madrid Symphony Orchestra, and was awarded the Order of Carlos III from the Queen.\nIn 1899, Casals played at The Crystal Palace in London, and later for Queen Victoria at Osborne House, her summer residence, accompanied by Ernest Walker. On November 12 and December 17, 1899, he appeared as a soloist at Lamoureux Concerts in Paris, to great public and critical acclaim. He toured Spain and the Netherlands with the pianist Harold Bauer in 1900-1901; in 1901-1902 he made his first tour of the United States; and in 1903 toured South America.\nOn January 15, 1904, Casals was invited to play at the White House for President Theodore Roosevelt. On March 9 of that year he made his debut at Carnegie Hall in New York, playing Richard Strauss's Don Quixote under the baton of the composer. In 1906 he became associated with the talented young Portuguese cellist Guilhermina Suggia, who studied with him and began to appear in concerts as Mme. P. Casals-Suggia, although they were not legally married. Their relationship ended in 1912.\nThe New York Times of April 9, 1911 announced that Pablo Casals would perform at the London Musical Festival to be held at the Queen's Hall on the second day of the Festival (May 23). The piece chosen was Haydn's Cello Concerto in D and Casals would later join Fritz Kreisler for Brahms's Double Concerto for Violin and Cello.\nIn 1914 Casals married the American socialite and singer Susan Metcalfe; they were separated in 1928, but did not divorce until 1957.\nAlthough Casals made his first recordings in 1915 (a series for Columbia), it would not be until 1926 that he again released a recording (on the Victor label).\nBack in Paris, Casals organized a trio with the pianist Alfred Cortot and the violinist Jacques Thibaud; they played concerts and made recordings until 1937. Casals also became interested in conducting, and in 1919 he organized, in Barcelona, the Orquesta Pau Casals and led its first concert on October 13, 1920. With the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, the Orquesta Pau Casals ceased its activities.\nCasals was an ardent supporter of the Spanish Republican government, and after its defeat vowed not to return to Spain until democracy was restored. Casals performed at the Gran Teatre del Liceu on October 19, 1938, possibly his last performance in Catalonia before his exile.\nHe settled in the French village of Prada de Conflent, on the Spanish frontier; between 1939 and 1942 he made sporadic appearances as a cellist in the unoccupied zone of southern France and in Switzerland. So fierce was his opposition to the dictatorial regime of Francisco Franco in Spain that he refused to appear in countries that recognized the authoritarian Spanish government. He made a notable exception when he took part in a concert of chamber music in the White House on November 13, 1961, at the invitation of President John F. Kennedy, whom he admired. On December 6, 1963, Casals was awarded the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom.\nThroughout most of his professional career, he played on a cello that was labeled and attributed to \"Carlo Tononi ... 1733\" but after playing it for 50 years it was discovered to have been created by the Venetian luthier Matteo Goffriller around 1700. It was acquired by Casals in 1913. He also played another cello by Goffriller dated 1710, and a Tononi from 1730.\nIn 1950 he resumed his career as conductor and cellist at the Prades Festival in Conflent, organized in commemoration of the bicentenary of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach; Casals agreed to participate on condition that all proceeds were to go to a refugee hospital in nearby Perpignan.\nIn 1952, Casals met Marta Angélica Montañez y Martinez, a 17-year-old Puerto Rican student who had gone to Spain to participate in the Festival. Casals was very impressed with her and encouraged her to return to Mannes College of Music in New York to continue her studies. He continued leading the Prades Festivals until 1966.\nCasals first traveled to Puerto Rico in 1955, inaugurating the annual Casals Festival the next year. In 1955 Casals married as his second wife long-time associate Francesca Vidal de Capdevila, who died that same year. On April 3, 1957 (or August 3), at 80, Casals married 20-year-old Marta Montañez y Martinez. They made their permanent residence in the town of Ceiba, and lived in a house called \"El Pesebre\" (The Manger). He made an impact in the Puerto Rican music scene, by founding the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra in 1958, and the Conservatory of Music of Puerto Rico in 1959.\nIn the 1960s, Casals gave many master classes throughout the world in places such as Zermatt, Tuscany, Berkeley, and Marlboro (where he also conducted and recorded unique versions of the six Brandenburg Concerti). Several of these master classes were televised.\nIn 1961, he performed at the White House by invitation of President Kennedy. This performance was recorded and released as an album.\nCasals was also a composer. Perhaps his most effective work is La Sardana, for an ensemble of cellos, which he composed in 1926. His oratorio El Pesebre was performed for the first time in Acapulco, Mexico, on December 17, 1960. He also presented it to the United Nations during their anniversary in 1963. He was initiated as an honorary member of the Epsilon Iota Chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia music fraternity at The Florida State University in 1963. He was later awarded the fraternity's Charles E. Lutton Man of Music Award in 1973.\nOne of his last compositions was the \"Hymn of the United Nations\". He conducted its first performance in a special concert at the United Nations on October 24, 1971, two months before his 95th birthday. On that day, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, U Thant awarded Pau Casals the U.N. Peace Medal in recognition of his stance for peace, justice and freedom. Casals accepted the medal and made his famous \"I am a Catalan\" speech, where he stated that Catalonia had the first democratic parliament, long before England did. [Iceland and the Isle of Man both had a parliament before Catalonia.]\nCasals' memoirs were taken down by Albert E. Kahn, and published as Joys and Sorrows: Pablo Casals, His Own Story (1970).\nCasals died in 1973 in San Juan, Puerto Rico, at the age of 96 and was buried at the Puerto Rico National Cemetery. He did not live to see the end of the Franco dictatorial regime, but he was posthumously honoured by the Spanish government under King Juan Carlos I which, in 1976, issued a commemorative postage stamp to Pau Casals in honour of the centenary of his birth. In 1979 his remains were laid to rest in his hometown of El Vendrell, Catalonia. In 1989, Casals was posthumously awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.\nThe International Pablo Casals Cello Competition is held in Kronberg and Frankfurt am Main, Germany, under the auspices of the Kronberg Academy once every four years, starting in 2000, to discover and further the careers of the future cello elite, and is supported by the Pau Casals Foundation, under the patronage of Marta Casals Istomin. One of the prizes is the use of one of the Gofriller cellos owned by Casals. The first top prize was awarded in 2000 to Claudio Bohórquez.\nAmerican comedian George Carlin, in his interview for the Archive of American Television, refers to Casals when discussing the restless nature of an artist's persona. As Carlin states, when Casals (then age 93) was asked why he continued to practice the cello three hours a day, Casals replied, \"'I'm beginning to notice some improvement...' [A]nd that's the thing that's in me. I notice myself getting better at this,\" Carlin continued.\nIn Puerto Rico, the Casals Festival is still celebrated annually. There is also a museum dedicated to the life of Casals located in Old San Juan. On October 3, 2009, Sala Sinfonica Pablo Casals, a symphony hall named in Casals' honor, opened in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The $34 million building, designed by Rodolfo Fernandez, is the latest addition to the Centro de Bellas Artes complex. It is the new home of the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra.",
"Pablo Casals - The Full Wiki\nThe Full Wiki\nMore info on Pablo Casals\n Wikis\n \n \nNote: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles .\nRelated top topics\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\n\"Casals\" redirects here. For other people with this surname, see Casals (surname) .\nThis is a Catalan name ; the first family name is Casals and the second is Defilló.\nPau Casals i Defilló (December 29, 1876 – October 22, 1973), known during his professional career as Pablo Casals, [1] [2] [3] was a Spanish Catalan cellist and conductor. He made many recordings throughout his career, of solo, chamber, and orchestral music, also as conductor, but Casals is perhaps best remembered for the recording of the Bach Cello Suites he made from 1936 to 1939.\nCasals was an ardent supporter of the Spanish Republican government. After its defeat in 1939, Casals vowed not to return to Spain until democracy had been restored, although he did not live to see the end of the Franco dictatorial regime.\nContents\nAdvertisements\nChildhood and early years\nCasals was born in El Vendrell , Tarragona , Catalonia . His father, Carlos Casals i Ribes (1852-1908), was a parish organist and choirmaster . He gave Casals instruction in piano, song, violin, and organ. He was also a very strict disciplinarian. When Casals was young his father would pull the piano out from the wall and have him and his brother, Arturo, stand behind it and name the notes and the scales that his father was playing. At age four Casals could play the violin, piano and flute; at the age of six he played the violin well enough to perform a solo in public. His first encounter with a cello-like instrument was from witnessing a local travelling Catalan musician, who played a cello-strung broom handle. Upon request, his father built him a crude cello, using a gourd as a sound-box. When Casals was eleven, he first heard the real cello performed by a group of traveling musicians, and decided to dedicate himself to the instrument.\nIn 1888 his mother, Pilar Defilló de Casals, who was born in Mayagüez , Puerto Rico of Catalonian ancestry, took him to Barcelona , where he enrolled in the Escola Municipal de Música. [4] There he studied cello, theory, and piano. In 1890, when he was 13, he discovered in a second-hand sheet music store in Barcelona a tattered copy of Bach's six cello suites. He spent the next 13 years practising them every day before he would perform them in public for the first time. [5] He made prodigious progress as a cellist; on February 23, 1891 he gave a solo recital in Barcelona at the age of fourteen. He graduated from the Escola with honours five years later.\nYouth and studies\nIn 1893, another Spanish composer Isaac Albéniz heard him playing in a trio in a café and gave him a letter of introduction to the private secretary to María Cristina , the Queen Regent. Casals was asked to play at informal concerts in the palace, and was granted a royal stipend to study composition at the Conservatorio de Música y Declamación in Madrid with Víctor Mirecki . He also played in the newly organized Quartet Society.\nIn 1895 he went to Paris, where, having lost his stipend from Catalonia, he earned a living by playing second cello in the theater orchestra of the Folies Marigny. In 1896, he returned to Catalonia and received an appointment to the faculty of the Escola Municipal de Música in Barcelona. He was also appointed principal cellist in the orchestra of Barcelona's opera house, the Liceu . In 1897 he appeared as soloist with the Madrid Symphony Orchestra , and was awarded the Order of Carlos III from the Queen.\nInternational career\nIn 1899, Casals played at The Crystal Palace in London , and later for Queen Victoria at Osborne House , her summer residence, accompanied by Ernest Walker . On November 12 and December 17, 1899, he appeared as a soloist at Lamoureux Concerts in Paris , to great public and critical acclaim. He toured Spain and the Netherlands with the pianist Harold Bauer in 1900-1901; in 1901-1902 he made his first tour of the United States ; and in 1903 toured South America .\nOn January 15, 1904, Casals was invited to play at the White House for President Theodore Roosevelt . On March 9 of that year he made his debut at Carnegie Hall in New York, playing Richard Strauss 's Don Quixote under the baton of the composer. In 1906 he became associated with the talented young Portuguese cellist Guilhermina Suggia , [6] who studied with him and began to appear in concerts as Mme. P. Casals-Suggia, although they were not legally married. Their relationship ended in 1912.\nThe New York Times of April 9, 1911 announced that Pablo Casals would perform at the London Musical Festival to be held at the Queen's Hall on the second day of the Festival (May 23). The piece chosen was Haydn 's Cello Concerto in D and Casals would later join Fritz Kreisler for Brahms 's Double Concerto for Violin and Cello . [2]\nIn 1914 Casals married the American socialite and singer Susan Metcalfe ; they were separated in 1928, but did not divorce until 1957.\nAlthough Casals made his first recordings in 1915 (a series for Columbia ), it would not be until 1926 that he again released a recording (on the Victor label). [3]\nBack in Paris, Casals organized a trio with the pianist Alfred Cortot and the violinist Jacques Thibaud ; they played concerts and made recordings until 1937. Casals also became interested in conducting, and in 1919 he organized, in Barcelona, the Orquesta Pau Casals and led its first concert on October 13, 1920. With the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, the Orquesta Pau Casals ceased its activities.\nCasals was an ardent supporter of the Spanish Republican government , and after its defeat vowed not to return to Spain until democracy was restored. Casals performed at the Gran Teatro del Liceo on October 19, 1938, possibly his last performance in Spain before his exile. [7]\nHe settled in the French village of Prada de Conflent , on the Spanish frontier; between 1939 and 1942 he made sporadic appearances as a cellist in the unoccupied zone of southern France and in Switzerland . So fierce was his opposition to the dictatorial regime of Francisco Franco in Spain that he refused to appear in countries that recognized the authoritarian Spanish government. He made a notable exception when he took part in a concert of chamber music in the White House on November 13, 1961, at the invitation of President John F. Kennedy , whom he admired. On December 6, 1963, Casals was awarded the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom . [8]\nPresidential Medal of Freedom\nThroughout most of his professional career, he played on a cello that was labeled and attributed to \" Carlo Tononi ... 1733\" but after playing it for 50 years it was discovered to have been created by the Venetian luthier , Matteo Goffriller around 1700. It was acquired by Casals in 1913. [9] . He also played another cello by Goffriller dated 1710, and a Tononi of 1730.\nPrades Festivals\nIn 1950 he resumed his career as conductor and cellist at the Prades Festival in Conflent , organized in commemoration of the bicentenary of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach ; Casals agreed to participate on condition that all proceeds were to go to a refugee hospital in nearby Perpignan . [3]\nIn 1952, Casals met Marta Montañez Martínez , a young Puerto Rican student who had gone to Spain to participate in the Festival. Casals was very impressed with her and encouraged her to return to Mannes College of Music in New York to continue her studies.\nHe continued leading the Prades Festivals until 1966.\nPuerto Rico\nCasals first traveled to Puerto Rico in 1955, inaugurating the annual Casals Festival the next year. On August 3, 1957, at 80, Casals married 20 year old Marta Montañez. They made their permanent residence in the town of Ceiba , and lived in a house called \"El Pesebre\" (The Manger). [10]\nCasals made an impact in the Puerto Rican music scene, by founding the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra in 1958, and the Conservatory of Music of Puerto Rico in 1959.\nLater years\nIn the 1960s, Casals gave many master classes throughout the world in places such as Zermatt , Tuscany , Berkeley , and Marlboro . Several of these events were televised.\nIn 1961, he performed at the White House by invitation of President Kennedy . This performance was recorded and released as an album.\nCasals was also a composer. Perhaps his most effective work is La Sardana , for an ensemble of cellos, which he composed in 1926. His oratorio El Pesebre was performed for the first time in Acapulco , Mexico , on December 17, 1960. He also presented it to the United Nations during their anniversary in 1963.\nOne of his last compositions was the \"Hymn of the United Nations \". [11] He conducted its first performance in a special concert at the United Nations on October 24, 1971, two months before his 95th birthday. On that day, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, U Thant awarded Pau Casals the U.N. Peace Medal in recognition of his stance for peace, justice and freedom. [12] Casals accepted the medal and made his famous \"I am a Catalan\" speech [13] , where he explained that Catalonia had the first democratic parliament , well before England did.\nCasals' memoirs were taken down by Albert E. Kahn , and published as Joys and Sorrows: Pablo Casals, His Own Story (1970).\nDeath\nCasals died in 1973 in San Juan, Puerto Rico , at the age of 96 and was buried at the Puerto Rico National Cemetery. He did not live to see the end of the Franco dictatorial regime, but he was posthumously honoured by the Spanish government under King Juan Carlos I which, in 1976, issued a commemorative postage stamp to Pau Casals in honour of the centenary of his birth. [14] In 1979 his remains were laid to rest in his hometown of El Vendrell, Catalonia.\nIn 1989, Casals was posthumously awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . [15]\nLegacy\nA centenary statue at Montserrat .\nThe International Pau Casals Cello Competition is held in Germany under the auspices of the Kronberg Academy once every four years, starting in 2000, in order to discover and further the careers of the future cello elite, and is supported by the Pau Casals Foundation, under the patronage of Marta Casals Istomin. One of the prizes is the use of one of the Gofriller cellos owned by Casals.\nThe first top prize was awarded in 2000 to Claudio Bohórquez.\nAmerican comedian George Carlin , in his interview for the Archive of American Television, refers to Casals when discussing the restless nature of an artist's persona. As Carlin states, when Casals (then age 93) was asked why he continued to practice the cello three hours a day, Casals replied \"I'm beginning to notice some improvement.\" Carlin continues, \"And that's the thing that's in me. I notice myself getting better at this.\"\nIn Puerto Rico , the Casals Festival is still celebrated annually. There is also a museum dedicated to the life of Casals located in Old San Juan .\nOn October 3, 2009 Sala Sinfonica Pablo Casals, a new symphony hall named in Casals’ honor, opened in San Juan, Puerto Rico . The $34 million building, designed by Rodolfo Fernandez, is the latest addition to the Centro de Bellas Artes complex. It is the new home of the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra . Acentech Incorporated 's Studio A served as acoustical consultant for architectural acoustics and sound system design of the hall [16] .\nDiscography\n1926–1928: Casals, Jacques Thibaud and Alfred Cortot – the first trios of Schubert, Schumann and Mendelssohn, the Beethoven \"Archduke,\" Haydn's G Major and Beethoven's \"Kakadu\" Variations (Recorded in London)\nBust for Pau Casals in Wolfenbüttel , Germany\n1929, Brahms: Double Concerto with Thibaud and Cortot conducting Casals' own orchestra.\n1929: Dvorak and Brahms Concerti\n1929: Beethoven: Fourth Symphony (Recorded in Barcelona)\n4 External links\nSourced\nThe love of one's country is a splendid thing. But why should love stop at the border? There is a brotherhood among all men. This must be recognized if life is to remain. We must learn the love of man.\nAs quoted in Joys and Sorrows : Reflections by Pablo Casals as told to Albert E. Kahn (1974) by Albert E. Kahn\nMedal of Peace acceptance\nPau Casals Speech before the United Nations Assembly (24 October 1971) PDF\nThis is the greatest honour I have ever received in my life. Peace has always been my greatest concern. Yet in my childhood I learned to love it. My mother—an exceptional, brilliant woman — used to speak to me about it when I was still a child, because in those years there were also a lot of wars. What is more, I am a Catalan. Today, a province of Spain. But what has been Catalonia? Catalonia has been the greatest nation in the world. I will tell you why. Catalonia has had the first parliament, much before England. Catalonia had the first United Nations. All the authorities of Catalonia in the Eleventh Century met in a city of France, at that time Catalonia , to speak about peace, at the Eleventh Century. Peace in the world and against, against, against war, the inhumanity of the wars. So I am so happy, so happy, to be with you today. That is why the United Nations, which works solely towards the peace ideal, is in my heart, because anything to do with peace goes straight to my heart.\nI have not played the cello in front of an audience since long years but I think I must do it this time. I am going to play a melody from the Catalonian folklore: The singing of the Birds. Birds, when in the sky, go singing: Peace, peace, peace. And this is a melody that Bach, Beethoven and all great people would have admired and loved. And, in addition, it springs up from the soul of my country: Catalonia.\nUnsourced\nMusic is not just sound.\nMaybe music will save the world.\nThe most important thing in music is what is not in the notes\nQuotes about Casals\nHis playing . . . is one of those rare things that may only come once in a lifetime and even not in one person's life, it may be centuries before there is anyone like that again. He is a funny little fellow only about 30 and plays with his eyes shut practically the whole time, every note every pause and tone colour is reflected in his face and to hear him again, to draw the bow across is a revelation.\nW.J. Turner (1913), music critic\nExternal links",
"Pablo Casals : definition of Pablo Casals and synonyms of Pablo Casals (English)\nThis is a Catalan name . The first family name is Casals and the second is Defilló.\n Pau Casals\nPau Casals i Defilló (\nCatalan pronunciation: \n[ˈpaw kəˈzaɫs] ; December 29, 1876 – October 22, 1973), known during his professional career as Pablo Casals, [1] [2] [3] was a Spanish Catalan cellist and conductor. He is generally regarded as the pre-eminent cellist of the first half of the 20th century, and one of the greatest cellists of all time. He made many recordings throughout his career, of solo, chamber, and orchestral music, also as conductor, but he is perhaps best remembered for the recordings of the Bach Cello Suites he made from 1936 to 1939.\nContents\n Biography\n Childhood and early years\nCasals was born in El Vendrell , Catalonia, Spain. His father, Carlos Casals i Ribes (1852–1908), was a parish organist and choirmaster . He gave Casals instruction in piano, song, violin, and organ. He was also a very strict disciplinarian. When Casals was young his father would pull the piano out from the wall and have him and his brother, Arturo, stand behind it and name the notes and the scales that his father was playing. At age four Casals could play the violin, piano and flute; at the age of six he played the violin well enough to perform a solo in public. His first encounter with a cello-like instrument was from witnessing a local traveling Catalan musician, who played a cello-strung broom handle. Upon request, his father built him a crude cello, using a gourd as a sound-box. When Casals was eleven, he first heard the real cello performed by a group of traveling musicians, and decided to dedicate himself to the instrument.[ citation needed ]\nIn 1888 his mother, Pilar Defilló de Casals, who was born in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico of Catalonian ancestry, took him to Barcelona , where he enrolled in the Escola Municipal de Música. [4] There he studied cello, theory, and piano. In 1890, when he was 13, he discovered in a second-hand sheet music store in Barcelona a tattered copy of Bach's six cello suites. He spent the next 13 years practicing them every day before he would perform them in public for the first time. [5] Casals would later make his own personal version of the six suites. [6] He made prodigious progress as a cellist; on February 23, 1891 he gave a solo recital in Barcelona at the age of fourteen. He graduated from the Escola with honours five years later.\n Youth and studies\nIn 1893, another Spanish composer Isaac Albéniz heard him playing in a trio in a café and gave him a letter of introduction to the private secretary to María Cristina , the Queen Regent. Casals was asked to play at informal concerts in the palace, and was granted a royal stipend to study composition at the Conservatorio de Música y Declamación in Madrid with Víctor Mirecki . He also played in the newly organized Quartet Society.\nIn 1895 he went to Paris, where, having lost his stipend from Catalonia, he earned a living by playing second cello in the theater orchestra of the Folies Marigny. In 1896, he returned to Catalonia and received an appointment to the faculty of the Escola Municipal de Música in Barcelona. He was also appointed principal cellist in the orchestra of Barcelona's opera house, the Liceu . In 1897 he appeared as soloist with the Madrid Symphony Orchestra , and was awarded the Order of Carlos III from the Queen.[ citation needed ]\n International career\nIn 1899, Casals played at The Crystal Palace in London, and later for Queen Victoria at Osborne House , her summer residence, accompanied by Ernest Walker . On November 12, and December 17, 1899, he appeared as a soloist at Lamoureux Concerts in Paris, to great public and critical acclaim. He toured Spain and the Netherlands with the pianist Harold Bauer in 1900–1901; in 1901–1902 he made his first tour of the United States; and in 1903 toured South America.\nOn January 15, 1904, Casals was invited to play at the White House for President Theodore Roosevelt . On March 9, of that year he made his debut at Carnegie Hall in New York, playing Richard Strauss 's Don Quixote under the baton of the composer. In 1906 he became associated with the talented young Portuguese cellist Guilhermina Suggia , [7] who studied with him and began to appear in concerts as Mme. P. Casals-Suggia, although they were not legally married. Their relationship ended in 1912.\nThe New York Times of April 9, 1911 announced that Pablo Casals would perform at the London Musical Festival to be held at the Queen's Hall on the second day of the Festival (May 23,). The piece chosen was Haydn 's Cello Concerto in D and Casals would later join Fritz Kreisler for Brahms 's Double Concerto for Violin and Cello . [2]\nIn 1914 Casals married the American socialite and singer Susan Metcalfe ; they were separated in 1928, but did not divorce until 1957.\nAlthough Casals made his first recordings in 1915 (a series for Columbia ), it would not be until 1926 that he again released a recording (on the Victor label). [3]\nBack in Paris, Casals organized a trio with the pianist Alfred Cortot and the violinist Jacques Thibaud ; they played concerts and made recordings until 1937. Casals also became interested in conducting, and in 1919 he organized, in Barcelona, the Orquesta Pau Casals and led its first concert on October 13, 1920. With the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, the Orquesta Pau Casals ceased its activities.\nCasals was an ardent supporter of the Spanish Republican government , and after its defeat vowed not to return to Spain until democracy was restored. Casals performed at the Gran Teatre del Liceu on October 19, 1938, possibly his last performance in Catalonia before his exile. [8]\nHe settled in the French village of Prada de Conflent , on the Spanish frontier; between 1939 and 1942 he made sporadic appearances as a cellist in the unoccupied zone of southern France and in Switzerland . So fierce was his opposition to the dictatorial regime of Francisco Franco in Spain that he refused to appear in countries that recognized the authoritarian Spanish government. He made a notable exception when he took part in a concert of chamber music in the White House on November 13, 1961, at the invitation of President John F. Kennedy , whom he admired. On December 6, 1963, Casals was awarded the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom . [9]\n Presidential Medal of Freedom\nThroughout most of his professional career, he played on a cello that was labeled and attributed to \" Carlo Tononi ... 1733\" but after playing it for 50 years it was discovered to have been created by the Venetian luthier Matteo Goffriller around 1700. It was acquired by Casals in 1913. [10] He also played another cello by Goffriller dated 1710, and a Tononi from 1730.\n Prades Festivals\nIn 1950 he resumed his career as conductor and cellist at the Prades Festival in Conflent , organized in commemoration of the bicentenary of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach ; Casals agreed to participate on condition that all proceeds were to go to a refugee hospital in nearby Perpignan . [3]\nIn 1952, Casals met Marta Angélica Montañez y Martinez , a 17-year-old Puerto Rican student who had gone to Spain to participate in the Festival. Casals was very impressed with her and encouraged her to return to Mannes College of Music in New York to continue her studies. He continued leading the Prades Festivals until 1966.[ citation needed ]\n Puerto Rico\nCasals first traveled to Puerto Rico in 1955, inaugurating the annual Casals Festival the next year. In 1955 Casals married as his second wife long-time associate Francesca Vidal de Capdevila, who died that same year. On April 3, 1957 (or August 3), at 80, Casals married 20-year-old Marta Montañez y Martinez. [11] They made their permanent residence in the town of Ceiba , and lived in a house called \"El Pesebre\" (The Manger). [12] He made an impact in the Puerto Rican music scene, by founding the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra in 1958, and the Conservatory of Music of Puerto Rico in 1959.\n Later years\nIn the 1960s, Casals gave many master classes throughout the world in places such as Gstaad, Zermatt , Tuscany, Berkeley , and Marlboro (where he also conducted and recorded unique versions of the six Brandenburg Concerti )[ citation needed ]. Several of these master classes were televised.\nIn 1961, he performed at the White House by invitation of President Kennedy . This performance was recorded and released as an album.\nCasals was also a composer. Perhaps his most effective work is La Sardana , for an ensemble of cellos, which he composed in 1926. His oratorio El Pessebre was performed for the first time in Acapulco , Mexico, on December 17, 1960. He also presented it to the United Nations during their anniversary in 1963. He was initiated as an honorary member of the Epsilon Iota Chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia music fraternity at The Florida State University in 1963. [13] He was later awarded the fraternity's Charles E. Lutton Man of Music Award in 1973.\nOne of his last compositions was the \"Hymn of the United Nations\". [14] He conducted its first performance in a special concert at the United Nations on October 24, 1971, two months before his 95th birthday. On that day, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, U Thant , awarded Pau Casals the U.N. Peace Medal in recognition of his stance for peace, justice and freedom. [15] Casals accepted the medal and made his famous \" I am a Catalan \" speech, [16] where he stated that Catalonia had the first democratic parliament , long before England did. (In fact, both Iceland and the Isle of Man had parliaments before Catalonia.]\nCasals' memoirs were taken down by Albert E. Kahn , and published as Joys and Sorrows: Pablo Casals, His Own Story (1970).\n Death\nCasals died in 1973 in San Juan, Puerto Rico , at the age of 96 and was buried at the Puerto Rico National Cemetery. He did not live to see the end of the Franco dictatorial regime, but he was posthumously honoured by the Spanish government under King Juan Carlos I which, in 1976, issued a commemorative postage stamp to Pau Casals in honour of the centenary of his birth. [17] In 1979 his remains were laid to rest in his hometown of El Vendrell, Catalonia. In 1989, Casals was posthumously awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . [18]\n Legacy\n Centenary statue, Montserrat\nThe International Pablo Casals Cello Competition is held in Kronberg and Frankfurt am Main , Germany, under the auspices of the Kronberg Academy once every four years, starting in 2000, to discover and further the careers of the future cello elite, and is supported by the Pau Casals Foundation, under the patronage of Marta Casals Istomin . One of the prizes is the use of one of the Gofriller cellos owned by Casals. The first top prize was awarded in 2000 to Claudio Bohórquez .\nAmerican comedian George Carlin , in his interview for the Archive of American Television , refers to Casals when discussing the restless nature of an artist's persona. As Carlin states, when Casals (then aged 93) was asked why he continued to practice the cello three hours a day, Casals replied, \"'I'm beginning to notice some improvement...' [A]nd that's the thing that's in me. I notice myself getting better at this,\" Carlin continued.\nIn Puerto Rico , the Casals Festival is still celebrated annually. There is also a museum dedicated to the life of Casals located in Old San Juan . On October 3, 2009, Sala Sinfonica Pablo Casals, a symphony hall named in Casals' honor, opened in San Juan, Puerto Rico . The $34 million building, designed by Rodolfo Fernandez, is the latest addition to the Centro de Bellas Artes complex. It is the new home of the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra .\nIn Tokyo, the Casals Hall opened in 1987 as a venue for chamber music. [19]\nSocio-political columnist and economist David P. Goldman has called Caslas the greatest classical musician of the 20th century. [20]\n Partial Discography\n1926–1928: Casals, Jacques Thibaud and Alfred Cortot – the first trios of Schubert, Schumann and Mendelssohn, the Beethoven \"Archduke,\" Haydn's G Major and Beethoven's \"Kakadu\" Variations (Recorded in London)\n Pau Casals bust, Wolfenbüttel , Germany\n1929, Brahms: Double Concerto with Thibaud and Cortot conducting Casals' own orchestra.\n1929: Dvorak and Brahms Concerti\n1929: Beethoven: Fourth Symphony (Recorded in Barcelona)\n1930: Beethoven: Cello Sonata Op. 69, with Otto Schulhof .\n1936–1939: Bach: Cello Suites\n1936: Beethoven: Cello Sonata Op. 102 No. 1; and Brahms: Cello Sonata Op. 99, both with Mieczysław Horszowski .\n1936: Boccherini: Cello Concerto in B-flat; and Bruch: Kol Nidrei – London Symphony conducted by Landon Ronald .\n1937: Dvořák: Cello Concerto – Czech Philharmonic conducted by George Szell .\n1939: Beethoven: Cello Sonatas Nos. 1, 2, and 5, with Mieczysław Horszowski.\n1945: Elgar and Haydn Cello Concertos – BBC Symphony conducted by Sir Adrian Boult .\n1950: The first of the Prades Festival recordings on Columbia, including:\nBach: Sonatas for Viola da Gamba, BWV 1027–1029, with Paul Baumgartner\nSchumann: Fünf Stücke im Volkston, with Leopold Mannes\nSchumann: Cello Concerto, with Casals conducting from the cello.\n1951: At the Perpignan Festival, including:\nBeethoven: Cello Sonata Op. 5 No. 2, and three sets of Variations, with Rudolf Serkin\nBeethoven: Trios, Op. 1 No. 2, Op. 70 No. 2, Op. 97, and the Clarinet Op. 11 transcription; also\nSchubert: Trio No. 1, D.898, all with Alexander Schneider and Eugene Istomin .\n1952: At Prades, including:\nBrahms: Trio Op. 8, with Isaac Stern and Myra Hess\nBrahms: Trio Op. 87, with Joseph Szigeti and Myra Hess\nSchumann: Trio Op. 63, and Schubert: Trio No. 2, D.929, both with Alexander Schneider and Mieczysław Horszowski\nSchubert: C Major Quintet, with Isaac Stern, Alexander Schneider, Milton Katims , and Paul Tortelier\nBrahms: Sextet No. 1, again with Stern, Schneider, and Katims, plus Milton Thomas and Madeline Foley\n1953: At Prades, including:\nBeethoven: Cello Sonatas Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 5, with Rudolf Serkin\nBeethoven: Trios Op. 1 No. 1, and Op. 70 No. 1, with Joseph Fuchs and Eugene Istomin\nSchumann: Cello Concerto in A minor, Op. 129, with Eugene Ormandy conducting the Festival orchestra\n1954: At Prades (all live performances), including:\nBeethoven: Cello Sonata No. 5, and Op. 66 Variations, with Mieczysław Horszowski\nBeethoven: Trios Op. 70 No. 1, and Op. 121a, with Szymon Goldberg and Rudolf Serkin\n1955: At Prades (all live performances), including:\nBrahms: Trios Nos. 1–3, with Yehudi Menuhin and Eugene Istomin\nBrahms: Clarinet Trio Op. 114, with clarinetist David Oppenheim and Eugene Istomin\nBeethoven: Trio Op. 70 No. 2, with Szymon Goldberg and Rudolf Serkin\n1956: At Prades (all live performances), including:\nBach: Sonata BWV 1027 for Viola da Gamba, with Mieczysław Horszowski\nSchumann: Trio No. 2, with Yehudi Menuhin and Mieczysław Horszowski\nSchumann: Trio No. 3, with Sándor Végh and Rudolf Serkin\n1958: At Beethoven-Haus in Bonn (all live performances), including:\nBeethoven: Sonata Op. 5 No. 1, with Wilhelm Kempff\nBeethoven: Sonatas Op. 5 No. 2, Op. 102 No. 2, and the Horn Op. 17 transcription, with Mieczysław Horszowski\nBeethoven: Trios Op. 1 No. 3, and Op. 97, with Sándor Végh and Mieczysław Horszowski\nBeethoven: Trio Op. 70 No. 1, with Sándor Végh and Karl Engel\n1959: At Prades (all live performances), including:\nHaydn: \"Farewell\" Symphony (No. 45) and Mozart \"Linz\" Symphony (No. 36)\nBeethoven: Trio Op. 1 No. 3, with Yehudi and Hephzibah Menuhin\nSchubert: String Quintet, with the Budapest String Quartet\n1961: Mendelssohn: Piano Trio No. 1 with Alexander Schneider and Mieczysław Horszowski (Recorded live November 13, 1961 at the White House)\n1963: Beethoven: Eighth Symphony\n1963: Mendelssohn: Fourth Symphony, at Marlboro\n1964–65: Bach: Brandenburg Concerti, at Marlboro\n1966: Bach: Orchestral Suites , at Marlboro\n1969: Beethoven: First, Second, Fourth, Sixth (\"Pastorale\"), and Seventh Symphonies\n1974: El Pessebre (The Manger) oratorio\n See also"
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"The highest paid careers in America today - NBC News\nJul 3 2012, 7:32 am ET\nThe highest paid careers in America today\nby Morgan Giordano\nadvertisement\nA pharmacist makes an average salary of $112,160. Getty Images\nA salary is one of the most compelling factors for individuals deciding on a career path, a degree or even where to live — because some parts of the U.S. pay higher wages, on average, for the same position. Although education can determine a worker's salary and even employment, not all high-paying jobs require advanced degrees. With data recently released by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), CNBC.com took a look at the most highly compensated occupations in the country, based upon BLS job definitions. The BLS also breaks down average salaries geographically and by industry. The jobs listed here are placed in categories according to career path. The numbers are from 2011 — the most recent figures available. Here are the highest paying jobs in the country.\nNo. 15: Pharmacist\n•Average Salary: $112,160\n•Current Employment: 272,320\nPharmacists are not only responsible for dispensing prescription drugs, but they also provide patients with information pertaining to potential side effects and correct dosage amounts. Pharmacists are required to have a doctor of pharmacy degree (Pharm.D.), a four-year professional degree. They also must be licensed, which requires passing two exams. The highest paid pharmacists in the country are found in the sparsely populated states of Alaska ($125,330) and Maine ($125,310), according to the BLS. The third highest paying state, however, is California ($122,800) with 22,960 currently employed in the profession. California is also home to the three highest paying metropolitan areas for this occupation: El Centro ($163,410), Napa ($140,230) and Santa Cruz-Watsonville ($140,220). While these cities have the highest pay scales, the rest of California drops the individual state incomes below Alaska and Maine.\nNo. 14: Air traffic controller\n•Average annual salary: $114,460\n•Current employment: 23,580\nAir traffic controllers regulate air traffic, managing the movement of aircraft between various altitudes and areas while following strict safety regulations. Qualifications to be an air traffic controller include completing an air traffic management degree from a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certified school, achieving a qualifying score on the FAA pre-employment test and completing a training course at the FAA Academy, according to the BLS. Those without previous air traffic control experience (military) must be younger than 31 to become an air traffic controller. The highest concentration of air traffic controllers can be found in Alaska (1.86 per 1,000 jobs), New Hampshire (0.84 per 1,000 jobs) and New Mexico (0.57 per 1,000 jobs). Anchorage, Alaska, has the highest concentration of air traffic controllers of any city in the U.S., according to the BLS, with 580 employees or 1.86 per 1,000 jobs. However, Alaska has one of the lowest annual salaries for this career at $96,270 which is far below the national average ($114,460).\nNo. 13: Sales manager\n•Average annual salary: $116,860\n•Current employment: 328,230\nSales managers are responsible for planning, directing and coordinating the distribution of products and services to corporate clients or customers. The position also involves understanding the marketplace, analyzing sales statistics and monitoring customer preferences. To become an entry-level sales manager, it highly beneficial to have a bachelor’s degree. However, it is not required by all firms. California employs the most sales managers with 53,190 employees or 3.79 sales managers per 1,000 jobs, while New York has the highest annual average wage at $169,710 for its 15,730 employees. This number is greatly influenced by the New York Metropolitan area, which has the highest annual average wage for cities at $179,210.\nNo. 12: Airline pilots, co-pilots and flight engineers\n•Average annual salary: $118,070\n•Current employment: 68,350\nThe BLS combines the cockpit crew — pilot, co-pilot and flight engineer — into one category. Tasked with transporting both passengers and cargo, these jobs, more often than not, take place at 30,000 feet in the air. Although they are high-paying jobs, they are also among the country’s most stressful — with long hours and the responsibility for the passengers' safety. The cities with the greatest number of pilots, co-pilots or flight engineers compared to overall jobs are Anchorage, Alaska (5.37 per 1,000 jobs) and Salt Lake City, Utah (2.16 per 1,000 jobs).\nNo. 11: Financial manager\n•Average annual salary: $120,450\n•Current employment: 477,690\nFinancial managers can be involved in a range of activities, including planning directing or coordinating the accounting, investing, banking, insurance, securities and other financial concerns of a branch, office or department, according to the BLS. Financial managers must usually have a bachelor’s degree and more than five years of experience in another business or financial occupation, such as loan officer, accountant, auditor, securities sales agent or financial analyst. The areas with the highest employment of financial managers per 1,000 jobs are the District of Columbia (10.59 per 1,000), Connecticut (7.54 per 1000), Massachusetts (5.86 per 1,000), New Jersey (5.73 per 1,000) and Rhode Island (5.70 per 1,000).\nNo. 10: Industrial-organizational psychologist\n•Average annual salary: $124,160\n•Current employment: 1,230\nThis job concentrates on applying principles of psychology to the workplace, for human resources, administration, management, sales and marketing. This type of psychologist helps to shape policy, trains employees and undertakes organizational analysis, working with management to improve worker productivity. This is an uncommon profession: The BLS only collects data on industrial-organizational psychologists in Minnesota, Texas, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, North Carolina and the District of Columbia. Industrial-organizational psychologists need a master’s, specialist, or doctoral degree in psychology. Practicing psychologists also need a license or certification.\nNo. 9: Computer and information systems manager\n•Average annual salary: $125,660\n•Current employment: 300,830\nFor computer and information systems managers, the primary job is to coordinate activities in data processing, information systems, systems analysis and computer programming. Generally, this type of position requires a bachelor’s degree in computer science or a similar field. Then they need an additional five years of experience before rising to this position. The top-paying industry for computer and information systems managers is the motion picture and video industry. Individuals in those areas receive an annual mean wage of $162,520 according to the BLS. The city with the highest concentration of this job is Washington, D.C., where 5.73 out of every 1,000 jobs are computer and information systems managers.\nNo. 8: Marketing manager\n•Average annual salary: $126,190\n•Current employment: 168,410\nTasked with organizing marketing policies and programs, marketing managers determine demand for products and services offered by their firms. They also identify new customers, develop pricing strategies and strive to maximize company profits and market share. This position does not require a degree, but a bachelor’s degree is highly recommended. The top-paying metropolitan area for marketing managers is Framingham, Mass., with an average annual salary of $170,610. However, New York ($163,480) and New Jersey ($146,970) are the highest-paying states for marketing managers’ services.\nNo. 7: Natural science manager\n•Average annual salary: $128,230\n•Current employment: 47,510\nNatural sciences managers plan, direct or coordinate activities in life sciences, physical sciences, math and other science-related fields, according to the BLS. It’s a relatively broad career path, with natural science managers working in various areas of the economy, including research and development, pharmaceuticals, agricultural engineering and even government. Natural sciences managers need at least a bachelor’s degree in a natural science or a related field. Most natural sciences managers work as scientists before becoming managers. Durham-Chapel Hill, N.C., has the highest concentration of jobs in a metropolitan area with 5.13 natural science managers per 1,000 jobs. Olympia, Wash., comes in second with 3.03 per thousand.\nNo. 6: Architectural and engineering managers\n•Average annual salary: $129,350\n•Current employment: 184,530\nArchitectural and engineering managers plan, coordinate, and direct activities in architecture and engineering, including research and development in these fields. Most of their work is done in an office. Before becoming an architectural and engineering manager, one must complete a bachelor’s degree and have at least five years of related experience in the chosen field. Employment of architectural and engineering managers is expected to grow by 9 percent in the decade from 2010 to 2020 — slower than the average for all occupations, according to the BLS. In 2011, Alaska was the highest-paying state for this occupation with an average mean wage of $160,640. The industries that pay the most for this occupation are pipeline transportation of crude oil ($186,800) and oil and gas extraction ($167,060).\nNo. 5: Lawyer\n•Average annual salary: $130,490\n•Current employment: 570,950\nThe legal profession isn’t the easiest industry to break into, with minimum formal requirements in most states requiring seven years of school (four undergraduate, three law school) and a passing grade on the bar examination. Lawyers represent clients in both criminal and civil proceedings, draw up documents and advise clients on legal matters. Lawyers working for the private sector are compensated more generously than those in the public sphere: legal-services professionals make $137,170 on average in the private sector, while government lawyers make between $81,960 and $129,430.The top three highest paying industries for lawyers are petroleum and coal products manufacturing at around $215,760 per year, motor vehicle manufacturing at $187,360 and specialty hospitals (excluding psychiatric and substance abuse) at $184,610.If you are a lawyer practicing in the District of Columbia, then you are in good company. Approximately 29,010 lawyers are located there, or 45 lawyers per 1,000 jobs. They are also the most highly paid, with an average annual salary of $161,050.\nNo. 4: Petroleum engineer\n•Average annual salary: $138,980\n•Current employment: 30,880\nThe booming oil industry and the specialized skills required for petroleum engineers create one of the most highly compensated jobs in the country. Petroleum engineers develop plans for oil and gas extraction, production, and tool modification, overseeing drilling operations and providing technical advice. On average, petroleum engineers working for the oil and gas extraction industry made an annual salary of $150,890. Heavy reliance on natural resources dictates which states have the highest employment of petroleum engineers. Texas employs the most at 18,060 with an average salary of $146,770 annually. Next is Oklahoma with, 3,090 employees paid $146,770, and Louisiana, with 2,440 paid around $120,720.\nNo. 3: Chief executive officer\n•Average annual salary: $176,550\n•Current employment: 267,370\nThey may be at the top of their company, but on average, CEOs only rank third as far as compensation is concerned. CEOs are responsible for formulating policies, coordinating operational activities and planning the overall direction of companies or public sector organizations. The qualifications depend on the company, but many firms want their CEOs to have at least a bachelor’s degree and considerable amounts of work experience. The cities that pay the most to the highest level of management are Stamford, Conn., ($234,030), Columbus, Ind., ($230,330), and Medford, Ore., ($225,100).\nNo. 2: Orthodontists and dentists\n•Average annual salary: $161,750-$204,670\n•Current employment: 101,400\nThe services of dentists and orthodontists are practically essential in this day and age. The high demand for the examination, diagnoses, and treatment of diseases, injuries and malformations of teeth and the gums makes this occupation among the most highly paid professions in the United States. The top-paying states for dentiststs this year are New Hampshire, with an annual average salary of $237,430, and Delaware, where the average salary stands at $210,440. Orthodontists — whose specialty is straightening teeth — have an average salary of $90,120 per year. That figure might seem low but it takes into account orthdontists who don't have a private practice and work instead in general medicine and surgical hospitals.\nNo. 1: Doctors and surgeons\n•Average annual salary: $168,650-$234,950\n•Current employment: 618,000-plus\nDoctors and surgeons are usually at the top the list when it comes to the highest paid occupations in the country. As is the case with others on this list, becoming a doctor or surgeon requires extensive education and training. Doctors are required to have four years of undergraduate education, four years of medical school and between three and eight years of an internship and residency, depending on their specialization or area of surgery. The salaries of doctors also vary greatly by concentration: Anesthesiologists are the highest-paid workers of 2011 at $234,950, while other high-paying medical positions include surgeons ($231,550), OB/GYNS ($218,610), and oral and maxillofacial surgeons ($217,380). Salaries also fluctuate based on location. For example, Arkansas is the top-paying state for family and general practitioners ($215,500) with Iowa ($213,460) and Nevada ($204,990) ranking second and third. According to the BLS, self-employed physicians who own or are part-owners of a medical practice generally have higher incomes than salaried physicians.\nMore from CNBC.com:",
"How Much Money Can A Counselor in Private Practice Make?\nHow Much Money Can A Counselor in Private Practice Make?\nby Anthony Centore | May 9, 2016 | Counseling Blog , Private Practice | 301 comments\nBuilding a Six-Figure Counseling Practice:\nAccording to Salary.com, a Licensed Professional Counselor working in Cambridge, MA makes a median average of $40,798 per year. In a city where rent for a small apartment runs north of 2K a month, that’s beyond bleak.\nWhile nobody chooses counseling as a profession because of the high pay, is dismal compensation our fate? Financially speaking, are counselors better off giving advice while tending bar? I don’t think so.\nWith good planning and hard work, earning over $100,000 profit in year two of private practice is for many an obtainable goal.\n“How to Thrive in Counseling Private Practice”\nMoney in Private Practice\nAs counselors, we loathe to discuss money–we want to focus on patient care. However, it’s a necessary part of keeping the doors open. Truth is, you can’t help anyone if you’re out of business, and a counseling practice is precisely that—a business. Hence, we’re going to look at the financial aspects of running a viable business/practice.\nNote: the following numbers are only estimates for a solo-practitioner in private practice. You might need to adjust expenses, client fees, and volumes based on your own goals and the costs of your area. I’ve tried to be conservative when referencing revenues, and liberal when referencing expenses.\nClient Fees\nDon’t go it alone: Open your own Thriveworks Counseling Practice!\nClient fees vary depending on location and payer. For example, in Virginia a masters-level clinician accepting 3rd party insurance payments might earn $99 for a diagnostic evaluation (90791). Ongoing appointments for individual or family psychotherapy (90834/90837/90847) might pay around $70. Let’s estimate your average session fee to be a moderate $75 per session.\nFulltime Caseload\nThe number of sessions that constitutes a fulltime caseload is often debated amongst clinicians. Some persons feel that 30 sessions per week is a heavy caseload, while others find that they can serve 40+ clients per week. I find 35 clients per week to be a reasonable number. If you’re providing 45-minute sessions, that’s 26.25 hours of face-to-face work with clients each week. Add in schedule gaps and practice management duties, and you’re looking at a 40 to 45-hour workweek. It’s a full time job, but sustainable.\nIn addition, let’s say that you give yourself a modest 4 weeks of vacation every year.\nSimple Math:\n35 (sessions per week) x 48 (weeks per year) = 1,680 (sessions per year)\n* * *\n1,680 (sessions per year) x $75 (fee per session) = $126,000 (gross yearly revenue)\nNormal Practice Expenses\nOffice and Operational Expenses\nThere are numerous small and seemingly hidden costs to running a private practice: from patient parking, to coffee, to organic tissues, to printer ink. Here are some ballpark numbers for the solo private practice.\nRent (one office): $550 per month = $6,600 per year\nOffice supplies (computer, software, phone, furniture, printer, coffee, etc.) = $3,000 per year Note: furniture, unless financed, will be an initial outlay of several thousand dollars.\nProfessional dues, continuing education, & liability insurance = $800 per year\n($800 won’t get you to a national conference, but it will cover the basics. There are many options for low cost CEs–one just needs to look).\nAccounting & Legal fees = $500 per year\nOther Miscellaneous = $1000 per year\nTotal Office and Operational Expenses: $11,900 per year\nIn addition, two potentially larger expense categories are in the realm of marketing and billing.\nAdvertising and Marketing\nLooking for a Turn-Key Counseling Practice? Thriveworks is Franchising!\nThere’s no “correct” amount to spend on marketing and advertising. In fact, many counselors get by with spending very little. However, for the sake of this exercise, let’s say that you’ll take 5 percent of your gross yearly revenue and invest it into marketing and advertising your practice.\nSimple Math:\n5 percent (marketing and advertising) of $126,000 (yearly revenue) = $6,300 (marketing per year).\nMedical Billing\nWhile some counselors prefer to do their own medical billing, you may wish to hire a company to handle it for you. A customary cost is 8 percent of what the billing company collects, which comes out to around 5.5 percent of your gross revenue (note that it’s 5.5 percent because medical billing companies don’t customarily take a share of client deductibles, or co-pays).\nSimple Math:\n5.5 percent (billing company) of $126,000 (yearly revenue) = $6,930 (billing company fee)\nSimple Totals:\n$126,000 (gross revenue)-$11,900 (office & ops expenses) –$6,300 (marketing per year) –$6,930 (billing company fee)\n= $100,870 (final net revenue)\nAnd there we have it: a 6-figure private practice. A far cry from $40,798!\nVariables\nWhile the above provides an outline of private practice financials, no counseling practice will perfectly mirror the example. To help you determine more accurately your practice’s finances, here is a list of financial variables for your consideration:\n1. The “final net revenue” above does not include the cost of health insurance, retirement planning, accounting services, or taxes, which are often partially covered by an employer. These items will detract from your expendable income.\n2. Owning a business might have tax advantages that one doesn’t receive as an employee. For example, if you purchase a new laptop it might qualify as a business expense (meaning it’s paid for with pre-tax money).\n3. The estimates above assume that one will be able to maintain a client roster of 35 client sessions a week (by year two). Low new client volume, or high client attrition, can reduce your weekly session count.\n4. Client cancellations and/or client no-shows could lower (or raise) your income, depending on how you manage your practice schedule.\n5. To expedite the building of a caseload in year one, more money could be invested into advertising (or time spent in professional networking).\n6. After building a strong reputation and establishing active referral sources, you may be able to eliminate advertising and marketing (reclaim up to 5 percent).\n7. If you see some (or all) cash-pay clients, you can reduce or eliminate medical billing expenses (reclaim up to 5.5 percent).\n8. If demand for your services outweighs supply (that’s you), you can raise your cash-pay rates to $99 (add $40,320 revenue!). Note: you can also add a second clinician, but that starts a whole new level of mathematical complexity.\n9. The estimates above do not account for unpaid session fees (subtract up to 4 percent).\n10. If you accept credit cards, subtract roughly 2 percent revenue from whatever percentage of session fees you expect to process with plastic.\n11. If you decide to work 40, 45-minute sessions per week (30 face-to-face hours with clients), add $18,000 revenue.\n12. If you reduce your time off from 4 weeks to 3 weeks, add $2,625 revenue (not worth it!).\nAs a rule, counselors aren’t motivated or excited by numbers (who enjoyed psych-stats? Not me!). So, thanks for hanging in there. I look forward to your comments, questions, and thoughts on Twitter @anthonycentore.\nHow Much Money Can a Counselor in Private Practice Make?\nNot to be missed, Dr. Anthony Centore breaks down the revenues and expenses (and variables) of beginning and running a solo counseling private practice. To watch full video, click here: http://thriveworks.com/private-practice/"
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"The port city of Santander (,; ) is the capital of the autonomous community and historical region of Cantabria situated on the north coast of Spain. Located east of Gijón and west of Bilbao, the city has a population of 178,465 (2013). Santander houses the headquarters of multinational bank Banco Santander, and is the location of the founding of the namesake company.\n\nHistory\n\nOrigins, Roman period and Middle Ages\n\nThe origin of the earliest human settlements in the current Santander is not easy to establish because there are few written and archaeological data. However, there would appear to be good practical reasons for ancient settlers to have chosen the north side of the bay, sheltered from it and safer from the storms of the Bay of Biscay, on the north side of the promontory of Somorrostro and along the ancient Becedo estuary. Moreover, the hillside provided good visibility for spotting potential attackers, making this the ideal place for the foundation of a stable settlement, which was to evolve throughout the Middle Ages. \n\nIn Roman times the first written mention appeared, the port being known as Portus Victoriae Iuliobrigensium to Pliny the Elder. Roman archaeological remains found in the Peninsula Magdalena include the remains of a building with mosaic floors, a Hermes bronze and other material monetary and ceramic. On the promontory of San Martin were found a villa of the 1st century AD with remnants of the hypocaustum of some baths, various silver coins and an amphora. Notably, in the area of Cerro de Somorrostro (Latin : summum rostrum, 'greater promontory') systematic excavations were conducted and under the present cathedral churches early medieval and Roman remains were discovered: hypocaustum structures belonging to a thermal establishment, retaining walls and other buildings, all accompanied by significant monetary finds, a sestercio of the time of the Emperor Trajan, coins of Constantine I, etc. These finds indicated that the Romans carried out mining and commercial activities with the port as a base. We also know that according to the historian Hidacio (5th century), the population was ransacked by the Heruli. \n\nAlthough it is mentioned for the first time in 1068, in a draft document made by King Sancho II, in the ninth century Alfonso II the Chaste founded the Abbey of the Holy Bodies in the existing chapel on the hill of Somorrostro, housing as holy relics the heads of Saint Emeterius and Saint Celedonius and the graves of other unknown martyrs, giving the abbey its name. According to legend, the heads of Saint Emeterius and Saint Celedonius, third century martyrs beheaded in Calahorra for refusing to renounce their Christian faith, were transported in a stone boat to protect them from the Muslim advance. The boat arrived in Santander and after going around the peninsula collided with and went through a rock at the entrance of the bay (now Isla de la Horadada) where the relics were deposited in the cave under the primitive church in Cerro de San Pedro (Somorrostro). The existing monastery on this spot took them as patrons, placing their effigies on the shield of the church and later on that of the city. \n\nOn July 11, 1187 King Alfonso VIII of Castile was appointed abbot of San Emeterio and lord and master of the town. His jurisdiction tended to facilitate maritime traffic, fishing and trade, activities that contributed to the Abbey by means of taxation. Other local economic activities included wine growing and making pickles. \n\nDuring the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the population was contained within the walls of two different pueblas. La Puebla, the oldest, on the hill overlooking the city facing the bay, included the old castle, the Abbey of the Holy Bodies and the cloister. It had three rows of houses, separated by Rua Carnicerias and Rua Mayor, where the homes of prominent people of the town were, as well as those of the Abbot's canons. Meanwhile, the Puebla Nueva contained the convent of Santa Clara and San Francisco, which gave its name to one of the main streets; other important streets were the Rua de la Sal, The cavalcade Palace, Ribera, Don Gutierre, Puerta de la Sierra, Gallows and the Arcillero Rua. The two pueblas were joined by a bridge over the river that divided Becedo and flowed down to the shipyards, which were ordered by the king to take timber from the Cantabrian forests for shipbuilding. The villa was required to give the monarchy a ship per year.\n\nThe city owes its existence to the excellent harbour of the Bay of Santander. Santander was an important port for Castile in the later Middle Ages, and also for trade with the New World. It officially became a city in 1755. \n\nCabo Machichaco Blast\n\nOn November 3, 1893, the Vizcaya Cabo Machichaco ship docked at the wharf of Santander loaded with 51 tons of dynamite in the hold and sulfuric acid tanks on deck. The regulations on dangerous goods were being systematically breached by authorities and charterers. At noon, a fire on the ship brought the crews of other boats (like the steamship Alfonso XII, built in 1889), fighting equipment, authorities (including the civil governor) and onlookers. Shortly afterwards there was a massive explosion. 590 were killed and 525 wounded. Note that at that time there was a population of 50,000 registered in the city. The first rows of houses around the dock collapsed, and the ship dropped anchor near Cueto, several kilometers away. \n\nGreat fire of 1941\n\nSee also (Spanish): Incendio de Santander\n\nSantander fell victim to a great fire in 1941. Fanned by a strong south wind, the fire burned for two days. The fire started in Cádiz Street, next to the harbour, the Cathedral and the medieval quarter. The fire destroyed the Old Town Hall, Jesús de Monasterio and Vargas streets and Atarazanas square buildings. It led to a major change in the architecture of Santander, away from the older small stone and wood buildings with balconies to the enormous blocks of flats built during the reconstruction. In 1942 the old stations (Estación del Norte and Estación de Bilbao) were demolished and the new station was built, so in the zone affected by the fire, only the old Bank of Spain, the Porticada Square, the Market of La Esperanza, the Post Office, the New Town Hall and some small streets with old buildings survived. \n\nThere was only one casualty of the fire, a firefighter from Madrid killed in the line of duty, but thousands of families were left homeless and the city was plunged into chaos. The fire destroyed the greater part of the medieval town centre and gutted the city's Romanesque cathedral. \n\nIn the early 20th century Santander became the favoured summer residence of King Alfonso XIII, who built the Palacio de la Magdalena as the residence of the royal family during the holidays. The city gained great popularity from this and from the 19th century enthusiasm for sea bathing, and it remains popular with the Spanish for beach holidays today. During this period, Santander was (like the rest of the northern cities) a very important economic centre. It had one of the biggest harbours and was connected by rail to the rest of Spain. \n\nGeography\n\nTowns\n\nThe municipality of Santander has included, since 2009, the city of Santander and the urban areas of Cueto, Monte, Peñacastillo, and San Román, places that were once villages but are increasingly being assimilated into the city centre. Santander and these towns have several neighbourhoods that are not separately administered and do not have specified boundaries but some of which do have a certain personality that differentiates them from other areas of the city. Currently the city of Santander is working to adapt the municipality to the law of large cities and thus decentralise power in several districts.\n\n* Cueto\n** Neighborhoods: La Pereda, Valdenoja, Fumoril.\n* Monte\n** Neighborhoods: Corbanera, La Torre, Aviche, Bolado and San Miguel.\n* Peñacastillo\n** Neighborhoods: Nuevo Parque, Primero de Mayo, Nueva Montaña, Ojaiz, Adarzo, Rucandial, Camarreal, Lluja, El Empalme, La Lenteja.\n* San Román de la Llanilla\n** Neighborhoods: Corbán, Rostrío.\n* Santander (Capital)\n** Neighborhoods: La Albericia, Cazoña, El Sardinero, Barrio Pesquero, El Alisal, Cabildo de Arriba, Castilla-Hermida jose manuel atropellado dep, Puertochico, Centro, Cuatro Caminos, Calle Alta, General Dávila, Canalejas, San Fernando, etc.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of Santander is oceanic (Köppen climate classification Cfb), the annual thermal oscillation of the average monthly temperatures reaching around 10 °C.\n\nHumidity is quite high throughout the year and sometimes reaches more than 90%. Average daily maximum temperatures vary from 24 °C in summer down to 13 °C in winter. Summer temperatures are much cooler than in the more southern large cities of Spain, but are typical of the Atlantic coastline. In general however, summers are warmer than further west on the northern coastline. The damp, mild winters are more typical of the mediterranean climate but the frequent precipitation in summer prevents Santander and the northern coast being classified as cool-summer mediterranean, despite having similar temperatures to many such areas. As regards to daytime temperatures, summers in Santander are similar to areas of Northern France, Southern Britain, and continental Northern Europe, and comparable to spring-like conditions along the Spanish mediterranean.\n\nThe maximum temperature reached in Santander Airport was on 27 June 2009, and the minimum temperature on 21 January 1957. The warmest maximum daytime average for a month was in August 2003, with . Subtropical months (mean above 22 C) are however rare. Another weather station recorded on 17 August 1943. \n\nSunshine hours are very low by comparison with the rest of mainland and southern Spain. With just around 1650 hours of sunshine, Santander is about as sunny as London and Paris, and quite a bit less sunny than most of England's south coastal regions.\n\nTourism\n\nThe bars and restaurants of the old town are popular with tourists, as well as the El Sardinero beach a couple of kilometres away. \n\nPolitics and government\n\nSince June 2007, Iñigo de la Serna, of the People's Party (conservative) has served as Mayor of Santander. The most important political parties in the local area, in addition to the PP, are the Socialist Party of Cantabria - PSOE (social democrat), whose current spokesman is Jesús Cabezón Alonso, and the Regionalist Party of Cantabria with Rafael de la Sierra González. Throughout its history the most influential political parties have been of the ideological right wing, especially the PP.\n\nSantander City Council is divided into several departments: finance, property and public safety, city planning, public function, the internal system and culture, economic development, training and employment, social, civic participation, drug addiction, citizen action, and management of municipal companies. The council holds regular sessions each month, but has often held extraordinary plenary sessions to discuss issues and problems affecting the city.\n\nThe Governing Board, chaired by the mayor, is currently composed of 18 PP councillors. The municipal council consists of 27 members, 13 of the PP, 5 of the PSC-PSOE, 4 of the PRC, 2 of the Citizens, 2 of Ganemos, and 2 of the United Left. The following tables show the results of municipal elections in 2003 and 2007. \n\n2003 and 2007\n\n* Elected mayor: Gonzalo Piñeiro García-Lago (PP).\n\n* Elected mayor: Íñigo de la Serna (PP).\n\n2011 and 2015\n\n* Elected mayor: Íñigo de la Serna (PP).\n\n* Elected mayor: Íñigo de la Serna (PP).\n\nEconomy\n\nAs a service centre at the regional level, Santander contains important public institutions and private organisations with a large number of employees, including Marqués de Valdecilla University Hospital, the University of Cantabria and Grupo Santander. Activities related to culture, leisure and tourism are an important part of the city's economy, and the regional and municipal authorities look to augment the summer tourist trade with additional offerings, including conventions, conferences, cultural festivals and cruises.\nBanco Santander, Spain's largest bank and corporation, is headquartered here.\n\nDemography\n\n, Santander has a population of 183,800. The number has remained fairly steady since 1981. Spain's low fecundity rate and aging population have combined with rising immigration figures to keep the population growth fairly stagnant. \n\nHeritage\n\nIn this municipality, there are many bienes de interés cultural: \n\n* Santander Cathedral, with the rank of monument\n* Regional Museum of Prehistory and Archaeology of Cantabria, monument, which also includes two heritages of special protection, the Pátera de Otañes and the Early medieval treasure of Ambojo of Pedreña\n* Museum of Fine Arts of Santander, monument\n* Tower, walls and monuments of la Casa Noble de los Riva-Herrera, in Pronillo, monument\n* Palacio de la Magdalena and its gardens, monument\n* Library and casa-museum of Menéndez Pelayo, monument\n* Convent of las Madres Clarisas de Santa Cruz (formerly a tobacco factory), monument\n* Former Hospital of San Rafael (home of the Regional Assembly of Cantabria), monument\n* Mercado del Este, monument\n* Iglesia de Santa Lucía, monument\n* Parroquia de la Anunciación (La Compañía), monument\n* The Dam of Gamazo, monument.\n* Seminario de Monte Corbán, monument\n* Paseo de Pereda, with historical category\n* An area of \"El Sardinero\", the historic district\n* Iglesia de San Francisco, artistic and religious heritage of Cantabria\n* Cartulary of San Salvador de Oña (Burgos), personal property kept in the Provincial Historic Archive of Santander\n* Cartulary of the Monastery of Santa María de Piasca, heritage preserved in the Library of Santander\n\nIn addition, there are several inventory properties in the municipality: \n\n* Iglesia de la Virgen del Faro in Cueto\n* Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de la Visitación (Salesas Reales).\n* Batería de San Pedro del Mar in Monte.\n* The Protestant Cemetery.\n* Two of the steam locomotives (\"Udías, Mary, Revilla, Peñacastillo, Brawl and Begoña 3\") inventoried, in particular Peñacastillo locomotive and Revilla locomotive, both located in the old workshop hauled RENFE.\n\nThe city\n\nFamous people\n* Seve Ballesteros (1957–2011), golfer\n* María Gutiérrez Blanchard (1881–1932), painter\n* José Luis Zamanillo (1903-1980), Carlist politician\n* Matilde Camus (1919-2012), poet\n* Emilio Botín (1934-2014), banker\n* Iván Helguera (* 1975), football player\n* Pedro Munitis (* 1975), football player\n* Eduardo Noriega (* 1973), actor\n* Iván de la Peña (* 1976), football player\n* Fernando San Emeterio (* 1984), basketball player\n* Sergio Canales (* 1991), football player\n\nUrban growth\n\nFile:Bahia de Santander.jpg|View of the bay of Santander.\n\nIn recent decades the growth of Santander has been beyond the periphery of the city with smaller buildings and structures. \n\nIn the 1980s the port of Santander was displaced from the centre of the city and in recent years Santander has seen a recovery of its southern edge facing the Bay of Santander. The transfer of all port activities to Puerto de Raos has been gradual, with the exception of maritime passenger traffic that is centered on its maritime station front of Paseo de Pereda. \n\nCurrently the growth of port activity, increased value-added traffic (vehicles and containers of mostly liquids and solids) for storage requiring a lot of already scarce ground, and insufficient depth for some types of ships, is forcing the Port Authority to consider the long-term construction of a port outside the bay. On 29 June 2005 Santander celebrated the 250th anniversary of the granting of the title of \"City.\"\n\nMain sights\n\n* The Cathedral of Santander: \n**The lower temple, called \"cripta del Cristo\" was built around 1200 on other earlier Roman buildings. It is 31 meters long and 18 wide, organised into three naves. Its style is a transition from romanesque to gothic and is accessed by two doors of late romanesque. Here the remains of the Holy Martyrs (Emeterius and Celedonius) are kept, which reached Portus Victoriae (the ancient Roman Santander) by boat.\n**The upper church was built between the late 13th and 14th century. After it was completed the gothic cloister was built.\n* El Sardinero was in 1840 a rugged area of Santander environment. Since 1850, the first tourists started arriving and created some facilities (bath houses, eateries ...). Following the summer of Queen Isabella II in El Sardinero in 1861 and Amedeo of Savoy in 1872, the area acquired great fame and began to attract many tourists. There was a spectacular urban and cultural development with the construction of several hotels, inns, cafes, trains and trams arriving at El Sardinero.\n* The Palacio de la Magdalena, eclectic style, English influenced, built in 1909 by public subscription as a gift for the Spanish Royal Family. \n* El Hotel Real was opened in the summer of 1917, in a privileged location overlooking the bay and the open sea. It is a five-story building, with south porch on a high terrace. The style is modern with an air of eclecticism, by the architect González Riancho. \n* Next to El Hotel Real stands the old house built for Don Adolfo Pardo from 1915–1918. Of mountain style with well marked tower, it was designed by the architect Gonzalez Riano and today is the palace of Emilio Botín García de los Ríos.\n* The Gran Casino del Sardinero completed in 1916, has some relationship to El Hotel Real and is one of the symbols of the city. It has a terrace balcony which is accessed by a monumental staircase. The two-story central body is framed at the sides with two octagonal towers, covered by domes, whose edges involved, from top to bottom, shafts with capitals for each floor. \n* The Lighthouse of Cabo Mayor presides over the entrance to the Bay of Santander. This privileged balcony overlooks the Cantabrian sea and in the city is now one of the most emblematic and evocative for citizens and visitors of Santander. Located in the extreme northeast of the city, the area where the Lighthouse of Cabo Mayor is located is part of a larger area consisting of the headlands of Cabo Mayor and Cabo Menor. The physical configuration of this space is defined by its particular geomorphology, marked by its beaches and cliffs of coastline and a rugged terrain with maximum dimensions of 50 m above sea level. Historically located on the outskirts of the city, the area of Cabo Mayor and Cabo Menor has applications and relevant functions: signal maritime defensive position, horse racing, camping, public park, golf course, etc. Thus it became a tourist landmark and one of the areas of greatest landscape and environmental variety.\n\nDistricts\n\n* La Gandara.\n* Cabildo de Arriba.\n* Cueto.\n* Cazoña.\n* Corbán.\n* Cuatro Caminos.\n* El Alta.\n* El Barrio Pesquero.\n* El Sardinero.\n* La Cavaduca.\n* La Albericia.\n* Nueva Montaña.\n* Puertochico.\n* Zona centro or del Ayuntamiento.\n* San Martín/Tetuán.\n\nMain streets, squares and parks\n\n* Streets, avenues and boulevards:\n** Paseo de Pereda (The ancient pier is a promenade overlooking the bay and the towns of Somo and Pedreña. cafés can be found as old as \"El Suizo\" where, in the past, traders and military writers met, such as Pereda himself). The Gardens also have the same name (which, in turn, is the monument to the writer José María de Pereda, which contains references to his works).\n** Reina Victoria Avenue (location of chalets overlooking the bay. Through this street is access to the beach Los Peligros).\n** Paseo del General Dávila (El Alta) (former Meteorological Observatory of Santander, I.E.S. José María de Pereda, Conservatorio Jesús de Monasterio).\n** Paseo de Pérez Galdós.\n** Castelar Street. (Overlooking the bay, joins the Paseo de Pereda with Reina Victoria Avenue)\n** Calvo Sotelo Street (Ministry of Finance, Post).\n** Burgos Street (It is one of the oldest streets of the city. It may be considered part of the old part of town, although the first references to the street date from the mid-18th century. The title of Burgos Street was awarded in 1845. The pedestrian-only street has benefited the trade of the area and its residents. This street is the headquarters of the ONCE and the Plaza de Juan Carlos I).\n** San Fernando Street (Street with great traffic flow is the main gateway to the city center. The Plaza de las Cervezas is a pedestrian-only area which belongs to this street, named for the brewery (La Cruz Blanca) which stood there before its current disposition.)\n** Alameda de Oviedo (Paseo full of trees, runs from the streets of San Fernando and Vargas, parallel to them, between Cuatro Caminos and Numancia).\n** Avenida de los Castros (In this broad avenue are located most of the universities centres of the University of Cantabria).\n* Parks and gardens:\n\n** Park of la Magdalena (Located on the Magdalena Peninsula, it is a major tourist spot thanks to the Palacio de la Magdalena, the tank seals and the old stables of the palace, where different college classes at UIMP are held.)\n** Las Llamas Atlantic Park (Open to the public on 11 May 2007, but today is still under construction. The park was initially budgeted at 22.5 million euros, but its price has risen 39.1% (8.8 million euros) for the incorporation of improvements). \n** Piquío Gardens (so called because they are shaped like the beak of a ship that \"enters\" into the sea, referring to the views offered at the end of the garden).\n** La Marga Park (located on the outskirts of the city, at the end of Castilla Street, named for the old timber that was placed there.)\n* Squares:\n\n** Plaza del Ayuntamiento (City Council Square).\n** Plaza de Pedro Velarde (Pedro Velarde Square) or Plaza Porticada.\n** Plaza de Pombo (Pombo Square)\n** Plaza de Atarazanas (Shipyards Square) or Plaza de la Catedral.\n\nEducation\n\n*University of Cantabria is the largest university in Cantabria.\n*European University of the Atlantic is a private university founded in 2013.\n*Universidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo (UIMP) specializes in teaching Spanish language and culture to foreign students.\n\nCulture\n\nSantander has a great tradition and cultural activity, with events that play an important role in cultural and social life of the city. UIMP is a major international summer university and organizes large festivals of music and dance. The Festival Internacional de Santander (FIS), Festival Internacional de Música de Órgano (FiMÓC), Encuentro de Música y Academia and the Paloma O'Shea International Piano Competition are main cultural events.\n\nMuseums and cultural centers\n\n* Cantabrian Maritime Museum.\n* Museum of Fine Arts.\n* Regional Museum of Prehistory and Archaeology of Cantabria.\n* Taurine Museum of Santander.\n* Palace of Festivals of Cantabria.\n* Palace of Exhibitions and Congress of Santander.\n* Modesto Tapia Cultural Center.\n\nFestivals\n\nSantander is a city of many festivals and pilgrimages, distributed across the various neighborhoods and areas of the city. Worthy of mention is the existence of many feasts of neighborhood character, such as those of Mendicoague, Perines, etc. The best known festivals in Santander and more tourist attraction, are:\n\n* January 5: The Cavalcade of Magi covers a small part of the city, from the Palacio de Festivales to the Plaza del Ayuntamiento.\n* The first Sunday of June: Cantabria Child Day is celebrated on Magdalena. It is a 'Regional Tourist Interest', an exaltation of the native, organized by the \"Association for the Defence of the Interests of Cantabria\" (ADIC), an association founded by Miguel Ángel Revilla. In this event are shown, among other things, an exhibition of \"Aluche\" (Ancient Cantabrian Fighting) and types of rural sports like milkmaid racing, archery, salto pasiego and wood chopping.\n* Monday of Pentecost: Fiestas de la Virgen del Mar.\n* June 24: The Bonfires of Saint John is celebrated in El Sardinero, particularly in the second beach of Sardinero. This festival celebrates the arrival of summer with a bonfire and a pilgrimage. In other parts of the municipality bonfires are also made, as in la Albericia and the Barrio Pesquero neighborhoods.\n* July 25: Festivals of Saint James (Regional Tourist Interest).\n* August 30: Feasts of the Holy Martyrs (Emeterius and Celedonius). Santander patrons.\n* September 15: Fiestas de la Virgen de la Bien Aparecida, patroness of the Diocese of Santander and Cantabria ('Regional Tourist Interest'.)\n\nDiet\n\nSantander's cuisine is based mainly on seafood, for which it has a high reputation in the Iberian peninsula. A gastronomic tour could start at the Barrio Pesquero, continue through Puertochico, El Sardinero, and end at Corbán. Shellfish include amayuelas (clams) and morgueras (razor clams); fish include seabream, red mullet, anchovies, seabass and sardines; and there are also squid and cuttlefish.\n\nDining in Santander also provides access to a variety of typical produce from all over Cantabria, such as clams from Pedreña, bonito from Colindres, anchovies from Santoña, and bream from Castro Urdiales. The great variety of legumes, fruits and vegetables produced in the region of Liébana also warrant mentioning, as well as boards of different kinds of high-quality cheeses that are produced in Cantabria. Santander's meat comes from cattle raised in Cantabria. Reared on natural grasses, veal, heifer, [http://restaurantum.com/m/restaurant.php?id238&lang\nen yearling sheep] and ox enjoy a great reputation.\n\nSome typical dishes from the city of Santander are the fried calamari called rabas and double donuts, in addition to leading the aforementioned cocido montañés and fish and seafood dishes ranging from seabass and sardine to products such as the morguera. Santander's restaurants offer excellent local cuisine, based on its exquisite local produce.\n\nSports\n\nIn this city the Spanish first division Racing de Santander football team, one of the historic and certainly that was one of the founders of La Liga, play their home games at the Campos de Sport de El Sardinero. Racing de Santander has been 40 seasons in first division and 32 in second. In the 1930/1931 season, it finished second level on points with Athletic Club Bilbao (champion) and the Real Sociedad (third), that time was the one that came closest to winning the league championship.\n\nA long tradition in the city was handball, with CB Cantabria as a banner that has taken the name of Santander in Europe and the world with the achievement of several international titles, the European Cup in 1994,the Recopa in 1990 and 1998 and the EHF Cup in 1993. Currently, the club is dissolved. The only team that has an important place in the national scene at the moment is the Adelma Santander 2016, belonging to the Handball Club Sinfín. It competes in the category of the División de Honor Plata (second division).\n\nSome elite teams of Santander:\n\nAlso:\n\n* Santander has hosted the Davis Cup in 2000 and 2006.\n* Santander has many times hosted a finish of stage of the Vuelta a España.\n* There are numerous watercraft rowing regattas in the Bay and Abra del Sardinero.\n* Summer tournaments of football and beach volleyball.\n* Sailing races organized by the Real Club Marítimo de Santander.\n* Horse Racing in la Campa de la Magdalena.\n* Around all the municipality are located many boleras of the modality Bolo Palma, typical of the region. Various competitions and championships are held, commonly in Cantabria and eastern Asturias.\n* Surfing championships of international stature. As Quick Silver La Vaca Gigante Pro in El Bocal spot in Santander, or the WQS 4Stars Rip Curl Pro in Liencres beach, or the female WCT on the beaches of Liencres and Sardinero.\n\nMain sports centers:\n\n* Sport Complex of la Albericia (Sport Municipal Institute).\n* High Performance Centre of Sailing Príncipe Felipe.\n* Puertochico (sporting marina).\n* Mataleñas golf field.\n* Royal Society of Tennis La Magdalena. \n\nPanoramic view",
"Santander Airport is an international airport near Santander, Spain and the only airport in Cantabria. In 2012 the airport handled 1,117,617 passengers and 17,070 flights, far more than in 1995 when it handled only 180,000 passengers. Since then, the traffic has declined following the trend in Spanish airports and the decrease in operations by some of the companies. \n\nName\n\nThe airport is named after the famous golf player Seve Ballesteros, born in Pedreña, a few kilometres from the airport and being one of the most well known public figures of Cantabria in the last century. The airport was known as 'Santander Airport' until 2015. In May 2014, a popular initiative taken to the Parliament of Cantabria was unanimously approved to change the name after Seve Ballesteros, an icon in sport and life and one of the best ambassadors that Cantabria ever had in the last decades. The Spanish Government finally approved by law the change the 16th of April, 2015 \n\nHistory\n\nThe current airport, built on ground filled of the bay of Santander, was opened to traffic in 1977. Before there was on the same site a smaller airfield built between 1947 and 1952 by prisoners of the Spanish Civil War. It opened in 1953 replacing the old Santander airport located in La Albericia, that was receiving commercial flights since 1949, and received the name of Aeropuerto de Santander and popularly known as \"Parayas\". It received the international rating in 1957. \n\nAfter a three-year closure (from April 1974 until August 8, 1977), in which the airport underwent a major renovation that significantly expanded its facilities and had a cost of more than 1,100 million pesetas of the time; it was reopened with a new 2,400 m runway and with the technology to allow both visual and instrumental flight; the first flight after the renovation corresponded to the Iberia's DC-9 \"Ciudad de Santander\", that covered the Barcelona-Santander-Santiago de Compostela route. \n\nIn recent years there have been new renovation works, that started in 2007, remodeling and expanding the terminal and installing two gateways or fingers for direct access to the planes, widening the platform for parking more aircraft or construction of taxiways and a platform for general aviation. \n\nUntil 2003 the premises were considered underused due to the limited number of flights and their high fees, which made a shift in potential passengers to the airport of Bilbao, 100 km away. From this date, following an agreement signed between the Government of Cantabria and the budget airline Ryanair, the airport experimented an increase in the number of destinations (national and international), passengers and airlines operating. In 2005 the airport reached 644,662 passengers, growing by 88% over the previous year and having a user balance between domestic and international flights. This increase was the largest proportion of all airports in Spain in that year.\n\nIn December 2010, for the upgrading of the facilities 37.8 million euros were invested, preparing the airport hold an annual traffic of over two million passengers a year. The works included the remodeling of the terminal building of 10,200 m2, expanding new areas of departures and arrivals as well as the construction of a taxiway that can handle 22 movements per hour, and the extension of the aircraft parking platform. \n\nFacilities\n\nAfter the implementation of the renovations referred to in the Airport Master Plan, today it has 8 check-in desks, 3 baggage carousels in the arrivals lounge and 5 boarding gates. As an international airport, it is also capable to handle international flights from countries outside Schengen treaty.[http://www.aena-aeropuertos.es/santander/en Santander Official Airport website]. Aena.es. Retrieved on 24-10-2012.\n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nStatistics \n\nColors=\n id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9)\n id:darkgrey value:gray(0.7)\n id:sfondo value:rgb(1,1,1)\n id:barra value:rgb(0.6,0.7,0.9)\n id:barra2 value:rgb(0.6,0.9,0.7)\n\nImageSize = width:550 height:350\nPlotArea = left:50 bottom:50 top:30 right:30\nDateFormat = x.y\nPeriod = from:0 till:1200\nTimeAxis = orientation:vertical\nAlignBars = justify\nScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:100 start:0\nScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:20 start:0\nBackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo\n\nBarData=\n bar:2000 text:2000\n bar:2001 text:2001\n bar:2002 text:2002\n bar:2003 text:2003\n bar:2004 text:2004\n bar:2005 text:2005\n bar:2006 text:2006\n bar:2007 text:2007\n bar:2008 text:2008\n bar:2009 text:2009\n bar:2010 text:2010\n bar:2011 text:2011\n bar:2012 text:2012\n bar:2013 text:2013\n bar:2014 text:2014\n bar:2015 text:2015\n\nPlotData=\n color:barra width:20 align:center\n\n bar:2000 from:0 till: 261\n bar:2001 from:0 till: 272\n bar:2002 from:0 till: 262\n bar:2003 from:0 till: 254\n bar:2004 from:0 till: 343\n bar:2005 from:0 till: 645\n bar:2006 from:0 till: 649\n bar:2007 from:0 till: 762\n bar:2008 from:0 till: 857\n bar:2009 from:0 till: 958\n bar:2010 from:0 till: 918\n\nPlotData=\n color:barra2 width:20 align:center\n \n bar:2011 from:0 till: 1116\n bar:2012 from:0 till: 1118\n bar:2013 from:0 till: 974\n bar:2014 from:0 till: 815\n bar:2015 from:0 till: 696\n\nTextData=\n fontsize:S pos:(20,20)\n text:Evolution in the number of passengers since 2000 (in thousands of passengers). Green since enlargement. Source AENA - Development Graphics by Wikipedia\n\nGround transport \n\nThe road access by car is from the S-10 highway, exit 3 and then taking the road N-636 that leads to the airport facilities. There is also a regular bus line from Santander's main bus station in the city centre. The line buses from ALSA also stop in the airport prior booking in the routes that connect Santander with other towns in northern Spain like Bilbao, Gijón, Oviedo or Laredo."
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"Santander (Seve Ballesteros) Airport, Spain (SDR) - Guide & Flights\nSantander Airport Arrivals/Departures\nSantander Airport, otherwise known as Seve Ballesteros Airport, is located 5Km South of Santander on the Costa verde, in the Cantabria region, northern Spain.\nSantander airport has undergone exapansion and improvement work due to the incresed passenger numbers in the last few years. A new departures and catering area is in use.\nA bus runs from the airport to Santander bus station every half hour for most of the day for 2 Euros (journey time 15 minutes).\nOther bus services connect the airport with Bilbao, Gij�n, Oviedo, and Laredo.\nTaxi to Santander costs around 20 Euros.\nFacilities include 2 cafe/restaurant, a shop, 2 ATM's, and WiFi Internet access.\nPassenger numbers totalled 876,000 in 2016, an increase of 7% from the previous year.\nFlights to Santander Seve Ballesteros Airport from UK or Ireland airports",
"Corporate website\nGrupo Santander's intranet ranked in top 10 worldwide according to Nielsen Norman Group\n10/01/2017\nCorporate Centre's intranet has been ranked in the top 10 published by Nielsen Norman Group, which recognises the best intranets worldwide, and includes those of major companies such as Bank of America and IBM. The aspects evaluated include design and usability, the unification of various content under the same portal, the possibility to personalise the site, its responsive design (the screen adapts to the type of device used) and, above all, its ease of use and user satisfaction.\nApple Pay now available to Banco Santander customers in Spain\n01/12/2016\nBanco Santander today brings its customers Apple Pay, an easy, secure and private way to pay that’s fast and convenient. Santander is the first Spanish financial institution to offer Apple Pay to its customers. Redsys and Mastercard collaborated in the initiative. “Apple Pay shows we are committed to collaborate and to bring innovation and new technology to our customers to make their payments easier, faster and more secure,” said Rami Aboukhair, country head of Santander Spain. \"We are convinced our customers will love it.”",
"Santander Airport Guide - Spanish Airports Guide to Santander Airport\nSantander Airport\nSantander Airport Guide\nIf you have decided to fly into Santander Airport, you will be pleased to know that the City Centre is just 5 km away and is easily accessible from bus companies that serve the airport. The airport has recently been reformed and modernised with numerous extension works and in 2011 it served well over 1 million visitors.\nThe airport is a small airport with only a handful of gates and airlines flying out from here, however it has everything you need from an airport; connections to the City Centre, car rentals desks, shops, places to sit down and eat and now offers all the up to date WIFI technology and also access points in numerous areas, so if you are someone that can´t switch off, you can still keep in contact with the outside world.\nSantander Airport is in the North of Spain and is the only airport in the Cantabria Region. Great for travelling to Bilbao, Gijon, Oviedo, Burgos etc. Should you decide to travel around this wonderful region of Spain, well know for its gastronomy, Im sure you will not be disappointed. Santander is located on the northern coast of Spain between beautiful Asturias and the Basque Country which overlooks the Cantabrian Sea. This part of Spain is beautiful and there is so many historical sites that you must go and see along with wonderful beaches too. So a great place for a weekend away or main holiday.\nSantander Airport's main air traffic is made up mostly of scheduled domestic and international flights. In 2015 the airport handled 875.920 passengers with 10.795 flight operations.",
"Contact\nContact\n28660 Boadilla del Monte MADRID-SPAIN\nGENERAL INFORMATION\nPhone from Spain: 902 11 22 11\nPhone from abroad: +34 912890000\nNATIONAL MEDIA COMMUNICATIONS\nSee full list in Press Room ( Contact )\nINTERNATIONAL MEDIA COMMUNICATIONS\nSee full list in Press Room ( Contact )\nSHAREHOLDERS\n28660 Boadilla del Monte MADRID-SPAIN\nPhone from Spain: 902 11 17 11\nPhone from abroad: +34 912769290\nAttention schedule:\n08:30h to 19:00h (GMT+2) Monday to Friday\n08:30h to 13:30h (GMT+2) Saturday\n(From July 1st to September 30rd, no services on Saturday)\nRELATIONS WITH INVESTOR AND ANALYSTS\nSantander Group City"
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In which year was Nigel Mansell Indy Car Champion?
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"Nigel Ernest James Mansell, (; born 8 August 1953) is a British former racing driver who won both the Formula One World Championship (1992) and the CART Indy Car World Series (1993). Mansell was the reigning F1 champion when he moved over to CART, becoming the first person to win the CART title in his debut season, and making him the only person to hold both the World Drivers Championship and the American open-wheel National Championship simultaneously.\n\nHis career in Formula One spanned 15 seasons, with his final two full seasons of top-level racing being spent in the CART series. Mansell is the second most successful British Formula One driver of all time in terms of race wins with 31 victories, and is seventh overall on the Formula One race winners list behind Michael Schumacher, Alain Prost, Lewis Hamilton, Sebastian Vettel, Ayrton Senna and Fernando Alonso. He held the record for the most number of poles set in a single season, which was broken in by Sebastian Vettel. He was rated in the top 10 Formula One drivers of all time by longtime Formula One commentator Murray Walker. In 2008, ESPN.com ranked him 24th on their \"Top 25 Drivers of All Time\" list. He was also ranked No. 9 of the 50 greatest F1 drivers of all time by the Times Online on a list that also included such drivers as Prost, Senna, Jackie Stewart and Jim Clark. \n\nMansell raced in the Grand Prix Masters series in 2005, and won the championship title. He later signed a one-off race deal for the Scuderia Ecosse GT race team to drive their number 63 Ferrari F430 GT2 car at Silverstone on 6 May 2007. He has since competed in additional sports car races with his sons Leo and Greg, including the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans.\n\nMansell was inducted to the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005. He is the current president of one of the UK's largest Youth Work Charities, UK Youth. He is also President of the IAM (Institute of Advanced Motorists). In September 2014, it was announced that Mansell would be opening a Mitsubishi franchise on Jersey later in the month. In September 2015 the organisers of the Mexican Grand Prix (which was returning to Formula One after a 23-year absence) announced that the final corner of the redesigned Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez circuit would be named after the 1992 Formula One World Champion and winner of the final race at the Mexico City circuit before it was dropped from the Formula One calendar for the 1993 season.\n\nEarly life and career\n\nNigel Ernest James Mansell was born on 8 August 1953 in Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire, the son of Eric, an engineer and Joyce Mansell (d. May 17, 1984). Mansell spent 11 years of his life as a Special Constable in the Isle of Man during his driving career and in Devon and Cornwall after he retired from racing and was developing a golf course in Devon. \n\nHe had a fairly slow start to his racing career, using his own money to help work his way up the ranks. After considerable success in kart racing, he moved to the Formula Ford series to the disapproval of his father. In 1976, Mansell won 6 of the 9 races he took part in, including his debut event at Mallory Park. He entered 42 races the following year and won 33 to become the 1977 British Formula Ford champion, despite suffering a broken neck in a qualifying session at Brands Hatch. Doctors told him he had been perilously close to quadriplegia, that he would be confined for six months and would never drive again. Mansell discharged himself from the hospital and returned to racing. Three weeks before the accident he had resigned his job as an aerospace engineer, having previously sold most of his personal belongings to finance his foray into Formula Ford. Later that year he was given the chance to race a Lola T570 Formula 3 car at Silverstone. He finished fourth and decided that he was ready to move into the higher formula. \n\nMansell raced in Formula Three in 1978–1980. Mansell's first season in Formula Three started with a pole position and a 2nd-place finish. However, the car was not competitive, as a commercial deal with Unipart required his team to use Triumph Dolomite engines that were vastly inferior to the Toyota engines used by the leading teams. After three 7th-place finishes and a fourth in his last race, he parted from the team. The next season saw him take a paid drive with Dave Price Racing. Following a first win in the series at Silverstone in March, he went on to finish 8th in the championship. His racing was consistent, but a collision with Andrea de Cesaris resulted in a huge cartwheeling crash which he was lucky to survive. Again he was hospitalised, this time with broken vertebrae.\n\nHis driving was noticed by Colin Chapman, owner of Lotus, and shortly after his accident, hiding the extent of his injury with painkillers, Mansell performed well enough during a tryout at the Paul Ricard circuit with Lotus, where he was pitted against a number of other drivers to determine who was going to take the second seat for the 1980 season alongside Mario Andretti, as Argentinean Carlos Reutemann was leaving to go to Williams. Driving a 79, the seat eventually went to Italian driver Elio de Angelis, but Mansell was selected to become a test driver for the Norfolk-based Formula One team.\n\nFormula One\n\n1980–84: Lotus\n\n;1980 and 1981\nMansell's skill as a test driver, including setting the fastest lap around Silverstone in a Lotus car at the time, impressed Chapman enough to give him a trio of starts in F1 in , driving a development version of the Lotus 81 used by the team, the Lotus 81B. In his Formula One debut at the 1980 Austrian Grand Prix, a fuel leak in the cockpit that developed shortly before the start of the race left him with painful first and second degree burns on his buttocks. An engine failure forced him to retire from that race and his second, however an accident at his third event at Imola meant he failed to qualify. Team leader Mario Andretti wrote his car off in a start-line accident during the Canadian Grand Prix at Montreal, so Mansell had to give up his car for Andretti to compete in for his home race, the final race of the season at Watkins Glen in the United States. Andretti announced he was leaving to move to Alfa Romeo at the end of the season leaving Lotus with a vacant race seat.\n\nDespite Mansell being unpopular with sponsor David Thieme of Essex Petroleum, and much speculation in the press that Jean-Pierre Jarier would fill the vacancy, Chapman announced at the start of the season the seat would be filled by Mansell.\n\nMansell's four years as a full-time Lotus driver were a struggle, as the cars were unreliable and he was continually out performed by teammate Elio de Angelis. Out of 59 race starts with the team, he finished just 24 of them. He managed a best finish of third place, which he achieved five times during the four years, including Lotus's fifth race of the season, and only the seventh of Mansell's Formula One career. Team mate Elio de Angelis took a surprise win at the 1982 Austrian Grand Prix, and was frequently faster than his less experienced colleague Mansell.\n\n;1982\n\nDuring the season, Mansell planned to race in the 24 Hours of Le Mans sportscar event in order to earn extra money. At the time Mansell was paid £50,000 a year and was offered £10,000 to take part in Le Mans. Chapman believed that by entering the Le Mans race, Mansell was exposing himself to unnecessary risk and paid him £10,000 to not take part in the race. Chapman extended Mansell's contract to the end of the season in a deal that made him a millionaire. \n\nAs a result of the gestures, such as described above, Mansell became very close to Chapman, who made him equal number one in the team with de Angelis, and was devastated by Chapman's sudden death in 1982. In his autobiography Mansell stated that when Chapman died, \"The bottom dropped out of my world. Part of me died with him. I had lost a member of my family\". Following Chapman's death, relationships at Lotus became strained, as replacement team principal Peter Warr did not have a high regard for him as a driver or person. Warr in his book titled Team Lotus - My View From The Pit Wall stated about the 1982 season, \"After carefully analysing the season just finished, it was completely clear who was the number one. It was Elio. He was faster, he had out-qualified Nigel ten times to three. Elio had seven points scoring finishes to Nigel's two and in addition to Elio's win in Austria, had a tally of more than three times the number of points gained by Nigel. What is more, the margin by which Elio eclipsed his team-mate in qualifying overall was a huge 4.5 per cent. And all this in the year when, as near as can be reasonably achieved, the two drivers were given equal equipment and treatment.\"\n\n;1983\nDe Angelis was then promoted back to outright number one for the 1983 season. This was demonstrated by the fact that he had exclusive use of the quick but unreliable Renault turbo-charged 93T for the whole season, and Mansell did not get to drive a turbocharged car until the 9th round, the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, a race where he climbed from 16th to 2nd and eventually finished 4th in a brand-new, hastily designed 94T. Due to their tumultuous relationship and a lack of decent results, Warr was not keen on honouring the last year of the contract that Mansell had signed with Chapman. However, with encouragement from Lotus's sponsors, John Player Special (who allegedly preferred a British driver), and with the only other top British driver (Derek Warwick) already confirmed to be joining the factory Renault team, it was announced Mansell would be staying with the team.\n\n;1984\n\nIn 1984, Mansell finished in the championship top 10 for the first time, and took his first career pole position but still finished behind teammate de Angelis, who finished 3rd, in the championship. At the 1984 Monaco Grand Prix Mansell surprised many by overtaking Alain Prost in a wet race for the lead, but soon after retired from the race after losing control on the slippery painted lines on the road surface on the run up the hill on lap 15. Late in the season, Lotus announced the recruitment of Ayrton Senna for the following year, leaving Mansell with no race seat at Lotus. After receiving offers from Arrows and Williams, and first turning down Williams's offer, it was announced before the Dutch Grand Prix that he would indeed be joining Williams.\n\nMansell was remembered by many that year when he collapsed while pushing his car to the finish line after the transmission failed on the last lap of the 1984 Dallas Grand Prix. The race was one of the hottest on record, and after 2 hours of driving in 104 °F (about 40 °C) conditions Mansell fainted while pushing his car over the line to salvage a sixth-place finish (and thus 1 championship point) in a race of which he had led half, having started from pole. \n\nIn his autobiography, Mansell claimed that his final race with the Lotus team—the 1984 Portuguese Grand Prix—was heavily compromised by Warr's unwillingness to give Mansell the brake pads he desired for the race. With 18 laps of the race remaining, and with Mansell in second position, the brakes on his car failed. On Mansell's departure, Warr was quoted as saying \"He'll never win a Grand Prix as long as I have a hole in my arse\". \n\n1985–88: Williams\n\n;1985\n\nIn Frank Williams hired Mansell to drive alongside Keke Rosberg as part of the Williams team, Mansell later saying \"Keke was probably one of the best team-mates I've had in my career\". Mansell was given the now famous \"Red 5\" (also the call-sign of the X-Wing fighter that Luke Skywalker pilots in Star Wars) number on his car, which he carried on subsequent Williams and Newman/Haas cars and which was brought to the public's attention mainly through commentator Murray Walker and his enthusiastic commentary for the BBC.\n\nRosberg, the World Champion who was heading into his fourth season with the team, was initially against Williams signing Mansell based on the clash the pair had at Dallas the previous year (Rosberg won that race and in an interview while on the podium publicly berated Mansell's blocking tactics while leading early in the race, which earned Rosberg a round of boos from the crowd who had appreciated Mansell's courage in trying to push his Lotus to the finish in the extreme heat). Other factors were what Rosberg later said in a 1986 interview was second hand information about Mansell which ultimately proved to be false. The drivers found they got along well and from early in the pre-season formed a good working and personal relationship.\n\n1985 initially appeared to provide more of the same for Mansell, although he was closer to the pace than before, especially as the Honda engines became more competitive by mid-season.\n\nDuring practice for the 1985 French Grand Prix, Mansell unwillingly broke the record for the highest speed crash in Formula One history. At the end of the Paul Ricard Circuit's 1.8 km long Mistral Straight he went off at the fast Courbe de Signes at over in his Williams FW10. Mansell suffered a concussion which kept him out of the race. Team mate Rosberg claimed the pole for the race and finished second behind the Brabham-BMW of Nelson Piquet.\n\nMansell achieved second place at the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps, and followed this with his first victory in 72 starts at the European Grand Prix at Brands Hatch in England. He achieved a second straight victory at the South African Grand Prix in Kyalami. These triumphs helped turn Mansell into a Formula One star.\n\n;1986\nGoing into , the Williams-Honda team had a car capable of winning regularly, and Mansell had established himself as a potential World Championship contender. He also had a new team-mate in twice World Champion Nelson Piquet who had joined Williams looking to be a regular winner and contender again after the Brabham-BMWs had become increasingly unreliable and uncompetitive. The Brazilian publicly described Mansell as \"an uneducated blockhead\" and had also criticised his wife, Roseanne. \n\nUnperturbed by Piquet's mind games, Mansell went on to record five Grand Prix wins in 1986 and also played part in one of the closest finishes in Formula One history, finishing second to Ayrton Senna in the Spanish Grand Prix at Jerez by a mere 0.014 seconds (Mansell later jokingly said they should give himself and Senna 7½ points each). The 1986 season was led mostly by Mansell in championship points, and it went right down-to-the-wire in Adelaide, Australia for the Australian Grand Prix with Prost, Piquet and Mansell all still in contention for the title. The equation was simple, Prost and Piquet needed to win and have Mansell finish no higher than fourth. After aiming for a third-place finish which would guarantee him the title, Mansell would narrowly miss out on winning it after his left-rear tyre exploded in spectacular fashion on the main straight with only 19 laps of the race to go. In a 2012 interview for Sky Sports Legends of F1 Mansell revealed that, had he hit the wall rather than wrestling the car safely to a halt in the runoff area at the end of the straight, the stewards would most likely have red flagged the race. As the race was over two thirds distance, he would have kept his position and won his first F1 world title. Instead Mansell ended the season as runner-up to Alain Prost. His efforts in 1986 led to his being voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year.\n\n1986 proved to be a tough year for both Mansell and the Williams team, off the track at least. After a pre-season test session at the Paul Ricard Ciruit in the south of France, team owner Frank Williams was involved in a horrific road accident which left him a tetraplegic. Williams would not return to the scene until making a surprise appearance at the British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch where Mansell and Piquet finished 1-2. Williams' absence from the day-to-day running of the team actually created tension between the team and engine supplier Honda. The Japanese giant regarded dual World Champion Nelson Piquet as the team's number 1 driver (they were reportedly paying the bulk of Piquet's multimillion-dollar retainer) and were reportedly unhappy that the team's co-owner and Technical Director Patrick Head did not rein in Mansell during races and allowed him to take both points and wins from Piquet. As it was, while Williams dominated the Constructors' Championship, the two drivers took enough points from each other to allow McLaren's Alain Prost to sneak through and win the Drivers' Championship.\n\nBefore the season had started Honda had reportedly attempted to persuade Frank Williams to fire Mansell and replace him with their own test driver Satoru Nakajima. Williams, who was always more interested in the Constructors' title than the Drivers' as it showed that his team was the best, refused to do this, rightly believing that having two proven F1 winners in Piquet and Mansell would better serve the team than Nakajima would as an F1 rookie.\n\n;1987\nSix more wins followed in , including an emotional and hugely popular victory at Silverstone for the British Grand Prix in which he came back from 28 seconds behind in 30 laps to beat team-mate Piquet, with his car running out of fuel on the slowing down lap. However, at the Italian Grand Prix, he missed a gear and let Piquet, who was using an active suspension car, through to win. A heavy qualifying accident at Suzuka in Japan for the penultimate race of the season severely injured Mansell's back (a spinal concussion), and as a result of Mansell absent from the remaining two races, Piquet became champion for the third time even though he failed to score any points in these two remaining races. Piquet called his win over Mansell as \"a win of luck over stupidity\". The Brazilian also added he won because he was more consistent than his team mate, racking up points and podiums where Mansell often ran into trouble. Piquet's was a percentage driving policy which worked well in the ultra-competitive Williams-Honda, whereas Mansell was a hard charger who many felt often pushed his luck too far.\n\n;1988\n\nIn , for the first time in his career, Mansell was a team's undisputed #1 driver, having won more races in the previous two seasons than any other driver. However Williams lost the turbo power of Honda to McLaren, and had to settle with a naturally aspirated Judd V8 engine in its first season in F1. A dismal season followed, which saw Mansell's Williams team experiment with a terribly unreliable (but extremely innovative) active suspension system (the system had worked well when introduced by the team in 1987 where it could draw on approximately 5% of the reported produced by the Honda turbo, but struggled with the Judd V8). Mansell would complete only two of the fourteen races in which he appeared in 1988, both being podium finishes. Ironically, one of these was a second place at the British Grand Prix at Silverstone where literally overnight the team had dumped its active suspension (after months of Patrick Head telling Mansell and team mate Riccardo Patrese that it would take many months of work to do so), and reverted to a passive suspension set-up.\n\nMansell developed chickenpox in the summer of 1988 and after a competitive (but ill-advised) drive in the very hot conditions of the 1988 Hungarian Grand Prix the illness became even worse, forcing him to miss the next two Grands Prix in Belgium where he was replaced by Martin Brundle, and Italy where he was infamously replaced by Frenchman Jean-Louis Schlesser. By missing the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, Mansell missed the traditional welcome by the Tifosi for a newly signed Ferrari driver after he had announced he would be leaving Williams to join the Maranello based team for .\n\nOne thing Mansell did relish about the 1988 season was no longer having Nelson Piquet as his team mate. Piquet had left the team to join Lotus who were running Honda engines, though Mansell relished consistently out-performing the reigning World Champion in his more powerful Lotus-Honda, and it was only unreliability (usually related to the new Judd engines or the troublesome active suspension) that prevented the Englishman from scoring more points than Piquet. His team mate in 1988 was Italian veteran Riccardo Patrese, the most experienced Grand Prix driver at the time. Patrese had replaced the injured Mansell at the 1987 Australian Grand Prix and the two would form a good personal and working relationship.\n\n1989–90: Ferrari\n\n;1989\nIn preparation for the season, Mansell became the last Ferrari driver to be personally selected by Enzo Ferrari before his death in August 1988, an honour Mansell described as \"one of the greatest in my entire career\". Enzo Ferrari presented a 1989 Ferrari F40 as a gift to Mansell. In Italy he became known as \"il leone\" (\"the lion\") by the tifosi (Ferrari fans) because of his fearless driving style. The season was one of change in the sport, with the banning of turbo engines by the FIA and the introduction of the electronically controlled semi-automatic transmission by Ferrari.\n\nMansell believed that 1989 would be a development year and that he would be able to challenge for the championship the following season. In his first appearance with the team he scored a very unlikely win in the Brazilian Grand Prix at the Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet in Rio de Janeiro; his least favourite track, and the home race of his bitter rival Piquet. He later joked that he had booked an early flight home for halfway through the race as he predicted the car's new electronic gearbox would last only a few laps (as it had done throughout pre-season testing and in qualifying for the race). Mansell became the first driver to win a race in a car with a semi-automatic gearbox. He also remained the last man to win on his Ferrari debut until Kimi Räikkönen in the 2007 Australian Grand Prix.\n\nThe rest of 1989 was characterised by gearbox and various other problems, including a disqualification at the Canadian Grand Prix and a black-flagged incident at the Portuguese Grand Prix for reversing in the pit-lane, which resulted in a ban for the next race in Spain. However, Mansell finished fourth in the Championship with the help of a memorable second win for Ferrari at the tight and twisty Hungaroring for the Hungarian Grand Prix. Early in practice Mansell had seen that trying to qualify the car high on the grid was a pointless exercise and he decided instead to concentrate on a good race set up. After qualifying 12th (0.681 behind team mate Gerhard Berger in 6th and 2.225 behind pole man Riccardo Patrese in his Williams-Renault) and not even being considered a chance for the race, he charged his way through the field until he pulled off a sensational passing manoeuvre on the McLaren-Honda of World Champion Ayrton Senna on lap 58 to take a lead he would not lose.\n\n;1990\nA tough followed with Ferrari, in which his car suffered more reliability problems, forcing him to retire from seven races. He was paired with Alain Prost, (who was also the reigning World Champion), and who took over as the team's lead driver. Mansell recalls one incident where at the 1990 British Grand Prix, the car he drove did not handle the same as in the previous race where he had taken pole position. On confronting the mechanics, it transpired that Prost saw Mansell as having a superior car and as a result, they were swapped without telling Mansell. After retiring from the race, he announced he was retiring from the sport altogether at the end of the season. This, combined with the fact that Frenchman Prost was not only a triple World Champion and the winner of more Grands Prix than anyone in history, but also spoke fluent Italian, whereas Mansell's Italian was only conversational at best, gave Prost greater influence within the Maranello based team.\n\nMansell scored only a single win, at the 1990 Portuguese Grand Prix, and finished a thrilling second to Nelson Piquet in Australia, and finished 5th in the world championship. His retirement plans were halted when Frank Williams again stepped in. Williams signed Mansell on 1 October 1990 after Mansell was ensured the contract stated that he would be the focus of the team, having experienced being the 'Number Two' driver at Ferrari. Mansell would be paid £4.6 million a season, a deal which made him the highest paid British sportsman at the time. \n\n1991–92: Return to Williams\n\n;1991\n\nMansell's return to Williams was not straightforward. He would agree to return only if a list of demands were met, including undisputed number one status over Riccardo Patrese (who had also been his team mate in 1988), guarantees of support in a wide variety of areas with each guarantee in writing, and assurances from suppliers such as Renault and Elf that they would do everything necessary to help him win. Frank Williams said the demands were 'impossible', Mansell concluded that if that were the case he would be happy to retire. Three weeks later the impossible had happened and Mansell was a Williams driver. \n\nHis second stint with Williams was even better than the first. Back in the familiar 'Red 5', he won five races in , most memorably in the Spanish Grand Prix. In this race he went wheel to wheel with Ayrton Senna, with only centimetres to spare, at over 320 km/h on the main straight. Quite a different spectacle was offered following Mansell's victory in the British Grand Prix at Silverstone. Senna's car had stopped on the final lap, but, rather than leave his rival stranded out on the circuit (the two had actually come to blows in the pits following their first lap tangle during the 1987 Belgian Grand Prix and were hardly close friends), Mansell pulled over on his victory lap and allowed Senna to ride on the Williams sidepod back to the pits.\n\nThe Williams team's decision to develop their new semi-automatic gearbox by racing with it at the start of the season, was at the cost of points in the opening rounds of the championship. Senna was on 40 points with four straight wins to open the season by the time Mansell gained his first finish with a second in Monaco. Mansell then had the next race in Canada practically won when his Williams FW14 stopped half a lap from the finish with what was reported to be transmission failure, though it was suspected that Mansell had let his engine revs drop too low while he was waving to the crowd in celebration and stalled his engine. Ironically this handed Nelson Piquet his 23rd and last F1 race win. Despite a good mid season, which included a hat-trick of victories, Senna's consistency (and Mansell's retirements at key races) meant that he finished second in the Championship for the third time in his career, this time behind Senna.\n\n;1992\n\n would be Mansell's finest season. He started the year with five straight victories (a record not equalled until Michael Schumacher in ). At the sixth round of the season in Monaco, he took pole and dominated much of the race. However, with seven laps remaining, Mansell suffered a loose wheel nut and was forced into the pits, emerging behind Ayrton Senna's McLaren-Honda. Mansell, on fresh tyres, set a lap record almost two seconds quicker than Senna's and closed from 5.2 to 1.9 seconds in only two laps. The pair duelled around Monaco for the final four laps but Mansell could find no way past, finishing just 0.2 seconds behind the Brazilian. Mansell became the most successful British driver of all time when he won the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, as he surpassed Jackie Stewart's record of 27 wins with his 28th. Mansell was crowned Formula One World Champion early in the season at the Hungarian Grand Prix, the eleventh round of that season, where his second-place finish clinched the Drivers' Championship, securing the title in the least number of Grands Prix since the 16-race season format started. Mansell also set the then-record for the most number of wins in one season (9); both records stood until broken by Schumacher in 2002. He managed 14 pole positions that year, a record only broken by Sebastian Vettel in 2011 in the Brazilian Grand Prix on 26 November.\n\nOther Formula One records set in 1992 that he still holds are the highest percentage of pole positions in a season (88%), most wins from pole position in a season (9) most races before becoming World Champion (180 races) and most runner-up championship finishes before becoming World Champion (3). Mansell also holds the record for obtaining pole position and scoring fastest lap and subsequently retiring from the race (1987 German Grand Prix, 1990 British Grand Prix, 1992 Japanese Grand Prix, and 1992 Italian Grand Prix). He is the driver having the most wins (31) without ever winning Monaco.\n\nHe won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year award again in 1992, one of only three people to have won the award twice.\n\nCART IndyCar World Series\n\nDespite being world champion, Mansell had a public disagreement with Williams. In his autobiography Mansell writes that this was because of a deal made at the previous Hungarian Grand Prix, which Williams reneged on, and the prospect of his former teammate Alain Prost, who had sat out the 1992 season, joining the Renault-powered team.\n\nWilliams had neglected to tell Mansell that Prost had signed for 1993 at only the second race of the 1992 season in Mexico, a position that Mansell felt would be similar to their days together at Ferrari. To boot, Ayrton Senna had expressed a strong desire to drive for Williams and even offered to drive for them at no salary (only to later be rebuffed as Prost, whose rivalry with the Brazilian was just as intense as the one he had with Mansell, had a clause written into his contract which enabled him to block Senna's effort). Williams decided that there was little sense in paying the high fees Mansell went on to demand. With the original offer revoked, and with the premiere teams already committed to their incumbent drivers, Mansell decided to move on. An eleventh hour offer was made to him at the Italian Grand Prix, but by then the damage was done; Mansell retired from F1.\n\nMansell then signed with Newman/Haas Racing to pair with Mario Andretti in the CART series, replacing Mario's son Michael who moved to F1 and McLaren. At the season opener at Surfers Paradise, Australia, he became the first \"rookie\" to take pole position and win his first race. A few weeks later however, he suffered a substantial crash at the Phoenix International Raceway, severely injuring his back. At the 1993 Indianapolis 500, Mansell would lead the race only to finish third after losing the lead to Emerson Fittipaldi and Arie Luyendyk after a poor restart. On his 40th birthday, however, Mansell would avenge his loss at Indianapolis to score a 500-mile race victory at Michigan, considered by many a tougher 500 mile race to win. He would go on to score five wins for the 1993 CART season, which, with more high-placed finishes, was good enough to earn him the championship. This enabled Mansell to become the only driver in history to hold both the Formula One and CART championships at the same time, because when he won the 1993 CART championship he was still the reigning F1 world champion, with the 1993 F1 championship not yet having been decided.\n\nFollowing this successful season in CART, Mansell received several awards, including a Gold Medal from the Royal Automobile Club and the 1993 ESPY Award for Best Driver.\n\nHis Newman/Haas car was much less reliable the following year, 1994, and results suffered. It was during this season that Mansell \"wore out his welcome\" in the United States with glimpses of rude behaviour, particularly after he was knocked out of the Indianapolis 500. After the crash, he stormed out of the track hospital, and refused medical care. When reporter Dr. Jerry Punch asked Mansell if he had spoken with Dennis Vitolo, the driver who had crashed into him, Mansell replied, \"You speak to him\" and shoved the camera away. Subsequently, Mansell was due to sign autographs at a K-mart store (the primary sponsor of his car), but because of a lack of demand the event was cancelled. Mansell was also the catalyst for the breakdown in the relationship between himself and Mario Andretti. Mario has since remarked \"I guess if Ronnie Peterson was the best team-mate I ever had, Nigel Mansell was the worst\" and \"I had a lot of respect for him as a driver, but not as a man\". \n\nBrief return to Formula One\n\nWilliams (1994)\n\nIn , after the CART season ended, Mansell returned to F1 and rejoined the Williams team. Since he had left it in 1993, the team had undergone some significant changes. Damon Hill had been promoted from test driver and was running full-time in one Renault. Prost, Mansell's replacement, won the 1993 driver's championship and then retired after the season. This allowed Williams and Ayrton Senna to finally work out an agreement, and the team received a new sponsor in Rothmans International for a season in which they were expected to repeat as champions. However, Senna struggled early in the season and then was killed in a crash at Imola.\n\nMansell took over the car Senna was brought in to drive toward the end of the 1994 campaign Mansell was paid approximately £900,000 per race, compared to his teammate Hill being paid £300,000 for the entire season. Mansell's return was helped by Bernie Ecclestone helping unravel his contracts in the United States. It was important for F1 to have a world champion driving that season and with worldwide TV viewing figures starting to decline, they needed Mansell. The 40-year-old was not as quick as Damon Hill in race trim but signs that his speeds were coming back were evident in Japan during a fantastic battle with the Ferrari of Jean Alesi. Mansell took his final Grand Prix victory in Adelaide, the last race of the season, having out-qualified the two title contenders at the time, Damon Hill and Michael Schumacher, in the process (helped out by the second qualifying session being held on a wet track, with the times from the 1st session making up the grid). The plan initially was for Mansell to protect Hill from Schumacher, but both drivers passed him at the start and eventually collided (causing the retirement of both), handing Schumacher his 1st world title.\n\nWilliams had an option on Mansell's services for 1995 which Mansell was convinced they would take. Williams however, opted for youth over experience and hired Coulthard.\n\nMcLaren (1995)\n\nMansell was quick again and on the back of winning two titles, he was still hot property. After losing the Williams seat to David Coulthard, Mansell signed to drive for McLaren in .\n\nIt was well documented that Mansell and Ron Dennis never saw eye to eye and Dennis had reportedly said he would never hire a driver he did not understand, a category in which he placed Mansell. McLaren's title sponsors Marlboro wanted a world champion, whereas McLaren and their engine suppliers Mercedes wanted a lower-key profile driver for what was their first official year back in Formula One since . Dennis also had two other options. The first option was an unsuccessful attempt to lure Alain Prost out of retirement, though the 4 time champion ultimately declined (he did become a part-time test driver for the team). The second option, reigning champion Schumacher, was contracted to Benetton and he would not leave the team that year as they had obtained use of the championship winning Renault V10 engines. Media speculated from the start that they would not last together because of their two contrasting personalities.\n\nBefore the season started, Mansell could not fit into the narrow car and was deputised by Mark Blundell for the opening two rounds. Mansell's car was completed in 33 days and in time for Imola, where despite being in the top 6 late in the race, a clash with Eddie Irvine saw him finish 10th and out of the points. The Spanish Grand Prix saw Mansell become frustrated over his car's handling characteristics, he chose to retire after just two races with the team. Mansell cited the decision to retire as his not wanting to make up the numbers and with no hope of the McLaren MP4/10 being competitive.\n\nA few testing sessions with F1 teams including Jordan suggested another comeback could be on the cards, but it never happened. Reports at the time suggested that the Mansell-Jordan partnership for 1997 was a real possibility with Eddie Jordan's title sponsor willing to pay for the deal.\n\nBritish Touring Car Championship\n\nMansell took part in the 1993 TOCA Shootout, held at Donington Park. Mansell drove a Ford Mondeo with his usual red number 5. The race ended in disaster for Mansell; he was knocked unconscious following a crash with 6 laps remaining. He lost control of his car through the exit of the Old Hairpin, over-corrected the slide and collided with Tiff Needell's Vauxhall Cavalier, resulting in a spin and a heavy impact with the tyre wall under the bridge. \n\nMansell made a return to racing in 1998 in the British Touring Car Championship, driving in a Ford Mondeo for three rounds. With the number 5 already taken by James Thompson, Mansell raced with the red number 55. \n\nAt his first event at Donington Park, he retired 3 laps into the sprint race, meaning he would start the feature race in 19th position on the grid. As the conditions changed and the track got wetter, Mansell found himself leading the race for several laps, and he finished in 5th position. The race was regarded by many fans as one of the greatest in touring car history. \n\nIt was to be his best finish in the series, as he failed to finish either race at the next round he participated in at Brands Hatch, and at his final race at Silverstone he finished in 14th and 11th place. Having competed in 3 of the 13 rounds, he finished 18th out of 21 in the drivers' championship. \n\nSubsequent appearances\n\nOn 16 July 2005, Mansell took part in a Race of Legends exhibition event at the Norisring round of the DTM. He competed against other Formula One World Champions Jody Scheckter, Alain Prost and Emerson Fittipaldi, as well as Motorcycle Grand Prix World Champions Mick Doohan and Johnny Cecotto (himself a former F1 driver), each driver having an opportunity to drive Audi, Mercedes and Opel cars. Prost was announced as the winner by the DTM organisers. \n\nMansell became a financial stakeholder and a driver in the new Grand Prix Masters series. Following a period of testing and developing the car, Mansell made a successful race comeback by winning the inaugural race of the series in Kyalami in November 2005 (Mansell had won at the old Kyalami circuit in 1985 and had also won at the new circuit in 1992). After the success of the race at Kyalami, four dates were scheduled for the GP Masters Series in 2006, including one at Silverstone. Mansell won the season opener at Qatar in April from pole position. The Monza round of the series was cancelled due to noise limitations at the venue, whilst technical issues quickly ruled him out of the Silverstone race. \n\nAlso in 2006 he appeared at Brands Hatch, scene of his first Grand Prix win, in October 1985, driving some demonstration laps in the BMW M3 GTR that Andy Priaulx drove to victory in the 2005 24 Hours Nürburgring, as part of the World Touring Car Championship event.\n\nOn the weekend of 6 May 2007 he made an appearance in the second round of the FIA GT Championship at Silverstone driving a Ferrari 430 GT2 for the Scuderia Ecosse team. He was paired with Chris Niarchos, finishing 7th in class and 21st overall. \n\nMansell, with his son Leo, tested a Chamberlain-Synergy team Le Mans prototype Lola-AER B06/10 during the week commencing 14 July 2008, at the Estoril circuit. The pair were said to be considering a drive in the American Le Mans series, possibly commencing as soon as October 2008 in the Petit Le Mans event, although neither driver was in the final field.\n\nOn 3 July 2009, Mansell tested his other son Greg's World Series by Renault car at the Silverstone Circuit, setting a best time six seconds off the pace of the fastest driver in the session. \n\nMansell took part in the last round of the 2009 Le Mans Series, the 1000 km of Silverstone, driving Team LNT's Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S alongside his son Greg and team boss Lawrence Tomlinson. \n\nMansell raced a Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S in the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, alongside his two sons. According to the BBC, this was the first time a father has raced at Le Mans in the same car as his two sons. However, in the race he crashed out after only five laps, following a puncture. \n\nFor the 2010 Formula One season, the Sporting Regulations were changed so that a former driver sits on the stewards' panel. Mansell took this role at the 2010, 2011 and 2012 British Grand Prix.\n\nEndorsements\n\nOn 1 October 2009 Nigel appeared as the 'Face of Euronics'. \n\nIn 2010, Nigel paired with Iranian-British comic Omid Djalili in an UK television advertising campaign for price comparison website Moneysupermarket.com and at the end of the first ad, Djalili put a fake moustache on Mansell's upper lip.\n\nVideo games\n\nThere were three video games endorsed by Mansell: Nigel Mansell's Grand Prix (1988, Martech), Nigel Mansell's World Championship (1993, Gremlin Graphics), and Newman/Haas IndyCar (1994). Mansell also appeared as a playable driver for Williams in Codemasters' F1 2013.\n\nPersonal life\n\nMansell currently lives in Jersey, Channel Islands. Mansell lived in Port Erin on the Isle of Man during most of his F1 career until 1995. \n\nA keen golf player, Mansell revealed a desire to compete in the British Open Golf Championship and briefly participated in the 1988 Australian Open. \n\nMansell is the owner of the Team UK Youth cycling team.\n\nIn 2009, Mansell purchased a Personal Protection Dog for £15k. The dog, a German Shepherd called Geisha, had been professionally trained and was bought to protect Mansell and his family at his home in Jersey.\n\nAfter his official retirement from Formula One in 1995, he shaved off his well known moustache. The last time before that he appeared without the moustache was in the first half of the 1988 season. The moustache made a re-appearance when Mansell was interviewed by the BBC at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix.\n\nHis sons Leo and Greg are also racing drivers, while his daughter Chloe is a designer.\n\nHelmet\n\nMansell raced with a blue helmet with two red and white arrows on each side forming on the frontview a drawing resembling the Union Flag with the upper angles of the arrows united by a red and white 'U', with the white chin area, when he entered to Williams, it was added a blue ring on the white part of the helmet. His sons Leo and Greg inherited his helmet design, but Leo's helmet has the red chin area and the white part that envelopes the visor (not counting the top) is red with white outline, while Greg's helmet has the blue chin area and the white area that envelopes the visor is blue with white outline.\n\n\"Red 5\"\n\nAlthough teams in motor racing series are generally allocated numbers, for many years Mansell has been associated with the number 5. This began when he joined Williams in 1985 and was allocated car number 5. For the first four races of the 1985 season, both Williams cars had white numbers, but from a distance the numerals \"5\" and \"6\" resembled each other. As a consequence, it was decided to give Mansell's car a red number to make it more distinctive. While this was initially just for recognition, BBC F1 commentator Murray Walker began describing Mansell's car as \"Red Five\", leading to Mansell retaining the red coloured number throughout his first spell at Williams. On his return to the team in 1991, Williams had retained the number 5 car, allowing Mansell to race as \"Red Five\" once again. After his departure to Indy Car Racing in 1993 to drive for Newman/Haas, he again retained the red number 5. When he returned to Williams for four races in 1994 the team's numbers were 0 and 2 as they had won the Drivers' and Constructors' titles in 1993 but would not run #1 as Alain Prost had retired. Damon Hill drove car #0 while Mansell raced the #2 with the number on the nose of the car painted red. So associated with the red 5 is Mansell that, in 2004, he purchased a yacht from Sunseeker, one of his longtime sponsors, which he named Red 5. \n\nAwards\n\nMansell was awarded the title of BBC Sports Personality of the Year in both 1986 and 1992. Only two other people have won the award twice, one of whom being fellow racing driver and former F1 World Champion Damon Hill. Mansell was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005. Mansell won the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy, an award for the leading British or Commonwealth driver in F1 each year, a record seven times in his career.\n\nAlready Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), Mansell was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to children and young people (as president of UK Youth). \n\nRacing career results\n\nComplete European Formula Two Championship results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)\n\nFormula One World Championship results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap)\n\nComplete CART results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)\n\nComplete British Touring Car Championship results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position – 1-point awarded all races) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) (* signifies that driver lead feature race for at least one lap – 1-point awarded)\n\nComplete Grand Prix Masters results\n\n(key)\n\nComplete 24 Hours of Le Mans results\n\nNotes"
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"NIGEL MANSELL, the Formula One champion, ... SPORTS PEOPLE: AUTO RACING; Mansell Is Switching ... Newman-Haas Racing in the Indy-car series next year, ...",
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"... Formula 1 World Champion and CART Indy Car World Series winner. ... Told via detailed interviews with myself over the years, ... Copyright Nigel Mansell CBE 2016.",
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"Nigel Mansell's 1993 IndyCar Championship\nNigel Mansell's 1993 IndyCar Championship\nGo to permalink\nNo one has ever achieved the feat of being Formula One World Champion AND IndyCar Champion at the same time, except one man - Nigel Mansell. And here’s how he did it.\nOnly three other drivers managed to reign both series and all of them come close to being or just simply are stuff of legend - Mario Andretti, Emerson Fittipaldi and Jacques Villeneuve, but Mansell was the only one winning the two championships back to back, resulting in being champion at both at once with the 1993 F1 World Championship not being decided yet by the time he already won the IndyCar title the same year.\nFrank Williams is not an easy man to deal with, nor Nigel Mansell. Together they were like mixing two different, highly explosive material. Still, both are quite magnificent in their own way, which ultimately lead to Mansell winning the 1992 Formula One World Championship with the team (helped by the super-gizmo active suspension system ) after having spent 12 years in the series. But push comes to shove, the two people eventually fell out and Mansell left Williams’ team as the latter wished to sign Alain Prost as his team mate. These two have already been together at Ferrari in 1990 and having had a quite strained relationship back then, Mansell decided to bow out. [Note: Ironically, after Prost joined Williams and won the championship in 1993, he, too, left Williams for the same reason as Senna was signed for 1994. Their earlier, stressful relationship at McLaren is widely documented and is one of the most cited periods of all F1's history.]\nFormula One's Next Frontier: Active Suspension and Aerodynamics? Formula One's Next Frontier: Active Suspension and Aerodynamics? Formula One's Next Frontier: Active Suspension…\nIt has been a five-year journey since F1 started its energy efficiency campaign with the… Read more Read more\nSoon after, Mansell was already testing with the Newman/Haas IndyCar team at the Firebird International Raceway outside Phoenix, Arizona, the same place Ayrton Senna had his own private test with Penske, literally a few weeks before.\n...or indeed he was just bluffing? Read more Read more\nWhile Senna was driving the 1992 Penske Chevy just for kicks against Emerson Fittipaldi’s car for the 1993 season, Mansell was testing the 1993 Lola Ford hard for the upcoming season. A season that included drivers like Mario Andretti, A.J. Foyt, Eddie Cheever, Emerson Fittipaldi, Paul Tracy, Al Unser, Jr., Bobby Rahal, Jimmy Vasser, etc.\nNo change is simple enough, and although F1 and Indy cars might look quite similar, it is still a challenge to adapt from one to another, mastering them as he now should explain the differences :\nCue Laguna Seca Read more Read more\nThe first race of the season at Surfers’ Paradise started strong with a pole position,continued with a fastest lap during race and finished the weekend off with a race win:\nHis first oval race at Phoenix right after that, however, did not go so well. Crashed into the wall, suffering a back injury:\nThis did not encourage him though, he was quick to return to pole position at Long Beach, which he tackled before during his Formula One years:\nMorning Showroom: The 1982 Formula One Grand Prix of Long Beach Morning Showroom: The 1982 Formula One Grand Prix of Long Beach Morning Showroom: The 1982 Formula One Grand Prix…\nBefore IndyCar launches its cars down in So-Cal, let's have an extended look - i.e. a full… Read more Read more\nRest assured, he was quick enough on road/street courses due to his F1 expertise (as he scored three other pole positions at such tracks during the season), but how can he possibly be good at American racing’s birthplace: at ovals - asked his critics, pointing at his Phoenix accident with the 77th Indy 500 coming up. For once and for all, he shut all- nay-sayers up by coming in at third place at the legendary race. not being quick enough at the restart.\nMoreover he got so used to ovals that he spent the rest of the season winning all four of them, starting two from pole position and ran two fastest laps - no further road/street course win - including being victorious at one of the fastest of them all, the Marlboro 500 at Michigan Speedway, while battling with dizziness and sickness, also the New England at Loudon a week later - on his 40th birthday:\nEventually, the championship came down to the penultimate race of the season, at Nazareth, Pennsylvania:\nSecuring the 1993 title in IndyCar, he was now double champion, but unfortunately he was never able to repeat his success. Although he scored a few pole positions and fastest laps, he never won a race again. He returned to Formula One to help out Williams at the French Grand Prix following Senna’s death, just between the Oregon and Cleveland races, and once the Indy season was done, he bid farewell to the series and raced in the last three Formula One races, winning the Australian Grand Prix, his last ever victory. He had a brief comeback in 1995 with McLaren, but the legend of the “Red 5\" was already a thing of the past, yet an unrepeatable stuff of legend.\nWhat is your favourite Nigel Mansell moment?",
"Nigel Mansell - 1992\nNigel Mansell\nShare\nNo driver fought harder to get into Formula One racing and few fought harder when they got there. Hugely determined, immensely aggressive and spectacularly daring, he was one of the most exciting drivers ever. With his win or bust approach - 31 wins and 32 crashes - he became the most successful British driver and joined the ranks of the all-time greats in terms of fastest laps, wins and poles. With the Union Jack on his helmet and a chip on his shoulder, he was both quick and controversial. His awkward personality made him some enemies, his heroic performances made him millions of fans. Nigel Mansell was a driven man and it showed.\nNext Previous\n1 / 5\nEstoril, September 1986: Nigel Mansell and his most famous rivals at the Portuguese Grand Prix. From left to right: Ayrton Senna (Lotus), Alain Prost (McLaren), Mansell and Williams team mate Nelson Piquet. He would beat them all in the race. © Sutton Images\nMonza, September 1986: The 1986 season, his second with Williams, was Nigel Mansell’s most successful to date, with five race victories. Here at the Italian Grand Prix he finished second. © Sutton Images\nAdelaide, October 1986: Nigel Mansell’s championship hopes ended with a spectacular tyre failure on the main straight at the season-ending Australian Grand Prix. © Sutton Images\nImola, May 1987: Nigel Mansell won six races in 1987 – more than any other driver – including the San Marino Grand Prix. However, an injury in practice in Japan ended his title hopes. © Sutton Images\nHungaroring, August 1989: Nigel Mansell took three victories from his two seasons with Ferrari, including his very first race with the team, and here at the Hungarian Grand Prix. © Sutton Images\nBorn on 8 August, 1953, near Birmingham, Nigel Ernest Mansell first drove a car in a nearby field at the age of seven. That same year he watched Jim Clark in a Lotus win the 1962 British Grand Prix at Aintree and decided then and there to emulate the great Scot, an ambition no doubt entertained by countless other small boys. Few of them would have persevered through Mansell's many misfortunes. \nAfter considerable success in kart racing, he become the 1977 British Formula Ford champion, despite suffering a broken neck in a testing accident. Doctors told him he had come perilously close to quadriplegia, that he would be confined for six months and would never drive again. Mansell sneaked out of hospital (telling the nurses he was going to the toilet) and raced on. Three weeks before the accident he had resigned his job as an aerospace engineer, having previously sold most of his personal belongings to finance his foray into Formula Ford. Next, Mansell and his loyal wife Rosanne sold their house to finance a move into Formula Three. In 1979 a collision with another car resulted in a huge cartwheeling crash he was lucky to survive. Again he was hospitalised, this time with broken vertebrae in his back. Shortly after this, stuffed with painkillers and hiding the extent of his injury, Mansell performed well enough in a tryout with Lotus to become a test driver for the Formula One team. In his Formula One debut, at the 1980 Austrian Grand Prix, a fuel leak in the cockpit left him with painful first and second degree burns on his buttocks. \nMansell became very close to Lotus boss Colin Chapman and was devastated by his sudden death in 1982. He stayed with the team for two more years, then moved to Williams in 1985. Near the end of that season, having no victories to show for 71 Grand Prix starts, Mansell suddenly blossomed into a prolific winner, starting with the 1985 European Grand Prix at Brands Hatch, where he wept on the podium. In a span of 18 months he won 11 races, yet lost out on two World Championships he was poised to win. In 1986 a burst tyre in Adelaide destroyed his season at the last possible moment. In 1987 it was a serious qualifying accident at Suzuka that injured his back again (a spinal concussion) and handed the title to his hated Williams-Honda team mate Nelson Piquet (who called Mansell \"an uneducated blockhead\" and took verbal shots at Rosanne). For Mansell (who never physically attacked Piquet as he had Ayrton Senna after they collided at Spa), the highlight of 1987 was his scintillating late race charge to beat his least favourite Brazilian at Silverstone. Mansell was simply unstoppable, setting lap records 11 times in the final moments as he reeled in the other Williams. On his victory lap, as thousands of patriotic fans in the feverish grip of 'Mansellmania' flooded onto the track, their hero stopped to kiss the tarmac at the spot where he'd overtaken Piquet at 180mph. \nMansell thrived on adversarial situations, using them to fuel his motivational fires, and if they didn't exist he seemed to go out of his way to create them. His 'me against the world' mentality caused conflict. At Williams, Patrick Head said \"he thinks everybody is trying to shaft him at all times\" and Frank Williams called him \"a pain in the arse\". The media also tired of Mansell's chronic complaining. But the fans loved him for the pure, palpable aggression with which he raced. Even that wasn't enough to overcome the deficiencies of the Judd-engined Williams cars in 1988 and when an opportunity arose at Ferrari Mansell seized it with both fists. \nNext Previous\n1 / 2\nRace Winner Nigel Mansell (GBR) Williams Renault FW14 British Grand Prix, Silverstone, England, 14 July 1991. © Sutton Motorsport Images\nAyrton Senna (BRA) McLaren MP4/7A manages to stay ahead of Nigel Mansell (GBR) Williams FW14B in a fierce battle at the end of the race. Monaco Grand Prix, Monte-Carlo, 31 May 1992 © Sutton Motorsport Images\nHis 1989 debut with Ferrari began with a win in Rio and throughout the season he flogged his Ferrari for all it was worth, endearing himself to the fanatical Italian tifosi who called their moustachioed British hero 'Il Leone' (The Lion). At the Hungaroring, where overtaking is supposed to be impossible and where he had qualified a seemingly hopeless 12th, Mansell stormed through the field, scraped past Senna's McLaren in a breathtaking manoeuvre and won the race. In 1990 the wheels came off Mansell's Ferrari bandwagon when Prost became his team mate and out-manoeuvred him politically. At Silverstone the 'British Bulldog' theatrically threw his gloves into the adoring crowd and announced he was retiring at the end of the season. A couple of months later he made a U-turn and announced he was returning to Williams. In 1991 he won five times in the Williams-Renault but lost out on reliability to McLaren's Senna, who took the title. The next year Mansell dominated, winning nine of the 16 races in his Williams-Renault FW14B, but shortly after he was declared the 1992 World Champion he again announced his retirement. His grievances with Williams included a dispute over money and anger that the despised Prost might be his 1993 team mate. Williams offered a last-minute incentive of whatever conditions he wanted but Mansell stalked off to IndyCar racing in America, where he immediately dominated, even on the unfamiliar high speed ovals, and became the 1993 IndyCar champion. \nIn 1994 Williams persuaded him to return for the final four races, the last of which, in Australia, he won in stunning fashion from pole position. The next year he raced twice for McLaren but decided the car wasn't up to his speed. And so, after 187 hard races in 15 tumultuous seasons, 41-year-old Nigel Mansell left Formula One racing for good.\nHe retired a rich man, operating several business enterprises, including a Ferrari dealership and a golf and country club (he played golf to a professional standard) and lived the good life with his wife Rosanne and their three children. \n\"I had my fair share of heartaches and disappointments,\" he said of his career, \"but I also got a lot of satisfaction. I only ever drove as hard as I knew how.\"\nText - Gerald Donaldson",
"SPORTS PEOPLE - AUTO RACING - Mansell Is Switching To Indy Cars Next Year - NYTimes.com\nSPORTS PEOPLE: AUTO RACING; Mansell Is Switching To Indy Cars Next Year\nPublished: September 19, 1992\nNIGEL MANSELL, the Formula One champion, will drive for Newman-Haas Racing in the Indy-car series next year, the team announced yesterday.\nThe Briton takes the spot vacated by MICHAEL ANDRETTI, who announced last week that he was switching from Indy cars to Formula One and will drive for Team McLaren.\nThe 39-year-old Mansell, who won the Formula One title this season by taking 8 of the first 11 races, will team with MARIO ANDRETTI, Michael's father, who was his Formula One teammate at Lotus in 1980.\n\"His presence will give Indy-car racing a whole new following in Europe,\" CARL HAAS, the team's co-owner, said of his newest driver.\nMansell has driven with the Williams-Renault team the last two seasons, but did not reach an agreement with the owner, FRANK WILLIAMS, on a new contract for 1993. (AP)",
"Nigel Mansell profile on SnapLap\nGallery\nNigel Mansell is the 1992 Formula One world champion. He is one of the ten British Formula One champions but the only one who was at the same time Formula One and Indy champion. A year after winning the Formula One title, he debuted in the CART Indy Car World Series and took another big title, becoming the first debutant Indy champion and the only driver who simultaneously held both titles.\nThere is one more interesting fact which makes Mansell special among the living F1 legends. In 2015, the Mexican Grand Prix returned to Formula One after 23 years. Back in 1992, Mansell was the winner of the last Mexican Grand Prix race, so in 2015, he was presented as a special guest on the new track, where even one corner was named after him, which is an honor rarely seen among the living drivers.\nNigel Mansell at the 2015 Mexican Grand Prix\nComplete F1 results: 31 wins in 187 Grand Prix races\nMansell's F1 career spanned over 15 seasons; he registered 187 Grand Prix races and scored 31 wins and 59 podiums. He was seventh overall in the Formula One race winners list. He drove for four big F1 teams – Lotus, Williams, Ferrari and McLaren. Before the 1992 title, he was second placed three times (1986, 1987 and 1991).\nRacing career started in 1976\nNigel Ernest James Mansell was born on 8 August 1953 in Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire. After a considerable success in kart racing, he moved on to single-seaters in 1976. He drove various machines but was most successful in the Formula Ford, in which he won the 1977 British championship. The next step was Formula 3. Although he started the 1978 season with a pole position and 2nd place finish, he was not competitive for most of the season, because his Unipart team used Triumph engines, which were inferior to Toyota engines of other teams. In 1979, he scored one victory at Silverstone and finished 8th in the championship.\nNigel Mansell in Unipart’s Formula 3 car\nFormula One championship debut with Colin Chapman\nMansell's driving caught the eye of Colin Chapman , the owner of Lotus, who invited him to test the Formula One car. That year, Lotus was searching for a second driver alongside Mario Andretti . Elio de Angelis got the seat in 1980, while Mansell was selected to become a test driver. He spent a year driving Formula 3 and Formula Two races. In 1980, Mansell debuted with Chapman's team at the F1 Austrian Grand Prix. He recorded one more start at the Dutch Grand Prix and the qualifying failure at Monza.\nFirst full F1 season for Mansell in 1981\nHis first full season followed in 1981, as a second driver alongside Elio de Angelis. Mansell scored 3rd place at the Belgian Grand Prix and finished 14th in the championship. In four years as a full-time Lotus driver, Mansell struggled and his best finish was third place, which he achieved five times during the four years. In the championship classification, his best result was 10th place in 1984.\nMansell’s first full season in Formula One was in 1981 with Lotus\nHe was paid not to race at Le Mans\nDuring the 1982 season, Mansell planned to race in the 24 Hours of Le Mans in order to earn extra money. He was paid £50,000 a year by Lotus and was offered £10,000 to take part in Le Mans. His boss Chapman believed that by entering the Le Mans race, Mansell would be exposing himself to unnecessary risk and paid him £10,000 not to take part in the race.\nChapman also extended Mansell's contract to the end of the 1984 season and made him an equal member in the team with De Angelis. This resulted in Chapman and Mansell becoming more than just a boss and a driver. Unfortunately, their friendship was interrupted by Chapman's sudden death in December 1982.\n \nNigel Mansell and Colin Chapman were close friends\nAfter Chapman's death, Mansell moved to Williams\nFollowing Chapman's death, relationships at Lotus became strained, as the interim team principal Peter Warr didn't really sympathize with Mansell. He promoted De Angelis back as the number 1 driver for 1983. In 1984, Mansell finished the championship in the Top 10 for the first time, but far behind De Angelis, who finished 3rd. Later in the season, Lotus announced the recruitment of Ayrton Senna for the following year, so Mansell made an agreement with Frank Williams .\n1985 - high speed crash and maiden F1 win\nMansell's team-mate in Canon Williams Honda team was Keke Rosberg , for whom Mansell later said that 'he was probably one of the best team-mates in his career'. The season of 1985 was marked by Mansell's record high-speed (over 200 mph) accident at Circuit Paul Ricard during the practice run for the French Grand Prix and his first F1 victory at European Grand Prix at Brands Hatch. With one more victory at the South African Grand Prix he finished 6th in the championship.\nIn 1985, Mansell got the red colored number 5\nIn 1985, the Red Five legend was born\n1985 was the year when the story about the 'Red 5' began. It was the number which has been associated with Mansell for many years in his F1 career. He got the car number 5 when he joined Williams; to make it more distinctive from car number 6, it was decided that Mansell would be given a red number. BBC F1 commentator Murray Walker was the first who described Mansell's car as the \"Red Five\", and the legend was born. Upon his return to the team in 1991, Williams had retained the number 5 car, allowing Mansell to race as the \"Red Five\" once again. After his departure to Indy Car Racing in 1993 to drive for Newman/Haas, he still retained the signature red number 5.\nNelson Piquet as a new teammate in 1986\nIn 1986, Williams had the car capable of winning regularly, and Mansell had established himself as a potential World Championship contender. He also had a new team-mate; the double World Champion Nelson Piquet . Mansell scored five wins and came to the last race (Australian GP) as the championship leader, ahead of Alain Prost and Nelson Piquet. Mansell was third in the race with 19 laps to go, which was a good enough result for the title, but then the left-rear tyre of his car exploded. Eventually, Prost won the race and the championship.\nF1 drivers Senna, Prost, Mansell and Piquet at the 1986 Portuguese GP\nSuzuka accident get him out of the title fight\nThis event was followed by six more wins in 1987, and Mansell was once again one of the main championship contenders. Unfortunately, a heavy accident at Suzuka qualifying caused severe injuries for Mansell, and he missed the last two races of the championship, allowing his team-mate Nelson Piquet to become the champion for a third time.\nIn 1988, McLaren switched from Honda's V6 turbo engine to Judd's V8 naturally aspirated engine. The results were catastrophic; Mansell finished only two of fourteen races, both with 2nd places. During the season, Mansell announced that he would be leaving Williams to join the Scuderia Ferrari.\nThe last Ferrari driver selected by Enzo\nMansell was the last Ferrari driver to be personally selected by Enzo Ferrari before his death in August 1988, an honor Mansell described as \"one of the greatest in my entire career\". The 1989 season was marked by FIA banning of the turbo engines and the introduction of the electronically controlled semi-automatic transmission by Ferrari. Mansell believed that it would be a development year because of the unreliable new transmission, but surprisingly, he won in his debut with Ferrari in the first race of the season (Brazilian Grand Prix).\nIn 1990 Mansell and Prost were team-mates in Scuderia Ferrari\nMansell wanted to retire in 1990\nThe rest of the year was characterized by gearbox and various other problems, including a disqualification at the Canadian GP and a black-flagged incident at the Portuguese GP for reversing in the pit-lane, which resulted in a ban for the following race in Spain. However, Mansell finished fourth in the championship with the help of a memorable second win for Ferrari at the tight and twisty Hungaroring.\nA tough 1990 season took place with Ferrari, in which his car suffered more reliability problems, forcing him to retire from seven races. He was paired up with Alain Prost . They had an unequal status and Mansell even announced that he would retire from racing at the end of the season. With only one victory (Portuguese GP) he finished 5th in the championship.\nMansell lifted Senna at Silverstone in 1991\nIn a dominant way Mansell took the F1 title\nMansell's retirement plans were halted when Frank Williams again stepped in and they signed a multi-million dollar contract, which made Mansell the highest paid British sportsman at the time. Williams agreed to Mansell's list of demands, but Mansell paid back all the money he got with good results and wins. In 1991, Mansell won five races but the drivers' and manufacturers' titles went to Ayrton Senna and McLaren-Honda.\nThe following year, the Renault-powered Williams FW14B was the dominant car and Mansell scored nine victories and three 2nd places. He won the championship with an enormous gap ahead of team-mate Riccardo Patrese (108-56) and Williams also took the manufacturer's title. Mansell set the record for the highest number of wins in one season, which was broken in 2002 by Michael Schumacher . He also managed to get 14 pole positions that year, a record only broken by Sebastian Vettel in 2011.\n1992 British GP podium: Patrese, Mansell and Brundle\nFantastic rookie season in the CART Indy Car World Series\nDespite being the world champion, Mansell left the championship because of a disagreement with Williams. The main reason was the fact that Williams signed Alain Prost for the 1993 season. Mansell still had a bitter taste in his mouth from their bad days in Ferrari and didn't want to drive with Prost as the team-mate. Mansell then signed with Newman/Haas Racing to pair up with Mario Andretti in the CART Indy Car World series.\nHis debut was fantastic; at the season opener at Surfers Paradise, Australia, he became the first \"rookie\" to take pole position and win his first race. He scored five wins in the 1993 CART season and clinched the title, ahead of Emerson Fittipaldi .\nPoor second season alongside Mario Andretti\nIn the following season, he stayed with Newman/Haas, but the result was very different from that of the previous years. He collected only three podiums and finished 8th in the championship. He also ruined his relationship with the team-mate Mario Andretti, who described Mansell as the 'worst team-mate he ever had'.\nMansell was simultaneously F1 and IndyCar champion\nFinal Formula One years with Williams and McLaren\nIn 1994, after the CART season ended, Mansell returned to Williams one more time. In the meantime, Alain prost won the 1993 drivers' championship and then retired after the season. Mansell took over Ayrton Senna's car, who was, unfortunately, killed earlier in the season. Mansell's team-mate was Damon Hill . Mansell's return was aided by Bernie Ecclestone, who wanted the world champion in the series to increase worldwide TV viewing. Mansell was a superstar and he was paid like a superstar, approximately £900,000 per race, compared to his teammate Hill, who was being paid £300,000 for the entire season. 40-year-old Mansell participated in four races and scored his last F1 victory, at Australian Grand Prix in Adelaide.\nMansell couldn't fit in the narrow F1 car\nIn 1995, Williams replaced Mansell with David Coulthard , so Mansell signed to drive for McLaren in 1995. That deal didn't last for long. Mansell missed the first two races of the season because his body couldn't fit in the narrow car and Mark Blundell replaced him. He participated in San Marino GP at Imola and finished 10th. Shortly after, he retired from the Spanish GP, but also retired from his F1 racing career.\nMansell’s BTCC crash at Donington Park\nMansell and his sons together at Le Mans\nThree years later, Mansell competed in the 1998 British Touring Championship, driving the Ford Mondeo Ghia at six races. At his first event at Donington Park, he retired three laps into the sprint race, which meant he would start the feature race in the 19th position on the grid. As the conditions changed and the track got wetter, Mansell found himself leading the race for several laps and he finished in 5th position. He failed to finish the race at the next round at Brands Hatch, and at his final race at Silverstone he finished in 14th and 11th place.\n \nIn the last ten years, Mansell took part in many occasional races and racing events, for example; DTM Race of Legends, FIA GT Championship and the Le Mans Series. He was the founder of Grand Prix Masters series in 2005, and in 2010 he finally fulfilled his dream of racing at 24 Hours of Le Mans. Together with his sons Leo and Gerg, he drove the Ginetta-Zytek LMP1 prototype. They qualified as 18th overall but in the race they retired after just four laps.\nIn 2010 Nigel Mansell finally competed at 24 Hours of Le Mans\nLong list of awards\nMansell was inducted to the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005. He was awarded the title of BBC Sports Personality of the Year in both 1986 and 1992. Only two other people have won the award twice, one of whom being fellow racing driver and former F1 World Champion Damon Hill. Mansell won the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy, an award for the leading British or Commonwealth driver in F1 each year, a record seven times in his career (1985, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991 and 1992).\nAlready Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), Mansell was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to children and young people. The reason is because in 1999 Mansell became the President of one of the UK's largest Youth Work Charities, UK Youth, and worked tirelessly to promote the charity.\nVideo: Documentary about Nigel Mansell (part 1)",
"1993 PPG Indy Car World Series\n1993 PPG Indy Car World Series\nNigel Mansell - Champion\n^Race sanctioned by USAC but counted in CART points standings\nStanding",
"The Mansell Collection - Nigel Mansell CBE\nThe Mansell Collection\nContact\nNigel Mansell – Formula 1 World Champion and CART Indy Car World Series winner.\nMost race fans know that I was F1 world champion in 1992 and IndyCar champion in 1993, but there’s so much more to tell you about my career. This is why we started The Mansell Collection on the Island of Jersey.\nUpstairs from our showroom, we tell the story of my battle to become a top racing driver. Told via detailed interviews with myself over the years, some magnificent pictures and exciting video footage, the actual trophies and racing cars are on display too. And if you’re lucky, I might be close by and pop in to give you a few stories myself.\nThis floor is available to hire for functions. We’ll also have a rather special boardroom on this level which you can take on for your corporate event. Imagine mingling with your guests while standing right next to the actual F1 cars I drove throughout his career.\nNigel Mansell – Formula 1 World Champion and CART Indy Car World Series winner.\nMost race fans know that I was F1 world champion in 1992 and IndyCar champion in 1993, but there’s so much more to tell you about my career. This is why we started The Mansell Collection on the Island of Jersey.\nUpstairs from our showroom, we tell the story of my battle to become a top racing driver. Told via detailed interviews with myself over the years, some magnificent pictures and exciting video footage, the actual trophies and racing cars are on display too. And if you’re lucky, I might be close by and pop in to give you a few stories myself.\nThis floor is available to hire for functions. We’ll also have a rather special boardroom on this level which you can take on for your corporate event. Imagine mingling with your guests while standing right next to the actual F1 cars I drove throughout his career.\nTalking of the building, what a building it is! An art deco structure which we’ve restored to it’s original former glory. The place itself has so much history and has to be one of the most original venues anywhere in which to buy your next car.\nOpening hours and entrance fees:\nMonday to Saturday: 9am – 6pm Sunday: CLOSED Bank Holidays: CLOSED\nAdults(17+): £10 • OAPs: £7.50 • Children 0-10 Free 11-16 £5.00 \nPlease note that all children must be accompanied by an adult. No more than 3 children per adult admission. \nPlease note: Private group bookings are available after hours and on Sundays. For further information please email [email protected] \nPlease Note: There is no onsite parking for Museum Visitors\nTalking of the building, what a building it is! An art deco structure which we’ve restored to it’s original former glory. The place itself has so much history and has to be one of the most original venues anywhere in which to buy your next car.\nOpening hours and entrance fees:\nMonday to Saturday: 9am – 6pm Sunday: CLOSED Bank Holidays: CLOSED\nAdults(17+): £10 • OAPs: £7.50 • Children 0-10 Free 11-16 £5.00 \nPlease note that all children must be accompanied by an adult. No more than 3 children per adult admission. \nPlease note: Private group bookings are available after hours and on Sundays. For further information please email [email protected] \nPlease Note: There is no onsite parking for Museum Visitors",
"Nigel Mansell | Autopedia | Fandom powered by Wikia\nTemplate:Infobox racing driver\nNigel Ernest James Mansell, CBE (born 8 August 1953 in Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire, England) is a British racing driver who won both the Formula One World Championship ( 1992 ) and the CART Indy Car World Series ( 1993 ). Mansell was the reigning F1 champion when he moved over to CART, being the first person to win the CART title in his debut season, making him the only person to hold both titles simultaneously.\nHis career in Formula One spanned 15 seasons, with his final two full seasons of top-level racing being spent in the CART series. Mansell remains the most successful British Formula One driver of all time in terms of race wins with 31 victories, and is fourth overall on the Formula One race winners list behind Michael Schumacher , Alain Prost and Ayrton Senna . He held the record for the most number of poles set in a single season, which was broken in 2011 by Sebastian Vettel . He was rated in the top 10 Formula One drivers of all time by longtime Formula One commentator Murray Walker . [1] In 2008, American sports television network ESPN ranked him 24th on their top drivers of all-time. [2] He was also ranked No. 9 of the 50 greatest F1 drivers of all time by the Times Online on a list that also included such drivers as Alain Prost , Ayrton Senna , Jackie Stewart and Jim Clark . [3]\nMansell raced in the GP Masters series and signed a one-off race deal for the Scuderia Ecosse GT race team to drive their number 63 Ferrari F430 GT2 car at Silverstone on 6 May 2007. He has since competed in additional sports car races with his sons, Leo and Greg , including the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans .\nTo date, he is the most recent inductee to the International Motorsports Hall of Fame from a country other than the US, having been inducted in 2005.\nHe is the current President of one of the UK's largest Youth Work Charities, UK Youth. [4] . He is also President of the IAM (Institute of Advanced Motorists).\nHe lives in Saint Brélade, on the island of Jersey. [5]\nContents\nEdit\nBorn in Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire, Mansell spent 11 years of his early life as a Special Constable for the Isle of Man and latterly for Devon and Cornwall Constabulary. [6] He had a fairly slow start to his racing career, using his own money to help work his way up the ranks. After considerable success in kart racing, he moved to the Formula Ford series to the disapproval of his father. In 1976, Mansell won 6 of the 9 races he took part in, including his debut event at Mallory Park . He entered 42 races the following year and won 33 to become the 1977 British Formula Ford champion, despite suffering a broken neck in a qualifying session at Brands Hatch . Doctors told him he had been perilously close to quadriplegia, that he would be confined for six months and would never drive again. Mansell discharged himself from the hospital and returned to racing. Three weeks before the accident he had resigned his job as an aerospace engineer, having previously sold most of his personal belongings to finance his foray into Formula Ford. [7] Later that year he was given the chance to race a Lola T570 Formula 3 car at Silverstone . He finished fourth and decided that he was ready to move into the higher formula. [8]\nMansell raced in Formula Three in 1978–1980. Mansell's first season in Formula Three started with a pole position and a 2nd place finish. However, the car was not competitive, as a commercial deal with Unipart required his team to use Triumph Dolomite engines that were vastly inferior to the Toyota engines used by the leading teams. After three 7th place finishes and a fourth in his last race, he parted from the team. The next season saw him take a paid drive with Dave Price Racing. Following a first win in the series at Silverstone in March, he went on to finish 8th in the championship. [8] His racing was consistent, but a collision with Andrea de Cesaris resulted in a huge cartwheeling crash which he was lucky to survive. Again he was hospitalised, this time with broken vertebrae.\nHis driving was noticed by Colin Chapman , owner of Lotus , and shortly after his accident, hiding the extent of his injury with painkillers, Mansell performed well enough during a tryout at the Paul Ricard circuit with Lotus, where he was pitted against a number of other drivers to determine who was going to take the second seat for the 1980 season alongside Mario Andretti , as Argentinean Carlos Reutemann was leaving to go to Williams. Driving a 79 , the seat eventually went to Italian driver Elio de Angelis , but Mansell was selected to become a test driver for the great Norfolk-based Formula One team.\nFormula One\nEdit\nMansell's skill as a test driver , including setting the fastest lap around Silverstone in a Lotus car at the time, impressed Chapman enough to give him a trio of starts in F1 in 1980 , driving a development version of the Lotus 81 used by the team, the Lotus 81B. In his Formula One debut at the 1980 Austrian Grand Prix , a fuel leak in the cockpit that developed shortly before the start of the race left him with painful first and second degree burns on his buttocks. An engine failure forced him to retire from that race and his second, however an accident at his third event at Imola meant he failed to qualify. Team leader Mario Andretti wrote his car off before the final race of the season and Mansell had to give up his car for Andretti to compete in. Andretti announced he was leaving to move to Alfa Romeo at the end of the season leaving Lotus with a vacant race seat.\nDespite Mansell being unpopular with sponsor David Thieme of Essex Petroleum, and much speculation in the press that Jean-Pierre Jarier would fill the vacancy, Chapman announced at the start of the season the seat would be filled by Mansell.\nMansell's four years as a full-time Lotus driver were a struggle, as the cars were unreliable. Out of 59 race starts with the team, he finished just 24 of them. He managed a best finish of third place, which he achieved five times during the four years, including Lotus's fifth race of the 1981 season, and only the seventh of Mansell's Formula One career. Team mate Elio de Angelis took a surprise win at the 1982 Austrian Grand Prix , and was frequently faster than his less experienced colleague Mansell.\nFile:Lotus 91 cropped.jpg\nDuring the 1982 season, Mansell planned to race in the 24 Hours of Le Mans sportscar event in order to earn extra money. At the time Mansell was paid £50,000 a year and was offered £10,000 to take part in Le Mans. Chapman believed that by entering the Le Mans race, Mansell was exposing himself to unnecessary risk and paid him £10,000 to not take part in the race. Chapman extended Mansell's contract to the end of the 1984 season in a deal that made him a millionaire. [9]\nAs a result of the gestures such as the above, Mansell became very close to Chapman and was devastated by his sudden death in 1982. In his autobiography Mansell stated that when Chapman died, \"the bottom dropped out of my world. Part of me died with him. I had lost a member of my family\". Following Chapman's death relationships at Lotus became strained, as replacement team principal Peter Warr did not have a high regard for him as a driver. This was demonstrated by the fact that Mansell's teammate Elio de Angelis had exclusive use of a Renault turbo-charged 93T for the whole season, and Mansell did not get to drive a turbocharged car until the 9th round, the British Grand Prix at Silverstone , a race where he climbed from 16th to 2nd and eventually finished 4th in a brand-new, hastily designed 94T . Warr was not keen on honouring the last year of the contract that Mansell had signed with Chapman. However, with encouragement from Lotus's sponsors, John Player Special (who allegedly preferred a British driver), it was announced Mansell would be staying with the team.\nMansell set his first pole position in a Lotus 95T at the 1984 Dallas Grand Prix .\nIn 1984, Mansell finished in the championship top 10 for the first time, and took his first career pole position. At the 1984 Monaco Grand Prix Mansell surprised many by overtaking Alain Prost in a wet race for the lead, but soon after retired from the race after losing control on the slippery painted lines on the road surface on the run up the hill on lap 15. Late in the season, Lotus announced the recruitment of Ayrton Senna for the following year , leaving Mansell with no race seat at Lotus. After receiving offers from Arrows and Williams, and firstly turning down Williams 's offer, it was announced before the Dutch Grand Prix that he would indeed be joining Williams.\nMansell was remembered by many that year when he collapsed while pushing his car to the finish line after the transmission failed on the last lap of the 1984 Dallas Grand Prix . The race was one of the hottest on record, and after 2 hours of driving in 104 °F (about 40 °C) conditions Mansell fainted while pushing his car over the line to salvage a sixth place finish (and thus 1 championship point) in a race of which he had led half, having started from pole. [10]\nIn his autobiography, Mansell claimed that his final race with the Lotus team—the 1984 Portuguese Grand Prix —was heavily compromised by Warr's unwillingness to give Mansell the brake pads he desired for the race. With 18 laps of the race remaining, and with Mansell in second position, the brakes on his car failed. On Mansell's departure, Warr was quoted \"He'll never win a Grand Prix as long as I have a hole in my arse\". [11]\n1985–1988: Williams\nMansell at the 1985 German Grand Prix .\nIn 1985 Frank Williams hired Mansell to drive alongside Keke Rosberg as part of the Williams team, Mansell later saying \"Keke was probably one of the best team-mates I've had in my career\". Mansell was given the now famous \"Red 5\" number on his car, which he carried on subsequent Williams and Newman/Haas cars and which was brought to the public's attention mainly through commentator Murray Walker and his enthusiastic commentary for the BBC.\nRosberg, the 1982 World Champion who was heading into his fourth season with the team, was initially against Williams signing Mansell based on the clash the pair had at Dallas the previous year (Rosberg won that race and publicly berated Mansell's blocking tactics while leading early in the race in an interview while on the rostrum), and what Rosberg later said in a 1986 interview was second hand information about Mansell which ultimately proved to be false. The drivers found they got along well and from early in the pre-season formed a good working and personal relationship.\n1985 initially appeared to provide more of the same for Mansell, although he was closer to the pace than before, especially as the Honda engines became more competitive by mid-season.\nMansell achieved second place at the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps , and followed this with his first victory in 72 starts at the European Grand Prix at Brands Hatch in England. He achieved a second straight victory at the South African Grand Prix in Kyalami . These triumphs helped turn Mansell into a Formula One star.\nGoing into 1986 , the Williams-Honda team had a car capable of winning regularly, and Mansell had established himself as a potential World Championship contender. He also had a new team-mate in twice World Champion Nelson Piquet . The Brazilian publicly described Mansell as \"an uneducated blockhead\" and had also criticised his wife, Roseanne. [12] Unperturbed by Piquet's mind games, Mansell went on to record five Grand Prix wins in 1986 and also played part in one of the closest finishes in Formula One history, finishing second to Ayrton Senna in the Spanish Grand Prix at Jerez by a mere 0.014 seconds. The 1986 season went right down-to-the-wire in Adelaide , Australia for the Australian Grand Prix with Prost, Piquet and Mansell all still in contention for the title. After aiming for a third place finish which would guarantee him the title, Mansell would narrowly miss out on winning it after his left-rear tyre exploded in spectacular fashion on the main straight with only 19 laps of the race to go [13] . In a 2012 interview for Sky Sports Legends of F1 [14] Mansell revealed that, had he hit the wall rather than bringing the car safely to a halt, the stewards would have red flagged the race. As the race was over two thirds distance, he would have kept his position and won his first F1 world title. Instead Mansell ended the season as runner-up to Alain Prost. His efforts in 1986 led to his being voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year.\nSix more wins followed in 1987 , including an emotional and hugely popular victory at Silverstone in which he came back from 28 seconds behind in 30 laps to beat team-mate Piquet, with his car running out of fuel on the slowing down lap. [15] However, at the Italian Grand Prix he missed a gear and let Piquet, who was using an active suspension car, through to win. A heavy qualifying accident at Suzuka in Japan for the penultimate race of the season severely injured Mansell's back (a spinal concussion), and as a result of Mansell absent from the remaining two races, Piquet became champion for the third time even though he failed to score any points in these two remaining races. Piquet called his win over Mansell as “a win of luck over stupidity”. [16]\nFile:Nigel Mansell 1988 Canada 2.jpg\nIn 1988 , Williams lost the turbo power of Honda to McLaren , and had to settle with a naturally aspirated Judd engine. A dismal season followed, which saw Mansell's Williams team experiment with a terribly unreliable (but extremely innovative) active suspension system. Mansell would complete only two of the fourteen races in which he appeared in 1988, both being podium finishes. Ironically, one of these was a second place at the British Grand Prix at Silverstone where the team had reverted to a passive suspension set-up.\nMansell developed chickenpox in the summer of 1988 and after a competitive (but ill-advised) drive in the very hot conditions of the 1988 Hungarian Grand Prix the illness became even worse, forcing him to miss the next two Grands Prix.\n1989–1990: Ferrari\nEdit\nIn preparation for the 1989 season, Mansell became the last Ferrari driver to be personally selected by Enzo Ferrari before his death in August 1988, an honour Mansell described as \"one of the greatest in my entire career\". Enzo Ferrari presented a 1989 Ferrari F40 as a gift to Mansell. [17] In Italy he became known as \"il leone\" (\"the lion\") by the tifosi (Ferrari fans) because of his fearless driving style. The season was one of change in the sport, with the banning of turbo engines by the FIA and the introduction of the electronic gearbox by Ferrari.\nMansell believed that 1989 would be a development year and that he would be able to challenge for the championship the following season. In his first appearance with the team he scored a very unlikely win in the Brazilian Grand Prix at Jacarepaguá , Rio de Janeiro; his least favourite track and the home race of his bitter rival Piquet. He later joked that he had booked an early flight home for halfway through the race as he predicted the car's new electronic gearbox would last only a few laps. Mansell became the first driver to win a race in a car with a semi-automatic gearbox. He also remained the last man to win on his Ferrari debut until Kimi Räikkönen in the 2007 Australian Grand Prix .\nFile:Nigel Mansell 1990 USA.jpg\nThe rest of 1989 was characterised by gearbox and various other problems, including a disqualification at the Canadian Grand Prix and a black-flagged incident at the Portuguese Grand Prix for reversing in the pit-lane, which resulted in a ban for the next race in Spain. However, Mansell finished fourth in the Championship with the help of a memorable second win for Ferrari at the Hungarian Grand Prix , where, after concentrating on the race set-up of his car, he won after a fantastic late-race pass on Ayrton Senna having started 12th on the grid.\nA tough 1990 followed with Ferrari, in which his car suffered more reliability problems, forcing him to retire from seven races. He was paired with Alain Prost , the reigning World Champion, who took over as the team's lead driver. Mansell recalls one incident where at the 1990 British Grand Prix , the car he drove didn't handle the same as in the previous race where he had taken pole position. On confronting the mechanics, it transpired that Prost saw Mansell as having a superior car and as a result, they were swapped without telling Mansell. [18] After retiring from the race, he announced he was retiring from the sport altogether at the end of the season. This, combined with the fact that Prost was not only a triple World Champion, but also spoke fluent Italian, whereas Mansell's Italian was only conversational at best, gave Prost greater klout in the Maranello team. Mansell scored only a single win, at the 1990 Portuguese Grand Prix , and finished a thrilling 2nd to Nelson Piquet in Australia , and finished 5th in the world championship. His retirement plans were halted when Frank Williams again stepped in. Williams signed Mansell on 1 October 1990 after Mansell was ensured the contract stated that he would be the focus of the team, having experienced being the 'Number Two' driver at Ferrari. Mansell would be paid £4.6 million a season, a deal which made him the highest paid British sportsman at the time. [19]\n1991–1992: Return to Williams\nFile:Mansell and Senna at Silverstone ultra cropped.jpg\nMansell's return to Williams wasn't straightforward. He would agree to return only if a list of demands were met, including undisputed number one status, guarantees of support in a wide variety of areas with each guarantee in writing, and assurances from suppliers such as Renault and Elf that they would do everything necessary to help him win. Frank Williams said the demands were 'impossible', Mansell concluded that if that were the case he would be happy to retire. Three weeks later the impossible had happened and Mansell was a Williams driver.\nHis second stint with Williams was even better than the first. Back in the familiar 'Red 5', he won five races in 1991 , most memorably in the Spanish Grand Prix . In this race he went wheel to wheel with Ayrton Senna, with only centimetres to spare, at over 320 km/h (200 mph) on the main straight. Quite a different spectacle was offered following Mansell's victory in the British Grand Prix at Silverstone . Senna's car had stopped on the final lap, but, rather than leave his rival stranded out on the circuit, Mansell pulled over on his victory lap and allowed Senna to ride on the Williams sidepod back to the pits.\nThe Williams team's decision to develop their new semi-automatic gearbox by racing with it at the start of the season, was at the cost of points in the opening rounds of the championship. Senna was on 40 points by the time Mansell gained his first 6 in Monaco. Despite a good mid season, which included a hat-trick of victories, Senna's consistency (and Mansell's retirements at key races) meant that he finished second in the Championship once again, this time behind Senna.\n1992 would be Mansell's finest season. He started the year with five straight victories (a record not equalled until Michael Schumacher in 2004 ). At the sixth round of the season in Monaco , he took pole and dominated much of the race. However, with seven laps remaining, Mansell suffered a loose wheel nut and was forced into the pits, emerging behind Ayrton Senna's McLaren -Honda. Mansell, on fresh tyres, set a lap record almost two seconds quicker than Senna's and closed from 5.2 to 1.9 seconds in only two laps. The pair duelled around Monaco for the final four laps but Mansell could find no way past, finishing just 0.2 seconds behind the Brazilian. [20] [21] Mansell became the most successful British driver of all time when he won the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, as he surpassed Jackie Stewart 's record of 27 wins with his 28th. Mansell was crowned Formula One World Champion early in the season at the Hungarian Grand Prix , the eleventh round of that season, where his second place finish clinched the Drivers' Championship, securing the title in the least number of Grands Prix since the 16-race season format started. Mansell also set the then-record for the most number of wins in one season (9); both records stood until broken by Schumacher in 2002 . He managed 14 pole positions that year, a record only broken by Sebastian Vettel in 2011 in the Brazilian Grand Prix on 26 November.\nOther Formula One records set in 1992 that he still holds are the highest percentage of pole positions in a season (88%), most wins from pole position in a season (9) most races before becoming World Champion (180 races) and most runner-up championship finishes before becoming World Champion (3). Mansell also holds the record for obtaining pole position and scoring fastest lap and subsequently retiring from the race ( 1987 German Grand Prix , 1990 British Grand Prix , 1992 Japanese Grand Prix , and 1992 Italian Grand Prix ).\nHe won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year award again in 1992, one of only three people to have won the award twice.\nCART IndyCar World Series\nEdit\nNigel Mansell driving in the 1993 CART IndyCar World Series\nDespite being world champion, Mansell had a public disagreement with Williams. In his autobiography Mansell writes that this was because of a deal made at the previous Hungarian Grand Prix, which Williams reneged on, and the prospect of Frenchman Alain Prost joining the Renault -powered team.\nWilliams had neglected to tell Mansell that Prost had signed for 1993 at only the second race of the 1992 season in Mexico, a position that Mansell felt would be similar to their days together at Ferrari. To boot, Williams had Senna offering to drive the second car for free (although Senna found later he couldn't because of Prost's clause in his contract allowing him to veto the move) and decided that there was little sense in paying the high fees Mansell went on to demand. With the original offer revoked, Mansell with no teams near the competitiveness of Williams decided that enough was enough. An eleventh hour offer was handed to him during a televised press conference at the Italian Grand Prix, but by then the damage was done; Mansell ignored the document and announced that he had retired from F1.\nMansell consequently left to join the Newman/Haas CART team in 1993. He took over the seat of Michael Andretti , who coincidentally had left CART to race in Formula One for McLaren . At the season opener at Surfers Paradise , Australia, he became the first \"rookie\" to take pole position and win his first race. A few weeks later however, he suffered a substantial crash at the Phoenix International Raceway , severely injuring his back. At the 1993 Indianapolis 500 , Mansell would lead the race only to finish third after losing the lead to Emerson Fittipaldi and Arie Luyendyk after a poor restart. On his 40th birthday, however, Mansell would avenge his loss at Indianapolis to score a 500-mile race victory at Michigan, considered by many a tougher 500 mile race to win. He would go on to score five wins for the 1993 CART season, which, with more high-placed finishes, was good enough to earn him the championship. This enabled Mansell to become the only driver in history to hold both the Formula One and CART championships at the same time, because when he won the 1993 CART championship he was still the reigning F1 world champion, with the 1993 F1 championship not yet having been decided.\nFollowing this successful season in CART, Mansell received several awards, including a Gold Medal from the Royal Automobile Club and the 1993 ESPY Award for Best Driver.\nHis Newman/Haas car was much less reliable the following year, 1994, and results suffered. It was during this season that Mansell \"wore out his welcome\" in the United States with glimpses of rude behaviour, particularly after he was knocked out of the Indianapolis 500 . After the crash, he stormed out of the track hospital, and refused medical care. When Dr. Jerry Punch asked Mansell if he had spoken with Dennis Vitolo , the driver who had crashed into him, Mansell replied, \"you speak to him.\" and shoved the camera away. Subsequently, Mansell was due to sign autographs at a K-mart (the primary sponsor of his car), but because of a lack of demand the event was cancelled. Mansell was also the catalyst for the breakdown in the relationship between himself and Mario Andretti . Mario has since remarked \"I guess if Ronnie Peterson was the best team-mate I ever had, Nigel Mansell was the worst\" and \"I had a lot of respect for him as a driver, but not as a man\". [22]\nBrief return to Formula One\nEdit\nIn 1994 Mansell made a Formula One comeback. After the untimely death of Ayrton Senna , he returned to Formula One with Williams, replacing young rookie David Coulthard for the French Grand Prix and the last three races of the season. Mansell was paid approximately £900,000 per race, compared to Williams's lead driver at the time, Damon Hill being paid £300,000 for the entire season. [23] Mansell's return was helped by Bernie Ecclestone helping unravel his contracts in the United States. It was important for F1 to have a world champion driving that season, and with worldwide TV viewing figures starting to decline, they needed Mansell. The 40-year-old wasn't as quick as Damon Hill in race trim but signs that his speeds were coming back were evident in Japan during a fantastic battle with the Ferrari of Jean Alesi . Mansell took his final Grand Prix victory in Adelaide , which was the final race of the season, having out-qualified the two title contenders at the time, Damon Hill and Michael Schumacher , in the process (helped out by the second qualifying session being held on a wet track, with the times from the 1st session making up the grid). The plan initially was for Mansell to protect Hill from Schumacher, but both drivers passed him at the start and eventually collided (causing the retirement of both), handing Schumacher his 1st world title.\nWilliams had an option on Mansell's services for 1995 which Mansell was convinced they would take. Williams however, opted for youth over experience and hired Coulthard.\n1995: McLaren\nEdit\nMansell was quick again and on the back of winning two titles, he was still hot property. After losing the Williams seat to David Coulthard, Mansell signed to drive for McLaren in 1995 .\nIt was well documented that Mansell and Ron Dennis never saw eye to eye but with McLaren's sponsors wanting a world champion, Dennis had only two options: the second option, Schumacher, was already taken, which left Mansell. Media speculated from the start that they wouldn't last together because of their two contrasting personalities.\nThe season started dismally; Mansell couldn't fit into the car and wasn't able to race until Imola , where he ran in the midfield, a good way off the pace of his team-mate Mika Häkkinen . The Spanish Grand Prix saw a similar outcome but, outpaced and frustrated with his car's handling characteristics, he chose to retire after just two races with the team. Mansell cited the decision to retire as his not wanting to make up the numbers and with no hope of the MP4/10 being competitive.\nA few testing sessions with F1 teams including Jordan suggested another comeback could be on the cards, but it never happened.\nBritish Touring Car Championship\nFile:Mansell BTCC1998.jpg\nMansell took part in the 1993 TOCA Shootout, held at Donington Park. Mansell drove a Ford Mondeo with his usual red number 5. The race ended in disaster for Mansell; he was knocked unconscious following a crash with 6 laps remaining. [24] He lost control of his car through the exit of the Old Hairpin, over-corrected the slide and collided with Tiff Needell 's Nissan , resulting in a spin and a heavy impact with the tyre wall under the bridge. [25]\nMansell made a return to racing in 1998 in the British Touring Car Championship , driving in a Ford Mondeo for three rounds. With the number 5 already taken by James Thompson , Mansell raced with the red number 55. [26] [27]\nAt his first event at Donington Park , he retired 3 laps into the sprint race, meaning he would start the feature race in 19th position on the grid. As the conditions changed and the track got wetter, Mansell found himself leading the race for several laps, and he finished in 5th position. [28] The race was regarded by many fans as one of the greatest in touring car history. [29]\nIt was to be his best finish in the series, as he failed to finish either race at the next round he participated in at Brands Hatch , and at his final race at Silverstone he finished in 14th and 11th place. [30] [31] Having competed in 3 of the 13 rounds, he finished 18th out of 21 in the drivers' championship. [32]\nSubsequent appearances\nFile:Mansell jordan 2004.jpg\nOn 16 July 2005, Mansell took part in a Race of Legends exhibition event at the Norisring round of the DTM . [33] He competed against Jody Scheckter , Alain Prost , Mick Doohan , Emerson Fittipaldi and Johnny Cecotto , each driver having an opportunity to drive Audi , Mercedes and Opel cars. Prost was announced as the winner by the DTM organisers. [34]\nMansell became a financial stakeholder and a driver in the new Grand Prix Masters series. Following a period of testing and developing the car, Mansell made a successful race comeback by winning the inaugural race of the series in Kyalami in November 2005. [35] After the success of the race at Kyalami, four dates were scheduled for the GP Masters Series in 2006, including one at Silverstone. Mansell won the season opener at Qatar in April from pole position. [36] The Monza round of the series was cancelled due to noise limitations at the venue, whilst technical issues quickly ruled him out of the Silverstone race. [37]\nAlso in 2006 he appeared to Brands Hatch , scene of his first Grand Prix win, in May 2006, driving some demonstration laps in the BMW M3 GTR that Andy Priaulx drove to victory in the 2005 24 Hours Nürburgring , as part of the World Touring Car Championship event.\nFile:Nigel Mansell 2007.jpg\nOn the weekend of 6 May 2007 he made an appearance in the second round of the FIA GT Championship at Silverstone driving a Ferrari 430 GT2 for the Scuderia Ecosse team. [38] He was paired with Chris Niarchos, finishing 7th in class and 21st overall. [39]\nMansell, with his son Leo , tested a Chamberlain-Synergy team Le Mans prototype Lola -AER B06/10 during the week commencing 14 July 2008, at the Estoril circuit . The pair were said to be considering a drive in the American Le Mans series, possibly commencing as soon as October 2008 in the Petit Le Mans event, [40] [41] although neither driver was in the final field.\nOn 3 July 2009, Mansell tested his other son Greg's World Series by Renault car at the Silverstone Circuit , setting a best time six seconds off the pace of the fastest driver in the session. [42]\nMansell took part in the last round of the 2009 Le Mans Series, the 1000 km of Silverstone, driving Team LNT 's Ginetta-Zytek GZ09 alongside his son Greg and team boss Lawrence Tomlinson . [43]\nMansell raced a Ginetta - Zytek Z09R in the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans , alongside his two sons. [44] According to the BBC, this was the first time a father has raced at Le Mans in the same car as his two sons. However, in the race he crashed out after only five laps, following a puncture. [45]\nFor the 2010 Formula One season, the Sporting Regulations were changed so that a former driver sits on the stewards' panel. Mansell took this role at the 2010, 2011 and 2012 British Grand Prix.\nEndorsements\nEdit\nOn 1 October 2009 Nigel appeared as the 'Face of Euronics'. [46]\nIn 2010, Nigel paired with Iranian-British comic Omid Djalili in an UK television advertising campaign for price comparison website Moneysupermarket.com and at the end of the first ad, Djalili put a fake moustache on Mansell's upper lip.\nVideo games\nThere were two video games endorsed by Mansell: Nigel Mansell's Grand Prix (1988, Martech) and Nigel Mansell's World Championship (1993, Gremlin Graphics).\nPersonal life\nMansell currently lives in Jersey, Channel Islands. Mansell lived in Port Erin on the Isle of Man during most of his F1 career until 1995. [47]\nIn 1986, Mansell revealed a desire to compete in the British Open Golf Championship. [48]\nHelmet\nEdit\nMansell raced with a blue helmet with two red and white arrows on each side forming on the frontview a drawing resembling the Union Flag with the upper angles of the arrows united by a red and white 'U', with the white chin area, when he entered to Williams, it was added a blue ring on the white part of the helmet. His sons Leo and Greg inherited his helmet design, but Leo's helmet has the red chin area and the white part that envelopes the visor (not counting the top) is red with white outline, while Greg's helmet has the blue chin area and the white area that envelopes the visor is blue with white outline.\nAwards\nEdit\nMansell was awarded the title of BBC Sports Personality of the Year in both 1986 and 1992. [49] [50] Only two other people have won the award twice, one of which being fellow racing driver and former F1 World Champion Damon Hill . Mansell was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005. [51]\nAlready Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), Mansell was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to children and young people (as president of UK Youth). [52] [53]\nRacing career results",
"1993 Newman Haas Lola decals\nView Cart\n1993 was a remarkable year for Newmann Haas Racing. With Michael Andretti leaving the team to drive in F1, Newman Haas brought in defending World Champion Nigel Mansell to fill the open seat... he did not disappoint, winning his first ever Indy Car race in the season opener at Surfers Paradise. A practice crash at Phoenix kept him from making his oval debut, but team mate Mario Andretti became the oldest person to ever win an Indy car race at age 53. At Indy Mario looked like he might get the pole position but was beat late in the day by Arie Luyendyk. Nevertheless, Mario dominated the race, leading a race high 72 laps, but it was Mansell who contended for the win, bringing the car home in third. At Michigan the team mates were untouchable: After setting world closed course speed records, the team swept the race, with Mansell claiming victory in what he called his toughest win ever. Mansell went on to capture the championship before the 1993 F1 Championship was decided - as a result Mansell was concurently the F1 and Indy Car champion!"
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Thomas Marshal was Vice President to which US President?
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tc_789
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"The Vice President of the United States (VPOTUS) is the second-highest position in the executive branch of the United States, after the President. The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is indirectly elected, together with the president, to a four-year term of office by the people of the United States through the Electoral College. The vice president is the first person in the presidential line of succession, and would normally ascend to the presidency upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists and organizes the vice president's official functions.\n\nThe vice president is also president of the United States Senate and in that capacity only votes when it is necessary to break a tie. While Senate customs have created supermajority rules that have diminished this constitutional tie-breaking authority, the vice president still retains the ability to influence legislation; for example, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 was passed in the Senate by a tie-breaking vice presidential vote. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College.\n\nWhile the vice president's only constitutionally prescribed functions aside from presidential succession relate to their role as President of the Senate, the office is commonly viewed as a component of the executive branch of the federal government. The United States Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the vice president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress, though such activities are only recent historical developments.\n\nOrigin\n\nThe creation of the office of vice president was a direct consequence of the creation of the Electoral College. Delegates to the Philadelphia Convention gave each state a number of presidential electors equal to that state's combined share of House and Senate seats. Yet the delegates were worried that each elector would only favor his own state's favorite son candidate, resulting in deadlocked elections that would produce no winners. To counter this potential difficulty, the delegates gave each presidential elector two votes, requiring that at least one of their votes be for a candidate from outside the elector's state; they also mandated that the winner of an election must obtain an absolute majority of the total number of electors. The delegates expected that each elector's second vote would go to a statesman of national character.\n\nFearing that electors might throw away their second vote to bolster their favorite son's chance of winning, however, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the runner-up would become vice president. Creating this new office imposed a political cost on discarded votes and forced electors to cast their second ballot.\n\nRoles of the vice president\n\nThe Constitution limits the formal powers and role of vice president to becoming president, should the president become unable to serve, prompting the well-known expression \"only a heartbeat away from the presidency,\" and to acting as the presiding officer of the U.S. Senate.\nOther statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. \n\nPresident of the United States Senate\n\nAs President of the Senate, the vice president has two primary duties: to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over and certify the official vote count of the U.S. Electoral College. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheney's tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority.\n\nRegular duties\n\nAs President of the Senate (Article I, Section 3, Clause 4), the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. There is a strong convention within the U.S. Senate that the vice president should not use their position as President of the Senate to influence the passage of legislation or act in a partisan manner, except in the case of breaking tie votes. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast twenty-nine tie-breaking votes, a record no successor except John C. Calhoun ever threatened. Adams's votes protected the president's sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, and prevented war with Great Britain. On at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of George Washington's administration. Toward the end of his first term, a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters caused him to exercise more restraint in hopes of seeing his election as President of the United States.\n\nFormerly, the vice president would preside regularly over Senate proceedings, but in modern times, the vice president rarely presides over day-to-day matters in the Senate; in their place, the Senate chooses a President pro tempore (or \"president for a time\") to preside in the vice president's absence; the Senate normally selects the longest-serving senator in the majority party. The President pro tempore has the power to appoint any other senator to preside, and in practice junior senators from the majority party are assigned the task of presiding over the Senate at most times.\n\nExcept for this tie-breaking role, the Standing Rules of the Senate vest no significant responsibilities in the vice president. Rule XIX, which governs debate, does not authorize the vice president to participate in debate, and grants only to members of the Senate (and, upon appropriate notice, former presidents of the United States) the privilege of addressing the Senate, without granting a similar privilege to the sitting vice president. Thus, as Time magazine wrote during the controversial tenure of Vice President Charles G. Dawes, \"once in four years the Vice President can make a little speech, and then he is done. For four years he then has to sit in the seat of the silent, attending to speeches ponderous or otherwise, of deliberation or humor.\" \n\nRecurring, infrequent duties\n\nThe President of the Senate also presides over counting and presentation of the votes of the Electoral College. This process occurs in the presence of both houses of Congress, generally on January 6 of the year following a U.S. presidential election. In this capacity, only four vice presidents have been able to announce their own election to the presidency: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, and George H. W. Bush. At the beginning of 1961, it fell to Richard Nixon to preside over this process, which officially announced the election of his 1960 opponent, John F. Kennedy. In 2001, Al Gore announced the election of his opponent, George W. Bush. In 1969, Vice President Hubert Humphrey would have announced the election of his opponent, Richard Nixon; however, on the date of the Congressional joint session (January 6), Humphrey was in Norway attending the funeral of Trygve Lie, the first elected Secretary-General of the United Nations. \n\nIn 1933, incumbent Vice President Charles Curtis announced the election of House Speaker John Nance Garner as his successor, while Garner was seated next to him on the House dais.\n\nThe President of the Senate may also preside over most of the impeachment trials of federal officers. However, whenever the President of the United States is impeached, the US Constitution requires the Chief Justice of the United States to preside over the Senate for the trial. The Constitution is silent as to the presiding officer in the instance where the vice president is the officer impeached.\n\nSuccession and the Twenty-Fifth Amendment\n\nThe U.S. Constitution provides that should the president die, become disabled while in office or removed from office, the \"powers and duties\" of the office are transferred to the vice president. Initially, it was unclear whether the vice president actually became the new president or merely an acting president. This was first tested in 1841 with the death of President William Henry Harrison. Harrison's vice president, John Tyler, asserted that he had succeeded to the full presidential office, powers, and title, and declined to acknowledge documents referring to him as \"Acting President.\" Despite some strong calls against it, Tyler took the oath of office as the tenth President. Tyler's claim was not challenged legally, and so the Tyler precedent of full succession was established. This was made explicit by Section 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1967.\n\nSection 2 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment provides for vice presidential succession:\n Gerald Ford was the first vice president selected by this method, after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1973; after succeeding to the presidency, Ford nominated Nelson Rockefeller as vice president.\n\nAnother issue was who had the power to declare that an incapacitated president is unable to discharge his duties. This question had arisen most recently with the illnesses of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Section 3 and Section 4 of the amendment provide means for the vice president to become acting president upon the temporary disability of the president. Section 3 deals with self-declared incapacity of the president. Section 4 deals with incapacity declared by the joint action of the vice president and of a majority of the Cabinet.\n\nWhile Section 4 has never been invoked, Section 3 has been invoked three times: on July 13, 1985 when Ronald Reagan underwent surgery to remove cancerous polyps from his colon, and twice more on June 29, 2002 and July 21, 2007 when George W. Bush underwent colonoscopy procedures requiring sedation. Prior to this amendment, Vice President Richard Nixon informally assumed some of President Dwight Eisenhower's duties for several weeks on each of three occasions when Eisenhower was ill.\n\nInformal roles\n\nThe extent of any informal roles and functions of the vice president depend on the specific relationship between the president and the vice president, but often include tasks such as drafter and spokesperson for the administration's policies, adviser to the president, and being a symbol of American concern or support. The influence of the vice president in this role depends almost entirely on the characteristics of the particular administration. Dick Cheney, for instance, was widely regarded as one of President George W. Bush's closest confidants. Al Gore was an important adviser to President Bill Clinton on matters of foreign policy and the environment. Often, vice presidents are chosen to act as a \"balance\" to the president, taking either more moderate or radical positions on issues.\n\nUnder the American system the president is both head of state and head of government, and the ceremonial duties of the former position are often delegated to the vice president. The vice president is often assigned the ceremonial duties of representing the president and the government at state funerals or other functions in the United States. This often is the most visible role of the vice president, and has occasionally been the subject of ridicule, such as during the vice presidency of George H. W. Bush. The vice president may meet with other heads of state or attend state funerals in other countries, at times when the administration wishes to demonstrate concern or support but cannot send the president themselves.\n\nOffice as stepping stone to the presidency\n\nIn recent decades, the vice presidency has frequently been used as a platform to launch bids for the presidency. The transition of the office to its modern stature occurred primarily as a result of Franklin Roosevelt's 1940 nomination, when he captured the ability to nominate his running mate instead of leaving the nomination to the convention. Prior to that, party bosses often used the vice presidential nomination as a consolation prize for the party's minority faction. A further factor potentially contributing to the rise in prestige of the office was the adoption of presidential preference primaries in the early 20th century. By adopting primary voting, the field of candidates for vice president was expanded by both the increased quantity and quality of presidential candidates successful in some primaries, yet who ultimately failed to capture the presidential nomination at the convention.\n\nOf the thirteen presidential elections from 1956 to 2004, nine featured the incumbent president; the other four (1960, 1968, 1988, 2000) all featured the incumbent vice president. Former vice presidents also ran, in 1984 (Walter Mondale), and in 1968 (Richard Nixon, against the incumbent vice president, Hubert Humphrey). The first presidential election to include neither the incumbent president nor the incumbent vice president on a major party ticket since 1952 came in 2008 when President George W. Bush had already served two terms and Vice President Cheney chose not to run. Richard Nixon is also the only non-sitting vice president to be elected president, as well as the only person to be elected president and vice president twice each.\n\nSelection process\n\nEligibility\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment states that \"no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States.\" Thus, to serve as vice president, an individual must:\n* Be a natural-born U.S. citizen;\n* Be at least 35 years old\n* Have resided in the U.S. at least 14 years. \n\nDisqualifications\n\nAdditionally, Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment denies eligibility for any federal office to anyone who, having sworn an oath to support the United States Constitution, later has rebelled against the United States. This disqualification, originally aimed at former supporters of the Confederacy, may be removed by a two-thirds vote of each house of the Congress.\n\nUnder the Twenty-second Amendment, the President of the United States may not be elected to more than two terms. However, there is no similar such limitation as to how many times one can be elected vice president. Scholars disagree whether a former president barred from election to the presidency is also ineligible to be elected or appointed vice president, as suggested by the Twelfth Amendment. The issue has never been tested in practice.\n\nAlso, Article I, Section 3, Clause 7 allows the Senate, upon voting to remove an impeached federal official from office, to disqualify that official from holding any federal office.\n\nResidency limitation\n\nWhile it is commonly held that the president and vice president must be residents of different states, this is not actually the case. Nothing in the Constitution prohibits both candidates being from a single state. Instead, the limitation imposed is on the members of the Electoral College, who must cast a ballot for at least one candidate who is not from their own state.\n\nIn theory, the candidates elected could both be from one state, but the electors of that state would, in a close electoral contest, run the risk of denying their vice presidential candidate the absolute majority required to secure the election, even if the presidential candidate is elected. This would then place the vice presidential election in the hands of the Senate.\n\nIn practice, however, residency is rarely an issue. Parties have avoided nominating tickets containing two candidates from the same state. Further, the candidates may themselves take action to alleviate any residency conflict. For example, at the start of the 2000 election cycle Dick Cheney was a resident of Texas; Cheney quickly changed his residency back to Wyoming, where he had previously served as a U.S. Representative, when Texas governor and Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush asked Cheney to be his vice presidential candidate.\n\nNominating process\n\nThough the vice president does not need to have any political experience, most major-party vice presidential nominees are current or former United States Senators or Representatives, with the occasional nominee being a current or former Governor, a high-ranking military officer, or a holder of a major post within the Executive Department. The vice presidential candidates of the major national political parties are formally selected by each party's quadrennial nominating convention, following the selection of the party's presidential candidates. The official process is identical to the one by which the presidential candidates are chosen, with delegates placing the names of candidates into nomination, followed by a ballot in which candidates must receive a majority to secure the party's nomination.\n\nIn practice, the presidential nominee has considerable influence on the decision, and in the 20th century it became customary for that person to select a preferred running mate, who is then nominated and accepted by the convention. In recent years, with the presidential nomination usually being a foregone conclusion as the result of the primary process, the selection of a vice presidential candidate is often announced prior to the actual balloting for the presidential candidate, and sometimes before the beginning of the convention itself. The first presidential aspirant to announce his selection for vice president before the beginning of the convention was Ronald Reagan who, prior to the 1976 Republican National Convention announced that Richard Schweiker would be his running mate. Reagan's supporters then sought to amend the convention rules so that Gerald R. Ford would be required to name his vice presidential running mate in advance as well. The proposal was defeated, and Reagan did not receive the nomination in 1976. Often, the presidential nominee will name a vice presidential candidate who will bring geographic or ideological balance to the ticket or appeal to a particular constituency.\n\nThe vice presidential candidate might also be chosen on the basis of traits the presidential candidate is perceived to lack, or on the basis of name recognition. To foster party unity, popular runners-up in the presidential nomination process are commonly considered. While this selection process may enhance the chances of success for a national ticket, in the past it often insured that the vice presidential nominee represented regions, constituencies, or ideologies at odds with those of the presidential candidate. As a result, vice presidents were often excluded from the policy-making process of the new administration. Many times their relationships with the president and his staff were aloof, non-existent, or even adversarial.\n\nThe ultimate goal of vice presidential candidate selection is to help and not hurt the party's chances of getting elected. A selection whose positive traits make the presidential candidate look less favorable in comparison can backfire, such as in 1988 when Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis chose experienced Texas Senator Lloyd Bentsen, and in 2008 when Republican candidate John McCain picked dynamic Alaska Governor Sarah Palin. However, Palin also hurt McCain when her interviews with Katie Couric led to concerns about her fitness for the presidency. In 1984, Walter Mondale picked Geraldine Ferraro whose nomination became a drag on the ticket due to repeated questions about her husband's finances. Questions about Dan Quayle's experience and temperament were raised in the 1988 presidential campaign of George H.W. Bush, but he still won. James Stockdale, the choice of third-party candidate Ross Perot in 1992, was seen as unqualified by many, but the Perot-Stockdale ticket still won about 19% of the vote.\n\nHistorically, vice presidential candidates were chosen to provide geographic and ideological balance to a presidential ticket, widening a presidential candidate's appeal to voters from outside his regional base or wing of the party. Candidates from electoral-vote rich states were usually preferred. However, in 1992, moderate Democrat Bill Clinton (of Arkansas) chose moderate Democrat Al Gore (of Tennessee)\nas his running mate. Despite the two candidates' near-identical ideological and regional backgrounds, Gore's extensive experience in national affairs enhanced the appeal of a ticket headed by Clinton, whose political career had been spent entirely at the local and state levels of government. In 2000, George W. Bush chose Dick Cheney of Wyoming, a reliably Republican state with only three electoral votes, and in 2008, Barack Obama mirrored Bush's strategy when he chose Joe Biden of Delaware, a reliably Democratic state, likewise one with only three electoral votes. Both Cheney and Biden were chosen for their experience in national politics (experience lacked by both Bush and Obama) rather than the ideological balance or electoral vote advantage they would provide.\n\nThe first presidential candidate to choose his vice presidential candidate was Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1940. The last not to name a vice presidential choice, leaving the matter up to the convention, was Democrat Adlai Stevenson in 1956. The convention chose Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver over Massachusetts Senator (and later president) John F. Kennedy. At the tumultuous 1972 Democratic convention, presidential nominee George McGovern selected Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, but numerous other candidates were either nominated from the floor or received votes during the balloting. Eagleton nevertheless received a majority of the votes and the nomination, though he later resigned from the ticket, resulting in Sargent Shriver becoming McGovern's final running mate; both lost to the Nixon-Agnew ticket by a wide margin, carrying only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.\n\nIn cases where the presidential nomination is still in doubt as the convention approaches, the campaigns for the two positions may become intertwined. In 1976, Ronald Reagan, who was trailing President Gerald R. Ford in the presidential delegate count, announced prior to the Republican National Convention that, if nominated, he would select Senator Richard Schweiker as his running mate. This move backfired to a degree, as Schweiker's relatively liberal voting record alienated many of the more conservative delegates who were considering a challenge to party delegate selection rules to improve Reagan's chances. In the end, Ford narrowly won the presidential nomination and Reagan's selection of Schweiker became moot.\n\nElection, oath, and tenure\n\nVice presidents are elected indirectly in the United States. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.\n\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president, acting in his capacity as President of the Senate and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.\n\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the vice president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and vice president.\n\nAlthough Article VI requires that the vice president take an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the US Constitution, unlike the president, the United States Constitution does not specify the precise wording of the oath of office for the vice president. Several variants of the oath have been used since 1789; the current form, which is also recited by Senators, Representatives and other government officers, has been used since 1884:\n\nThe term of office for vice president is four years. While the Twenty-Second Amendment generally restricts the president to two terms, there is no similar limitation on the office of vice president, meaning an eligible person could hold the office as long as voters continued to vote for electors who in turn would renew the vice president's tenure. A vice president could even serve under different administrations, as George Clinton and John C. Calhoun have done.\n\nOriginal election process and reform\n\nUnder the original terms of the Constitution, the electors of the Electoral College voted only for office of president rather than for both president and vice president. Each elector was allowed to vote for two people for the top office. The person receiving the greatest number of votes (provided that such a number was a majority of electors) would be president, while the individual who received the next largest number of votes became vice president. If no one received a majority of votes, then the House of Representatives would choose among the five candidates with the largest numbers of votes, with each state's representatives together casting a single vote. In such a case, the person who received the highest number of votes but was not chosen president would become vice president. In the case of a tie for second, then the Senate would choose the vice president.Wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Section 1 2\n\nThe original plan, however, did not foresee the development of political parties and their adversarial role in the government. For example, in the election of 1796, Federalist John Adams came in first, but because the Federalist electors had divided their second vote amongst several vice presidential candidates, Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson came second. Thus, the president and vice president were from opposing parties. Predictably, Adams and Jefferson clashed over issues such as states' rights and foreign policy. \n\nA greater problem occurred in the election of 1800, in which the two participating parties each had a secondary candidate they intended to elect as vice president, but the more popular Democratic-Republican party failed to execute that plan with their electoral votes. Under the system in place at the time (Article II, Section 1, Clause 3), the electors could not differentiate between their two candidates, so the plan had been for one elector to vote for Thomas Jefferson but not for Aaron Burr, thus putting Burr in second place. This plan broke down for reasons that are disputed, and both candidates received the same number of votes. After 35 deadlocked ballots in the House of Representatives, Jefferson finally won on the 36th ballot and Burr became vice president. \n\nThis tumultuous affair led to the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, which directed the electors to use separate ballots to vote for the president and vice president. While this solved the problem at hand, it ultimately had the effect of lowering the prestige of the vice presidency, as the office was no longer for the leading challenger for the presidency.\n\nThe separate ballots for president and vice president became something of a moot issue later in the 19th century when it became the norm for popular elections to determine a state's Electoral College delegation. Electors chosen this way are pledged to vote for a particular presidential and vice presidential candidate (offered by the same political party). So, while the Constitution says that the president and vice president are chosen separately, in practice they are chosen together.\n\nIf no vice presidential candidate receives an Electoral College majority, then the Senate selects the vice president, in accordance with the United States Constitution. The Twelfth Amendment states that a \"majority of the whole number\" of Senators (currently 51 of 100) is necessary for election. Further, the language requiring an absolute majority of Senate votes precludes the sitting vice president from breaking any tie which might occur. The election of 1836 is the only election so far where the office of the vice president has been decided by the Senate. During the campaign, Martin Van Buren's running mate Richard Mentor Johnson was accused of having lived with a black woman. Virginia's 23 electors, who were pledged to Van Buren and Johnson, refused to vote for Johnson (but still voted for Van Buren). The election went to the Senate, where Johnson was elected 33-17.\n\nSalary\n\nThe vice president's salary is $230,700. The salary was set by the 1989 Government Salary Reform Act, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees.\n\nThe vice president does not automatically receive a pension based on that office, but instead receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on his position as President of the Senate. The vice president must serve a minimum of five years to qualify for a pension. \n\nSince 1974, the official residence of the vice president and their family has been Number One Observatory Circle, on the grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C.\n\nVacancy\n\nArticle I, Section 2, Clause 5 and Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution both authorize the House of Representatives to serve as a \"grand jury\" with the power to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" Similarly, Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 and Article II, Section 4 both authorize the Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. No vice president has ever been impeached.\n\nPrior to ratification of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, no provision existed for filling a vacancy in the office of vice president. As a result, the vice presidency was left vacant 16 times—sometimes for nearly four years—until the next ensuing election and inauguration: eight times due to the death of the sitting president, resulting in the vice presidents becoming president; seven times due to the death of the sitting vice president; and once due to the resignation of Vice President John C. Calhoun to become a senator.\n\nCalhoun resigned because he had been dropped from the ticket by President Andrew Jackson in favor of Martin Van Buren, due primarily to conflicting with the President over the issue of nullification. Already a lame duck vice president, he was elected to the Senate by the South Carolina state legislature and resigned the vice presidency early to begin his Senate term because he believed he would have more power as a senator.\n\nSince the adoption of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, the office has been vacant twice while awaiting confirmation of the new vice president by both houses of Congress. The first such instance occurred in 1973 following the resignation of Spiro Agnew as Richard Nixon's vice president. Gerald Ford was subsequently nominated by President Nixon and confirmed by Congress. The second occurred 10 months later when Nixon resigned following the Watergate scandal and Ford assumed the presidency. The resulting vice presidential vacancy was filled by Nelson Rockefeller. Ford and Rockefeller are the only two people to have served as vice president without having been elected to the office, and Ford remains the only person to have served as both vice president and president without being elected to either office.\n\nThe original Constitution had no provision for selecting such a replacement, so the office of vice president would remain vacant until the beginning of the next presidential and vice presidential terms. This issue had arisen most recently when the John F. Kennedy assassination caused a vacancy from November 22, 1963, until January 20, 1965, and was rectified by Section 2 of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment.\n\nGrowth of the office\n\nFor much of its existence, the office of vice president was seen as little more than a minor position. Adams, the first vice president, was the first of many who found the job frustrating and stupefying, writing to his wife Abigail that \"My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived.\" Many vice presidents lamented the lack of meaningful work in their role. John Nance Garner, who served as vice president from 1933 to 1941 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claimed that the vice presidency \"isn't worth a pitcher of warm piss.\" Harry Truman, who also served as vice president under Roosevelt, said that the office was as \"useful as a cow's fifth teat.\" \n\nThomas R. Marshall, the 28th vice president, lamented: \"Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea; the other was elected Vice President of the United States. And nothing was heard of either of them again.\" His successor, Calvin Coolidge, was so obscure that Major League Baseball sent him free passes that misspelled his name, and a fire marshal failed to recognize him when Coolidge's Washington residence was evacuated. \n\nWhen the Whig Party asked Daniel Webster to run for the vice presidency on Zachary Taylor's ticket, he replied \"I do not propose to be buried until I am really dead and in my coffin.\" This was the second time Webster declined the office, which William Henry Harrison had first offered to him. Ironically, both of the presidents making the offer to Webster died in office, meaning the three-time presidential candidate could have become president if he had accepted either. Since presidents rarely died in office, however, the better preparation for the presidency was considered to be the office of Secretary of State, in which Webster served under Harrison, Tyler, and later, Taylor's successor, Fillmore.\n\nFor many years, the vice president was given few responsibilities. Garret Hobart, the first vice president under William McKinley, was one of the very few vice presidents at this time who played an important role in the administration. A close confidant and adviser of the president, Hobart was called \"Assistant President.\" However, until 1919, vice presidents were not included in meetings of the President's Cabinet. This precedent was broken by President Woodrow Wilson when he asked Thomas R. Marshall to preside over Cabinet meetings while Wilson was in France negotiating the Treaty of Versailles. President Warren G. Harding also invited his vice president, Calvin Coolidge, to meetings. The next vice president, Charles G. Dawes, did not seek to attend Cabinet meetings under President Coolidge, declaring that \"the precedent might prove injurious to the country.\" Vice President Charles Curtis was also precluded from attending by President Herbert Hoover.\n\nIn 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt raised the stature of the office by renewing the practice of inviting the vice president to cabinet meetings, which every president since has maintained. Roosevelt's first vice president, John Nance Garner, broke with him at the start of the second term on the Court-packing issue and became Roosevelt's leading political enemy. In 1937, Garner became the first vice president to be sworn in on the Capitol steps in the same ceremony with the president, a tradition that continues. Prior to that time, vice presidents were traditionally inaugurated at a separate ceremony in the Senate chamber. Gerald R. Ford and Nelson A. Rockefeller, who were both appointed to the office under the terms of the 25th amendment, were inaugurated in the House and Senate chambers, respectively.\n\nGarner's successor, Henry Wallace, was given major responsibilities during the war, but he moved further to the left than the Democratic Party and the rest of the Roosevelt administration and was relieved of actual power. Roosevelt kept his last vice president, Harry Truman, uninformed on all war and postwar issues, such as the atomic bomb, leading Truman to remark, wryly, that the job of the vice president was to \"go to weddings and funerals.\" Following Roosevelt's death and Truman's ascension to the presidency, the need to keep vice presidents informed on national security issues became clear, and Congress made the vice president one of four statutory members of the National Security Council in 1949.\n\nRichard Nixon reinvented the office of vice president. He had the attention of the media and the Republican party, when Dwight Eisenhower ordered him to preside at Cabinet meetings in his absence. Nixon was also the first vice president to formally assume temporary control of the executive branch, which he did after Eisenhower suffered a heart attack on September 24, 1955, ileitis in June 1956, and a stroke in November 1957.\n\nUntil 1961, vice presidents had their offices on Capitol Hill, a formal office in the Capitol itself and a working office in the Russell Senate Office Building. Lyndon B. Johnson was the first vice president to be given an office in the White House complex, in the Old Executive Office Building. The former Navy Secretary's office in the OEOB has since been designated the \"Ceremonial Office of the Vice President\" and is today used for formal events and press interviews. President Jimmy Carter was the first president to give his vice president, Walter Mondale, an office in the West Wing of the White House, which all vice presidents have since retained. Because of their function as Presidents of the Senate, vice presidents still maintain offices and staff members on Capitol Hill.\n\nThough Walter Mondale's tenure was the beginning of the modern day power of the vice presidency, the tenure of Dick Cheney saw a rapid growth in the office of the vice president. Vice President Cheney held a tremendous amount of power and frequently made policy decisions on his own, without the knowledge of the President. After his tenure, and during the 2008 presidential campaign, both vice presidential candidates, Sarah Palin and Joe Biden, stated that the office had expanded too much under Cheney's tenure and both had planned to reduce the role to simply being an adviser to the president. \n\nPost–vice presidency\n\nThe five former vice presidents now living are:\n\nFile:Walter Mondale 2014.jpg|Walter Mondale42nd (1977–1981)\nFile:President George H. W.tif|George H. W. Bush43rd (1981–1989)\nFile:Quayle2k11.tif|Dan Quayle44th (1989–1993)\nFile:Gore2k11.tif|Al Gore45th (1993–2001)\nFile:Cheney.tif|Dick Cheney46th (2001–2009)\n\nFour vice presidents have been elected to the presidency immediately after serving as vice president: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren and George H. W. Bush. Richard Nixon, John C. Breckinridge, Hubert Humphrey and Al Gore were all nominated by their respective parties, but failed to succeed the presidents with whom they were elected, though Nixon was elected president eight years later.\n\nTwo vice presidents served under different presidents. George Clinton served under both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, while John C. Calhoun served under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. In the modern era, Adlai Stevenson I became the first former vice president to seek election with a different running mate, running in 1900 with William Jennings Bryan after serving under Bryan's rival, Grover Cleveland. (He was also narrowly defeated for Governor of Illinois in 1908.) Charles W. Fairbanks, vice president under Theodore Roosevelt, sought unsuccessfully to return to office as Charles Evans Hughes' running mate in 1916.\n\nSome former vice presidents have sought other offices after serving as vice president. Daniel D. Tompkins ran for Governor of New York in 1820 whilst serving as vice president under James Monroe. He lost to DeWitt Clinton, but was re-elected vice president. John C. Calhoun resigned as vice president to accept election as US Senator from South Carolina. Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew Johnson, Alben Barkley and Hubert H. Humphrey were all elected to the Senate after leaving office. Levi P. Morton, vice president under Benjamin Harrison, was elected Governor of New York after leaving office.\n\nRichard Nixon unsuccessfully sought the governorship of California in 1962, nearly two years after leaving office as vice president and just over six years before becoming president. Walter Mondale ran unsuccessfully for president in 1984, served as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, and then sought unsuccessfully to return to the Senate in 2002. George H. W. Bush won the presidency, and his vice president, Dan Quayle, sought the Republican nomination in 2000. Al Gore also ran unsuccessfully for the presidency in 2000, turning to environmental advocacy afterward. Cheney had previously explored the possibility of running for president before serving as vice president, but chose not to run for president after his two terms as vice president.\n\nSince 1977, former presidents and vice presidents who are elected or re-elected to the Senate are entitled to the largely honorific position of Deputy President pro tempore. So far, the only former vice president to have held this title is Hubert Humphrey following his return to the Senate. Walter Mondale would have been entitled to the position had his 2002 Senate bid been successful.\n\nUnder the terms of an 1886 Senate resolution, all former vice presidents are entitled to a portrait bust in the Senate wing of the United States Capitol, commemorating their service as presidents of the Senate. Dick Cheney is the most recent former vice president to be so honored.\n\nUnlike former presidents, who receive a pension automatically regardless of their time in office, former vice presidents must reach pension eligibility by accumulating the appropriate time in federal service. Since 2008, former vice president are also entitled to Secret Service personal protection. Former vice presidents traditionally receive Secret Service protection for up to six months after leaving office, by order of the Secretary of Homeland Security, though this can be extended if the Secretary believes the level of threat is sufficient. In 2008, a bill titled the \"Former Vice President Protection Act\" was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush. It provides six-month Secret Service protection by law to a former vice president and family. According to the Department of Homeland Security, protection for former vice president Cheney has been extended numerous times because threats against him have not decreased since his leaving office. \n\nTimeline of vice presidents",
"Thomas Riley Marshall (March 14, 1854 – June 1, 1925) was an American Democratic politician who served as the 28th Vice President of the United States (1913–21) under Woodrow Wilson. A prominent lawyer in Indiana, he became an active and well known member of the Indiana Democratic Party by stumping across the state for other candidates and organizing party rallies that later helped him win election as the 27th Governor of Indiana. In office, he proposed a controversial and progressive state constitution and pressed for other progressive era reforms. The Republican minority used the state courts to block the attempt to change the constitution.\n\nHis popularity as governor, and Indiana's status as a critical swing state, helped him secure the Democratic vice presidential nomination on a ticket with Wilson in 1912 and win the subsequent general election. An ideological rift developed between the two men during their first term, leading Wilson to limit Marshall's influence in the administration, and his brand of humor caused Wilson to move Marshall's office away from the White House. During Marshall's second term he delivered morale-boosting speeches across the nation during World War I and became the first vice president to hold cabinet meetings, which he did while Wilson was in Europe. While he was president in the United States Senate, a small number of anti-war senators kept it deadlocked by refusing to end debate. To enable critical wartime legislation to be passed, Marshall had the body adopt its first procedural rule allowing filibusters to be ended by a two-thirds majority vote—a variation of this rule remains in effect.\n\nMarshall's vice presidency is most remembered for a leadership crisis following a stroke that incapacitated Wilson in October 1919. Because of their personal dislike for him, Wilson's advisers and wife sought to keep Marshall uninformed about the president's condition to prevent him from easily assuming the presidency. Many people, including cabinet officials and Congressional leaders, urged Marshall to become acting president, but he refused to forcibly assume the presidency for fear of setting a precedent. Without strong leadership in the executive branch, the administration's opponents defeated the ratification of the League of Nations treaty and effectively returned the United States to an isolationist foreign policy. Vice President Marshall is also the only known Vice President of the United States to have been the target of an assassination attempt.\n\nWell known for his wit and sense of humor, one of Marshall's most enduring jokes came during a Senate debate in which, in response to Senator Joseph Bristow's catalog of the nation's needs, Marshall quipped the often-repeated phrase, \"What this country needs is a really good five-cent cigar\", provoking laughter. After his terms as vice president, he opened an Indianapolis law practice, where he authored several legal books and his memoir, Recollections. He continued to travel and speak publicly. Marshall died while on a trip after suffering a heart attack in 1925.\n\nEarly life\n\nFamily and background\n\nThomas Marshall's paternal grandfather, Riley Marshall, immigrated to Indiana in 1817 and settled on a farm in what is now Whitley County. He became wealthy when a moderate deposit of oil and natural gas was discovered on his farm; when he sold the farm in 1827 it earned $25,000,Bennett 2007, p. 2. $ in 2009 chained dollars. The money allowed him to purchase a modest estate and spend the rest of his life as an active member of the Indiana Democratic Party, serving as an Indiana State Senator, party chairman, and financial contributor. He was also able to send his only child, Daniel, to medical school.\n\nMarshall's mother, Martha Patterson, was orphaned at age 13 while living in Ohio and came to live with her sister on a farm near the Marshalls' Indiana home. She was known for her wit and humor, as her son later would be. Martha and Daniel met and married in 1848.Bennett 2007, p. 3.\n\nThomas Marshall was born in North Manchester, Indiana on March 14, 1854. Two years later, a sister was born, but she died in infancy. Martha had contracted tuberculosis, which Daniel believed to be the cause of their infant daughter's poor health. While Marshall was still a young boy, his family moved several times in search of a good climate for Daniel to attempt different \"outdoor cures\" on Martha.Gray 1977, p. 281. They moved first to Quincy, Illinois in 1857. Daniel Marshall was a supporter of the American Union and a staunch Democrat, and took his son to the Lincoln and Douglas debate in Freeport in 1858. There the four-year-old Marshall met Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln and sat on the lap of whichever candidate was not speaking. He later referred to this as one of his earliest and most cherished memories. Gugin 2006, p. 232.\n\nThe family moved to Osawatomie, Kansas in 1859 but the violence on the frontier led them to move to Missouri in 1860;Bennett 2007, p. 4. eventually Daniel succeeded in curing Martha's disease. As the American Civil War neared, violence spread into Missouri during the Bleeding Kansas incidents. In October several men led by Duff Green demanded that Daniel Marshall provide medical assistance to the pro-slavery faction. He refused, and they left. After their departure, the Marshalls' neighbors warned them that Green was planning to return and murder them. They helped the Marshalls quickly pack their belongings and escape to Illinois by steamboat. The Marshalls remained there only a brief time before continuing to Indiana, even farther from the volatile border region. \n\nEducation\n\nOn settling in Pierceton, Indiana, Marshall began to attend public school. His father and grandfather became embroiled in a dispute with their Methodist minister when they refused to vote Republican in the 1862 election.Bennett 2007, p. 7, The minister threatened to expel them from the church, to which Marshall's grandfather replied that he would \"take his risk on hell, but not the Republican Party\". The dispute prompted the family to move again, to Fort Wayne, and convert to the Presbyterian church. In Fort Wayne, Marshall attended high school, graduating in 1869. At age fifteen his parents sent him to Wabash College, in Crawfordsville, where he received a classical education. His father advised him to study medicine or become a minister, but neither interested him; he entered the school without knowing which profession he would take upon graduation. \n\nMarshall joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, participated in literary and debating societies, and founded a Democratic Club. He secured a position on the staff of the college newspaper, the Geyser, and began writing political columns defending Democratic policies. In 1872 he wrote an unfavorable column about a female lecturer at the school, accusing her of \"seeking liberties\" with the young boys in their boarding house. She hired lawyer Lew Wallace, the author of Ben-Hur, and filed a suit demanding that Marshall pay her $20,000 for libel.Bennett 2007, p. 13. Marshall traveled to Indianapolis in search of a defense lawyer and employed future United States President Benjamin Harrison, then a prominent lawyer in the area. Harrison had the suit dropped by showing that the charges made by Marshall were probably true. In Marshall's memoir, he wrote that when he approached Harrison to pay his bill, his lawyer informed him that he would not charge him for the service, but instead gave him a lecture on ethics.Gugin 2006, p. 234.\n\nMarshall was elected to Phi Beta Kappa during his final year at college. He graduated in June 1873, receiving the top grade in fourteen of his thirty-six courses in a class of twenty-one students. As a result of his libel case, he had become increasingly interested in law and began seeking someone to teach him. At that time, the only way to become a lawyer in Indiana was to apprentice under a member of the Indiana bar association. His great-uncle Woodson Marshall began to help him, but soon moved away. Marshall went to live with his parents, who had moved to Columbia City. There he read law in the office of Walter Olds, a future member of the Indiana Supreme Court. He studied in the office for over a year and was admitted to the Indiana bar on April 26, 1875. Gray 1977, p. 282.\n\nLaw practice\n\nMarshall opened a law practice in Columbia City in 1876, taking on many minor cases. After gaining prominence, he accepted William F. McNagny as a partner in 1879 and began taking many criminal defense cases. The two men functioned well as partners. McNagny was better educated in law and worked out their legal arguments. Marshall, the superior orator, argued the cases before the judge and jury. Their firm became well known in the region after they handled a number of high-profile cases. In 1880 Marshall ran for public office for the first time as the Democratic candidate for his district's prosecuting attorney.Gray 1977, p. 283. The district was a Republican stronghold, and he was defeated. About the same time, he met and began to court Kate Hooper, and the two became engaged to marry. Kate died of an illness in 1882, one day before they were to be wed. Her death was a major emotional blow to Marshall, leading him to become an alcoholic. Gray 1977, p. 284.\n\nMarshall lived with his parents into his thirties. His father died in the late 1880s and his mother died in 1894, leaving him with the family estate and business. In 1895, while working on a case, Marshall met Lois Kimsey who was working as a clerk in her father's law firm. Despite their nineteen-year age difference, the couple fell in love and married on October 2.Bennett 2007, p. 46. The Marshalls had a close marriage and were nearly inseparable, and spent only two nights apart during their nearly thirty-year marriage. \n\nMarshall's alcoholism had begun to interfere with his busy life prior to his marriage. He arrived at court hung-over on several occasions and was unable to keep his addiction secret in his small hometown. His wife helped him to overcome his drinking problem and give up liquor after she locked him in their home for two weeks to undergo a treatment regimen. Thereafter, he became active in temperance organizations and delivered several speeches about the dangers of liquor. Although he had stopped drinking, his past alcoholism was later raised by opponents during his gubernatorial election campaign.Gugin 2006, p. 235. \n\nMarshall remained active in the Democratic party after his 1880 defeat and began stumping on behalf of other candidates and helping to organize party rallies across the state. His speeches were noted for their partisanship, but his rhetoric gradually shifted away from a conservative viewpoint in the 1890s as he began to identify himself with the growing progressive movement. He became a member of the state Democratic Central Committee in 1904, a position that raised his popularity and influence in the party. \n\nMarshall and his wife were involved in several private organizations. He was active in the Presbyterian Church, taught Sunday school, and served on the county fair board. As he grew wealthy from his law firm he became involved in local charities. An active Mason and member of the Grand Lodge of Indiana, by 1898 he was a Master Mason and had risen to the thirty-third degree in the Scottish Rite, the highest level of the order, and had become a member of its Supreme Council. He remained an active mason until his death and served on several masonic charitable boards.Gugin 2006, p. 235.\n\nGovernorship\n\nCampaign\n\nIn 1906, Marshall declined his party's nomination to run for Congress. He did hint to state party leaders that he would be interested in running for governor in the 1908 election. He soon gained the support of several key labor unions, and was endorsed by a reporter in the Indianapolis Star. Despite this support, at the state convention he was a dark horse candidate. Party boss Thomas Taggart did not support him because of Marshall's support of prohibition. Taggart wanted the party to nominate anti-prohibitionist Samuel Ralston, but the prohibitionist and anti-Taggart factions united with Marshall's supporters, giving him the votes needed to win. Gray 1977, p. 288.\n\nMarshall's opponent in the general election was Republican Congressman James E. Watson, and the campaign focused on temperance and prohibition.Bennett 2007, p. 80. Just as it began, the Republican-controlled state government passed a local-option law that allowed counties to ban the sale of liquor. The law became the central point of debate between the parties and their gubernatorial candidates. The Democrats proposed that the local-option law be changed so that the decision to ban liquor sales could be made at the city and township level.Gugin 2006, p. 236. This drew support from anti-prohibitionists, who saw it as an opportunity to roll back prohibition in some areas, and as the only alternative available to the total prohibition which the Republican Party advocated. The Democratic position also helped to retain prohibitionists' support by allowing prohibition to remain enacted in communities where a majority supported it. The Republican Party was in the midst of a period of instability, splitting along progressive and conservative lines. Their internal problems proved to be the deciding factor in the election, giving Marshall a narrow victory: he received 48.1% of the vote to Watson's 48%. He was the first Democratic governor in two decades. Democrats also came to power in the Indiana House of Representatives by a small margin, though Republicans retained control of the Indiana Senate.\n\nProgressive agenda\n\nMarshall was inaugurated as Governor of Indiana on January 11, 1909. Since his party had been out of power for many years, its initial objective was to appoint as many Democrats as possible to patronage positions.Gugin 2006, p. 237. Marshall tried to avoid becoming directly involved in the patronage system. He allowed the party's different factions to have positions and appointed very few of his own choices. He allowed Taggart to manage the process and pick the candidates, but signed off himself on the official appointments. Although his position on patronage kept peace in his party, it prevented him from building a strong political base. \n\nDuring his term, Marshall focused primarily on advancing the progressive agenda. He successfully advocated the passage of a child labor law and anti-corruption legislation. He supported popular election of United States Senators, and the constitutional amendment to allow it was ratified by the Indiana General Assembly during his term. He also overhauled the state auditing agencies and claimed to have saved the government millions of dollars. He was unsuccessful in passing the rest of the progressive platform agenda items or persuading the legislature to call a convention to rewrite the state constitution to expand the government's regulatory powers. \n\nMarshall was a strong opponent of Indiana's recently passed eugenics and sterilization laws, and ordered state institutions not to follow them. He was an early, high-profile opponent of eugenics laws, and he carried his opposition into the vice-presidency. His governorship was the first in which no state executions took place, due to his opposition to capital punishment and his practice of pardoning and commuting the sentences of people condemned to execution. He regularly attacked corporations and used recently created anti-trust laws to attempt to break several large businesses. He participated in a number of ceremonial events, including personally laying the final golden brick to complete the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in 1909. \n\nMarshall's constitution\n\nRewriting the state constitution became Marshall's central focus as governor, and after the General Assembly refused to call a constitutional convention he began to seek alternative means by which to have a new constitution adopted. He and Jacob Piatt Dunn, a close friend and civic leader, wrote a new constitution that increased the state's regulatory powers considerably, set minimum wages, and gave constitutional protections to unions. Many of these reforms were also in the Socialist Party platform under its leader, Terre Haute native Eugene V. Debs. Republicans believed Marshall's constitution was an attempt to win over Debs' supporters, who had a strong presence in Indiana. The constitution also allowed direct-democracy initiatives and referendums to be held. The Democratic controlled assembly agreed to the request and put the measure on the ballot. His opponents attacked the direct-democracy provisions, claiming they were a violation of the United States Constitution, which required states to operate republican forms of government.Gugin 2006, p. 238.Bennett 2007, p. 116. The 1910 mid-term elections gave the Democrats control of the Indiana Senate, increasing the constitution's chances of being adopted. Marshall presented it to the General Assembly in 1911 and recommended that they submit it to voters in the 1912 election. \n\nRepublicans opposed the ratification process, and were infuriated that the Democrats were attempting to revise the entire constitution without calling a constitutional convention, as had been called for the state's two previous constitutions. Marshall argued that no convention was needed because the existing constitution did not call for one. Republicans took the issue to court and the Marion County Circuit Court granted an injunction removing the constitution from the 1912 ballot. Marshall appealed, but the Indiana Supreme Court upheld the decision in a judgment which stated that the Constitution of Indiana could not be replaced in total without a constitutional convention, based on the precedent set by Indiana's first two constitutions. Marshall was angry with the decision and delivered a speech attacking the court and accusing it of overstepping its authority. He launched a final appeal to the United States Supreme Court but left office in January 1913 while the case was still pending. Later that year, the court declined the appeal, finding that the issue was within the sole jurisdiction of the state courts. Marshall was disappointed with the outcome. Subsequent historians, like Professor Linda Gugin, have called the process and the document itself \"hopelessly flawed\", and legal expert James St. Claire has written that if the constitution had been adopted, large parts would probably have been ruled unconstitutional by the federal courts. \n\nVice presidency\n\nElection\n\nThe Indiana constitution prevented Marshall from serving a consecutive term as governor. He made plans to run for a United States Senate seat after his term ended, but another opportunity presented itself during his last months as governor. Although he did not attend the 1912 Democratic National Convention in Baltimore, his name was put forward as Indiana's choice for president. He was suggested as a compromise nominee, but William Jennings Bryan and his delegates endorsed Woodrow Wilson over Champ Clark, securing the nomination for Wilson. Indiana's delegates lobbied to have Marshall named the vice presidential candidate in exchange for supporting Wilson. Indiana was an important swing state, and Wilson hoped that Marshall's popularity would help him carry it in the general election. He had his delegates support Marshall, giving him the vice presidential nomination. Marshall privately turned down the nomination, assuming the job would be boring given its limited role. He changed his mind after Wilson assured him that he would be given plenty of responsibilities. During the campaign, Marshall traveled across the United States delivering speeches. The Wilson–Marshall ticket easily won the 1912 election because of the division between the Republican Party and the Progressive Party.Gugin 2006, p. 240.\n\nMarshall was not fond of Wilson, as he disagreed with him on a number of issues.Gray 1977, p. 294. Although Wilson invited Marshall to cabinet meetings, Marshall's ideas were rarely considered for implementation, and Marshall eventually stopped attending them regularly. In 1913 Wilson took the then unheard-of step of meeting personally with members of the Senate to discuss policy. Before this, presidents used the vice president (who serves as president of the senate) as a go-between; Wilson used the opportunity to show that he did not trust Marshall with delicate business. In his memoir, Marshall's only negative comment towards Wilson was, \"I have sometimes thought that great men are the bane of civilization, they are the real cause of all the bitterness and contention which amounts to anything in the world\". Their relationship was described as one of \"functioning animosity\".\n\nSenate developments\n\nMarshall was not offended by Wilson's lack of interest in his ideas, and considered his primary constitutional duty to be in the Senate. He viewed the vice presidential office as being in the legislative branch, not the executive. While he presided in the Senate, emotions sometimes ran high, including during a debate on the Mexican border crisis in 1916.Bennett 2007, p. 172. During that debate Marshall threatened to expel certain senators from the chamber for their raucous behavior, but did not carry through on the threat. On several occasions, he ordered the Senate gallery cleared. He voted eight times to break tie votes. \n\nIn the debates leading up to World War I, a number of isolationist senators filibustered bills that Wilson considered important. The filibusters lasted for weeks and twice lasted for over three months. Wilson and the bills' supporters requested that Marshall put a gag-order in place to cut off debate, but he refused on ethical grounds, allowing a number of bills to be defeated in hopes that opposition would eventually end their filibuster. Among the defeated bills was one allowing merchant ships to arm themselves, and another allowing the US government to make direct arms sales to the allies.Gray 1977, p. 295. Despite their victories, the small group of senators continued to lock up the senate to prevent any pro-war legislation from passing. In response, Marshall led the Senate to adopt a new rule on March 8, 1917, allowing filibusters to be broken by two-thirds of voting Senators. This replaced the previous rule that allowed any senator to prolong debate as long as he desired. The rule has been modified several times, most prominently that the current rule requires three-fifths of all Senators, not only the ones voting. Gray 1977, p. 296.\n\nAs Marshall made little news and was viewed as a somewhat comic figure in Washington because of his sense of humor, a number of Democratic party leaders wanted him removed from the 1916 reelection ticket. Wilson, after deliberating, decided keeping Marshall on would demonstrate party unity; thus in 1916 Marshall won reelection over the still divided Republican Party and became the first vice president re-elected since John C. Calhoun in 1828, and Wilson and Marshall became the first president and vice president team to be re-elected since Monroe and Tompkins in 1820. \n\nAssassination attempt \n\nOn the evening of July 2, 1915, Eric Muenter, a onetime German professor at Harvard and Cornell universities, who opposed American support of the allied war effort, broke into the U.S. Senate and, finding the door to the Senate chamber locked, laid dynamite outside the reception room, which happened to be next to Marshall's office door. Though the bomb was set with a timer, it exploded prematurely just before midnight, while no one was in the office. Muenter may not have been specifically been targeting the Vice President.\n\nOn July 5, Muenter (who went under the pseudonym Frank Holt) burst into the Glen Cove, New York home of Jack Morgan, son of financier J.P. Morgan, demanding that he stop the sale of weapons to the allies. Morgan told the man he was in no position to comply with his demand; Muenter shot him twice and escaped. Muenter was later apprehended and confessed to attempted assassination of the Vice President. Marshall was offered a personal security detachment after the incident, but declined it. Marshall had been receiving written death threats from numerous \"cranks\" for several weeks. \"Some of them were signed,\" Marshall told the press, \"but most were anonymous. I threw them all into the waste basket.\" Marshall added that he was \"more or less a fatalist\" and did not notify the Secret Service about the letters, \"but that he naturally was startled when he heard of the explosion at the Capitol.\" \n\nWorld War I\n\nDuring Marshall's second term, the United States entered World War I. Marshall was a reluctant supporter of the war, believing the country to be unprepared and feared it would be necessary to enact conscription. He was pleased with Wilson's strategy to begin a military buildup before the declaration of war, and fully supported the war effort once it had begun. Shortly after the first troops began to assemble for transport to Europe, Marshall and Wilson hosted a delegation from the United Kingdom in which Marshall became privy to the primary war strategy. However, he was largely excluded from war planning and rarely received official updates on the progress of military campaigns. In most instances he received news of the war through the newspapers. \n\nWilson sent Marshall around the nation to deliver morale-boosting speeches and encourage Americans to buy Liberty Bonds in support of the war effort. Marshall was well suited for the job, as he had been earning extra money as a public speaker while vice president, and gladly accepted the responsibility. In his speeches, he cast the war as a \"moral crusade to preserve the dignity of the state for the rights of individuals\".Bennett 2007, p. 225. In his memoir, he recalled that the war seemed to drag on \"with leaden feet\", and that he was relieved when it finally ended. As the war neared its end, Marshall became the first vice president to conduct cabinet meetings; Wilson left him with this responsibility while traveling in Europe to sign the Versailles treaty and to work on gathering support for his League of Nations idea. Wilson became the first president to personally deliver a treaty to be ratified by the Senate, which he presented to Marshall as the presiding officer during a morning session. \n\nMorrison\n\nMarshall's wife was heavily involved in charitable activities in Washington and spent considerable time working at the Diet Kitchen Welfare Center providing free meals to impoverished children. In 1917 she became acquainted with a mother of newborn twins, one of whom was chronically ill. The child's parents were unable to get adequate treatment for their son's condition. Lois Marshall formed a close bond with the baby, who was named Clarence Ignatius Morrison, and offered to take him and help him find treatment. She and Marshall had been unable to have children, and when she brought the baby home, Marshall told her that she could \"keep him, provided he did not squall ...\".Bennett 2007, p. 227. Marshall grew to love the boy and wrote that he \"never walked the streets of Washington with as sure a certainty as he walked into my heart\", and, as the boy grew older, that he was \"beautiful as an angel; brilliant beyond his years; lovable from every standpoint\".Gray 1977, p. 300.\n\nThe Marshalls never officially adopted Morrison because they believed that to go through the procedure while his parents were still living would appear unusual to the public. Wanting to keep the situation private, they instead made a special arrangement with his parents. President Wilson felt obliged to acknowledge the boy as theirs and sent the couple a note that simply said, \"With congratulations to the baby. Wilson\". Morrison lived with the Marshalls for the rest of his life. In correspondence they referred to him as Morrison Marshall, but in person they called him Izzy. Lois took him to see many doctors and spent all her available time trying to nurse him back to health, but his condition worsened and he died in February 1920, just before his fourth birthday. His death devastated Marshall, who wrote in his memoir that Izzy \"was and is and ever will be so sacred to me ...\".Bennett 2007, p. 298.\n\nSuccession crisis\n\nPresident Wilson experienced a mild stroke in September 1919. On October 2, he was struck by a much more severe stroke that left him partially paralyzed and almost certainly incapacitated. Gray 1977, p. 302. Wilson's closest adviser, Joseph Tumulty, did not believe Marshall would be a suitable president and took precautions to prevent him from assuming the presidency. Wilson's wife Edith strongly disliked Marshall because of what she called his \"uncouthed\" disposition, and also opposed his assumption of the presidency.Feerick 1992, p. 13. Tumulty and the First Lady believed that an official communication from Wilson's staff on his condition would allow Marshall to trigger the constitutional mechanism allowing him to become acting president, and made sure no such communication occurred. After Marshall demanded to know Wilson's status so that he could prepare for the possibility of becoming president, they had a reporter from the Baltimore Sun brief Marshall and inform him that Wilson was near death. Marshall later said that \"it was the first great shock of my life\", but without an official communication on Wilson's condition, he didn't believe he could constitutionally assume the presidency.Bennett 2007, p. 243. \n\nOn October 5, Secretary of State Robert Lansing was the first official to propose that Marshall forcibly assume the presidency. Other cabinet secretaries backed Lansing's request, as did Congressional leaders, including members of both the Democratic and Republican parties who sent private communications to Marshall. Marshall was cautious in accepting their offers of support. After consulting with his wife and his long-time personal adviser, Mark Thistlethwaite, he privately refused to assume Wilson's duties and become Acting President of the United States. The process for declaring a president incapacitated was unclear at that time, and he feared the precedent that might be set if he forcibly removed Wilson from office. Marshall wanted the president to voluntarily allow his powers to devolve to the vice president, but that was impossible given his condition and unlikely given Wilson's dislike for Marshall. Marshall informed the cabinet that the only cases in which he would assume the presidency were a joint resolution of Congress calling on him to do so, or an official communication from Wilson or his staff asserting his inability to perform his duties.\n\nWilson was kept secluded by his wife and personal physician and only his close advisers were allowed to see him; none would divulge official information on his condition. Although Marshall sought to meet with Wilson to personally determine his condition, he was unable to do so, and relied on vague updates he received through a few bulletins published by Wilson's physician.Feerick 1992, p. 14. Believing that Wilson and his advisers would not voluntarily transfer power to the vice president, a group of Congressional leaders initiated Marshall's requested joint resolution. The senators opposed to the League of Nations treaty, however, believed that as president Marshall would make several key concessions that would allow the treaty to win ratification. Wilson, in his present condition, was either unwilling or unable to make the concessions, and debate on the bill had resulted in a deadlock. In order to prevent the treaty's ratification, the anti-League senators blocked the joint resolution. \n\nOn December 4, Lansing announced in a Senate committee hearing that no one in the cabinet had spoken with or seen Wilson in over sixty days. The senators seeking to elevate Marshall requested that a committee be sent to check on Wilson's condition, hoping to gain evidence to support their cause. Dubbed the \"smelling committee\" by several newspapers, the group discovered Wilson was in very poor health, but seemed to have recovered enough of his faculties to make decisions. Their report ended the perceived need for the joint resolution. \n\nAt a Sunday church service in mid-December, in what Marshall believed was an attempt by other officials to force him to assume the presidency, a courier brought a message informing him that Wilson had died. Marshall was shocked, and rose to announce the news to the congregation. The ministers held a prayer, the congregation began singing hymns, and many people wept. Marshall and his wife exited the building, and made a call to the White House to determine his next course of action, only to find that he had been the victim of a hoax, and that Wilson was still living. \n\nMarshall performed a few ceremonial functions for the remainder of Wilson's term, such as hosting foreign dignitaries. Among these was Albert I, King of the Belgians, the first European monarch to visit the United States. Edward, Prince of Wales, the future monarch of the United Kingdom, spent two days with Marshall and received a personal tour of Washington from him. First Lady Edith Wilson performed most routine duties of government by reviewing all of Wilson's communications and deciding what he would be presented with and what she would delegate to others. The resulting lack of leadership allowed the administration's opponents to prevent ratification of the League of Nations treaty. They attacked the treaty's tenth article, which they believed would allow the United States to be bound in an alliance to European countries that could force the country return to war without an act of Congress. Marshall personally supported the treaty's adoption, but recommended several changes, including the requirement that all parties to it acknowledge the Monroe Doctrine and the United States' sphere of influence, and that the tenth article be made non-binding. \n\nWilson began to recover by the end of 1919, but remained secluded for the remainder of his term, steadfast in his refusal or inability to accept changes to the treaty. Marshall was prevented from meeting with him to ascertain his true condition until his final day in office. It remains unclear who was making the executive branch's decisions during Wilson's incapacity, but it was likely the first lady with the help of the presidential advisers. Gugin 2006, p. 241.\n\nLater life\n\nMarshall had his name entered as a candidate for the presidential nomination at the 1920 Democratic National Convention. He made arrangements with Thomas Taggart to have a delegation sent from Indiana to support his bid, but was unable to garner support outside of the Hoosier delegation. Ultimately he endorsed the Democratic nominees, James M. Cox for president and Franklin Delano Roosevelt for vice president, but they were defeated by the Republican ticket of Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge. On their election, Marshall sent a note to Coolidge in which he offered him his \"sincere condolences\" for his misfortune in being elected vice president.Bennett 2007, p. 301.Gray 1977, p. 306.\n\nMarshall considered returning to Columbia City after leaving office, but instead bought a home and opened a law practice in Indianapolis, where he believed there would be better business opportunities. Harding nominated him to serve on the Lincoln Memorial Commission in 1921, and then to a more lucrative position on the Federal Coal Commission in 1922; Marshall resigned from both commissions in 1923.Bennett 2007, p. 305. He spent over a year writing books on the law and his Recollections, a humorous memoir. The latter book was completed in May 1925 and subsequent historians have noted it as unusual, even for its time, for not disclosing any secrets or attacking any of Marshall's enemies. Marshall remained a popular public speaker, and continued to travel to give speeches. The last he delivered was to high school students in the town of his birth.Bennett 2007, p. 308.\n\nWhile on a trip to Washington D.C., Marshall was struck by a heart attack while reading his Bible in bed on the night of June 1, 1925. His wife called for medical assistance, but he died before it arrived. A service and viewing was held in Washington two days later and was attended by many dignitaries. Marshall's remains were returned to Indianapolis, where he lay in state for two days; thousands visited his bier. His funeral service was held June 9, and he was interred in Crown Hill Cemetery, next to the grave of his adopted son Morrison \"Izzy\" Marshall. Lois Marshall moved to Arizona and remained widowed the rest of her life, living on her husband's pension and the $50,000 she earned by selling his memoir to the Bobbs-Merrill publishing company. She died in 1958 and was interred next to her husband. \n\nHumor\n\nMarshall was known for his quick wit and a good sense of humor. On hearing of his nomination as vice president, he announced that he was not surprised, as \"Indiana is the mother of Vice Presidents; home of more second-class men than any other state\".Boller 2004, p. 198. One of his favorite jokes was about a woman with two sons, one of whom went to sea and one of whom was elected vice president; neither was ever heard of again. On his election as vice president, he sent Woodrow Wilson a book, inscribed \"From your only Vice\".\n\nHis humor caused him trouble during his time in Washington. He was known to greet citizens walking by his office on the White House tour by saying to them, \"If you look on me as a wild animal, be kind enough to throw peanuts at me\". This prompted Wilson to move Marshall's office to the Senate Office building, where he would not be disturbed by visitors. In response to a proposal to the board of the Smithsonian Institution to send a team to excavate for ruins in Guatemala, Marshall suggested that the team instead excavate around Washington. When asked why, he replied that, judging by the looks of the people walking on the street, they should be able to find buried cave-men no more than six feet down. The joke was not well received, and he was shut out of board meetings for nearly a year.\n\nHis serious remarks could get him in trouble as well. Some of his public utterances in 1913, in which he appeared to advocate radical ideas in regard to the inheritance of property, caused much criticism. \n\nMarshall's wit is best remembered from a phrase he introduced to the American lexicon. During a Senate debate in 1917, as Senator Joseph L. Bristow cataloged a long list of what he felt the country needed, Marshall leaned over to one of his clerks and said, \"What this country needs is more of this; what this country needs is more of that\". He then quipped, loudly enough for most of the chamber to hear, \"What this country needs is a really good five-cent cigar\", which provoked laughter from a number of senators. \n\nLegacy\n\nThe situation that arose after the incapacity of President Wilson, for which Marshall's vice-presidency is most remembered, revived the national debate on the process of presidential succession. The topic was already being discussed when Wilson left for Europe, which influenced him to allow Marshall to conduct cabinet meetings in his absence. Wilson's incapacity during 1919 and the lack of action by Marshall made it a major issue. The constitutional flaws in the process of presidential succession had been known since the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841, but little progress had been made passing a constitutional amendment to remedy the problem. Nearly fifty years later, the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed, allowing the vice president to assume the presidential powers and duties any time the president was rendered incapable of carrying out the powers and duties of the office. \n\nHistorians have varied interpretations of Marshall's vice presidency. Claire Suddath rated Marshall as one of the worst vice presidents in American history in a 2008 Time Magazine article. Samuel Eliot Morison wrote that had Marshall carried out his constitutional duties, assumed the presidency, and made the concessions necessary for the passage of the League of Nations treaty in late 1920, the United States would have been much more involved in European affairs and could have helped prevent the rise of Adolf Hitler, which began in the following year. Morison and a number of other historians claim that Marshall's decision was an indirect cause of the Second World War. Charles Thomas, one of Marshall's biographers, wrote that although Marshall's assumption of the presidency would have made World War II much less likely, modern hypothetical speculation on the subject was unfair to Marshall, who made the correct decision in not forcibly removing Wilson from office, even temporarily.\n\nThe Thomas R. Marshall House at Columbia City was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. \n\nElectoral history\n\nUnited States presidential election, 1912\n\nUnited States presidential election, 1916"
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"Thomas R. Marshall | vice president of United States | Britannica.com\nvice president of United States\nWritten By:\nAlternative Title: Thomas Riley Marshall\nThomas R. Marshall\nVice president of United States\nAlso known as\nWoodrow Wilson\nThomas R. Marshall, (born March 14, 1854, North Manchester, Ind., U.S.—died June 1, 1925, Washington, D.C.), 28th vice president of the United States (1913–21) in the Democratic administration of President Woodrow Wilson . He was the first vice president in almost a century to serve two terms in office. A popular public official, he was heard to make the oft-quoted remark: “What this country needs is a really good five-cent cigar.”\nThomas Marshall.\nCulver Pictures\nMarshall was the son of Daniel M. Marshall, a physician, and Martha Patterson. Graduating from Wabash College in 1873, he was admitted to the Indiana bar in 1875 and practiced law for almost 35 years in Columbia City (1875–1909). A forceful and entertaining speaker, he was elected governor of Indiana in 1908 and during the next four years sponsored an extensive program of progressive social legislation. Largely because of his record in office, his name was presented as a favourite-son candidate for president at the Democratic National Convention of 1912. After Wilson won the nomination on the 46th ballot, his advisers—who had secretly promised Marshall the vice presidency in return for supporting Wilson—suggested Marshall as vice president. Despite Wilson’s opinion of Marshall as a “very small calibre man,” electoral calculations eventually swayed him to support Marshall’s nomination.\nMarshall’s personal influence on legislation was a powerful aid to the Wilson administration, although some opponents viewed him as a dangerous radical. He advocated strict neutrality prior to World War I —a stand he later regretted—supported American membership in the League of Nations , and opposed woman suffrage . When Wilson suffered a stroke that partially paralyzed him in 1919, Marshall steadfastly refused to assume the powers of the presidency without written requests from first lady Edith Wilson and the president’s doctor and a congressional resolution, fearing that he would be accused of “longing for [Wilson’s] place.” While Wilson was incapacitated, Marshall presided over cabinet meetings but made no major decisions. Although he was discussed as a potential presidential candidate in both 1920 and 1924, Marshall never actively sought the nomination. His homespun philosophy and humour are recorded in Recollections of Thomas R. Marshall, Vice-President and Hoosier Philosopher: A Hoosier Salad (1925).\nLearn More in these related articles:",
"Thomas Marshall: Vice-President of the United States\nVice - President under Woodrow Wilson\nThomas Marshall is buried in Crown Hill Cemetery, Indianapolis, Indiana. The cemetery is great for president and vice-president gravehunters.\nServed from 1913 - 1921\nGPS: N 39.81946, W 086.17137",
"Thomas R. Marshall - U.S. Vice President, Governor, Lawyer - Biography.com\n“What this country needs is a really good five-cent cigar.”\nThomas R. Marshall\nSynopsis\nBorn on March 14, 1854, in North Manchester, Indiana, Thomas R. Marshall worked as a lawyer for more than three decades before being elected as his home state’s governor in 1908. He then served as vice president under the Woodrow Wilson administration from 1913 to 1921 for two terms, though the two didn’t have a close rapport. Marshall later returned to law. He died on June 1, 1925.\nFact Check\nWe strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us !\nCitation Information",
"U.S. Senate: Marshall, Thomas R.\nMarshall, Thomas R.\n \nBorn in Lithuania in 1884, Moses Dykaar studied at the Académie Julian in Paris before arriving in the United States in 1916. He moved almost immediately to Washington, D.C., where he began a long and successful career. Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives James “Champ” Clark secured Dykaar’s services in carving his bust, and through this connection Dykaar was selected to create a marble bust of Thomas R. Marshall for the Senate’s Vice Presidential Bust Collection. Several sculptors had sought the commission, but the vice president ultimately preferred Dykaar, and the Joint Committee on the Library awarded him the project in 1918. The Senate paid $1,000 for the work, $200 more than was customary because of increased transportation costs for statuary marble during wartime. In 1920 the Marshall bust served as the centerpiece for an exhibition of Dykaar’s work at the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., and it was accepted by the Joint Committee on the Library later that year.\nMarshall lacked the rugged or unconventional facial features that many sculptors favor, and Dykaar joked that perhaps the vice president had not yet found a “good five-cent cigar.” In a 1932 Washington Post article, Dykaar recalled that Marshall was a “nervous” model. The artist quoted the vice president as complaining good-naturedly, “You asked me for a sitting and you make me stand.” Dykaar then explained, “We call them 'sittings,’ when really they are 'standings.’” [1]\nThe Smithsonian Institution’s Inventory of American Painting and Sculpture lists more than 40 works by Moses Dykaar throughout the United States. His busts of Calvin Coolidge and Charles Curtis also are in the Senate’s Vice Presidential Bust Collection, and his marble portraits of House Speakers James Clark and Nicholas Longworth are located in the House wing of the Capitol. The Smithsonian Institution’s National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C., holds Dykaar’s likenesses of General John J. Pershing, inventor Alexander Graham Bell, and labor leader Samuel Gompers.\n1. David Rankin Barbee, “An Historian in Bronze and Marble,” Washington Post, 3 April 1932.\n \nBiography of Thomas Riley Marshall \nThomas Riley Marshall, U.S. vice president and oft-quoted wit, served two terms in office under President Woodrow Wilson. Born in North Manchester, Indiana, Marshall practiced law in Columbia City, became active in the Indiana Democratic Party, and in 1908 was elected governor. During the next several years, Marshall's extensive program for social and labor reform attracted national attention. In 1912 he was elected 28th vice president. Marshall's irreverent and self-deprecating humor made him one of America's most popular vice presidents, and he was the first holder of that office in 80 years to be elected to a second term. Although his most famous quote was not original to him, it remains the one for which he has been immortalized: \"What this country needs is a really good five-cent cigar.\" [1]\nIn October 1919, President Wilson suffered a paralytic stroke that left him virtually incapacitated. Because the Constitution did not yet specify exactly how the vice president was to assume the duties of the president in such cases, Marshall feared that any actions he took would appear overly ambitious or disloyal, so he passively allowed others to provide leadership for the nation in Wilson's stead. At the end of his term, Marshall returned to Indiana and served on the Federal Coal Commission. He died while visiting Washington, D.C., in 1925.\n1. Mark O. Hatfield, Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789-1993 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1997), 341.",
"Thomas Riley Marshall (1854 - 1925) - Genealogy\nThomas Riley Marshall\nNorth Manchester, Wabash County, Indiana, United States\nDeath:\nin Washington, District of Columbia, District of Columbia, United States\nPlace of Burial:\nIndianapolis, Marion County, Indiana, United States\nImmediate Family:\nMar 14 1854 - North Manchester\nDeath:\nJune 1 1925 - Washington, D.C.\nWife:\nMar 14 1854 - Manchester, Indania\nFather:\nMar 14 1854 - North Manchester, Wabash, Indiana, USA\nDeath:\nJune 1 1925 - Washington, DC\nParents:\nDaniel Marshall, Martha E. Marshall (born Patterson)\nWife:\nMar 14 1854 - North Manchester, Wabash Co., IN\nDeath:\nJune 1 1925 - Washington, DC\nParents:\nUnknown Marshall, Martha E. Marshall (born Patterson)\nWife:\nMar 14 1854 - North Manchester, Ind.\nDeath:\nJune 1 1925 - District Of Columbia\nBurial:\nJune 2 1925 - Indianapolis, Ind\nParents:\nMar 14 1854 - North Manchester, Indiana\nDeath:\nJune 1 1925 - Washington DC\nParents:\nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_R._Marshall\nThomas Riley Marshall (March 14, 1854 – June 1, 1925) was an American Democratic politician who served as the 28th Vice President of the United States (1913–1921) under Woodrow Wilson. A prominent lawyer in Indiana, he became an active and well known member of the Indiana Democratic Party by stumping across the state for other candidates and organizing party rallies that later helped him win election as the 27th Governor of Indiana. In office, he proposed a controversial and progressive state constitution and pressed for other progressive era reforms. The Republican minority used the state courts to block the attempt to change the constitution.\nHis popularity as governor, and Indiana's status as a critical swing state, helped him secure the Democratic vice presidential nomination on a ticket with Wilson in 1912 and win the subsequent general election. An ideological rift developed between the two men during their first term, leading Wilson to limit Marshall's influence in the administration, and his brand of humor caused Wilson to move Marshall's office away from the White House. During Marshall's second term he delivered morale-boosting speeches across the nation during World War I and became the first vice president to hold cabinet meetings, which he did while Wilson was in Europe. While he was president in the United States Senate, a small number of anti-war senators kept it deadlocked by refusing to end debate. To enable critical wartime legislation to be passed, Marshall had the body adopt its first procedural rule allowing filibusters to be ended by a two-thirds majority vote—a variation of this rule remains in effect.\nMarshall's vice presidency is most remembered for a leadership crisis following a stroke that incapacitated Wilson in October 1919. Because of their personal dislike for him, Wilson's advisers and wife sought to keep Marshall uninformed about the president's condition to prevent him from easily assuming the presidency. Many people, including cabinet officials and Congressional leaders, urged Marshall to become acting president, but he refused to forcibly assume the presidency for fear of setting a precedent. Without strong leadership in the executive branch, the administration's opponents defeated the ratification of the League of Nations treaty and effectively returned the United States to an isolationist foreign policy.\nWell known for his wit and sense of humor, one of Marshall's most enduring jokes came during a Senate debate in which, in response to Senator Joseph Bristow's catalog of the nation's needs, Marshall quipped the often-repeated phrase, \"What this country needs is a really good five-cent cigar\", provoking laughter. After his terms as vice president, he opened an Indianapolis law practice, where he authored several legal books and his memoir, Recollections. He continued to travel and speak publicly. Marshall died while on a trip after suffering a heart attack in 1925.\nFamily and background\nThomas Marshall's paternal grandfather, Riley Marshall, immigrated to Indiana in 1817 and settled on a farm in what is now Whitley County. He became wealthy when a moderate deposit of oil and natural gas was discovered on his farm; when he sold the farm in 1827 it earned $25,000, $474,044 in 2009 chained dollars. The money allowed him to purchase a modest estate and spend the rest of his life as an active member of the Indiana Democratic Party, serving as an Indiana State Senator, party chairman, and financial contributor. He was also able to send his only child, Daniel, to medical school.\nMarshall's mother, Martha Patterson, was orphaned at age 13 while living in Ohio and came to live with her sister on a farm near the Marshalls' Indiana home. She was known for her wit and humor, as her son later would be. Martha and Daniel met and married in 1848.\nThomas Marshall was born in North Manchester, Indiana on March 14, 1854. Two years later, a sister was born, but she died in infancy. Martha had contracted tuberculosis, which Daniel believed to be the cause of their infant daughter's poor health. While Marshall was still a young boy, his family moved several times in search of a good climate for Daniel to attempt different \"outdoor cures\" on Martha. They moved first to Quincy, Illinois in 1857. Daniel Marshall was a supporter of the American Union and a staunch Democrat, and took his son to the Lincoln and Douglas debate in Freeport in 1858. There the four-year-old Marshall met Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln and sat on the lap of whichever candidate was not speaking. He later referred to this as one of his earliest and most cherished memories.\nThe family moved to Osawatomie, Kansas in 1859 but the violence on the frontier led them to move to Missouri in 1860; eventually Daniel succeeded in curing Martha's disease. As the American Civil War neared, violence spread into Missouri during the Bleeding Kansas incidents. In October several men led by Duff Green demanded that Daniel Marshall provide medical assistance to the pro-slavery faction. He refused, and they left. After their departure, the Marshalls' neighbors warned them that Green was planning to return and murder them. They helped the Marshalls quickly pack their belongings and escape to Illinois by steamboat. The Marshalls remained there only a brief time before continuing to Indiana, even farther from the volatile border region.\nEducation\nOn settling in Princeton, Indiana, Marshall began to attend public school. His father and grandfather became embroiled in a dispute with their Methodist minister when they refused to vote Republican in the 1862 election. The minister threatened to expel them from the church, to which Marshall's grandfather replied that he would \"take his risk on hell, but not the Republican Party.\" The dispute prompted the family to move again, to Fort Wayne, and convert to the Presbyterian church. In Fort Wayne, Marshall attended high school, graduating in 1869. At age fifteen his parents sent him to Wabash College, in Crawfordsville, where he received a classical education. His father advised him to study medicine or become a minister, but neither interested him; he entered the school without knowing which profession he would take upon graduation.\nMarshall joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, participated in literary and debating societies, and founded a Democratic Club. He secured a position on the staff of the college newspaper, the Geyser, and began writing political columns defending Democratic policies. In 1872 he wrote an unfavorable column about a female lecturer at the school, accusing her of \"seeking liberties\" with the young boys in their boarding house. She hired lawyer Lew Wallace, the author of Ben-Hur, and filed a suit demanding that Marshall pay her $20,000 for libel. Marshall traveled to Indianapolis in search of a defense lawyer and employed future United States President Benjamin Harrison, then a prominent lawyer in the area. Harrison had the suit dropped by showing that the charges made by Marshall were probably true. In Marshall's memoir, he wrote that when he approached Harrison to pay his bill, his lawyer informed him that he would not charge him for the service, but instead gave him a lecture on ethics.\nMarshall was elected to Phi Beta Kappa during his final year at college. He graduated in June 1873, receiving the top grade in fourteen of his thirty-six courses in a class of twenty-one students. As a result of his libel case, he had become increasingly interested in law and began seeking someone to teach him. At that time, the only way to become a lawyer in Indiana was to apprentice under a member of the Indiana bar association. His great-uncle Woodson Marshall began to help him, but soon moved away. Marshall went to live with his parents, who had moved to Columbia City. There he read law in the office of Walter Olds, a future member of the Indiana Supreme Court. He studied in the office for over a year and was admitted to the Indiana bar on April 26, 1875.\nLaw practice\nMarshall opened a law practice in Columbia City in 1876, taking on many minor cases. After gaining prominence, he accepted William F. McNagny as a partner in 1879 and began taking many criminal defense cases. The two men functioned well as partners. McNagny was better educated in law and worked out their legal arguments. Marshall, the superior orator, argued the cases before the judge and jury. Their firm became well known in the region after they handled a number of high-profile cases. In 1880 Marshall ran for public office for the first time as the Democratic candidate for his district's prosecuting attorney. The district was a Republican stronghold, and he was defeated. About the same time, he met and began to court Kate Hooper, and the two became engaged to marry. Kate died of an illness in 1882, one day before they were to be wed. Her death was a major emotional blow to Marshall, leading him to become an alcoholic.\nMarshall lived with his parents into his thirties. His father died in the late 1880s and his mother died in 1894, leaving him with the family estate and business. In 1895, while working on a case, Marshall met Lois Kimsey who was working as a clerk in her father's law firm. Despite their eighteen-year age difference, the couple fell in love and married on October 2. The Marshalls had a close marriage and were nearly inseparable, and spent only two nights apart during their thirty-year marriage.\nMarshall's alcoholism had begun to interfere with his busy life prior to his marriage. He arrived at court hung-over on several occasions and was unable to keep his addiction secret in his small hometown. His wife helped him to overcome his drinking problem and give up liquor after she locked him in their home for two weeks to undergo a treatment regimen. Thereafter, he became active in temperance organizations and delivered several speeches about the dangers of liquor. Although he had stopped drinking, his past alcoholism was later raised by opponents during his gubernatorial election campaign.\nMarshall remained active in the Democratic party after his 1880 defeat and began stumping on behalf of other candidates and helping to organize party rallies across the state. His speeches were noted for their partisanship, but his rhetoric gradually shifted away from a conservative viewpoint in the 1890s as he began to identify himself with the growing progressive movement. He became a member of the state Democratic Central Committee in 1904, a position that raised his popularity and influence in the party.\nMarshall and his wife were involved in several private organizations. He was active in the Presbyterian Church, taught Sunday school, and served on the county fair board. As he grew wealthy from his law firm he became involved in local charities. An active Mason and member of the Grand Lodge of Indiana, by 1898 he was a Master Mason and had risen to the thirty-third degree in the Scottish Rite, the highest level of the order, and had become a member of its Supreme Council. He remained an active mason until his death and served on several masonic charitable boards.\nGovernorship\nCampaign\nIn 1906, Marshall declined his party's nomination to run for Congress. He did hint to state party leaders that he would be interested in running for governor in the 1908 election. He soon gained the support of several key labor unions, and was endorsed by a reporter in the Indianapolis Star. Despite this support, at the state convention he was a dark horse candidate. Party boss Thomas Taggart did not support him because of Marshall's support of prohibition. Taggart wanted the party to nominate anti-prohibitionist Samuel Ralston, but the prohibitionist and anti-Taggart factions united with Marshall's supporters, giving him the votes needed to win.\nMarshall's opponent in the general election was Republican Congressman James E. Watson, and the campaign focused on temperance and prohibition. Just as it began, the Republican-controlled state government passed a local-option law that allowed counties to ban the sale of liquor. The law became the central point of debate between the parties and their gubernatorial candidates. The Democrats proposed that the local-option law be changed so that the decision to ban liquor sales could be made at the city and township level. This drew support from anti-prohibitionists, who saw it as an opportunity to roll back prohibition in some areas, and as the only alternative available to the total prohibition which the Republican Party advocated. The Democratic position also helped to retain prohibitionists' support by allowing prohibition to remain enacted in communities where a majority supported it. The Republican Party was in the midst of a period of instability, splitting along progressive and conservative lines. Their internal problems proved to be the deciding factor in the election, giving Marshall a narrow victory: he received 48.1% of the vote to Watson's 48%. He was the first Democratic governor in two decades. Democrats also came to power in the Indiana House of Representatives by a small margin, though Republicans retained control of the Indiana Senate.\nProgressive agenda\nMarshall was inaugurated as Governor of Indiana on January 11, 1909. Since his party had been out of power for many years, its initial objective was to appoint as many Democrats as possible to patronage positions. Marshall tried to avoid becoming directly involved in the patronage system. He allowed the party's different factions to have positions and appointed very few of his own choices. He allowed Taggart to manage the process and pick the candidates, but signed off himself on the official appointments. Although his position on patronage kept peace in his party, it prevented him from building a strong political base.\nDuring his term, Marshall focused primarily on advancing the progressive agenda. He successfully advocated the passage of a child labor law and anti-corruption legislation. He supported popular election of United States Senators, and the constitutional amendment to allow it was ratified by the Indiana General Assembly during his term. He also overhauled the state auditing agencies and claimed to have saved the government millions of dollars. He was unsuccessful in passing the rest of the progressive platform agenda items or persuading the legislature to call a convention to rewrite the state constitution to expand the government's regulatory powers.\nMarshall was a strong opponent of Indiana's recently passed eugenics and sterilization laws, and ordered state institutions not to follow them. He was an early, high-profile opponent of eugenics laws, and he carried his opposition into the vice-presidency. His governorship was the first in which no state executions took place, due to his opposition to capital punishment and his practice of pardoning and commuting the sentences of people condemned to execution. He regularly attacked corporations and used recently created anti-trust laws to attempt to break several large businesses. He participated in a number of ceremonial events, including personally laying the final golden brick to complete the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in 1909.\nMarshall's constitution\nJacob Piatt Dunn, with whom Marshall wrote a proposed constitution for Indiana Rewriting the state constitution became Marshall's central focus as governor, and after the General Assembly refused to call a constitutional convention he began to seek alternative means by which to have a new constitution adopted. He and Jacob Piatt Dunn, a close friend and civic leader, wrote a new constitution that increased the state's regulatory powers considerably, set minimum wages, and gave constitutional protections to unions. Many of these reforms were also in the Socialist Party platform under its leader, Terre Haute native Eugene V. Debs. Republicans believed Marshall's constitution was an attempt to win over Debs' supporters, who had a strong presence in Indiana. The constitution also allowed direct-democracy initiatives and referendums to be held. The Democratic controlled assembly agreed to the request and put the measure on the ballot. His opponents attacked the direct-democracy provisions, claiming they were a violation of the United States Constitution, which required states to operate republican forms of government. The 1910 mid-term elections gave the Democrats control of the Indiana Senate, increasing the constitution's chances of being adopted. Marshall presented it to the General Assembly in 1911 and recommended that they submit it to voters in the 1912 election.\nRepublicans opposed the ratification process, and were infuriated that the Democrats were attempting to revise the entire constitution without calling a constitutional convention, as had been called for the state's two previous constitutions. Marshall argued that no convention was needed because the existing constitution did not call for one. Republicans took the issue to court and the Marion County Circuit Court granted an injunction removing the constitution from the 1912 ballot. Marshall appealed, but the Indiana Supreme Court upheld the decision in a judgment which stated that the Constitution of Indiana could not be replaced in total without a constitutional convention, based on the precedent set by Indiana's first two constitutions. Marshall was angry with the decision and delivered a speech attacking the court and accusing it of overstepping its authority. He launched a final appeal to the United States Supreme Court but left office in January 1913 while the case was still pending. Later that year, the court declined the appeal, finding that the issue was within the sole jurisdiction of the state courts. Marshall was disappointed with the outcome.[50] Subsequent historians, like Professor Linda Gugin, have called the process and the document itself \"hopelessly flawed\", and legal expert James St. Claire has written that if the constitution had been adopted, large parts would probably have been ruled unconstitutional by the federal courts.\nVice presidency\nElection\nThe Indiana constitution prevented Marshall from serving a consecutive term as governor. He made plans to run for a United States Senate seat after his term ended, but another opportunity presented itself during his last months as governor. Although he did not attend the 1912 Democratic National Convention in Baltimore, his name was put forward as Indiana's choice for president. He was suggested as a compromise nominee, but William Jennings Bryan and his delegates endorsed Woodrow Wilson over Champ Clark, securing the nomination for Wilson. Indiana's delegates lobbied to have Marshall named the vice presidential candidate in exchange for supporting Wilson. Indiana was an important swing state, and Wilson hoped that Marshall's popularity would help him carry it in the general election. He had his delegates support Marshall, giving him the vice presidential nomination. Marshall privately turned down the nomination, assuming the job would be boring given its limited role. He changed his mind after Wilson assured him that he would be given plenty of responsibilities. During the campaign, Marshall traveled across the United States delivering speeches. The Wilson–Marshall ticket easily won the 1912 election because of the division between the Republican Party and the Progressive Party.\nMarshall was not fond of Wilson, as he disagreed with him on a number of issues. Although Wilson invited Marshall to cabinet meetings, Marshall's ideas were rarely considered for implementation, and Marshall eventually stopped attending them regularly. In 1913 Wilson took the then unheard-of step of meeting personally with members of the Senate to discuss policy. Before this, presidents used the vice president (who serves as president of the senate) as a go-between; Wilson used the opportunity to show that he did not trust Marshall with delicate business. In his memoir, Marshall's only negative comment towards Wilson was, \"I have sometimes thought that great men are the bane of civilization, they are the real cause of all the bitterness and contention which amounts to anything in the world.\" Their relationship was described as one of \"functioning animosity\".\nSenate developments\nMarshall was not offended by Wilson's lack of interest in his ideas, and considered his primary constitutional duty to be in the Senate. He viewed the vice presidential office as being in the legislative branch, not the executive. While he presided in the Senate, emotions sometimes ran high, including during a debate on the Mexican border crisis in 1916. During that debate Marshall threatened to expel certain senators from the chamber for their raucous behavior, but did not carry through on the threat. On several occasions, he ordered the Senate gallery cleared. He voted eight times to break tie votes.\nIn the debates leading up to World War I, a number of isolationist senators filibustered bills that Wilson considered important. The filibusters lasted for weeks and twice lasted for over three months. Wilson and the bills' supporters requested that Marshall put a gag-order in place to cut off debate, but he refused on ethical grounds, allowing a number of bills to be defeated in hopes that opposition would eventually end their filibuster. Among the defeated bills was one allowing merchant ships to arm themselves, and another allowing the US government to make direct arms sales to the allies. Despite their victories, the small group of senators continued to lock up the senate to prevent any pro-war legislation from passing. In response, Marshall led the Senate to adopt a new rule on March 8, 1917, allowing filibusters to be broken by two-thirds of voting Senators. This replaced the previous rule that allowed any senator to prolong debate as long as he desired. The rule has been modified several times, most prominently that the current rule requires three-fifths of all Senators, not only the ones voting.\nAs Marshall made little news and was viewed as a somewhat comic figure in Washington because of his sense of humor, a number of Democratic party leaders wanted him removed from the 1916 reelection ticket. Wilson, after deliberating, decided keeping Marshall on would demonstrate party unity; thus in 1916 Marshall won reelection over the still divided Republican Party and became the first vice president re-elected since John C. Calhoun in 1828, and Wilson and Marshall became the first president and vice president team to be re-elected since Monroe and Tompkins in 1820.\nWorld War I\nDuring Marshall's second term, the United States entered World War I. Marshall was a reluctant supporter of the war, believing the country to be unprepared and feared it would be necessary to enact conscription. He was pleased with Wilson's strategy to begin a military buildup before the declaration of war, and fully supported the war effort once it had begun. Shortly after the first troops began to assemble for transport to Europe, Marshall and Wilson hosted a delegation from the United Kingdom in which Marshall became privy to the primary war strategy. However, he was largely excluded from war planning and rarely received official updates on the progress of military campaigns. In most instances he received news of the war through the newspapers.\nOn the evening of July 2, 1915, Eric Muenter, an anarchist and onetime German professor at Harvard and Cornell universities, who opposed American support of the allied war effort, broke into the Senate chamber, laid dynamite around Marshall's office door, and set it with a timer. The bomb exploded prematurely, just before midnight while no one was in the office. On July 5, Muenter burst into the Glen Cove, New York home of Jack Morgan, the son of J.P. Morgan, demanding that he stop the sale of weapons to the allies. Morgan told the man he was in no position to comply with his demand; Muenter struck him in the head and escaped. Muenter was later apprehended and confessed to attempted assassination of the vice president. Marshall was offered a personal security detachment after the incident, but declined it.\nWilson sent Marshall around the nation to deliver morale-boosting speeches and encourage Americans to buy Liberty Bonds in support of the war effort. Marshall was well suited for the job, as he had been earning extra money as a public speaker while vice president, and gladly accepted the responsibility. In his speeches, he cast the war as a \"moral crusade to preserve the dignity of the state for the rights of individuals\". In his memoir, he recalled that the war seemed to drag on \"with leaden feet\", and that he was relieved when it finally ended. As the war neared its end, Marshall became the first vice president to conduct cabinet meetings; Wilson left him with this responsibility while traveling in Europe to sign the Versailles treaty and to work on gathering support for his League of Nations idea. Wilson became the first president to personally deliver a treaty to be ratified by the Senate, which he presented to Marshall as the presiding officer during a morning session.\nMorrison\nMarshall's wife was heavily involved in charitable activities in Washington and spent considerable time working at the Diet Kitchen Welfare Center providing free meals to impoverished children. In 1917 she became acquainted with a mother of newborn twins, one of whom was chronically ill. The child's parents were unable to get adequate treatment for their son's condition. Lois Marshall formed a close bond with the baby, who was named Clarence Ignatius Morrison, and offered to take him and help him find treatment. She and Marshall had been unable to have children, and when she brought the baby home, Marshall told her that she could \"keep him, provided he did not squall ...\" Marshall grew to love the boy and wrote that he \"never walked the streets of Washington with as sure a certainty as he walked into my heart\", and, as the boy grew older, that he was \"beautiful as an angel; brilliant beyond his years; lovable from every standpoint.\"\nThe Marshalls never officially adopted Morrison because they believed that to go through the procedure while his parents were still living would appear unusual to the public. Wanting to keep the situation private, they instead made a special arrangement with his parents. President Wilson felt obliged to acknowledge the boy as theirs and sent the couple a note that simply said, \"With congratulations to the baby. Wilson.\" Morrison lived with the Marshalls for the rest of his life. In correspondence they referred to him as Morrison Marshall, but in person they called him Izzy. Lois took him to see many doctors and spent all her available time trying to nurse him back to health, but his condition worsened and he died in February 1920, just before his fourth birthday. His death devastated Marshall, who wrote in his memoir that Izzy \"was and is and ever will be so sacred to me ...\"\nSuccession crisis\nPresident Wilson experienced a mild stroke in September 1919. On October 2, he was struck by a much more severe stroke that left him partially paralyzed and almost certainly incapacitated. Wilson's closest adviser, Joseph Tumulty, did not believe Marshall would be a suitable president and took precautions to prevent him from assuming the presidency. Wilson's wife Edith strongly disliked Marshall because of what she called his \"uncouthed\" disposition, and also opposed his assumption of the presidency. Tumulty and Edith believed that an official communication from Wilson's staff on his condition would allow Marshall to trigger the constitutional mechanism allowing him to become acting president, and made sure no such communication occurred.[88][89] After Marshall demanded to know Wilson's status so that he could prepare for the possibility of becoming president, they had a reporter from the Baltimore Sun brief Marshall and inform him that Wilson was near death. Marshall later said that \"it was the first great shock of my life\", but without an official communication on Wilson's condition, he didn't believe he could constitutionally assume the presidency.\nOn October 5, Secretary of State Robert Lansing was the first official to propose that Marshall forcibly assume the presidency. Other cabinet secretaries backed Lansing's request, as did Congressional leaders, including members of both the Democratic and Republican parties who sent private communications to Marshall. Marshall was cautious in accepting their offers of support. After consulting with his wife and his long-time personal adviser, Mark Thistlethwaite, he privately refused to assume Wilson's duties and become Acting President of the United States. The process for declaring a president incapacitated was unclear at that time, and he feared the precedent that might be set if he forcibly removed Wilson from office. Marshall wanted the president to voluntarily allow his powers to devolve to the vice president, but that was impossible given his condition and unlikely given Wilson's dislike for Marshall. Marshall informed the cabinet that the only cases in which he would assume the presidency were a joint resolution of Congress calling on him to do so, or an official communication from Wilson or his staff asserting his inability to perform his duties.\nWilson was kept secluded by his wife and personal physician and only his close advisers were allowed to see him; none would divulge official information on his condition. Although Marshall sought to meet with Wilson to personally determine his condition, he was unable to do so, and relied on vague updates he received through a few bulletins published by Wilson's physician. Believing that Wilson and his advisers would not voluntarily transfer power to the vice president, a group of Congressional leaders initiated Marshall's requested joint resolution. The senators opposed to the League of Nations treaty, however, believed that as president Marshall would make several key concessions that would allow the treaty to win ratification. Wilson, in his present condition, was either unwilling or unable to make the concessions, and debate on the bill had resulted in a deadlock. In order to prevent the treaty's ratification, the anti-League senators blocked the joint resolution.\nOn December 4, Lansing announced in a Senate committee hearing that no one in the cabinet had spoken with or seen Wilson in over sixty days. The senators seeking to elevate Marshall requested that a committee be sent to check on Wilson's condition, hoping to gain evidence to support their cause. Dubbed the \"smelling committee\" by several newspapers, the group discovered Wilson was in very poor health, but seemed to have recovered enough of his faculties to make decisions. Their report ended the perceived need for the joint resolution.\nAt a Sunday church service in mid-December, in what Marshall believed was an attempt by other officials to force him to assume the presidency, a courier brought a message informing him that Wilson had died. Marshall was shocked, and rose to announce the news to the congregation. The ministers held a prayer, the congregation began singing hymns, and many people wept. Marshall and his wife exited the building, and made a call to the White House to determine his next course of action, only to find that he had been the victim of a hoax, and that Wilson was still living.\nMarshall performed a few ceremonial functions for the remainder of Wilson's term, such as hosting foreign dignitaries. Among these was Albert I, King of the Belgians, the first European monarch to visit the United States. Edward, Prince of Wales, the future monarch of the United Kingdom, spent two days with Marshall and received a personal tour of Washington from him. First Lady Edith Wilson performed most routine duties of government by reviewing all of Wilson's communications and deciding what he would be presented with and what she would delegate to others. The resulting lack of leadership allowed the administration's opponents to prevent ratification of the League of Nations treaty. They attacked the treaty's tenth article, which they believed would allow the United States to be bound in an alliance to European countries that could force the country return to war without an act of Congress. Marshall personally supported the treaty's adoption, but recommended several changes, including the requirement that all parties to it acknowledge the Monroe Doctrine and the United States' sphere of influence, and that the tenth article be made non-binding.\nWilson began to recover by the end of 1919, but remained secluded for the remainder of his term, steadfast in his refusal or inability to accept changes to the treaty. Marshall was prevented from meeting with him to ascertain his true condition until his final day in office. It remains unclear who was making the executive branch's decisions during Wilson's incapacity, but it was likely the first lady with the help of the presidential advisers.\nLater life\nMarshall had his name entered as a candidate for the 1920 presidential nomination at the Democratic National Convention. He made arrangements with Thomas Taggart to have a delegation sent from Indiana to support his bid, but was unable to garner support outside of the Hoosier delegation. Ultimately he endorsed the Democratic nominees, James M. Cox as president and Franklin Delano Roosevelt as vice president, but they were defeated by the Republican ticket of Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge. On their election, Marshall sent a note to Coolidge in which he offered him his \"sincere condolences\" for his misfortune in being elected vice president.\nMarshall considered returning to Columbia City after leaving office, but instead bought a home and opened a law practice in Indianapolis, where he believed there would be better business opportunities. Harding nominated him to serve on the Lincoln Memorial Commission in 1921, and then to a more lucrative position on the Federal Coal Commission in 1922; Marshall resigned from both commissions in 1923. He spent over a year writing books on the law and his Recollections, a humorous memoir. The latter book was completed in May 1925 and subsequent historians have noted it as unusual, even for its time, for not disclosing any secrets or attacking any of Marshall's enemies. Marshall remained a popular public speaker, and continued to travel to give speeches. The last he delivered was to high school students in the town of his birth.\nWhile on a trip to Washington D.C., Marshall was struck by a heart attack while reading his Bible in bed on the night of June 1, 1925. His wife called for medical assistance, but he died before it arrived. A service and viewing was held in Washington two days later and was attended by many dignitaries. Marshall's remains were returned to Indianapolis, where he lay in state for two days; thousands visited his bier. His funeral service was held June 9, and he was interred in Crown Hill Cemetery, next to the grave of his adopted son Morrison \"Izzy\" Marshall. Lois Marshall moved to Arizona and remained widowed the rest of her life, living on her husband's pension and the $50,000 she earned by selling his memoir to the Bobbs-Merrill publishing company. She died in 1958 and was interred next to her husband.\nHumor\nMarshall was known for his quick wit and a good sense of humor. On hearing of his nomination as vice president, he announced that he was not surprised, as \"Indiana is the mother of Vice Presidents; home of more second-class men than any other state.\" One of his favorite jokes was about a woman with two sons, one of whom went to sea and one of whom was elected vice president; neither was ever heard of again. On his election as vice president, he sent Woodrow Wilson a book, inscribed \"From your only Vice.\"\nHis humor caused him trouble during his time in Washington. He was known to greet citizens walking by his office on the White House tour by saying to them, \"If you look on me as a wild animal, be kind enough to throw peanuts at me.\" This prompted Wilson to move Marshall's office to the Senate Office building, where he would not be disturbed by visitors. In response to a proposal to the board of the Smithsonian Institution to send a team to excavate for ruins in Guatemala, Marshall suggested that the team instead excavate around Washington. When asked why, he replied that, judging by the looks of the people walking on the street, they should be able find buried cave-men no more than six feet down. The joke was not well received, and he was shut out of board meetings for nearly a year.\nHis serious remarks could get him in trouble as well. Some of his public utterances in 1913, in which he appeared to advocate radical ideas in regard to the inheritance of property, caused much criticism.\nMarshall's wit is best remembered from a phrase he introduced to the American lexicon. During a Senate debate in 1917, as Senator Joseph L. Bristow cataloged a long list of what he felt the country needed, Marshall leaned over to one of his clerks and said, \"What this country needs is more of this; what this country needs is more of that.\" He then quipped, loudly enough for most of the chamber to hear, \"What this country needs is a really good five-cent cigar\", which provoked laughter from a number of senators.\nLegacy\nThe situation that arose after the incapacity of President Wilson, for which Marshall's vice-presidency is most remembered, revived the national debate on the process of presidential succession. The topic was already being discussed when Wilson left for Europe, which influenced him to allow Marshall to conduct cabinet meetings in his absence. Wilson's incapacity during 1919 and the lack of action by Marshall made it a major issue. The constitutional flaws in the process of presidential succession had been known since the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841, but little progress had been made passing a constitutional amendment to remedy the problem. Nearly fifty years later, the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed, allowing the vice president to assume the presidency any time the president was rendered incapable of carrying out the duties of the office.\nHistorians have varied interpretations of Marshall's vice presidency. Claire Suddath rated Marshall as one of the worst vice presidents in American history in a 2008 Time Magazine article. Samuel Eliot Morison wrote that had Marshall carried out his constitutional duties, assumed the presidency, and made the concessions necessary for the passage of the League of Nations treaty in late 1920, the United States would have been much more involved in European affairs and could have helped prevent the rise of Adolf Hitler, which began in the following year. Morison and a number of other historians claim that Marshall's decision was an indirect cause of the Second World War. Charles Thomas, one of Marshall's biographers, wrote that although Marshall's assumption of the presidency would have made World War II much less likely, modern hypothetical speculation on the subject was unfair to Marshall, who made the correct decision in not forcibly removing Wilson from office, even temporarily.\nElectoral history",
"Thomas R. Marshall (Vice President) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News\nThomas R. Marshall\nMale\nBorn Mar 14, 1854\nThomas Riley Marshall was an American Democratic politician who served as the 28th Vice President of the United States (1913â1921) under Woodrow Wilson. A prominent lawyer in Indiana, he became an active and well known member of the Indiana Democratic Party by stumping across the state for other candidates and organizing party rallies that later helped him win election as the 27th Governor of Indiana.… Read More\nrelated links\nPremier League Squads: Who's In And Who's Out At Your Lot? Mirror Football.Co.Uk\nGoogle News - Sep 02, 2011\n'... Herd, Christopher; Heskey, Emile William Ivanhoe; Ireland, Stephen James; Lichaj, Eric Joseph; Lowry, Shane Thomas; Marshall, Andrew John; Petrov, Stiliyian Alyoshev; Warnock, Stephen; N'Zogbia, Charles; Jenas, Jermaine Anthony; Hutton, Alan'\nDeity Of Jesus Laurinburg Exchange\nGoogle News - Sep 01, 2011\n'There was a teaching in the early days of Christianity that said that Jesus could not be God because He was human. John begins his great Gospel account stressing that Jesus was and is God. John is writing to the entire world to'\nIronclad Stars Help Raise Awareness Of Rochester Castle's Condition Rochester People\nGoogle News - Aug 31, 2011\n'... The Ironclad screening at Rochester Castle on Saturday night was a huge success, with the attendant cinema goers enjoying a fantastic film in the company of two of its stars, James Purefoy (Thomas Marshall) and Jamie Foreman (Jedediah Coteral)'\n150 Years Ago: General Orders Officer To Seize Bank's Funds Columbia Daily Tribune\nGoogle News - Aug 25, 2011\n'Thomas Marshall, commanding a relief expedition headed for Lexington, to seize the funds of the Farmers' Bank at that place and at Liberty. The funds of the banks were a major target of both sides in the conflict for Missouri. Most banks had principal'\nLearn about the memorable moments in the evolution of Thomas R. Marshall.\nCHILDHOOD\n1854 Birth Thomas Marshall was born in North Manchester, Indiana on March 14, 1854. … Read More\nTwo years later, a sister was born, but she died in infancy. Martha had contracted tuberculosis, which Daniel believed to be the cause of their infant daughter's poor health. While Marshall was still a young boy, his family moved several times in search of a good climate for Daniel to attempt different \"outdoor cures\" on Martha. They moved first to Quincy, Illinois in 1857. Read Less\n1858 4 Years Old Daniel Marshall was a supporter of the American Union and a staunch Democrat, and took his son to the Lincoln and Douglas debate in Freeport in 1858. … Read More\nThere the four-year-old Marshall met Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln and sat on the lap of whichever candidate was not speaking. He later referred to this as one of his earliest and most cherished memories.<br /><br /> The family moved to Osawatomie, Kansas in 1859 but the violence on the frontier led them to move to Missouri in 1860; eventually Daniel succeeded in curing Martha's disease. As the American Civil War neared, violence spread into Missouri during the Bleeding Kansas incidents. In October several men led by Duff Green demanded that Daniel Marshall provide medical assistance to the pro-slavery faction. He refused, and they left. After their departure, the Marshalls' neighbors warned them that Green was planning to return and murder them. They helped the Marshalls quickly pack their belongings and escape to Illinois by steamboat. The Marshalls remained there only a brief time before continuing to Indiana, even farther from the volatile border region. Read Less\n1862 8 Years Old On settling in Pierceton, Indiana, Marshall began to attend public school. His father and grandfather became embroiled in a dispute with their Methodist minister when they refused to vote Republican in the 1862 election. … Read More\nThe minister threatened to expel them from the church, to which Marshall's grandfather replied that he would \"take his risk on hell, but not the Republican Party\". The dispute prompted the family to move again, to Fort Wayne, and convert to the Presbyterian church. Read Less\nTEENAGE\n1869 15 Years Old In Fort Wayne, Marshall attended high school, graduating in 1869. … Read More\nAt age fifteen his parents sent him to Wabash College, in Crawfordsville, where he received a classical education. His father advised him to study medicine or become a minister, but neither interested him; he entered the school without knowing which profession he would take upon graduation.<br /><br /> Marshall joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, participated in literary and debating societies, and founded a Democratic Club. He secured a position on the staff of the college newspaper, the Geyser, and began writing political columns defending Democratic policies. Read Less\n1872 18 Years Old In 1872 he wrote an unfavorable column about a female lecturer at the school, accusing her of \"seeking liberties\" with the young boys in their boarding house. … Read More\nShe hired lawyer Lew Wallace, the author of Ben-Hur, and filed a suit demanding that Marshall pay her $20,000 for libel. Marshall traveled to Indianapolis in search of a defense lawyer and employed future United States President Benjamin Harrison, then a prominent lawyer in the area. Harrison had the suit dropped by showing that the charges made by Marshall were probably true. In Marshall's memoir, he wrote that when he approached Harrison to pay his bill, his lawyer informed him that he would not charge him for the service, but instead gave him a lecture on ethics. Read Less\n1873 19 Years Old Marshall was elected to Phi Beta Kappa during his final year at college. He graduated in June 1873, receiving the top grade in fourteen of his thirty-six courses in a class of twenty-one students. … Read More\nAs a result of his libel case, he had become increasingly interested in law and began seeking someone to teach him. At that time, the only way to become a lawyer in Indiana was to apprentice under a member of the Indiana bar association. His great-uncle Woodson Marshall began to help him, but soon moved away. Marshall went to live with his parents, who had moved to Columbia City. There he read law in the office of Walter Olds, a future member of the Indiana Supreme Court. He studied in the office for over a year and was admitted to the Indiana bar on April 26, 1875. Read Less\nTWENTIES\n1876 22 Years Old Marshall opened a law practice in Columbia City in 1876, taking on many minor cases.\n1879 25 Years Old After gaining prominence, he accepted William F. McNagny as a partner in 1879 and began taking many criminal defense cases. … Read More\nThe two men functioned well as partners. McNagny was better educated in law and worked out their legal arguments. Marshall, the superior orator, argued the cases before the judge and jury. Their firm became well known in the region after they handled a number of high-profile cases. Read Less\n1880 26 Years Old In 1880 Marshall ran for public office for the first time as the Democratic candidate for his district's prosecuting attorney. … Read More\nThe district was a Republican stronghold, and he was defeated. About the same time, he met and began to court Kate Hooper, and the two became engaged to marry. Kate died of an illness in 1882, one day before they were to be wed. Her death was a major emotional blow to Marshall, leading him to become an alcoholic.<br /><br /> Marshall lived with his parents into his thirties. His father died in the late 1880s and his mother died in 1894, leaving him with the family estate and business. Read Less\nFORTIES\n1895 41 Years Old In 1895, while working on a case, Marshall met Lois Kimsey who was working as a clerk in her father's law firm. … Read More\nDespite their nineteen-year age difference, the couple fell in love and married on October 2. The Marshalls had a close marriage and were nearly inseparable, and spent only two nights apart during their nearly thirty-year marriage.<br /><br /> Marshall's alcoholism had begun to interfere with his busy life prior to his marriage. He arrived at court hung-over on several occasions and was unable to keep his addiction secret in his small hometown. His wife helped him to overcome his drinking problem and give up liquor after she locked him in their home for two weeks to undergo a treatment regimen. Thereafter, he became active in temperance organizations and delivered several speeches about the dangers of liquor. Although he had stopped drinking, his past alcoholism was later raised by opponents during his gubernatorial election campaign.<br /><br /> Marshall remained active in the Democratic party after his 1880 defeat and began stumping on behalf of other candidates and helping to organize party rallies across the state. His speeches were noted for their partisanship, but his rhetoric gradually shifted away from a conservative viewpoint in the 1890s as he began to identify himself with the growing progressive movement. He became a member of the state Democratic Central Committee in 1904, a position that raised his popularity and influence in the party. Read Less\n1898 44 Years Old … \nMarshall and his wife were involved in several private organizations. He was active in the Presbyterian Church, taught Sunday school, and served on the county fair board. As he grew wealthy from his law firm he became involved in local charities. Read Less\nAn active Mason and member of the Grand Lodge of Indiana, by 1898 he was a Master Mason and had risen to the thirty-third degree in the Scottish Rite, the highest level of the order, and had become a member of its Supreme Council. … Read More\nHe remained an active mason until his death and served on several masonic charitable boards. Read Less\nFIFTIES",
"MARSHALL, Thomas Riley - Biographical Information\nCourtesy U.S. Senate Historical Office\nMARSHALL, Thomas Riley, a Vice President of the United States; born in North Manchester, Wabash County, Ind., March 14, 1854; attended the common schools and graduated from Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Ind., in 1873; studied law; admitted to the bar in 1875 and commenced practice in Columbia City, Ind.; Governor of Indiana 1909-1913; elected, as a Democrat, Vice President of the United States on the ticket with Woodrow Wilson in 1912 and inaugurated on March 4, 1913; reelected in 1916 and served until March 3, 1921; resumed the practice of law and literary work in Indianapolis, Ind.; member of the Federal Coal Commission 1922-1923; died in Washington, D.C., June 1, 1925; interment in Crown Hill Cemetery, Indianapolis, Ind.\nBibliography\nBennett, David J. He Almost Changed the World: The Life and Times of Thomas Riley Marshall. Authorhouse, 2007; Marshall, Thomas R. Recollections of Thomas R. Marshall, Vice-President and Hoosier Philosopher: A Hoosier Salad. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1925.",
"Thomas R. Marshall — Indiana Historical Society\nThomas R. Marshall\nby IHS staff\nIn the late summer of 1858, an Indiana country doctor, who had recently moved to the neighboring state of Illinois, took his 4-year-old son to a debate in Freeport between U.S. Senate candidates Stephen A. Douglas and Abraham Lincoln. During the debate, the child recalled later in life, he sat on Lincoln’s lap while Douglas was speaking, and on Douglas’s lap while Lincoln talked. “One was tall, ungainly; the other, small and animated,” the youngster remembered. “I think I have a recollection that I liked the tall man.”\nThat young man became a successful attorney, Indiana governor and two-term vice president under Woodrow Wilson. Thomas R. Marshall reminisced about the Lincoln-Douglas debate experience in his 1925 autobiography Recollections: A Hoosier Salad, noting that it pleased him “to think that perhaps in a small way something of the love of Lincoln and of Douglas for the Union, the constitution and the rights of the common man flowed into my childish veins.”\nBorn in North Manchester on March 14, 1854, Marshall was the only son of Daniel M. and Martha A. (Patterson) Marshall. Although his family lived in Illinois, Kansas and Missouri for a time due to his mother’s ill health, Marshall resided in Pierceton from the age of 6 until entering Wabash College. Looking back on those days, Marshall knew, at least, what profession he wouldn’t be following: “I had a country shoemaker, who tried to teach me how to drive pegs, tell me that I was wholly unfitted for that business and that so far as he could see I would have to rely upon my tongue and not my hands for a livelihood.”\nGraduating from Wabash College in June 1873, Marshall studied law under the tutelage of Judge Walter Olds, who later became an Indiana Supreme Court justice. On April 26, 1875, at the age of 21, Marshall was appointed as an attorney in Whitley County. Two years later he formed a law partnership with William F. McNagny – a partnership that lasted until Marshall became governor in 1909.\nAs a young attorney, Marshall and his partner eked out a living with help from a few cantankerous citizens. “We felt that it had been a rather dull and stupid Saturday unless we had a half dozen assault-and-battery cases to try before the local justice of the peace,” Marshall said. Later, as assault cases slackened and prospects were bleak, “the railroads began to cut off arms and legs and opened up a new source of revenue,” he joked.\nA staunch Democrat, Marshall had a long history of party involvement, including forming a Democratic Club while at Wabash College. Marshall’s first foray into the political arena, however, did not bode well for the future. In 1880, he served as the Democratic candidate for prosecuting attorney in the 33rd Judicial District, which included Kosciusko and Whitley counties. Marshall lost; it would be 28 years before he tried again for elective office.\nAfter his defeat, Marshall continued to practice law in Columbia City and, in 1895 at the age of 41, he married Lois Kimsey. He reentered the political wars during the 1908 gubernatorial campaign as a compromise candidate in a battle between Democrats loyal to party boss Thomas Taggart and an anti-Taggart contingent. Conducting a low-key campaign, paid for by Marshall from a $3,750 loan he secured from his bank, he defeated Republican challenger James E. Watson by approximately 15,000 votes.\nOften describing himself as a “Progressive with the brakes on,” Marshall did institute some reforms during his four years in office. He helped create a state board of accounts to audit the financial records of state and local officials and pushed through child labor, weekly wage and voter registration laws. He failed, however, in his attempt to revamp the state’s constitution.\nAs he had been during the fight between Indiana Democrats for governor, Marshall was in the right place at the right time at the Democratic National Convention in 1912. New Jersey Gov. Woodrow Wilson had captured the party’s presidential nomination after 46 ballots. Wilson’s two opponents – Champ Clark and Oscar Underwood – refused offers to run for vice president, and Wilson agreed to Marshall’s selection as his running mate. The Democrats themselves took advantage of a split in the GOP, defeating incumbent President William Howard Taft and “Bull Moose” candidate Theodore Roosevelt.\nFour years later, the Wilson/Marshall ticket narrowly defeated Republican challenger Charles Evans Hughes, who had Hoosier Charles Warren Fairbanks – Theodore Roosevelt’s vice president – as his running mate. When Wilson suffered a stroke in 1919 during his campaign on behalf of the Treaty of Versailles and was incapacitated, Marshall refused to take power, at one time remarking to his wife, Lois: “I could throw this country into civil war, but I won’t.”\nAt the end of his term in 1921, Marshall returned to private life and a steady stream of lecture appearances, delighting audiences across the country with his wit. Some of the numerous bon mots he contributed include:\nOn the office of vice president: “Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea; the other was elected vice president. And nothing was ever heard of either of them again.”\nOn the 19th state: “It [Indiana] has perhaps no towering mountain peaks, but it has surely furnished as many first-rate second-class men in every department of life as any state in the Union.”\nOn the “generation gap”: “The only difference between their generation and my generation is that they have different ways of making fools of themselves.”\nOn political platforms: “A political platform ought to be written by three persons--a political economist, a philogist and an honest man.”\nOn his plans after leaving office: “I don’t want to work. I don’t propose to work. I wouldn’t mind being Vice President again.”\nDespite Marshall’s many accomplishments, he remains best known today for a chance remark he made while presiding over the U.S. Senate in 1917. During a long speech by Sen. Joe Bristow of Kansas on the needs of the country, Marshall turned to a clerk and said, “What this country needs is a really good 5-cent cigar.”\nMarshall died of a heart attack on June 1, 1925, at the Willard Hotel in Washington, D.C. The Indianapolis News reported that the former vice president “was sitting up in bed reading the Bible when the fatal attack took him.”"
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Which year was the first after 1927 that the USA lost the Ryder Cup on home soil?
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"The Ryder Cup is a biennial men's golf competition between teams from Europe and the United States. The competition is contested every two years with the venue alternating between courses in the United States and Europe. The Ryder Cup is named after the English businessman Samuel Ryder who donated the trophy. The event is jointly administered by the PGA of America and Ryder Cup Europe, the latter a joint venture of the PGA European Tour (60%), the PGA of Great Britain and Ireland (20%), and the PGA of Europe (20%). Silversmith Thomas Lyte became an official supplier of Ryder Cup trophies and awards in 2008, including two-third size replicas of the trophy, awarded to the players and management of the team. \n\nOriginally contested between Great Britain and the United States, the first official Ryder Cup took place in 1927 at Worcester Country Club, in Massachusetts, US. The home team won the first five contests, but with the competition's resumption after the Second World War, repeated American dominance eventually led to a decision to extend the representation of \"Great Britain and Ireland\" to include continental Europe from 1979. The inclusion of continental European golfers was partly prompted by the success of a new generation of Spanish golfers, led by Seve Ballesteros and Antonio Garrido. In 1973 the official title of the British Team had been changed from \"Great Britain\" to \"Great Britain and Ireland\", but this was simply a change of name to reflect the fact that golfers from the Republic of Ireland had been playing in the Great Britain Ryder Cup team since 1953, while Northern Irish players had competed since 1947.\n\nSince 1979, Europe has won ten times outright and retained the Cup once in a tied match, with seven American wins over this period. In addition to players from Great Britain and Ireland, the European team has included players from Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Sweden. The Ryder Cup, and its counterpart the Presidents Cup, remain exceptions within the world of professional sports because the players receive no prize money despite the contests being high-profile events that bring in large amounts of money in television and sponsorship revenue. \n\nThe current holders are Europe who won for the third successive time at the Gleneagles Hotel in Perth & Kinross, Scotland in 2014. The 2016 Ryder Cup will be at Hazeltine National Golf Club in Chaska, Minnesota from September 30 to October 2.\n\nFounding of the Cup\n\nGleneagles 1921\n\nOn September 27, 1920 Golf Illustrated wrote a letter to the Professional Golfers' Association of America with a suggestion that a team of 12 to 20 American professionals be chosen to play in the 1921 British Open, to be financed by popular subscription. At that time no American golfer had won the British Open. The idea was that of James D. Harnett, who worked for the magazine. The PGA of America made a positive reply and the idea was announced in the November 1920 issue. The fund was called the British Open Championship Fund. By the next spring the idea had been firmed-up. A team of 12 would be chosen, who would sail in time to play a warm-up tournament at Gleneagles (the Glasgow Herald 1000 Guinea Tournament) prior to the British Open at St. Andrews, two weeks later. The team of 12 was chosen by PGA President George Sargent and PGA Secretary Alec Pirie, with the assistance of USGA Vice-President Robert Gardner. A team of 11 sailed from New York on the RMS Aquitania on May 24, 1921 together with James Harnett, Harry Hampton deciding at the last minute that he could not travel. \n\nThe idea for a 12-a-side International Match between the American and Great Britain professionals was reported in The Times on May 17, with James Douglas Edgar being reported as the probable 12th player. Edgar was already in the United Kingdom. The match would be played at Gleneagles on Monday June 6, the day before the start of the 1000 Guinea Tournament. With Jim Barnes indisposed, the match eventually became a 10-a-side contest, Edgar not being required for the American team. The match consisted of 5 foursomes in the morning and 10 singles in the afternoon, played on the King's Course. The match was won by Great Britain by 9 matches to 3, 3 matches being halved. \n\nThe British team was: George Duncan (captain), James Braid, Arthur Havers, Abe Mitchell, James Ockenden, Ted Ray, James Sherlock, J.H. Taylor, Josh Taylor, and Harry Vardon. The American team was: Emmet French (captain), Clarence Hackney, Walter Hagen, Charles Hoffner, Jock Hutchison, Tom Kerrigan, George McLean, Fred McLeod, Bill Melhorn and Wilfrid Reid. Gold medals were presented by the Duchess of Atholl to each member of the teams at the conclusion of the Glasgow Herald tournament on Saturday afternoon. The medals \"had on one side crossed flags, The Union Jack and Stars and Stripes surmounted by the inscription \"For Britain\" or \"For America\" as the case may be\" and on the other side \"America v Britain. First international golf match at \"The Glasgow Herald\" tournament, Gleneagles, June 6, 1921\" \n\nAfter the Glasgow Herald Tournament most of the American team travelled to St Andrews to practice for the British Open, for which qualifying began on June 20. However, Walter Hagen and Jock Hutchison played in a tournament at Kinghorn on June 14 and 15. Hagen had a poor first round and didn't turn up for the second day. Hutchison scored 74 and 64 and took the £50 first prize. At St Andrews, Hutchison led the qualifying and then won the Open itself. So, despite losing the International Match, the American team achieved its main objective, winning the British Open.\n\nA match between American and British amateur golfers was played at Hoylake in 1921, immediately before The Amateur Championship. This match was followed by the creation of the Walker Cup, which was first played in 1922. However the 1921 Gleneagles match did not immediately lead to a corresponding match between the professionals.\n\nWentworth 1926\n\nIt was common at this time for a small number of professionals to travel to compete in each other's national championship. In 1926, a larger than usual contingent of American professionals were travelling to Britain to compete in the Open Championship, two weeks before their own Championship. In February it was announced that Walter Hagen would select a team of four American professionals (including himself) to play four British professionals in a match before the Open Championship. The match would be a stroke play competition with each playing the four opposing golfers over 18 holes. In mid-April it was announced that \"A golf enthusiast, who name has not yet been made public\" was ready to donate a cup for an annual competition. Later in April it was announced that Samuel Ryder would be presenting a trophy \"for annual competition between British and American professionals.\" with the first match to be played on June 4 and 5 \"but the details are not yet decided\", and then in May it was announced that the match would be a match-play competition, 8-a-side, foursomes on the first day, singles on the second. Eventually, at Hagen's request, 10 players competed for each team. Samuel Ryder (together with his brother James) had sponsored a number of British professional events starting in 1923.\n\nThe match resulted in 13–1 victory for the British team (1 match was halved). The American point was won by Bill Mehlhorn with Emmet French being all square. Medals were presented to the players by the American ambassador Alanson B. Houghton.\n\nThe match was widely reported as being for the \"Ryder Cup\". However Golf Illustrated for June 11 states that because of uncertainty following the general strike in May, which led to uncertainty about how many Americans would be visiting Britain, Samuel Ryder had decided to withhold the cup for a year. It has also been suggested that the fact that the Ryder Cup itself may not have been in existence at the time, that Walter Hagen chose the American team rather than the American PGA, that only those Americans who had travelled to Britain to play in the Open were available for selection and that it contained a number of players born outside the United States, also contributed to the feeling that the match ought to be regarded as unofficial. In addition the Americans \"had only just landed in England and were not yet in full practice.\" \n\nThe British team was: Ted Ray (Captain), Aubrey Boomer, Archie Compston, George Duncan, George Gadd, Arthur Havers, Herbert Jolly, Abe Mitchell, Fred Robson and Ernest Whitcombe. The American team was: Walter Hagen (Captain), Tommy Armour, Jim Barnes, Emmet French, Joe Kirkwood, Fred McLeod, Bill Mehlhorn, Joe Stein, Cyril Walker and Al Watrous. While all ten of the British players subsequently played in the Ryder Cup only three of the Americans did (Hagen, Mehlhorn and Watrous). Armour, Barnes, Kirkwood, McLeod and Walker were excluded by the policy of requiring players to be born in the USA while French and Stein were never selected.\n\nWorcester 1927\n\nThe 1927 competition was organized on a much more formal basis. A Ryder Cup \"Deed of Trust\" was drawn up formalising the rules of the contest, while each of the PGA organisations had a selection process. In Britain Golf Illustrated launched a fund to raise £3,000 to fund professional golfers to play in the U.S. Open and the Ryder Cup. Ryder contributed £100 and, when the fund closed with a shortfall of £300, he made up the outstanding balance himself. Although not in the rules at that time, the American PGA restricted their team to those born in the United States. \n\nIn early 1928 it became clear that an annual contest was not practical and so it was decided that the second contest should be in 1929 and then every two years thereafter.\n\nFor the 1929 UK contest at Moortown GC, Leeds, the American PGA again restricted their team to those born in the USA but in late 1929 the Deed of Trust was revised requiring all players to be born in and resident in their respective countries, as well as being members of their respective Professional Golfers' Association.\n\nInclusion of continental European golfers\n\nThe most significant change to the Ryder Cup has been the inclusion of continental European golfers since 1979. Up until 1977, the matches featured teams representing the United States and Great Britain and Ireland. From 1979 players from continental Europe have been eligible to join what is now known as Team Europe. The change to include continental Europeans arose from discussion in 1977 between Jack Nicklaus and the Earl of Derby, who was serving as the President of the Professional Golfers' Association; it was suggested by Nicklaus as a means to make the matches more competitive, since the Americans almost always won, often by lopsided margins. The change worked, as the contests immediately became much more competitive, with talented young Europeans such as Seve Ballesteros and Bernhard Langer bolstering the European side. The present-day popularity of the Ryder Cup, which now generates enormous media attention, can be said to date from that change in eligibility.\n\nFormat\n\nThe Ryder Cup involves various match play competitions between players selected from two teams of twelve. It takes place from a Friday to a Sunday with a total of 28 matches being played, all matches being over 18 holes. On Friday and Saturday there are four fourball matches and four foursomes matches each day; a session of four matches in the morning and a session of four matches in the afternoon. On Sunday, there are 12 singles matches, when all team members play. Not all players must play on Friday and Saturday; the captain can select any eight players for each of the sessions over these two days.\n\nThe winner of each match scores a point for his team, with half a point each for any match that is tied after the 18 holes. The winning team is determined by cumulative total points. In the event of a tie (14 points each) the Ryder Cup is retained by the team who held it before the contest.\n\nA foursomes match is a competition between two teams of two golfers. On a particular hole the golfers on the same team take alternate shots playing the same ball. One team member tees off on all the odd-numbered holes, and the other on all the even-numbered holes. Each hole is won by the team that completes the hole in the fewest shots. A fourball match is also a competition between two teams of two golfers, but all four golfers play their own ball throughout the round rather than alternating shots. The better score of the two golfers in a team determines the team's score on a particular hole; the score of the other member of the team is not counted. Each hole is won by the team whose individual golfer has the lowest score. A singles match is a standard match play competition between two golfers.\n\nThe format of the Ryder Cup has changed over the years. From the inaugural event until 1959, the Ryder Cup was a two-day competition with 36-hole matches. In 1961 the matches were changed to 18 holes each and the number of matches doubled. In 1963 the event was expanded to three days, with fourball matches being played for the first time. This format remained until 1977, when the number of matches was reduced to 20 but in 1979, the first year continental European players participated, the format was changed to the 28-match version in use today, with 8 foursomes/four-ball matches on the first two days and 12 singles matches on the last day. \n\nThere were two singles sessions (morning and afternoon) in 1979 but no player played in both sessions.\n\nSince 1979 there have been 4 foursomes and 4 fourballs on each of the first two days. Currently the home captain decides before the contest starts whether the fourball or foursomes matches are played in the morning. He may choose a different order for the two days.\n\nSince 1979 a player can play a maximum of 5 matches (2 foursomes, 2 fourballs and a singles match), however from 1963 to 1975 it was possible to play 6 matches (2 foursomes, 2 fourballs and 2 singles matches).\n\nThe team size was increased from 10 to 12 in 1969.\n\nA minor variation of the format was used in 2010 due to weather disruption. Following the opening session of four fourballs, heavy rain prevented the afternoon foursomes from being played. The captains agreed that the matches that should have constituted the next three sessions would now be played over two: firstly six foursomes matches, then two foursomes and four fourballs. Thus the overall number and type of matches was retained, although the captains lost a degree of flexibility in their selection, as all players would play in both sessions. In the event, further heavy rain meant the pairs matches were not completed until the end of the third day, so the competition was extended, with all twelve singles being played on an extra day.\n\nTeam qualification and selection\n\nThe selection process for the Ryder Cup players has varied over the years. In the early contests the teams were generally decided by a selection committee but later qualification based on performances was introduced. The current system by which most of the team is determined by performances with a small number of players selected by the captain (known as \"wild cards\" or \"captain's picks\") gradually evolved and has been used by both sides since 1989. \n\nFor the 2014 Ryder Cup both teams had 9 players qualifying based on performances with the remaining 3 players selected by the captain. For those players gaining automatic qualification the Europeans used a system, introduced in 2004, using two tables; one using prize money won in official European Tour events and a second based on World Ranking points gained anywhere in the world. Both tables used a 12-month qualifying period finishing at the end of August. The American system, introduced in 2008, was based on prize money earned in official PGA Tour events during the current season and prize money earned in the major championships in the previous season. The qualifying period ended after the PGA Championship.\n\nCaptains\n\nOne of the roles of the captain has always been to select who plays in each group of matches and to decide the playing order. While the contest involved 36 holes matches it was usual for the captain to be one of the players. The USA only had two non-playing captains in this period: Walter Hagen in 1937 and Ben Hogan in 1949 while Great Britain had non-playing captains in 1933, 1949, 1951 and 1953. With the change to 18 hole matches and the extension to three days it became more difficult to combine the roles of captain and player and Arnold Palmer in 1963 was the last playing captain. The captains have always been professional golfers and the only captain who has never played in the Ryder Cup is J.H. Taylor, the 1933 British captain.\n\nNotable Ryder Cups\n\n1969: Nicklaus vs Jacklin\n\nThe 1969 Cup held at Royal Birkdale was perhaps one of the best and most competitive contests in terms of play (18 of the 32 matches went to the last green). It was decided in its very last match, of which United States Captain Sam Snead later said \"This is the greatest golf match you have ever seen in England\". \n\nWith the United States and Great Britain tied at each, Jack Nicklaus led Tony Jacklin by the score of 1 up as they played the 17th hole. Jacklin made a 35-foot eagle putt and when Nicklaus missed his own eagle try from 12 feet, the match was all square.\n\nAt the par-5 finishing hole, both Jacklin and Nicklaus got on the green in two. Nicklaus ran his eagle putt five feet past the hole, while Jacklin left his two-foot short. Nicklaus then sank his birdie putt, and with a crowd of 8,000 people watching, picked up Jacklin's marker, conceding the putt Jacklin needed to tie the matches. With the United States team already holding the cup, the tie allowed it to retain the cup. \"I don't think you would have missed that putt,\" Nicklaus said to Jacklin afterwards, \"but in these circumstances I would never give you the opportunity.\"\n\nThis gesture of sportsmanship by Nicklaus caused controversy on the American side, some of whom would have preferred to force Jacklin to attempt the putt for the small chance that he might miss, which would have given the United States team an outright win. \"All the boys thought it was ridiculous to give him that putt,\" said Sam Snead. \"We went over there to win, not to be good ol' boys.\"\n\n1989: Azinger and Ballesteros\n\nHeld at The Belfry in Europe, the 1989 Ryder Cup saw the rising of tensions in the series. After holding the cup for more than two decades, the United States team lost both the 1985 and 1987 matches. At the 1989 matches, the pressure was on the United States team and its captain, Raymond Floyd. At a pre-match opening celebration, Floyd slighted the European team by introducing his United States team as \"the 12 greatest players in the world.\"\n\nThe competition saw the beginnings of a feud between Seve Ballesteros and Paul Azinger. Early in their singles match, Ballesteros sought to change a scuffed ball for a new ball under Rule of Golf 5–3. Somewhat unusually, Azinger disputed whether the ball was unfit for play. A referee was called, and sided with Azinger in ruling the ball fit for play. Ballesteros reportedly said to Azinger, \"Is this the way you want to play today?\" The match continued in a contentious fashion, culminating in Ballesteros unusually contesting whether Azinger took a proper drop after hitting into the water on the 18th hole.\n\nThe American team's frustration grew as the matches ended in a tie, with the European team retaining the cup.\n\n1991: \"The War on the Shore\"\n\nThe overall tension between the teams and the feud between Ballesteros and Azinger escalated at the Kiawah Island Golf Resort in 1991. At the ceremonial opening dinner, the PGA of America played two videos that were seen as less than hospitable by the European team. The first video was presented as a highlight reel of past Ryder Cups, but reportedly showed only Americans. The second video was a welcoming address by then-United States President George H. W. Bush in which he closed by cheering on the American side.\n\nOn the first morning of the competition, Azinger and Chip Beck were paired against Ballesteros and José María Olazábal in a foursome match, an alternate shot event. Azinger and Beck accused Ballesteros of gamesmanship on account of his throat clearing during Beck's shots. Later in the same match, Azinger and Beck, who were playing the same brand and make of ball but each with a slightly different model, switched their balls. While this switching was unlikely to have resulted in an advantage or to have been intentional, it was in violation of the \"one ball rule\" which was in effect for the competition. Under that rule, a player is prohibited from changing the type of ball he uses during the course of a match. A few holes after the switch had occurred, Ballesteros called the Americans for the violation. Azinger, seeming to feel that his integrity was being questioned, said \"I can tell you we're not trying to cheat.\" Ballesteros responded, \"Oh no. Breaking the rules and cheating are two different things.\" As the violation was called too long after it had occurred, no penalty was assessed against the American pair. The constant goading between Ballesteros and Azinger intensified their respective desires to win. Out of that intensity, they and their playing partners produced what may be regarded as one of the best pairs matches in history, with the Spaniards winning 2 & 1. After the matches concluded, Ballesteros reportedly said, \"The American team has 11 nice guys. And Paul Azinger.\"\n\nThe 1991 matches received the sobriquet \"the War on the Shore\" after some excitable advertising in the American media, and intense home-team cheering by the American home crowds. For his part, Corey Pavin caused controversy by sporting a Desert Storm baseball cap during the event in support of the U.S. and coalition war effort in Iraq.\n\nThe matches culminated in one of the single most dramatic putts in the history of golf. With only one match remaining to be completed, between Hale Irwin for the United States and Bernhard Langer for the Europeans, the United States team led by one point. Irwin and Langer came to the last hole tied. To win the cup, the American team needed Irwin to win or tie the match by winning or tying the hole. The Europeans could keep the cup with a win by Langer. Both players struggled on the hole, and found themselves facing a pair of putts; Langer had a six-foot, side-hill par putt, and Irwin had a generally uphill, 18-inch putt for bogey. To the surprise of his teammates, Langer conceded Irwin's bogey putt, leaving himself in a must-make position. Langer missed his putt, the match was halved, and the U.S. team took back the cup.\n\nPlayers on both sides were driven to public tears by the pressure of the matches on the final day. The intense competition of the 1991 Ryder Cup is widely regarded as having elevated public interest in the series.\n\n1999: Battle of Brookline\n\nThe 1999 Ryder Cup held at The Country Club in Brookline, Massachusetts, caused great controversy. A remarkable comeback by the American team helped propel the U.S. to a – victory after trailing 10–6 heading into the final day. The U.S. went 8–3–1 in the singles matches to seal the first American victory since 1993.\n\nThe competition turned on the 17th hole of a match between American Justin Leonard and Spaniard José María Olazábal. With the match all square at the 17th hole, Leonard needed to earn at least a half-point by either winning one of the last two holes (therefore earning a full point), or finishing the match at all square (therefore earning a half-point) to seal an American victory. After Olazábal's second shot left him with a 22-foot putt on the par-4, Leonard hit his shot within 10 feet of the hole and then watched it roll away from the cup, leaving him with a 45-foot putt for birdie. Leonard had made putts of 25 and 35 feet earlier in the round. Leonard holed the astounding putt, and a wild celebration ensued with other U.S. players, their wives, and a few fans running onto the green. Had Leonard's putt sealed the match, this type of behavior would have been inappropriate but moot. Knowing that a made putt would extend the match while a miss would assure Leonard of a half-point and the U.S. a victory (the Americans needed points to gain the cup due to the Europeans' 1997 victory at Valderrama), Olazábal tried to regain his focus. However, he missed the difficult putt, and the American team celebrated once again (although the second celebration was more reserved than the first one).\n\nAccording to the \"Best of the Rest\" section of ESPN's Top 5 Reasons You Can't Blame program, NBC television footage and press photos prove that no official rules (Ryder Cup or PGA) were broken when the Americans celebrated after Leonard's putt (i.e., no one walked in or crossed Olazábal's putting line – although Europe player Sam Torrance has said in TV interviews that a TV cameraman stood on Olazábal's line while filming the invasion of the green by players and spectators). However, there remain a number of unwritten rules and codes of conduct which the European players believe were being ignored. Many of the American players believed the Europeans' response was hypocritical; they argued that European players – in particular Seve Ballesteros – had been guilty of excessive celebration and gamesmanship as far back as the 1985 Ryder Cup Matches, without attracting the same opprobrium from the European media.\nThere was still considerable bad blood after the match, with some of the European players complaining about the behavior of the American galleries throughout the match. Sam Torrance branded it \"disgusting,\" while European captain Mark James referred to it as a \"bear pit\" in a book recounting the event. There were also reports that a spectator spat at James' wife. \n\nFollowing the 1999 Ryder Cup, many members of the U.S. team apologized for their behavior, and there were numerous attempts by both teams to calm the increasing nationalism of the event. These efforts appear to have been largely successful, with subsequent Cups being played in the \"spirit of the game\".\n\n2012: The Meltdown/Miracle at Medinah\n\nThe 39th Ryder Cup, held at the Medinah Country Club in Medinah, Illinois, saw an extraordinary comeback by Europe, under captain José María Olazábal of Spain. The Europeans were down 10–4 after 14 matches, with two four-ball matches still on the course and 12 singles matches to be played the next day. Despite being down 10–6 going into the final day Europe came back to win by points to . Out of the 12 points up for grabs on the final day Europe won points with the U.S. winning only points.\n\nMartin Kaymer struck the putt (a putt almost identical in length that fellow German Bernhard Langer missed at the 1991 Ryder Cup) that retained the cup for Europe. Francesco Molinari secured the final half-point to win the Ryder Cup outright by winning the 18th hole to halve his match against Tiger Woods. Ian Poulter of the European team finished this Ryder Cup with a perfect 4–0 record. He also played an instrumental role in team morale, with emotions pouring out during each of his matches.\n\nResults\n\nCancellations and postponements\n\n;1939 Ryder Cup\nThe 1939 Ryder Cup was planned for November 18–19 at Ponte Vedra Country Club in Jacksonville, Florida; Walter Hagen was chosen as non-playing captain of the U.S. team. The competition was cancelled shortly after the outbreak of World War II in Europe in September.\n\nIn early April 1939, the British P.G.A. chose a selection committee of six and selected Henry Cotton as captain. In August, eight players were named in the team: Cotton, Jimmy Adams, Dick Burton, Sam King, Alf Padgham, Dai Rees, Charles Whitcombe and Reg Whitcombe. Charles Whitcombe immediately withdrew from the team, not wishing to travel to the United States. With seven selected, three places were left to be filled. War was declared on 3 September and the British P.G.A. immediately cancelled the match: \"The P.G.A. announce that the Ryder Cup match for this year has been cancelled by the state of war prevailing in this country. The P.G.A. of the United States is being informed.\" \n\n;1941, 1943 and 1945 Ryder Cups\nThe Ryder Cup was not played in these scheduled years due to the war. After a decade-long absence, it resumed in November 1947 at the Portland Golf Club in Portland, Oregon.\n\n;2001 Ryder Cup\n\nThe competition, scheduled for 28–30 September at The Belfry's Brabazon Course, was postponed a year because of the September 11 terrorist attacks. \"The PGA of America has informed the European Ryder Cup Board that the scope of the last Tuesday's tragedy is so overwhelming that it would not be possible for the United States Ryder Cup team and officials to attend the match this month.\" The manager of Phil Mickelson and Mark Calcavecchia had earlier announced that the two players would not travel to Europe. Other American players were said to be concerned about attending the event. It was played in 2002 at the original venue with the same teams that had been selected to play a year earlier. The display boards at The Belfry still read \"The 2001 Ryder Cup\", and U.S. captain Curtis Strange deliberately referred to his team as \"The 2001 Ryder Cup Team\" in his speech at the closing ceremony.\n\nIt was later decided to hold the subsequent Ryder Cup in 2004 (rather than 2003) and thereafter in even-numbered years. This change also affected the men's Presidents Cup and Seve Trophy and women's Solheim Cup competitions, as each switched from even to odd years.\n\nSummary\n\nAlthough the team was referred to as \"Great Britain\" up to 1971, a number of golfers from the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, Guernsey and Jersey had played for Great Britain before that date. In 1973 the official team name was changed to \"Great Britain and Ireland\", but this was simply a change of name to reflect the fact that golfers from the Republic of Ireland had played in the \"Great Britain\" Ryder Cup team since Harry Bradshaw in 1953, while Northern Irish players had competed since Fred Daly in 1947.\n\nThe team in place of the original \"Great Britain\" team has been referred to as \"Europe\" since 1979, when players from continental Europe were included. Since then, the \"United States\" team has won 7 matches and the \"Europe\" team has won 10 matches, while retaining the Ryder Cup once with a tie.\n\nFuture venues\n\n*2016 Hazeltine National Golf Club (Chaska, Minnesota)\n*2018 Le Golf National, Albatros Course (Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, France)\n*2020 Whistling Straits, Straits Course (Haven, Wisconsin)\n*2022 Marco Simone Golf and Country Club (Guidonia Montecelio, Rome, Italy)\n*2024 Bethpage State Park, Black Course (Farmingdale, New York)\n\nFuture European venues\n\nIn 2001 the PGA European Tour decided to put out the Ryder Cup hosting rights from 2018 through 2030 to a competitive bid process throughout Europe. \n\nBidding for the 2022 Ryder Cup\n\nThe bidding process for the 2022 Ryder Cup opened on 23 June 2014. Interested countries had until 31 August to formally express an interest in bidding. These expressions had to come either from a central government or a national golf governing body. On 5 September, seven nations had expressed an interest in hosting. Formal bids were to be submitted by 16 February 2015, with the host to be selected that autumn. In November 2014 it was announced that Denmark had withdrawn from the bidding process leaving six remaining countries. The date for submissions of the formal bids was extended to 30 April 2015. \n\t\n7 nations originally expressed interest in bidding. However Ryder Cup Europe only received 4 bids when bidding closed on 30 April 2015. \n\nOn 14 December 2015, Rome announced as the host of 2022 Ryder Cup. Italy beat Germany, Austria and Spain to win the bid for 44th edition of Ryder Cup. \n\t\n\nTelevision\n\nThe Ryder Cup Matches were always covered by the BBC, whether in Britain or in the United States, even prior to the British team's merger with Europe. In the 1990s, Sky Sports became heavily involved in the Ryder Cup, and has since taken over live coverage, including creating a channel specifically dedicated for the 2014 competition. The BBC still screens edited highlights each night.\n\nIn the United States, the Ryder Cup was not televised live until the 1983 matches in Florida, which was covered by ABC Sports for the singles matches only. Additionally, only the final four holes were covered. A highlight package of the 1985 singles matches was produced by ESPN, but no live coverage aired from England. In 1987, with the matches back in the United States, ABC covered both weekend days, but only in the late afternoon.\n\nIn 1989, USA Network began a long association with the Ryder Cup, by televising all three days live from England, the first live coverage of a Ryder Cup from Europe. This led to a one-year deal for the 1991 matches in South Carolina to be carried by NBC live on the weekend, with USA Network continuing to provide live coverage of the first day. All five sessions were covered for the first time. The success of the 1991 matches led to a contract extension with USA and NBC through 1997, marking a turning point in the competition's popularity. When the matches were played in Europe, the broadcasts of the first two days would be produced live but aired on delay in the U.S. Another extension with USA and NBC covering the 1999–2003 (later moved to 2004) competitions increased the number of hours of coverage to include all of the first day and most of the second day. Tape delay was still employed for competitions from Europe.\n\nHowever, the Ryder Cup's increased success led to a landmark extension with NBC (who had recently bought USA Network) to air the 2006–2014 competitions on USA and NBC which called for a record increase in coverage hours, with the second day now having near-complete coverage. Tape delay continued only for the first event in this contract, the 2006 event in Ireland. However, in late 2006, NBC traded its coverage of the Friday action on USA Network to ESPN for the rights to sign NFL broadcaster Al Michaels and a cartoon character called Oswald the Lucky Rabbit. ESPN subsequently covered the 2008, 2010, and 2012 matches, although a large portion of its Friday coverage in 2010 was washed out due to rain, with the make up coverage airing on USA Network because NBC had only traded USA's Friday coverage, while the make-up coverage aired on Monday. Prior to the 2014 event, the final one in the contract. ESPN traded the Friday cable rights back to NBC for increased usage of English Premier League highlights. NBC, having merged with Golf Channel three years earlier, got permission to air its Friday coverage on that network. Thus, the Friday coverage from 2006–2014, contracted to USA Network, actually aired on three different channels throughout the life of the contract.\n\nNBC subsequently signed a new contract covering the 2016–2030 matches, with Friday being covered (contractually this time) on Golf Channel, and the weekend on NBC.\n\nRecords\n\n*Most appearances on a team: 11° Nick Faldo (Eur/GB&I), 1977–97\n*Most points: 25° Nick Faldo (Eur/GB&I) (23–19–4 record)\n*Most singles points won: 7° Colin Montgomerie (Eur) (6–0–2 record)° Billy Casper (USA) (6–2–2 record)° Lee Trevino (USA) (6–2–2 record)° Arnold Palmer (USA) (6–3–2 record)° Neil Coles (GB&I) (5–6–4 record)\n*Most foursome points won: ° Bernhard Langer (Eur) (11–6–1 record)\n*Most fourball points won: ° Ian Woosnam (Eur) (10–3–1 record)° José María Olazábal (Eur) (9–2–3 record)\n*Most points won by a pairing: 12° Seve Ballesteros and José María Olazábal (Eur) (11–2–2 record)\n*Top point percentage (minimum of 3 Ryder Cup matches)° Jimmy Demaret (USA) (6–0–0) ° Jack Burke (USA) (7–1–0) ° Horton Smith (USA) (3–0–1) ° Walter Hagen (USA) (7–1–1) ° J.C. Snead (USA) (9–2–0) ° Sam Snead (USA) (10–2–1) \n*Most points in a single contest: 5° Tony Lema (USA) (5–1–0) 1965° Peter Alliss (GB&I) (5–1–0) 1965° Gardner Dickinson (USA) (5–0–0) 1967° Arnold Palmer (USA) (5–0–0) 1967° Tony Jacklin (GB&I) (4–0–2) 1969° Jack Nicklaus (USA) (5–1–0) 1971° Larry Nelson (USA) (5–0–0) 1979\n*Youngest player: ° Sergio García (Eur) 1999\n*Oldest player: ° Raymond Floyd (USA) 1993\n\nSources \n\nSimilar golf events\n\nThe following team events involve the top male professional golfers:\n*Presidents Cup — an event similar to the Ryder Cup, except that the competing sides are a U.S. side and an International side from the rest of the world consisting of players who are ineligible for the Ryder Cup. Held in years when there is no Ryder Cup.\n*Seve Trophy — founded by Seve Ballesteros, between a team from Great Britain and Ireland against one from continental Europe. Held in years when there is no Ryder Cup.\n\nOther team golf events between U.S. and either Europe or Great Britain and Ireland include:\n*Solheim Cup — The women's equivalent of the Ryder Cup, featuring the same U.S. against Europe format.\n*Walker Cup — Event for amateur men between a U.S. side and a team drawn from Great Britain and Ireland.\n*Curtis Cup — Women's amateur event analogous to the Walker Cup. Like the Walker Cup, the competition format is the U.S. versus Great Britain and Ireland.\n*PGA Cup — A match between U.S. and Great Britain and Ireland club professionals.\n*Palmer Cup — A match, named after Arnold Palmer, between U.S. and European college/university golfers.\n*Junior Ryder Cup — A match between U.S. and European juniors involving both boys and girls.\n*Junior Solheim Cup — A match between U.S. and European junior girls, held in conjunction with, and in the vicinity of, the Solheim Cup."
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"Ryder Cup: The greatest moment as voted for by you - BBC Sport\nBBC Sport\nRyder Cup: The greatest moment as voted for by you\n18 Sep 2014\nThe biennial tussle between Europe and the USA has a back catalogue of classic moments and BBC Sport selected 10 of the greatest.\nAhead of next week's contest at Gleneagles, we asked you to choose the best from our shortlist.\nFind out how you voted below and click here to listen to the BBC Radio 5 live debate.\n1st (47%) - Poulter's five straight birdies provide spark for Europe's \"Miracle at Medinah\" - 2012\nThe scene: Holders Europe, containing four of the top five players in the world, were heading for the kind of defeat they had not experienced for more than 30 years.\nMedia playback is not supported on this device\n2012: Poulter sparks Miracle at Medinah\nAt 10-4 down on Saturday afternoon, they were at least boosted by a one-hole win for Sergio Garcia and Luke Donald over Tiger Woods and Steve Stricker. However, Ian Poulter and Rory McIlroy were two down on Jason Dufner and Dustin Johnson with six to play.\nThe moment: Not so much one moment but five of them as Poulter, a European talisman with 10 victories in his previous 13 matches, hit the hottest of putting streaks.\nIn birdieing each of the final five holes, Poulter charged to a one-hole win, sealing victory with a nerveless 10-footer in the gloom of the 18th.\nHis wide-eyed, fist-pumping roar was a sign of visiting defiance. \"We have a pulse,\" he later told his team-mates. What followed was the greatest European comeback in the history of the Cup.\nEight-and-a-half points taken from the singles might have been the Miracle of Medinah, but Europe would have been too far back had it not been for Poulter's heroics.\nPoulter: \"You know what, these might be my majors. If they are, that's fine. If this is it, I'm a happy man. I've got more pride and passion to give in the Ryder Cup than I feel to win a major.\"\n2nd (22%) - Clarke's emotional reception on the first tee following the death of his wife - 2006\nThe scene: Europe not only defended the Cup in 2004, but handed out an 18½-9½ thrashing at Oakland Hills. That, though, seemed irrelevant in the build-up to 2006 at the K Club in Ireland.\nMedia playback is not supported on this device\n2006: Clarke gets emotional reception at the K Club\nDarren Clarke's wife Heather died of cancer shortly after that year's Open, with Clarke subsequently halting all his playing commitments.\nClarke would need a wildcard selection from captain Ian Woosnam and, when it was offered, Clarke accepted in accordance with the dying wish of his wife.\nThe moment: Clarke was partnered with Lee Westwood in the final fourball match on a crisp, clear first morning in Dublin. As the pair left the putting green, Westwood went on ahead to \"work the crowd\" and when the Northern Irishman strode into the arena around the first tee he was hit with what he later described as a \"tsunami of noise\".\nWith lumps in every throat, and Westwood and Clarke's caddie Billy Foster in tears, Clarke belted a 300-yard drive down the middle and birdied the first.\nThe Europeans beat Phil Mickelson and Chris DiMarco one up, and Clarke went on to win the other two matches he played, as Europe recorded another 18½-9½ win.\nClarke: \"When Woosie dedicated the Ryder Cup to Heather, I doubt there was a dry eye in the house. Heather had wanted me to play and I'd done my bit. I knew she would have been proud.\"\n3rd (11%) - The Concession. Nicklaus offers Jacklin a half to tie the match - 1969\nThe scene: Great Britain had won only three times in 42 years and were thrashed in 1967.\nMedia playback is not supported on this device\n1969: Jack Nicklaus concedes to Tony Jacklin\nBut in perhaps the closest Ryder Cup in history, 17 of the 32 matches at Royal Birkdale went to the final hole. With only one pair left on the course, the contest was level at 15½-15½.\nThe moment: The Cup came down to the final match between America's then seven-time major winner Jack Nicklaus and 25-year-old Englishman Tony Jacklin, that year's Open Champion.\nAfter Jacklin eagled the 17th, the match was all-square going down the last, with both men on the green in two. When Nicklaus holed a five-footer, Jacklin had two feet for a half and a share of the Cup - Great Britain's best result for 12 years.\nBut rather than asking Jacklin to putt, Nicklaus sportingly picked up his marker, halving the match and tieing the Ryder Cup for the first time.\nNicklaus: \"I felt like the US was going to retain the Cup either way. I didn't think it was in the spirit of the game to make Jacklin have a chance to miss a two-footer to lose the match in front of his fans.\"\nThe Ryder roots\nA seed-seller named Samuel Ryder was in the crowd for the second of two unofficial matches between Great Britain and the United States in 1926 and donated money - and a gold cup - as GB travelled to Massachusetts for the first official match in 1927.\n4th (9%) - Champagne time. Torrance seals first win for Europe and USA's first defeat since 1957 - 1985\nThe scene: Following that historic Great Britain win at Lindrick, Yorkshire, in 1957, the US arrived at the Belfry unbeaten in 28 years. The Great Britain and Ireland team had been expanded to Europe in 1979, but despite two more heavy defeats, the tide was turning. In 1983, Tony Jacklin's side had come within a point of victory.\nMedia playback is not supported on this device\nClassic Ryder Cup: Sam Torrance seals first win in 28 years in 1985\nThe moment: With Jacklin back in charge, Europe held a 9-7 lead going into the Sunday singles in 1985. The tactic of loading the middle of his order worked and, by the seventh match, Sam Torrance could win the Cup with victory over Andy North.\nFinding the 18th green in two, Torrance needed only one of the three putts he was afforded from 18 feet and the Cup was finally in European hands. Jacklin drank Champagne on the green and was lifted on to Torrance's shoulders on the clubhouse roof to the delight of the singing crowd.\nTorrance: \"We partied through the night and, in fact, for the next four days. I was meant to go home to London the day after the match but instead we drank six bottles of champagne and ended up partying for three more nights.\"\n5th (3%) - Olazabal's jig of delight as Europe win in the USA for the first time - 1987\nThe scene: Europe winning for the first time in 28 years was one thing, but the US had never been beaten on home soil. Their quest to regain the Cup was led by Jack Nicklaus, in his home state of Ohio, on the Muirfield Village course he designed.\nThe moment: A stunning opening two days - including winning all of Friday afternoon's fourballs - gave Europe a 10½-5½ lead ahead of the singles.\nMedia playback is not supported on this device\n1987: Europe claim first win in US\nThe US fought back - five wins from the opening seven matches - but victory for Eamonn Darcy over Ben Crenshaw and Bernhard Langer's half with Larry Nelson left the stage clear for Seve Ballesteros.\nThe Spaniard's 2&1 win over Curtis Strange saw the first victory in America completed with a tearful Jacklin proclaiming it to be \"the best week of his life\".\nIn Nick Faldo's words, \"that was when the Ryder Cup got serious\", but the abiding memory is of Jose Maria Olazabal, after his debut in the event, dancing across the 18th green.\nOlazabal: \"Whenever I see it I feel more embarrassed, ashamed even, than the time before. But I was young, it was my debut and I was so happy that my emotions took over.\"\nOn the trophy\nThe figure on top of the Ryder Cup trophy is Abe Mitchell, who Samuel Ryder employed as his personal golf teacher. Mitchell was supposed to lead Great Britain in 1927, but was struck down by appendicitis. He did play in 1929, 1931 and 1933.\n6th (2%) - McDowell birdies the 16th to set up Europe's win at Celtic Manor - 2010\nThe scene: Celtic Manor was battered with rain as Europe attempted to regain the Cup surrendered at Valhalla two years earlier.\nMedia playback is not supported on this device\nMcDowell seals win for Europe in 2010\nThe weekend weather ensured that, for the first time, the Ryder Cup would be completed on a Monday. Europe began the day with a 9½-6½ lead.\nThe moment: As the Americans staged a day-long fightback, it became clear that the fate of the Cup would rest on the final singles match between Hunter Mahan and Northern Ireland's Graeme McDowell.\nAmidst a huge crowd, and in front of millions on TV, McDowell holed a 15ft birdie putt on the 16th to go two up with two to play.\nWhen Mahan duffed a chip from the edge of the 17th green and missed the following putt, the Cup was Europe's again.\nMcDowell: \"Sixteen was massive, wow. It was the best putt I've hit in my life. The US Open [McDowell won earlier that year] felt like a back nine with my dad back at Portrush compared to that.\"\n7th (2%) - Faldo fights back against Strange as Europe clinch victory at Oak Hill - 1995\nNick Faldo (right) came from one down with two to play to win a crucial point\nThe scene: After losing at home in 1993, Europe were chasing a second away win in what would be the last of Bernard Gallacher's three Cups as captain and Seve Ballesteros's eighth and final match as a player.\nMedia playback is not supported on this device\n1995: Faldo fires Europe to victory at Oak Hill\nTrailing 9-7 at the beginning of the singles, an ageing Europe team would have to overcome a final-day deficit for the first time if they were to win the Cup, all on an Oak Hill course tailored for the hosts.\nThe moment: The Cup was hanging in the balance, and Nick Faldo's match with Curtis Strange looked pivotal. But the Englishman was one down with two to play.\nAs Strange bogeyed the last three holes, Faldo needed to get down in two from 94 yards to win on the last. He hit a wedge to within five feet, holed the put and took the point. When Philip Walton beat Jay Haas on the 18th, the Ryder Cup was Europe's once more.\nFaldo: \"It was the best scrambling par I ever made. Everything was churning inside me as I came down the stretch and when I stood over that wedge shot I had to fight to keep my legs still. I knew how important it was and I was questioning myself: 'Can I still do it?'.\"\nCup of plenty\nTen of the last 15 Ryder Cups have been decided by a margin of two points or less. Of those, one match (1989) was tied, while seven were won by a single point.\n8th (2%) - McGinley the unlikely hero as Europe win back the Cup at the Belfry - 2002\nThe scene: Europe had to wait three years for the chance to regain the Ryder Cup because of the 9/11 terrorist attacks of 2001.\nWhen the US did arrive at the Belfry, they were faced with a European team led by Sam Torrance, the vice-captain left so angry three years earlier.\nThe moment: With the match locked at 8-8, Torrance front-loaded his singles order and saw his team claim four and a half of the first six points.\nMedia playback is not supported on this device\n2002: McGinley the hero as Europe regain the Cup\nWith unsung Welshman Phillip Price pulling off a 3&2 win over Phil Mickelson, Irish rookie Paul McGinley had a 10-foot putt on the 18th for the half with Jim Furyk that would seal the Ryder Cup.\nWhen the ball dropped, McGinley bounced up and down before being mobbed by his team and a tearful Torrance. To celebrate, McGinley jumped in the green-side lake and his soaking-wet pose with the Irish tricolour provided the Ryder Cup with one of its most enduring images.\nMcGinley: \"As it went in the hole, I put my arms in the air and wondered 'why isn't anyone jumping on top of me?' I thought 'maybe it's lipped out?' I saw Sergio Garcia jumping up and down, then they came on. But, in real time, it was only one second. For me, time stood still.\"\n9th (1%) - Leonard's monster putt sparks premature 'green invasion' at the \"Battle of Brookline\" - 1999\nThe scene: Europe faced a hostile atmosphere before they defended the Cup in Brookline - Jeff Maggert said that the US \"had the best 12 players in the world\" - and that continued when the matches began.\nMedia playback is not supported on this device\n1999: Leonard's putt sparks controversy at Brookline\nHeckling and abuse towards the Europeans was common from the home fans, but the Americans still trailed 10-6 going into the singles.\nThe moment: Following a morning speech from future president George W Bush, the US roared back, winning all six of the opening singles.\nJose Maria Olazabal had a four-hole lead over Justin Leonard with seven to play, but, by the 17th, the match was all-square with the US needing only a half to regain the Cup.\nFrom over 40 feet, Leonard sank a remarkable putt, which many of the US team believed had sealed victory. Players, caddies and even some spectators invaded the green to celebrate.\nOlazabal, though, still had his 25-foot putt for a half and the Spaniard was forced to wait for the area to be cleared.\nUltimately, the match was halved to give victory to the Americans, but the home side were heavily criticised for the events on the 17th green.\nEuropean vice-captain Sam Torrance: \"It's about the most disgusting thing I've seen in my life.\"\nUS player Davis Love III: \"We didn't cry when we lost two in a row. And how long have they been calling our wives 'flight attendants' and 'bimbos'? They act like we're the only ones who do it.\"\nRyder roles reversed\nOf the first 25 Ryder Cup matches between 1927 and 1983, the United States lost only three times. Ireland were added to the Great Britain team in 1973, with the rest of Europe joining in 1979. Since 1985, the US have won on only four occasions.\n10th (1%) - Langer's putt slips by on the final green as the USA win the \"War on the Shore\" - 1991\nThe scene: In the year of the first Gulf War, US captain Dave Stockton played on patriotism at Kiawah Island - Corey Pavin wore a Desert Storm cap - and tempers were frayed throughout.\nMedia playback is not supported on this device\n1991: Langer loses to Irwin at Kiawah Island\nBallesteros and Olazabal clashed with Paul Azinger and Chip Beck over an alleged ball change, while Stockton caused controversy by retaining the injured Steve Pate in his team, then withdrawing Pate from the singles, meaning his match with David Gilford was halved.\nThe moment: Amidst all the bad blood, the Cup would be decided by the final singles match between Hale Irwin and Bernhard Langer, who was two down with four to play.\nWhen Irwin three-putted the 17th, Langer drew level to silence the huge gallery, but his second to the 18th found the edge of a bunker, only for a putt from off the green to leave the German with a six-footer to retain the Cup.\nIn barely believable tension, Langer's putt slipped by the right of the hole, Irwin had a half and the United States won the Ryder Cup for the first time in eight years.\nLanger: \"Everybody remembers the six-foot putt I missed on the last, and rightly so, but I was also two down with four to go. If I'd missed any of the earlier putts, I wouldn't even have played 18. There's a lot more to it. Every point, every half-point, counts equally, whether it's in the morning or the afternoon.\"\nScotland's second\nThe 2014 Ryder Cup at Gleneagles marks only the second occasion that the matches have been played in Scotland. In 1973 at Muirfield, Europe were yet to join. England has hosted the Cup on 15 occasions, but not since 2002.\nShare this page",
"Ryder Cup History, History of the Ryder Cup - Ryder Cup 2014\nFacts\nRyder Cup History\nA little over 90 years ago, 20 men assembled at Gleneagles in the heartland of Scotland for an international challenge match between Great Britain and the United States.\nAmong them were golfing greats such as Harry Vardon, J.H Taylor and Walter Hagen. The 1921 match had no name, no real fanfare and no trophy to play for - but it whetted the appetite and eventually gave rise to the phenomenon of The Ryder Cup, first officially played six years later.\nIt is the second time in history that The Ryder Cup has been staged in Scotland, The Home of Golf, the last time was more than 40 years ago. 2014 saw Team Europe complete a hat-trick of successive wins.\n \nIn 1973, the American team containing the likes of Arnold Palmer, Jack Nicklaus and Lee Trevino beat Great Britain & Ireland at the tournament held at Muirfield. Fast forward to the last Ryder Cup at Medinah, when the European team overturned a four-point deficit going into the last day’s singles matches and went on to win.\nWith such history, it is needless to say that The 2014 Ryder Cup was a tremendous occasion with Europe completing their third successive wins over the visiting American team at Gleneagles.\nHazeltine National Golf Club in Chaska, Minnesota will host the 41st Ryder Cup in 2016. For more information, click here .\n1921\nThe King’s Course at Gleneagles is the venue for an unofficial match between Great Britain and the USA. Great Britain wins this precursor to The Ryder Cup, with James Braid, designer of the King’s Course, playing his part in the home victory.\n1927\nThe inaugural Ryder Cup takes place at Worcester Country Club in Massachusetts. The course was designed by Donald Ross, the legendary course architect from Dornoch. The Americans, captained by ‘golf’s first superstar’ Walter Hagen, win the match.\n1929\nAberdeenshire man George Duncan captains Great Britain to victory over the USA in the second ever Ryder Cup and the first one on British soil. Duncan beats rival captain Walter Hagen 10 and 8 in a 36-hole singles match. The venue course, Moortown in Leeds, was designed by Alister MacKenzie, the Scots creator of Augusta National.\n1933\nGreat Britain wins the 4th Ryder Cup at Southport & Ainsdale in England. The course was designed by James Braid. The Ryder Cup returns to Southport & Ainsdale in 1937.\n1951\nThe USA wins the 9th Ryder Cup at the iconic Pinehurst No. 2 course in North Carolina. The course is another Donald Ross design.\n1963\nJohnny Fallon from Lanark captains the British team against Arnold Palmer’s USA. The venue is East Lake in Atlanta, Georgia. Donald Ross shaped this course too. George Will from Ladybank in Fife defeats Palmer in the final day singles, but the Americans win the 15th Ryder Cup.\n1969\nEric Brown from Bathgate captains Great Britain against Sam Snead’s USA in the 18th Ryder Cup at Royal Birkdale in England. In a memorable finale, Jack Nicklaus and Tony Jacklin halve their match on the final hole for The Ryder Cup to end in a tie for the very first time. Another Bathgate man Bernhard Gallacher becomes the youngest player to represent Britain at the age of 20.\n1971\nAberdonian Harry Bannerman picks up two-and-a-half points for Great Britain at the 19th Ryder Cup at the Old Warson Country Club in St Louis, Missouri. He secures the half in his final day singles match against Arnold Palmer. The Americans win The Ryder Cup.\n1973\nMuirfield in East Lothian becomes the first Scottish course to host The Ryder Cup. The Great Britain team becomes Great Britain & Ireland for the first time, but the Americans win the 20th Ryder Cup.\n1975\nAnglo-Scot Brian Barnes beats Jack Nicklaus twice in the singles in the same day at the 21st Ryder Cup at Laurel Valley in Ligonier, Pennsylvania. Norman Wood from Prestonpans in East Lothian also beats Lee Trevino in his final day singles match, but the Americans win this Ryder Cup.\n1979\nSandy Lyle makes his Ryder Cup debut at the 23rd Ryder Cup at The Greenbrier in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. Great Britain & Ireland is now Europe with Seve Ballesteros among the continental players taking part. The USA wins though. Lyle will go on to play in five Ryder Cups and feature in 18 matches.\n1985\nSam Torrance memorably holes the winning putt for Europe in the 26th Ryder Cup at The Belfry. It’s Europe’s first Ryder Cup win in 28 years.\n1987\nKirkcaldy-born Gordon Brand, Jnr is part of the winning European team at the 27th Ryder Cup at Muirfield Village in Dublin, Ohio. He features again two years later when Europe retains the Ryder Cup at The Belfry.\n1995\nBernard Gallacher captains Europe to victory at the 31st Ryder Cup at Oak Hill Country Club in Pittsford, New York. It is only the second time the Americans are beaten on home soil. It’s third time lucky for Gallacher as Ryder Cup captain.\n1999\nThe 33rd Ryder Cup at The Country Club in Brookline, Massachusetts is won by the Americans in controversial circumstances. Former Open champion Paul Lawrie features in the European team, playing in five matches with a 3-1-1 record. The course was largely the work of Willie Campbell of Musselburgh.\n2002\nSam Torrance captains Europe to victory in the 34th Ryder Cup at The Belfry, 17 years after holing the winning putt at the same venue.\n2010\nColin Montgomerie captains Europe to victory in the 38th Ryder Cup at Celtic Manor in Wales. Before captaining Europe, Montgomerie played in 36 matches at 8 Ryder Cups and was never beaten in a singles match.\n2012\nScotland's Paul Lawrie was pivotal in 'the miracle at Medinah' success, recording a resounding 5&3 victory over in-form Brandt Snedeker to get early points on the board and help ensure the Ryder Cup Trophy is in European hands come Gleneagles 2014.\n2014\nPaul McGinley leads the European team to a hat-trick of victories with a comfortable margin of 16½-11½. The crowd erupts when Jamie Donaldson hits a stunning shot to the green on the 15th hole securing the point that retained Sam Ryder's golden chalice for Europe. A brilliant moment for the European team and Scotland, The Home of Golf.",
"The Ryder Cup: Nothing to play for but pride - CNN.com\nThe Ryder Cup: Nothing to play for but pride\nBy Paul Gittings, CNN\nUpdated 1048 GMT (1848 HKT) September 27, 2012\nChat with us in Facebook Messenger. Find out what's happening in the world as it unfolds.\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nSpanish matadors – Severiano Ballestereros hugs his youthful Spanish compatriot Jose Maria Olazabal as their incredible partnership got underway during the 1987 match at Muirfield Village.\nHide Caption\n1 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nInvincible line-up – The 1981 United States Ryder Cup team is rated the strongest in their history and they romped to victory over the Europeans at Walton Heath.\nHide Caption\n2 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nFlamboyant hero – Ballesteros famously drove the par-four 10th at The Belfry in 1985 as he inspired the European team to their crushing victory over the U.S.\nHide Caption\n3 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nPivotal win – Sam Torrance holed the winning putt at The Belfry in 1985 as Europe sealed a comprehensive victory over the United States to snap their long-standing domination of the team event. The last time the U.S. had failed to retain the trophy was 1957.\nHide Caption\n4 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nEarly trailblazers – In the beginning. The Great Britain and Ireland team on its way to the inaugural match in 1927 in Boston, Massachusetts, where the United States were deserving winners.\nHide Caption\n5 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nAmerican domination – The great Walter Hagen is handed the trophy after a convincing victory for the Americans in the 1937 match at Southport -- the first time an away team had claimed the trophy.\nHide Caption\n6 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nDai's delight – A very rare victory for Great Britain and Ireland saw a team led by Dai Rees capture the trophy at Lindrick in 1957 but the U.S. quickly regained the trophy and held it until 1985.\nHide Caption\n7 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nTrue sportsmanship – Tony Jacklin and Jack Nicklaus shake hands at the end of their famous tied singles match at Royal Birkdale in 1969 -- leaving the overall match tied at 16-16 in a gripping encounter. Nicklaus conceded a tricky putt for Jacklin on the last green in a famous act of sportmanship.\nHide Caption\n8 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nVital change – For the first time ever, the 1979 Ryder Cup found two Spaniards - Ballesteros and Antonio Garrido (4th and 3rd from right) - joining players from Great Britain and Ireland in competing against the United States. The match took place in West Virginia, where the home side triumphed again.\nHide Caption\n9 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nCaptain fantastic – European captain Jacklin harnessed the talent of Ballesteros as his team ended the United States' lengthy winning run during the 1980s.\nHide Caption\n10 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nRivals united – A tearful Ballesteros hugs arch-rival Nick Faldo after the Englishman scored a crucial victory over Curtis Strange as Europe won the 1995 match at Oak Hill.\nHide Caption\n11 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nInspirational figure – Golf legend Ballesteros captained Europe to a narrow victory over the Americans in 1997 as the match was held on Spanish soil for the first time at Valderrama.\nHide Caption\n12 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nBernhard's blues – The agony of defeat: Bernhard Langer reacts after missing the putt which would have tied the match against the United States at Kiawah Island in 1991.\nHide Caption\n13 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nInfamous encounter – Justin Leonard is hugged by his teammates after beating Jose Maria Olazabal at the infamous match at Brookline in 1999. Olazabal had yet to make his putt to keep their singles clash alive when the U.S. team dashed onto the 17th green.\nHide Caption\n14 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nBoo blast – Boo Weekley's first fairway antics were a celebrated feature of the shock win for the United States over Europe at Valhalla in 2008.\nHide Caption\n15 of 16\nPhotos: Ryder Cup memorable moments\nMagic McDowell – Graeme McDowell was the last-day hero of Europe's narrow victory at Celtic Manor two years ago and he will take his place at Medinah looking for a repeat.\nHide Caption\nMost celebrated team event in golf gets underway Friday\nEurope defend Ryder Cup against United States at Medinah Club in Chicago\nEurope has won six of the last eight meetings of the biennial clash\nUnited States dominated prior to European players competing from 1979 onwards\nLess than a week after Brandt Snedeker picked up an eye watering $11.5 million check as he claimed the FedEx Cup, the best golfers from the United States and Europe will go head to head with not a dime on the line and with nothing to play for but pride itself.\nThe 39th Ryder Cup matches at Medinah Country Club in Chicago will be watched by packed and partisan galleries and a huge global television audience, but for the 12 players on each team overall victory in the biennial team event is all that matters.\nThey are playing for expenses only and whenever the issue of financial rewards is raised, it is quickly ruled out.\n\"No prize money is involved, just a lot of pride,\" three-time European captain Bernard Gallacher told CNN.\n\"And the matches are very, very competitive.\"\nThe American team will have the Stars and Stripes running through their veins and it's a chance for the Europeans to combine under a united flag.\nJUST WATCHED\nMUST WATCH\nIs Olazabal ready for Ryder Cup? 07:05\n\"It's the only competition we have with the United States outside the occasional football match and it's the same for them given that their main sports are baseball, gridiron and ice-hockey,\" said Bill Elliott, Chair of the Association of Golf Writers.\n\"Let's face it, it's not hard for Americans to show nationalistic pride! \" the Briton added with tongue in cheek.\nTimely intervention\nThis is a contest which grips golf and sports fans for three days but was in danger of extinction in the 1970s and had it not been for the intervention of 18-time major winner Jack Nicklaus, it may well have withered and died.\nNicklaus proposed to Earl Derby, the then president of the Professional Golfers Association, that players from continental Europe should augment the Great Britain and Ireland line-up to make for a better contest.\nThe United States had only lost once in the post-war era -- in 1957 at Lindrick -- and interest, particularly in America, was dwindling.\nNicklaus' suggestion was taken up, so in 1979 two Spaniards, Seve Ballesteros and Antonio Garrido, took their place for the match at Greenbrier in West Virginia.\nRead: Golfing Gangsters: Al Capone's Chicago outfit would have loved the Ryder Cup\nThis did not prevent the visiting team from suffering a heavy defeat, but as Elliott, who was reporting his first of 17 Ryder Cups and counting, recalls, the change was \"absolutely essential\".\nScot Gallacher made one of his eight appearances as a player in that watershed encounter and admitted \"Seve and Antonio had disappointing matches.\" (They both had 1-4-0 records.)\n\"However, their participation in the long-term saved the Ryder Cup,\" he added.\nTwo years later, Ballesteros sat out proceedings at Walton Heath in 1981 after a dispute over his European Tour membership, but even he would have been able to do little to prevent what is rated the strongest U.S. team in history thrashing the home side.\nUnited Europe\nThat was to be last time that the U.S. enjoyed such a level of domination and by the time of the next match at Palm Beach Gardens in Florida in 1983, the Europeans were united under the captaincy of Tony Jacklin, with Ballesteros in his pomp.\nA narrow defeat was followed by a resounding victory at The Belfry in 1985. Ballesteros famously drove the 311-yard 10th at the Midlands club to set the scene.\nSam Torrance sunk the winning putt and the champagne flowed as the players celebrated on the clubhouse roof as Concorde flew past.\n\"There wasn't a dry eye in the house,\" said Elliott.\nWhen rookie Jose Maria Olazabal and Ballesteros led from the front to help Europe to their first win on U.S. soil in the 1987 match at Muirfield Village, the transformation of the event into a clash like no other was finally complete.\nMUST WATCH\nOlazabal ready to lead Ryder Cup team 05:10\nOlazabal, who will captain Europe in Chicago this week, says he was addicted to the Ryder Cup drug from the moment he first sampled the atmosphere.\n\"That 1987 Ryder Cup was very special to me -- it made me realize how special the event was and I fell in love with it straight away,\" he told CNN.\nTop partnership\nHis partnership in four balls and foursomes (where the players take a alternative shots) with Ballesteros was to bring 11 wins and two tied rubbers in 15 matches over the course of four Ryder Cup contests.\nDespite their domination, it was the United States who made a mini comeback of their own.\nThey tied the match at The Belfry in 1989, then wrested the trophy back in the \"War on the Shore\" at Kiawah Island in 1991, where Bernhard Langer agonizingly missed a tricky putt to force another tie.\nThe U.S. also won at The Belfry in 1993, but a European team under Gallacher's captaincy took the trophy back at Oak Hill in 1995 to spark a run of six victories in the last eight contests.\nIt was Ballesteros' last match as a player and he was sadly past his best, losing his last day singles.\nBut his tearful embrace with arch rival Nick Faldo, who had beaten Curtis Strange in the key match, is symptomatic of the spirit of the Ryder Cup, where individual performances are secondary to the team effort.\nGallacher had tasted narrow defeat as a non-playing skipper in 1991 and 1993 so victory in such fashion was sweet.\n\"I felt I made a few mistakes in the first two matches, but feel I learned from those mistakes for the 1995 match,\" he said.\nThe two victories for the United States since 1995 have both been on home soil: the infamous \"Battle of Brookline\" in 1999 and at Valhalla in 2008.\nRaucous galleries\nOlazabal will doubtless still have the images of 1999 deep in his memory as the U.S. team poured on to the green after Justin Leonard's putt gave him victory over the Spaniard.\nBut Olazabal still had his own putt to halve the 17th, meaning that golf etiquette had been breached. He missed the 25-footer and the cup was heading back across the Atlantic.\nThe U.S. win in 2008 in Kentucky was also greeted by raucous galleries but not on the level of 1991 and 1999, and both captains -- Olazabal and David Love III -- have spoken of the need for the traditions of the match to be preserved at Medinah.\nBased on the world rankings, it is likely to be a close run affair.\nEurope has four of the top five in the rankings, led by world No.1 Rory McIlroy, but the home team boasts 10 inside the top 20 and have -- in wild card pick Snedeker -- the man of the moment after his triumph in Atlanta.\nThe lowest ranked player in the match is Belgian rookie Nicolas Colsaerts at No.35, which demonstrates the quality of the offering over three days of competition.\nThe first two days are taken up with fourball and foursomes team play, with 12 head to head singles matches rounding off the action Sunday.\nMcIlroy's likely face off with No.2 Tiger Woods is set to be a final day highlight but nearly every expert is predicting a nip and tuck affair.\nClose match\n\"My hope is that it will be a close match and that the result will come down to the final pairing and the final green,\" said Elliott.\n\"Then I hope the USA win because if we keep on winning, then the interest on the Stars and Stripes side of the Atlantic will start to wane.\"\n\"It really is too close to call,\" added Gallacher.\nIt will all be a far cry from the first Ryder Cup in Massachusetts in 1927 where the Great Britain and Ireland team traveled by ocean liner to contest a trophy which was the brainchild of English businessman Sam Ryder.\nJUST WATCHED\nMUST WATCH\nBill Murray steals Ryder Cup 01:07\nThey lost rather easily but it was not until 1937 that a U.S. team captained by Walter Hagen achieved the first 'away' win.\nIt was the signal for U.S. domination, with only the 1957 win and the 1969 halved match at Royal Birkdale, where Jacklin and Nicklaus played a memorable last day singles, offering GB and Ireland any consolation.\nNicklaus, forever in touch with the history of his beloved sport, then made his crucial intervention, meaning the contest came alive and since 1979 we have seen eight European wins, seven for the United States and one tied match.\nBallesteros, who played such a key role in the European resurgence, both as a player and captain of the winning team on Spanish soil in 1997, will be in everyone's thoughts this week.\nIt is the first match since he sadly passed away in May 2011 and Olazabal's men have a special image of him emblazoned on their golf bags as a constant reminder of his special place in the event's history.",
"Ryder Cup\nRyder Cup\nlogin\nRyder Cup\nAs the 2016 Ryder Cup approaches, we look at the PGA Professional coaches behind Ryder Cup Team Europe's lineup...\nVIEW RANKINGS\nAs the 2016 Ryder Cup approaches, we look at the PGA Professional coaches behind Ryder Cup Team Europe's lineup...\nVIEW RANKINGS\nAs the 2016 Ryder Cup approaches, we look at the PGA Professional coaches behind Ryder Cup Team Europe's lineup...\nVIEW RANKINGS\nThis hub is dedicated to celebrating coaching and shining a light on the PGA Professionals from around the world that are supporting, or have supported, the 12 members of Ryder Cup Team Europe.\nClick and Athlete or PGA Professional’s Name to Find Out More About Them…\nRafa Cabrera-Bello (ESP) - Coach: David Leadbetter (America) ▼\nRafa Cabrera Bello\n–\n–\n“My relationship with David is almost like a father-son relationship, he’s known me since I was 13 years old. He’s really seen my progress throughout my entire career, and the last 5-6 years he has been much more involved. What I like with David is that my swing has been improving through the years, but it’s been a very PROGRESSIVE improvement, it has never stopped me from playing or performing during swing changes.” Rafa Cabrera-Bello\nDavid Leadbetter began working with Rafa when he was just 13 years old having met when Rafa played golf with David’s son. Now, almost 20 years later, they continue their successful relationship that has resulted in multiple tour wins and his first Ryder Cup appearance in Hazeltine.\nRyder Cup Bio\nCabrera-Bello is one of the most consistent players on The European Tour in recent years, having only finished outside the top 60 in The Race to Dubai once in the last seven seasons, he claimed his second European Tour victory in 2012 at the Omega Dubai Desert Classic, where he held off Rory McIlroy and Lee Westwood.\nMade his European Tour breakthrough at the 2009 Austrian Golf Open thanks to a stunning final-round 60. Claimed the Spanish National Championship every year from Under-seven to Under-18 level after taking the game up at the age of six and played in the victorious Junior Ryder Cup side of 1999.\nGrew up next to a golf course in the Canary Islands, and his sister Emma competes on the Ladies European Tour. Owns a house in Bali, where he loves to spend time surfing.\nMatthew Fitzpatrick (ENG) - Mike Walker / Pete Cowen (GB&I) ▼\nMatthew Fitzpatrick\n–\n–\nCowen and Walker have worked with Fitzpatrick for a number of years and have seen him rise through the amateur ranks, earning various titles and invites to Professional events, and ultimately to a proven winner on Tour.\n“I’m lucky to have two coaches in Pete Cowen and Mike Walker, and I have spent a lot of time with them, and have worked with Mike for four or five years now…I really can’t tell you how much influence they’ve had in getting me to where I am right now. I can’t thank them enough for the role they’ve played with me. I’m always working on all aspects of my game but a left hand below right hand drill has been helping me get a more consistent ball flight…It’s true that there aren’t many frills at the [Pete Cowen Golf] Academy but it’s a great place to work and Pete and Mike don’t do frills or the like.” Matt Fitzpatrick\n“You want to work with a kid who’s got a bit of street fighter in him. That’s what you need. Matt Fitzpatrick is the ideal example. He’s got that look in his eye. He’s a born competitor. He doesn’t know stage fright. He can play under immense pressure without feeling a thing. You can’t teach that. It has to be in them and you’ve got to find it and bring it out. You want players who want to become not just good players but great players.” Pete Cowen\nRyder Cup Bio\nOne of The European Tour’s rising stars, the affable Englishman already has two victories to his name, with the first coming in memorable circumstances on home soil at the 2015 British Masters supported by Sky Sports, where he won wire-to-wire in front of packed galleries at Woburn Golf Club.\nThe 21 year old did not have to wait long before claiming a second European Tour victory at the Nordea Masters in June thanks to another dominant display.\nFirst came to prominence courtesy of a stellar amateur career in which he won the 2013 U.S. Amateur Championship as well as being the Number One ranked amateur for a total of 21 weeks..\nSergio Garcia (ESP) - Coach: Victor Garcia (Spain) ▼\nSergio Garcia\n1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2012, 2014, 2016\nSpain\n9-2-2\n3-4-0\nSergio’s father, Victor, was the club pro at Mediterraneo Golf Club in Spain and has coached Sergio for his entire amateur and professional careers. When Sergio was young, Victor lined up a game with Sergio’s idol, Seve Ballesteros, sparking a friendship that lasted many years.\nSergio has been criticised in the past for keeping his father as coach, but he has continued to strongly defend him any time the question has been raised and shoulders any blame himself.\nSergio’s typically Spanish style and flare come from watching, playing with, and listening to his father.\nRyder Cup Bio\nA veteran of seven Ryder Cups, the Spaniard has won 20.5 points from those appearances. The 36 year old was unbeaten over the first two days at The K Club in 2006 – in the process, he became only the second player after Ian Woosnam to win all four points from his foursomes and fourball matches.\nTwo years earlier, he became only the sixth player to claim four-and-a-half points out of a possible five in The Ryder Cup at Oakland Hills. He was one of Colin Montgomerie’s vice captains at Celtic Manor in 2010, when Europe won by a point.\nGarcia, who finished in the top five at both the 2016 US Open and the Open Championship, has won 11 times on the European Tour..\nMartin Kaymer (GER) - Coach: Günter Kessler (Germany) ▼\nMartin Kaymer\n0-0-2\n2-1-0\nMartin Kaymer and his coach, Günter Kessler, have worked together since Kaymer was 12 years old, and have achieved greatness on a world scale through thick and thin.\nHaving reached the World Number 1 spot in 2011, Kaymer sought to change his game to introduce more shot-shaping under Kessler, but this saw him drop outside of the top-60 just a few years later. In 2014 Kessler and Kaymer went back to basics and reintroduced his fade that had served him so well, almost instantly resulting in winning performances including a US Open title.\n“My coach and me, we work for 15, 16 years together now and he’s always really under the radar,” Kaymer said. “But he has the biggest influence of my game. The way he’s teaching is not a way that you always need him. He’s not a very selfish person. He teaches the way that you can help yourself in a very simple way…He has the talent to teach really everyone, and that is for me really a world-class coach. He doesn’t like the big stage and he doesn’t like to be in all those newspapers and stuff. But I really believes he deserves that. It doesn’t make him a happier person, and that makes him even nicer…Working together worked out very well. We have a lot of trust in each other because it worked out fairly well the first 13, 14 years.” Martin Kaymer\n“When [Martin] began taking lessons from me at the age of 12, he didn’t stand out among his peers right away…And we certainly had no reason to expect that he would become one of the world’s finest players. But from the very beginning, we did notice that he worked harder than the others.” Günter Kessler\nRyder Cup Bio\nPlayed an important role in The 2014 Ryder Cup at Gleneagles, where he won two points from four.\nWas Europe’s hero at The 2012 Ryder Cup, holing a six-foot putt on the last to defeat Steve Stricker and secure the point needed to complete a miraculous comeback and retain the Trophy.\nMade his debut in the biennial contest in 2010, the same year he won his first Major at the US PGA Championship. Rediscovered his best form in 2014 as a sensational wire-to-wire victory at the U.S. Open Championship brought him a second Major title’.\nRory McIlroy (IRL) - Coach: Michael Bannon (GB&I) ▼\nRory McIlroy\n3-2-1\n2-0-1\nFrom being simply one integral cog in the international network of such PGA Professionals, Bannon has been catapulted into the world spotlight by McIlroy’s phenomenal performances in the past few years ,reflecting his repertoire of skills and sublime grasp of the intricacies of the golf swing.\nDemonstrably, McIlroy’s game represents much more than natural talent, more even that untold hours honing those talents on the range. Wise counsel and structured, individual coaching has been the adhesive that has pieced the simple yet complex jig-saw together.\n“Rory gathers good people around him, people he can trust. He’s also very strong mentally and has always sought the next level. He always wants to talk to and play with the good players to see what he can learn from them. Even as a young boy he used to like to show what he could do.\n“He has such unbelievable skills, and works on it so hard all the time, that I’ve had to improve my ability as a coach if I’m to help him.” Michael Bannon\n“Credit goes to my longtime coach, Michael Bannon, who reacquainted me with five key moves I had strayed from in recent years. Use my fixes to transform your move into a championship swing.\n“Michael Bannon is the only coach I’ve ever had. It’s scary — he knows my swing better than I do. So when things started sliding south 18 months ago, he knew exactly what to do: Get back to the basics that rocketed me to No. 1 in the first place, using check points and feels that Michael taught me when I was a little kid.” Rory McIlroy\nRyder Cup Bio\nBoasts an abundance of Ryder Cup pedigree, having played in every edition since 2010, winning eight points from his 14 matches in the process, with a highlight coming at Gleneagles in 2014, when the Northern Irishman beat Rickie Fowler 5&4 in the Sunday Singles. He won his first Major in 2011 at the US Open where he broke records aplenty after shooting 16 under par. He doubled his tally at the 2012 US PGA Championship, before winning his other two Majors in a memorable 2014 season, when he lifted the Claret Jug at Hoylake before winning the US PGA Championship for a second time. The Northern Irishman has three Race to Dubai titles to his name, in 2012, 2014 and 2015. He also won the tournament he hosts through his charitable foundation, the Dubai Duty Free Irish Open, for this first time in May of this year thanks to a sensational closing eagle.\nThomas Pieters (BEL) - Coach: Pete Cowen (GB&I) ▼\nThomas Pieters\n–\n \nPieters has worked with Pete Cowen since he was 12 years old, after Cowen’s call-up to work with the Belgian amateur squads with the aim of nurturing European Tour-standard talent. And nurture he has – Pieters’ disciplined and dedicated approach has helped him along the way to 3 European Tour wins and a spot in the 2016 Team.\n“I’ve worked with Thomas since he was 12…They said to us that we want more guys on the European Tour within five or ten years so I said you’ve got to put some processes in place and we did.\n“Thomas is a very disciplined practicer – he wants to know what’s right. If I say do it, he’ll do it. If I said standing on your head would make you a better golfer he’d go stand on his head.\n“He is very dedicated and knew where he was going from a very early age and you could see that.” Pete Cowen\n“I have the absolute number one coach under my arm. Pete is not a man that shouts from the rooftops about the successes of his players…For him, it’s about the players and not about himself.” Thomas Pieters\nRyder Cup Bio\nFinished the Ryder Cup qualifying period in style by finishing second in his defence of the D+D REAL Czech Masters and then winning the Made in Denmark tournament to claim his third European Tour title.\nHaving impressed in his rookie season on the European Tour in 2014, won twice in consecutive appearances in 2015, first at the D+D REAL Czech Masters in August and then a fortnight later at the KLM Open.\nLong tipped as one of the stars of the future, he came through all three stages of the 2013 Qualifying School.\nEnjoyed a celebrated amateur college career in America, where he overcame Major Champion Jordan Spieth and former world amateur number one Patrick Cantlay to win the NCAA Division I Golf Championship in his sophomore year at the University of Illinois..\n2-0-1\nRyder Cup Bio\nPlayed a leading role in The Ryder Cup at Gleneagles in 2014, when the Englishman formed a formidable partnership with Henrik Stenson over the first two days on the way to remaining undefeated and claiming four points out of a possible five, as Europe cruised to a 16 ½ – 11 ½ victory.\nArguably the 35 year old’s finest Ryder Cup moment came in the “Miracle at Medinah” in 2012, when he secured a vital point in the Sunday Singles against Phil Mickelson.\n2016 saw Rose become a history makers becoming golf’s first Olympic Champion since 1904 with his two shot victory over Henrik Stenson in Rio.\nMade his Major Championship breakthrough winning the U.S. Open in 2013 at Merion Golf Club. Rose has won eight events on The European Tour, including the WGC Cadillac Championship in 2012.\nHenrik Stenson (SWE) - Coach: Pete Cowen (GB&I) ▼\nHenrik Stenson\n2-1-1\n1-2-0\nHenrik Stenson, and his coach, Pete Cowen, have worked together for over 15 years, and whilst there have been multiple downs, there have also been some incredible highs, namely Henrik’s maiden Major win at the 2016 Open Championship.\n“I’ve worked with Henrik now for 15 years and he’s had two very big ups and downs in his career so obviously he’s come back from those – he’s a pretty strong character.\n“He wants to be perfect – he’s got three types of hitting the ball which is good, very good and perfect, and he can’t accept good and very good so you’re knocking two thirds out, whereas he could win on all three if he wants. He’s a total one-off that you have to be very careful how you actually phrase it to him – he’s totally different to everyone else.” Pete Cowen\n“I owe him a lot…He’s put in so much hard work with me over the years. I’m pleased to have him by my side.” Henrik Stenson\nRyder Cup Bio\nThe newly-crowned Champion Golfer of the Year has played in three Ryder Cups, and has been on the winning side in two of those appearances – latterly in 2014 and memorably on his debut in 2006, when he holed the winning putt at The K Club.\nHis victory at the 2013 DP World Tour Championship, Dubai made him the first player to win both the Race to Dubai and the US PGA Tour’s FedEx Cup in the same season.\nThe big Swede has won 11 European Tour titles, with two of those titles coming within the space of a month this year – firstly in Germany at the BMW International Open, before the 40 year old claimed the biggest victory of his career at the 145th Open Championship at Royal Troon, after coming through a titanic final day battle with Phil Mickelson. He broke the record for the lowest score at any Major both in relation to par (20 under par) and aggregate shots (264).\nHis amazing 2016 continued when he claimed the silver medal in Rio at the Olympic Men’s Golf Tournament.\nRelated News\nOlympic Coaches – Pete Cowen & Henrik Stenson\nThe PGAs of Europe caught up with coach The Open Champion, Henrik Stenson’s, coach, Pete Cowen (PGA of GB&I), to find out more about how they work together… Read more…\nAndy Sullivan (ENG) - Coach: Jamie Gough (South Africa) ▼\nMatthew Fitzpatrick\n–\n–\nSullivan switched to Jamie Gough from Craig Phillips in 2013 seeking to take his career to the next level, most recently working on his shaping, and specifically fading, of the ball.\nGough himself turned Professional at 18 years of age and by 1990 had set up multiple golf schools, employing over 30 Professionals, and gathering his own elite lineup of pupils that includes the likes of Miguel Angel Jimenez, Gregory Havret, Anders Hansen, and Jose Maria Olazabal to name but a few.\n“When I was younger, I was a big drawer of the ball, which gave me length, but not great control.\n“But I have been working for two years with Jamie on hitting a left-to-right shape for more control, and over the last seven months that has begun to feel a lot more natural. It’s been like going from one extreme to another, but it has definitely made my play far more consistent.” Andy Sullivan\nRyder Cup Bio\nPlayed a significant role in Europe’s victory in the EurAsia Cup earlier this year, when the Englishman had a perfect record after winning three out of three matches.\nBurst onto the scene in 2015 after winning three European Tour titles, including two triumphs in as many months in Johannesburg, before cruising to an impressive nine stroke victory in the Portugal Masters in October.\nFinished off a remarkable 2015 season by pushing McIlroy all the way at the DP World Tour Championship, Dubai, before eventually finishing one shot behind the Northern Irishman.\nTurned professional in 2011 after representing Great Britain and Ireland in the Walker Cup at Royal Aberdeen..\nLee Westwood (ENG) - Coach: Pete Cowen (GB&I) ▼\nLee Westwood\n1997, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016\nGreat Britain & Ireland\n9-4-4\n3-6-0\nCowen and Westwood’s relationship has lasted through thick and thin, beginning back in the mid-1990s.\nSince then he has arguably become the best player to have not won a major but has amassed a huge number of tournament wins and top-10 performances.\nIn late 2012 Westwood changed coach away from Cowen, but by 2014 was back with him and sports psychologist Dr Bob Rotella, and was back uo the rankings.\n“I started working with Pete Cowen again at Houston and it had a pretty immediate effect. We just did a couple of hours there and then an hour at the Masters and I think that showed at Augusta. I started hitting the ball a lot straighter and iron shots were a lot better. I just feel a lot more aggressive but a lot more calm on the greens, and my short game’s good, as well.” Lee Westwood\n“He’s had his chances [for majors], he’s a great ball-striker. He lost his way a bit in the early 2000s but came back to number 1…he’s had his chances where he probably should of won…so when the door opens, you definitely need to walk through – it’s just a question of him walking through one of these times and hopefully he gets more chances.” Pete Cowen\nRyder Cup Bio\nHas played in every Ryder Cup since 1997, which is a testament to the Englishman’s longevity and quality. Westwood has won 23 points from those nine matches and has only been on the losing side twice.\nHe was unbeaten in the 2004 and 2006 tournaments, and equalled Arnold Palmer’s record at Valhalla in 2008 when he made it 12 matches without defeat.\nThe first of his 23 European Tour titles came at the Scandinavian Masters in 1996 – an event he has won three times. His most recent victory on The European Tour came in 2014 at the Maybank Malaysian Open, where he showed all his class to win by seven strokes.\nDanny Willett (ENG) - Coach: Mike Walker/Pete Cowen (GB&I) ▼\nDanny Willett\n–\n–\nMike Walker and Pete Cowen have worked with Willett for other three years and have seen him rise up the rankings with various wins including his maiden Major at the 2016 Maters.\nWillett’s success can be traced down the line through various PGA Professionals including PGA of GB&I Professionals, Graham Walker and Peter Ball, from introducing him to the sport and then nurturing his progress through turning Professional in 2008 all the way to his first major.\n“With Pete and Mike, you work on uncomfortable things. Every time you go to the range, you aren’t turning up to get a pat on the back, to be told how well you are doing. You go there to try and get better, to try and get that 1% better.\n“I felt like I had done enough work, that I had hit enough balls under their supervision that each shot I was faced with, I just went through the same process. I tried to remind myself of the shots I hit back on the range.” Danny Willett\n“I started working with Danny three years ago along with Mike Walker and Nick Huby. We’re all singing from the same hymn sheet in terms of the mechanics…There’s a good continuity in what we teach…which means the players can then trust it under pressure.\n“There have been a lot of people involved with Danny’s rise to the top, at Birley Wood, Pete Ball – without that we wouldn’t have seen Danny Willett at all. Then he went to Rotherham, Graham Walker coached him through the England Golf set-up.\n“With certain players like that, we add the finishing touches. I always say that what we do is get them over the line.” Pete Cowen\n“From a municipal to the Masters! He is an inspiration and shows all the kids in Sheffield what can be achieved if you put your mind to something. He is a great example and if it gets kids out playing, that’s all that matters.\n“Danny always had a great determination and work ethic and his ability to stay calm under severe pressure over those closing holes [at The Masters] was just incredible.” Peter Ball\nRyder Cup Bio\nThis has been a year to remember for Willett, thanks largely to his sensational maiden Major Championship victory at The Masters in April, which was his second win of the season following the Omega Dubai Desert Classic title he picked up in February.\nThe Englishman was part of Darren Clarke’s victorious European team at the EURASIA CUP back in January, when he contributed two out of a possible three points. The 28 year old pushed Rory McIlory all the way in the 2015 Race to Dubai before eventually finishing second in the rankings, after a superb season which included his wins in the Omega European Masters and the Nedbank Golf Challenge.\nHis first European Tour win came at the 2012 BMW International. Before joining the professional ranks, he was a member of Great Britain and Ireland’s 2007 Walker Cup Team.\nChris Wood (ENG) - Coach: Walker, Cowen & Mitchell (GB&I) ▼\nChris Wood\nMike Walker / Paul Mitchell / Pete Cowen\nCountry:\n–\n–\nWood is another graduate from the school of ‘Cowen & Walker’ having been out on Tour since 2008 and earning three wins, the most recent of which was the 2016 BMW PGA Championship at Wentworth – a win that catapulted him into a Ryder Cup Team spot.\nWood works with various PGA Professionals including Paul Mitchell from Bristol and Clifton Golf Club, his original coach from the age of 14, and included Mike Walker and Pete Cowen in his team from around May 2015.\n“I always said this guy is a multiple major winner and hopefully this will also put him in good stead for the Ryder Cup. It will be great for his confidence, he’s been working on all the right things and this is a sign of things to come.\n“He’s been scratching around and had a lot of injuries but he’s got a great team behind him and he’s a top five player and he’s really starting to blossom. I always said he would be world number one – but it’s not that easy is it!” Paul Mitchell\n“He feels he swings best when he swings left to right because it takes one side of the course out of play and we’ve been very focused on that.\n“Chris had made steady progress up to [winning the 2016 BMW PGA Championship] without making any headlines but his ranking had climbed massively and this is the icing on the cake. This is a great boost for him. He’s known as being a good guy but genuinely is a great bloke and this makes the win even more special.\n“Chris has always believed in himself but the belief needs bolstering with reality and if he did have any doubts they should be blown away by what he achieved at Wentworth.” Mike Walker\nRyder Cup Bio\nClaimed the biggest victory of his career in 2016, when he won the BMW PGA Championship at Wentworth to continue his surge up the Official World Golf Ranking.\nHis season had started positively at the EURASIA CUP in Malaysia, where the Englishman won two out of three matches to help the team to a comfortable victory. His breakthrough win on The European Tour was a spectacular one at the 2013 Commercial Bank Qatar Masters where he eagled the final hole to win by a single shot. His second title came at the Lyoness Open powered by Greenfinity in 2015.\nThe 28 year old won the Silver Medal at The Open Championship in 2008, when he finished tied for fifth. At 6ft 6in, he matches Robert Karlsson and Thomas Pieters as the tallest players on Tour.\nQ&A With Chris Wood | GolfNews.co.uk\nHow Did They Qualify?\nThe United States will have eight players determined by points, while the European Team will have nine – the first four coming from the European Points List and the next five from the World Points List. Europe has three Captain’s Picks, while the USA has four.\nPage 1 of 41 2 3 4 »\nLike many good ideas, The Ryder Cup Matches emanated from a casual conversation in a clubhouse bar after a successful day’s golf.\nThe year was 1926, the clubhouse was Wentworth and the day’s golf was an unofficial match between the professionals of Great Britain and Ireland and the United States. After the match, Samuel Ryder, a prosperous seed merchant from St Albans and avid follower of the game, casually remarked: “We must do this again.” This was seized upon by, among others, George Duncan, a leading professional of the day, and when Ryder was prevailed upon to present a trophy, so the Ryder Cup was born.\nThe first encounter took place in 1927 and now, over 80 years later, the match stands at the pinnacle of the game as an example of keenly contested rivalry, tempered by sportsmanship and friendliness. Over the years, many changes have taken place to the original format of four foursomes and eight singles, each over 36 holes, but after an initial sharing of victories over the first four matches, it was the Americans who asserted dominance.\nFrom 1935 to 1955 (no matches were staged during the war), the Americans were untroubled. In 1957, Dai Rees and his men turned the tables at Lindrick but thereafter it was much the same mixture as before with the more the match was expanded, the greater the American winning margin. Following the 22nd match in 1977, it was decided to incorporate players from Continental Europe and this heralded a shift in the balance of power.\nAfter a touch and go encounter in 1983, the Europeans recorded a famous victory in 1985 at The Belfry, then won for the first time on American soil in 1987 and retained the trophy after a tie in 1989. Fortunes swung to the Americans in 1991 and 1993 but back to the Europeans in 1995 and 1997. The Americans won at home in 1999 by the narrowest of margins but Europe regained the trophy at The Belfry in 2002.\nWith Bernhard Langer guiding Europe to another victory at Oakland Hills in 2004 (a fourth win in five) which became five in six when the Americans were again swept aside at Ireland’s K Club and Ian Woosnam became another triumphant European captain. In 2008, however, the tide turned and the USA, under the proud captaincy of Paul Azinger, claimed back the trophy in a very exciting three days at Valhalla Golf Club, Louisville, Kentucky.\nThe 2010 Matches took place at the Celtic Manor Resort in Newport, Wales. Whilst it might have been the country’s first time at hosting the event, the Matches did not disappoint in drama and stature. European Captain, Colin Montgomerie, and his team fought the United States’ Corey Pavin and team through sever weather conditions that brought on a Monday finish that culminated in Graeme McDowell defeating Hunter Mahan 3 & 1 to regain the Cup for Europe.\n2012 saw the Matches move back to American soil and Medinah Country Club in Chicgo, Illinois, and played host to perhaps the greatest comeback seen in sporting history. Europe trailed the USA with 6 points to their 10 at the beginning of the final day, maening Europe needed 8.5 points from a potential 12.\nIn the spirit of the late, great European player, Seve Ballesteros, the European players battled throughout the day until it was left to Germany’s Martin Kaymer who holed a five-foot putt on the 18th hole to defeat Steve Stricker and retain the trophy. Tiger Woods and Francesco Molinari were the only other group out and after a missed putt on 18 from Woods and a concession to Molinari, their match was halved giving Europe the half they needed to secure an outright win of the Ryder Cup.\nThe 40th Ryder Cup matches were held 26–28 September 2014 in Scotland on the PGA Centenary Course at the Gleneagles Hotel near Auchterarder in Perthshire. The team captains in 2014 were Paul McGinley for Europe and Tom Watson for the USA.\nEurope won the 2014 competition to retain the Ryder Cup, defeating the USA by 16 1⁄2 points to 11 1⁄2, for their third consecutive win.\nUSEFUL LINKS"
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"title": [
"Ryder Cup: The greatest moment as voted for by you - BBC Sport",
"Ryder Cup History, History of the Ryder Cup - Ryder Cup 2014",
"The Ryder Cup: Nothing to play for but pride - CNN.com",
"Ryder Cup Facts - PGAs of Europe | Home of the PGAE"
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"Ellen Church (September 22, 1904 – August 22, 1965) was the first female flight attendant.\n\nBiography \n\nChurch was born in Cresco, Iowa. After graduating from Cresco High School, Church studied nursing and worked in a San Francisco hospital. She was a pilot and a registered nurse. Steve Stimpson, the manager of the San Francisco office of Boeing Air Transport (BAT), would not hire her as a pilot, but did pass along her suggestion to put nurses on board airplanes to calm the public's fear of flying. In 1930, BAT hired Church as head stewardess, and she recruited seven others for a three-month trial period.\n\nThe stewardesses, or \"sky girls\" as BAT called them, had to be registered nurses, \"single, younger than 25 years old; weigh less than 115 pounds [52 kg]; and stand less than 5 feet, 4 inches tall [1.63 m]\". In addition to attending to the passengers, they were expected to, when necessary, help with hauling luggage, fueling and assisting pilots to push the aircraft into hangars. However, the salary was good: $125 a month.\n\nChurch became the first stewardess to fly (though not the first flight attendant, as German Heinrich Kubis had preceded her in 1912). On May 15, 1930, she embarked on a Boeing 80A for a 20-hour flight from Oakland/San Francisco to Chicago with 13 stops and 14 passengers. According to one source, the pilot was another aviation pioneer, Elrey Borge Jeppesen.\n\nThe innovation was a resounding success - the other airlines followed BAT's example over the next few years - but an injury from an automobile accident ended her career after 18 months. She obtained a bachelor's degree in nursing education from the University of Minnesota and resumed nursing. In 1936, she became supervisor of pediatrics at Milwaukee County Hospital. During World War II, Church served in the Army Nurse Corps as a captain and flight nurse and earned an Air Medal. She moved to Terre Haute, Indiana, where she became director of nursing and later an administrator at Union Hospital.\n\nIn 1964, she married Leonard Briggs Marshall, president of the Terre Haute First National Bank. A horse riding accident ended her life in 1965.\n\nLegacy \n\nCresco's municipal airport was named Ellen Church Field (KCJJ) in her honor."
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"The My Hero Project - Ellen Church\nELLEN CHURCH\nkcet/chasingthesun/\ninnovators/echurch.html\nA hero is someone you admire, someone with many accomplishments, someone ambitious. Ellen Church fulfills all of these qualities. A hero should be someone strong who strives to achieve their goals. Ellen Church persevered and ended up creating job opportunities for many people. By starting �sky girls,� now known as flight attendants, Ellen Church changed the world, giving the public a new calm when flying.\nPhoto from http://www.pbs.org/\nkcet/chasingthesun/\ninnovators/echurch.html\nIn 1930 Ellen Church began �sky girls� to promote air travel, and in the process, helped young girls earn much needed pay. �It was the beginning of the Depression, and a job was a job. Flying was a new thing. People would line up to see us come in,� said Margaret Arnott, 83, one of the original eight flight attendants. With the help of Boeing Air Transport�s (BAT) Stephen Stimpson, this idea became the new reality and trend of all airlines. However when Ellen Church first approached Stephen Stimpson, being a �sky girl� wasn�t exactly what she had in mind. �Church actually wanted to become a pilot,� said Claudia Oakes, curator of aeronautics at the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum in Washington.\nChurch did not become discouraged by being rejected, and immediately proposed her idea of starting to place nurses on planes to ease the public�s fear of flying. Stephen Stimpson agreed to this and decided to give �sky girls� a three month trial run. On May 15, 1930, Ellen Church and seven other registered nurses boarded the first flight ever to have flight attendants. The plane traveled from San Francisco to Chicago in 20 hours, stopping in 13 airports to collect more passengers and re-fuel. The sky girls were a hit. Within the next few years almost every airline followed BAT�s lead and introduced their passengers to flight attendants. Although it may seem to have been glamorous being able to travel all the time, it was not an easy job at all. It required dedication and attention to detail to make sure that their passengers were as comfortable and safe as possible. They not only assisted passengers, but they also hauled luggage on board, screwed down loose seats, fueled the planes, and helped pilots to push planes into hangers.\nPhoto from http://www.pbs.org/\nkcet/chasingthesun/\ninnovators/echurch.html\nAt this time flight attendants were required to retire by age 31, however, this is not why Ellen Church stopped just after 18 months. She was grounded from an auto accident. During this time she completed her Bachelors Degree from the University of Minnesota and resumed her nursing career. In 1936 she became the supervisor of pediatrics at Milwaukee County Hospital. She left her job in 1942 to become a captain in the Army Nurse Corps, Air Evacuation Service for WWII. Ellen Church was eager to serve her country and thus earned an Air Medal for her wartime heroics in North Africa, Sicily, England, and France. She resumed her nursing career after the war, becoming nursing director at Terre Haute Union Hospital, and went on to be a hospital administrator. She finally married in 1964 to a man named Leonard B. Marshall. After many years as a nurse, she retired from nursing and took up the hobby of horseback riding. Just a year after her wedding, though, she was killed in a horseback riding accident.\nEllen Church�s legacy lives on in the daily lives of millions of people in our country. She is a hero to me because she always worked hard. She persevered through the let down of not being able to become a pilot for BAT. She didn�t let that get her down, and went on to create much needed job opportunities for many young women in the field of flight. She even achieved her goal of becoming a pilot later on in her life when she was a captain in the Army Nurse Corps. Ellen Church was always ambitious and willing to help others through nursing. She was a strong woman, who never became discouraged, and this is why Ellen Church is my hero.",
"Ellen Church, first stewardess\nEllen Church, first stewardess\nby gary_satanovsky\nIf the women who founded the Women’s Suffrage Association 61 years to the day earlier could see Ellen Church on board the Boeing airliner, what would they say? On the one hand, Church always had a passion for flying and had gone to school to get her pilot’s training. On the other hand, she was not on the Boeing that day as a pilot, but as a “sky girl.” The airline was not about to give a woman the task of piloting a plane, but they did like her other idea, of having nurses like her aboard.\nOn this day, May 15, 1930, Ellen Church became the first the world’s first airline stewardess, aboard a Boeing Air Transport (the precursor to the modern United Airlines) flight from Oakland, California, to Chicago, Illinois.\nBAT sensed great PR potential in bringing nurses on board the plane, to soothe and comfort the passengers when air travel was still considered a dangerous experience. Requirements for sky girls were quite strict: under 25, no taller than 5-feet-4, and no more than 115 pounds. In addition to being a registered nurse, of course. At the same time, the girls were still expected to load the luggage, help with mechanical maintenance, and even push planes back into the hangar.\nToday’s History",
"Aviation Firsts - Iowa\nIowa\nE-mail AvEd\nEllen Church: America's First Stewardess\nEllen Church (1904-1965) of Cresco, Iowa, became the nation's first stewardess. While working as a registered nurse in San Francisco, Church was also learning to fly. The desire to combine her two loves led her to meet with Steve Stimpson, traffic manager for Boeing Air Transport (predecessor to United Air Lines). Stimpson thought it would be a good idea to have a nurse on board for emergencies.\nGiven a 90-day trial period, Church was named chief stewardess and hired seven other nurses and helped design the uniforms. The women began working on May 15, 1930, and were paid $125 per month for 100 hours of flying.\nChurch remained chief stewardess for 18 months and then returned to her nursing career after being injured in an auto accident. She stated that the stewardess experiment survived only because women regarded it as a worthwhile service that demanded their best efforts.\nIn December 1942, she took to the air again-this time as a captain in the Army Nurse Corps, Air Evacuation Service. For distinguished work in North Africa, Sicily, England and France, she was presented with the Air Medal.",
"First Stewardess from Howard County | Howard County\nOffices\nFirst Stewardess from Howard County\nThe Times reported in July of 1929 that steps finally had been taken to provide an airport in Cresco, Iowa. A 22 acre plot of ground was leased from Robert Thomson. This area was northwest of the fairgrounds and marked according to regulations for such fields. A circle 100 feet in diameter and about four feet in wideth was to be marked on the ground in the center of the field with some white materials. Such markings would be immediately recognized by a pilot or any aircraft as a safe and proper landing place. No lights for landing at night were to be provided at that time. Purchase of ground for a permanent field was postponed until a later date. The landing field was completed in the month of July 1929 and was found to be easily recognized by air pliots. The word \" Cresco\" was painted in large letters on the roof of the grandstand at the fairground to serve the same purpose to air travelers as the town name on the passenger station did to the railroad travelers. Cresco was then listed in the Rand & McNally Atlas as a regulation airport.\nA year later, 1930, a local girl, Ellen Church, was instrumental in organizing a Stewardess Service with the Boeing Company. Miss Church felt that institutional training should be combined with aviation. The Boeing Company was the first in the history of aviation to employ women as members of their flying force, and it was also the first to engage institutionally trained women as a third member of their crew.\nAccording to Miss Church, the duties of the stewardesses were to look after the interests and comforts of air passengers and to take complete charge of such to the passengers' destinations. While enroute the stewardesses pointed out places of interest in cities, towns, rivers, mountains, passes, altitudes, etc. She was a licensed pilot and approached the Boeing Company with the idea that she could serve as a nurse and substitute pilot on their planes. Early specifications for flight attendants were that they be no taller than 5 foot 4 inches and must weigh less than 115 pounds. With these specificaitons they would be able to manuever around the plane with the lowe celings and narrow aisles. Attendants other duties were to take tickets, load luggage, gas the plane and help push the machine into the hanger. Ellen Church was instrumental in hiring the first team of attendants. Through her work and calming presence, she helped convince the public of the safety in flying.\nCresco constructed a new air landing strip in 1959. This landing strip was located west and south of Cresco. The airport today is on this same site and is named \"Ellen Church Field\" after the first stewardess.\nThe winter 1997-1998 issue of the Iowan Magazine features Ellen Church",
"Ellen Church Archives - This Day in Aviation\nThis Day in Aviation\nAviation Boeing Air Transport , Ellen Church , Flight Attendant , Nurse , Sky Girls , Stewardess , United Air Lines , Women in Aviation Bryan Swopes\nEllen Church\n15 May 1930: Ellen Church (1904–1965) became the first airline stewardess, now more commonly titled Flight Attendant, on a Boeing Air Transport flight from Oakland to Chicago. A registered nurse and licensed pilot, Miss Church had approached Steve Sampson at Boeing Air Transport (later, United Air Lines) to inquire about being hired as a pilot.\nWhen her request was denied, she suggested that the airline put registered nurses aboard BAT’s airplanes to care for the passengers. She was hired to recruit and train seven additional women as stewardesses. Because of the cabin size and weight-carrying limitations of those early airliners, they were limited to a height of 5’4″ and 115 pounds. They were to be registered nurses, but not to be more than 25 years old. The salary was $125.00 per month.\nCaptain Ellen Church, NC, USAAF.\nMiss Church worked for BAT for about 18 months until she was injured in a car accident. She then returned to her career in nursing.\nDuring World War II, Miss Church was a U.S. Army Air Force flight nurse, caring for soldiers evacuated by air from North Africa and the Mediterranean areas. Captain Church trained flight nurses for the upcoming invasion of Europe on D-Day.\nEllen Church Marshall died in 1965 of injuries from a horse riding accident.\nThe first eight airline stewardesses, from left to right, Jessie Carter, Cornelia Peterman, Ellen Church, Inez Keller, Alva Johnson, Margaret Arnott, Ellis Crawford and Harriet Fry. The airliner is a Boeing Model 80A. (National Air and Space Museum)\n© 2015, Bryan R. Swopes",
"Ellen Marshall (Church) (1904 - 1965) - Genealogy\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Church\nEllen Church (September 22, 1904 – August 22, 1965) was the first female flight attendant\nhttp://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GSln=marshall&GSfn=ellen&GSby=1904&GSbyrel=in&GSdy=1965&GSdyrel=in&GSob=n&GRid=7590815&df=all&\nShe worked as a stew for 18 months before being grounded as a result of injuries sustained in an automobile accident. She returned to nursing, but her flying days weren’t over yet: During World War II, she served as a captain in the Army Nurses Corps, receiving the Air Medal for distinguished service in the European Theater.",
"Flight Attendants of History: How the First Stewardess Got Her Job\nAP Photo Ellen Church and Virginia Schroeder, another flight attendant, pose in front of a modern 12-ton United Mainliner on May 14, 1940.\nMay 15, 1930: Ellen Church, America’s first stewardess, works her first flight\nEllen Church could fly, but the airlines weren’t interested in hiring women pilots in 1930. In fact, they weren’t convinced that women could do any job aboard a plane, as the New York Times later noted .\nSo Church, who was a registered nurse as well as a licensed pilot, appealed to the chauvinism of airline executives to help women find work in the skies, as she herself hoped to do. She recommended that nurses be hired to perform some of the tasks then handled by co-pilots, like hauling luggage and handing out lunches, as well as to help put the public at ease about the dangers of flying on the clunky, crash-prone early passenger planes.\nWho better than nurses to put fearful passengers at ease, and who better than women to show men it was safe to fly? Or as Church put it, per the Times, “Don’t you think that it would be good psychology to have women up in the air? How is a man going to say he is afraid to fly when a woman is working on the plane?”\nOfficials with Boeing Air Transport, the predecessor of United Airlines, went for her pitch, and agreed to hire eight women, conditionally, for a three-month experiment. On this day, May 15, in 1930, Church and seven others began their first day of work as the country’s first flight attendants. Four flew from San Francisco to Cheyenne, Wyo., and the other four flew from Cheyenne to Chicago.\nAfter the three months had ended, the original eight stayed on — and other airlines began recruiting their own stewardesses. According to TIME’s 1938 analysis , the jobs were highly competitive, and the hiring process was steeped in sexism. “To get their $100-to-$120-a-month jobs, applicants for the 300 stewardess posts [since 1930] had to be pretty, petite, single, graduate nurses, 21 to 26 years old, 100 to 120 lbs,” TIME notes. “Many of them found husbands right after they found jobs; few married pilots.”\nThe work itself was much more than pouring drinks and looking pretty, however. Stewardesses cleaned the cabin, helped fuel the planes and bolted down the seats before takeoff. And while they normally drew on their medical training only minimally, in assisting airsick and panicked passengers, they occasionally played the part of first responders in an emergency — as when 22-year-old TWA stewardess Nellie Granger ministered to critically injured passengers and then stumbled through snowy mountains in search of help after her flight crashed in Pennsylvania in 1936. (TWA rewarded her heroism with a paid cruise in the West Indies, along with a promotion.)\nChurch’s proposal was a success by most measures. Hiring female attendants paid off so handsomely in the air, in fact, that railroad executives followed suit, hoping to bring some of their glamor down to earth. But TIME’s 1937 dispatch about a recruitment drive for hostesses on the New Haven rail line reveals that while Church’s pioneering efforts might have opened new doors for female workers, only those with pageant-winning looks and charm were allowed to walk through — in the air or on land. As the story explains:\nCandidates are required to be unmarried, 5 ft. 7 in. to 5 ft. 10 in. tall, aged 24 to 35, 115 to 135 lb. in weight. College graduates are strongly preferred. They must pass a “personality test”—i.e., be reasonably personable as well as amiable. Because Superintendent H. W. Quinlan of the New Haven’s dining cars believes that grace of carriage and movement is important, he insists on modeling experience as well as hostess experience.\nRead the full story, here in the TIME archives: Women on Wheels"
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"The My Hero Project - Ellen Church",
"Ellen Church, first stewardess - Famous Daily",
"Ellen Church: America's First Stewardess",
"First Stewardess from Howard County | Howard County",
"Ellen Church Archives - This Day in Aviation",
"Ellen Marshall (Church) (1904 - 1965) - Genealogy",
"Flight Attendants of History: How the First Stewardess Got ..."
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Which country does the airline Avensa come from?
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tc_793
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Avensa (Aerovías Venezolanas Sociedad Anonima) was a Venezuelan airline headquartered in Caracas. It is in the process of financial restructuring, after it went into bankruptcy due to poor management in 2002. It operated from its hub at Simon Bolivar International Airport in Maiquetía.\n\nTechnically Avensa still exists, with a single Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia aircraft keeping the name alive. But for all intents and purposes the company is defunct. Around Venezuela's airports, Avensa relics can be seen everywhere: old check-in signs, rusted luggage carts, derelict airplane stairways, the name still visible through cracked blue paint around Venezuela’s airports. \n\nHistory\n\nAvensa was created on May 13, 1943, as a cargo airline by the Venezuelan businessman, Andres Boulton Pietri, and Pan American World Airways. Its first flights occurred in December 1943, flying cargo to Venezuela's oil-rich Carteru region with Ford Trimotors and Stinson Reliants. By 1944, Avensa had started passenger flights with Lockheed 10A twins. After World War II, DC-3 Dakotas were added to the fleet. These were the backbone of the fleet until 1955 when Convair 340 twins were introduced for a new service to Miami. Avensa had set up an extensive domestic route network by the beginning of the 1960s. The airline also flew internationally to Miami, Aruba, Jamaica and New Orleans. Avensa merged its international routes with the international routes of LAV (Aeropostal) and the resulting network was the basis for a new international Venezuelan airline called Viasa, in which Avensa had a 45% holding. Avensa purchased jet equipment in the form of a single Sud Caravelle jet in 1964. Turboprop aircraft were introduced in 1966 when the airline purchased Convair 580s. Douglas DC9s were also introduced to give the airline a more competitive edge. Pan Am sold its 30% holding of Avensa to the Venezuelan government in 1976, making it completely state-owned. Later, Avensa introduced Boeing 727-100 and 727-200 jets. Two Boeing 737-200s were later introduced. A fleet renewal program was set in motion at the end of the 1980s and new Boeing 737-300s were added. Boeing 757s were also introduced as part of the renewal program. These new aircraft were returned during the 1990s when Avensa fell into financial difficulties and had to make cut backs. This left the fleet with eleven aging Boeing 727s, five Douglas DC9s and two Boeing 737-200s at the end of the 1990s. Avensa took over many of the international routes formerly flown by Viasa after that airline collapsed in 1997. Avensa operated a smaller low-cost airline called Servivensa, which operated mainly Boeing 727 aircraft. Avensa is currently serving only a domestic network of three cities as it attempts to re-structure due to continuing financial difficulties.\n\nAt one time it had its headquarters in the now Caracas City Government's owned Torre El Chorro in Caracas, and in the Torre Humboldt complex in East Caracas. \n\nDestinations\n\nThis is the list of places to which Avensa flew:\n\nDomestic:\n*Barcelona\n*Barquisimeto\n*Caracas\n*Carúpano\n*Ciudad Bolivar\n*Cumaná\n*La Fría\n*Las Piedras\n*Maturín\n*Mérida\n*Porlamar\n*Puerto Ordaz\n*San Antonio del Táchira\n*Santa Bárbara del Zulia\n*Valencia\n*Valera\n* Maracaibo\n* San Tomé\n\nInternational:\n*Aruba\n*Bogota, Colombia\n*Bonaire\n*Curaçao\n*Lima, Peru\n*Lisbon, Portugal\n*Madrid, Spain\n*Medellin, Colombia\n*Mexico City, Mexico\n*Miami, USA\n*Milan, Italy\n*New York, USA\n*Oporto, Portugal\n*Panama City, Panama\n*Quito, Ecuador\n*Rio de Janeiro, Brazil\n*Rome, Italy\n*São Paulo, Brazil\n*Tenerife, Spain\n\nFleet\n\nBefore ceasing operations Avensa had a fleet of Douglas DC-9, DC-10, Boeing 727 and 737-200 aircraft. After ceasing operations, two Boeings 727-200 were leased to Santa Barbara Airlines, as well as both DC-10s. The rest of the fleet was derelict and scrapped in 2007.\n\nTheir fleet comprised:\n\nIncidents and accidents\n\n*On 25 February 1962, a Fairchild F-27 crashed into a mountain on departure from Margarita Island, with 23 on board killed. \n*On 21 March 1968, an Avensa Convair CV-440 was hijacked to Cuba by three passengers. \n*On 22 December 1974, Avensa Flight 358 Douglas DC-9-14 crashed in Maturín, Venezuela, shortly after take off due to a double engine failure. 77 passengers and crew were killed. \n*11 March 1983 a Douglas DC-9 crashed at Barquisimeto Airport. 22 passengers and one crew were killed."
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"Russia\nSend me a copy\nSubject:\nEmail addresses provided here will be used solely to email the link indicated. They will not be saved, shared, or used again in any manner whatsoever.\nThe CAPTCHA code you entered is not valid, please reenter the CAPTCHA code\nRussia\nLast Updated: January 12, 2017\nEmbassy Messages\nRequired six months beyond intended stay\nBLANK PASSPORT PAGES:\n$10,000 or more must be declared\nCURRENCY RESTRICTIONS FOR EXIT:\nYou may export up to $3,000 (or equivalent) without declaring it.\nExpand All\nBolshoy Deviatinsky Pereulok No. 8\n(Consular Section located at Novinskiy Bulvar 21)\nMoscow 121099, Russian Federation\nTelephone: +(7) (495) 728-5000 or +(7) (495) 728-5577\nEmergency After-Hours Telephone: +(7) (495) 728-5000\nFax: +(7) (495) 728-5084\nEmergency After-Hours Telephone: +(7) (912) 939-5794\nFax: +(7) (812) 331-2646\nEmergency After-Hours Telephone: +(7) (914) 791-0067\nFax: +(7) (4232) 300-091\n \nDestination Description\nSee the Department of State’s Fact Sheet on Russia for information on U.S. - Russia relations.\nEntry, Exit & Visa Requirements\nRussian authorities strictly enforce all visa and immigration laws. The Embassy of the Russian Federation website provides the most up to date information regarding visa regulations and requirements. In accordance with Russia’s Entry-Exit Law , Russian authorities may deny entry or reentry into Russia for 5 years or more and cancel the visas of foreigners who have committed two “administrative” violations within the past three years. Activities that are not specifically covered by the traveler’s visa may result in an administrative violation and deportation.\nUnder a bilateral agreement signed in 2012, qualified U.S. applicants for humanitarian, private, tourist, and business visas should request and receive multiple-entry visas with a validity of three years. Visas issued under the agreement permits stays in the territory of the Russian Federation for up to six consecutive months. (Please note that other types of visas are not part of the agreement and those visa holders should pay close attention to the terms of their visas.) You must exit Russia before your visa expires. The maximum period of stay is shown on the visa.\nYou must have a current U.S. passport with the appropriate visa. Russian visas in an expired or canceled passport are not valid.\nForeigners entering Russia will be fingerprinted.\nYou must obtain a valid visa for your specific purpose of travel before arriving in Russia, unless you are arriving as a cruise ship passenger (see below information for passengers of cruise ships and ferries). Do not attempt to enter Russia before the date shown on your visa. If you are staying in Russia for more than 7 days you must register your visa and migration card with the General Administration for Migration Issues of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.\nFor a foreigner to receive a Russian visa, there must be a Russian sponsoring organization or individual.\nYou must list all areas in Russia that you intend to visit on your visa application. You will be arrested if you enter a restricted area, so it is vital that you include all destinations on your visa application. There is no centralized list or database of the restricted areas, so travelers should check with their sponsor, hotel, or the nearest office of the FMS before traveling to unfamiliar cities and towns.\nYou must carry your passport with you at all times. Russian police have the authority to stop people and request identity and travel documents at any time.\nMigration cards must be carried at all times while in Russia. A “migration card” is the white paper document given by the border police on first entry to Russia. If you lose your migration card you should ask your sponsor to assist you in reporting it to FMS and request a replacement.\nDo not enter before the date shown on your visa, and do not remain in Russia beyond the date your visa expires. Violations of even an hour have led to penalties.\nTransit visas: We recommend that all passengers transiting through Russia obtain a Russian transit visa.\nWith the exceptions noted below, travelers will not require a transit visa if they are transiting through an international airport in Russia, do not leave the Customs zone, and depart from the same airport within 24 hours. Please note the following exceptions.\nTravelers should note that Sheremetyevo Airport terminals D, E, and F include transit zones and do not require transit visas. If however, a passenger arrives at D, E, or F but departs from Sheremetyevo terminal C, a transit visa is required. Sheremetyevo terminal C is located six kilometers away from the other terminals.\nTravelers must have a Russian transit visa if they plan to transit through Russia by land en route to a third country or if they transfer to another airport.\nTravelers must possess a Russian transit visa in addition to a Belarusian visa if their travel route either to or from Belarus goes through Russia.\nAnyone entering Russia who has claim to Russian citizen, regardless of any other citizenship held, is fully accountable to the Russian authorities for all obligations of a citizen, including the required military service.\nU.S.-Russian dual nationals and Russian citizens who are Legal Permanent residents of the United States must register their dual nationality/foreign residency. Registration forms and further information (in Russian only) can be found on the website of the General Administration for Migration Issues of the Interior Ministry of Russia.\nU.S.-Russian dual nationals must both enter and exit on a Russian passport. You will not be permitted to depart on an expired passport. Applying for a passport can take several months. \nU.S.-Russian dual nationals who return to Russia on a “Repatriation Certificate” are only permitted to enter Russia and will not be permitted to depart Russia until they obtain a valid Russian passport.\nStudents and English teachers should be certain that their activities are in strict keeping with their visa type. Students must not teach or coach English, whether compensated or not, while traveling on a student visa as it is considered a visa violation and may subject you to detention and deportation. \nMinors who also have Russian citizenship and are traveling alone or in the company of adults who are not their parents, must carry a Russian passport as well as their parents’ notarized consent for the trip, which can be obtained at a Russian embassy or consulate, or a U.S. notary public. A consent obtained in the United States from a U.S. notary public must be apostilled, translated into Russian, and properly affixed. Authorities will prevent such minors from entering or leaving Russia if they cannot present this consent.\nPassengers of Cruise Ships and Ferries at St. Petersburg and Vladivostok are permitted to stay in Russia for 72 hours without a visa when accompanied by a tour operator licensed by Russian authorities. Ferry schedules may not permit visitors to stay more than two nights without exceeding the 72 hour limit. If you plan to sightsee on your own you must have a tourist visa. A visa is also required if you plan to depart Russia by another mode of transportation. Riverboat cruise passengers must have a visa and must follow the general guidelines for entry/exit requirements. U.S. citizens entering Russia as cruise passengers should be aware that a number of active duty and retired U.S. military members have experienced targeted harassment by the Russian authorities.\nCrimea: Follow the guidance in the Travel Warning for Ukraine and do not travel to the Crimean Peninsula. \nDocumentary Requirements: Consult with the Embassy of the Russian Federation or Consulates General for detailed explanations of documentary requirements. The following are only a sampling of examples.\nTourist Visas: Visa application form, hotel reservation confirmation, contract for provision of tourist services with a tourist organization registered with the Russian Federal Tourism Agency.\nBusiness and Humanitarian Visas: Visa application form and written statement from the host organization in Russian, including the following information:\nOrganization's full name, official address, and contact information\nFull name of the person signing the written statement\nIf the organization is established in the territory of the Russian Federation, the organization's individual taxpayer number\nVisa applicant's name, date of birth, citizenship, gender, passport number, number of entries sought, purpose of travel, requested period of entry, location of intended residence in Russia, and cities to be visited.\n \nPrivate Visas: Visa application form and written statement from the hosting individual notarized by a Russian notary, including the following information:\nHosting individual's full name, date of birth, citizenship, gender, passport number, address of registration, and individual's actual residence\nVisa applicant's name, date of birth, citizenship, gender, passport number, number of entries sought, purpose of travel, requested period of entry, location of intended residence in Russia, and cities to be visited.\nThe Russian Embassy or Consulate receiving the visa application may ask for additional documentation, including:\nBank statement from the applicant\nStatement from the applicant's employer regarding the applicant's salary for the preceding year, half year, or month\nMedical insurance valid in Russia and fully covering the period of the first trip\nDocuments regarding the applicant's ownership of property in the United States\nCertificates verifying family membership (i.e., marriage certificate and children's birth certificates).\nHIV/AIDS Entry Restrictions: Some HIV/AIDS entry restrictions exist for visitors to and foreign residents of Russia. Applicants for longer-term tourist and work visas or residence permits are required to undergo an HIV/AIDS test. The Russian government may also ask these applicants to undergo tests for tuberculosis and leprosy. Travelers who believe they may be subject to these requirements should verify this information with the Embassy of the Russian Federation.\nFind information on dual nationality , prevention of international child abduction and customs regulations on our websites.\nSafety and Security\nTerrorism: Persons visiting or living in Russia remain potentially vulnerable to attacks by transnational and local terrorist organizations. \nIn the last decade, Moscow and St. Petersburg have been the targets of terrorist attacks. Bombings have occurred at Russian government buildings, airports, hotels, tourist sites, markets, entertainment venues, schools, residential complexes, and on public transportation (subways, buses, trains, and scheduled commercial flights). \nBomb threats against public venues are common. If you are at a location that receives a bomb threat, follow all instructions from the local police and security services. \nNorth Caucasus Region: Civil and political unrest continues throughout the North Caucasus region including Chechnya, North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Dagestan, Stavropol, Karachayevo-Cherkessiya, and Kabardino-Balkariya. Local criminal gangs have kidnapped foreigners, including U.S. citizens, for ransom.\nDo not travel to Chechnya or any other areas in the North Caucasus region.\nIf you reside in these areas depart immediately.\nU.S. government travel to the region is prohibited, due to ongoing security concerns.\nU.S. Government has no ability to assist U.S. citizens in the North Caucasus Region.\nMt. Elbrus:\nDo not attempt to climb Mt. Elbrus, as individuals must pass close to volatile and insecure areas of the North Caucasus region.\nCrimea:\nSee traveling safely abroad for useful travel tips.\nLocal Laws & Special Circumstances\nArrest Notification: If you are detained, ask the police or prison officials to notify the U.S. Embassy or Consulate immediately. Your U.S. passport does not protect you from arrest or prosecution. See our webpage for further information.\nCriminal Penalties: You are subject to all Russian laws. If you violate these laws, even unknowingly, you may be arrested, fined, imprisoned, or expelled and may be banned from re-entering Russia. \nSome crimes committed outside the United States are prosecutable in the United States, regardless of local law. For examples, see crimes against minors abroad and the Department of Justice website.\nYou can be arrested, detained, fined, deported and banned for 5 years or more if you are found to have violated Russian immigration law. \nPenalties for possessing, using, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Russia are severe. Convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines.\nYou can be detained for not carrying your passport with you.\nYou can be jailed immediately for driving under the influence of alcohol.\nIt is illegal to pay for goods and services in U.S. dollars, except at authorized retail establishments.\nYou can be arrested for attempting to leave the country with antiques, even if they were legally purchased from licensed vendors. Cultural value items like artwork, icons, samovars, rugs, military medals and antiques, must have certificates indicating they do not have historical or cultural value. You may obtain certificates from the Russian Ministry of Culture . For further information, please contact the Russian Customs Committee .\nRetain all receipts for high-value items, including caviar.\nYou must have advance approval to bring in satellite telephones. \nGlobal Positioning System (GPS) and other radio electronic devices, and their use, are subject to special rules and regulations in Russia. Contact the Russian Customs Service for required permissions.\nFaith-Based Travelers: Russian authorities have detained, fined, and in some cases deported travelers for engaging in religious activities. Russian officials have stated that Russia recognizes four “historic” religions: Orthodox Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and Buddhism. The Russian government places restrictions on so-called “missionary activity” and defines it broadly – travelers engaging in certain types of religious work may risk harassment, detention, fines, or deportation for administrative violations if they do not have proper authorization from a registered religious group. The Russian government has detained U.S. citizens for religious activities that they contend are not permitted under a tourist visa. Even speaking at a religious service, traditional or non-traditional, has resulted in immigration violations. See the Department of State’s International Religious Freedom Report .\nLGBTI Travelers: Russian law bans providing \"the propaganda of nontraditional sexual relations\" to minors. Foreign citizens face similar fines, up to 15 days in jail, and deportation. The law is vague as to what Russia considers propaganda of nontraditional sexual relations.\nDiscrimination based on sexual orientation is widespread in Russia. Acts of violence and harassment targeting LGBTI individuals occur.\nGovernment officials have made derogatory comments about LGBT persons.\nViolence against the LGBTI community has increased sharply since the law banning propaganda was passed, including entrapment and torture of young gay men by neo-Nazi gangs and the murder of multiple individuals due to their sexual orientation.\nStudents: See our Students Abroad page and FBI travel tips .\nWomen Travelers: See our travel tips for Women Travelers .\nHealth\nMedical care in most areas of Russia is below Western standards. The Russian authorities have cut hospital bed numbers resulting in increased deaths. The healthcare system budget will be cut 33 % in 2017. Moscow and St. Petersburg facilities may have higher standards but do not accept all cases and require cash or credit card payment at Western rates.\nPayment is expected at the time of service.\nThe Embassy does not pay the medical bills of private U.S. citizens.\nU.S. Medicare does not provide coverage outside the United States. \nMake sure your health insurance plan provides coverage overseas. Most care providers overseas only accept cash payments. See our webpage for more information on insurance providers for overseas coverage . \nElderly travelers and those with existing health problems are at risk.\nDisposable IV supplies, syringes, and needles are standard practice in urban area hospitals. If you plan to travel in remote areas, bring a supply of sterile, disposable syringes and corresponding IV supplies.\nDo not visit tattoo parlors or piercing services due to the risk of HIV and hepatitis infection.\nDue to uncertainties in local blood supply, non-essential and elective surgeries are not recommended.\nPrescription Medication:\nRussia prohibits some prescription and over the counter drugs that are legal and commonly used in the United States.\nCarry a copy of the valid U.S. prescription, including a notarized translation into Russian, when entering Russia with prescription medications. \nPrescription medication should be in its original packaging.\nMedical Insurance: Make sure your health insurance plan provides coverage overseas. We strongly recommend supplemental insurance to cover medical evacuation.\nU.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)\nTravel & Transportation\nRoad Conditions and Safety: Road conditions and driver safety customs differ significantly from those in the United States. In some areas of Russia roads are practically nonexistent or have poor or nonexistent shoulders. Many roads are one-way or do not permit left turns.\nExercise caution near traffic. Drivers frequently fail to yield to pedestrians.\nVehicles regularly drive and park on sidewalks or pedestrian walkways.\nDo not drive outside the major cities at night.\nLivestock crossing roadways is common in rural areas.\nConstruction sites and road hazards are often unmarked. \nFood, hotel, and auto service facilities are rare along roadways.\nDo not drive alone at night or sleep in your vehicle on the side of the road.\nDo not pick up hitchhikers. You may be assaulted or arrested for unwittingly transporting narcotics.\nPublic Transportation:"
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What was the USA's biggest attack of the Vietnam War when it took place in February 1967?
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tc_794
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"January\n\n;January 6, 1967\n\nOperation Deckhouse Five was conducted by the United States Marine Corps and South Vietnamese Marine Corps forces along the Mekong River Delta, as part of the Vietnam War. The operation was notable in that it was a sizable, combined U.S. Marine and Vietnamese Marine amphibious operation and it was the last Special Landing Force (SLF) amphibious landing to take place beyond the boundaries of I Corps. The operation occurred January 6–15, 1967.\n\n;January 8, 1967\n\nOperation Cedar Falls was a military operation conducted primarily by US forces. The aim of this massive search and destroy operation was to eradicate the so-called \"Iron Triangle\", an area located in close proximity to Saigon which had become a major stronghold of the communist National Liberation Front (NLF) or Viet Cong. The operation began on January 8, 1967 and ended on January 28, 1967. \n\nFile:Deckhouse V photograph - 1.jpg|Two U.S. Marine Corps amphibious tractors are moving along the beach in the foreground, with a UH-1 helicopter approaching at right. is in the background during Operation Deckhouse Five.\n\nFebruary\n\n;February 14, 1967\n\nThe Battle of Tra Binh Dong was probably the most famous battle fought by the South Korean Marines. It was fought in the Tra Binh Dong village near the border of Cambodia.\n\n;February 17, 1967\n\nOperation Bribie, or the Battle of Ap My An, was fought during the Vietnam War in Phuoc Tuy province between Australian forces from the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (6RAR) and the Viet Cong, reinforced by North Vietnamese regulars.\n\n;February 22, 1967\n\nOperation Junction City was an 82-day military operation conducted by United States and Republic of Vietnam (RVN or South Vietnam) forces begun on February 22, 1967 lasting until May 14, 1967. It was the largest U.S. airborne operation since Operation Market Garden during World War II, the only major airborne operation of the Vietnam War, and one of the largest U.S. operations of the Southeast Asian conflict.\n\nApril\n\n;April 21\nOperation Union was a military operation conducted by the United States Marine Corps. It was a search and destroy mission in the Que Son Valley carried out by the 1st Marine Regiment. The object of the operation was the 2nd Division of the People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN, often in US sources \"North Vietnamese Army\" or NVA). Launched on April 21, 1967 the operation ended May 16.\n\nFrom April to May 1967 The Hill Fights was a battle between the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN or NVA) and United States Marines on Hills 881 North, 881 South, and 861 north of Khe Sanh Combat Base in the I Corps Tactical Zone.\n\nMay\n\n;May 11, 1967\n\nRunning from May 11 to 1 July 1967 Operation Malheur I and Operation Malheur II were a series of military actions conducted by the United States army subduing increased activity by National Liberation Front (NLF) forces in the northern part of South Vietnam.\n\n;May 25, 1967\n\nOperation Union II was a search and destroy mission in the Que Son Valley carried out by the 5th Marine Regiment. Launched on May 25, 1967 the operation ended June 5.\n\nJuly\n\n;July 2, 1967\n\nRunning from July 2 to July 14, 1967 Operation Buffalo was a major operation that took place in the southern half of the DMZ, northeast of Con Thien.\n\n;July 2, 1967\n\nThe Battle of July Two was a short engagement that took place along Route 561 between Gia Binh and An Kha, during Operation Buffalo. The North Vietnamese 90th Regiment was engaged with the American Marines.\n\n;July 9, 1967\n\nOperation Hong Kil Dong was the largest South Korean operation of the Vietnam War to halt infiltration into friendly areas.\n\nSeptember\n\n;September 19\nThe Royal Thai Army Regiment starts its deployment in South Vietnam. \n;September 4, 1967\nOperation Swift was a search and destroy mission in the Que Son Valley carried out by the 1st Marine Division. Launched on September 4, 1967 the ensuing battles killed 114 Americans and an estimated 376 North Vietnamese. The operation ended September 15.\n\nOctober\n\n;October 10, 1967\n\nOperation Medina was a search and destroy operation conducted in the Hai Lang Forest Reserve of South Vietnam. It lasted till the 20th of October.\n\n;October 17, 1967\nThe Battle of Ong Thanh was a battle of the Vietnam War that saw the soldiers of the 2nd Battalion, 28th Infantry (the \"Black Lions\"), ambushed and subsequently decimated by a well-entrenched and prepared National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF), or Viet Cong, regiment outnumbering the Americans almost 10-to-1.\n\n;October–November\nThe first battle of Loc Ninh was a conflict in the Vietnam War fought by the Vietcong and the CIDG, and ended when ARVN and US forces came to the camp.\n\nNovember\n\n;November 3–22, 1967\nThe Battle of Đắk Tô was a series of major engagements of the Vietnam War that took place in Kontum Province, in the Central Highlands of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam).\n\n;November 11, 1967\n\nOperation Wheeler/Wallowa was an offensive on the part of the Americans, of which the My Lai Massacre by a platoon led by Lt William Calley was part. \n\nDecember\n\n;December 6–20, 1967\n\nThe Battle of Tam Quan was a two-week battle fought when the American 8th Cavalry and other units disrupted the 7th and 8th battalions of the 22nd NVA Regiment, which was in the process of preparing to conduct a major attack on ARVN installations at Tam Quan. \n\nYear in numbers\n\nBibliography\n\n; Notes\n\n; References\n\n* Total pages: 483.\n* Total pages: 312.\n* Total pages: 396.\n*"
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"February 21, 1967: In one of the ... 40 are wounded. The initial attack continues for two days. ... Khe Sanh had been the biggest single battle of the Vietnam War to ...",
"... (Central Vietnam). By February 1970 the focus of ... operations took place in Cambodia in May and ... turning over the ground war to South Vietnam, ...",
"The Vietnam War. The Jungle War ... February 2, 1967 ... Nicknamed the \"savior of Saigon,\" Weyand had sensed the coming attack, prepared his troops, and on February 1 ..."
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"Battlefield:Vietnam | Timeline\nLooking out from a patrol boat during Operation Cedar Falls\nFebruary 21, 1967\nIn one of the largest air-mobile assaults ever, 240 helicopters sweep over Tay Ninh province, beginning Operation Junction City. The goal of Junction City is to destroy Vietcong bases and the Vietcong military headquarters for South Vietnam, all of which are located in War Zone C, north of Saigon. Some 30,000 U.S. troops take part in the mission, joined by 5,000 men of the South Vietnamese Army. After 72 days, Junction City ends. American forces succeed in capturing large quantities of stores, equipment and weapons, but there are no large, decisive battles.\n \nJunction City was one of the largest helicopter assaults ever staged\nApril 24, 1967\nAmerican attacks on North Vietnam's airfields begin. The attacks inflict heavy damage on runways and installations. By the end of the year, all but one of the North's Mig bases has been hit.\n \nMay 1967\nDesperate air battles rage in the skies over Hanoi and Haiphong. America air forces shoot down 26 North Vietnamese jets, decreasing the North's pilot strength by half.\n \nLate May 1967\nIn the Central Highlands of South Vietnam, Americans intercept North Vietnamese Army units moving in from Cambodia. Nine days of continuous battles leave hundreds of North Vietnamese soldiers dead.\n \nSoldiers fighting in the central highlands\nAutumn 1967\nIn Hanoi, as Communist forces are building up for the Tet Offensive, 200 senior officials are arrested in a crackdown on opponents of the Tet strategy.\n \n1968\nMid-January 1968\nIn mid-January 1968 in the remote northwest corner of South Vietnam, elements of three NVA divisions begin to mass near the Marine base at Khe Sanh. The ominous proportions of the build-up lead the U.S. commanders to expect a major offensive in the northern provinces.\n \nJanuary 21, 1968\nAt 5:30 a.m., a shattering barrage of shells, mortars and rockets slam into the Marine base at Khe Sanh. Eighteen Marines are killed instantly, 40 are wounded. The initial attack continues for two days.\n \nVietcong artillery\nJanuary 30 - 31, 1968\nOn the Tet holiday, Vietcong units surge into action over the length and breadth of South Vietnam. In more than 100 cities and towns, shock attacks by Vietcong sapper-commandos are followed by wave after wave of supporting troops. By the end of the city battles, 37,000 Vietcong troops deployed for Tet have been killed. Many more had been wounded or captured, and the fighting had created more than a half million civilian refugees. Casualties included most of the Vietcong's best fighters, political officers and secret organizers; for the guerillas, Tet is nothing less than a catastrophe. But for the Americans, who lost 2,500 men, it is a serious blow to public support.\n \nMilitary police defend the US Embassy\nFebruary 23, 1968\nOver 1,300 artillery rounds hit the Marine base at Khe Sanh and its outposts, more than on any previous day of attacks. To withstand the constant assaults, bunkers at Khe Sanh are rebuilt to withstand 82mm mortar rounds.\n \nMarch 6, 1968\nWhile Marines wait for a massive assault, NVA forces retreat into the jungle around Khe Sanh. For the next three weeks, things are relatively quiet around the base.\n \nMarch 11, 1968\nMassive search and destroy sweeps are launched against Vietcong remnants around Saigon and other parts of South Vietnam.\n \nMarch 16, 1968\nIn the hamlet of My Lai, U.S. Charlie Company kills about two hundred civilians. Although only one member of the division is tried and found guilty of war crimes, the repercussions of the atrocity is felt throughout the Army. However rare, such acts undid the benefit of countless hours of civic action by Army units and individual soldiers and raised unsettling questions about the conduct of the war.\n \nMarch 22, 1968\nWithout warning, a massive North Vietnamese barrage slams into Khe Sanh. More than 1,000 rounds hit the base, at a rate of a hundred every hour. At the same time, electronic sensors around Khe Sanh indicate NVA troop movements. American forces reply with heavy bombing.\n \nArtillery slams into Khe Sanh\nApril 8, 1968\nU.S. forces in Operation Pegasus finally retake Route 9, ending the siege of Khe Sanh. A 77 day battle, Khe Sanh had been the biggest single battle of the Vietnam War to that point. The official assessment of the North Vietnamese Army dead is just over 1,600 killed, with two divisions all but annihilated. But thousands more were probably killed by American bombing.\n \nJune 1968\nWith strong, highly mobile American forces now in the area, and the base no longer needed for defense, General Westmoreland approves the abandonment and demolition of Khe Sanh.\n \nNovember 1, 1968\nAfter three-and-a-half years, Operation Rolling Thunder comes to an end. In total, the campaign had cost more than 900 American aircraft. Eight hundred and eighteen pilots are dead or missing, and hundreds are in captivity. Nearly 120 Vietnamese planes have been destroyed in air combat or accidents, or by friendly fire. According to U.S. estimates, 182,000 North Vietnamese civilians have been killed. Twenty thousand Chinese support personnel also have been casualties of the bombing.",
"Vietnam Campaigns - U.S. Army Center of Military History\n1 December 1971 - 29 March 1972\nCease-Fire\n30 March 1972 - 28 January 1973\nAdvisory, 15 March 1962 - 7 March 1965. During this period, direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam conflict increased steadily as U.S. trained Vietnamese pilots moved Vietnamese helicopter units into and out of combat. Ultimately the United States hoped that a strong Vietnamese government would result in improved internal security and national defense. The number of U.S. advisors in the field rose from 746 in January 1962 to over 3,400 by June; the entire U.S. commitment by the end of the year was 11,000, which included 29 U.S. Army Special Forces detachments. These advisory and support elements operated under the Commander, U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, a position established 8 February 1962. The object of American military assistance was to counter the threat to the government of the Republic of Vietnam posed by the insurgency of an estimated 30,000 regular communist Viet Cong and civilian sympathizers among the population. Despite what appeared to be considerable successes in consolidating the population in a series of defended strategic hamlets, and in establishing local defense forces, the U.S. equipped Army of the Republic of Vietnam repeatedly demonstrated an unwillingness to close with the enemy. A corrupt government and bitterly contending Vietnamese political factions further hampered a coherent prosecution of the war with American advisors, who nevertheless continued their efforts well into the period of large scale commitments of U.S. Army forces to the conflict.\nDefense, 8 March 1965 - 24 December 1965. During this campaign the U.S. objective was to hold off the enemy while gaining time needed to build base camps and logistical facilities. The U.S. also attempted to consolidate its ground operations more efficiently. For this purpose, it organized the U.S. Army Vietnam (USARV). U.S. support in the I Corps tactical zone, composed of five northernmost provinces, was to be primarily a Marine Corps responsibility; the U.S. Army was to operate mainly in the II and III Corps tactical zones which comprised the Central highlands, adjacent coastal regions, and the area around Saigon; and ARVN troops were to retain primary responsibility for the Delta region of the IV Corps.\nOn 19 October 1965. three VC regiments totaling 6,000 men attacked a Civil Irregular Defense Group (CIDG) - U.S. Special Forces at Plei Me, near the entrance to the Ia Drang Valley, in what purported to be the start of a thrust to cut the country in half.\nWith the assistance of massive air strikes, elements of the newly arrived 1st Cavalry Division thwarted the enemy in a battle that lasted nearly a month and included several engagements. The Ia Drang Valley action was the costliest in terms of casualties to date. The successful defense of the region improved security in and around the Central Highlands and raised the morale of the soldiers involved.\nCounteroffensive, 25 December 1965 - 30 June 1966. Following the U.S. victory in the Ia Drang Valley, American forces for the remainder of 1965 and well into 1966 sought to keep the enemy off balance while building base camps and logistical installations. This involved search and destroy operations to protect the logistical bases under construction along the coast and the base camps for incoming U.S. units in the provinces near Saigon.\nAlso of particular concern to the American military mission was the protection of the government and the people of South Vietnam. To accomplish the tasks outlined U.S. efforts were concentrated in the most vital and heavily populated regions. The III Marine Amphibious Force supported the South Vietnamese I Corps in the northern provinces; the I Field Force supported the Vietnamese II Corps in the central region; and the II Field Force supported the South Vietnamese III Corps around Saigon. Consequently, the major battles of the year occurred in these critical areas. The 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division, the Korean 2d Marine Brigade, and the ARVN 47th Regiment began Operation VAN BUREN on 19 January to locate and destroy the North Vietnamese 95th Regiment, which was believed to be in the Tuy Hoa Valley. Their mission included protecting the rice harvest produced in the coastal region. The successful execution of these assignments resulted in serious enemy losses. During 20-23 January, a temporary cease fire was proclaimed in honor of the lunar new year (Tet), although minor clashes continued throughout this period.\nDuring February and March, U.S. intelligence reported heavy North Vietnamese Army infiltration from Laos and across the demilitarized zone into Quang Tri Province. Only the South Vietnamese 1st Division and a single U.S. marine battalion were deployed to the province. However, to defend against this threatened invasion the bulk of the U.S. 3d Marine Division and the first U.S. Army combat units, the 173d Airborne Brigade, were moved into the northern provinces. On April 12, U.S. B-52s based on Guam bombed infiltration routes near the Laos border in the first use of these weapons against NVA. Throughout this phase of the campaign, the enemy continued to take refuge in Laos, Cambodia, and North Vietnam. Driving the enemy back removed the threat of harassment of the populace by North Vietnamese regular forces and curbed local guerrilla activity.\nCounteroffensive, Phase II, 1 July 1966 - 31 May 1967. United States operations after 1 July 1966 were a continuation of the earlier counteroffensive campaign. Recognizing the interdependence of political, economic, sociological, and military factors, the Joint Chiefs of Staff declared that American military objectives should be to cause North Vietnam to cease its control and support of the insurgency in South Vietnam and Laos, to assist South Vietnam in defeating Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces in South Vietnam, and to assist South Vietnam in pacification extending governmental control over its territory.\nNorth Vietnam continued to build its own forces inside South Vietnam. At first this was done by continued infiltration by sea and along the Ho Chi Minh trail and then, in early 1966, through the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). U.S. air elements received permission to conduct reconnaissance bombing raids, and tactical air strikes into North Vietnam just north of the DMZ, but ground forces were denied authority to conduct reconnaissance patrols in the northern portion of the DMZ and inside North Vietnam. Confined to South Vietnamese territory U.S. ground forces fought a war of attrition against the enemy, relying for a time on body counts as one standard indicator for measuring successful progress for winning the war.\nDuring 1966 there were eighteen major operations, the most successful of these being Operation WHITE WING (MASHER). During this operation, the 1st Cavalry Division, Korean units, and ARVN forces cleared the northern half of Binh Dinh Province on the central coast. In the process they decimated a division, later designated the North Vietnamese 3d Division. The U.S. 3d Marine Division was moved into the area of the two northern provinces and in concert with South Vietnamese Army and other Marine Corps units, conducted Operation HASTINGS against enemy infiltrators across the DMZ.\nThe largest sweep of 1966 took place northwest of Saigon in Operation ATTLEBORO, involving 22,000 American and South Vietnamese troops pitted against the VC 9th Division and a NVA regiment. The Allies defeated the enemy and, in what became a frequent occurrence, forced him back to his havens in Cambodia or Laos.\nBy 31 December 1966, U.S. military personnel in South Vietnam numbered 385,300. Enemy forces also increased substantially, so that for the same period, total enemy strength was in excess of 282,000 in addition to an estimated 80,000 political cadres. By 30 June 1967, total U.S. forces in SVN had risen to 448,800, but enemy strength had increased as well.\nOn 8 January U.S. and South Vietnamese troops launched separate drives against two major VC strongholds in South Vietnam-in the so-called \"Iron Triangle\" about 25 miles northwest of Saigon. For years this area had been under development as a VC logistics base and headquarters to control enemy activity in and around Saigon. The Allies captured huge caches of rice and other foodstuffs, destroyed a mammoth system of tunnels, and seized documents of considerable intelligence value.\nIn February, the same U.S. forces that had cleared the \"Iron Triangle\", were committed with other units in the largest allied operation of the war to date, JUNCTION CITY. Over 22 U.S. and four ARVN battalions engaged the enemy, killing 2,728. After clearing this area, the Allies constructed three airfields; erected a bridge and fortified two camps in which CIDG garrisons remained as the other allied forces withdrew.\nCounteroffensive, Phase III, 1 June 1967-29 January 1968. The conflict in South Vietnam remains basically unchanged. As Operation JUNCTION CITY ended, elements of the U.S. 1st and 25th Infantry Divisions, the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment, and the forces of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam swung back toward Saigon to conduct another clearing operation, MANHATTAN. This took peace in the Long Nguyen base area just north of the previously cleared \"Iron Triangle.\"\nSouth Vietnamese Armed Forces became more active and capable under U.S. advisors. During the year the Vietnamese Special Forces assumed responsibility for several Special Forces camps and for the CIDG companies manning them. In each case all of the U.S. advisors withdrew, leaving the Vietnamese in full command.\nWith an increased delegation of responsibility to them, the South Vietnamese conducted major operations during 1967, and, in spite of VC attempts to avoid battle, achieved a number of contacts.\nDespite the success of U.S. and South Vietnamese Army operations, there were indications in the fall of 1967 of another enemy build-up, particularly in areas close to Laos and Cambodia. In late October, the VC struck again at the Special Forces Camp at Loc Ninh. Fortunately Vietnamese reinforcements saved the camp. At the same time, approximately 12,000 VC troops converged on a Special Forces camp at Dak To. This camp was located in northern Kontum Province, where the borders of Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam meet. In response to this potential threat, the U.S. and South Vietnam committed a total of sixteen battalions to the region to counter a disturbing enemy resurgence at Kontum and Loc Ninh.\nTet Counteroffensive, 30 January 1968-1 April 1968. On 29 January 1968 the Allies began the Tet-lunar new year expecting the usual 36-hour peaceful holiday truce. Because of the threat of a large-scale attack and communist buildup around Khe Sanh, the cease fire order was issued in all areas over which the Allies were responsible with the exception of the I CTZ, south of the Demilitarized Zone.\nDetermined enemy assaults began in the northern and Central provinces before daylight on 30 January and in Saigon and the Mekong Delta regions that night. Some 84,000 VC and North Vietnamese attacked or fired upon 36 of 44 provincial capitals, 5 of 6 autonomous cities, 64 of 242 district capitals and 50 hamlets. In addition, the enemy raided a number of military installations including almost every airfield. The actual fighting lasted three days; however Saigon and Hue were under more intense and sustained attack.\nThe attack in Saigon began with a sapper assault against the U.S. Embassy. Other assaults were directed against the Presidential Palace, the compound of the Vietnamese Joint General Staff, and nearby Ton San Nhut air base.\nAt Hue, eight enemy battalions infiltrated the city and fought the three U.S. Marine Corps, three U.S. Army and eleven South Vietnamese battalions defending it. The fight to expel the enemy lasted a month. American and South Vietnamese units lost over 500 killed, while VC and North Vietnamese battle deaths may have been somewhere between 4,000 and 5,000.\nHeavy fighting also occurred in two remote regions: around the Special Forces camp at Dak To in the central highlands and around the U.S. Marines Corps base at Khe Sanh. In both areas, the allies defeated attempts to dislodge them. Finally, with the arrival of more U.S. Army troops under the new XXIV Corps headquarters to reinforce the marines in the northern province, Khe Sanh was abandoned.\nTet proved a major military defeat for the communists. It had failed to spawn either an uprising or appreciable support among the South Vietnamese. On the other hand, the U.S. public became discouraged and support for the war was seriously eroded. U.S. strength in South Vietnam totaled more than 500,000 by early 1968. In addition, there were 61,000 other allied troops and 600,000 South Vietnamese.\nThe Tet Offensive also dealt a visibly severe setback to the pacification program, as a result of the intense fighting needed to root out VC elements that clung to fortified positions inside the towns. For example, in the densely populated delta there had been approximately 14,000 refugees in January; after Tet some 170,000 were homeless. The requirement to assist these persons seriously inhibited national recovery efforts.\nCounteroffensive. Phase IV, 2 Apri1 1968-30 June 1968. During this period friendly forces conducted a number of battalion-size attritional operations against the enemy.\nOperations PEGASUS-Lam Son 207 relieved the Khe Sanh Combat Base on 5 April and thereby opened Route 9 for the first time since August 1967. This operation not only severely restricted the North Vietnamese Army's use of western Quang Tri Province but also inflicted casualties on the remnants of two North Vietnamese divisions withdrawing from the area. This success was followed by a singular allied spoiling operation in the A Shau Valley, Operation DELAWARE-Lam Son. These two operations prevented the enemy from further attacking I Corps Tactical Zone population centers and forced him to shift his pressure to the III Corps Tactical Zone.\nDuring the period 5-12 May 1968 the Viet Cong launched an offensive with Saigon as the primary objective. Friendly forces defended the city with great determination. Consequently Saigon was never in danger of being overrun. Small Viet Cong units that did manage to get into the outskirts were fragmented and driven out with great loss of enemy life. By the end of June 1968 friendly forces had decisively blunted the enemy's attacks, inflicted very heavy casualties, and hindered his ability to attack urban areas throughout the Republic of Vietnam. The enemy was forced to withdraw to his sanctuaries.\nThe strength of the U.S. Army in Vietnam reach a peak of nearly 360,000 men during this period.\nCounteroffensive, Phase V, 1 July 1968 - 1 November 1968. During this period a country-wide effort was begun to restore government control of territory lost to the enemy since the Tet offensive. The enemy attempted another such offensive on 17-18 August but his efforts were comparatively feeble and were quickly overwhelmed by Allied forces.\nIn the fall of 1968 the South Vietnamese government, with major U.S. support, launched an accelerated pacification campaign. All friendly forces were coordinated and brought to bear on the enemy in every tactical area of operation. In these intensified operations, friendly units first secured a target area, then Vietnamese government units, regional forces/popular forces, police and civil authorities screened the inhabitants, seeking members of the Viet Cong infrastructure. This technique was so successful against the political apparatus that it became the basis for subsequent friendly operations. Government influence expanded into areas of the countryside previously dominated by the Viet Cong to such an extent that two years later at least some measure of government control was evident in all but a few remote regions.\nCounteroffensive, Phase VI, 2 November 1968 - 22 February 1969. In November 1968 the South Vietnam government with American support began a concentrated effort to expand security in the countryside. This project was known as the \"Accelerated Pacification Campaign.\"\nThis period covers the election of President Richard M. Nixon and a change of policy brought about by his administration after January 1969 when he announced a coming end to US combat in Southeast Asia and a simultaneous strengthening of South Vietnam's ability to defend itself. Formal truce negotiations began in Paris on January 25, 1969. The period can be characterized as marking time in preparation for an about face. Forty-seven ground combat operations were recorded during this period, the following being the most important:\n(1). Operation NAPOLEON in the Dong Ha area initiated previously (1967) by Marine units, terminated on 9 December 1968.\n(2). Operation WHEELER WALLOWA by 3d Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division and 196th Infantry Brigade (Light) in north-central Quan Tin Province. This ended on 11 November.\n(3). Operation MACARTHUR initiated by 4th U.S. Infantry Division in II Corps tactical zone terminated on 31 January 1969.\n(4). Operation COCHISE GREEN conducted by the 173d Airborne Brigade in Binh Dinh Province.\n(5). Operation TOAN THANG II consisted of ground operations throughout III CTZ. This was a multi-division operation involving allied forces.\n(6). Operation SEA LORDS was a coast and riverine operation. On 6 December Operation GIANT SLINGSHOT was started to disrupt enemy infiltration of materials from the \"Parrot's Beak\" area of Cambodia. Air operations continued to be important with over 60,000 sorties flown.\nTet 69/Counteroffensive, 23 February 1969 - 8 June 1969. From Tet 1969 through the month of June, the enemy again tried to sustain an offensive. His inability to do so can be largely attributed to aggressive allied ground operations. Between 23 February and 8 June 1969, a total of 70 significant named ground operations were terminated resulting in heavy enemy loss of life and materiel. The main operations concluded during this period were:\n(1). The 3d Marine Division's Operation KENTUCKY aimed at preventing enemy infiltration through the Demilitarized Zone in central Quang Tri Province. Throughout the early part of January 1969, Viet Cong/North Vietnamese Army forces continued to avoid major contacts with Free World Forces. Their continual movement to avoid friendly forces or to search for food and supplies contributed to a decrease in the enemy-initiated ground attacks and attacks-by-fire in Quang Tri Province.\n(2). Operation NEVADA EAG:E, initiated on 17 May 1968 in Thua Thien Province, continued in 1969 as the U.S. 101st Airborne Division continued to defeat enemy personnel, and capture rice caches, material, and installations within its large area of operations, where it undertook offensive sweeps along Route 547 and around Song Bo.\n(3). Two battalions of the 4th Marine Regiment were engaged in Operation SCOTLAND II. Initiated on 15 April 1968, this multi-battalion search and clear operation was centered in and around Khe Sanh.\n(4). The IV Corps Tactical Zone Dry Weather Campaign began on 1 December 1968 in support of the overall mission to prevent Viet Cong units from interfering with pacification efforts. This operation, \"Speedy Express,\" interdicted lines of enemy communication and denied him the use of base areas. In 1969 the 1st Brigade, 9th U.S. Infantry Division continued the operation in Dinh Tuong Province, using its highly successful night ambush tactics while the 2d Brigade continued its mission with the Mobile Riverine Force. Although engagements in Operation SPEEDY EXPRESS were typically small, the 9th Infantry Division fought several sizeable engagements with impressive results.\nOn 23 February U.S. Navy units and installations at Da Nang, Tan An, Ben Luc, Go Dan Ha, and Tra Cu came under numerous and widespread attacks associated with a new enemy offensive, but since many units in these areas were poised to meet these attacks they caused only minimal damage. April saw the heaviest cumulative enemy activity in the barrier interdiction camapign to date.\nSummer-Fall 1969, 9 June 1969-31 October 1969. During the summer and fall of 1969, conduct of operations was increasingly turned over to Vietnamese, US troops withdrew in greater numbers amid reaffirmations of support for the Republic of South Vietnam government. President Nixon announced the reduction of the U.S. military presence in South Vietnam which would be demonstrated initially by the withdrawal of 25,000 troops by 31 August 1969.\nAmerican troop strength had peaked at 543,400 in April 1969 but dropped to 505,500 by mid October. More scattered than before, enemy attacks were concentrated on South Vietnamese positions. U.S. combat deaths were down in the early fall as American units switched to small unit actions. The trend was not constant, however, because U.S. troops deaths which had fallen well below l00 a week in the fall, rose above 100 later in the year.\nWinter-Spring 1970, 1 November 1969-30 April 1970. An increase in enemy-initiated attacks, at the highest level since 4-5 September signaled the start of the first phase of the Communist winter campaign. This was highlighted by intensified harassment incidents, and attacks throughout the Republic of Vietnam. In November-December these were heaviest in Corps Tactical Zones III and IV (around Saigon), primarily directed against Vietnamese military installations in order to disrupt the pacification program. The most significant enemy activity occurred in November with heavy attacks upon By Prang and Duc Lap in CTZ II (Central Vietnam).\nBy February 1970 the focus of enemy activity began to shift to CTZ I and II. Attacks increased steadily, reaching a peak in April 1970. Hostile forces staged their heaviest attacks in the Central Highlands near Civilian Irregular Defense Group camps at Dak Seang, Dak Pek, and Ben Het in I CTZ. The enemy also conducted numerous attacks by fire and several sapper attacks against U.S. fire support bases. This high level of enemy activity began in I CTZ in April and continued through May.\nDuring the period 1 November 1969 through 30 April 1970 U.S. and allied forces concentrated on aggressive operations to find and destroy enemy main and local forces, the penetration of base camps and installations and the seizure of enemy supplies and materiel. These operations sought to deny the enemy the initiative and to inflict heavy losses in men and materiel. Further progress was made in Vietnamization through improving the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces. As a result of these advances three brigades of the 1st U.S. Infantry Division and several major U.S.M.C. units were withdrawn from Vietnam during this period.\nThe enemy made several efforts to take the offensive at Dak Seang, which was attacked on 1 April 1970 and remained under siege throughout the month, and at Quang Duc in the By Prong-Duc Lap area which ended on 28 December. Only Vietnamese forces were engaged in both of these operations, the Quang Duc campaign involving some 12,000 ARVN troops. South Vietnamese forces again took the offensive on 14 April in a bold 3-day operation in the Angel's Wing area along the Cambodian border. The Vietnamese Army completed this mission in an aggressive professional manner without U.S. support-further evidence of their growing proficiency.\nSanctuary Counteroffensive, 1 May 1970 - 30 June 1970. This campaign was mainly concerned with the Allied incursion into Cambodia, codenamed Operation ROCK CRUSHER. As American withdrawal from South Vietnam proceeded, increasing concern arose over the enemy's strength in the sanctuaries inside Cambodia. With the emergence in Cambodia of an antiCommunist government under Lon Nol, President Nixon relaxed the restrictions on moving against the bases inside Cambodia. Meanwhile, the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong began to move on the Cambodian capital of Phnom Penh. At this juncture Lon Nol appealed to the United States for help. American and allied Vietnamese forces began large-scale offensives in Cambodia on 1 May. Eight major US Army and South Vietnamese operations took place in Cambodia in May and June with the object of cutting enemy communication lines, seizing the sanctuary areas and capturing the shadowy Central Office for South Vietnam (COSVN) described as the control center for enemy military operations against III CTZ.\nCounteroffensive, Phase VII, 1 July 1970 - 30 June 1971. Fighting continued in Cambodia during early February before and after South Vietnam began its U.S.-aided drive in Laos, Lam Son 719, the most significant operation during this campaign.\nLam Son 719 was conducted out of I Corps by Vietnamese troops with US fire and air support. Their object was to cut the Ho Chi Minh Trail and to destroy enemy bases at Techepone, Laos. The operation consisted of four phases. In Phases I, called Operation DEWEY CANYON II, the 1st Brigade, US 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized) occupied the Khe Sanh area and cleared Route No. 9 up to the Laotian border. In the meantime, the US 101st Airborne Division conducted diversionary operations in the A Shau Valley. The US 45th Engineer Group had the mission of repairing Route No. 9 up to the Laotian border. This lasted from 30 January to 7 February 1971. During Phase II US forces continued to provide fire support, helilift, and tactical and strategic air support for ARVN units. This phase was 8 February to March 1971. Phase III ran from March to 16 March 1971; Phase IV was the withdrawal phase.\nFaced with mounting losses, Lt. Gen. Hoang Xuan Lam, the commander of the invasion forces, decided to cut short the operation and ordered a withdrawal.\nLam Son 719, though it was less than a signal success, forestalled a Communist offensive in the spring of 1971. Enemy units and replacements enroute south were diverted to the scene of the action.\nConsolidation I, 1 July 1971 - 30 November 1971. This period witnessed additional progress in the Vietnamization program which included turning over the ground war to South Vietnam, sustaining the withdrawal of U.S. troops, but also continuing, U.S. air strikes on enemy targets.\nSouth Vietnam assumed full control of defense for the area immediately below the demilitarized zone on 11 July, a process begun in 1969. Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird announced completion of Phase I of Vietnamization on 11 August which meant that the U.S. relinquished all ground combat responsibilities to the Republic of Vietnam. The participation of U.S. forces in ground combat operations had not ceased, however, U.S. maneuver battalions were still conducting missions, and the 101st Airborne Division joined the 1st Army of Vietnam 1st Infantry Division in Operation JEFFERSON GLEN that took place in Thua Thien Province in October. This was the last major combat operation in Vietnam which involved U.S. ground forces. Following the close of Operation JEFFERSON GLEN on 8 October, the 101st began stand-down procedures and was the last U.S. division to leave Vietnam.\nU.S. troop strengths decreased during Consolidation I. American battle deaths for July 1971 were 66, the lowest monthly figure since May 1967. By early November, U.S. troop totals dropped to 191,000, the lowest level since December 1965. In early November, President Nixon announced that American troops had reverted to a defensive role in Vietnam.\nConsolidation II, 1 December 1971 - 29 March 1972. The U.S. continued to reduce its ground presence in South Vietnam during late 1971 and early 1972, but American air attacks increased while both sides exchanged peace proposals.\nIn early January 1972 President Nixon confirmed that U.S. troop withdrawals would continue but promised that a force of 25,000-30,000 would remain in Vietnam until all American prisoners of war were released. Secretary of Defense Laird reported that Vietnamization was progressing well and that U.S. troops would not be reintroduced into Vietnam even in a military emergency. U.S. troop strength in Vietnam dropped to 136,500 by 31 January 1972, to 119,600 by 29 February, and then to 95,500 by the end of March.\nDuring the last week of December 1971 U.S. Air Force and Navy planes carried out 1,000 strikes on North Vietnam, the heaviest U.S. air attacks since November 1968. Allied commanders insisted that it was necessary because of a huge buildup of military supplies in North Vietnam for possible offensive operations against South Vietnam and Cambodia. Stepped up North Vietnamese anti-aircraft and missile attacks on U.S. aircraft that bombed the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos also contributed to the decision. During January 1972 American planes maintained their intermittent bombardment of missile sites in North Vietnam and on he Laotian border and also struck North Vietnamese troop concentrations in the Central Highlands of South Vietnam.\nOn 25 January President Nixon announced an eight part program to end the war which included agreement to remove all U.S. and foreign allied troops from Vietnam no later than six months after a peace agreement was reached. The North Vietnamese and Viet Cong delegates rejected the proposal and insisted upon complete withdrawal of all foreign troops from Indochina and cessation of all forms of U.S. aid to South Vietnam.\nCease-Fire, 30 March 1972 - 28 January 1973. On 30 March 1972 the North Vietnamese Army launched its greatest offensive of the entire war. The enemy deployed the greatest array of troops and modern weapons to date in a major effort to end the war with conventional forces and seized considerable territory in an effort to exercise control of key provinces throughout Vietnam.\nDuring this critical period the Vietnamization program continued in the face of the North Vietnamese invasion and the successful counterattack by the armed forces of the Republic of Vietnam. Army aviation units played an impressive role throughout the period, flying reconnaissance, close support missions, and transporting troops. As U.S. combat troops were withdrawn from Vietnam, the role of helicopter units increased in importance and they responded to the challenge of continuing to support while preparing the RVNAF to assume their function. Similarly, advisors of all services contributed immeasurably to the defeat of the enemy invasion and the continued Vietnamization process. Army and Marine advisors fought side-by-side with their RVNAF counterparts to stop and defeat the enemy invasion, as the Vietnamese counteroffensive gained momentum and the reduction of field advisers continued. The advisory effort shifted to emphasize training and to assure that the VNAF attained self-sufficiency prior to the complete withdrawal of the U.S forces.\nRecapture of Quang Tri City on 16 September 1972 marked the complete failure of the enemy to hold any of the targeted provincial capitols. Massive aid replaced materiel lost during the spring counteroffensive. Retraining and reconstruction of selected RVNAF units increased their capabilities. The completion of the massive logistical buildup of RVNAF was accomplished, which enabled the RVNAF to become more self-sufficient as direct U.S. participation diminished. The US ground role in Vietnam was totally replaced by the RVNAF. During December 1972 and January 1973 the RVIVAF flew more than 45% of air sorties within Vietnam. In November 1972, the RVNAF began a C-130 training program and by January 1973 realized a significant increase in their capability. RVNAF forward air controllers began directing USAF and RVNAF strike aircraft in January 1973. The US policy of Vietnamization continued.\nUS combat and combat support operations were conducted in support of RVNAF ground operations during the North Vietnamese invasion and the counteroffensive including intensive interdiction of enemy supply routes into Vietnam. Since US ground forces had been reduced to seven battalions, the US ground combat role was limited to defense of key installations. Further reduction in troop ceilings led to the redeployment of all US ground combat battalions, leaving an Army contingent of combat support and service support units.",
"The History Place - Vietnam War 1965-1968\n1965 - 1968\n1965\nJanuary 20, 1965 - Lyndon B. Johnson takes the oath as president and declares , \"We can never again stand aside, prideful in isolation. Terrific dangers and troubles that we once called \"foreign\" now constantly live among us...\"\nJanuary 27, 1965 - General Khanh seizes full control of South Vietnam's government.\nJanuary 27, 1965 - Johnson aides, National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy and Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, send a memo to the President stating that America's limited military involvement in Vietnam is not succeeding, and that the U.S. has reached a 'fork in the road' in Vietnam and must either soon escalate or withdraw.\nJanuary 1965 - Operation Game Warden begins U.S. Navy river patrols on South Vietnam's 3000 nautical miles of inland waterways.\nADVERTISEMENT\nFebruary 4, 1965 - National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy visits South Vietnam for the first time. In North Vietnam, Soviet Prime Minister Aleksei Kosygin coincidentally arrives in Hanoi.\nFebruary 6, 1965 - Viet Cong guerrillas attack the U.S. military compound at Pleiku in the Central Highlands, killing eight Americans, wounding 126 and destroying ten aircraft.\nFebruary 7-8 - \"I've had enough of this,\" President Johnson tells his National Security advisors. He then approves Operation Flaming Dart, the bombing of a North Vietnamese army camp near Dong Hoi by U.S. Navy jets from the carrier Ranger.\nJohnson makes no speeches or public statements concerning his decision. Opinion polls taken in the U.S. shortly after the bombing indicate a 70 percent approval rating for the President and an 80 percent approval of U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. Johnson now agrees to a long-standing recommendation from his advisors for a sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam.\nIn Hanoi, Soviet Prime Minister Kosygin is pressured by the North Vietnamese to provide unlimited military aid to counter the American \"aggression.\" Kosygin gives in to their demands. As a result, sophisticated Soviet surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) begin arriving in Hanoi within weeks.\nFebruary 18, 1965 - Another military coup in Saigon results in General Khanh finally ousted from power and a new military/civilian government installed, led by Dr. Phan Huy Quat.\nFebruary 22, 1965 - General Westmoreland requests two battalions of U.S. Marines to protect the American air base at Da Nang from 6000 Viet Cong massed in the vicinity. The President approves his request, despite the \"grave reservations\" of Ambassador Taylor in Vietnam who warns that America may be about to repeat the same mistakes made by the French in sending ever-increasing numbers of soldiers into the Asian forests and jungles of a \"hostile foreign country\" where friend and foe are indistinguishable.\nMarch 2, 1965 - Operation Rolling Thunder begins as over 100 American fighter-bombers attack targets in North Vietnam. Scheduled to last eight weeks, Rolling Thunder will instead go on for three years.\nThe first U.S. air strikes also occur against the Ho Chi Minh trail. Throughout the war, the trail is heavily bombed by American jets with little actual success in halting the tremendous flow of soldiers and supplies from the North. 500 American jets will be lost attacking the trail. After each attack, bomb damage along the trail is repaired by female construction crews.\nDuring the entire war, the U.S. will fly 3 million sorties and drop nearly 8 million tons of bombs, four times the tonnage dropped during all of World War II, in the largest display of firepower in the history of warfare.\nThe majority of bombs are dropped in South Vietnam against Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army positions, resulting in 3 million civilian refugees due to the destruction of numerous villages. In North Vietnam, military targets include fuel depots and factories. The North Vietnamese react to the air strikes by decentralizing their factories and supply bases, thus minimizing their vulnerability to bomb damage.\nMarch 8, 1965 - The first U.S. combat troops arrive in Vietnam as 3500 Marines land at China Beach to defend the American air base at Da Nang. They join 23,000 American military advisors already in Vietnam.\nMarch 9, 1965 - President Johnson authorizes the use of Napalm, a petroleum based anti-personnel bomb that showers hundreds of explosive pellets upon impact.\nMarch 11, 1965 - Operation Market Time, a joint effort between the U.S. Navy and South Vietnamese Navy, commences to disrupt North Vietnamese sea routes used to funnel supplies into the South. The operation is highly successful in cutting off coastal supply lines and results in the North Vietnamese shifting to the more difficult land route along the Ho Chi Minh trail.\nMarch 29, 1965 - Viet Cong terrorists bomb the U.S. embassy in Saigon.\nApril 1, 1965 - At the White House, President Johnson authorizes sending two more Marine battalions and up to 20,000 logistical personnel to Vietnam. The President also authorizes American combat troops to conduct patrols to root out Viet Cong in the countryside. His decision to allow offensive operations is kept secret from the American press and public for two months.\nApril 7, 1965 - President Johnson delivers his \"Peace Without Conquest\" Speech at Johns Hopkins University offering Hanoi \"unconditional discussions\" to stop the war in return for massive economic assistance in modernizing Vietnam. \"Old Ho can't turn that down,\" Johnson privately tells his aides. But Johnson's peace overture is quickly rejected.\nApril 15, 1965 - A thousand tons of bombs are dropped on Viet Cong positions by U.S. and South Vietnamese fighter-bombers.\nApril 17, 1965 - In Washington, 15,000 students gather to protest the U.S. bombing campaign.\nStudent demonstrators will often refer to President Johnson, his advisors, the Pentagon, Washington bureaucrats, and weapons manufacturers, simply as \"the Establishment.\"\nApril 20, 1965 - In Honolulu, Johnson's top aides, including McNamara, Gen. Westmoreland, Gen. Wheeler, William Bundy, and Ambassador Taylor, meet and agree to recommend to the President sending another 40,000 combat soldiers to Vietnam.\nApril 24, 1965 - President Johnson announces Americans in Vietnam are eligible for combat pay.\nMay 3, 1965 - The first U.S. Army combat troops, 3500 men of the 173rd Airborne Brigade, arrive in Vietnam.\nMay 11, 1965 - Viet Cong over-run South Vietnamese troops in Phuoc Long Province north of Saigon and also attack in central South Vietnam.\nMay 13, 1965 - The first bombing pause is announced by the U.S. in the hope that Hanoi will now negotiate. There will be six more pauses during the Rolling Thunder bombing campaign, all with same intention. However, each time, the North Vietnamese ignore the peace overtures and instead use the pause to repair air defenses and send more troops and supplies into the South via the Ho Chi Minh trail.\nMay 13, 1965 - Viet Cong attack the U.S. special forces camp in Phuoc Long. During the fighting, 2nd Lt. Charles Williams, earns the Medal of Honor by knocking out a Viet Cong machine-gun then guiding rescue helicopters, while wounded four times.\nMay 19, 1965 - U.S. bombing of North Vietnam resumes.\nJune 18, 1965 - Nguyen Cao Ky takes power in South Vietnam as the new prime minister with Nguyen Van Thieu functioning as official chief of state. They lead the 10th government in 20 months.\nJuly 1, 1965 - Viet Cong stage a mortar attack against Da Nang air base and destroy three aircraft.\nJuly 8, 1965 - Henry Cabot Lodge is reappointed as U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam.\nJuly 21-28 - President Johnson meets with top aides to decide the future course of action in Vietnam.\nJuly 28, 1965 - During a noontime press conference, President Johnson announces he will send 44 combat battalions to Vietnam increasing the U.S. military presence to 125,000 men. Monthly draft calls are doubled to 35,000. \"I have asked the commanding general, General Westmoreland, what more he needs to meet this mounting aggression. He has told me. And we will meet his needs. We cannot be defeated by force of arms. We will stand in Vietnam.\"\n\"...I do not find it easy to send the flower of our youth, our finest young men, into battle. I have spoken to you today of the divisions and the forces and the battalions and the units, but I know them all, every one. I have seen them in a thousand streets, of a hundred towns, in every state in this union-working and laughing and building, and filled with hope and life. I think I know, too, how their mothers weep and how their families sorrow.\"\nAugust 1965 - Combined Action Platoons are formed by U.S. Marines utilizing South Vietnamese militia units to protect villages and conduct patrols to root out Viet Cong guerrillas.\nAugust 3, 1965 - The destruction of suspected Viet Cong villages near Da Nang by a U.S. Marine rifle company is shown on CBS TV and generates controversy in America. Earlier, seven Marines had been killed nearby while searching for Viet Cong following a mortar attack against the air base at Da Nang.\nAugust 4, 1965 - President Johnson asks Congress for an additional $1.7 billion for the war.\nAugust 5, 1965 - Viet Cong destroy two million gallons of fuel in storage tanks near Da Nang.\nAugust 8, 1965 - The U.S. conducts major air strikes against the Viet Cong.\nAugust 18-24, 1965 - Operation Starlite begins the first major U.S. ground operation in Vietnam as U.S. Marines wage a preemptive strike against 1500 Viet Cong planning to assault the American airfield at Chu Lai. The Marines arrive by helicopter and by sea following heavy artillery and air bombardment of Viet Cong positions. 45 Marines are killed and 120 wounded. Viet Cong suffer 614 dead and 9 taken prisoner. This decisive first victory gives a big boost to U.S. troop morale.\nAugust 31, 1965 - President Johnson signs a law criminalizing draft card burning. Although it may result in a five year prison sentence and $1000 fine, the burnings become common during anti-war rallies and often attract the attention of news media.\nOctober 16, 1965 - Anti-war rallies occur in 40 American cities and in international cities including London and Rome.\nOctober 19, 1965 - North Vietnamese Army troops attack the U.S. Special Forces camp at Plei Me in a prelude to the Battle of Ia Drang Valley in South Vietnam's Central Highlands.\nOctober 30, 1965 - 25,000 march in Washington in support of U.S. involvement in Vietnam. The marchers are led by five Medal of Honor recipients.\nNovember 14-16 - The Battle of Ia Drang Valley marks the first major battle between U.S. troops and North Vietnamese Army regulars (NVA) inside South Vietnam. American Army troops of the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) respond to the NVA threat by using helicopters to fly directly into the battle zone. Upon landing, the troops quickly disembark then engage in fierce fire fights, supported by heavy artillery and B-52 air strikes, marking the first use of B-52s to assist combat troops. The two-day battle ends with NVA retreating into the jungle. 79 Americans are killed and 121 wounded. NVA losses are estimated at 2000.\nNovember 17, 1965 - The American success at Ia Drang is marred by a deadly ambush against 400 soldiers of the U.S. 7th Cavalry sent on foot to occupy nearby Landing Zone 'Albany.' NVA troops that had been held in reserve during Ia Drang, along with troops that had retreated, kill 155 Americans and wound 124.\nNovember 27, 1965 - In Washington, 35,000 anti-war protesters circle the White House then march on to the Washington Monument for a rally.\nNovember 30, 1965 - After visiting Vietnam, Defense Secretary McNamara privately warns that American casualty rates of up to 1000 dead per month could be expected.\nDecember 4, 1965 - In Saigon, Viet Cong terrorists bomb a hotel used by U.S. military personnel, killing eight and wounding 137.\nDecember 7, 1965 - Defense Secretary McNamara tells President Johnson that the North Vietnamese apparently \"believe that the war will be a long one, that time is their ally, and that their staying power is superior to ours.\"\nDecember 9, 1965 - The New York Times reveals the U.S. is unable to stop the flow of North Vietnamese soldiers and supplies into the South despite extensive bombing.\nDecember 18-20 - President Johnson and top aides meet to decide the future course of action.\nDecember 25, 1965 - The second pause in the bombing of North Vietnam occurs. This will last for 37 days while the U.S. attempts to pressure North Vietnam into a negotiated peace. However, the North Vietnamese denounce the bombing halt as a \"trick\" and continue Viet Cong terrorist activities in the South.\nBy year's end U.S. troop levels in Vietnam reached 184,300. An estimated 90,000 South Vietnamese soldiers deserted in 1965, while an estimated 35,000 soldiers from North Vietnam infiltrated the South via the Ho Chi Minh trail. Up to 50 percent of the countryside in South Vietnam is now under some degree of Viet Cong control.\nTime Magazine chooses General William Westmoreland as 1965's 'Man of the Year.'\n1966\nJanuary 12, 1966 - During his State of the Union address before Congress, President Johnson comments that the war in Vietnam is unlike America's previous wars, \"Yet, finally, war is always the same. It is young men dying in the fullness of their promise. It is trying to kill a man that you do not even know well enough to hate...therefore, to know war is to know that there is still madness in this world.\"\nJanuary 28-March 6 - Operation Masher marks the beginning of large-scale U.S. search-and-destroy operations against Viet Cong and NVA troop encampments. However, President Johnson orders the name changed to the less aggressive sounding 'White Wing' over concern for U.S. public opinion. During the 42 day operation in South Vietnam's Bon Son Plain near the coast, troopers of the U.S. 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) once again fly by helicopters directly into battle zones and engage in heavy fighting. 228 Americans are killed and 788 wounded. NVA losses are put at 1342.\nThe term 'search-and-destroy' is used by the media to describe everything from large scale Airmobile troop movements to small patrols rooting out Viet Cong in tiny hamlets. The term eventually becomes associated with negative images of Americans burning villages.\nJanuary 31, 1966 - Citing Hanoi's failure to respond to his peace overtures during the 37 day bombing pause, President Johnson announces bombing of North Vietnam will resume.\nJanuary 31, 1966 - Senator Robert F. Kennedy criticizes President Johnson's decision to resume the bombing, stating that the U.S. may be headed \"on a road from which there is no turning back, a road that leads to catastrophe for all mankind.\" His comments infuriate the President.\nFebruary 1966 - The Senate Foreign Relations Committee, chaired by Sen. J. William Fulbright, holds televised hearings examining America's policy in Vietnam. Appearing before the committee, Defense Secretary McNamara states that U.S. objectives in Vietnam are \"not to destroy or overthrow the Communist government of North Vietnam. They are limited to the destruction of the insurrection and aggression directed by North Vietnamese against the political institutions of South Vietnam.\"\nFebruary 3, 1966 - Influential newspaper columnist Walter Lippmann lambastes President Johnson's strategy in Vietnam, stating, \"Gestures, propaganda, public relations and bombing and more bombing will not work.\" Lippmann predicts Vietnam will divide America as combat causalities mount.\nFebruary 6-9 - President Johnson and South Vietnam's Prime Minister Nguyen Cao Ky meet in Honolulu.\nMarch 1, 1966 - An attempt to repeal the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution fails in the U.S. Senate by a vote of 92 to 5. The attempt was led by Sen. Wayne Morse.\nMarch 9, 1966 - The U.S. reveals that 20,000 acres of food crops have been destroyed in suspected Viet Cong villages. The admission generates harsh criticism from the American academic community.\nMarch 10, 1966 - South Vietnamese Buddhists begin a violent campaign to oust Prime Minister Ky following his dismissal of a top Buddhist general. This marks the beginning of a period of extreme unrest in several cities in South Vietnam including Saigon, Da Nang and Hue as political squabbling spills out into the streets and interferes with U.S. military operations.\nMarch 26, 1966 - Anti-war protests are held in New York, Washington, Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston and San Francisco.\nApril 12, 1966 - B-52 bombers are used for the first time against North Vietnam. Each B-52 carries up to 100 bombs, dropped from an altitude of about six miles. Target selections are closely supervised by the White House. There are six main target categories; power facilities, war support facilities, transportation lines, military complexes, fuel storage, and air defense installations.\nApril 13, 1966 - Viet Cong attack Tan Son Nhut airport in Saigon causing 140 casualties while destroying 12 U.S. helicopters and nine aircraft.\nMay 2, 1966 - Secretary of Defense McNamara privately reports the North Vietnamese are infiltrating 4500 men per month into the South.\nMay 14, 1966 - Political unrest intensifies as South Vietnamese troops loyal to Prime Minister Ky over-run renegade South Vietnamese Buddhist troops in Da Nang. Ky's troops then move on to Hue to oust renegades there. Ky's actions result in a new series of immolations by Buddhist monks and nuns as an act of protest against his Saigon regime and its American backers. Buddhist leader Tri Quang blames President Johnson personally for the situation. Johnson responds by labeling the immolations as \"tragic and unnecessary.\"\nJune 4, 1966 - A three-page anti-war advertisement appears in the New York Times signed by 6400 teachers and professors.\nJune 25, 1966 - Political unrest in South Vietnam abates following the crackdown on Buddhist rebels by Prime Minister Ky, including the arrest of Buddhist leader Tri Quang. Ky now appeals for calm.\nJune 29, 1966 - Citing increased infiltration of Communist guerrillas from North Vietnam into the South, the U.S. bombs oil depots around Hanoi and Haiphong, ending a self-imposed moratorium.\nThe U.S. is very cautious about targeting the city of Hanoi itself over concerns for the reactions of North Vietnam's military allies, China and the Soviet Union. This concern also prevents any U.S. ground invasion of North Vietnam, despite such recommendations by a few military planners in Washington.\nJuly 6, 1966 - Hanoi Radio reports that captured American pilots have been paraded though the streets of Hanoi through jeering crowds.\nJuly 11, 1966 - The U.S. intensifies bombing raids against portions of the Ho Chi Minh trail winding through Laos.\nJuly 15, 1966 - Operation Hastings is launched by U.S. Marines and South Vietnamese troops against 10,000 NVA in Quang Tri Province. This is the largest combined military operation to date in the war.\nJuly 30, 1966 - For the first time, the U.S. bombs NVA troops in the Demilitarized Zone, the buffer area separating North and South Vietnam.\nAugust 9, 1966 - U.S. jets attack two South Vietnamese villages by mistake, killing 63 civilians and wounding over 100.\nAugust 30, 1966 - Hanoi announces China will provide economic and technical assistance.\nSeptember 1, 1966 - During a visit to neighboring Cambodia, French President Charles de Gaulle calls for U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam.\nSeptember 12, 1966 - The heaviest air raid of the war to date occurs as 500 U.S. jets attack NVA supply lines and coastal targets.\nSeptember 14-November 24 - Operation Attleboro occurs involving 20,000 U.S. and South Vietnamese soldiers in a successful search-and-destroy mission 50 miles north of Saigon near the Cambodian border. During the fighting, an enormous weapons cache is uncovered in a hidden base camp in the jungle. 155 Americans are killed and 494 wounded. North Vietnamese losses are 1106.\nSeptember 23, 1966 - The U.S. reveals jungles near the Demilitarized Zone are being defoliated by sprayed chemicals.\nOctober 2-24, 1966 - The U.S. 1st Air Cavalry Division conducts Operation Irving to clear NVA from mountainous areas near Qui Nhon.\nOctober 3, 1966 - The Soviet Union announces it will provide military and economic assistance to North Vietnam.\nOctober 25, 1966 - President Johnson conducts a conference in Manila with America's Vietnam Allies; Australia, Philippines, Thailand, New Zealand, South Korea and South Vietnam. The Allies pledge to withdraw from Vietnam within six months if North Vietnam will withdraw completely from the South.\nOctober 26, 1966 - President Johnson visits U.S. troops at Cam Ranh Bay. This is the first of two visits to Vietnam made during his presidency.\nNovember 7, 1966 - Defense Secretary McNamara is confronted by student protesters during a visit to Harvard University.\nNovember 12, 1966 - The New York Times reports that 40 percent of U.S. economic aid sent to Saigon is stolen or winds up on the black market.\nDecember 8-9 - North Vietnam rejects a proposal by President Johnson for discussions concerning treatment of POWs and a possible exchange.\nDecember 13-14 - The village of Caudat near Hanoi is leveled by U.S. bombers resulting in harsh criticism from the international community.\nDecember 26, 1966 - Facing increased scrutiny from journalists over mounting civilian causalities in North Vietnam, the U.S. Defense Department now admits civilians may have been bombed accidentally.\nDecember 27, 1966 - The U.S. mounts a large-scale air assault against suspected Viet Cong positions in the Mekong Delta using Napalm and hundreds of tons of bombs.\nBy year's end, U.S. troop levels reach 389,000 with 5008 combat deaths and 30,093 wounded. Over half of the American causalities are caused by snipers and small-arms fire during Viet Cong ambushes, along with handmade booby traps and mines planted everywhere in the countryside by Viet Cong. American Allies fighting in Vietnam include 45,000 soldiers from South Korea and 7000 Australians. An estimated 89,000 soldiers from North Vietnam infiltrated the South via the Ho Chi Minh trail in 1966.\n1967\nJanuary 2, 1967 - Operation Bolo occurs as 28 U.S. Air Force F-4 Phantom jets lure North Vietnamese MiG-21 interceptors into a dogfight over Hanoi and shoot down seven of them. This leaves only nine MiG-21s operational for the North Vietnamese. American pilots, however, are prohibited by Washington from attacking MiG air bases in North Vietnam.\nJanuary 8-26 - Operation Cedar Falls occurs. It is the largest combined offensive to date and involves 16,000 American and 14,000 South Vietnamese soldiers clearing out Viet Cong from the 'Iron Triangle' area 25 miles northwest of Saigon. The Viet Cong choose not to fight and instead melt away into the jungle. Americans then uncover an extensive network of tunnels and for the first time use 'tunnel rats,' the nickname given to specially trained volunteers who explore the maze of tunnels. After the American and South Vietnamese troops leave the area, Viet Cong return and rebuild their sanctuary. This pattern is repeated throughout the war as Americans utilize 'in-and-out' tactics in which troops arrive by helicopters, secure an area, then depart by helicopters.\nJanuary 10, 1967 - U.N. Secretary-General U Thant expresses doubts that Vietnam is essential to the security of the West. On this same day, during his State of the Union address before Congress, President Johnson once again declares \"We will stand firm in Vietnam.\"\nADVERTISEMENT\nJanuary 23, 1967 - Senator J. William Fulbright publishes The Arrogance of Power a book critical of American war policy in Vietnam advocating direct peace talks between the South Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong. By this time, Fulbright and President Johnson are no longer on speaking terms. Instead, the President uses the news media to deride Fulbright, Robert Kennedy, and a growing number of critics in Congress as \"nervous Nellies\" and \"sunshine patriots.\"\nFebruary 2, 1967 - President Johnson states there are no \"serious indications that the other side is ready to stop the war.\"\nFebruary 8-10 - American religious groups stage a nationwide \"Fast for Peace.\"\nFebruary 8-12 - A truce occurs during Tet, the lunar New Year, a traditional Vietnamese holiday.\nFebruary 13, 1967 - Following the failure of diplomatic peace efforts, President Johnson announces the U.S. will resume full-scale bombing of North Vietnam.\nFebruary 22-May 14 - The largest U.S. military offensive of the war occurs. Operation Junction City involves 22 U.S. and four South Vietnamese battalions attempting to destroy the NVA's Central Office headquarters in South Vietnam. The offensive includes the only parachute assault by U.S. troops during the entire war. During the fighting at Ap Gu, U.S. 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry is commanded by Lt. Gen. Alexander M. Haig who will later become an influential White House aide. Junction City ends with 2728 Viet Cong killed and 34 captured. American losses are 282 killed and 1576 wounded. NVA relocate their Central Office headquarters inside Cambodia, thus avoiding capture.\nMarch 8, 1967 - Congress authorizes $4.5 billion for the war.\nMarch 19-21 - President Johnson meets in Guam with South Vietnam's Prime Minister Ky and pressures Ky to hold national elections.\nApril 6, 1967 - Quang Tri City is attacked by 2500 Viet Cong and NVA.\nApril 14, 1967 - Richard M. Nixon visits Saigon and states that anti-war protests back in the U.S. are \"prolonging the war.\"\nApril 15, 1967 - Anti-war demonstrations occur in New York and San Francisco involving nearly 200,000. Rev. Martin Luther King declares that the war is undermining President Johnson's Great Society social reform programs, \"...the pursuit of this widened war has narrowed the promised dimensions of the domestic welfare programs, making the poor white and Negro bear the heaviest burdens both at the front and at home.\"\nApril 20, 1967 - U.S. bombers target Haiphong harbor in North Vietnam for the first time.\nApril 24-May 11 - Hill fights rage at Khe Sanh between U.S. 3rd Marines and the North Vietnamese Army resulting in 940 NVA killed. American losses are 155 killed and 425 wounded. The isolated air base is located in mountainous terrain less than 10 miles from North Vietnam near the border of Laos.\nApril 24, 1967 - General Westmoreland condemns anti-war demonstrators saying they give the North Vietnamese soldier \"hope that he can win politically that which he cannot accomplish militarily.\" Privately, he has already warned President Johnson \"the war could go on indefinitely.\"\nMay 1, 1967 - Ellsworth Bunker replaces Henry Cabot Lodge as U.S ambassador to South Vietnam.\nMay 2, 1967 - The U.S. is condemned during a mock war crimes tribunal held in Stockholm, organized by British philosopher Bertrand Russell.\nMay 9, 1967 - Robert W. Komer, a former CIA analyst, is appointed by President Johnson as deputy commander of MACV to form a new agency called Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support (CORDS) to pacify the population of South Vietnam. Nearly 60 percent of rural villages in South Vietnam are now under Viet Cong control. $850 million in food, medical supplies, machinery, and numerous other household items, will be distributed through CORDS to the population in order to regain their loyalty in the struggle for the \"hearts and minds\" of common villagers. CORDS also trains local militias to protect their villages from the Viet Cong.\nMay 13, 1967 - In New York City, 70,000 march in support of the war, led by a New York City fire captain.\nMay 18-26 - U.S. and South Vietnamese troops enter the Demilitarized Zone for the first time and engage in a series of fire fights with NVA. Both sides suffer heavy losses.\nMay 22, 1967 - President Johnson publicly urges North Vietnam to accept a peace compromise.\nJune 1967 - The Mobile Riverine Force becomes operational utilizing U.S. Navy 'Swift' boats combined with Army troop support to halt Viet Cong usage of inland waterways in the Mekong Delta.\nJuly 1967 - General Westmoreland requests an additional 200,000 reinforcements on top of the 475,000 soldiers already scheduled to be sent to Vietnam, which would bring the U.S. total in Vietnam to 675,000. President Johnson agrees only to an extra 45,000.\nJuly 7, 1967 - North Vietnam's Politburo makes the decision to launch a widespread offensive against South Vietnam. Conceived in three phases, the first phase involves attacks against remote border areas in an effort to lure American troops away from South Vietnam's cities. The second phase (Tet Offensive) will be an attack against the cities themselves by Viet Cong forces aided by NVA troops, in the hope of igniting a \"general uprising\" to overthrow the government of South Vietnam. The third phase involves the actual invasion of South Vietnam by NVA troops coming from North Vietnam.\nJuly 29, 1967 - A fire resulting from a punctured fuel tank kills 134 U.S. crewmen aboard the USS Forrestal in the Gulf of Tonkin, in the worst naval accident since World War II.\nAugust 9, 1967 - The Senate Armed Services Committee begins closed-door hearings concerning the influence of civilian advisors on military planning. During the hearings, Defense Secretary McNamara testifies that the extensive and costly U.S. bombing campaign in Vietnam is failing to impact North Vietnam's war making ability in South Vietnam and that nothing short of \"the virtual annihilation of North Vietnam and its people\" through bombing would ever succeed.\nAugust 18, 1967 - California Governor Ronald Reagan says the U.S. should get out of Vietnam citing the difficulties of winning a war when \"too many qualified targets have been put off limits to bombing.\"\nAugust 21, 1967 - The Chinese shoot down two U.S. fighter-bombers that accidentally crossed their border during air raids in North Vietnam along the Chinese border.\nSeptember 1, 1967 - North Vietnamese Prime Minister Pham Van Dong publicly states Hanoi will \"continue to fight.\"\nSeptember 3, 1967 - National elections are held in South Vietnam. With 80 percent of eligible voters participating, Nguyen Van Thieu is elected president with Nguyen Cao Ky as his vice-president, the pair winning just 35 percent of the vote.\nSeptember 11-October 31 - U.S. Marines are besieged by NVA at Con Thien located two miles south of the Demilitarized Zone. A massive long-range artillery duel then erupts between NVA and U.S. guns during the siege as NVA fire 42,000 rounds at the Marines while the U.S. responds with 281,000 rounds and B-52 air strikes to lift the siege. NVA losses are estimated at over 2000.\nOctober 1967 - A public opinion poll indicates 46 percent of Americans now believe U.S. military involvement in Vietnam to be a \"mistake.\" However, most Americans also believe that the U.S. should \"win or get out\" of Vietnam. Also in October, Life magazine renounces its earlier support of President Johnson's war policies.\nOctober 5, 1967 - Hanoi accuses the U.S. of hitting a school in North Vietnam with anti-personnel bombs.\nOctober 21-23 - 'March on the Pentagon' draws 55,000 protesters. In London, protesters try to storm the U.S. embassy.\nOctober 31, 1967 - President Johnson reaffirms his commitment to maintain U.S. involvement in South Vietnam.\nNovember 3-December 1 - The Battle of Dak To occurs in the mountainous terrain along the border of Cambodia and Laos as the U.S. 4th Infantry Division heads off a planned NVA attack against the Special Forces camp located there. During the fighting, the 4th Battalion, 503rd Airborne Infantry earns a Presidential Unit Citation for bravery. Massive air strikes combined with U.S. and South Vietnamese ground attacks result in an NVA withdrawal into Laos and Cambodia. NVA losses are put at 1644. U.S. troops suffer 289 killed. \"Along with the gallantry and tenacity of our soldiers, our tremendously successful air logistic operation was the key to the victory,\" states General Westmoreland.\nNovember 11, 1967 - President Johnson makes another peace overture, but it is soon rejected by Hanoi.\nNovember 17, 1967 - Following an optimistic briefing in the White House by General Westmoreland, Ambassador Bunker, and Robert Komer, President Johnson tells the American public on TV, \"We are inflicting greater losses than we're taking...We are making progress.\"\nIn a Time magazine interview, General Westmoreland taunts the Viet Cong, saying \"I hope they try something because we are looking for a fight.\"\nNovember 29, 1967 - An emotional Robert McNamara announces his resignation as Defense Secretary during a press briefing, stating, \"Mr. President...I cannot find words to express what lies in my heart today...\" Behind closed doors, he had begun regularly expressing doubts over Johnson's war strategy, angering the President. McNamara joins a growing list of Johnson's top aides who resigned over the war including Bill Moyers, McGeorge Bundy and George Ball.\nNovember 30, 1967 - Anti-war Democrat Eugene McCarthy announces he will be a candidate for President opposing Lyndon Johnson, stating, \"...we are involved in a very deep crisis of leadership, a crisis of direction and a crisis of national purpose...the entire history of this war in Vietnam, no matter what we call it, has been one of continued error and misjudgment.\"\nDecember 4, 1967 - Four days of anti-war protests begin in New York. Among the 585 protesters arrested is renowned 'baby doctor' Dr. Benjamin Spock.\nDecember 6, 1967 - The U.S. reports Viet Cong murdered 252 civilians in the hamlet of Dak Son.\nDecember 23, 1967 - Upon arrival at Cam Ranh Bay in Vietnam, President Johnson declares \"...all the challenges have been met. The enemy is not beaten, but he knows that he has met his master in the field.\" This is the President's second and final trip to Vietnam during his presidency.\nBy year's end, U.S. troop levels reach 463,000 with 16,000 combat deaths to date. By this time, over a million American soldiers have rotated through Vietnam, with length of service for draftees being one year, and most Americans serving in support units. An estimated 90,000 soldiers from North Vietnam infiltrated into the South via the Ho Chi Minh trail in 1967. Overall Viet Cong/NVA troop strength throughout South Vietnam is now estimated up to 300,000 men.\n1968\nJanuary 5, 1968 - Operation Niagara I to map NVA positions around Khe Sanh begins.\nJanuary 21, 1968 - 20,000 NVA troops under the command of Gen. Giap attack the American air base at Khe Sanh. A 77 day siege begins as 5000 U.S. Marines in the isolated outpost are encircled. The siege attracts enormous media attention back in America, with many comparisons made to the 1954 Battle of Dien Bien Phu in which the French were surrounded then defeated.\n\"I don't want any damn Dinbinfoo,\" an anxious President Johnson tells Joint Chiefs Chairman Gen. Earle Wheeler. As Johnson personally sends off Marine reinforcements, he states \"...the eyes of the nation and the eyes of the entire world, the eyes of all of history itself, are on that little brave band of defenders who hold the pass at Khe Sanh...\" Johnson issues presidential orders to the Marines to hold the base and demands a guarantee \"signed in blood\" from the Joint Chiefs of Staff that they will succeed.\nOperation Niagara II then begins a massive aerial supply effort to the besieged Marines along with heavy B-52 bombardment of NVA troop positions. At the peak of the battle, NVA soldiers are hit round-the-clock every 90 minutes by groups of three B-52s which drop over 110,000 tons of bombs during the siege, the heaviest bombardment of a small area in the history of warfare.\nJanuary 31, 1968 - The turning point of the war occurs as 84,000 Viet Cong guerrillas aided by NVA troops launch the Tet Offensive attacking a hundred cities and towns throughout South Vietnam.\nThe surprise offensive is closely observed by American TV news crews in Vietnam which film the U.S. embassy in Saigon being attacked by 17 Viet Cong commandos, along with bloody scenes from battle areas showing American soldiers under fire, dead and wounded. The graphic color film footage is then quickly relayed back to the states for broadcast on nightly news programs. Americans at home thus have a front row seat in their living rooms to the Viet Cong/NVA assaults against their fathers, sons and brothers, ten thousand miles away. \"The whole thing stinks, really,\" says a Marine under fire at Hue after more than 100 Marines are killed.\nJanuary 31-March 7 - In the Battle for Saigon during Tet, 35 NVA and Viet Cong battalions are defeated by 50 battalions of American and Allied troops that had been positioned to protect the city on a hunch by Lt. Gen. Fred C. Weyand, a veteran of World War II in the Pacific. Nicknamed the \"savior of Saigon,\" Weyand had sensed the coming attack, prepared his troops, and on February 1 launched a decisive counter-attack against the Viet Cong at Tan Son Nhut airport thus protecting nearby MACV and South Vietnamese military headquarters from possible capture.\nJanuary 31-March 2 - In the Battle for Hue during Tet, 12,000 NVA and Viet Cong troops storm the lightly defended historical city, then begin systematic executions of over 3000 \"enemies of the people\" including South Vietnamese government officials, captured South Vietnamese officers, and Catholic priests. South Vietnamese troops and three U.S. Marine battalions counter-attack and engage in the heaviest fighting of the entire Tet Offensive. They retake the old imperial city, house by house, street by street, aided by American air and artillery strikes. On February 24, U.S. Marines occupy the Imperial Palace in the heart of the citadel and the battle soon ends with a North Vietnamese defeat. American losses are 142 Marines killed and 857 wounded, 74 U.S. Army killed and 507 wounded. South Vietnamese suffer 384 killed and 1830 wounded. NVA killed are put at over 5000.\nFebruary 1, 1968 - In Saigon during Tet, a suspected Viet Cong guerrilla is shot in the head by South Vietnam's police chief Gen. Nguyen Ngoc Loan, in full view of an NBC news cameraman and an Associated Press still photographer. The haunting AP photo taken by Eddie Adams appears on the front page of most American newspapers the next morning. Americans also observe the filmed execution on NBC TV.\nAnother controversy during Tet, and one of the most controversial statements of the entire war, is made by an American officer who states, 'We had to destroy it, in order to save it,' referring to a small city near Saigon leveled by American bombs. His statement is later used by many as a metaphor for the American experience in Vietnam.\nFebruary 2, 1968 - President Johnson labels the Tet Offensive \"a complete failure.\"\nFor the North Vietnamese, the Tet Offensive is both a military and political failure in Vietnam. The \"general uprising\" they had hoped to ignite among South Vietnamese peasants against the Saigon government never materialized. Viet Cong had also come out of hiding to do most of the actual fighting, suffered devastating losses, and never regained their former strength. As a result, most of the fighting will be taken over by North Vietnamese regulars fighting a conventional war. Tet's only success, and an unexpected one, was in eroding grassroots support among Americans and in Congress for continuing the war indefinitely.\nFebruary 8, 1968 - 21 U.S. Marines are killed by NVA at Khe Sanh.\nFebruary 27, 1968 - Influential CBS TV news anchorman Walter Cronkite, who just returned from Saigon, tells Americans during his CBS Evening News broadcast that he is certain \"the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in a stalemate.\"\nFebruary 28, 1968 - Joint Chiefs Chairman Gen. Wheeler, at the behest of Gen. Westmoreland, asks President Johnson for an additional 206,000 soldiers and mobilization of reserve units in the U.S.\nMarch 1, 1968 - Clark Clifford, renowned Washington lawyer and an old friend of the President, becomes the new U.S. Secretary of Defense. For the next few days, Clifford conducts an intensive study of the entire situation in Vietnam, discovers there is no concept or overall plan anywhere in Washington for achieving victory in Vietnam, then reports to President Johnson that the United States should not escalate the war. \"The time has come to decide where we go from here,\" he tells Johnson.\nMarch 2, 1968 - 48 U.S. Army soldiers are killed during an ambush at Tan Son Nhut airport in Saigon.\nMarch 10, 1968 - The New York Times breaks the news of Westmoreland's 206,000 troop request. The Times story is denied by the White House. Secretary of State Dean Rusk is then called before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and grilled for two days on live TV about the troop request and the overall effectiveness of Johnson's war strategy.\nMarch 11, 1968 - Operation Quyet Thang begins a 28 day offensive by 33 U.S. and South Vietnamese battalions in the Saigon region.\nMarch 12, 1968 - By a very slim margin of just 300 votes, President Johnson defeats anti-war Democrat Eugene McCarthy in the New Hampshire Democratic primary election. This indicates that political support for Johnson is seriously eroding.\nPublic opinion polls taken after the Tet Offensive revealed Johnson's overall approval rating has slipped to 36 percent, while approval of his Vietnam war policy slipped to 26 percent.\nMarch 14, 1968 - Senator Robert F. Kennedy offers President Johnson a confidential political proposition. Kennedy will agree to stay out of the presidential race if Johnson will renounce his earlier Vietnam strategy and appoint a committee, including Kennedy, to chart a new course in Vietnam. Johnson spurns the offer.\nMarch 16, 1968 - Robert F. Kennedy announces his candidacy for the presidency. Polls indicate Kennedy is now more popular than the President.\nDuring his campaign, Kennedy addresses the issue of his participation in forming President John F. Kennedy's Vietnam policy by stating, \"past error is no excuse for its own perpetuation.\"\nMarch 16, 1968 - Over 300 Vietnamese civilians are slaughtered in My Lai hamlet by members of Charlie Company, 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry U.S. Army, while participating in an airborne assault against suspected Viet Cong encampments in Quang Ngai Province. Upon entering My Lai and finding no Viet Cong, the Americans begin killing every civilian in sight, interrupted only by helicopter pilot Hugh Thompson who lands and begins evacuating civilians after realizing what is happening.\nMarch 28, 1968 - The initial report by participants at My Lai states that 69 Viet Cong soldiers were killed and makes no mention of civilian causalities.\nThe My Lai massacre is successfully concealed for a year, until a series of letters from Vietnam veteran Ronald Ridenhour spark an official Army investigation that results in Charlie Company Commander, Capt. Ernest L. Medina, First Platoon Leader, Lt. William Calley, and 14 others being brought to trial by the Army. A news photos of the carnage, showing a mass of dead children, women and old men, remains one of the most enduring images of America's involvement in Vietnam.\nMarch 23, 1968 - During a secret meeting in the Philippines, Gen Wheeler informs Gen. Westmoreland that President Johnson will approve only 13,500 additional soldiers out of the original 206,000 requested. Gen. Wheeler also instructs Westmoreland to urge the South Vietnamese to expand their own war effort.\nMarch 25, 1968 - Clark Clifford convenes the \"Wise Men,\" a dozen distinguished elder statesmen and soldiers, including former Secretary of State Dean Acheson and World War II General Omar Bradley at the State Department for dinner. They are given a blunt assessment of the situation in Vietnam, including the widespread corruption of the Saigon government and the unlikely prospect for military victory \"under the present circumstances.\"\nMarch 26, 1968 - The \"Wise Men\" gather at the White House for lunch with the President. They now advocate U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam, with only four of those present dissenting from that opinion.\nMarch 31, 1968 - President Johnson stuns the world by announcing his surprise decision not to seek re-election. He also announces a partial bombing halt and urges Hanoi to begin peace talks. \"We are prepared to move immediately toward peace through negotiations.\" As a result, peace talks soon begin. The bombing halt only affects targets north of the 20th parallel, including Hanoi.\nApril 1, 1968 - The U.S. 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) begins Operation Pegasus to reopen Route 9, the relief route to the besieged Marines at Khe Sanh.\nApril 4, 1968 - Civil rights leader Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King is assassinated in Memphis. Racial unrest then erupts in over 100 American cities.\nApril 8, 1968 - The siege of Khe Sanh ends with the withdrawal of NVA troops from the area as a result of intensive American bombing and the reopening of Route 9. NVA losses during the siege are estimated up to 15,000. U.S. Marines suffered 199 killed and 830 wounded. 1st Cavalry suffered 92 killed and 629 wounded reopening Route 9. The U.S. command then secretly shuts down the Khe Sanh air base and withdraws the Marines. Commenting on the heroism of U.S. troops that defended Khe Sanh, President Johnson states \"...they vividly demonstrated to the enemy the utter futility of his attempts to win a military victory in the South.\" A North Vietnamese official labels the closing of Khe Sanh air base as America's \"gravest defeat\" so far.\nApril 11, 1968 - Defense Secretary Clifford announces Gen. Westmoreland's request for 206,000 additional soldiers will not be granted.\nApril 23, 1968 - Anti-war activists at Columbia University seize five buildings.\nApril 27, 1968 - In New York, 200,000 students refuse to attend classes as a protest.\nApril 30-May 3 - The Battle of Dai Do occurs along the Demilitarized Zone as NVA troops seek to open an invasion corridor into South Vietnam. They are halted by a battalion of U.S. Marines nicknamed \"the Magnificent Bastards\" under the command of Lt. Col. William Weise. Aided by heavy artillery and air strikes, NVA suffer 1568 killed. 81 Marines are killed and 297 wounded. 29 U.S. Army are killed supporting the Marines and 130 wounded.\nFor the time being, this defeat ends North Vietnam's hope of successfully invading the South. They will wait four years, until 1972, before trying again, after most of the Americans have gone. It will actually take seven years, until 1975, for them to succeed.\nMay 5, 1968 - Viet Cong launch \"Mini Tet,\" a series of rocket and mortar attacks against Saigon and 119 cities and military installations throughout South Vietnam. The U.S. responds with air strikes using Napalm and high explosives.\nMay 10, 1968 - An NVA battalion attacks the Special Forces camp at Kham Duc along the border of Laos. The isolated camp had been established in 1963 to monitor North Vietnamese infiltration. Now encircled by NVA, the decision is made to evacuate via C-130 transport planes. At the conclusion of the successful airlift, it is discovered that three U.S. Air Force controllers have accidentally been left behind. Although the camp is now over-run by NVA and two C-130s have already been shot down, Lt. Col. Joe M. Jackson pilots a C-123 Provider, lands on the air strip under intense fire, gathers all three controllers, then takes off. For this, Jackson is awarded the Medal of Honor.\nMay 10, 1968 - Peace talks begin in Paris but soon stall as the U.S. insists that North Vietnamese troops withdraw from the South, while the North Vietnamese insist on Viet Cong participation in a coalition government in South Vietnam. This marks the beginning of five years of on-again off-again official talks between the U.S. and North Vietnam in Paris.\nJune 5, 1968 - Robert F. Kennedy is shot and mortally wounded in Los Angeles just after winning the California Democratic presidential primary election.\nJuly 1968 - Congress passes a ten percent income tax surcharge to defray the ballooning costs of the war.\nJuly 1, 1968 - General Westmoreland is replaced as U.S. commander in Vietnam by General Creighton W. Abrams.\nJuly 1, 1968 - The Phoenix program is established to crush the secret Viet Cong infrastructure (VCI) in South Vietnam. The VCI, estimated at up to 70,000 Communist guerrillas, has been responsible for a long-standing campaign of terror against Americans, South Vietnamese government officials, village leaders and innocent civilians.\nHowever, the Phoenix program, which is controlled through CORDS under the direction of Robert Komer, generates huge controversy in America concerning numerous alleged assassinations of suspected Viet Cong operatives by South Vietnamese trained by the U.S. The controversy, generated in part through North Vietnamese propaganda, eventually results in Congressional hearings. Testifying in 1971 before Congress, Komer's successor William E. Colby states, \"The Phoenix program was not a program of assassination. The Phoenix program was a part of the overall pacification program.\" Colby admits that 20,587 Viet Cong had been killed \"mostly in combat situations...by regular or paramilitary forces.\"\nJuly 3, 1968 - Three American prisoners of war are released by Hanoi.\nJuly 19, 1968 - President Johnson and South Vietnam's President Thieu meet in Hawaii.\nAugust 8, 1968 - Richard M. Nixon is chosen as the Republican presidential candidate and promises \"an honorable end to the war in Vietnam.\"\nAugust 28, 1968 - During the Democratic national convention in Chicago, 10,000 anti-war protesters gather on downtown streets and are then confronted by 26,000 police and national guardsmen. The brutal crackdown is covered live on network TV. 800 demonstrators are injured.\nThe United States is now experiencing a level of social unrest unseen since the American Civil War era, a hundred years earlier. There have been 221 student protests at 101 colleges and universities thus far in 1968.\nSeptember 30, 1968 - The 900th U.S. aircraft is shot down over North Vietnam.\nOctober 1968 - Operation Sealord begins the largest combined naval operation of the entire war as over 1200 U.S. Navy and South Vietnamese Navy gunboats and warships target NVA supply lines extending from Cambodia into the Mekong Delta. NVA supply camps in the Delta and along other waterways are also successfully disrupted during the two-year operation.\nOctober 21, 1968 - The U.S. releases 14 North Vietnamese POWs.\nOctober 27, 1968 - In London, 50,000 protest the war.\nOctober 31, 1968 - Operation Rolling Thunder ends as President Johnson announces a complete halt of U.S. bombing of North Vietnam in the hope of restarting the peace talks.\nThroughout the three and a half year bombing campaign, the U.S. dropped a million tons of bombs on North Vietnam, the equivalent of 800 tons per day, with little actual success in halting the flow of soldiers and supplies into the South or in damaging North Vietnamese morale. In fact, the opposite has occurred as the North Vietnamese have patriotically rallied around their Communist leaders as a result of the onslaught. By now, many towns south of Hanoi have been leveled with a U.S. estimate of 52,000 civilian deaths.\nDuring Rolling Thunder, North Vietnam's sophisticated, Soviet-supplied air defense system managed to shoot down 922 U.S. aircraft during 2380 sorties flown by B-52 bombers and over 300,000 sorties by U.S. Navy and Air Force fighter-bombers.\nNovember 1968 - William E. Colby replaces Robert Komer as head of CORDS.\nNovember 5, 1968 - Republican Richard M. Nixon narrowly defeats Democrat Hubert Humphrey in the U.S. presidential election.\nNovember 27, 1968 - President-elect Nixon asks Harvard professor Henry Kissinger to be his National Security Advisor. Kissinger accepts.\nBy year's end, U.S. troop levels reached 495,000 with 30,000 American deaths to date. In 1968, over a thousand a month were killed. An estimated 150,000 soldiers from North Vietnam infiltrated the South via the Ho Chi Minh trail in 1968. Although the U.S. conducted 200 air strikes each day against the trail in late 1968, up to 10,000 NVA supply trucks are en route at any given time."
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What was Michael Keaton's first movie?
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tc_796
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Michael John Douglas (born September 5, 1951), known professionally as Michael Keaton, is an American actor, comedian, producer, and director. Keaton first rose to fame for his comedic film roles in Night Shift (1982), Mr. Mom (1983), Johnny Dangerously (1984) and Beetlejuice (1988), and he earned further acclaim for his dramatic portrayal of Bruce Wayne / Batman in Tim Burton's Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992). Since then, he has appeared in a variety of films ranging from dramas and romantic comedies to thriller and action films; such as Clean and Sober (1988), The Dream Team (1989), Pacific Heights (1990), Much Ado About Nothing (1993), My Life (1993), The Paper (1994), Multiplicity (1996), Jackie Brown (1997), The Other Guys (2010), Need for Speed (2014), RoboCop (2014), Birdman (2014) and Spotlight (2015), and he also provided voices for characters in the animated films Cars (2006), Toy Story 3 (2010) and Minions (2015).\n\nKeaton's critically praised lead performance in Birdman (2014) earned him a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy, the Critics' Choice Award for Best Actor and Best Actor in a Comedy, and nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award, British Academy Film Award, and Academy Award for Best Actor. He previously received a Golden Globe Award nomination for his performance in Live from Baghdad (2002) and a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for The Company (2007). Keaton was awarded a Career Achievement Award from both the Hollywood Film Festival and Zurich Film Festivals.\n\nOn January 18, 2016, he was named Officer of Order of Arts and Letters in France. He is also a visiting scholar at Carnegie Mellon University. \n\nEarly life\n\nKeaton, the youngest of seven children, was born in Forest Grove, in Robinson Township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. His father, George A. Douglas, worked as a civil engineer and surveyor, and his mother, Leona Elizabeth (née Loftus), a homemaker, came from McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania. Keaton was raised in a Catholic family.and went to St. Malachy Church [http://www.whas11.com/sharedcontent/features/printwire/010705cccamovieskeaton.8911fd2a.html \"News for Louisville, Kentucky\"], Entertainment News, WHAS-11. His mother was of Irish descent, and his father was of English, Scottish, Scots-Irish, and German ancestry. He attended Montour High School in Pennsylvania. Keaton studied speech for two years at Kent State, before dropping out and moving to Pittsburgh.\n\nCareer\n\n1975–1988\n\nAn unsuccessful attempt at stand-up comedy led Keaton to working as a member of the Production Crew at public television station WQED (TV) in Pittsburgh. Keaton first appeared on TV in Pittsburgh public television programs, including Where the Heart Is and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1975), as one of the \"Flying Zookeeni Brothers.\" He also served as a full-time production assistant on the show. In 2004, following Fred Rogers' death, Keaton hosted a PBS memorial tribute program, Fred Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor. Keaton also worked as an actor in Pittsburgh theatre; he played the role of Rick in the Pittsburgh premiere of David Rabe's Sticks and Bones with the Pittsburgh Poor Players. \n\nKeaton left Pittsburgh and moved to Los Angeles to begin auditioning for various TV parts. He popped up in various popular TV shows including Maude and The Mary Tyler Moore Hour. Around this time Keaton decided to use a stage name to avoid confusion with well-known actor Michael Douglas and daytime host Mike Douglas, as well as to satisfy SAG rules. The rumor that Keaton changed his surname because of an attraction to actress Diane Keaton is incorrect. He chose Keaton because of an affinity for the physical comedy of Buster Keaton. Keaton's film debut came in a small non-speaking role in Joan Rivers film Rabbit Test. \n\nHis next break was working alongside James Belushi in the short-lived comedy series Working Stiffs, which showcased his comedic talent and led to a co-starring role in the comedy Night Shift directed by Ron Howard. His role as the fast-talking schemer Bill \"Blaze\" Blazejowski earned Keaton some critical acclaim, and he scored leads in the subsequent comedy hits Mr. Mom, Johnny Dangerously and Gung Ho.\n\nHe played the title character in Tim Burton's 1988 horror-comedy Beetlejuice, which co-starred Alec Baldwin, Geena Davis, Catherine O'Hara and Winona Ryder, earned Keaton widespread acclaim and boosted him to movieland's A list. He originally turned down the role, then reconsidered like most of the cast. He now considers Beetlejuice his favorite of his own films. That same year, he also gave an acclaimed dramatic performance as a drug-addicted businessman in Clean and Sober. Newsweek featured him in a story during this time.\n\n1989–1999\n\nKeaton's career was given another major boost when he was again cast by Tim Burton, this time as the title comic book superhero of 1989's Batman. \t\nBurton cast him because he thought that Keaton was the only actor who could portray someone who has the kind of darkly obsessive personality that the character demands. Warner Bros. received thousands of letters of complaint by fans commenting that Keaton was the wrong choice to portray Batman, given his prior work in comedies and the fact that he lacked the suave, handsome features and tall, muscular physicality often attributed to the character in the comic books. However, Keaton's dramatic performance earned widespread acclaim from critics and audiences alike, and Batman became one of the most successful films of the year. \n\nAccording to Les Daniels's reference book Batman: The Complete History, Keaton wasn't surprised when he was first considered as Batman as he initially believed the film would be similar to the 1960s television series starring Adam West. It was only after he was introduced to Frank Miller's comic book miniseries, The Dark Knight Returns, that Keaton really understood the dark and brooding side of Batman that he portrayed to much fan approval. Keaton later reprised the role for the sequel Batman Returns (1992), which was another critically acclaimed success, though also controversial for being both darker and more violent than the previous film. He was initially set to reprise the role again for a third Batman film, even going as far as to show up for costume fitting. However, when Burton was dropped as director of the film, Keaton left the franchise as well. He was reportedly dissatisfied with the screenplay approved by the new director, Joel Schumacher, which Keaton considered to be too lighthearted in tone. According to the A&E Biography episode on Keaton, after he had refused the first time (after meetings with Schumacher), Warner Bros. offered him $15 million, but Keaton steadfastly refused. He was subsequently replaced by Val Kilmer in Batman Forever (1995).\n\nKeaton remained active during the 1990s, appearing in a wide range of films, including Pacific Heights, One Good Cop, My Life and the star-studded Shakespearean story Much Ado About Nothing. He also starred in another Ron Howard film, The Paper, as well as with Andie MacDowell in Multiplicity and twice in the same role, Elmore Leonard character Agent Ray Nicolette, in Jackie Brown and Out of Sight. The actor also made the family holiday movie Jack Frost and the thriller Desperate Measures. Keaton starred as a political candidate's speechwriter in 1994's Speechless with Geena Davis and Christopher Reeve (who, like Keaton, had also previously portrayed a famous DC Comics superhero on film: Superman).\n\n2000–present\n\nIn the early 2000s, Keaton appeared in several films with mixed success, including Live From Baghdad (for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe award), First Daughter, White Noise and Herbie: Fully Loaded. While he continued to receive good notices from the critics (particularly for Jackie Brown), he was not able to re-approach the box-office success of Batman until the release of Disney/Pixar's Cars (2006), in which he voiced Chick Hicks. On New Year's Day of 2004, he hosted the PBS TV special Mr. Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor. It was released by Triumph Marketing LLC on DVD September 28 that year.\n\nIn 2006, Keaton starred in an independent film called Game 6, a semi-thriller based around the infamous 1986 World Series bid by the Boston Red Sox. He had a cameo in the Tenacious D short film Time Fixers, an iTunes exclusive. The 9-minute film was released to coincide with Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny. Keaton was announced to be the lead in Media 8 Entertainment's film Reaper, a supernatural thriller. He reportedly agreed to star as John Target in the Matt Evans–scripted No Rule to Make Target, and he has directed a drama, The Merry Gentleman.\n\nKeaton reportedly was cast as Jack Shephard in the series Lost, with the understanding that the role of Jack would be a brief one. Once the role was retooled to be a long-running series regular, Keaton withdrew. The part was then given to actor Matthew Fox. The show ran for six seasons, with the Shephard role continuing throughout. \n\nKeaton starred in the 2007 TV miniseries The Company, set during the Cold War, in which he portrayed the real-life CIA counterintelligence chief James Jesus Angleton. The role garnered Keaton a 2008 SAG nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries. The Company also starred Chris O'Donnell, who portrayed Batman's crime-fighting sidekick Robin (who was absent from the Batman films Keaton starred in) in Batman Forever and Batman & Robin. \n\nKeaton provided the voice of Ken in Toy Story 3 (2010). The film received overwhelmingly positive acclaim and grossed over $1 billion worldwide, making it one of the most financially successful films ever. He announced in June 2010 his interest in returning for a Beetlejuice sequel. He played Captain Gene Mauch in the comedy The Other Guys.\n\nKeaton starred alongside Zach Galifianakis, Edward Norton, Emma Stone, and Naomi Watts in Birdman (2014), playing Riggan Thomson, a screen actor, famous for playing the iconic titular superhero, who puts on a Broadway play based on a Raymond Carver short story, to regain his former glory. He won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy for his portrayal of Thomson and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor.\n\nIn February 2015, Michael Keaton was cast for the role of Ray Kroc in the biopic The Founder, helmed by John Lee Hancock and co-starring Laura Dern, Nick Offerman, John Carroll Lynch and Patrick Wilson. The film is set to be released on August 5, 2016.\n\nPersonal life\n\nKeaton was married to actress Caroline McWilliams from 1982 until 1990. They have one son, Sean Maxwell Douglas. He also had a relationship with actress Courteney Cox from 1989 to 1995.\n\nKeaton, a long-time Pittsburgh resident, is a big Pittsburgh Pirates fan and negotiated a break in his Batman movie contract in case the Pirates made the playoffs that year. He also wrote an ESPN blog on the Pirates during the final months of their 2013 season, in which the Pirates made the playoffs for the first time since 1992. He is also often seen at Pittsburgh Penguins games and is a diehard Pittsburgh Steelers fan. \n\nIn the 1980s, Keaton bought a ranch near Big Timber, Montana, on which he spends most of his time. An avid fisherman, Keaton can often be seen on the saltwater fishing series Buccaneers & Bones on Outdoor Channel, along with Lefty Kreh, Tom Brokaw, Zach Gilford, Thomas McGuane and Yvon Chouinard. \n\nKeaton is a Democrat. He endorsed President Barack Obama for re-election in 2012 and Senator Bernie Sanders for the Democratic nomination in 2016. \n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision\n\nVideo games\n\nAwards and nominations\n\n* List of awards and nominations received by Michael Keaton"
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"Michael Keaton - IMDb\nIMDb\nActor | Soundtrack | Producer\nQuirky, inventive and handsome US actor, Michael Keaton first achieved major fame with his door busting performance as fast talking, ideas man \"Bill Blazejowski\" alongside nerdish morgue attendant Henry Winkler in Night Shift (1982). Keaton was born Michael John Douglas on September 5, 1951 in Coraopolis, Pennsylvannia, to Leona Elizabeth (Loftus),... See full bio »\nBorn:\na list of 47 people\ncreated 24 May 2011\na list of 49 people\ncreated 15 May 2012\na list of 25 people\ncreated 16 Apr 2013\na list of 46 people\ncreated 12 Aug 2014\na list of 36 people\ncreated 04 Apr 2015\nDo you have a demo reel?\nAdd it to your IMDbPage\nHow much of Michael Keaton's work have you seen?\nUser Polls\nNominated for 1 Oscar. Another 64 wins & 37 nominations. See more awards »\nKnown For\nBatman Returns Batman / Bruce Wayne\n(1992)\n 2015 Binky Nelson Unpacified (Video short)\nWalter Nelson (voice)\n 2011 30 Rock (TV Series)\nTom\n 2002 Live from Baghdad (TV Movie)\nRobert Wiener\n 2001 The Simpsons (TV Series)\nJack Crowley\n 1977 Klein Time (TV Movie)\nVarious\n 1975 Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (TV Series)\nVolunteer\n- 1435 (1975) ... Volunteer (as Michael Douglas)\nHide \nSoundtrack (3 credits)\n 2016 The Founder (performer: \"Pennies from Heaven\")\n 1998 Jack Frost (performer: \"Frosty the Snowman\", \"Don't Lose Your Faith\") / (writer: \"Don't Lose Your Faith\")\n 1983 Mr. Mom (performer: \"Oh, Susanna!\" - uncredited)\nHide \n 1999 Body Shots (executive producer)\nHide \n 1999 Making Life Beautiful (TV Short documentary) (thanks)\nHide \n 1989-2017 Good Morning America (TV Series)\nHimself - Guest\n 1987-2017 Entertainment Tonight (TV Series)\nHimself / Himself - Birdman\n 2016 Film 2016 (TV Series)\nHimself - Interviewee\nHimself - Presenter: Actress-Motion Picture Comedy or Musical\n 2015-2016 Extra (TV Series)\n 2015 Inside Comedy (TV Series)\nHimself\n 1982-2015 Saturday Night Live (TV Series)\nHimself - Host / Various / Norman / ...\n- Michael Keaton/Carly Rae Jepsen (2015) ... Himself - Host / Norman / Mr. Wallace / ...\n- Michael Keaton/Morrissey (1992) ... Himself - Host / Eddie / David Green / ...\n 2015 Inside Edition (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2015 The Insider (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2014 Hollywood Sessions (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2014 People Magazine Awards (TV Special)\nHimself\n 2014 Jimmy Kimmel Live! (TV Series)\nHimself - Guest\n 2014 CBS This Morning (TV Series)\nHimself - Guest\n 2014 Hollywood Film Awards (TV Special)\nHimself\n 2014 IMDb: What to Watch (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2014 Made in Hollywood (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2014 In Character With... (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2010-2014 Live! with Kelly (TV Series)\nHimself - Guest\n 2011 Pixar: 25 Magic Moments (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 2010 Buccaneers and Bones (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2010 This Morning (TV Series)\nHimself - Guest\n 2008 Festival Updates (TV Series)\nHimself (2008)\n 2006 The Road to Cars (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 2006 Making 'Game 6' (Video short)\nHimself\n 2005 Corazón de... (TV Series)\nHimself\n- Episode #2.200 (1993) ... Himself - Guest\n 2004 Biography (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2004 Fred Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself - Host\n 2001 America: A Tribute to Heroes (TV Special documentary)\nHimself\n 1999 Making Life Beautiful (TV Short documentary)\nHimself\n 1998-1999 Intimate Portrait (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 1999 Saturday Night Live 25 (TV Special documentary)\nHimself - Audience Member (uncredited)\n 1999 Mundo VIP (TV Series)\nHimself\n 1999 The Directors (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 1998 Dennis Miller Live (TV Series)\nHimself - Guest\n 1996-1998 Charlie Rose (TV Series)\nHimself - Guest\n 1997 1997 MTV Movie Awards (TV Special documentary)\nHimself\n 1997 Frank Capra's American Dream (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself - Interviewee\n 1991 Showbiz Today (TV Series)\nHimself\n 1989 Premiere: Inside the Summer Blockbusters (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 1986/I Comic Relief (TV Special)\nHimself\n 1984 The 56th Annual Academy Awards (TV Special documentary)\nHimself - Co-Presenter: Best Sound Mixing\n 1975 Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2015 Inside Edition (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2015 Live! with Kelly (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2014-2015 Entertainment Tonight (TV Series)\nHimself / Himself - Birdman\n 2014 The Greatest 80s Movies (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself (1988)\n 2014 Missing Reel (TV Mini-Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2005 Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight - Dark Side of the Knight (Video documentary short)\nHimself\n 2005 Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight - The Gathering Storm (Video documentary short)\nHimself\n 2005 Cinema mil (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2005 Batman Returns Heroes: Batman (Video documentary short)\nHimself\n 2005 Batman Returns Villains: The Penguin (Video documentary short)\nHimself\n 1998 Dennis Miller Live (TV Series)\nHimself\n 1996 Classic Stand-Up Comedy of Television (TV Special documentary)\nHimself\nTV commercial for The History Channel (2001) See more »\nPublicity Listings:\n12 Interviews | 8 Articles | 5 Pictorials | 17 Magazine Cover Photos | See more »\nOfficial Sites:\nDid You Know?\nPersonal Quote:\n[2011, on Clean and Sober (1988)] The subject matter was so difficult, but oddly everyone really had fun on the shoot. One great thing about being an actor, too, is that if you have a pulse you learn something. That's one of the great joys and bonuses of it. You're forced to ask certain questions. See more »\nTrivia:\nHas appeared with Geena Davis in Beetlejuice (1988) and Speechless (1994), and had he accepted the lead role in The Fly (1986), this would be their third film (and the first they would be making together). See more »\nNickname:",
"Michael Keaton - Film Actor, Television Actor, Director - Biography.com\nFamous People Born in Coraopolis\nSynopsis\nMichael Keaton was born on September 5, 1951 in McKees Rocks, Penn. He attended Kent State, but dropped out to pursue acting. After some false starts in television, Keaton had his first hit with Mr. Mom. He later worked with directors Tim Burton (Beetlejuice, Batman), Kenneth Branagh and Quentin Tarantino , and in the new millennium won great acclaim for his Oscar-nominated lead role in the drama Birdman, for which he's also won a Golden Globe. Keaton was married to Caroline McWilliams from 1982-1990. The couple has one son together.\nEarly Life\nBorn Michael John Douglas on September 5, 1951, in McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania at Ohio Valley Hospital, Keaton grew up in the Forest Grove area of the township of Robinson as the youngest of seven children. His father worked as a civil engineer, while his mother stayed home to take care of the kids. At school, Keaton displayed his interest in acting by performing humorous skits.\nAfter attending Kent State University for two years, Keaton dropped out to pursue an acting career. He found work as a cab driver and an ice cream truck driver in his hometown for a while, as he tried his hand at stand-up comedy. In 1975, Keaton made his television debut on the children's series Mister Roger's Neighborhood, which was filmed in Pittsburgh. He later moved to Los Angeles, where he started to land some television work. Keaton changed his last name in order to prevent confusion between he and famous actor Michael Douglas . In an interview in 2012, Keaton admitted he chose his famous surname quite randomly, despite the rumors that he was inspired by actress Diane Keaton.\nBig Break\nIn 1977, Keaton joined the cast of the sitcom All's Fair. He played a presidential aide in the short-lived series, which starred Richard Crenna and Bernadette Peters . After appearances on such shows as Mary, Maude, and Family, Keaton landed a lead role in the comedy Working Stiffs. He and Jim Belushi played brothers who worked as janitors. The show only lasted a month. In 1982, Keaton tried again for television success with Report to Murphy, a sitcom in which he played a parole officer. The program aired for a month and a half before being canceled.\nWhile he couldn't find fame on television, Keaton was starting to experience success in films. He starred with Henry Winkler and Shelley Long in Night Shift (1982), a comedy directed by Ron Howard . The film told the story of two morgue workers who start using their workplace as a brothel. The film was met with critical success; co-star Winkler earned a Golden Globe for his performance, and Keaton was recognized with a Kansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor. Box office attendance, however, was low.\nThe following year, Keaton had a career breakthrough with the domestic comedy Mr. Mom, a film about a man who becomes a stay-at-home dad after losing his job. The film became his first big hit, grossing more than $64 million domestically.\nHollywood Star\nKeaton then starred in Johnny Dangerously (1984), a send-up of old gangster films. Unfortunately, the film received the cold shoulder from both critics and audiences alike. In 1986, Keaton again floundered with Gung Ho, which found humor in an American automotive plant after a takeover by a Japanese automaker. In 1988, however, Keaton proved his range as a performer with two very different films. He starred as a mischievous demon who helps a pair of ghosts ( Alec Baldwin and Geena Davis ) get rid of a family that moved into their old house in Beetlejuice. Directed by Tim Burton, the supernatural film that also starred Winona Ryder became a popular hit. \"Tim and I both have the same sensibility. He has this darkness and melancholy about him that's kind of funny. People weren't ready for that at the time,\" Keaton later explained to the Guardian newspaper.\nKeaton showed off his ability to handle dramatic material in his next project, Clean and Sober. In the film, he played a real estate agent with a substance abuse problem. The National Society of Film Critics recognized Keaton for his nuanced performance by giving him the award for Best Actor in 1988.\nKeaton moved to blockbuster fare in 1989, taking on the role of one of the country's most famous comic book characters in Batman (1989) and its sequel, Batman Returns (1992). The films reunited Keaton with director Burton, and Keaton played the famous Batman character with a darker edge than had been portrayed in previous incarnations. Keaton's Batman was edgy, moody, and emotionally wounded. In the films, he battled such legendary bad guys as the Joker (played by Jack Nicholson ) and the Penguin (played by Danny DeVito ). Val Kilmer replaced Keaton for the third installment. George Clooney and Christian Bale also followed in Keaton's footsteps in the later Batman films.\nIn 1990, Keaton starred as psychopath tenant Carter Hayes/James Danforth in the thriller Pacific Heights, opposite Melanie Griffith and Matthew Modine . The film received mixed reviews overall but Keaton was praised for his performance.\nFaltering Career\nAgain showing his range as an actor, Keaton had a supporting role in the Shakespearean comedy Much Ado About Nothing (1993), directed by Kenneth Branagh. That same year, he starred with Nicole Kidman in My Life, playing a man facing death from a terminal illness. Keaton starred in The Paper (1994) as a New York City newspaper editor. Again working a literary angle, he played as a political speechwriter in the romantic comedy Speechless (1994) opposite Geena Davis. Keaton then starred in Harold Ramis 's comedy Multiplicity as a man who able to make copies of himself. None of these films matched the success of his early hits, however.\nIn 1997, Keaton worked with director Quentin Tarantino on the crime thriller Jackie Brown, a film adaptation of an Elmore Leonard novel. He played a supporting role as an ATF agent who busts a stewardess Jackie Brown (played by Pam Grier ) for smuggling cash for an arms dealer (played by Samuel L. Jackson ). Reprising his role, Keaton made a cameo appearance in Steven Soderbergh 's Out of Sight (1998).\nKeaton's career appeared to be in decline at the start of 2000, with appearances in only a few television guest appearances. He then starred in the 2002 television movie Live from Baghdad, about CNN reporters during the Gulf War. For his impressive work on the project, Keaton received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Performance by an Actor in a Miniseries or Motion Picture Made for Television. His co-star, Helena Bonham Carter , was also nominated for a Golden Globe.\nAfter the success of Live from Baghdad, Keaton started working on a series of film projects. He played the president in the 2004 comedy First Daughter starring Katie Holmes . In 2005, he appeared in three films: the independent drama Game 6; the supernatural thriller White Noise; and the family friendly Herbie Fully Loaded.\nNew Directions\nIn 2006, Keaton voiced one of the characters in the popular animated film Cars. The next year, he returned to television with a role in The Company, a movie about the CIA. Keaton stepped behind the camera in 2008, when he made his directorial debut on the small-budget independent drama The Merry Gentleman. He also starred in the project along with Bobby Cannavale and Kelly Macdonald . In the film, Keaton played a depressed hitman who falls for a woman trying to recover from an abusive relationship. \"If I've done it right [the audience will] enjoy spending time with these people, and they'll want to see how the relationships play out,\" Keaton explained to the Guardian newspaper.\nKeaton returned to his comedic roots with 2009's Post Grad, playing the father of a recent college student starting out in life. His voice was also heard in the upcoming animated film Toy Story 3. Working with Damon Wayans Jr., Will Ferrell and Mark Wahlberg , Keaton starred in The Other Guys as well, an upcoming action comedy. \nIn the fall of 2014, Keaton executed an acting tour de force with his lead role in Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance), a film that follows the travails of an insecure, addled super-hero actor looking to return to the limelight via Broadway. Directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu and co-starring Emma Stone , Edward Norton and Naomi Watts , the project earned Keaton an array of new acclaim, with the actor receiving a Golden Globe and an Academy Award nomination. Though he didn't win an Oscar, Birdman did win the prize for best picture in 2015. Later that year, Keaton starred in the newspaper drama Spotlight, which looked at the Catholic church sex abuse scandal that rocked various communities in Boston. The film received the Oscar for best picture in 2016, with Keaton thus starring in the Academy's best picture wins two years in a row. \nPersonal Life\nKeaton was married to Caroline McWilliams from 1982 until 1990. The couple has one son together, Sean Maxwell, who was born in 1983. He also dated actress Courteney Cox from 1990 to 1995.\nFact Check\nWe strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us !\nCitation Information",
"Michael Keaton - Biography - IMDb\nMichael Keaton\nBiography\nShowing all 80 items\nJump to: Overview (4) | Mini Bio (2) | Spouse (1) | Trivia (52) | Personal Quotes (19) | Salary (2)\nOverview (4)\n5' 9\" (1.75 m)\nMini Bio (2)\nQuirky, inventive and handsome US actor, Michael Keaton first achieved major fame with his door busting performance as fast talking, ideas man \"Bill Blazejowski\" alongside nerdish morgue attendant Henry Winkler in Night Shift (1982).\nKeaton was born Michael John Douglas on September 5, 1951 in Coraopolis, Pennsylvannia, to Leona Elizabeth (Loftus), a homemaker, and George A. Douglas, a civil engineer and surveyor. He is of Irish, as well as English, Scottish, and German, descent. Michael studied speech for two years at Kent State, before dropping out and moving to Pittsburgh. An unsuccessful attempt at stand-up comedy led Keaton to working as a TV cameraman in a cable station, and he came to realize he wanted to work in front of the cameras.\nKeaton first appeared on TV in several episodes of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1968). He left Pittsburgh and moved to Los Angeles to begin auditioning for TV. He began cropping up in popular TV shows including Maude (1972) and The Mary Tyler Moore Hour (1979). Around this time, Keaton decided to use an alternative surname to remove confusion with better-known actor Michael Douglas . After reading an article on actress Diane Keaton , he decided that Michael Keaton sounded good. His next break was scoring a co-starring role alongside Jim Belushi in the short-lived comedy series Working Stiffs (1979), which showcased his comedic talent and led to his co-starring role in Night Shift (1982). Keaton next scored the lead in the comedy hits Mr. Mom (1983), Johnny Dangerously (1984) , Gung Ho (1986) and the Tim Burton horror-comedy Beetlejuice (1988).\nKeaton's career was given another major boost when, in 1989, Tim Burton cast him as millionaire playboy / crime-fighter \"Bruce Wayne\" in the big budget Batman (1989). To say there were howls of protest by fans of the caped crusader comic strip is an understatement! Warner Bros. was deluged with thousands of letters of complaint commenting that comedian Keaton was the wrong choice for the Caped Crusader. Their fears were proven wrong when Keaton turned in a sensational performance, and he held his own on screen with opponent Jack Nicholson playing the lunatic villain, \"The Joker\". Keen to diversify his work, Keaton next appeared as a psychotic tenant in Pacific Heights (1990), as a hard-working cop in One Good Cop (1991) and then donned the black cape and cowl once more for Batman Returns (1992). He remained in demand during the 1990s, appearing in a wide range of films including the star-studded Shakespearian Much Ado About Nothing (1993), another Ron Howard comedy The Paper (1994), with sexy Andie MacDowell in Multiplicity (1996), as a dogged cop in Jackie Brown (1997) and the mediocre thriller Desperate Measures (1998). In the 2000s, Keaton has appeared in several productions with mixed success, including Live from Baghdad (2002), First Daughter (2004) and Herbie Fully Loaded (2005). He returned to major film roles in the 2010s, co-starring in RoboCop (2014) and Need for Speed (2014), and playing the lead in Best Picture Oscar winner Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014), for which he received an Oscar nomination for Best Actor, his first.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: [email protected]\nMichael Keaton is an American actor. He is currently a visiting scholar at Carnegie Mellon University. Keaton first rose to fame for his comedic film roles in Night Shift (1982), Mr. Mom (1983), Johnny Dangerously (1984) and Beetlejuice (1988), and he earned further acclaim for his dramatic portrayal of Bruce Wayne / Batman in Tim Burton 's Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992). Since then, he has appeared in a variety of films ranging from dramas and romantic comedies to thriller and action films; such as Clean and Sober (1988), The Dream Team (1989), Pacific Heights (1990), Much Ado About Nothing (1993), My Life (1993), The Paper (1994), Multiplicity (1996), Jackie Brown (1997), The Other Guys (2010), Need for Speed (2014), RoboCop (2014) and Spotlight (2015), and he also provided voices for characters in the animated films Cars (2006), Toy Story 3 (2010) and Minions (2015).\nKeaton's critically praised lead performance in Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014) earned him a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy, the Critics' Choice Award for Best Actor and Best Actor in a Comedy, and nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award, British Academy Film Award, and Academy Award for Best Actor.\nKeaton's career was given another major boost when he was again cast by Tim Burton , this time as the title comic book superhero of Batman (1989). Burton cast him because he thought that Keaton was the only actor who could portray someone who has the kind of darkly obsessive personality that the character demands. Warner Bros. received thousands of letters of complaint by fans commenting that Keaton was the wrong choice to portray Batman, given his prior work in comedies and the fact that he lacked the suave, handsome features and tall, muscular physicality often attributed to the character in the comic books. However, Keaton's dramatic performance earned widespread acclaim from critics and audiences alike, and Batman (1989) became one of the most successful films of the year.\nKeaton remained active during the 1990s, appearing in a wide range of films, including Pacific Heights (1990), One Good Cop (1991), My Life (1993) and the star-studded Shakespearean story Much Ado About Nothing (1993). He also starred in another Ron Howard film, The Paper (1994), as well as with Andie MacDowell in Multiplicity (1996) and twice in the same role, Elmore Leonard character Agent Ray Nicolette, in Jackie Brown (1997) and Out of Sight (1998).\nIn 2014 Keaton starred alongside Zach Galifianakis , Edward Norton , Emma Stone , and Naomi Watts in Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014), a film by 21 Grams (2003) and Biutiful (2010) director Alejandro G. Iñárritu . In the film, Keaton plays Riggan Thomson, a screen actor, famous for playing the iconic titular superhero, who puts on a Broadway play based on a Raymond Carver short story, to regain his former glory. He won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy for his portrayal of Thomson and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Pedro Borges\nSpouse (1)\n( 5 June 1982 - 29 January 1990) (divorced) (1 child)\nTrivia (52)\nWhen he realized he needed to change his name to join the union, he was in the K's for surnames and thought it inoffensive so chose Keaton. It is a misconception that it was after Diane Keaton .\nWas in a relationship with Courteney Cox from 1989-95.\nHas a home in Pacific Palisades (CA) plus ranches in Santa Barbara (CA) and Montana. The 1000-acre Montana ranch, where he grows hay and raises cattle, features a four-bedroom cedar-and-stone ranch house.\nTim Burton cast him in the title role of Batman (1989) because he thought that Keaton was the only actor who could believably portray someone who has the kind of darkly obsessive personality that the character has. There was a great deal of fan anger over his selection, forcing the studio to release an advance trailer both to show that Keaton could do the role well and that the movie would not be a campy parody like the television series Batman (1966).\nAttended and graduated from Montour High School in Robinson Township, PA.\nIs the youngest of seven siblings. Has three brothers and three sisters.\nHas one son with ex-wife Caroline McWilliams : 'Sean Douglas (VI) (born May 27, 1983).\nDecided to change his name when he began acting because there was already a Michael Douglas in movies and a Mike Douglas in broadcasting. While he uses a stage name, he has never legally changed his name to Michael Keaton.\nOne of only two actors to reprise the role of Batman in major, live-action films ( Batman (1989)/ Batman Returns (1992). Adam West did only one movie ( Batman: The Movie (1966)) as Batman (along with the live-action TV series Batman (1966) and voice-work) and Kevin Conroy has only done voice-work as Batman. Christian Bale is the second and most recent actor to play the role more than once with ( Batman Begins (2005) followed by The Dark Knight (2008) and for a third time in The Dark Knight Rises (2012)).\nHas played Agent Ray Nicolette in Jackie Brown (1997) and again in Out of Sight (1998).\nStarted his career as a stagehand in Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1968) (he operated \"Picture, Picture\"), and in 2004 he produced a documentary on Rogers, Fred Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor (2004).\nTurned down the role of the ill-fated mad scientist Dr. Seth Brundle in David Cronenberg 's remake The Fly (1986). The role eventually went to Jeff Goldblum .\nIs a Second City alumnus - a member of the Los Angeles branch.\nAccording to Mike Myers on Revealed with Jules Asner (2001), Keaton saw him perform at Second City Toronto. After the show ended, Keaton went to personally congratulate Myers and said, \"Keep up the great work.\" Myers would soon work with Keaton on an episode of Saturday Night Live (1975) when Keaton was guest host.\nHis son, Sean Douglas , plays keyboard for a band called \"The Hatch\".\nHas appeared with the late Christopher Reeve in Speechless (1994). Keaton and Reeve played DC Comics' two most iconic characters, Batman and Superman.\nHe was originally to play the role of Dr. Jack Shephard on the television series Lost (2004), with the understanding that the character would be killed off early on in the series. Keaton later had to walk away from the role when the creators decided not to kill off the doctor. Matthew Fox ended up playing the character.\nWas parodied by Matthew Perry on Saturday Night Live (1975).\nWas offered the role of either Peter Venkman or Egon Spengler in Ghostbusters (1984) but turned down both roles, which went to Bill Murray and Harold Ramis , respectively. Was originally slated to play Jeff Daniels character in Woody Allen 's The Purple Rose of Cairo (1985) and actually did film some scenes, but Allen decided this was not working and replaced him with Daniels. He had the same fate in Mystic River (2003) when he was cast in the role of Sean Devine, filmed some scenes but he and director Clint Eastwood had creative differences on the project and Keaton opted to leave the film. Was considered for the role of Jack Crawford in The Silence of the Lambs (1991). Was considered for the role of Dr. Curtis McCabe in Vanilla Sky (2001). Was considered for the role of Captain Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003). Was considered for the role of Lt. Col. Kazinski in Jarhead (2005).\nAn avid fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers, he grew up about five miles from former Steelers coach Bill Cowher 's hometown of Crafton, PA.\nEnjoys snowboarding, golf, mountain biking, fly-fishing and riding horses on his California and Montana ranches.\nOne of his favorite hobbies is fly-fishing, a hobby he shares with his Night Shift (1982) co-star Henry Winkler .\nWas 40 years old when filming Batman Returns (1992), which made him the oldest actor at the time to play Batman in a live-action film. He was later succeeded by Ben Affleck , who was 41 years old when cast in the role in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016).\nIs the fourth--and shortest--actor to play Bruce Wayne/Batman.\nHis father had English, Scottish, Scots-Irish (Northern Irish), and German ancestry, while his mother had Irish ancestry.\nIn an interview, he named Mr. Mom (1983), Gung Ho (1986), Clean and Sober (1988), Beetlejuice (1988), Batman (1989), Much Ado About Nothing (1993), The Paper (1994) and Live from Baghdad (2002) as favorite films of his own, with Beetlejuice (1988) as his top pick.\nAlmost reprised his role as Batman/Bruce Wayne in Tim Burton 's unmade \"Superman Lives\", even though Val Kilmer had played the role in his place in Batman Forever (1995).\nWhen asked in an interview which historical figure he wished he could play, his choice was Hall of Fame baseball player Ted Williams .\nIs an avid news junkie and at one point had considered a career in journalism. Has played a journalist in three films: The Paper (1994), Live from Baghdad (2002) and Spotlight (2015).\nHas worked with three generations of actresses: Melanie Griffith and her mother Tippi Hedren in Pacific Heights (1990), and Griffith's daughter Dakota Johnson in Need for Speed (2014).\nAs of 2016 has appeared in three films that were nominated for the Best Picture Oscar: Toy Story 3 (2010), Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014) and Spotlight (2015). Of those, Birdman and Spotlight are winners in the category.\nHe was directed by Ron Howard in three films: Night Shift (1982), Gung Ho (1986) and The Paper (1994). Same goes with Tim Burton : Beetlejuice (1988), Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992).\nHas appeared with Geena Davis in Beetlejuice (1988) and Speechless (1994), and had he accepted the lead role in The Fly (1986), this would be their third film (and the first they would be making together).\nAs of 2016 he remains as the only Bruce Wayne/Batman actor to not be directed by Terrence Malick . George Clooney appeared in The Thin Red Line (1998); Ben Affleck appeared in To the Wonder (2012); Christian Bale appeared in The New World (2005) and Knight of Cups (2015); and Val Kilmer is due to appear in Malick's upcoming film, which also stars Bale.\nHe was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6931 Hollywood Blvd. on July 28, 2016.\nHe was awarded Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters by French culture minister Fleur Pellerin on January 18, 2016.\nA Democrat, he endorsed President Barack Obama for re-election in 2012 and Sen. Bernie Sanders for the Democratic nomination in 2016.\nHe was considered for the role of Harry Belafonte in When Harry Met Sally... (1989), which went to Billy Crystal .\nHe was considered for the role of Andrew Beckett in Philadelphia (1993), which went to Tom Hanks .\nHe turned down the lead role in Clean Slate (1994) in favor of My Life (1993).\nJohn McTiernan wanted him to star in The 13th Warrior (1999), but the studio did not want him.\nHe was considered for the role of Jack Traven in Speed (1994), which went to Keanu Reeves .\nHe turned down John C. Reilly 's role in Kong: Skull Island (2017) due to scheduling conflicts.\nHe was considered for the lead role in Police Academy (1984), which went to Steve Guttenberg .\nHe was offered the role of Chili Palmer in Get Shorty (1995), which went to John Travolta . He would later play Ray Nicolette in Jackie Brown (1997) and Out of Sight (1998), which were also based on Elmore Leonard books.\nHe turned down the role of Alan Bauer in Splash (1984), which went to Tom Hanks .\nHe was considered for one of Jack Nicholson 's roles in Mars Attacks! (1996).\nHe was considered for the role of Jim Garrison in JFK (1991), which went to Kevin Costner .\nHe was considered for the role of Roy Munson in Kingpin (1996), which went to Woody Harrelson .\nHe was offered the male lead in Cutthroat Island (1995), which went to Matthew Modine .\nHe worked on a Navajo reservation in New Mexico when he was age 21.\nIs a huge fan of Katy Perry .\nPersonal Quotes (19)\n[after interviewer Michael Parkinson commented on his birth name being Michael Douglas] Yeah, I had to change my name because there were two other actors registered at Equity with that name. One of them is doing quite well from what I understand, the other is making cheap porn movies--like Basic Instinct (1992).\n[comparing making Batman Returns (1992) to the first Batman (1989) film] In some ways this one was harder, because I felt like I was doing an impersonation of myself. Which, aside from being nearly impossible, is really weird.\n[on his decision not to reprise his role as Batman in Batman Forever (1995)] I was waiting in line for another movie and just kind of poked my head in . . . watched about 10 minutes. I saw enough to know that I made the right decision.\n[When asked what he thought of Batman Begins (2005) before its release] My prediction, I don't know anything about it, but I feel this way about it. It's gonna be good, because he's a really good actor [ Christian Bale ] and that's a really good director [ Christopher Nolan ]. And they've had years and years and years, and hundreds of millions of dollars, or at least tens of millions of dollars to figure it out. I say it's gonna be good. I picture it's gonna be good. And also, I swear to God it's not an \"I told you so\", it's maybe an interesting thing, that when I didn't like the third script . . . I just said \"I really don't like this, and I don't want to do it\", 'cause what I wanted to do, is what I'm told and I don't know if this is true yet so don't hold me to this until I see it, but I'm told it's more a prequel. And that was what I thought would've been a hip way to go the third time. This guy is so endlessly fascinating potentially, why not go and see how he got there.\n[when asked if he was ever offered a villain role in a superhero film] No, but it would be fun. I don't think I'd take Jack's [ Jack Nicholson ] stance on it. I think it'd be fun because those are the roles where you get to chew it up. I'll always stand by the first \"Batman\". Even for its imperfections, people will never know how hard that movie was to do. A lot of that still holds up.\n[on filming Batman (1989) in London] It was a lonely time for me, which was great for the character, I suppose. I would run at night in London just trying to get tired enough so I could sleep. I didn't talk to people much. My little boy was a toddler, and the woman I was married to at the time, we were not together but we were trying to figure it out and get back together. It was me in London, alone, and my sleep during that whole movie was never right. As often as I could, I was getting on the Concorde and trying to get back to spend some time with my kid . . . It was an extremely difficult undertaking and [ Tim Burton ] os a shy guy, especially back then, and there was so much pressure. We were in England for a long time shooting at Pinewood and it was long, difficult nights in that dank, dark, cold place, and we never knew if it was really working. There was no guarantee that any of this was going to play correctly when it was all said and done. There had never been a movie like it before. There was a lot of risk, too, with Jack [ Jack Nicholson ] looking the way he did and me stepping out in this new way. The pressure was on everybody. You could feel it.\n[2011, on his work ethic] I played a lot of sports when I was a kid so I get in that ballgame mindset of being really, really respectful, but at same time saying to yourself, \"Don't back down a single inch, hang with these guys if you can.\" If they throw it high and tight you have to stand in there, you can't take yourself out of that moment.\n[2011, on Night Shift (1982)] The character I invented was a combination of some people I knew and some things I made up, and afterward there [were other projects and offers] that would have meant trying to repeat that over and over, to be the \"glib young man\", whatever that is, but that held no interest for me. I literally thought the idea of all this, when you do it for a living, is to play a lot of different things. If you do the same thing over and over, that will eventually start to close in on you.\n[2011, on Beetlejuice (1988)] From an art perspective, I don't know how you get better than \"Beetlejuice\". In terms of originality and a look, it's 100% unique. If you consider the process of taking something from someone's mind--meaning Tim Burton ]--and putting it on the screen, I think that movie is incomparable.\n[2011, on playing Beetlejuice] I wanted him to be pure electricity, that's why the hair just sticks out. At my house, I started creating a walk and a voice. I got some teeth. I wanted to be scary in the look and then use the voice to add a dash of goofiness that, in a way, would make it even scarier. I wanted something kind of moldy to it, too. [ Tim Burton ] had the striped-suit idea and we added the big eyes. I think that movie will go forever because it's 100% original.\n[2011, on filming Batman Returns (1992)] We got to be back home [filming in Burbank] so that made me happy. It was quite the cast with Michelle Pfeiffer and Danny DeVito and everyone. It wasn't as satisfying to me when I saw it, but maybe that's because the bar was set so high on the first one. I think I only watched it one time. I knew we were in trouble in talks for the third one when certain people started the conversation with \"Why does it have to be so dark?\" \"Why does he have to be so depressed?\" \"Shouldn't there be more color in this thing?\" I knew I was headed for trouble and that it wasn't a road I was going to go down.\n[2011, on Clean and Sober (1988)] The subject matter was so difficult, but oddly everyone really had fun on the shoot. One great thing about being an actor, too, is that if you have a pulse you learn something. That's one of the great joys and bonuses of it. You're forced to ask certain questions.\n[2011, on Much Ado About Nothing (1993)] That's a movie where I said, \"I can't do this\" and it ended up being probably one of my top five experiences ever. I had to find a way in; I didn't really know what to do, quite frankly . . . In the end, [ Kenneth Branagh ] didn't get scared off by my unorthodox approach, he embraced it and was really hands-on, thankfully. It was literally like acting in another language. I had taken maybe one two-day Shakespearean class in my life, so I had no knowledge.\n[2011, on filming The Paper (1994)] It's an awful lot of fun to be in an ensemble, especially when you're talking about Glenn Close , Robert Duvall and that level of actor. It was also the first time I met Duvall. People were nervous on the set when he was coming in; he's a presence, somebody to [reckon] with. I just loved it. I had a ball being there with him. It felt like the first time I acted with Jack Nicholson . These guys are in their very nature larger-than-life personalities, and then they're great actors on top of that and then they're iconic on top of that.\n[2011, on his life as an actor] I never saw what I did for a living as who I am. But if there's a job in the world where that can get blurry, this is the one. The line gets really blurry for a lot of people, and for understandable reasons just as you go through life and this business. You don't have to be especially weak to become extremely self-involved in this business, and I just never wanted to go down that road . . . Alan Arkin said to me once that he wanted to have a really big life and a really good career. And I think that's really sane.\n[on the backlash over his casting in Batman (1989)] When they hung me in effigy, that was, for me, harsh.\n[on Michelle Pfeiffer ] What impressed me about Michelle is that she's a California beach chick, no elevated education, but when you're smart you just get smarter.\n[on being asked if he got jealous when other actors played Batman] No. Do you know why? Because I'm Batman. I'm very secure in that.\n[Paying tribute to Michael Gough ] To Mick--my butler, my confidant, my friend, my Alfred. I love you. God bless.\nSalary (2)",
"Michael Keaton Biography | Fandango\nMichael Keaton Biography\nSep 5, 1951 Birth Place:\nCoraopolis, PA\nBiography\nEqually adept at sober drama and over-the-top comedy, Michael Keaton has a knack for giving ordinary guys an unexpected twist. This trait ultimately made him an ideal casting choice for Tim Burton 's 1989 Batman , and it has allowed him to play characters ranging from Mr. Mom's discontented stay-at-home dad to Pacific Heights's raging psychopath.\nThe youngest of seven children, Keaton was born Michael Douglas on September 5th, 1951 in Coraopolis, Pennsylvania on September 9, 1951. After two years of studying speech at Kent State University, he dropped out and moved to Pittsburgh. While working a number of odd jobs--including a stint as an ice cream truck driver--Keaton attempted to build a career as a stand-up comedian, which proved less than successful. He ended up working as a cameraman for the Pittsburgh PBS station, a job that led him to realize he wanted to be in front of the camera, rather than behind it.\nFollowing this realization, Keaton duly moved out to Los Angeles, where he joined the L.A. Branch of Second City and began auditioning. When he started getting work he changed his last name to avoid being confused with the better-known actor of the same name, taking the name \"Keaton\" after seeing a newspaper article about Diane Keaton . He began acting on and writing for a number of television series, and he got his first big break co-starring with old friend Jim Belushi on the sitcom Working Stiffs (1979). Three years later, he made an auspicious film debut as the relentlessly cheerful owner of a morgue/brothel in Night Shift. The raves he won for his performance carried over to his work the following year in Mr. Mom, and it appeared as though Keaton was on a winning streak. Unfortunately, a series of such mediocre films as Johnny Dangerously (1984) and Gung Ho (1985) followed, and by the time Tim Burton cast him as the titular Beetlejuice in 1988, Keaton's career seemed to have betrayed its early promise.\nBeetlejuice proved Keaton's comeback: one of the year's most popular films, it allowed him to do some of his best work in years as the ghoulish, revolting title character. His all-out comic performance contrasted with his work in that same year's Clean and Sober , in which he played a recovering drug addict. The combined impact of these performances put Keaton back in the Hollywood spotlight, a position solidified in 1989 when he starred in Burton's Batman . Initially thought to be a risky casting choice for the title role, Keaton was ultimately embraced by audiences and critics alike, many of whom felt that his slightly skewed everyman appearance and capacity for dark humor made him perfect for the part. He reprised the role with similar success for the film's 1992 sequel, Batman Returns .\nDespite the acclaim and commercial profit surrounding Keaton's work in the Batman films, many of his subsequent films during the 1990s proved to be disappointments. My Life (1993), Speechless (1994), and The Paper (1994) were relative failures, despite star casting and name directors, while Multiplicity, a 1996 comedy featuring no less than four clones of the actor, further demonstrated that his name alone couldn't sell a movie. Some of Keaton's most successful work of the 1990s could be found in his roles in two Elmore Leonard adaptations, Quentin Tarantino 's Jackie Brown (1997) and Steven Soderbergh 's Out of Sight (1998). An ATF agent in the former and Jennifer Lopez 's morally questionable boyfriend in the latter, he turned in solid performances as part of a strong ensemble cast in both critically acclaimed films. In 1999, Keaton went back to his behind-the-camera roots, serving as the executive producer for Body Shots.\nKeaton continued to act throughout the early 2000s, and starred in Herbie: Fully Loaded (2005) alongside Lindsay Lohan. the actor took on another vehicle-oriented role when he agreed to voice the character of Chris Hicks in Pixar's Cars (2006). In 2010, Keaton voiced the Ken doll in Toy Story 3. Keaton enjoyed an unexpected career renaissance in 2014 playing the lead in Birdman, an older actor trying to stage a comeback by putting on a Broadway production. His work in the film was widely praised, and he earned his first Academy Award nomination when he was given a nod in the Best Actor category.\n— Rebecca Flint Marx, Rovi"
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What is Uma Thurman's middle name?
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"Uma Karuna Thurman (born April 29, 1970) is an American actress and model. She has performed in leading roles in a variety of films, ranging from romantic comedies and dramas to science fiction and action movies. Following early roles in films such as Dangerous Liaisons (1988), she rose to international prominence in 1994 following her role in Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction for which she was nominated for an Academy Award, a BAFTA Award and a Golden Globe Award. She starred in several more films throughout the 1990s such as The Truth About Cats & Dogs, Batman & Robin, Gattaca and Les Misérables.\n\nShe won a Golden Globe Award for the TV movie Hysterical Blindness (2002). Her career was somewhat revitalized when she reunited with director Quentin Tarantino to play the main role in both Kill Bill films (2003/2004) which brought her two additional Golden Globe Award nominations with a BAFTA Award nomination.\n\nEarly life \n\nThurman was born in Boston, Massachusetts. Her forename Uma, Sanskrit उमा, meaning \"splendour, light\", is a name of Parvati,[http://www.hellomagazine.com/profiles/uma-thurman Uma Thurman profile: news, photos, style, videos and more – HELLO! Online] the Hindu goddess of love and fertility. Her father, Robert Alexander Farrar Thurman, is a professor of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist Studies; an academic and writer, he lived as an ordained Buddhist monk for three years. Her mother, Nena von Schlebrügge, was German nobility and a high-fashion model, discovered in Stockholm, who moved to New York at the age of 17 to join the Ford Modelling Agency. Thurman's mother was born in Mexico City, Mexico, of Swedish, German and Danish descent, while Thurman's father was born in New York, and has English, Scottish and Irish ancestry. Thurman received a Buddhist upbringing, and spent altogether around two years in the Indo-Himalayan town of Almora. She now considers herself to be an agnostic.\nShe grew up mostly in Amherst, Massachusetts, where she went to Amherst Regional Middle School, then moved to Woodstock, New York. She has three brothers, Ganden (b. 1967), Dechen (b. 1973), and Mipam (b. 1978), and a half-sister named Taya (b. 1961), from her father's previous marriage. Thurman's first cousin, once removed, is Swedish football player Max von Schlebrügge. \n\nThurman is described as having been an awkward and introverted girl who was teased for her tall frame, angular bone structure, enormous feet and unusual name (sometimes using the name \"Uma Karen\" instead of her birth name). When Thurman was 10 years old, a friend's mother suggested a nose job. As a child, she suffered bouts of body dysmorphic disorder. \n\nShe attended Amherst Public Schools. In the eighth grade she discovered her love for acting. Talent scouts noticed her performance as Abigail in a production of The CrucibleSchoumatoff, Alex. [http://www.angelfire.com/nd/umathurman/artvanity.html \"The life and career of Uma Thurman\"], Vanity Fair, January 1996. and offered her the chance to act professionally. Thurman attended Northfield Mount Hermon School, a preparatory school in Massachusetts, before dropping out to pursue a career in acting.\n\nCareer \n\n1985–89: Early work \n\nThurman began her career as a fashion model at age 15, and signed with the agency Click Models. Her early modeling credits included Glamour and the December 1985 and May 1986 covers of British Vogue.[http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biography_story/882:1170/1/Uma_Thurman.htm \"Uma Thurman Biography\"], Biography Channel, Retrieved October 18, 2011. She made her movie debut in 1988, appearing in four films that year. Her first two were the high school comedy Johnny Be Good and teen thriller Kiss Daddy Goodnight. She had a small role in The Adventures of Baron Munchausen, playing the goddess Venus alongside Oliver Reed's Vulcan; during her entrance she briefly appears nude, in an homage to Botticelli's The Birth of Venus. The most acclaimed of these first four films was Oscar-winning drama Dangerous Liaisons, in which Thurman's character of Cecile de Volanges is seduced by the manipulative Vicomte de Valmont (John Malkovich). At the time, insecure about her appearance, she spent roughly a year in London, during which she often wore loose, baggy clothing. Malkovich said of her, \"There is nothing twitchy teenager-ish about her, I haven’t met anyone like her at that age. Her intelligence and poise stand out. But there's something else. She's more than a little haunted.\" \n\n1990–93: Career prominence \n\nIn 1990, Thurman appeared with Fred Ward and Maria de Medeiros in the sexually provocative drama Henry & June, the first film to receive an NC-17 rating. Partly because many American newspapers refused to advertise films with the new rating, it did not get wide release in the United States, but the film won her some good notices. The New York Times wrote: \"Thurman, as the Brooklyn-accented June, takes a larger-than-life character and makes her even bigger, though the performance is often as curious as it is commanding.\" \n\nIn 1993, she was for the first time the main star in Gus Van Sant's 1993 adaptation of Tom Robbins' novel Even Cowgirls Get the Blues. It was a critical and financial disappointment; Thurman was nominated for a Worst Actress Razzie. The Washington Post described her acting as shallow, writing that, \"Thurman's strangely passive characterization doesn't go much deeper than drawling and flexing her prosthetic thumbs\". She also starred opposite Robert De Niro in the drama Mad Dog and Glory, a box office disappointment that received positive reviews. Later that year, Thurman auditioned for Stanley Kubrick while he was casting for his eventually unrealized project Wartime Lies. \n\n1994–98: Continued success \n\nAfter Mad Dog and Glory, Thurman auditioned for the Quentin Tarantino movie Pulp Fiction, which grossed over $107 million on a budget of only $8 million. The Washington Post wrote that Thurman was \"serenely unrecognizable in a black wig, [and] is marvelous as a zoned-out gangster's girlfriend.\" Thurman was nominated for the Best Supporting Actress Oscar the following year. She became one of Tarantino's favorite actresses to cast; he told Time magazine in 2003 that she was \"up there with Garbo and Dietrich in goddess territory.\"Tyrangiel, Josh. [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101030929-488846,00.html The Tao of Uma], Time, September 22, 2003.\n\n1996 would see Thurman in two moderately successful films, the first of which was Beautiful Girls, where she played the female lead and love interest of Timothy Hutton and was supported with a high-profile cast of Mira Sorvino, Martha Plimpton, and Natalie Portman. The film was well received by the critics for the script and acting, particularly that of Hutton and Portman. It performed moderately well at the box office. Thurman also starred opposite Janeane Garofalo in the moderately successful 1996 romantic comedy The Truth About Cats & Dogs as a ditzy blonde model. In 1997, she starred opposite her future husband Ethan Hawke in the science fiction film Gattaca. Although Gattaca was not a success at the box office, it drew many positive reviews and became successful on the home video market. Some critics were not as impressed with Thurman, such as The Los Angeles Times, which wrote that she was \"as emotionally uninvolved as ever.\" \n\nHer next role was Poison Ivy in Batman & Robin, the fourth of the series. Thurman’s performance in the campy film received some critical acclaim, and in which some fans regarded her as the only reason to watch the film. The New York Times wrote in a positive review, “like Mae West, she mixes true femininity with the winking womanliness of a drag queen”. A similar positive comparison was made by the Houston Chronicle: “Thurman, to arrive at a ’40s femme fatale, sometimes seems to be doing Mae West by way of Jessica Rabbit”. In addition, the San Francisco Chronicle points out “Poison Ivy is the film's best creation. She's a radical environmentalist who gets bitten by snakes and buried in vines only to rise up, gorgeous and redheaded, like Botticelli's Venus. Like America's original femme fatale, Beatrice in Hawthorne's ‘Rappaccini's Daughter,’ Ivy has a poisonous kiss. Like Dietrich in ‘Blonde Venus,’ she shows up at a ritzy affair in a gorilla suit.” She has won a Blockbuster Entertainment Award for 'Best Actress - Sci-Fi' in her role as Poison Ivy, and was also nominated for Favourite Movie Actress in the Kids' Choice Awards, only to have lost to her co-star Alicia Silverstone as Batgirl The next year brought The Avengers, another major financial and critical flop. CNN described her as \"so distanced you feel like you’re watching her through the wrong end of a telescope.\" She received Razzie Award nominations for both films. She closed out 1998 with Les Misérables, a film version of Victor Hugo's novel of the same name, directed by Bille August, in which she played Fantine. On his review of the film, Roger Ebert said that \"Thurman's performance is the best element of the movie.\"\n\n1998–2002: Hiatus \n\nAfter the birth of her first child in 1998, Thurman took a break from acting to concentrate on motherhood. She appeared in Woody Allen's Sweet and Lowdown, and a Merchant/Ivory production The Golden Bowl. Her next roles were in low-budget and television films, including Vatel, Tape, in which she appeared with then husband Ethan Hawke and for which she was nominated for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female, and Chelsea Walls, directed by Hawke. \nShe would win a Golden Globe award for her acting in HBO cable movie Hysterical Blindness; she was also one of the executive producers. Thurman played a New Jersey woman in the 1980s searching for romance. The San Francisco Chronicle review said, \"Thurman so commits herself to the role, eyes blazing and body akimbo, that you start to believe that such a creature could exist—an exquisite-looking woman so spastic and needy that she repulses regular Joes. Thurman has bent the role to her will.\" \n\nIn 2000, she narrated the John Moran opera Book of the Dead (2nd Avenue) at New York's Public Theater.\n\n2003–present \n\nIn 2003 Thurman co-starred in John Woo's Paycheck, which was only moderately successful with critics and at the box office.\n\nIt would be Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill which relaunched her career. She played assassin Beatrix Kiddo, out for revenge against her former lover. Tarantino wrote the part specifically for her. He cited Thurman as his muse while writing the film, and gave her joint credit for the character, whom the two conceived on the set of Pulp Fiction from the sole image of a bride covered in blood. Production was delayed for several months after Thurman became pregnant and Tarantino refused to recast the part. The film took nine months to shoot, and was filmed in five different countries. The role was also her most demanding, and she spent three months training in martial arts, swordsmanship, and Japanese. It was originally set to be released as one film. However, due to its over 4-hour running time, it was ultimately released in two parts and subsequently became a cult film and scored highly with critics. Thurman was nominated for a Golden Globe for both entries, plus three MTV Movie Awards for Best Female Performance and two for Best Fight. Rolling Stone likened her to \"an avenging angel out of a 1940s Hollywood melodrama\". \n\nThe inspirations for The Bride were several B-movie action heroines. Thurman's main inspiration for the role was the title character of Coffy (played by Pam Grier) and the character of Gloria Swenson from Gloria (played by Gena Rowlands). She said that the two characters are \"two of the only women I've ever seen be truly women [while] holding a weapon\". Coffy was screened for Thurman by Tarantino prior to beginning production on the film, to help her model the character.\n\nBy 2005, Thurman was commanding a salary of $12.5 million per film. Her first film of the year was Be Cool, the sequel to 1995's Get Shorty, which reunited her with her Pulp Fiction castmate John Travolta. The film received poor reviews, and came in below expectations at the box office. In 2005, she starred in the flop Prime with Meryl Streep, playing a woman in her late thirties romancing a man in his early twenties. Thurman's last film of the year was a remake of The Producers in which she played Ulla, a Swedish stage actress hoping to win a part in a new Broadway musical. Originally, the producers of the film planned to have another singer dub in Thurman's musical numbers, but she was eager to do her own vocals. She is credited for her songs in the credits. The film was considered a bomb at the box office, but some critics praised Thurman's efforts, including A. O. Scott of The New York Times who said: \"Uma Thurman as a would-be actress is the one bit of genuine radiance in this aggressively and pointlessly shiny, noisy spectacle.\" \n\nAround this time Thurman once again became a model, with the cosmetics company Lancôme selecting her as its spokeswoman. It also named several shades of lipstick after her, though they were sold only in Asia. In 2005, Thurman became a spokeswoman for the French fashion house Louis Vuitton. On February 7, 2006, she was also named a knight of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres of France for outstanding achievement in the field of art and literature. \n\nIn May 2006, Thurman bought the film rights to the Frank Schätzing novel The Swarm, which is in development and due for release in 2015. When the film remake The Women was in pre-production in 2006, Thurman was cast as Crystal Allen, alongside Annette Bening, Julia Roberts, Meg Ryan, Sandra Bullock, Ashley Judd, Lisa Kudrow and Anne Hathaway, being directed by James L. Brooks, but the director was changed and Thurman was no longer part of the cast. In July 2006, she starred opposite Luke Wilson in My Super Ex-Girlfriend. Thurman portrayed a superhero named \"G-Girl\" who is dumped by her boyfriend and then takes her revenge upon him. She received $14 million for the role, but the film flopped with critics and audiences.\n\nIn February 2008, she starred opposite Colin Firth and Jeffrey Dean Morgan in The Accidental Husband, a romantic comedy about a woman who finds herself married while engaged to another man. It seems like archetypal Hollywood contrivance, but according to Thurman, a similar situation happened in New York. Also in 2008, she starred as Elsa in the British film My Zinc Bed, in which she plays a cocaine addict, starring opposite Paddy Considine and Jonathan Pryce. In 2010, her movie Motherhood garnered just £88 on 11 tickets on its opening weekend. In the United States it earned $93,388 in three weeks of release. \n\nIn 2011, Thurman was a member of the jury for the main competition at the Cannes Film Festival. In December 2011, James Hibberd of Entertainment Weekly reported Thurman had joined the cast of NBC's Smash as Rebecca Duvall. Thurman appeared in five episodes of the drama series. Her performance as Duvall received mostly positive reviews and she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series.\n\nPersonal life \n\nRelationships \n\nThurman met actor Gary Oldman on the set of State of Grace; they married in 1990 and divorced two years later. \n\nOn May 1, 1998, she married actor Ethan Hawke, whom she met on the set of their 1997 film Gattaca. Hawke's novel Ash Wednesday is dedicated to \"Karuna\", Thurman's middle name. She acknowledged that they had married because she was pregnant – seven months at their wedding. The marriage produced two children: daughter Maya Ray, born in 1998, and son Levon, born in 2002. The couple separated in 2003, and the divorce was finalized in August 2005. \n\nWhen asked on The Oprah Winfrey Show whether the break-up involved betrayal, she said, \"There was some stuff like that at the end. We were having a difficult time, and you know how the axe comes down and how people behave and how people express their unhappiness.\"\n\nThurman began dating London-based French financier Arpad Busson in 2007, and they announced their engagement in June 2008. In late 2009, they called off their engagement, but reconciled soon after. Thurman and Busson have a daughter together, Rosalind Arusha Arkadina Altalune Florence Thurman-Busson (nickname Luna), born in 2012. The couple reportedly called off the engagement for the second time in April 2014. \n\nIn a 2004 Rolling Stone cover story, Thurman and director Quentin Tarantino denied having had a romantic relationship, despite Tarantino once having told a reporter, \"I'm not saying that we haven’t, and I'm not saying that we have.\" Rumours of their relationship were rekindled after they appeared together at the Pulp Fiction 20th anniversary tribute at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival. \n\nActivism and charity work \n\nThurman has been involved in various philanthropic and activist causes. She supports the United States Democratic Party, and has given money to the campaigns of John Kerry, Hillary Clinton, and Joseph R. Driscoll. She supports gun control laws, and in 2000, she participated in Marie Claire’s “End Gun Violence Now” campaign. She is a member of the board of Room to Grow, a charitable organization providing aid to families and children born into poverty. She serves on the board of the Tibet House. In 2007, she hosted the Nobel Peace Prize Concert in Oslo, Norway with actor Kevin Spacey. \n\nIn 2011, Thurman was one of a few celebrities attached to USAID and Ad Council's FWD campaign, an awareness initiative tied to that year's East Africa drought. She joined Geena Davis, Chanel Iman and Josh Hartnett in TV and internet ads to \"forward the facts\" about the crisis. \n\nFilmography \n\nAwards"
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"Uma Thurman - Biography - IMDb\nUma Thurman\nBiography\nShowing all 112 items\nJump to: Overview (3) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (2) | Trade Mark (3) | Trivia (63) | Personal Quotes (21) | Salary (19)\nOverview (3)\n6' (1.83 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nUma Karuna Thurman was born in Boston, Massachusetts, into a highly unorthodox and Eurocentric family. She is the daughter of Nena Thurman (née Birgitte Caroline von Schlebrügge), a fashion model and socialite who now runs a mountain retreat, and of Robert Thurman (Robert Alexander Farrar Thurman), a professor and academic who is one of the nation's foremost Buddhist scholars. Uma's mother was born in Mexico City, Mexico, to a German father and a Swedish mother (who herself was of Swedish, Danish, and German descent). Uma's father, a New Yorker, has English, Scots-Irish, Scottish, and German ancestry. Uma grew up in Amherst, Massachusetts, where her father worked at Amherst College.\nThurman's household was one in which the The Dalai Lama was an occasional guest; she and her siblings all have names deriving from Buddhist mythology; and Middle American behavior was little understood, much less pursued. And so it was that the young Thurman confronted childhood with an odd name and eccentric home life -- and nature seemingly conspired against her as well. She is six feet tall, and from an early age towered over everyone else in class. Her famously large feet would soon sprout to size 11 -- and even beyond that -- and although they would eventually be lovingly filmed by director Quentin Tarantino , as a child she generally wore the biggest shoes in class, which only provided another subject of ridicule. Even her long nose moved one of her mother's friends to helpfully suggest rhinoplasty -- to the ten-year-old Thurman. To make matters worse yet, the family constantly relocated, making the gangly, socially inept Thurman perpetually the new kid in class. The result was an exceptionally awkward, self-conscious, lonely and alienated childhood.\nUnsurprisingly, the young Thurman enjoyed making believe she was someone other than herself, and so thrived at acting in school plays -- her sole successful extracurricular activity. This interest, and her lanky frame, perfect for modeling, led the 15-year-old Thurman to New York City for high school and modeling work (including a layout in Glamour Magazine) as she sought acting roles. The roles soon came, starting with a few formulaic and forgettable Hollywood products, but immediately followed by Terry Gilliam 's The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988) and Stephen Frears ' Dangerous Liaisons (1988), both of which brought much attention to her unorthodox sensuality and performances that intriguingly combined innocence and worldliness. The weird, gangly girl became a sex symbol virtually overnight.\nThurman continued to be offered good roles in Hollywood pictures into the early '90s, the least commercially successful but probably best-known of which was her smoldering, astonishingly-adult performance as June, Henry Miller 's wife, in Henry & June (1990), the first movie to actually receive the dreaded NC-17 rating in the USA. After a celebrated start, Thurman's career stalled in the early '90s with movies such as the mediocre Mad Dog and Glory (1993). Worse, her first starring role was in Even Cowgirls Get the Blues (1993), which had endured a tortured journey from cult-favorite book to big-budget movie, and was a critical and financial debacle. Fortunately, Uma bounced back with a brilliant performance as Mia Wallace, that most unorthodox of all gangster's molls, in Tarantino's lauded, hugely successful Pulp Fiction (1994), a role for which Thurman received an Academy Award nomination.\nSince then, Thurman has had periods of flirting with roles in arty independents such as A Month by the Lake (1995), and supporting roles in which she has lent some glamorous presence to a mixed batch of movies, such as Beautiful Girls (1996) and The Truth About Cats & Dogs (1996). Thurman returned to smaller films after playing the villainess Poison Ivy in the reviled Joel Schumacher effort Batman & Robin (1997) and Emma Peel in a remake of The Avengers (1998). She worked with Woody Allen and Sean Penn on Sweet and Lowdown (1999), and starred in Richard Linklater 's drama Tape (2001) opposite Hawke. Thurman also won a Golden Globe award for her turn in the made-for-television film Hysterical Blindness (2002), directed by Mira Nair .\nA return to the mainstream spotlight came when Thurman redeemed with Quentin Tarantino for Kill Bill: Vol. 1 (2003), a revenge flick the two had dreamed up on the set of Pulp Fiction (1994). She also turned up in the John Woo cautioner Paycheck (2003) that same year. The renewed attention was not altogether welcome because Thurman was dealing with the break-up of her marriage with Hawke at about this time. Thurman handled the situation with grace, however, and took her surging popularity in stride. She garnered critical acclaim for her work in Kill Bill: Vol. 2 (2004) and was hailed as Tarantino's muse. Thurman reunited with Pulp Fiction (1994) dance partner John Travolta for the Get Shorty (1995) sequel Be Cool (2005) and played Ulla in The Producers (2005).\nThurman had been briefly married to Gary Oldman , from 1990 to 1992. In 1998, she married Ethan Hawke , her co-star in the offbeat futuristic thriller Gattaca (1997). The couple had two children, Levon and Maya. Hawke and Thurman filed for divorce in 2004.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Azure_Girl and Larry- 15\nSpouse (2)\nLong blond hair and blue eyes\nStatuesque, model-like figure\nTrivia (63)\nFrench cosmetics firm Lancome have employed her as a spokesmodel for their company. [June 2000]\nRanked #99 in Empire (UK) magazine's \"The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time\" list. [October 1997]\nFormer model.\nHer father, Robert Thurman (Robert Alexander Farrar Thurman), is a professor of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist Studies at Columbia University School of Religion. He was the first westerner to become a Tibetan Buddhist monk. Uma was named for a Hindu goddess. Robert's family has been in the United States for many generations, and he has English, Scots-Irish (Northern Irish), Scottish, and German ancestry.\nUma's mother, Nena Thurman , who was born as Birgitte Caroline von Schlebrügge in Mexico City, Mexico, is a model-turned-psychotherapist, who was a young teenager when she was discovered in Stockholm by photographer Norman Parkinson . Uma's maternal grandfather, Friedrich Karl Johannes von Schlebrügge, was a Prussian nobleman. Uma's maternal grandmother, Brigit Holmquist, was born in Sweden, to a father of Swedish descent and a mother of German and Danish ancestry. Brigit's father was a famous local industrialist, and Brigit was herself a famous beauty. A nude statue, called 'Famntaget' (The Embrace), of Brigit, stands in the port town of Trelleborg. Uma's maternal grandparents moved to Mexico, where Nena was born. Artist Salvador Dalí introduced Nena to her first husband, Timothy Leary .\nChosen by Empire magazine as one of the 100 Sexiest Stars in film history (#20). [1995]\nUma's middle name, Karuna, is one of the four sublime abodes in Buddhism. It means \"compassion.\" The other 3 sublime abodes are Metta (Loving kindness), Mudita (Sympathetic joy), and Upekkha (Equanimity).\nAttended Northfield Mount Hermon boarding school in Northfield, Massachusetts, during her freshman and sophomore years, approximately twenty five miles from her home town at the time, Amherst, Massachusetts.\nNamed after the goddess of light and beauty in Indian Mythology.\nUma and Ethan Hawke 's daughter's name is Maya; which is also the name of the character that Uma played in Duke of Groove (1996).\nHas shades of Lancome lipsticks named after her (available only in Asia).\nHer mother, Nena Thurman , was once married to LSD proponent Timothy Leary . The marriage lasted less than a year (1964-1965). Their marriage, which took place in Nepal, was the subject of a 15-minute documentary entitled \"You're Nobody Till Somebody Loves You\". Nena married Uma's father, Robert Thurman , two years later in 1967.\nHas three brothers with equally unusual, exotic names: Ganden, Dechen (who is an actor and director) and Mipam.\nSister of Dechen Thurman and Ganden Thurman and the daughter of Nena Thurman and Robert Thurman\nShe is on the Board of Directors of Room to Grow, a non-profit organization founded by Rob Reiner , dedicated to enriching the lives of babies born into poverty throughout their critical first 3 years of development.\nHer uncle, John Thurman, is a professional concert cellist who performs with the Detroit Symphony Orchestra.\nSupported the Junior Senator ( John Kerry ) from her native state (Massachusetts) for President of the United States.\nOriginally cast for the part of Eowyn in the The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002).\nIn Polynesian, her name means \"kiss\".\nFormer husband Ethan Hawke 's book was dedicated to her (\"For Karuna\").\nFormer sister-in-law of Laila Morse .\nShe attended Amherst Regional Middle School, Massachusetts, for grade 7 and 8 and had Ester Haskell as an English teacher. She later visited that school to contribute to the Women's History assembly. The children were thrilled\nNamed #21 on the Maxim magazine Hot 100 of 2005 list.\nFollowed in the footsteps of both her mother and grandmother into the world of modeling.\nShe and her first husband, Gary Oldman , have both appeared in separate Batman films. Uma appeared in Batman & Robin (1997) as Poison Ivy. Gary Oldman has appeared in Batman Begins (2005) & The Dark Knight (2008) as James Gordon.\nWas made a Knight of the Order of Arts and Letters (Chevalier De l'Ordre Des Arts Et Des Lettres) by France on February 7, 2006. Presenting the prize on behalf of the French Ministry of Culture, Cannes Film Festival President Gilles Jacob told Thurman she was \"admired throughout the world\" and that her career would \"make her the favorite actress of an entire generation.\" The Order of Arts and Letters is given out twice annually to a few hundred people worldwide.\nRanked as #67 in FHM's \"100 Sexiest Women in the World 2005\" special supplement. (2005)\nQuentin Tarantino considers her as his muse.\nNamed #59 in FHM magazine's \"100 Sexiest Women in the World 2006\" supplement. (2006).\nMember of the jury at the Venice Film Festival in 1994.\nUma and her hotelier boyfriend, André Balazs , have ended their three-year romance. They started dating in 2003 [March 20, 2007].\nEngaged to Arpad Busson [June 26, 2008].\nWas 5ft 10in by the age of 13.\nBorn at 1:51 PM (EDT).\nCalled off her engagement to Arpad Busson on November 15, 2009.\nAuditioned for the Julia Roberts role in Pretty Woman (1990).\nHas appeared in two films quoting the proverb \"revenge is a dish best served cold\", Kill Bill: Vol. 1 (2003) and Batman & Robin (1997) as well as Dangerous Liaisons (1988), an adaptation of the novel often credited with originating that expression.\nEx-stepmother of Alfie Oldman .\nAuditioned for the role of Geneva Backman in The Dilemma (2011), which went to Winona Ryder .\nReturned to work 5 months after giving birth to her son Levon in order to begin filming Kill Bill: Vol. 1 (2003).\nTurned down the Katherine Heigl role in Knocked Up (2007).\nConsidered for the role of Eleanor Arroway in Contact (1997) after Jodie Foster initially turned it down in 1995, until Foster agreed to do the film after seeing a new revision of the script.\nWas a contender for the role of Giselle in Enchanted (2007). The role went to Amy Adams .\nWas Brian De Palma 's first choice for the role of Maria in The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990). Actor Tom Hanks , who had casting approval, dismissed Thurman's acting as \"high school,\" and the role went to Melanie Griffith .\nAuditioned for the role of Buttercup in The Princess Bride (1987). The role went to Robin Wright .\nAuditioned for the Mary Stuart Masterson role in Fried Green Tomatoes (1991).\nAuditioned for the role of Cathy in Wuthering Heights (1992). The role went to Juliette Binoche .\nPlayed a role in Savages (2012) as Paqu ( Blake Lively 's character mother) but all her scenes were deleted from the film.\nDespite the potential for complications with child birth because of problems with her blood vessels, she gave birth to 3 children.\nWas 3 months pregnant with her daughter Luna when she filmed her guest appearance on Smash (2012).\nReturned to work 3 months after giving birth to her daughter Luna in order to begin filming Nymphomaniac: Vol. I (2013).\nGave birth to her 1st child at age 28, a daughter Maya Ray Thurman-Hawke (aka Maya Thurman-Hawke ) on July 8, 1998. Child's father is her now ex-2nd husband, Ethan Hawke .\nGave birth to her 2nd child at age 31, a son Levon Roan Thurman-Hawke (aka Roan Thurman-Hawke ) on January 15, 2002. Child's father is her now ex-2nd husband, Ethan Hawke .\nGave birth to her 3rd child at age 42, a daughter Rosalind Arusha Arkadina Altalune Florence Thurman-Busson on July 15, 2012. Child's father is her boyfriend, Arpad Busson .\nWas set to portray Marlene Dietrich in a biopic directed by Louis Malle , but after the death of Malle the project was canceled.\nDanced with John Travolta in two movies, Pulp Fiction (1994) and Be Cool (2005).\nIn 2010, Thurman's £6,000,000 ($10,000,000) lawsuit against London-based Handmade Films, the production company behind Eloise in Paris , was settled. Thurman had hired Bert Fields to represent her, claiming that not only had Handmade not paid her an agreed £2,800,000 pay-or-play fee for the film, but that she had also lost earnings waiting for it to begin production.\nNext to Quentin Tarantino , she presented the Palme D'or to Winter Sleep (2014) at the 67th Cannes Film Festival. She attended the stage bare-feet.\nClose friend Natasha Richardson , Kill Bill: Vol. 2 (2004) co-star David Carradine and half-nephew Dash Snow all died within four months of each other in 2009, and each died under tragic circumstances: Richardson from a head injury whilst skiing, Carradine from an apparent sex game gone wrong, and Snow from a heroin overdose.\nShe is mentioned in the song \"Avant Gardener\" by Courtney Barnett .\nRefused two proposals from Ethan Hawke before agreeing to marry him. She was seven months pregnant at their wedding.\nPersonal Quotes (21)\nTall, sandy blonde, with sort of blue eyes, skinny in places, fat in others. An average gal. - Uma Thurman, self description.\nI'm very happy at home. I love to just hang out with my daughter, I love to work in my garden. I'm not a gaping hole of need.\nIt is better to have a relationship with someone who cheats on you than with someone who does not flush the toilet.\nI was not particularly bright, I wasn't very athletic, I was a little too tall, odd, funny looking, I was just really weird as a kid.\nDesperation is the perfume of the young actor. It's so satisfying to have gotten rid of it. If you keep smelling it, it can drive you crazy. In this business a lot of people go nuts, go eccentric, even end up dead from it. Not my plan.\nMy washing machine overwhelms me with its options and its sophistication.\n\"Everyone looked the same, everyone had it down to such a perfect T. You get bored. That's when you have to say, 'I will be worst-dressed.'\", on her questionable choice of Oscar attire this year (2004)\nI had to go to a mirror and look at it. I couldn't picture myself in my own head. I had no image beyond a stick figure. I wasn't a mean person as a kid, or dumb, and something has to be said to justify excluding you.\nBefore I had my child, I thought I knew all the boundaries of myself, that I understood the limits of my heart. It's extraordinary to have all those limits thrown out, to realize your love is inexhaustible.\nI think we all exude essential truths about ourselves, and then, as an actress, there's what you do with it. There's your wit and your imagination, and what you can cook up from your experience and understanding of what makes a human being tick.\nIn show business, to pry open doors in new areas is really tough. Until you have a successful comedy, people don't think you could be funny, which is what makes a director like Quentin Tarantino so special. He sees beyond the things on the resume that you've done to date and opens up wonderful cans of worms for you to crawl into. That's a cool thing.\nHaving children flips the game from being about you to being about what you can create in a home and what your responsibilities are. I've thought about quitting, but I love what I do so much - it's the big conundrum of my life.... So I'm fighting to keep my foot in the business, be creative and stimulated, and still take care of my children.\nI've known some great rock chicks, and it seems to me they're allowed to have a lot more edge than movie people, where everybody's got the latest youth serums going, the newest exercise and, if that won't cover it, they'll do something else. There's this sort of improve-yourself aspect, whereas the music business seems to have this much more funky attitude, with, like, a slight respect for damage.\nI've learned that every working mom is a superwoman.\nBy the time I was 27, when I had my daughter, I felt I had danced on every tabletop - which I hadn't. Now I know that I hadn't. At all. There are plenty of tabletops left, should I wish to dance on them. (In Style - February 2006 - \"Uma In Full Swing\" by Joanne Kaufman)\nGrowing up in a small town in New England was one of the most aesthetically pleasant experiences that you can have. (In Style - February 2006 - \"Uma In Full Swing\" by Joanne Kaufman)\nIt's a shakedown. But I feel grateful that the hard things have been survivable - I've been able to learn from them and grow - and that the things that have been like a gift, I've had the wherewithal to realize are a gift. (In Style - February 2006 - \"Uma In Full Swing\" by Joanne Kaufman)\nAs they say in gambling, I've gotten to stay at the table. I've hung in! They pull the plug on people all the time. The sky hook comes out, and it's all over. But there are much bigger sky hooks - as well we know. (In Style - February 2006 - \"Uma In Full Swing\" by Joanne Kaufman)\nI think a lot of our lives we spend moving forward, leaping from rock to rock, trying to figure it out. But it's wonderful to feel in the prime of your life. I feel like I'm in the right place and in the right time with myself. (In Style - February 2006 - \"Uma In Full Swing\" by Joanne Kaufman)\nYou learn that the first failure isn't the end. I thought I'd seen the end of my career 10 times over. I've experienced them as death blows. What's nice - after numerous efforts, successes, failures, losses, professional and personal - is to actually accept you're not going to ace your life. You suffer, then you get on with it. You may spend three months in bed, but, eventually, you're going to have to get up.\nWhen I was a teenager people often referred to me as jaded or knowing. It's a classic teen illusion to think you know it all, but I've certainly learned I don't.\nSalary (19)",
"Uma Karuna Thurman - Genealogy\nGenealogy\nJoin the world's largest family tree\nGender\nShare your family tree and photos with the people you know and love\nBuild your family tree online\nShare photos and videos\nKings County, New York, United States\nBirthdate:\nBoston, Suffolk County, Massachusetts, United States\nImmediate Family:\nMother of <private> Thurman-Hawke; <private> Thurman-Hawke and Minor Child\nSister of <private> Thurman; <private> Thurman and <private> Thurman\nHalf sister of Taya Thurman\nOccupation:\nOldman Uma, Thurman V Uma\nPossible relatives:\nGary Fiorentino, Donya Marlette Fiorentino, Gary Oldman, Robert A Thurman, Sr, Dechen Karl Thurman, Mipam K Thurman\nResidences:\nApr 29 1970 - Boston, Suffolk, Massachusetts, USA\nParents:\nApr 29 1970 - Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.\nParents:\n<Private> Thurman, <Private> Thurman (o.s. Von Schlebrügge)\nSiblings:\n<Private> Thurman, <Private> Thurman, <Private> Thurman, <Private> Thurman\nEx-husband:\nApr 29 1970 - Boston, MA\nParents:\nRobert Alexander Farrar Thurman, Nena Birgitte Caroline Von Schlebrugge\nHusband:\nRobert Thurman, Nena Von Schlebrügge\nSiblings:\nGanden Thurman, Dechen Thurman, Taya Thurman, Mipam Thurman\nHusband:\nGary Oldman, Ethan Hawke, Arpad Busson\nChildren:\nMaya Thurman-Hawke, Levon Roan Thurman-Hawke, Luna Thurman-Busson\nResidences:\nRobert Alexander Farrar Thurman, <Private> Thurman\nSiblings:\nGanden Thurman, Dechen Thurman, Mipam Thurman, <Private> Thurman\nEx-partner:\nApr 29 1970 - Boston, USA\nParents:\nRobert Alexander Farrar Thurman, Brigitte Caroline Thurman (geb. Von Schlebrügge)\nSiblings:\nGanden Thurman, Dechen Thurman, Mipam Thurman\nEx-husband:\nex-husband's child\nAbout Uma Thurman\nShe is an American actress. She has performed in leading roles in a variety of films, ranging from romantic comedies and dramas to science fiction and action thrillers. She is best known for her work under the direction of Quentin Tarantino. Her most popular films include Dangerous Liaisons (1988), Pulp Fiction (1994), Gattaca (1997) and Kill Bill (2003–2004).\nThurman's mother, Nena Birgitte Caroline von Schlebrügge, was a fashion model born in Mexico City, Mexico in 1941, to German-born Friedrich Karl Johannes von Schlebrügge, and Swedish-born Birgit Holmquist, from Trelleborg. In 1930, Birgit Holmquist, Thurman's grandmother, modelled for a nude statue that stands overlooking the harbor of Smygehuk. Thurman's father, Robert Alexander Farrar Thurman (b. August 3, 1941), was born in New York City to Elizabeth Dean Farrar, a stage actress, and Beverly Reid Thurman, Jr., an Associated Press editor and U.N. translator. Thurman's mother was introduced to LSD guru Timothy Leary by Salvador Dalí and became Leary's third wife in 1964; she later wed Thurman's father in 1967.\nThurman's father, Robert, a scholar and professor at Columbia University of Tibetan Buddhist studies, was the first westerner to be ordained as a Tibetan Buddhist monk.[4] He gave his children a Buddhist upbringing: Uma is named after an Dbuma Chenpo (in Tibetan, the \"db\" is silent; from Mahamadhyamaka in Sanskrit, meaning \"Great Middle Way\"). She has three brothers, Ganden (b. 1971), Dechen (b. 1973) and Mipam (b. 1978), and a half-sister named Taya (b. 1960) from her father's previous marriage. She and her siblings spent time in Almora, India, during childhood, and the Dalai Lama sometimes visited their home.\nThurman grew up mostly in Amherst, Massachusetts and Woodstock, New York. She is described as having been an awkward and introverted girl who was teased for her tall frame, angular bone structure, and unusual name (sometimes using the name “Uma Karen” instead of her birth name). When she was 10 years old, a friend's mother suggested a nose job.\nAs a child, she suffered bouts of body dysmorphic disorder, which she discussed in an interview with Talk magazine in 2001.\nThurman attended Northfield Mount Hermon, a college preparatory boarding school in Northfield, Massachusetts, where she earned average grades, but excelled in acting. Talent scouts noticed her performance as Abigail in a production of The Crucible, and offered her the chance to act professionally. Thurman moved to New York City to pursue acting and to attend the Professional Children's School, but she dropped out before graduating.\nActivism and charity work:\nThurman supports the United States Democratic Party, and has given money to the campaigns of John Kerry, Hillary Clinton, and Joseph R. Driscoll. She supports gun control laws, and in 2000, she participated in Marie Claire’s “End Gun Violence Now” campaign. She also participated in Planned Parenthood’s “March for Women’s Lives” to support the legality of abortion. Thurman is a member of the board of the New York– and Boston-based organization Room to Grow, a charitable organization providing aid to families and children born into poverty. She serves on the board of the Tibet House.\nIn 2007, Thurman hosted the Nobel Peace Prize Concert in Oslo, Norway with actor Kevin Spacey.\nPersonal life:\nWhile living in London after shooting Dangerous Liaisons, she began dating director Phil Joanou. On the set of State of Grace, she met English actor Gary Oldman. They were married in 1990, but the marriage ended in 1992.\nOn May 1, 1998, Thurman married actor Ethan Hawke, whom she met on the set of Gattaca. Hawke's novel Ash Wednesday is dedicated to \"Karuna\", Thurman's middle name. Thurman acknowledged that they had married because she was pregnant – seven months at their wedding. The marriage produced two children, daughter Maya Ray Thurman-Hawke (b. July 8, 1998) and son Levon Roan Thurman-Hawke (b. January 15, 2002).\nIn 2003, Thurman and Hawke separated, and in 2004 they filed for divorce. When asked on The Oprah Winfrey Show if there was “betrayal of some kind” during the marriage, Thurman said, “There was some stuff like that at the end. We were having a difficult time, and you know how the axe comes down and how people behave and how people express their unhappiness”.\nDirector Quentin Tarantino has described Thurman as his \"muse\". However, in a 2004 Rolling Stone cover story, Thurman and Tarantino denied having had a romantic relationship, despite Tarantino once having told a reporter, “I’m not saying that we haven’t, and I’m not saying that we have”.\nThurman owns a townhouse in New York's Greenwich Village, but lives in Hyde Park, New York. Raised as a Buddhist, she considers herself agnostic.\nThurman dated Andre Balazs from 2004 to 2006. She was engaged to London based Franco-Swiss financier Arpad Busson, whom she began dating in late 2007."
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Which liner launched in 1934 was the largest of her time?
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"What do you do with an old ocean liner? ... when the Queen Mary was launched in 1934. As well as the largest ... the QE2 visited Australian waters for the last time ...",
"Queen Mary ocean liner launched ... September 26, in 1934, the RMS Queen Mary, one of the largest ships of its time, was launched.",
"10 Great Atlantic Ocean Liners. ... launched 1934. ... the most magnificent liner of our time – her memory will live on with the new Cunard liners but we ...",
"... Liner that helped launch ... When the Queen Mary launched on the River Clyde in Scotland in 1934, an ocean liner was the only ... it had the biggest ...",
"Crowds gather to watch the launch of the RMS Queen Mary the world?s largest liner, ... 1934. The liner was launched by Her Majesty Queen Mary ... ship of her time, ...",
"... Liner that helped launch monster ... By the time of the Queen Mary's ... was waiting,\" writes the Times of 27 September 1934. \"Her Majesty ...",
"... entertains 3,400 passengers at a time in the ... the largest ocean liner. ... was the largest cruise ship until the launch of her sister ...",
"West Sea Company. OCEAN LINER. ... was launched on April 21, 1913 and sailed on her maiden voyage ... of the most attractive ships of her time ...",
"before her launch . ... and she became the largest liner ever to sail up the Thames. ... White Star in 1934. Two oil engines. Speed: 18 knots ."
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"What do you do with an old ocean liner? - BBC News\nBBC News\nWhat do you do with an old ocean liner?\nBy Duncan Smith BBC News\n13 March 2015\nClose share panel\nImage copyright SS United States Conservancy\nImage caption The SS United States still waits to be restored in Philadelphia after being withdrawn from transatlantic service in 1969\nThe latest P&O \"superliner\" Britannia has been officially named by the Queen but what happens after cruise liners are past their sell-by date?\nIn their heyday ocean liners were the most advanced and luxurious forms of transport. The largest moving objects ever created by humans, they elegantly carried everyone from immigrants to politicians and film stars.\nBut like all good things, their lifespan must come to and end. For many, the future is bleak - the scrap yard and the possibility of ending up as razor blades beckons.\nA select few, though, have escaped the scrap yard's blow torch.\nThe rusting hulk\nImage copyright SS United States Conservancy\nImage caption Rust in peace: The SS United States has spent more years laid up than she did in service\nSS United States - flagship of the United States Line - won the Blue Riband for the fastest transatlantic crossing on her maiden voyage in 1952 - a record the ship holds to this day.\nHowever, like her rival Cunard ships - the Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth - she could not compete with the fast and cheap commercial jet aircraft that soared overhead. After just 17 years at sea, she was withdrawn from service in 1969.\nSold in 1978, she went through a succession of owners and is now a gently rusting hulk, moored at a pier in Philadelphia, her former glories almost forgotten.\nBut there is hope the ship's future could still be bright. As of 2010 the ship has been owned by the non-profit SS United States Conservancy , which aims to restore her and convert her into a museum and retail/office development.\nSusan Gibbs, its executive director, is the granddaughter of William Francis Gibbs, the naval architect who designed the ship.\n\"Despite the peeling paint and forlorn appearance, the ship is structurally very sound,\" she said.\nImage copyright SS United States Conservancy\nImage caption In her heyday the SS United States was the most technologically advanced ocean liner afloat\nThe hotel\nImage copyright Getty Images\nImage caption The Queen Mary and her sister ship the Queen Elizabeth provided a twice weekly transatlantic service for Cunard between the 1940s and 1960s\nOne of the world's most famous transatlantic liners, the RMS Queen Mary had a glittering career. She won the Blue Riband, counted Elizabeth Taylor, Bob Hope and Winston Churchill among her passengers and carried thousands of troops across the globe during World War Two.\nSome 200,000 spectators gathered at the John Brown Shipyard in Clydebank for the christening of \"Hull 534\", when the Queen Mary was launched in 1934. As well as the largest and fastest liner of her time, she was the last word in ocean-going luxury and Art Deco interior design.\nBut times changed. In 1967, after 1,001 Atlantic crossings in 31 years, she was retired by operators Cunard. That was not the end of the line for the \"grand old lady\" of the seas though.\nThe City of Long Beach, California, purchased the ship and converted her into a floating hotel and maritime museum in 1967.\nImage copyright Cunard\nImage caption The Queen Mary was sold to the City of Long Beach, California for $3,450,000 in 1967, and is pictured here with Cunard's RMS Queen Mary 2\nThe liner remains a popular attraction, a long way from the cold waters of the North Atlantic and even further from her beginnings at the John Brown Shipyard.\nIn retirement she has provided the backdrop for many film and TV productions, including Assault on a Queen and Poseidon Adventure.\nThe multi-purpose attraction\nImage copyright Getty Images\nImage caption The SS Rotterdam was the flagship of the Holland America Line and became known as \"La Grande Dame\" during her seagoing years\nThe sleek design of the grey painted SS Rotterdam was ultra-modern when she entered service in 1959 and would go on to inspire the generation of cruise ships that followed.\nIn the 1990s, under the ownership of Premier Cruises, the ship was renamed The Rembrandt. Her future looked bleak when Premier Cruises went bankrupt in 2000, however.\nAfter a long period of inactivity in the Bahamas, the Rembrandt escaped scrapping - the fate of so many of her generation of liners - when the City of Rotterdam granted the ship a permanent berth.\nReturning to her original name and undergoing an extensive restoration, she eased back into her old home port in 2010 to a heroine's welcome and began a new life as a museum, hotel , and training centre.\nImage copyright Getty Images\nImage caption The SS Rotterdam was built in the city from which she took her name, and is now permanently moored there as a hotel, visitor attraction and college\nThe liner in limbo\nImage copyright Getty Images\nImage caption The QE2 replaced the Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth in 1968 and went on to serve as a troop-carrying ship in the Falklands War\nThe beloved flagship of British merchant shipping, the Clyde-built Queen Elizabeth II was retired in 2008 after almost 40 years.\nSold with the promise of a peaceful retirement after conversion into a luxury hotel in Dubai, the project appears still not to have begun seven years later.\nThe QE2 replaced the Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth on the North Atlantic route in 1969.\nThe 293.5m (963ft) long Cunard flagship carried almost 2.5m passengers and completed more than 800 Atlantic crossings.\nShe retired in 2008 and was sold for £50m to the United Arab Emirates real estate developer Nakheel, leaving Southampton for the last time on 11 November 2008.\nImage copyright QE2 LONDON\nImage caption Plans have been produced to moor the QE2 on the Thames in London\nPlans have stalled and a variety of alternative proposals have been floated, including mooring the ship permanently on the River Thames in London, where she would become a hotel and the capital's \"new landmark\" .\nJohn Chillingworth, managing director of London QE2, is confident the London plan is the most viable option for the liner. He explained that work is ongoing to get the ship back to the UK, as a 500-room floating hotel and entertainment venue that would provide a working example of \"the last great British-built liner\".\n\"QE2 is unique and has a fantastic heritage that is linked to many British people and their families,\" he said.\nFor the time being at least the QE2 languishes in obscurity in Dubai awaiting her fate. But as others have proved - there might still be life in the old liner yet.\nImage copyright Getty Images\nImage caption Sailing into an uncertain future - the QE2 visited Australian waters for the last time in 2008 before being retired to become a floating hotel in Dubai\nThe Great Liners\nRMS Queen Mary, Cunard Line\n81,237 gross tonnes\nBuilt at John Brown Shipyard in Clydebank\nLaunched on 26 September 1934\nSpeed of 28.5 knots",
"Queen Mary ocean liner launched\nQueen Mary ocean liner launched\nby gary_satanovsky\nAirplanes were still a novelty in the early decades of the 1900s, and the future of transatlantic travel, at least for a little longer, was thought to belong to the ship. International shipbuilding competition was in full swing, as Germany had made two ocean liners, Bremen and Europa, and in response Britain’s White Star Line laid down the keel for a 60,000 ton ship to rival the German two, while Cunard planned an even larger one — a 75,000 ton craft that would be called the Queen Mary.\nOn this day, September 26, in 1934, the RMS Queen Mary, one of the largest ships of its time, was launched. In attendance at the official ceremony were His Majesty, King George V, and his consort, Queen Mary, who allowed her name to be used for the ship.\nA couple more years would pass for the finishing touches on the ship, and finally by summer of 1936 The Queen Mary was ready for her maiden voyage to New York May. With every space on it booked long in advance, the passenger list was a who’s who of European society: knights, ladies, dignitaries, entertainments stars, and even a couple of stowaways who were quickly remanded to Southampton to face justice.\nToday’s History",
"10 Great Atlantic Ocean Liners - Listverse\n10 Great Atlantic Ocean Liners\nSTL Mo\nDecember 29, 2008\nThroughout much of the 20th century, giants plied the waters of the north Atlantic, bringing immigrants to the New World and ferrying wealthier passengers between New York (and other eastern ports) and Europe. A handful of these great liners still exist, while most are memories, found only in old photos or in fancy restaurants that salvaged a portion of a great ship’s interiors. Below are some of the greatest in terms of length of service, luxuriousness, reputation and overall amenities. Most of these at one time held the Blue Riband, a coveted prize given for the fastest Atlantic crossing.\nPlease note: There is a huge difference between an Atlantic liner and a cruise ship. The latter are made for calm seas and pure entertainment. The former were made to tackle rough north Atlantic weather and purpose-built to carry ocean-going passengers. For more information, read Thomas Maxtone-Graham’s magnificent “The Only Way to Cross.” Also note that the years correspond to launch date, not service-entry date. For example, Queen Mary went down the quays in 1934 but didn’t enter service until two years later.\n10\nRMS Queen Mary II\nlaunched 2003\nFor almost 30 years, it seemed as if the Queen Elizabeth 2 was to be the only thread to the bygone era of the superliners, but the QE2’s continual transatlantic and cruising success convinced Cunard to build another one. Queen Mary 2 holds the record as the largest Atlantic superliner ever built (although one Caribbean cruise ship, the Freedom of the Seas, is bigger, and the first Queen Mary actually weighed more). QM2 looks like a cross between an Atlantic liner and a cruise ship, but she was built primarily for Atlantic crossings in mind, even though she can—and does—go practically to any sea in the world. Hey, if you have about $2,000 (about 1,000 pounds), you can hitch a ride on the QM2 and check it out for yourself. (And if you’re wondering why QM2 is #10 instead of #1, it’s because she hasn’t been around that long.)\n9\nSS Rex\nlaunched 1932\nThe pride of the post-WWI Italian fleet, the Rex and her sister ship, the Conte de Savoia, were Italy’s answer to Germany’s new greyhounds. (See #6.) After an embarrassing start, Rex would capture the Blue Riband in 1933 and hold it for two years. She is remembered today for a famous “interception” in 1938 by American YB-17 bombers while the liner was still far out to sea. The Italians laid her up during the war, but the Allies sank her in September 1944 to keep the Germans from using her to block the harbor at Trieste.\n8\nSS France/SS Norway\nlaunched 1961\nOne of the most famous of the last great Atlantic superliners, The France was her namesake country’s flagship for almost 15 years. She was literally the pride of France, and the nation mourned when she was laid up in 1974. She was then sold to Norwegian Cruise Line and renamed the Norway, under which she sailed from 1980 until about 2001. As Norway, she experienced many troubles, but managed to remain popular on the Caribbean circuit. She was then sold and resold with designs for either refitting or scrapping, but the liner was laid up today over environmental concerns. She was finally scrapped in 2008.\n7\nRMS Queen Mary\nlaunched 1934\nThe first Queen Mary was designed to recapture British glory on the seas, and also replace the aged Mauritania and Aquitania. While very traditional in her appointments, she was more popular than the more-modern looking Normandie. Like her sister ship (loosely defined) the Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mary was a highly sought prize by German U-Boats in WWII. They never caught either. In the post-war years, the two Cunard queens ruled the seas as originally designed. Today, the Queen Mary is gutted and laid up in Long Beach, Calif., as a hotel and tourist attraction, while her sister ship was burned to a hulk in the 1970s during an attempt to make her a floating university.\n6\nSS Bremen\nlaunched 1929\nAfter losing her pre-WWI fleet of liner giants to war reparations, Germany again reclaimed a prized place on the seas with the Bremen and her sister ship, the Europa. This modern ship started the “express liner” craze of the 1930s, where ships were sleek, fast, luxurious, “wet” (Prohibition made European ships more popular over the “dry” American ships) and modern in all details. Bremen was a highly popular ship, but like most liners, the next war ended her career. The German military turned the Bremen into a barracks until she was burned and gutted in 1941, a victim of arson. She was scrapped in 1946.\n5\nRMS Mauretania\nlaunched 1906\nAlong with her sister ship, the ill-fated Lusitania, the Mauretania was the first Atlantic Ocean greyhound. Steam turbines powered this mighty and luxurious ship, and she remained a favorite for three decades. Mauretania held the Blue Riband for 20 years before the Breman took it away. She was scrapped in 1935, over protests from ship aficionados, including Franklin D. Roosevelt. (Near the beginning of the blockbuster movie Titanic you’ll hear the insufferable Cal say, dripping upper-crust snobbery, that Titanic is “over a hundred feet longer than the Mauritania and far more luxurious.”)\n4\nSS Normandie\nlaunched 1932\nIf you have ever seen old posters of 1930s-era travel, you might have seen ads of a looming Normandie profiled head-on with her sleek, clipper-like bow. She was ultra-modern, with a steam turbo-electric power-plant, a clean upper deck and luxurious appointments throughout. Yet the celebrated ocean liner struggled to consistently make a profit during the 1930s. When war began anew in 1939, Normandie wound up in New York, and stayed there after the fall of France. (A great picture taken in 1940 shows the Normandie, the Queen Mary and the Queen Elizabeth berthed side by side in New York for the first and only time.) U.S. officials seized her after American entry into the war and renamed her USS Lafayette. But she never sailed again. She caught fire in early 1942 during her refitting, and the lopsided nature of the firefighting efforts caused her to capsize. Despite an expensive salvage operation, she was scrapped in 1946.\n3\nSS United States\nlaunched 1952\nSo fast that her top speed was a state secret, this last of the old greyhounds is still around today, slowly rusting at a Philadelphia pier. She was built with both passenger service and military use in mind—many liners scrapped in the mid-1930s would be missed a few years later when WWII began—hence the secrecy about her true speed. In the 1960s, all of the ocean-going palaces fell on hard times as the speed of the jumbo jet replaced the comfort and leisurely travel of the ocean liner. SS United States still holds the westbound Blue Riband, and awaits her ultimate fate after being purchased in 2004 by the Norwegian Cruise Line.\n2\nRMS Olympic\nlaunched 1911\nThe glorious Olympic far outlasted her sisters, the infamous Titanic and the unfortunate Britannic (the later never entered passenger service and was sunk by a German mine off Greece while serving as a hospital ship). She was nicknamed Old Reliable, and remained in continuous service (except for brief periods) from 1911 until 1935. She was notorious for striking other ships, but one occasion was actually deliberate. Under British law, she was designated an auxiliary cruiser, and in 1918, when crew spotted U-103, Olympic turned and rammed the submarine, causing the Germans to scuttle the boat. She retained her popularity well after the war, despite her age. She was laid up in the mid-1930s and scrapped in 1937.\n1\nRMS Queen Elizabeth II\nlaunched 1969\nAt the twilight of the golden age of Atlantic steamers came the QE2, launched upon the retirement of the first Mary and her sister ship. From the late 1960s until 2004, the QE2 was the only way to cross in luxury (aside from the Norway, before she became a cruise ship). She sailed more than just the Atlantic, though, and came to port in Sydney, Australia, among other places. This gorgeous superliner finally retired in 2008, and will soon become a floating hotel in Dubai.\nNotable omissions: Majestic (ex-Bismarck), Aquitania, Berengaria (ex-Imperator), Nieuw Amsterdam and the Kungsholm/Sea Princess/Victoria/Mona Lisa.\nContributor: STL Mo",
"Queen Mary: Liner that helped launch monster cruise ships - BBC News\nBBC News\nQueen Mary: Liner that helped launch monster cruise ships\nBy Tom de Castella BBC News Magazine\n29 September 2014\nClose share panel\nImage copyright ALAMY\nEighty years ago the launch of the RMS Queen Mary helped define an era of luxury liners. Did it presage the monster cruise ships of today?\nFour days - that was how long it took. When the Queen Mary launched on the River Clyde in Scotland in 1934, an ocean liner was the only way for most people to get across the Atlantic.\nFour days at sea to reach New York had its consolations. The Queen Mary had two swimming pools, tennis courts, libraries, and nurseries for all three classes of passenger. There were games of deck quoits and bridge. Afternoon tea was an occasion. Then it was time to dress for dinner, where even third class passengers got a choice of hors d'oeuvres.\nImage copyright Cunard\nThe satirist ES Turner, who was on the maiden voyage, wrote of two imaginary passengers - Beauty and Chivalry - \"swanning down processional staircases, through high baronial doors to feast in a pearlescent glow on caviar scooped from the bellies of a carved-ice menagerie: that sort of thing.\"\nCunard, the ship's operator, had been synonymous with discreet comfort, says John Graves, curator of ship history at the National Maritime Museum in London. \"But with the Queen Mary there was a nod to modernity, particularly to art deco.\" The first class dining room had a chart of the North Atlantic, tracking its position and that of its sister ship the Queen Elizabeth - their meeting in the mid Atlantic was highly anticipated. Ladies' furs were stored in a cold room. The Verandah Grill had a sundeck where one could dance the night away. And first class cabins were equipped with a telephone that could call anywhere in the world.\nThe interwar years were the transatlantic liner's golden age. Europe's great powers competed with one another for the Blue Riband - the fastest East-West crossing. Germany had the Bremen and the Europa, Italy the Rex and the Conte di Savoia, emblems for their leaders' ambitions. When France launched the Normandie in 1932 its dining room was compared to the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles. Soon it had wrested the Blue Riband from German and Italian control.\nThe Queen Mary was Britain's great hope. The shipyard workers in Clydebank created a behemoth - it had the biggest hull in the world, and 12 decks housing 2,139 passengers and 1,101 crew. As it slid into the Clyde in 1934, radio announcer George Blake said Cunard's grandest ship resembled a \"great white cliff, terrific and overwhelming\". Using today's standard unit of measurement - Wembley Stadium - it was taller than the new Wembley's roof and three times the length of its pitch.\nBy the time of the Queen Mary's maiden voyage in 1936, the Normandie, after a refit, had retaken the title of world's biggest passenger ship. However the Cunard vessel snatched the Blue Riband with a crossing of three days, 21 hours and 48 minutes, and held on to it until 1952.\nBut the golden age couldn't last. By 1958 more people flew across the Atlantic than sailed. Today there is only one transatlantic liner left, the Queen Mary 2, which makes 20 scheduled trips a year between Southampton and New York. But the QM2 is slower than its predecessor, taking a week to cross the Atlantic.\nImage copyright Scott Oakley/ Flickr\nImage caption Coffee anyone? Starbucks aboard the Allure of the Seas\nImage copyright Scott Oakley/ Flickr\nImage caption A few of the many swimming pools on the decks of the Allure of the Seas\nImage copyright Cunard\nImage caption The art deco-style swimming pool aboard the Queen Mary\nToday, passenger ships are about cruising rather than transport. The biggest - the Allure of the Seas - is more than 164ft (50m) longer than the Queen Mary, has nearly three times its gross tonnage and accommodates more than 6,000 passengers. It has a 1,380-seat theatre, ice skating rink, seven themed \"neighbourhoods\", including a tree-lined Central Park and the first Starbucks at sea.\nCruises are marketed at multiple audiences with different selling points - a formal dining night, cultural tours of the Aegean, Disney characters or celebrity hostings. Some cruise around the Caribbean. Others go out to sea and come back a few days later without docking anywhere - known as a \"cruise to nowhere\".\nTrade body the Cruise Lines International Association says that passenger numbers have risen from 12.3 million in 2003 to 21.3 million in 2013. The US accounted for just over half of all global cruise passengers, followed by the UK and Germany, with the Caribbean the most popular destination for Americans. According to retail analyst Mintel, 14% of people in the UK have been on a sea cruise, spending an average of £1342 per person in 2013.\nImage copyright Getty Images\nImage caption Fine dining in black tie\nDavid Dingle, chief executive of Carnival UK, the biggest cruise operator in the world, says China is a big growth area. Chinese cruise passengers numbered 600,000 last year and he believes that figure will at least quadruple in coming years.\nThere is clearly a big demand for cruises, says Simon Calder, travel editor of the Independent. But the real successor of the ocean liner was the jet aircraft. \"When the Queen Mary sailed, her purpose was to get people from A to B.\" After passenger aircraft took away their market, big ships had to change tack. \"Once they started sending people round in circles on cruises, they'd invented a new industry,\" Calder says.\nToday, no cruise ships have class distinctions. Cunard, now an upmarket division of Carnival, comes closest to having a social hierarchy - dinner in the Grill is available only to passengers in the most exclusive cabins. On the other hand, class was built into the Queen Mary's design. She was carved up into three distinct sections, each with its own cabins, decks and dining rooms. \"To show we were not peasants we put on black ties each evening,\" wrote Turner, who travelled second class on the Queen Mary. \"It was, I suppose, a comical sight to see four male strangers, who never normally dressed for dinner, struggling and elbowing in a tight-fitting cabin as they fumbled with dress studs.\"\nImage copyright PA\nImage caption Actors Laurel and Hardy and the Duke and Duchess of Windsor aboard the Queen Mary\nCruise ships have eclipsed ocean liners in scale and facilities. But what they can't compete with is the glamour that came from having Marlene Dietrich, Charlie Chaplin, Elizabeth Taylor, Winston Churchill and the Windsors on board, as the Queen Mary did.\n\"They represented a privileged and exclusive way of life, one that can never quite be recaptured on ships today,\" says Graves. And, there was something that transcended class - a shared purpose. \"They weren't simply bobbing around in the Caribbean,\" he says. \"They were doing something with their life, they were going somewhere.\"\n...and all who sails in her\nImage copyright Getty Images\nSome 200,000 spectators gathered at the John Brown Shipyard for the christening of \"Hull 534\"\n\"Then came the moment for which the whole Empire was waiting,\" writes the Times of 27 September 1934. \"Her Majesty severed a cord, which broke a bottle of Australian wine against the side of the ship - and, incidentally, drenched a Press photographer in the process, to the great delight of the spectators. Then, amid breathless silence, the Queen pressed the launching button which sped the vessel on its way to the river.\"\nMore than 10 million rivets to construct the ship, which had a waterline length that was longer than the Eiffel Tower is tall",
"PHOTOS: Queen Mary ocean liner - 80th anniversary of maiden voyage - Pasadena Star-News Media Center\nShare\nSearch\n27th May 1936: The Cunard White Star liner, 'Queen Mary' leaving Southampton on her maiden voyage. (Photo by Topical Press Agency/Getty Images)\nRMS Queen Mary ship being swung round by tugs on leaving the ocean dock at Southampton, England on May 27, 1936 for her maiden voyage. Vast crowds cheered the RMS Queen Mary on to her maiden voyage. Bands played and sirens shrieked as she made her way down Southampton water under her own power. It took 15 minutes for her to leave her berth. (AP Photo/Staff/Putnam)\nThe new Cunard White Star liner Queen Mary pulls away from Southampton at the start of her maiden voyage across the Atlantic to New York. (Photo by Hudson/Getty Images)\nRMS Queen Mary ship after being freed from tugs on leaving the ocean dock at Southampton, England on May 27, 1936 for her maiden voyage. Vast crowds cheered the RMS Queen Mary on to her maiden voyage. Bands played and sirens shrieked as she made her way down Southampton water under her own power. It took 15 minutes for her to leave her berth. (AP Photo/Staff/Putnam)\n27th May 1936: The maiden voyage of the Queen Mary from Southampton. (Photo by Fox Photos/Getty Images)\n27th May 1936: Crowds wave goodbye to the Cunard White Star liner 'Queen Mary' as she leaves Southampton, England, on her maiden voyage to New York. (Photo by W. G. Phillips/Topical Press Agency/Getty Images)\nThe new Cunard White Star liner Queen Mary pulls away from Southampton at the start of her maiden voyage across the Atlantic to New York. (Photo by Barker/Getty Images)\nThe ocean liner Queen Mary passes the Statue of Liberty as she enters New York Harbor after completing her first voyage to the United States on June 1, 1936. (AP Photo)\nLarge crowds watched the Queen Mary being maneuvered by large tugs in the Clyde River shortly after launch Sept. 26, 1934 The ship was launched from the Yard of John Brown & Son. Ltd. in Clydebank, Scotland.\nThe launch of the new Cunard White Star liner Queen Mary from the John Brown & Co shipyard, Clydebank. A large crowd huddle under their umbrellas whilst watching the spectacle. (Photo by Lock/Getty Images)\nHer Majesty Queen Mary of England in London, England on May 11, 1932. The namesake of the RMS Queen Mary. (AP Photo)\nNew Cunard liner, the Queen Mary, slides down the slipway during her launch at the John Brown Shipyard, Clydebank, Scotland, Sept. 26, 1934. The liner was launched by Her Majesty Queen Mary and was previously known just as Cunarder 534. (AP Photo/Sid Beadel)\nCrowds gather to watch the launch of the RMS Queen Mary the world?s largest liner, John Brown's yard at Clydebank, Scotland on Sept. 26, 1934. Britain's King George V can be seen on a special balcony on right, saluting the multitude of people on arrival for the launching ceremony. (AP Photo/Staff/Putnam)\nNew Cunard liner, the Queen Mary, slips into the water during her launch at the John Brown Shipyard at Clydebank, Scotland, Sept. 26, 1934. The liner was launched by Her Majesty Queen Mary and was previously known only as Cunarder 534. (AP Photo/Len Putnam)\nThe Cunard White Star liner Queen Mary splashes into the water at her launching ceremony from the John Brown & Co shipyard, Clydebank. Crowds line the water's edge to witness the great occasion. (Photo by Topical Press/Getty Images)\n9/15/94 - Officials and dignitaries await the launch of the RMS Queen Mary at the John Brown Shipyard on Sept. 26, 1934 on the banks of the Clyde River.\n9/15/94 - This photo taken the day the Queen Mary was launched (Sept. 26, 1934) shows the launching brakes or drag chains, the ends of which were clamped to the hull of the ship. They were positioned on either side of the ship to slow and control the speed of the launch. It took squads of men weeks to haul and coerce these gigantic brakes into position; yet the weight of every drag chain was calculated to a half-a-hundredweight. Now on the National Register of Historic Places, the Queen Mary is permanently berthed in Long Beach, California, as a popular attraction and hotel.\n9/15/94 - The RMS Queen Mary in the Clyde River -- being maneuvered by tugs into the \"fitting out\". basin for completion at the John Brown & Co. yard in Clydesdale, Scotland. (London Times Photo)\n9/15/94 - Workers are shown preparing the wooden \"ways\" which would allow the RMS Queen Mary to slip gracefully into the River Clyde. The actual launch would last 67 seconds -- accompanied by cheers from both sides of the River Clyde and whistles of all sorts sounding from both land and water.\n9/15/94 - The RMS Queen Mary gets its first taste of water sliding down the \"ways\" into the River Clyde. The ship was the largest passenger ship ever launched and to this day remains the largest Ocean Liner afloat.\n6/27/45 - The S. S. Queen Mary Trans-Atlantic luxury liner moves up New York Bay to her pier in the North River. On board are 14,000 American soldiers returning fron the battlefields of World War II.\nWell-wishers tip their hats as the grand luxury liner Queen Mary, new flagship of the Cunard-White Star Line, slips into the water during launch ceremonies at the shipyards of John Brown & Co., Ltd., in Clydebank, Scotland, September 26, 1934. Previously known only as \"Hull No. 534,\" as the name of the ship was kept secret, the vessel was baptized by Her Majesty Queen Mary of England herself before moving to a nearby fitting out pier for interior installations. (AP Photo)\n02/23/06- The Queen Mary 2, the world's largest ocean liner, left, rests near its historic namesake the Queen Mary, docked at right, Thursday, February 23, 2006, in Long Beach Harbor. .Photo by Kevin Chang/ For the Press Telegram\nThe liner Queen Mary, weighing 73,000 tons, is shown at her berth in Clyde Bank, Glasgow, Scotland, Feb. 1, 1936. The luxury liner is structurally complete, needing interior fittings and public rooms which will be added before the initial runs set for March 24. (AP Photo)\nThe mighty Queen Mary shown as she edged up lower New York Harbor, with the skyline of Manhattan in the background, toward her pier and the completion of her first voyage to the United States, June 1, 1936. (AP Photo)\nAmid the cheers of a million spectators the giant liner Queen Mary, towed by tugs, leaves her fitting out basin at Clydebank, Scotland, March 24, 1936, on her maiden voyage down river to Greenock. (AP Photo)\nThe French liner Normandie, left, and Britain's Queen Mary are berthed side by side in the North River, New York on Sept. 14, 1939. (AP Photo)\nBritish liner Queen Mary is moved away from the dock by tugs at Southampton, on Feb. 4, 1939, as she prepares to sail to New York. (AP Photo)\nServing as a transport, the big British liner Queen Mary, seen here loaded with troops in Rio de Janeiro in March 1942, carried thousands of allied troops to battlefronts throughout the world. (AP Photo)\nServing as a transport, the giant British liner, Queen Mary, carried thousands of allied troops to battlefronts throughout the world in 1942. Here the liner is seen at Rio De Janeiro, Brazil on Nov. 4, 1943, loaded with U.S. troops. (AP Photo)\nIn this image provided by the U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. troops returning from Europe pack the decks of the British luxury liner-turned-troopship HMS Queen Mary as she steams into New York Harbor June 20, 1945 with some 14,000 troops aboard. This was the ship's first voyage to America since V-E Day. (AP Photo/U.S. Coast Guard)\nBritish liner Queen Mary steams along the North River, New York, on Aug. 10, 1945, bringing home thousands of American servicemen. (AP Photo)\nThree ships who have contributed much to the history of the sea are seen together at adjoining berths in the Hudson River at New York City, U.S.A., on Nov. 9, 1945. They are left to right: Queen Mary, holder of the Blue Riband of the Atlantic; the U.S. battleship Missouri, on whose quarterdeck the Japanese surrender was signed and the Europa, former German luxury liner and onetime holder of the Atlantic record now being used as an American troopship. (AP Photo)\nThe huge liner Queen Mary as she headed for her pier in New York July 11, 1945 with over 15,000 American and Canadian troops returning from Europe. The Queen Mary was one of eight transports that brought back a record group of 35,000 troops to the port of New York from the European theater. (AP Photo)\nWith the Manhattan skyline in the background, small tugboats draw the Queen Mary into its berth on the Hudson River pier, December 22, 1948, in New York Harbor, placing the British ocean liner alongside its sister ship, the Queen Elizabeth. The two luxury liners are in New York for the first time together in their \"peacetime\" dress. Both vessels were in New York during World War II while serving as troop transport ships. (AP Photo)\nThe grand luxury liner Queen Mary is hauled into a dry dock at Southampton, England, October 30, 1952. (AP Photo)\nSpectators line the waterfront at New York Harbor to watch the tricky maneuvering of the giant luxury liner Queen Mary as the vessel moves into its berth without the aid of tugboats, February 6, 1953. The big ship, ussually assisted by a fleet of tugs, is forced to inch its way into the Midtown pier due to a recent tugboat strike. (AP Photo)\nWith the skyline of lower Manhattan in the background, the grand luxury liner Queen Mary steams along in New York Harbor, accompanied by several small tugboats, in this 1958 photograph. (AP Photo)\nThe luxury liner Queen Mary leaves lower Manhattan in New York City on June 12, 1963. (AP Photo/Dave Pickoff)\nThe Cunard Liner Queen Mary (foreground) passes a tanker as she makes her way majestically up Southampton water to dock at Southampton, Hampshire August 29, 1966 after completing her fastest crossing from New York since winning the Blue Riband 1938. The 30-year-old British liner took four days on the crossing-ninehours ahead of schedule. (AP Photo)\nQueen Mary ship entering New York Harbor in 1967. (AP Photo)\nSightseers line the waterfront at Southampton, England, to wave farewell to the legendary ocean liner Queen Mary, September 16, 1967. The former flagship of the Cunard-White Star Line is en route to Long Beach, Calif., where it will find a permanent berth as a floating hotel and maritime museum. (AP Photo)\nThe legendary Queen Mary is seen in February 1971 en route to its final berth at Long Beach, Calif., where the former British luxury liner will open as a floating hotel and maritime museum. (AP Photo)\nThe Queen Mary, the most famous cruise ship of her time, now berths permanently at Long Beach, Calif. (AP Photo/HO)\nThe famous luxury liner Queen Mary sits docked in the Port of Long Beach, California Friday, July 11, 1992 next to the dome that covers Howard Hughes’ Spruce Goose plane in Long Beach, California. (AP Photo/Mark J. Terrill)\nThe veteran Cunard White Star liner Queen Mary, now converted to a floating museum, hotel and shopping centre at Long Beach, California. The Americans purchased the vessel in 1967 and spent $16,500,000 transforming it into a luxury entertainment centre. (Photo by Central Press/Getty Images)\nThis photo shows a view of the Queen Mary ship in Long Beach, CA, 13 December 2002. The 1019.5 foot-long ship built by John Brown & Co. in Scotland first launched in September 1934 as one of the biggest cruise ships of its time with a 1,957 passenger capacity. The ship, owned today by the city of Long Beach after it was turned over in December 1967, serves as a tourist attraction and a floating hotel. (HECTOR MATA/AFP/Getty Images)\nThe veteran Cunard White Star liner Queen Mary, now converted to a floating museum, hotel and shopping centre at Long Beach, California. The Americans purchased the vessel in 1967 and spent $16,500,000 transforming it into a luxury entertainment centre. (Photo by Marti Coale/Getty Images)\n02/23/06- The Queen Mary 2, the world's largest ocean liner, left, rests near its historic namesake the Queen Mary, docked at right, Thursday, February 23, 2006, in Long Beach Harbor. .Photo by Kevin Chang/ For the Press Telegram\nThe Queen Mary in Long Beach on August 28, 2010. (Photo: Scott Varley, Los Angeles Newspaper Group)\nThe Queen Mary in Long Beach on August 28, 2010. (Photo: Scott Varley, Los Angeles Newspaper Group)\n3/3/11 - The HMS Queen Victoria, the third largest Cunard ocean liner, left, waits off the coast near the HMS Queen Mary, right, in Long Beach. Photo by Steven Georges/Press-Telegram\nThe youngest Cunard Line ship, Queen Elizabeth, left, visits the Queen Mary, in Long Beach (Calif.) Harbor on March 12, 2013. The Queen Mary was built by Cunard in 1947 and retired in 1967. The Queen Mary, now a permanently berthed, is a hotel and special events venue. The two ships exchanged whistle blows. Photo by Jeff Gritchen / Los Angeles Newspaper Group\nThe Queen Mary in Long Beach on February 18, 2013. (Photo: Scott Varley, Los Angeles Newspaper Group)\nA fireboat sprays water with the Queen Mary in the background during the Long Beach Marathon in Long Beach, CA on Sunday, October 13, 2013. (Photo by Scott Varley, Daily Breeze)\nLONG BEACH - 08/13/2013 (Photo: Scott Varley, Los Angeles News Group) Long Beach's iconic Queen Mary is in the midst of a renovation of the ship to bring it back to it's 1936 art deco glory days. Artwork, furniture and other artifacts are being restored, cataloged and displayed either in the part of the ship where they were originally located or moved to other areas where they can be seen. Visitors peer over the railing near the bow of the ship.\nLONG BEACH - 08/13/2013 (Photo: Scott Varley, Los Angeles News Group) Long Beach's iconic Queen Mary is in the midst of a renovation of the ship to bring it back to it's 1936 art deco glory days. Artwork, furniture and other artifacts are being restored, cataloged and displayed either in the part of the ship where they were originally located or moved to other areas where they can be seen. The Main Hall has been restored with wood veneers that lead guests past shops and towards the observation bar.\nGuests view the ship model gallery aboard the Queen Mary. The gallery was dedicated Thursday morning. Along with the opening the Queen is celebrating 80years of public life and her niece the youngest in the Cunard fleet, the Queen Elizabeth is docked beside the Queen Mary for the day. February 5, 2014. (Photo by Brittany Murray / Daily Breeze)\nThe Queen Mary is celebrating 80years of public life and her niece the youngest in the Cunard fleet, the Queen Elizabeth is docked beside the Queen Mary for the first time ever. Other Cunard ships have come into Long Beach but this is the first to dock. February 5, 2014. (Photo by Brittany Murray / Daily Breeze)\nThe Queen Elizabeth next to the Queen Mary in Long Beach, as the the luxury ship departed, after docking for the day in celebration of the Queen Mary's 80th birthday. Long Beach Calif., Thursday, February 5, 2015. (Photo by Stephen Carr / Daily Breeze)\nFireworks explode over the Queen Elizabeth, docked next to the Queen Mary in Long Beach, as the the luxury ship departed after docking for the day, in celebration of the Queen Mary's 80th birthday. Long Beach Calif., Thursday, February 5, 2015. (Photo by Stephen Carr / Daily Breeze)\n‹\nShare\nOn May 27, 1936, the Queen Mary departed from Southampton, England embarking on her maiden voyage.\nBuilt in the United Kingdom in the 1930s, the Queen Mary sailed through the Great Depression, World War II, the heyday of transatlantic travel in the late ’40s and ’50s and the eventual decline of ocean liners in the 1960s. The behemoth, art deco ship — hundreds of feet longer and almost twice the weight of the Titanic — was relocated to Long Beach, California, in 1967. Reborn as a hotel and attraction, the ship has become a world-renowned Southern California landmark.\nPrevious Post",
"Queen Mary: Liner that helped launch monster cruise ships - BBC News\nBBC News\nQueen Mary: Liner that helped launch monster cruise ships\nBy Tom de Castella BBC News Magazine\n29 September 2014\nClose share panel\nImage copyright ALAMY\nEighty years ago the launch of the RMS Queen Mary helped define an era of luxury liners. Did it presage the monster cruise ships of today?\nFour days - that was how long it took. When the Queen Mary launched on the River Clyde in Scotland in 1934, an ocean liner was the only way for most people to get across the Atlantic.\nFour days at sea to reach New York had its consolations. The Queen Mary had two swimming pools, tennis courts, libraries, and nurseries for all three classes of passenger. There were games of deck quoits and bridge. Afternoon tea was an occasion. Then it was time to dress for dinner, where even third class passengers got a choice of hors d'oeuvres.\nImage copyright Cunard\nThe satirist ES Turner, who was on the maiden voyage, wrote of two imaginary passengers - Beauty and Chivalry - \"swanning down processional staircases, through high baronial doors to feast in a pearlescent glow on caviar scooped from the bellies of a carved-ice menagerie: that sort of thing.\"\nCunard, the ship's operator, had been synonymous with discreet comfort, says John Graves, curator of ship history at the National Maritime Museum in London. \"But with the Queen Mary there was a nod to modernity, particularly to art deco.\" The first class dining room had a chart of the North Atlantic, tracking its position and that of its sister ship the Queen Elizabeth - their meeting in the mid Atlantic was highly anticipated. Ladies' furs were stored in a cold room. The Verandah Grill had a sundeck where one could dance the night away. And first class cabins were equipped with a telephone that could call anywhere in the world.\nThe interwar years were the transatlantic liner's golden age. Europe's great powers competed with one another for the Blue Riband - the fastest East-West crossing. Germany had the Bremen and the Europa, Italy the Rex and the Conte di Savoia, emblems for their leaders' ambitions. When France launched the Normandie in 1932 its dining room was compared to the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles. Soon it had wrested the Blue Riband from German and Italian control.\nThe Queen Mary was Britain's great hope. The shipyard workers in Clydebank created a behemoth - it had the biggest hull in the world, and 12 decks housing 2,139 passengers and 1,101 crew. As it slid into the Clyde in 1934, radio announcer George Blake said Cunard's grandest ship resembled a \"great white cliff, terrific and overwhelming\". Using today's standard unit of measurement - Wembley Stadium - it was taller than the new Wembley's roof and three times the length of its pitch.\nBy the time of the Queen Mary's maiden voyage in 1936, the Normandie, after a refit, had retaken the title of world's biggest passenger ship. However the Cunard vessel snatched the Blue Riband with a crossing of three days, 21 hours and 48 minutes, and held on to it until 1952.\nBut the golden age couldn't last. By 1958 more people flew across the Atlantic than sailed. Today there is only one transatlantic liner left, the Queen Mary 2, which makes 20 scheduled trips a year between Southampton and New York. But the QM2 is slower than its predecessor, taking a week to cross the Atlantic.\nImage copyright Scott Oakley/ Flickr\nImage caption Coffee anyone? Starbucks aboard the Allure of the Seas\nImage copyright Scott Oakley/ Flickr\nImage caption A few of the many swimming pools on the decks of the Allure of the Seas\nImage copyright Cunard\nImage caption The art deco-style swimming pool aboard the Queen Mary\nToday, passenger ships are about cruising rather than transport. The biggest - the Allure of the Seas - is more than 164ft (50m) longer than the Queen Mary, has nearly three times its gross tonnage and accommodates more than 6,000 passengers. It has a 1,380-seat theatre, ice skating rink, seven themed \"neighbourhoods\", including a tree-lined Central Park and the first Starbucks at sea.\nCruises are marketed at multiple audiences with different selling points - a formal dining night, cultural tours of the Aegean, Disney characters or celebrity hostings. Some cruise around the Caribbean. Others go out to sea and come back a few days later without docking anywhere - known as a \"cruise to nowhere\".\nTrade body the Cruise Lines International Association says that passenger numbers have risen from 12.3 million in 2003 to 21.3 million in 2013. The US accounted for just over half of all global cruise passengers, followed by the UK and Germany, with the Caribbean the most popular destination for Americans. According to retail analyst Mintel, 14% of people in the UK have been on a sea cruise, spending an average of £1342 per person in 2013.\nImage copyright Getty Images\nImage caption Fine dining in black tie\nDavid Dingle, chief executive of Carnival UK, the biggest cruise operator in the world, says China is a big growth area. Chinese cruise passengers numbered 600,000 last year and he believes that figure will at least quadruple in coming years.\nThere is clearly a big demand for cruises, says Simon Calder, travel editor of the Independent. But the real successor of the ocean liner was the jet aircraft. \"When the Queen Mary sailed, her purpose was to get people from A to B.\" After passenger aircraft took away their market, big ships had to change tack. \"Once they started sending people round in circles on cruises, they'd invented a new industry,\" Calder says.\nToday, no cruise ships have class distinctions. Cunard, now an upmarket division of Carnival, comes closest to having a social hierarchy - dinner in the Grill is available only to passengers in the most exclusive cabins. On the other hand, class was built into the Queen Mary's design. She was carved up into three distinct sections, each with its own cabins, decks and dining rooms. \"To show we were not peasants we put on black ties each evening,\" wrote Turner, who travelled second class on the Queen Mary. \"It was, I suppose, a comical sight to see four male strangers, who never normally dressed for dinner, struggling and elbowing in a tight-fitting cabin as they fumbled with dress studs.\"\nImage copyright PA\nImage caption Actors Laurel and Hardy and the Duke and Duchess of Windsor aboard the Queen Mary\nCruise ships have eclipsed ocean liners in scale and facilities. But what they can't compete with is the glamour that came from having Marlene Dietrich, Charlie Chaplin, Elizabeth Taylor, Winston Churchill and the Windsors on board, as the Queen Mary did.\n\"They represented a privileged and exclusive way of life, one that can never quite be recaptured on ships today,\" says Graves. And, there was something that transcended class - a shared purpose. \"They weren't simply bobbing around in the Caribbean,\" he says. \"They were doing something with their life, they were going somewhere.\"\n...and all who sails in her\nImage copyright Getty Images\nSome 200,000 spectators gathered at the John Brown Shipyard for the christening of \"Hull 534\"\n\"Then came the moment for which the whole Empire was waiting,\" writes the Times of 27 September 1934. \"Her Majesty severed a cord, which broke a bottle of Australian wine against the side of the ship - and, incidentally, drenched a Press photographer in the process, to the great delight of the spectators. Then, amid breathless silence, the Queen pressed the launching button which sped the vessel on its way to the river.\"\nMore than 10 million rivets to construct the ship, which had a waterline length that was longer than the Eiffel Tower is tall",
"Largest cruise ships in the world\nHome » vehicles » Largest cruise ships in the world\nLargest cruise ships in the world\nWhen Ferdinand Magellan led the first circumnavigation of earth in the 16th century, his 5 ships were about 100 feet (33 metres) long each and reached 10 knots. Today, cruise liners exceed 1,000 ft (300m) in length and reach 30 knots.\nThe Queen Elizabeth was the longest cruise liner when she was launched in 1938, being 1,030 ft (314 metres) long (she was destroyed in a fire while being renovated in Hong Kong harbor in 1972). \nOther beauties in the big league include the Norway, at one stage the longest liner at 1,035 ft (315,5m). The Grand Princess, which cruises the Mediterranean, is, at 109,000 tonnes, one of the biggest. She accommodates 2,600 passengers. The Carnival Destiny – at 101,000 tonnes the first liner to displace more than 100,000 tonnes – entertains 3,400 passengers at a time in the Caribbean. The two 142,000 tonnes sister ships Voyager of the Seas and Explorer of the Seas are not shy of their size, either. They cruise in at 1,025ft (308m) in length. The Titanic, built for $10 million in 1911, was 883 ft (265m) long.\nNot to be outdone in any manner Queen Mary 2, launched by Cunard on January 12, 2004, is 1,132 ft (345 metres) long, displaces 150 000 tonnes and accommodates 1 253 crew members at the service of 2 620 passengers in the grandest luxury. Queen Mary 2 was the world’s largest, longest, tallest ocean liner… until Royal Caribbean International’s Freedom of the Seas was launched in April 2006. Although QM2 is 20 ft (6m) longer, Freedom of the Seas comes in at 160,000 tonnes, is 1,112 ft (339m) long, 184 ft (56m) wide and has a cruising speed of 21.6 knots. She is 50 ft (15m) wider than QM2 and pampers 4,375 lucky passengers in her 1,800 rooms across 15 decks. Her sister ship, Liberty of the Seas, was launched a year later, then being considered the largest ocean liner. She features a water park, cantilevered whirlpools, and onboard surfing. The third liner in the famous Freedom Class, the magnificent Independence of the Seas, was launched in April 2008.\nCunard’s Queen Mary 2, featuring 17 decks and towering 62 metres (200 ft) above the waterline. At 72m (236.2 ft) from keel to the top of her funnel, she is one and half times higher than the Statue of Liberty.\nIn November 2009 Royal Caribbean introduced their Oasis Class of liners with the launch of the Oasis of the Seas – the sister ship will be launched in 2010 – setting a new standard for cruise ships. With Gross Tonnage at 225,282, she stretches out for 1,186.5 ft (361.6m) to fit 2,700 state rooms over 16 decks for maximum 6,292 happy cruise addicts who are served by 2,290 staff. The Oasis of the Seas is longer than any US aircraft carrier and features the Central Park with 12,000 real trees and plants.\nThe world’s largest cruise ship\nOasis of the Seas was the largest cruise ship until the launch of her sister ship, Allure of the Seas, in November 2010. Although they share the same superstructure, the Allure of the Seas is a mere 2 inches (50 millimetres) longer. Her length is given at 1,187 ft (362m).\nTitanic vs Allure of the Seas\nBiggest ship\nThe biggest ship in the world, the oil tanker Knock Nevis (formerly Jahre Viking) is 458 metres (1,502 ft) long. A big oil tanker ships about 132 million litres (34 million gallons) of petrol. Enough to drive a car 47,000 times around the earth.\nGross Registered Tonne (GRT) is 100 cubic feet. It is a measurement of space, not weight.\nBrian Jeffers contributed to this story\nUpdated August 2013",
"West Sea Co. OCEAN LINER Catalog Page 17\nSHIP\n \n17.92 GLASS ASHTRAY. Thick molded glass ashtray with the boldly stenciled name \"CUNARD\" on the bottom. 6 inches in diameter and 1 1/4 inches thick. Perfect condition. 59\nThe famous Cunard Line can trace its history all the way back to 1838 when shipping magnate Samual Cunard and others formed the British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. Cunard faced many competitors from Britain, France, the United States and Germany, but survived them all. This was mainly due to a great focus on safety. Cunard ships were not the largest nor the fastest but they earned a reputation for being the most reliable and the safest. The prosperous company eventually absorbed Cunard's principal competitor, the White Star Line, owners of the ill-fated RMS TITANIC and the HMHS BRITANNIC.\nFor more than a century and a half, Cunard dominated the Atlantic passenger trade and was one of the world's most important companies, with the majority of their liners being built at the John Brown Shipyard in Clydebank, Scotland. Today the Line still operates two classic passenger liners the RMS QUEEN ELIZABETH II and the RMS QUEEN MARY II.\n \n17.90 LINER ASHTRAY. Hard fired porcelain ashtray from the Norwegian Lines Steamship Company. The ashtray bears the Norwegian national ensign in the center rimmed by complementing colors. The bottom is marked with an anchor flanked by the letters \"PP\" above the number \"55.\" Perfect condition. 4 3/8ths inches in diameter. 49\nNorwegian America Line (Den Norske Amerikalinje), was a cruise ship line founded in 1910. Originally an operator of passenger and cargo ships, the company ran regular transatlantic service between Norway and the United states and later to East Africa. The establishment of the Norwegian America Line was a the statement of Norway's \"maritime independence\" following the dissolution of its union with Sweden in 1905. In 1971 the company discontinued transatlantic passenger service.\nBOTTOM\n17.87 PORCELAIN ASHTRAY. Hard fired porcelain ashtry bearing the logo NAC (Norwegain-American Cruise Lines). This diminutive ashtray has 18 raised nibs on its periphery to hold cigarettes. The bottom is signed and dated \"Porsgrund, Norway 1980\" with an anchor. 3 12/ inches in diameter. Perfect condition. 39\nThe company was founded as Norwegian Caribbean Lines in 1966 by Knut Kloster and Ted Arison with just one 830-ton cruise ship offering low cost Carribean cruises. Arison soon left to form Carnival Cruise Lines, while Kloster acquired additional ships for Caribbean service. NCL pioneered many firsts in the cruise industry and was responsible for many of the cruise innovations that have now become standard throughout the industry.\nNCL made headlines with the acquisition of the FRANCE in 1979, rebuilding the liner as a cruise ship and renaming her NORWAY. At that time the NORWAY was significantly bigger than any other cruise ship, and exploited the extra space available by adding a large variety of onboard entertainment. Her success paved the way for a new era of giant cruise ships.\nBOTTOM\n17.85 IDENTIFIED LINER ASHTRAY. Heavy cast glass ocean liner ashtray bearing the charming logo of King Neptune with his long, flowing beard and trident above the script, \"Matson Lines's\". Surrounding Neptune are the names of the famous liners, \"MATSONIA, MARIPOSA, MONTEREY, and LURLINE.\" 3 1/2 inches across. Perfect condition. 59\nMatson Navigation Company's long association with Hawaii began in 1882, when Captain William Matson sailed his three-masted cargo schooner EMMA CLAUDINA from San Francisco to Hilo, Hawaii. Increased commerce brought a corresponding interest in Hawaii as a tourist attraction. Captain Matson expanded his fleet and by 1908 established passenger service to and from the mainland. The decade from the mid-20s to mid-30s marked a significant period of Matson expansion. In 1925, the Company established Matson Terminals, Inc., a subsidiary to perform stevedoring and terminal services for its fleet. With increasing passenger traffic to Hawaii, Matson added the S.S. MALOLO in 1927. Its success led to the construction of the liners MARIPOSA, MONTEREY and LURLINE between 1930 and 1932.\nImmediately after the December 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, the passenger liners MARIPOSA, MATSONIA, MONTEREY and LURLINE, and 33 Matson freighters were called into military service. The four passenger liners completed a wartime total of 119 voyages, covered 1 1/2 million miles and carried a total of 736,000 troops.\nBy 1956, as with most of the other transoceanic passenger lines, Matson left the passenger transportation business in favor of ocean freight, specifically container ships. The company still operates today.\n17.84 SHIP WHEEL ASHTRAY. Solid, shiny metallic aluminum ashtray in the form of a classic 8-spoke ship's wheel. The center of the ashtray is inlaid with a large copper disc bearing the colorful cloissoné houseflag of the British India Steam Navigation Company below which is a banner reading \"NEVASA.\" 6 inches in diameter and in good, used condition. 89\nThe twin screw, quadruple expansion steam propelled passenger ship NEVASA was built by Barclay Curle & Company in Glasgow, Scotland for the British India Steam Navigation Company Glasgow & London. She was a steel hull vessel 480 1/2 feet in length of 9071 gross registered tons. Launched late in 1912, the same year as theTITANIC disaster, NEVASA began her maiden voyage on March 22, 1913 from London to Calcutta. When the Great War broke out she was taken over as a troopship in 1914, then used as a hospital ship between 1915 and 1918. In 1919 she reverted to being a troop ship. In 1925 she was permanently rebuilt as a troopship. Used again for that purpose in World War II, she resumed commercial service after the War, but that was still in a chartered status, transporting troops home. She was scrapped in 1948.\nBOTTOM\n17.70 CRUISE TROPHY. High quality, silverplate loving cup with applied, high relief brass emblem reading \"Awarded on Holland-America Line Cruises\" depicting the line's house flag. This handsome cruise memento is said to have come from the famous pre-War liner NIEUW AMSTERDAM. It stands 6 1/2 inches tall and slightly more than 5 1/2 inches wide. Excellent original condition. 195\nThe Nederlands-Amerikaansche Stoomvaart-Maatschappij, popularly known as the Holland-American Line, was founded in 1873 and based in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Neutral registry in World War I brought large profits to the company and it was in a position to expand. However American immigration restrictions following the War delayed construction of the company's flagship the NIEUW AMSTERDAM until 1938. When the Germans invaded Holland in May of 1940, they seized the OLENDAM while the STATEMDAM was destroyed in the fighting. The remainder of the company's fleet was chartered by the Allies for the war effort. The NIEUW AMESTERDAM in particular had a spectacular war career, performing troop carrying duties throughout the world until her triumphant return to her home port in April 1946.\n17.34 POSTER FRAGMENTS. Authentic early 1930's advertising poster for the \"Compagnie Generale Transatlantique\" touting their famous liners the ILE de FRANCE, the FRANCE, and the PARIS. These two parts of one larger poster were found sealed behind yet another later steamship poster as backing material and have not seen the light of day in over 60 years! They are perfect! The only problem is that they have been cut! Nevertheless, they are wonderful, identifiable examples of the lithographer's art, of the art deco period, and pre-date the famous liner NORMANDIE . Over $2,000 if in tact! 49 for the two!\n17.30 TRADE CARD. Finely engraved 19th century American advertising trade card for the \"National Line Steamships\" with the colorful depiction of the clipper bowed S.S. ENGLAND under sail, flanked by a rope border emblazoned with flags of the United States and Britain. The reverse boasts \"National Line, Passenger Steamship comprising twelve of the largest Ocean Steam Ships belonging to one company in the Atlantic Service...\" Much information including a listing of of \"Passage Rates\" for which 1st Class Excursion is $120! The front of the card is signed \"Hatch Lith. Co., NY\" and measures 3 1/2 x 6 inches. Good condition with toning to the reverse and minor staining. Circa 1885. 195\n \nREVERSE\n7.47 REFERENCE BOOK. Frederick Emmons, \"The Atlantic Liners,\" 1977, Bonanza Book, New York. 160 pages including an Index of Ships. This hardcover book with dust jacket covers the major liners of the world that plied the Atlantic from 1925 through 1970. It is organized by country, and then by Steamship company, with a history of each company given. The remainder of the book is dedicated to detailed information on the ships themselves. Each entry provides a line drawn profile view along with a paragraph on the ship's characteristics, service history, and ultimate fate. An invaluable research tool! 39\n \n 2.14 CRUISE MEMENTO MODEL. Genuine passenger ship cruise trophy from the famous American President Lines cargo/passenger liner the \"S. S. PRESIDENT CLEVELAND\" as identified in embossed letters below the model of the ship. This good likeness is formed of heavy cast metal done with faithful detail. It is faced by an engraved brass plaque reading “ACHIEVEMENT” and flanked by the embossed inscription “ACHIEVEMENT.” Excellent overall condition with a good age patina. 8 1/2 inches long by 2 1/2 inches wide. A very displayable and handsome authentic model. 69 \nThe steam cargo/passenger ship SS PRESIDENT CLEVLAND was a P2 design ship built in 1947 by Bethlehem Shipbuilding Co., Alameda California, Hull No. 9509. She had a length of 609 feet, a draft of 30 feet, displaced 23,404 tons and had a cruising speed of 20 knots. Designed to carry 379 First Class passengers and 200 economy, she also boasted a cargo capacity of 193,984 cubic feet. Homeported in San Francisco, the CLEVELAND along with her sister ship the PRESIDENT WILSON reestablished America’s preeminence in the passenger trade between the West Coast and the Orient. But in 1973, with passenger liner service no longer profitable, American President Lines sold the ship. It was scrapped a year later. \nBACK\n2.15 CRUISE MEMENTO MODEL. Genuine passenger ship cruise trophy from the famous American President Lines cargo/passenger liner the \"S. S. PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT\" as identified in embossed letters below the model of the ship. This good likeness is formed of heavy cast metal done with faithful detail. It is faced by a brass plaque engraved \"BRIDGE.\". Excellent overall condition with good age patina and surface oxidation to the metal. 8 ½ inches long by 2 ½ inches wide. A very displayable and handsome authentic model. 69\nOriginally built in 1944 as the 18,920 ton Hawaiian Steamship Company's LEILANI the ship was purchased by the American President Lines in 1960 and renamed S.S. PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT. After an extensive refit in Seattle, the ship began service between the West Coast of the U.S and the Orient. Sold in 1970.",
"The BRITANNIC and the GEORGIC were the last liners built for the White Star Line and were merged with the Cunard Line in 1934.\nTHE CUNARD WHITE STAR LINERS\n'BRITANNIC ' AND 'GEORGIC'\n \nThe White Star liners BRITANNIC (1931) and GEORGIC (1932) became part of the Cunard White Star Line fleet after the merger of 1934.\n \nAn imaginary meeting of the BRITANNIC and the GEORGIC\nat Liverpool, painted by Captain Stephen J. Card\n \nTHE CUNARD - WHITE STAR MERGER OF 1934\n \nThe Cunard Line's great rival on the North Atlantic express passenger service, the White Star Line, reported trading losses in each year from 1930 to 1933, and by the end of 1933 the Company was bankrupt.\n \nOn 30th December 1933 the Directors of the Cunard Line and the Oceanic Steam Navigation Company (the White Star Line) met to put together details of a merger.\n \nOn 28th March 1934, Royal assent was given to the North Atlantic Shipping Bill by which Cunard - White Star was formed, and registered on 10th May. The was the Government's solution to two difficult problems. The Cunard Line required financial assistance to complete the QUEEN MARY and to build her consort, the QUEEN ELIZABETH, The White Star Line was in a similar situation with three ageing liners operating on the same route as the Cunard Line. It, too, would need cash to replace its fleet.\n \nThe solution was to provide finance to complete the two Cunard Queens, and to amalgamate the two companies. A capital of £10 million was agreed, with Cunard holiding 62%. There were ten directors, six from Cunard and four from White Star.\n \nOnly two of the White Star Line's passenger ships were suitable for further service with the Cunard Line. These were the relatively new motorships BRITANNIC and GEORGIC.\n \nThe BRITANNIC photographed in the Mersey in 1958\n \nBuilt by Harland & Wolff at Belfast in 1930. Yard No: 807\nOfficial Number: 162316 Signal Letters: G D X F\nGross Tonnage: 27,666 Nett: 15,811 Length: 683.6 feet Breadth: 82.4 feet\nBuilt for the the Oceanic Steam Navigation Co. Ltd. (the White Star Line), and transferred to Cunard White Star in 1934.\n2 oil engines Speed: 18 knots\n \nThe BRITANNIC alongside her berth in Liverpool Docks\n \nIn April 1928, the White Star Line ordered a new passenger liner from Harland & Wolff at Belfast. The new ship would be the first motorship in the fleet, the largest motorship under the British flag, and the second largest such ship in the world, only exceeded by the Italian liner AUGUSTUS.\n \nThe new ship was named BRITANNIC and was designed for cabin and tourist-class servicce on the Liverpool - New York run in the summer months, plus extensive winter cruising. As was usual for the White Star Line, the order went to Harland & Wolff at Belfast. The loss of the CELTIC on rocks at Roches Point, at the entrance to Cobh harbour, in December 1928 caused the building of the BRITANNIC to be speeded up.\n \nThe launch of the BRITANNIC from Harland & Wolffs's\nBelfast yard on 6th August 1929\n \nThe BRITANNIC was launched on 6th August 1929 and she left Belfast for three days of trials in the Firth of Clyde on 26th May 1930. Following the successful completion of these trials, the new ship returned to Belfast, and left again on 21st June for Liverpool.\n \nThe BRITANNIC being assisted by Alexandra tugs from her berth\nin Liverpool's Gladstone Dock into the river entrance lock\n \nThe BRITANNIC had two funnels of the so-called 'motorship' design. In the opinion of many people, these low squat funnels with their horizontal tops, detracted from her otherwise fine appearance. The forward funnel was a dummy and contained a smokeroom for the engineer officers, plus fresh water and hot water storage tanks. The BRITANNIC's oil engines reduced fuel consumption by 50% when compared to steamships, using 40 tons a day at 17.5 knots. One comment was that her engine room was so cool that it had to be fitted with radiators for winter warmth!\n \nThe BRITANNIC leaving the Gladstone River Entrance lock in blustery\nconditions, bound for Princes Landing Stage, Liverpool.\n \n \nOn 28th June 1930 the BRITANNIC left Liverpool on her maiden voyage to New York, calling at Belfast and Greenock, after which she settled down on her designed route with the CEDRIC, BALTIC and ADRIATIC. The BRITANNIC's passenger accommodation was originally designed for 504 cabin-class passengers, 551 in 'tourist-third-cabin' and 498 in third class. The naming of the first two classes could hardly have been more absurd - 'cabin' class obviously suggests that the other passengers did not have cabins, and 'tourist-third-cabin', a mixture of all three, would suggest that all the passengers, other than those travelling in the premier 'cabin' class, were a third-rate crowd of tourists. These terms were chosen by the Atlantic Conference to set the passage rates in international liners of very varying luxury and comfort. 'Tourist-third-cabin' was normally shortened to 'tourist', and 'cabin class' was simply 'first class' without the extreme luxury of the large mail liners.\n \n \n \nThe BRITANNIC was probably the largest and finest cabin-class liner in the world when she first came out and introduced new standards of accommodation on the Liverpool to New York route. In 1934 the final crash came for the White Star Line, and the White Star liners which remained after the merger, including the BRITANNIC, retained their White Star Line colours and flew the White Star houseflag above that of Cunard.\n \n \nFollowing the merger, the BRITANNIC was transferred to a London - New York service, and she became the largest liner ever to sail up the Thames. The BRITANNIC left London for the first time on 19th April 1935 and remained on this route until the outbreak of war.\n \nThe BRITANNIC photographed in London Docks and\npainted in wartime gray.\n \nOn 29th August 1939 the BRITANNIC was requisitioned for service as a troopship. In the initial stages of the war she carried a complement of 3,000 men, but this had been increased to over 5,000 troops by the time the war ended. In September 1939 the BRITANNIC left the Clyde for Bombay, and returned to the UK with British personnel. She operated principally carrying troops across the Atlantic, but made occasional trooping voyages round Africa to Suez.\n \nIn 1943 the BRITANNIC carried American troops to the Sicilian landings, but her principal contribution to the war effort was in transporting over 20,000 US troops across the Atlantic in the build-up to the Normandy Landings. By the end of hostilities, the BRITANNIC had carried 180,000 service personnel and had steamed 367,000 miles on war service.\n \nThe BRITANNIC as a troopship passing through the\nSuez Canal in September 1946\n \nFollowing repatriation work, the BRITANNIC was released in March 1947 and sent to Harland & Wolff at Liverpool who gave her a complete refit before she re-entered service on the Liverpool - New York service. This work took nearly a year and the accommodation was almost entirely rebuilt. Most cabins were provided with private facilties, and the passenger numbers became 429 in first class and 564 in tourist class.\n \nThe BRITANNIC in the Gladstone\nGraving Dock, Liverpool\nCaptain J. Treasure Jones, Senior First Officer of\nthe BRITANNIC in 1948.\nLeft to right: The MAURETANIA, the QUEEN MARY and the BRITANNIC\ntogether at New York on 17th May 1951\n \nThe BRITANNIC alongside Cunard's Pier 90 at New York\n \nOn 22nd May 1948 the BRITANNIC left Liverpool on her first post-war commercial voyage to New York and she continued on this route for the next twelve years. Winter cruising became an increasingly important part of her work and in January 1953 the BRITANNIC sailed on a 59-day cruise to the Mediterranean with calls at 22 ports. This cruise was repeated in 1955.\n \nHuskisson Dock, Liverpool, in June 1960.\nThe BRITANNIC (left) is lying on Cunard's New York berth,\nwhilst the SYLVANIA (right) is on the Canadian berth.\n \nOn 15th August 1960 the Cunard Line announced that it had decided to withdraw the BRITANNIC at the end of the year. A statement said that the Company's decision had been accelerated by uncertainties resulting from the present unofficial crew strike which was involving the Company in serious losses. This was on top of the already very onerous settlement agreed with the unions which in itself meant the addition of about £750,000 to the Company's annual crew wages bill.\n \n \n \nIn late 1959 and in 1960 the BRITANNIC's machinery began to give trouble and on one occasion in 1960 crankshaft damage caused her to be held up at New York. She left Liverpool for New York, via Cobh, for the last time on 11th November 1960. Sailing from New York on 25th November, she was back in Liverpool on 4th December. The BRITANNIC had completed 275 peacetime and wartime voyages.\n \nThe BRITANNIC alongside her berth at Pier 92, New York, as the\nQUEEN MARY is assisted into her berth at Pier 90 by Matson tugs.\n \nThe BRITANNIC alongside Pier 92 at New York (foreground).\n The QUEEN MARY and the MAURETANIA are berthed at Pier 90, and\nbeyond them are the piers for the French Line, Greek Line and United States Lines.\nThe world-famous 'Market Diner' can just be distinguished directly across\nthe road from the QUEEN MARY's bow.\n \nThe BRITANNIC alongside Pier 92,North River, New York.\nOn the left, in the background, is the Empire State Building\n \nThe BRITANNIC received a solemn reception as she sailed up to Princes Landing Stage to disembark her 353 passengers. No sirens sounded and there were no crowds waiting to say 'goodbye'. Only the tugs which brought her in were dressed overall in honour of this last voyage.\n \nThe foredeck of the BRITANNIC seen from the bridge,\nNovember 1960, at New York\n \nThe BRITANNIC's boat deck, port side, looking aft,\nat New York on her final voyage, November 1960.\n \nJohn Prescott, a 62 year old liftman, had been on her maiden voyage. He said: \"She's a wonderful ship - so comfortable and so steady even in the worst seas.\" The head waiter, Charles Leach, had been with Cunard for 42 years and attended to the captain's table for the last time. \"Things are much less formal on ships these days,\" he said, \"but the BRITANNIC never changes. I'll be very sorry to see her go.\" In the first-class restaurant, adjacent to the main doors, was a gaily decorated Christman tree which would never see Christmas.\n \nThe BRITANNIC spent much of the winter employed in cruises\nfrom New York to the Mediterranean. She is seen alongside\nat Haifa in this photograph dated 1951.\n \nThe BRITANNIC at anchor off Istanbul on a winter sunshine cruise in the 1950s\n \nThe BRITANNIC was sold quickly for demolition and on 16th December 1960 she left the Mersey for the last time under her own steam for Thomas W. Ward's yard at Inverkeithing, Fife, where she arrived on 19th December. The BRITANNIC was the last ship to fly the famous White Star Line houseflag, and she had been of immense value to her country in war time, and to both her owners.\n \n \nBreaking up operations commenced in early February 1961 when the interior fittings were stripped out; many of these were sold at auction.\n \nIn 1957 the Cunard Line announced that it had reserved a berth at John Brown's Clydebank yard to build a replacement for the BRITANNIC. With sea travel rapidly being overtaken by the airlines in the late 1950s, this was cancelled and in 1961 the SYLVANIA took over the Liverpool - Cobh - New York service and remained on the route until the final sailing in November 1966.\n \nThe BRITANNIC's bell and steam-operated, triple-chime whistle are stored at the Merseyside Maritime Museum. ######\n \nThe BRITANNIC arriving alongside Princes Landing Stage, Liverpool\non 22nd May, 1948, ready to embark passengers for her first\npost-war commercial voyage to New York, via Cobh.\n ___________________________________________________________\nBuilt by Harland & Wolff at Belfast in 1932. Yard No: 896\nOfficial Number: 162365 Call Sign: L H R F\nGross Tonnage: 27,759 Nett: 16,839 Length: 683.6 feet Breadth: 82.4 feet\nBuilt for the Oceanic Steam Navigation Co. Ltd. (White Star Line),\nand transferred to Cunard - White Star in 1934\nTwo oil engines. Speed: 18 knots\n \nThe GEORGIC leaving Liverpool on her maiden voyage\nto New York on 25th June 1932\n \n \nThe GEORGIC was launched at Belfast by Harland & Wolff for the White Star Line on 12th November 1931. She was the final ship to be built for the White Star fleet. She differed from her sister, the BRITANNIC, completed two years earlier, in a number of respects. The GEORGIC was designed on ambitious lines with an almost straight stem, cruiser stern, and the then fashionable squat funnels with tops parallel to the deck. Unlike her sister, the GEORGIC had a rounded bridge front. Slightly larger than the BRITANNIC, her original accommodation was for a total of 1,636 passengers: 479 in first class, 557 in tourist class and 600 in third class.\n \nThe GEORGIC nearing completion at Harland & Wolff's\nshipyard at Belfast in October 1931\n \nThe GEORGIC leaving the Harland & Wolff yard at Belfast\non her way to her sea trials.\n \nIn April 1931 it was reported that construction work on the GEORGIC was to be speeded up so that she could enter service in May 1932 instead of June as was originally intended. Behind this idea was the fact that some 25,000 Americans were due to visit Dublin to attend the Eurcharistic Conference that was to be held there from 22nd until 29th June. As it turned out the GEORGIC was not completed in time for the Conference and she began her maiden voyage on 25th June when she left Liverpool for New York.\n \nThe GEORGIC approaching Princes Landing Stage at Liverpool on\n25th June 1932 on the occasion of her maiden voyage to New York\n \nThe GEORGIC's forward funnel was a dummy and housed the radio room and the engineers' smokeroom. She was designed as a cabin-class ship, but her passengers had surroundings and comfort equal to those provided in any de-luxe liner of the day. The GEORGIC's trials took place in early June 1932 and a large party of guests was taken to join the ship in the Belfast Steamship Company's motorship ULSTER MONARCH, which was specially chartered for the occasion. The completion of the GEORGIC attracted great attention, and in welcoming her to the Mersey for the first time, the Lord Mayor of Liverpool offered his congratulations to the owners. The GEORGIC made the outward passage of her maiden voyage to New York in rough weather, but even so managed to arrive some twelve hours ahead of schedule.\n \nIn November 1932 the GEORGIC's sailing was brought forward by two days in order that she could fit in with the postal arrangements for Christmas mail to the United States. On 11th January 1933 she made her first sailing from Southampton to New York, having moved south to replace the OLYMPIC whilst that vessel underwent an extensive engine overhaul.\n \nA record fruit cargo of 51,687 cartons, representing about 3,000 tons, was discharged by the GEORGIC at Liverpool in October 1933. On 10th May 1934 the vessel was amalgamated into the Cunard - White Star fleet. In June 1934 the GEORGIC was turned into a floating ballroom in aid of the David Lewis Liverpool Northern Hospital's bulding fund, During January 1935 there was a fire among some cotton bales in the ship's forward hold.\n \n \nOn 3rd May 1935 the GEORGIC joined the BRITANNIC on the London (King George V Dock) - New York service, and became the largest vessel to use the Thames, being fractionally larger than the DOMINION MONARCH. In 1939 the GEORGIC reverted to the Liverpool - New York service and made five round trans-Atlantic voyages on commercial service with cargo and passengers, although she was hampered by the fact that Americans had been ordered not to travel on her as she was a belligerent ship. Whilst she was homeward bound on 11th March 1940, Cunard - White Star was informed that she would be taken off commercial service and after discharging a large cargo at Liverpool, the GEORGIC was ordered to the Clyde on 19th April where she was converted into a troopship for 3,000 men.\n \nAt the end of May 1940, the GEORGIC assisted in the evacuation of British troops from Andesfjord and Narvik, and as soon as she had landed these men at Greenock, she sailed south to assist in the withdrawal from Brest and St Nazaire. The GEORGIC was under repeated air attack and was indeed fortunate in not being hit. Between July and September 1940 the GEORGIC made a trooping voyage to Iceland and another to Halifax, N.S., embarking Canadian troops after landing the evacuees she carried on the westbound passage. From September 1940 until January 1941 the GEORGIC was employed on a trooping voyage from Liverpool and Glasgow to the Middle East via the Cape of Good Hope, and afterwards trooped from Liverpool to New York and Halifax, and then back to the Clyde.\n \nOn 22nd May 1941 the GEORGIC left the Clyde under the command of Captain A.C. Greig, OBE, RNR, with the 50th Northumberland Division for Port Tewfik, Gulf of Suez. She was part of the convoy which had to be left almost unprotected during the hunt for the BISMARCK. She arrived safely on 7th July 1941, but a week later on 14th July she was bombed by German aircraft operating from Crete while at anchor off Port Tewfik, with 800 Italian internees on board. Her fuel caught fire and ammunition exploded in the stern area.\n \nThe hulk of the GEORGIC at Port Tewfik\n \nThe GEORGIC was gutted and the engine room flooded, but her crew managed to slip the anchor cable and beach the ship on 16th July, half submerged and burnt out. On 14th September 1941 it was decided to salvage the vessel and the hulk was raised on 27th October. The hull was plugged and on 2nd December the GEORGIC was taken in tow by the CLAN CAMPBELL and the CITY OF SYDNEY. She reached Port Sudan on 14th December where she was made seaworthy. It had taken twelve days for the tow to cover 710 miles.\n \nThe GEORGIC left Port Sudan on 5th March 1942 and was towed by T. & J. Harrison's RECORDER, with the tug ST SAMPSON steering from astern. On the following day a strong north-westerly gale rendered the wallowing GEORGIC almost unmanageable. The southerly course had to be abandoned and the ships hove-to. For five hours the RECORDER battled to bring her charge head to wind, and in the process the tug ST SAMPSON was damaged. The tug was rapidly filling with water and slipped her tow rope and headed down wind. Shortly afterwards she foundered and her crew were picked up by the hospital ship DORSETSHIRE, which was passing at the time.\n \nThe Harrison Line's RECORDER towed the GEORGIC from Port Sudan\nto Karachi, a distance of 2,100 miles in 26 days\n \nFor twelve hours the RECORDER and the GEORGIC rode out the gale and then, as the winds abated, cautiously swung back through 180-degrees to resume their course. Meanwhile they were joined by another tug, the PAULINE MOLLER and the British steamer HARESFIELD. Together they guided their labouring charge past Abu Ail and the islands of the southern Red Sea into the Gulf of Aden, and on to Karachi. The salvage crew responsible for the GEORGIC lived on board the RECORDER and every few days boarded the liner from a motor launch in order to pump out a steady ingress of water.\n \nOn 31st March 1942, twenty-six days out of Port Sudan, the ships arrived off Karachi where the GEORGIC was taken in hand by eight harbour tugs. The RECORDER and her consorts, having covered 2,100 miles with the GEORGIC, had completed one of the most successful salvage operations of the war. Captain W.B. Wilford of the RECORDER was later invested with the OBE.\n \nThe GEORGIC remained at Karachi until 11th December whilst temporary repairs were carried out. She then sailed to Bombay, arriving on 13th December, where she was dry-docked for hull cleaning and further repairs. Finally, she loaded 5,000 tns of pig iron ballast and on 20th January 1943 the GEORGIC left Bombay under her own power for Liverpool where she arrived on 1st March, having made the passage at 16 knots. Shortly afterwards she sailed for Belfast, but had to anchor in Bangor Bay until 5th July awaiting a berth. After seventeen months the GEORGIC emerged on 12th December 1944 with one funnel and a stump foremast. She was now owned by the Ministry of Transport, with Cunard - White Star as managers. After trials the GEORGIC left Belfast for Liverpool on 16th December 1944, three years and five months since she was bombed at Port Tewfik.\n \nThe GEORGIC as a troopship in 1945 after her rebuild\n \nDuring 1945 the GEORGIC trooped to Italy, the Middle East and India. On Christmas Day she arrived in Liverpool with troops from the Far East, including Sir William Slim, C-in-C of South East Asia. Early in 1946 the GEORGIC repatriated 5,000 Italian prisoners-of-war. In June 1946, on a homeward voyage from Bombay, there was trouble between civilian women and service women on board, and this led to a barring of civilians on troopships unless no other transport was available.\n \nThe GEORGIC disembarking troops at Liverpool's Princes Landing Stage in 1946\n \nIn September 1948 the GEORGIC was refitted by Palmers & Company at Hebburn for the Australian and New Zealand emigrant trade. She retained her White Star livery and could accommodate 1,962 passengers in one class. In January 1949 the GEORGIC made her first sailing on the Liverpool - Suez - Fremantle - Melbourne - Sydney run with 1,200 'assisted passages'. However, as she was leaving Princes Landing Stage, Liverpool, a rope wrapped round one of her propellers and she had to re-dock. During the summers 1950 - 1954, the GEORGIC was chartered back to Cunard and she made seven round voyages to New York each year as a one-class liner. In 1950 she was based at Liverpool, but Southampton was her terminal port from 1951 until 1954. \n \nThe GEORGIC photographed passing through the Panama Canal\n \nThe GEORGIC at Cape Town carrying 'assisted passage' emigrants to Australia\n \nIn the winter of 1954/55 the GEORGIC resumed 'assisted passage' voyages to Australia, and on 16th April 1955 she arrived at Liverpool with troops from Japan. She was then offered for sale, but the Australian government chartered her for the summer. The GEORGIC's final voyage was from Hong Kong to Liverpool with 800 troops, and she arrived on 19th November 1955.\n \nThe GEORGIC berthed on the south side of Pier 90, New York, whilst on\nsummer charter to the Cunard Line from 1950 to 1954. Note the funnel\nof the QUEEN ELIZABETH on the north side of Pier 90.\n \nOn 11th December the GEORGIC was laid up at Kames Bay, Isle of Bute, Firth of Clyde, pending disposal. In January 1956 the GEORGIC was sold for demolition and on 1st February arrived at Faslane for scrapping by Shipbreaking Industries Ltd. <<<<<<<>>>>>>>\n \nThe GEORGIC as she appeared in the post-war years"
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"title": [
"What do you do with an old ocean liner? - BBC News",
"Queen Mary ocean liner launched - Famous Daily",
"10 Great Atlantic Ocean Liners - Listverse",
"Queen Mary: Liner that helped launch monster cruise ships ...",
"PHOTOS: Queen Mary ocean liner - 80th anniversary of ...",
"BBC News - Queen Mary: Liner that helped launch monster ...",
"Largest cruise ships in the world - Did you know?",
"West Sea Co. OCEAN LINER Catalog Page 17",
"The BRITANNIC and the GEORGIC were the last liners built ..."
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"http://listverse.com/2008/12/29/10-great-atlantic-ocean-liners/",
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"http://www.liverpoolships.org/britannic_and_georgic_cunard_white_star.html"
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What was the name of NASA's manned space project whose astronauts were chosen in 1959?
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tc_800
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the civilian space program as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.\n\nPresident Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian (rather than military) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29, 1958, disestablishing NASA's predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The new agency became operational on October 1, 1958. \n\nSince that time, most US space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.\n\nNASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System, advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research Program, exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic spacecraft missions such as New Horizons, and researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through the Great Observatories and associated programs. NASA shares data with various national and international organizations such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite.\n\nCreation\n\nFrom 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58). An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard. After the Soviet launch of the world's first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The US Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the \"Sputnik crisis\"), urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency mainly based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for military application. \n\nOn July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing NASA. When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 43-year-old NACA intact; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100 million, three major research laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, and Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory) and two small test facilities. A NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to NASA's entry into the Space Race with the Soviet Union was the technology from the German rocket program led by Wernher von Braun, who was now working for the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), which in turn incorporated the technology of American scientist Robert Goddard's earlier works. Earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a contractor facility operated by the California Institute of Technology.\n\nSpace flight programs\n\nNASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Unmanned programs launched the first American artificial satellites into Earth orbit for scientific and communications purposes, and sent scientific probes to explore the planets of the solar system, starting with Venus and Mars, and including \"grand tours\" of the outer planets. Manned programs sent the first Americans into low Earth orbit (LEO), won the Space Race with the Soviet Union by landing twelve men on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 in the Apollo program, developed a semi-reusable LEO Space Shuttle, and developed LEO space station capability by itself and with the cooperation of several other nations including post-Soviet Russia. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter.\n\nManned programs\n\nThe experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a one-man space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. Reacting to loss of national prestige and security fears caused by early leads in space exploration by the Soviet Union, in 1961 President John F. Kennedy proposed the ambitious goal \"of landing a man on the Moon by the end of [the 1960s], and returning him safely to the Earth.\" This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, and NASA planned even more ambitious activities leading to a manned mission to Mars. However, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, and a semi-reusable Earth orbital shuttle. In the 1990s, funding was approved for NASA to develop a permanent Earth orbital space station in cooperation with the international community, which now included the former rival, post-Soviet Russia. To date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude, 80 km. \n\nX-15 rocket plane (1959–68)\n\nThe X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force and Navy. The design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems. Requests for proposal were issued on December 30, 1954 for the airframe, and February 4, 1955 for the rocket engine. The airframe contract was awarded to North American Aviation in November 1955, and the XLR30 engine contract was awarded to Reaction Motors in 1956, and three planes were built. The X-15 was drop-launched from the wing of one of two NASA Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses, NB52A tail number 52-003, and NB52B, tail number 52-008 (known as the Balls 8). Release took place at an altitude of about 45000 ft and a speed of about 805 km/h.\n\nTwelve pilots were selected for the program from the Air Force, Navy, and NACA (later NASA). A total of 199 flights were made between 1959 and 1968, resulting in the official world record for the highest speed ever reached by a manned powered aircraft (current ), and a maximum speed of Mach 6.72, 4519 mph. The altitude record for X-15 was 354,200 feet (107.96 km). Eight of the pilots were awarded Air Force astronaut wings for flying above 80 km, and two flights by Joseph A. Walker exceeded 100 km, qualifying as spaceflight according to the International Aeronautical Federation. The X-15 program employed mechanical techniques used in the later manned spaceflight programs, including reaction control system jets for controlling the orientation of a spacecraft, space suits, and horizon definition for navigation. The reentry and landing data collected were valuable to NASA for designing the Space Shuttle. \n\nProject Mercury (1959–63)\n\nShortly after the Space Race began, an early objective was to get a person into Earth orbit as soon as possible, therefore the simplest spacecraft that could be launched by existing rockets was favored. The US Air Force's Man in Space Soonest program considered many manned spacecraft designs, ranging from rocket planes like the X-15, to small ballistic space capsules. By 1958, the space plane concepts were eliminated in favor of the ballistic capsule. \n\nWhen NASA was created that same year, the Air Force program was transferred to it and renamed Project Mercury. The first seven astronauts were selected among candidates from the Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space aboard Freedom 7, launched by a Redstone booster on a 15-minute ballistic (suborbital) flight. John Glenn became the first American to be launched into orbit by an Atlas launch vehicle on February 20, 1962 aboard Friendship 7. Glenn completed three orbits, after which three more orbital flights were made, culminating in L. Gordon Cooper's 22-orbit flight Faith 7, May 15–16, 1963. \n\nThe Soviet Union (USSR) competed with its own single-pilot spacecraft, Vostok. They sent the first man in space, by launching cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into a single Earth orbit aboard Vostok 1 in April 1961, one month before Shepard's flight. In August 1962, they achieved an almost four-day record flight with Andriyan Nikolayev aboard Vostok 3, and also conducted a concurrent Vostok 4 mission carrying Pavel Popovich.\n\nProject Gemini (1961–66)\n\nBased on studies to grow the Mercury spacecraft capabilities to long-duration flights, developing space rendezvous techniques, and precision Earth landing, Project Gemini was started as a two-man program in 1962 to overcome the Soviets' lead and to support the Apollo manned lunar landing program, adding extravehicular activity (EVA) and rendezvous and docking to its objectives. The first manned Gemini flight, Gemini 3, was flown by Gus Grissom and John Young on March 23, 1965. Nine missions followed in 1965 and 1966, demonstrating an endurance mission of nearly fourteen days, rendezvous, docking, and practical EVA, and gathering medical data on the effects of weightlessness on humans. \n\nUnder the direction of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, the USSR competed with Gemini by converting their Vostok spacecraft into a two- or three-man Voskhod. They succeeded in launching two manned flights before Gemini's first flight, achieving a three-cosmonaut flight in 1963 and the first EVA in 1964. After this, the program was canceled, and Gemini caught up while spacecraft designer Sergei Korolev developed the Soyuz spacecraft, their answer to Apollo.\n\nProject Apollo (1961–72)\n\nThe U.S public's perception of the Soviet lead in putting the first man in space, motivated President John F. Kennedy to ask the Congress on May 25, 1961 to commit the federal government to a program to land a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s, which effectively launched the Apollo program. \n\nApollo was one of the most expensive American scientific programs ever. It cost more than $20 billion in 1960s dollars or an estimated $ in present-day US dollars. (In comparison, the Manhattan Project cost roughly $, accounting for inflation.) It used the Saturn rockets as launch vehicles, which were far bigger than the rockets built for previous projects. The spacecraft was also bigger; it had two main parts, the combined command and service module (CSM) and the lunar landing module (LM). The LM was to be left on the Moon and only the command module (CM) containing the three astronauts would eventually return to Earth.\n\nThe second manned mission, Apollo 8, brought astronauts for the first time in a flight around the Moon in December 1968. Shortly before, the Soviets had sent an unmanned spacecraft around the Moon. On the next two missions docking maneuvers that were needed for the Moon landing were practiced and then finally the Moon landing was made on the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969. \n\nThe first person to stand on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, who was followed by Buzz Aldrin, while Michael Collins orbited above. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. Throughout these six Apollo spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon. These missions returned a wealth of scientific data and of lunar samples. Topics covered by experiments performed included soil mechanics, meteoroids, seismology, heat flow, lunar ranging, magnetic fields, and solar wind. The Moon landing marked the end of the space race; and as a gesture, Armstrong mentioned mankind when he stepped down on the Moon. \n\nApollo set major milestones in human spaceflight. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, and landing humans on another celestial body. Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marked the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit to date. The program spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. Apollo sparked interest in many fields of engineering and left many physical facilities and machines developed for the program as landmarks. Many objects and artifacts from the program are on display at various locations throughout the world, notably at the Smithsonian's Air and Space Museums.\n\nSkylab (1965–79)\n\nSkylab was the United States' first and only independently built space station. Conceived in 1965 as a workshop to be constructed in space from a spent Saturn IB upper stage, the 169950 lb station was constructed on Earth and launched on May 14, 1973 atop the first two stages of a Saturn V, into a 235 nmi orbit inclined at 50° to the equator. Damaged during launch by the loss of its thermal protection and one electricity-generating solar panel, it was repaired to functionality by its first crew. It was occupied for a total of 171 days by 3 successive crews in 1973 and 1974. It included a laboratory for studying the effects of microgravity, and a solar observatory. NASA planned to have a Space Shuttle dock with it, and elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but the Shuttle was not ready for flight before Skylab's re-entry on July 11, 1979. \n\nTo save cost, NASA used one of the Saturn V rockets originally earmarked for a canceled Apollo mission to launch the Skylab. Apollo spacecraft were used for transporting astronauts to and from the station. Three three-man crews stayed aboard the station for periods of 28, 59, and 84 days. Skylab's habitable volume was 11290 ft3, which was 30.7 times bigger than that of the Apollo Command Module.\n\nApollo-Soyuz Test Project (1972–75)\n\nOn May 24, 1972, US President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin signed an agreement calling for a joint manned space mission, and declaring intent for all future international manned spacecraft to be capable of docking with each other. This authorized the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), involving the rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit of a surplus Apollo Command/Service Module with a Soyuz spacecraft. The mission took place in July 1975. This was the last US manned space flight until the first orbital flight of the Space Shuttle in April 1981. \n\nThe mission included both joint and separate scientific experiments, and provided useful engineering experience for future joint US–Russian space flights, such as the Shuttle–Mir Program and the International Space Station.\n\nSpace Shuttle program (1972–2011)\n\nThe Space Shuttle became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttle orbiters were built by 1985. The first to launch, Columbia, did so on April 12, 1981, the 20th anniversary of the first known human space flight. \n\nIts major components were a spaceplane orbiter with an external fuel tank and two solid-fuel launch rockets at its side. The external tank, which was bigger than the spacecraft itself, was the only major component that was not reused. The shuttle could orbit in altitudes of 185–643 km (115–400 miles) and carry a maximum payload (to low orbit) of 24,400 kg (54,000 lb). Missions could last from 5 to 17 days and crews could be from 2 to 8 astronauts.\n\nOn 20 missions (1983–98) the Space Shuttle carried Spacelab, designed in cooperation with the European Space Agency (ESA). Spacelab was not designed for independent orbital flight, but remained in the Shuttle's cargo bay as the astronauts entered and left it through an airlock. Another famous series of missions were the launch and later successful repair of the Hubble Space Telescope in 1990 and 1993, respectively. \n\nIn 1995, Russian-American interaction resumed with the Shuttle-Mir missions (1995–1998). Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space station. This cooperation has continued with Russia and the United States as two of the biggest partners in the largest space station built: the International Space Station (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA began relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two-year grounding of the shuttle fleet following the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.\n\nThe Shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters: Challenger in 1986, and Columbia in 2003. While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the Space Shuttle Endeavour from replacement parts, NASA did not build another orbiter to replace the second loss. NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program ended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space. \n\nInternational Space Station (1993–present)\n\nThe International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory module. NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles. It is currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment is expected by 2016. The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya), with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.\n\nLong duration missions to the ISS are referred to as ISS Expeditions. Expedition crew members typically spend approximately six months on the ISS. The initial expedition crew size was three, temporarily decreased to two following the Columbia disaster. Since May 2009, expedition crew size has been six crew members. Crew size is expected to be increased to seven, the number the ISS was designed for, once the Commercial Crew Program becomes operational. The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past , having exceeded the previous record held by Mir; and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations. \n\nThe station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of , is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station. The Soyuz spacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their half-year-long missions and then returns them home. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft service the ISS, they are the Russian Progress spacecraft which has done so since 2000, the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012, and the American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US manned spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz. The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions. \n\nThe ISS program is expected to continue until at least 2020, and may be extended beyond 2028. \n\nCommercial Resupply Services (2006–present)\n\nThe development of the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) vehicles began in 2006 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS. The development of these vehicles was under a fixed price milestone-based program, meaning that each company that received a funded award had a list of milestones with a dollar value attached to them that they didn't receive until after they had successful completed the milestone. Private companies were also required to have some \"skin in the game\" which refers raising an unspecified amount of private investment for their proposal. \n\nOn December 23, 2008, NASA awarded Commercial Resupply Services contracts to SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation. SpaceX uses its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon spacecraft. Orbital Sciences uses its Antares rocket and Cygnus spacecraft. The first Dragon resupply mission occurred in May 2012. The first Cygnus resupply mission occurred in September 2013. The CRS program now provides for all America's ISS cargo needs; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads that are delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV. \n\nCommercial Crew Program (2010–present)\n\nThe Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth. It is hoped that these vehicles could also transport non-NASA customers to private space stations such those planned by Bigelow Aerospace. Like COTS, CCDev is also a fixed price milestone-based developmental program that requires some private investment.\n\nIn 2010, NASA announced the winners of the first phase of the program, a total of $50 million was divided among five American companies to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. In 2011, the winners of the second phase of the program were announced, $270 million was divided among four companies.Dean, James. . space.com, April 18, 2011. In 2012, the winners of the third phase of the program were announced, NASA provided $1.1 billion divided among three companies to further develop their crew transportation systems. In 2014, the winners of the final round were announced. SpaceX's Dragon V2 (planned to be launched on a Falcon 9 v1.1) received a contract valued up to $2.6 billion and Boeing's CST-100 (to be launched on an Atlas V) received a contract valued up to $4.2 billion. NASA expects these vehicles to begin transporting humans to the ISS in 2017.\n\nFile:SpaceX Dragon v2 Pad Abort Vehicle (16661791299).jpg|Dragon V2\nFile:CST-100.jpg|Computer rendering of CST-100 in orbit\n\nBeyond Low Earth Orbit program (2010–present)\n\nFor missions beyond low Earth orbit (BLEO), NASA has been directed to develop the Space Launch System (SLS), a Saturn-V class rocket, and the two to six person, beyond low Earth orbit spacecraft, Orion. In February 2010, President Barack Obama's administration proposed eliminating public funds for the Constellation program and shifting greater responsibility of servicing the ISS to private companies. During a speech at the Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, Obama proposed a new heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) to replace the formerly planned Ares V. In his speech, Obama called for a manned mission to an asteroid as soon as 2025, and a manned mission to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s. The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 was passed by Congress and signed into law on October 11, 2010. The act officially canceled the Constellation program.\n\nThe Authorization Act required a newly designed HLV be chosen within 90 days of its passing; the launch vehicle was given the name \"Space Launch System\". The new law also required the construction of a beyond low earth orbit spacecraft. The Orion spacecraft, which was being developed as part of the Constellation program, was chosen to fulfill this role. The Space Launch System is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware for missions beyond low Earth orbit. The SLS is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. The initial capability of SLS is required to be able to lift 70 mt into LEO. It is then planned to be upgraded to 105 mt and then eventually to 130 mt.\n\nExploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1), an unmanned test flight of Orion's crew module, was launched on December 5, 2014, atop a Delta IV Heavy rocket. Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1) is the unmanned initial launch of SLS that would also send Orion on a circumlunar trajectory, which is planned for 2017. The first manned flight of Orion and SLS, Exploration Mission 2 (EM-2) is to launch between 2019 and 2021; it is a 10- to 14-day mission planned to place a crew of four into Lunar orbit. As of March 2012, the destination for EM-3 and the intermediate focus for this new program is still in-flux. \n\nOn June 5, 2016, NASA and DARPA announced that it planned to build new X-planes with NASA's plan setting to create a whole series of X planes over the next 10 years. One of the planes will reportedly be a supersonic vehicle that burns low-carbon biofuels and generates quiet sonic booms.\n\nUnmanned programs\n\nMore than 1,000 unmanned missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the solar system. Besides exploration, communication satellites have also been launched by NASA. The missions have been launched directly from Earth or from orbiting space shuttles, which could either deploy the satellite itself, or with a rocket stage to take it farther.\n\nThe first US unmanned satellite was Explorer 1, which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early part of the Space Race. It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA the Explorer project was transferred to this agency and still continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and the solar wind, among other aspects. A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the Hubble Space Telescope, which as mentioned above was brought into orbit in 1990. \n\nThe inner Solar System has been made the goal of at least four unmanned programs. The first was Mariner in the 1960s and '70s, which made multiple visits to Venus and Mars and one to Mercury. Probes launched under the Mariner program were also the first to make a planetary flyby (Mariner 2), to take the first pictures from another planet (Mariner 4), the first planetary orbiter (Mariner 9), and the first to make a gravity assist maneuver (Mariner 10). This is a technique where the satellite takes advantage of the gravity and velocity of planets to reach its destination. \n\nThe first successful landing on Mars was made by Viking 1 in 1976. Twenty years later a rover was landed on Mars by Mars Pathfinder. \n\nOutside Mars, Jupiter was first visited by Pioneer 10 in 1973. More than 20 years later Galileo sent a probe into the planet's atmosphere, and became the first spacecraft to orbit the planet. Pioneer 11 became the first spacecraft to visit Saturn in 1979, with Voyager 2 making the first (and so far only) visits to Uranus and Neptune in 1986 and 1989, respectively. The first spacecraft to leave the solar system was Pioneer 10 in 1983. For a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but it has since been surpassed by both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. \n\nPioneers 10 and 11 and both Voyager probes carry messages from the Earth to extraterrestrial life. Communication can be difficult with deep space travel. For instance, it took about 3 hours for a radio signal to reach the New Horizons spacecraft when it was more than halfway to Pluto. Contact with Pioneer 10 was lost in 2003. Both Voyager probes continue to operate as they explore the outer boundary between the Solar System and interstellar space. \n\nOn November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission was successfully launched for Mars. Curiosity successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars. \n\nRecent and planned activities\n\nNASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars (Mars 2020 and InSight) and Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions are Juno for Jupiter, Cassini for Saturn, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond), and Dawn for the asteroid belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and Gas Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini (1997–), and Juno (2011–).\n\nThe New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and successfully performed a flyby of Pluto on July 14, 2015. The probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the flyby. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of the Mars Scout Program to study the atmosphere of Mars. \n\nOn December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning a permanent moon base. The goal was to start building the moon base by 2020, and by 2024, have a fully functional base that would allow for crew rotations and in-situ resource utilization. However, in 2009, the Augustine Committee found the program to be on a \"unsustainable trajectory.\" In 2010, President Barack Obama halted existing plans, including the Moon base, and directed a generic focus on manned missions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for the International Space Station. \n\nSince 2011, NASA's strategic goals have been\n* Extend and sustain human activities across the solar system\n* Expand scientific understanding of the Earth and the universe\n* Create innovative new space technologies\n* Advance aeronautics research\n* Enable program and institutional capabilities to conduct NASA's aeronautics and space activities\n* Share NASA with the public, educators, and students to provide opportunities to participate\n\nIn August 2011, NASA accepted the donation of two space telescopes from the National Reconnaissance Office. Despite being stored unused, the instruments are superior to the Hubble Space Telescope.\n\nIn September 2011, NASA announced the start of the Space Launch System program to develop a human-rated heavy lift vehicle. The Space Launch System is intended to launch the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and other elements towards the Moon, near-Earth asteroids, and one day Mars. The Orion MPCV conducted an unmanned test launch on a Delta IV Heavy rocket in December 2014. \n\nThe James Webb Space Telescope is currently scheduled to launch in late 2018.\n\nOn August 6, 2012, NASA landed the rover Curiosity on Mars. On August 27, 2012, Curiosity transmitted the first pre-recorded message from the surface of Mars back to Earth, made by Administrator Charlie Bolden:\n\nScientific research\n\nNASA's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate conducts aeronautics research.\n\nNASA has made use of technologies such as the Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG), which is a type of Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator used on space missions \n\nStaff and leadership\n\nThe agency's leader, NASA's administrator, reports to the President of the United States and serves as the President's senior space science adviser. Though the agency is independent, the survival or discontinuation of projects can depend directly on the will of the President. The agency's administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC and provides overall guidance and direction. Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees are required to be citizens of the United States. \n\nThe first administrator was Dr. T. Keith Glennan, appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. During his term he brought together the disparate projects in American space development research. \n\nThe third administrator was James E. Webb (served 1961–1968), appointed by President John F. Kennedy. In order to implement the Apollo program to achieve Kennedy's Moon landing goal by the end of the 1960s, Webb directed major management restructuring and facility expansion, establishing the Houston Manned Spacecraft (Johnson) Center and the Florida Launch Operations (Kennedy) Center.\n\nIn 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Charles Bolden as NASA's twelfth administrator. Administrator Bolden is one of three NASA administrators who were astronauts, along with Richard H. Truly (served 1989–1992) and Frederick D. Gregory (acting, 2005).\n\nFacilities\n\nNASA's facilities are research, construction and communication centers to help its missions. Some facilities serve more than one application for historic or administrative reasons. NASA also operates a short-line railroad at the Kennedy Space Center and own special aircraft, for instance two Boeing 747 that transport Space Shuttle orbiter.\n\nJohn F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), is one of the best-known NASA facilities. It has been the launch site for every United States human space flight since 1968. Although such flights are currently on pause, KSC continues to manage and operate unmanned rocket launch facilities for America's civilian space program from three pads at the adjoining Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.\n\nLyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston is home to the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, where all flight control is managed for manned space missions. JSC is the lead NASA center for activities regarding the International Space Station and also houses the NASA Astronaut Corps that selects, trains, and provides astronauts as crew members for US and international space missions.\n\nAnother major facility is Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama at which the Saturn 5 rocket and Skylab were developed. The JPL worked together with ABMA, one of the agencies behind Explorer 1, the first American space mission.\n\nThe ten NASA field centers are:\n* John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida\n* Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California\n* Armstrong Flight Research Center (formerly Hugh L. Dryden Flight Research Facility), Edwards, California\n* Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland\n* Jet Propulsion Laboratory, near Pasadena, California\n* Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas\n* Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia\n* John H. Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio\n* George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama\n* John C. Stennis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi\n\nNumerous other facilities are operated by NASA, including the Wallops Flight Facility in Wallops Island, Virginia; the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana; the White Sands Test Facility in Las Cruces, New Mexico; and Deep Space Network stations in Barstow, California; Madrid, Spain; and Canberra, Australia.\n\nBudget\n\nNASA's budget has generally been approximately 1% of the federal budget from the early 1970s on, after briefly peaking at approximately 4.41% in 1966 during the Apollo program. Public perception of NASA's budget has differed significantly from reality; a 1997 poll indicated that most Americans responded that 20% of the federal budget went to NASA. \n\nThe percentage of federal budget that NASA has been allocated has been steadily dropping since the Apollo program and in 2012 it was estimated at 0.48% of the federal budget. In a March 2012 meeting of the United States Senate Science Committee, Neil deGrasse Tyson testified that \"Right now, NASA’s annual budget is half a penny on your tax dollar. For twice that—a penny on a dollar—we can transform the country from a sullen, dispirited nation, weary of economic struggle, to one where it has reclaimed its 20th century birthright to dream of tomorrow.\" \n\nFor Fiscal Year 2015, NASA received an appropriation of from Congress—$549 million more than requested and approximately $350 million more than the 2014 NASA budget passed by Congress.\n\nEnvironmental impact\n\nThe exhaust gases produced by rocket propulsion systems, both in Earth's atmosphere and in space, can adversely effect the Earth's environment. Some hypergolic rocket propellants, such as hydrazine, are highly toxic prior to combustion, but decompose into less toxic compounds after burning. Rockets using hydrocarbon fuels, such as kerosene, release carbon dioxide and soot in their exhaust. However, carbon dioxide emissions are insignificant compared to those from other sources; on average, the United States consumed gallons of liquid fuels per day in 2014, while a single Falcon 9 rocket first stage burns around of kerosene fuel per launch. Even if a Falcon 9 were launched every single day, it would only represent 0.006% of liquid fuel consumption (and carbon dioxide emissions) for that day. Additionally, the exhaust from LOx- and LH2- fueled engines, like the SSME, is almost entirely water vapor. NASA addressed environmental concerns with its canceled Constellation program in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act in 2011. In contrast, ion engines use harmless noble gases like xenon for propulsion.\n\nOn May 8, 2003, Environmental Protection Agency recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use landfill gas to produce energy at one of its facilities—the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland. \n\nAn example of NASA's environmental efforts is the NASA Sustainability Base. Additionally, the Exploration Sciences Building was awarded the LEED Gold rating in 2010. \n\nObservations\n\nImage:Potentially Hazardous Asteroids 2013.png|Plot of orbits of known Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (size over 460 ft and passing within of Earth's orbit)\nFile:Catseyeandmore.jpg|Various nebulae observed from a NASA space telescope\nFile:PIA18920-Ceres-DwarfPlanet-20150219.jpg|1 Ceres\nFile:PlutoCharon-1stColorImage-NewHorizons-Ralph-20150409.png|Pluto and Charon\n\nSpacecraft\n\nImage:Cassini.jpg|Cassini-Huygens\nFile:STS-125 departing the Hubble Space Telescope.jpg|Hubble Space Telescope\nFile:PIA19142-MarsCuriosityRover-SelfPortrait-Mojave-20150131.jpg|Curiosity rover\nFile:James Webb Space Telescope 2009 top.jpg|James Webb Space Telescope\n\nExamples of missions by target"
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"First astronauts introduced - Apr 09, 1959 - HISTORY.com\nFirst astronauts introduced\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nOn April 9, 1959, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) introduces America’s first astronauts to the press: Scott Carpenter, L. Gordon Cooper Jr., John H. Glenn Jr., Virgil “Gus” Grissom, Walter Schirra Jr., Alan Shepard Jr., and Donald Slayton. The seven men, all military test pilots, were carefully selected from a group of 32 candidates to take part in Project Mercury, America’s first manned space program. NASA planned to begin manned orbital flights in 1961.\nOn October 4, 1957, the USSR scored the first victory of the “space race” when it successfully launched the world’s first artificial satellite, Sputnik, into Earth’s orbit. In response, the United States consolidated its various military and civilian space efforts into NASA, which dedicated itself to beating the Soviets to manned space flight. In January 1959, NASA began the astronaut selection procedure, screening the records of 508 military test pilots and choosing 110 candidates. This number was arbitrarily divided into three groups, and the first two groups reported to Washington. Because of the high rate of volunteering, the third group was eliminated. Of the 62 pilots who volunteered, six were found to have grown too tall since their last medical examination. An initial battery of written tests, interviews, and medical history reviews further reduced the number of candidates to 36. After learning of the extreme physical and mental tests planned for them, four of these men dropped out.\nThe final 32 candidates traveled to the Lovelace Clinic in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where they underwent exhaustive medical and psychological examinations. The men proved so healthy, however, that only one candidate was eliminated. The remaining 31 candidates then traveled to the Wright Aeromedical Laboratory in Dayton, Ohio, where they underwent the most grueling part of the selection process. For six days and three nights, the men were subjected to various tortures that tested their tolerance of physical and psychological stress. Among other tests, the candidates were forced to spend an hour in a pressure chamber that simulated an altitude of 65,000 feet, and two hours in a chamber that was heated to 130 degrees Fahrenheit. At the end of one week, 18 candidates remained. From among these men, the selection committee was to choose six based on interviews, but seven candidates were so strong they ended up settling on that number.\nAfter they were announced, the “Mercury Seven” became overnight celebrities. The Mercury Project suffered some early setbacks, however, and on April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin orbited Earth in the world’s first manned space flight. Less than one month later, on May 5, astronaut Alan Shepard was successfully launched into space on a suborbital flight. On February 20, 1962, in a major step for the U.S. space program, John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth. NASA continued to trail the Soviets in space achievements until the late 1960s, when NASA’s Apollo program put the first men on the moon and safely returned them to Earth.\nIn 1998, 36 years after his first space flight, John Glenn traveled into space again. Glenn, then 77 years old, was part of the Space Shuttle Discovery crew, whose 9-day research mission launched on October 29, 1998. Among the crew’s investigations was a study of space flight and the aging process.\nRelated Videos",
"NASA - Leaders Visionaries and Designers\nLeaders, Visionaries and Designers\nBy Roger D. Launius\nDue to its strong mission orientation, NASA has been uniquely favored with a plethora of superb leaders, visionaries and designers drawn to challenging projects. At critical moments in NASA’s development, these individuals made a huge difference. They helped establish the agency and managed its programs, formulated its long term goals and strategies, designed and engineered spacecraft and systems, and successfully focused NASA’s workforce on the agency’s goals. Presented here are brief tributes to some special individuals who made an indelible mark through their service.\nFirst leadership team - President Dwight Eisenhower flanked by NASA’s first Administrator T. Keith Glennan (right) and Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden (left).\nIn NASA’s first years, a cadre of leaders helped to form the agency into an efficient organization that could accomplish the tasks set for it. Four key leaders guided it in those days. They included T. Keith Glennan, NASA’s first administrator, his deputy, Hugh L. Dryden, Space Task Group Director Robert R. Gilruth and scientist Homer Newell.\nGlennan was the perfect choice to lead the new organization. An engineer who had worked in government, industry and academia, he took a leave of absence from the presidency of Cleveland’s Case Institute of Technology to become NASA’s first administrator. Glennan emphasized long-range goals that would yield genuine scientific and technological results. As he told everyone at the time, “Our strategy must be to develop a program on our own terms which is designed to allow us to progress sensibly toward the goal of ultimate leadership in this competition.” Recognizing political realities, Glennan also positioned NASA so that it could serve as the vehicle for competing with the Soviet Union in developing a space race.\nProgram builders - Charles Donlan, deputy head, and Robert Gilruth, head, Space Task Group, with Langley Research Center engineers, eye a Mercury capsule scale model.\nGlennan found an able second in Dryden, the technical director of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) who stayed on as NASA’s deputy administrator until his death in 1965. In that capacity Dryden handled the day-to-day operations of the agency and oversaw its technical efforts while Glennan handled politics and larger strategic issues. Dryden threw himself into the intricacies of spaceflight. The conception and planning of Project Mercury, for instance, bore his mark from the very beginning, because it emphasized the scientific component. His quiet oversight of the agency helped immeasurably in keeping it on track.\nRobert R. Gilruth had been NACA engineer since graduating from college in the latter 1930s, and shortly after NASA’s establishment, he became director of the Space Task Group at Langley Research Center. In May 1961, Gilruth’s life changed forever. When President John F. Kennedy announced the Apollo decision of reaching the moon by the end of the decade Gilruth was flying to a meeting in Tulsa. He recalled that he was “aghast” after all, he now had to accomplish it. In the process Gilruth’s organization grew exponentially, moving to Houston, Texas, in 1962 to establish the Manned Spacecraft Center (renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973) and carry out the Apollo moon landings.\nCheers for spacewalker - Left to right: Astronaut Ed White, President Lyndon Johnson (with photos of White’s June 3, 1965 Gemini IV spacewalk) NASA Associate Administrator Robert Seamans, astronaut Jim McDivitt, Manned Space Center Director Robert Gilruth and Administrator James E. Webb.\nGilruth had excellent people working for him, and they read like a who’s who of space history. Gilruth and his staff were the people who made the dreams of spaceflight real. There is a moving ballad in the science fiction folk song community that captures the essence of this group. Written by Mary Jean Holmes in 1992, “Everyman” begins with the lament that these individuals will never leave the ground. But they enabled the astronauts to do so. The chorus states:\nFor I’m the man who took up tools and laid out the designs.\nOf starships, I’m the one who built their sleek and burnished lines.\nI’m everyman who ever fashioned cold refined steel.\nInto the dreams of spaceflight, I’m the one who made them real.\nGilruth spent 10 years directing 25 human spaceflights, from Alan Shepard’s first Mercury flight in May 1961, through the first lunar landing by Apollo 11 in July 1969, to the Apollo 15 mission in July 1971. His close associate in Houston, George Low, said of him, “There is no question that without Bob Gilruth there would not have been a Mercury, Gemini or an Apollo program. He built in terms of what he felt was needed to run a manned spaceflight program … it is clear to all who have been associated with him that he has been the leader of all that is manned spaceflight in this country.”\nThe president and the rocket man - President John F. Kennedy touring the Marshall Space Flight Center with center director Wernher von Braun (Sept. 11, 1962).\nWorking closely with Gilruth, first at Langley and later at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, engineering iconoclast Max Faget designed the Mercury spacecraft in the latter 1950s and maintained a guiding hand on every human spaceflight vehicle built through the space shuttle. A Cajun from Louisiana, Faget was known throughout the space community for his cantankerousness, his eccentricities, his commitment to spacefaring and his genius. No one could underestimate his impact on NASA’s engineering culture and pattern of success through more than three decades at the space agency. When he left NASA, Faget began working on private-sector spaceflight technology to expand opportunities to reach beyond Earth. He remained committed to the human exploration and development of flight until his death in 2004. In the aftermath of the Columbia accident, he told journalists it was time to move beyond the space shuttle that he had done so much to help make a reality, giving it an honorable retirement and building a new human spaceflight vehicle. If Americans were unwilling as a people to make that investment, Faget flatly stated, “we ought to be ashamed of ourselves.”\nFinally, in those earliest years, Homer Newell established and placed on a firm footing NASA’s scientific pursuits. His greatest accomplishment involved taking science to the moon during Project Apollo, gaining the involvement of key scientists and winning support from the engineering community. Under Newell’s leadership, scientists exploited the opportunity to place more than 75 experiments on the various Apollo missions and to have one of their own, geologist Jack Schmitt, undertake field work on the moon on Apollo 17 crew. The science packages deployed on the moon led eventually to an impressive array of more than 10,000 scientific papers and a major reinterpretation of the origins and evolution of the moon. As reported in the March 30, 1973 issue of Science, “Man’s knowledge of the moon has been dramatically transformed during the brief three years between the first and last Apollo landing.”\nGrand designer - Max Faget.\nComing somewhat later to NASA were three key officials who served the agency well. First, James E. Webb became NASA administrator in 1961 and shepherded the agency during the Apollo era. Enjoying a long career in public service that went back to the New Deal, Webb knew every senior official in town, and had favors he could call in when necessary. For seven years after President Kennedy’s 1961 lunar landing announcement through October 1968, Webb politicked, coaxed, cajoled and maneuvered for NASA in Washington. The longtime Washington insider was a master at bureaucratic politics. In the end, through a variety of methods, Webb built a seamless web of political liaisons that brought continued support for and resources to accomplish the Apollo moon landing on the schedule Kennedy had announced. Webb left NASA in October 1968, just as Apollo was nearing a successful completion. It is impossible to conceive of NASA’s success with Apollo had Webb not been in Washington overseeing the politics of the program.\nWebb molded NASA in ways that might not have been anticipated in response to the moon landing mandate. During his tenure the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo programs were carried to fruition. While it is appropriate to note that the agency was successful in reaching the moon in no small measure because of the diligence of more than 400,000 civil servants and contractors, Webb deserves credit for selecting numerous key officials to carry out these programs. These included George P. Mueller and Samuel C. Phillips, who oversaw the effort at NASA Headquarters. Webb also placed exceptionally capable leaders in positions of responsibility at NASA centers. They, in turn, presided over others involved in reaching the moon. Webb established the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, the Kennedy Space Center in Florida and what became the Stennis Space Center in Mississippi. He greatly expanded other NASA facilities to meet the needs of the agency. He also presided over robotic missions to the moon (Ranger, Surveyor and Lunar Orbiter), Venus (Pioneer Venus), Mars (Mariner 4), and planning for missions to land on Mars (Viking 1 and 2), and investigate the outer planets (Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2); far-flung aeronautics research to enhance air transport safety, reliability, efficiency and speed (X-15 hypersonic flight, lifting body flight research, avionics and electronics studies, propulsion technologies, structures research, aerodynamics investigations); applications satellites for communications (Telstar) and weather monitoring (TIROS); a plan to develop an orbital workshop for astronauts (Skylab); and an initiative to construct a reusable spacecraft for traveling to and from Earth orbit in 1967 that eventually became the space shuttle.\nThose also serve who wait - While grounded from flight status with a heart condition Deke Slayton served the program as director of flight crew operations at the Manned Spacecraft Center. Here he wishes a good flight to Apollo 17 command module pilot Ron Evans (Dec. 7, 1972).\nSecond, Wernher von Braun joined NASA in 1960 and directed the Marshall Space Flight Center throughout the decade. One of the most important rocket developers and champions of space exploration during the period between the 1930s and the 1970s, von Braun had led the team that built the V-2 rocket for Nazi Germany during World War II, led a campaign to convince the public of the possibilities of spaceflight in the United States in the 1950s, built the rocket that launched the first American orbital satellite, Explorer 1, in 1958, and oversaw the development of the mighty Saturn V moon rocket in the 1960s. One of the few non-astronaut NASA personnel known to the public, von Braun was a superb engineer, designer and leader of research organizations who also communicated effectively with the American public. He burst on the nation’s stage in the fall of 1952 with a series of articles in “Collier’s,” a popular weekly periodical of the era. He also became a household name following his appearance on three Disney television shows dedicated to space exploration in the mid-1950s. He followed this with exceptionally effective leadership of rocket development efforts that helped Americans reach the moon during Project Apollo.\nThird, in terms of leadership of the space program during the 1960s, few were more significant than Deke Slayton. Chosen as a member of the original seven Mercury astronauts in 1959, he was initially scheduled to pilot the Mercury-Atlas 7 mission but was relieved of this assignment due to a heart condition discovered in August 1959. Instead he became the titular head of the astronauts, officially assuming the role of director of flight crew operations in 1963. For a decade he oversaw the activities of the astronauts, most importantly making crew assignments and managing the full range of astronaut activities. Slayton personally chose all of the flight crews, determining among other things that Neil Armstrong would be the first person to walk on the moon in July 1969. He eventually returned to flight status and flew on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission in July 1975 – a joint spaceflight culminating in the first historical meeting in space between American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts. But it was his role as leader of the astronauts that sets him apart from all of those whose names we recall from the heroic age of human spaceflight, ensuring that they were ready to accomplish their missions beyond this planet.\nSince Apollo there have been a range of key leaders, visionaries and designers that have effectively guided NASA to its current place. James C. Fletcher led NASA between 1971 and 1977, and again between 1986 and 1989, both periods of difficulty. In his first tour as administrator, NASA had to deal with the post-Apollo budget downturn and the new mission of building the space shuttle. In his second tour, he led an agency recovering from the Challenger accident.\nFrom orbit to leadership team - Fred Gregory (NASA deputy administrator, 2002-2005 and acting administrator, 2005) and Ellen Ochoa (Johnson Space Center deputy director 2007-present) are among a number of veteran astronauts who have served in important agency leadership positions.\nBoth Sally Ride and Guy Bluford broke new ground for NASA when they became the first American woman and first African American to fly in space during two separate shuttle flights in 1983. Both have remained close to NASA since that time, engaging in outreach, education and engineering assessments at various times over the years.\nLikewise, other astronauts have moved into key NASA leadership roles following their experiences in space. Frederick D. Gregory was selected as an astronaut in 1978 and spent much of the remainder of his career with NASA. He flew on three Shuttle missions and has logged over 455 hours in space. He served as pilot on STS-51B (April 29-May 6, 1985), and was the spacecraft commander on STS-33 (November 22-27, 1989), and STS-44 (November 24-December 1, 1991). Thereafter he moved to NASA Headquarters to become the associate administrator for the Office of Safety and Mission Assurance (1992-2001), associate administrator for the Office of Space Flight (2001-2002), lastly as NASA deputy administrator (2002-2005) and acting administrator (2005). Ellen Ochoa entered astronaut training in 1990, the first Hispanic woman astronaut, and flew on four space shuttle flights – STS-56 (1993), STS-66 (1994), STS-96 (1999), and STS-110 (2002). In all, she logged 978 hours in space. A scientist, she was instrumental in studies of the Sun’s effect on the Earth’s atmosphere and climate, ozone depletion, and as a co-inventor on three patents for an optical inspection system, an optical object recognition method, and a method for noise removal in images. She also served as director of flight crew operations at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, and in September 2007 was named as Deputy Director of the Johnson Space Center after Bob Cabana, who had been named director of NASA’s Stennis Space Center in Mississippi, departed for his new NASA assignment.\nAccomplished women - Space shuttle Atlantis (STS-112) pilot Pam Melroy and mission specialist Sandra Magnus greeted by Kennedy Space Center official JoAnn Morgan after their landing from a mission to expand the size of the International Space Station (Oct. 18, 2002).\nJoAnn Morgan began work as a summer intern at what became the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in 1958. Studying engineering at the University of Florida, her first job at the launch center was in the blockhouse. She recalled how one of the most demeaning things faced in those early years was that there were no women’s restrooms in Blockhouse 34, and when she needed to use the facilities, a security guard had to clear it for her and stand guard. She said, “my console row [in launch control] was on the second floor, and I used to just hate to have to go down there … how embarrassing it was for me to have to go down to the men’s room and stand in line.” She worked her way up the chain of command at Kennedy in a succession of increasingly responsible positions, and eventually retired as the center’s third-ranking official. As she recalled in 2002, “I think women are [now] on a par in the professional and in administrative, and now in the senior executive level. It’s just a pleasure to me to see some women that I’ve mentored over the years as directors. For a long time I was the only woman senior executive.”\nJohn R. Casani began working at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, Calif., in 1956, and in the 1960s he served as spacecraft design leader and system manager for the Mariner spacecraft that flew to Venus, Mars and Mercury. He went on to manage the Voyager beginning in 1976, Galileo (1977-1989) and Cassini missions, and as JPL’s first chief engineer, among other positions. When he first arrived at JPL, he learned that what was most important for project success involved bringing good people on board, getting them to come together as a team and setting up the mechanisms to keep them communicating. He found that this was the key to all successful projects – of course, he would be the first to admit that it was not as simple as it sounds. He emphasized face-to-face meetings, both formal and informal communication, and his success as a manager of complex projects demonstrated his mastery of this complex balancing effort. His legacy in the accomplishment of planetary science missions at NASA is secure.\nFormer NASA associate administrator for Space Science Wesley Huntress.\nPhysician James P. Bagian served as a shuttle astronaut and flight surgeon between 1980 and 1998, flying on STS-29 in 1989 and STS-40 in 1991, where he engaged in on-orbit life sciences research using the Spacelab Life Sciences platform to investigate how the heart, blood vessels, lungs, kidneys and hormone-secreting glands respond to microgravity, the causes of space sickness and changes in muscles, bones and cells that occur in humans during spaceflight. He was also first to employ a treatment for space motion sickness that has become the standard of care for sick astronauts. Equally important, Bagian served as a medical investigator for the 51-L accident board in 1986. He was the astronaut on-scene adviser for the salvage operations of the space shuttle Challenger crew module and was also the individual who dove and made the positive identification of the Challenger crew module debris on the ocean floor. He returned to spaceflight to assist the Columbia Accident Investigation Board as chief flight surgeon and medical consultant in 2003.\nFrom the standpoint of space science in the more recent era, no individual was probably more important than Wesley T. Huntress, Jr. First joining NASA JPL in 1969, from 1993-1998 Huntress served as NASA associate administrator for space science. The missions that resulted from his organization’s efforts – an armada of probes flown to Mars, spacecraft sent to both Jupiter and Saturn, two missions undertaken to the moon, and the establishment of the low cost Discovery missions – rewrote our understanding of the cosmology of the universe. During this same period the robotic space science missions emerged as the shining jewel of NASA when so many of the other activities of the space agency seemed to either be in the doldrums or in sustained decline. Under Huntress’ leadership NASA embraced a “faster, better, cheaper” methodology for conceiving and executing space missions – the idea was to decrease the time of designing, building and launching new spacecraft while holding down the typically staggering costs – and it proved a fortunate strategy. While this methodology was not universally successful, the box score on those missions was greater than 80 percent successful, just about the same percentage as more expensive projects.\nPhysician astronaut James Bagian.\nFinally, such recent leaders as N. Wayne Hale, Jr., have placed an important stamp on the human spaceflight program. Since the loss of Columbia on Feb. 1, 2003, the human spaceflight effort of the United States had been on hiatus. The supposed “return-to-flight” of STS-114 in August 2005 was not as successful as desired – the problem that had caused the loss of Columbia, foam insulation from the external fuel tank, had been inadequately repaired – and NASA spent nearly a year seeking to overcome that situation. Enter Hale as the new manager of the Space Shuttle Program in September 2005. Responsible for overall management, integration and operations of the Space Shuttle Program, Hale shook up the program, reordered processes, improved systems and instilled a new sense of mission into the effort that has not been seen since the return-to-flight after the 1986 Challenger accident. He helped to overcome a sense of underlying depression permeating all of NASA in the aftermath of this shuttle accident.\nA sense of mission - Wayne Hale, manager, Space Shuttle Program Office, Johnson Space Center, flanked by Administrator Michael D. Griffin and Mike Wetmore, associate director for Engineering and Technical Operations, Kennedy Space Center.\nAfter taking over the program, his Hale-grams became emblematic of this new attitude. These missives described in uniquely personal terms his interior life and priorities and what it signals for NASA, the future of the United States, and the cause of space exploration. Thoughtful, reflective and sometimes funny, Hale through force of will brought NASA back from the doldrums to the July 2006 overwhelmingly successful STS-121 mission. He admits his own culpability for what had gone before. He wrote in one treatise after learning that no top official at NASA had ever accepted any responsibility for the Columbia accident: “I cannot speak for others but let me set my record straight: I am at fault. If you need a scapegoat, start with me. I had the opportunity and the information and I failed to make use of it. I don’t know what an inquest or a court of law would say, but I stand condemned in the court of my own conscience to be guilty of not preventing the Columbia disaster. We could discuss the particulars: inattention, incompetence, distraction, lack of conviction, lack of understanding, a lack of backbone, laziness. The bottom line is that I failed to understand what I was being told; I failed to stand up and be counted. Therefore look no further; I am guilty of allowing Columbia to crash.” His willingness to accept this responsibility, when so many others shirked theirs, is both refreshing and heroic.\nThe success of Hale and his team of engineers, technicians and others is doubly significant because of the agedness of the fleet, the abandonment of the program by political leaders and the decision to retire the space shuttle by 2010. Nonetheless, under his guidance the shuttle workforce steeled itself and overcame an overwhelming feeling of tragedy and failure. Coupled with the difficulties of return-to-flight and a true sense that the program is destined to end sooner rather than later, the workforce under Hale has accomplished remarkable results. An example of this is the ground processing team at the Kennedy Space Center, which replaced 5,000 gap fillers in record time for the launch of Discovery on July 4, 2006. And the flight was picture perfect. Hale’s leadership has been important in offering a fitting tribute to the people who have flown the shuttle for so long, as the vehicle enters an honorable retirement in the next few years.\nFrom Glennan to Hale, from Slayton to Bagian, from Newell to Huntress, from Gilruth to Casani, and from Morgan to Ride and Bluford, NASA has enjoyed during its 50 years of existence a remarkable set of leaders, visionaries and designers who have charted a course off this planet. The first 50 years of space exploration were marked by fantastic dreams and a compelling sense of destiny in space, made real by the leaders of NASA, and this thrill of exploration continues into the next half century. Who knows what transforming discoveries will be made that will alter the course of the future?",
"NASA - John F. Kennedy Space Center - Kennedy Space Center Story\nKennedy Space Center Story\n1991 Edition\nMercury and Gemini\nThe ladder NASA climbed to reach the Moon had three rungs of achievement -- the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo programs. The first program, Project Mercury, was initiated on Oct. 7, 1958, just six days after the founding of NASA. Its objective was to orbit and retrieve a manned Earth satellite.\nIn mid-September of 1958 the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), NASA's predecessor agency, and the Advanced Research Projects Agency had established a Joint Manned Satellite Panel. After NASA took the place of NACA, it organized a Space Task Group at its Langley Research Center to direct the program. The group was responsible directly to NASA Headquarters.\nAlthough the X-1 and other research rocket-planes had taken American pilots to the fringes of space and although the principal problems posed by living in weightlessness (eating, drinking, and elimination) were easily solved, there remained physiological and psychological unknowns. Radiation, isolation, and re-entry stresses had to be overcome before people could venture into orbit. Moreover, rockets had to be made more reliable, or \"man-rated.\"\nThe rocket chosen to carry the Mercury payload into orbit was an Atlas IntercontinentaI Ballistic Missile (ICBM). \"Big Joe\" was one such missile, capped with a full-scale Mercury spacecraft. Launched on Sept. 9, 1959, it tested the heat shield which protected the capsule from the searing temperatures endured during re-entry. The capsule survived, and an autopsy on the heat shield proved its structural integrity.\n\"Little Joe\" was a special booster, simple and relatively inexpensive, which carried a primate passenger named Sam through 3 minutes of weightlessness back to safety on Earth. The rocketing rhesus monkey's flight also tested the worldwide tracking network for Mercury.\nOther early developmental flights in the Mercury program were not so successful. Mercury-Atlas 1 exploded one minute into its flight-causing the program a six-month delay. Mercury-Redstone 1 had a very short liftoff. It rose 4 or 5 inches (10 to 13 centimeters) before settling back on its fins, while the escape tower launched-without its attached capsule. On a manned mission, the tower was supposed to carry an astronaut to safety if the flight were aborted.\nThe repeat flight of the Redstone (1A), 28 days later, was a success, as was the Mercury-Redstone 2 flight of the astrochimp Ham, launched in January 1961. On his 16-minute suborbital flight, Ham performed a series of tasks for which he had been trained, functioning in space like a normal chimpanzee.\nThe Redstone rocket, though not powerful enough to place the Mercury capsule in orbit, was selected for two suborbital manned flights. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan B. Shepard Jr. became America's first man in space. Inclement weather, a faulty inverter in the electrical system and a computer problem caused slight delays in the launch. But the mission of Mercury-Redstone 3 went smoothly after it finally left the pad, with Shepard demonstrating no ill effects from either weightlessness or gravitational stresses.\nShepard's 15-minute suborbital flight in Freedom 7 took him 302 miles (486 kilometers) from Cape Canaveral. He was weightless for 5 minutes, cramped with equipment in a space capsule 9.5 feet (2.9 meters) high and 6 feet (1.8 meters) in diameter at its base.\nThe next suborbital flight, flown by Virgil I. Grissom, also lasted 15 minutes. The launch on July 21 had one major hold when a gantry technician discovered that one of the 70 bolts of the space capsule escape latch was improperly aligned. The problem was corrected and the countdown continued.\nA serious emergency occurred during splashdown, when the capsule hatch opened and seawater flooded in. Grissom was forced to abandon ship. His Liberty Bell 7 sank to the bottom of the ocean.\nMercury-Atlas 3 was supposed to carry a \"mechanical astronaut\" into orbit, but its booster failed. In September, Mercury-Atlas 4 was launched on a successful one-orbit mission. Its instruments monitored levels of noise, vibration and radiation. Mercury-Atlas 5 was a two-orbit chimpanzee flight. The chimp Enos, Hebrew or Greek for \"man,\" overheated but was recovered unharmed.\nJohn H. Glenn Jr. was selected as the first U.S. astronaut who would attempt to enter orbit, propelled by an Atlas vehicle. The launching was postponed repeatedly because of technical problems in the fuel tanks, bad weather, a slipped thermistor on Glenn's suit, a broken hatch bolt, a stuck valve, too little propellant in the booster's tank, and a power failure at the Bermuda tracking station.\nThese problems were all solved and on Feb. 20, 1962, almost a month past the initial launch date, Friendship 7, with Glenn aboard, blasted into orbit. On the second and third orbits, because of difficulty with the automatic stabilization and control system, Glenn had to take manual control -- to fly-by-wire in space jargon -- and so had to omit many of the assigned observations.\nA serious problem occurred during re-entry. Data telemetered to Earth indicated that the heat shield was no longer locked in place. A spent retropackage was left underneath the shield in hope that it would keep it in place during the blazing re-entry from orbit. Glenn survived, and the heat shield was found intact; it was the telemetered data that had been wrong.\nM. Scott Carpenter flew three orbits in Aurora 7 in May 1962, with more pilot control of the mission, including inverted flight (pilot's head oriented toward Earth). Walter M. Schirra Jr. completed six orbits in Sigma 7 in October 1962. And in May 1963, L. Gordon Cooper made the last flight of the Mercury program, called the \"daylong\" mission, in Faith 7. He orbited 22 times and splashed down 34 hours and 20 minutes after liftoff.\nOne of the lessons learned in Mercury was how much time final launch preparations took at the spaceport. NASA decided to build an automated digital system to reduce the spacecraft's time on the flightline in the future. This was called the Acceptance Checkout Equipment (ACE).\nBuilt on the foundations Mercury had already established, the Gemini program was the next major step to the Moon. Gemini, as the name reflects, was a two-man spacecraft, far more sophisticated than the Mercury capsule, although they looked much alike. For a while it was known as the Mercury Mark II. Gemini was launched by a Titan II missile, developed by the Air Force.\nGemini's accomplishments included the first rendezvous of one spacecraft with another -- an extremely difficult maneuver because of the astronavigation involved; the first docking of a spacecraft to another propulsive stage, and use of that stage to propel the spacecraft into a higher orbit; and the first human travel into the Earth's radiation belts. With this program, the United States surpassed the Soviet Union in manned space flight.\nIn 1961, President Kennedy had committed the nation to putting an astronaut on the Moon before the end of the decade. Gemini would demonstrate capabilities needed for lunar flight: rendezvous and docking, duration of mission for up to two weeks, and controlled landing.\nGemini-Titan 1, an unmanned launch vehicle, gave an almost flawless performance in March 1964. So did the second unmanned Gemini-Titan in January of the next year, after a myriad of problems prior to launch. In August 1964, lightning struck Complex 19 at the Cape. Then Hurricane Cleo brushed the coast, followed by scares from her sisters Dora and Ethel. The countdown finally started on Dec. 8. The first-stage engines ignited and sprang into life, only to be shut down one second later because the vehicle lost hydraulic power in its primary control unit. For the first time, launch crews had to drain hypergolics--propellants that ignite upon contact with each other--from a vehicle at the pad. Launch on Jan. 19, 1965, was successful.\nOn March 23, after a 22-month gap in U.S. manned missions, Grissom and John Young were launched on a three-orbit flight on Gemini-Titan 3. Grissom, whose first spacecraft had sunk to the ocean bottom, nicknamed this one \"Molly Brown\" after the \"unsinkable\" heroine of a Broadway musical. The astronauts did the first maneuvering in orbit with Molly Brown.\nOn the Gemini 4 mission flown by James A. McDivitt and Edward H. White 11, White became the first American to \"walk\" in space when he performed a 20-minute extravehicular activity. White wore a space suit which weighed 31 pounds (14 kilograms) and contained 18 layers of material to protect him from heat, cold, and meteoroids, and to maintain internal space suit pressure.\nThe Gemini 5 mission in August 1965, with Cooper and Charles Conrad Jr. at the controls, was an eight-day voyage. It was the first flight to use fuel cells instead of storage batteries to produce electricity. The cells provided electrical power through the reaction of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, a method which allowed manned flights to continue longer.\nGemini 6 was to be a rendezvous mission, incorporating an Atlas-Agena as a target vehicle. But the Agena exploded soon after launch in October 1965.\nTwo McDonnell officials, Walter Burke, the spacecraft chief, and John Yardley, his deputy, suggested performing a rendezvous mission by flying Gemini 6 and 7, two manned vehicles, at the same time. On Dec. 4, 1965, Gemini 7 was launched, carrying astronauts Frank Borman and James A. Lovell Jr. on their 14-day mission. On Dec. 15, Gemini 6-A, with Schirra and Thomas P. Stafford, followed the path to orbit. That same day it rendezvoused with Gemini 7. This was the first time the tracking network had simultaneously tracked and acquired information from two orbiting manned spacecraft.\nThe Atlas-Agena for Gemini 8 was launched into a circular orbit on March 16, 1966. The Gemini, with astronauts Neil A. Armstrong and David R. Scott, followed, and rendezvoused and docked with the Agena. Soon afterward, the docked vehicles began rolling in a mad whirl, forcing Armstrong to undock. The Gemini continued revolving; one of the maneuver thrusters had stuck open. Armstrong turned off the maneuvering system and turned on the re-entry control system, which restored pilot control. Cutting the mission short, they landed the same day.\nTragedy struck the space program when astronauts Elliot M. See and Charles A. Bassett II, scheduled to fly Gemini 9, died in a crash of a T-38 jet aircraft. Flying into St. Louis in poor weather conditions, they crashed into the roof of a building near the airfield. Ironically, this facility, McDonnell Building 101, housed the spacecraft they were to ride into orbit. Gemini 9 backups Stafford and Eugene A. Cernan replaced See and Bassett on Gemini 9. Their target vehicle, an Atlas-Agena, lifted off on May 17, 1966 -- and immediately flipped over into a nose dive.\nAn alternate target was available. After the Agena explosion of October 1965, NASA had ordered a backup Atlas called the Augmented Target Docking Adapter (ATDA). It consisted of a target docking adapter bolted to the rendezvous and recovery section of a Gemini and fitted to the Atlas. On June 1, 1966, the ATDA reached orbit, but a launch shroud protecting the docking port had failed to jettison. Gemini 9-A lifted off on June 3, and rendezvoused with the ATDA. With the shroud half-opened, it looked to Stafford like an \"angry alligator.\" Docking was impossible. Cernan had an extravehicular activity scheduled and could have tried to remove the shroud, but the possibility of tearing his space suit on the jagged edges made the endeavor too risky.\nYoung and Michael Collins had better luck with their mission. Gemini 10 and its corresponding Atlas-Agena rose into orbit on July 18, 1966. Young docked with the Agena and fired its main engine to propel both vehicles into a higher orbit. Then the Agena propelled the spacecraft to rendezvous with Gemini 8's Agena. After releasing their own Agena from bondage, they approached the other within 6.5 feet (two meters). Collins left the spacecraft, drifted over to the Agena and removed one of its experiments.\nA mere two seconds was the length of the launch window for Gemini 11 -- the shortest in the Gemini program. On Sept. 12, Conrad and Richard F. Gordon Jr., in their Gemini spacecraft, were launched for a first-orbit rendezvous with an Agena stage, launched the same day as the usual Atlas booster. After rendezvous, they engaged in docking and undocking practice. Astronaut Gordon took a \"space walk\" with a tether attachment between the undocked Gemini and Agena. Leaving space, their automatic re-entry gave them a very accurate landing.\nNov. 12, 1966, saw the beginning of the end of the Gemini program. As Lovell and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. took the pad elevator up to Gemini 12, they carried signs on their backs, \"The\" and \"End.\" After launch of the manned spacecraft and its Agena target, the Gemini's radar failed. They were able to rendezvous anyway, using sextant measurements, thanks to the expertise of Aldrin, whose nickname was \"Dr. Rendezvous.\"\nProject Gemini closed with the splashdown of Gemini 12. The experience gained from the intermediate manned space flight program was applied to Apollo technology even before the Gemini program ended. As modifications were made to upcoming Gemini hardware, those same innovations were incorporated into the design of Apollo. Apollo engineers and managers welcomed the baton they were handed and began the final stretch to the Moon.",
"A Brief History of NASA\nA Brief History of NASA\nLaunching NASA\n\"An Act to provide for research into the problems of flight within and outside the Earth's atmosphere, and for other purposes.\" With this simple preamble, the Congress and the President of the United States created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) on October 1, 1958. NASA's birth was directly related to the pressures of national defense. After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union were engaged in the Cold War, a broad contest over the ideologies and allegiances of the nonaligned nations. During this period, space exploration emerged as a major area of contest and became known as the space race.\nDuring the late 1940s, the Department of Defense pursued research and rocketry and upper atmospheric sciences as a means of assuring American leadership in technology. A major step forward came when President Dwight D. Eisenhower approved a plan to orbit a scientific satellite as part of the International Geophysical Year (IGY) for the period, July 1, 1957 to December 31, 1958, a cooperative effort to gather scientific data about the Earth. The Soviet Union quickly followed suit, announcing plans to orbit its own satellite.\nThe Naval Research Laboratory's Project Vanguard was chosen on 9 September 1955 to support the IGY effort, largely because it did not interfere with high-priority ballistic missile development programs. It used the non-military Viking rocket as its basis while an Army proposal to use the Redstone ballistic missile as the launch vehicle waited in the wings. Project Vanguard enjoyed exceptional publicity throughout the second half of 1955, and all of 1956, but the technological demands upon the program were too great and the funding levels too small to ensure success.\nA full-scale crisis resulted on October 4, 1957 when the Soviets launched Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite as its IGY entry. This had a \"Pearl Harbor\" effect on American public opinion, creating an illusion of a technological gap and provided the impetus for increased spending for aerospace endeavors, technical and scientific educational programs, and the chartering of new federal agencies to manage air and space research and development.\nMore immediately, the United States launched its first Earth satellite on January 31, 1958, when Explorer 1 documented the existence of radiation zones encircling the Earth. Shaped by the Earth's magnetic field, what came to be called the Van Allen Radiation Belt, these zones partially dictate the electrical charges in the atmosphere and the solar radiation that reaches Earth. The U.S. also began a series of scientific missions to the Moon and planets in the latter 1950s and early 1960s.\nA direct result of the Sputnik crisis, NASA began operations on October 1, 1958, absorbing into itself the earlier National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics intact: its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of $100 million, three major research laboratories-Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, and Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory-and two smaller test facilities. It quickly incorporated other organizations into the new agency, notably the space science group of the Naval Research Laboratory in Maryland, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory managed by the California Institute of Technology for the Army, and the Army Ballistic Missile Agency in Huntsville, Alabama, where Wernher von Braun's team of engineers were engaged in the development of large rockets. Eventually NASA created other Centers and today it has ten located around the country.\nNASA began to conduct space missions within months of its creation, and during its first twenty years NASA conducted several major programs:\nHuman space flight initiatives-Mercury's single astronaut program (flights during 1961-1963) to ascertain if a human could survive in space; Project Gemini (flights during 1965-1966) with two astronauts to practice space operations, especially rendezvous and docking of spacecraft and extravehicular activity (EVA); and Project Apollo (flights during 1968-1972) to explore the Moon.\nRobotic missions to the Moon Ranger, Surveyor, and Lunar Orbiter), Venus (Pioneer Venus), Mars (Mariner 4, Viking 1 and 2), and the outer planets (Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2).\nAeronautics research to enhance air transport safety, reliability, efficiency, and speed (X-15 hypersonic flight, lifting body flight research, avionics and electronics studies, propulsion technologies, structures research, aerodynamics investigations).\nRemote-sensing Earth satellites for information gathering (Landsat satellites for environmental monitoring).\nApplications satellites for communications (Echo 1, TIROS, and Telstra) and weather monitoring.\nAn orbital workshop for astronauts, Skylab.\nA reusable spacecraft for traveling to and from Earth orbit, the Space Shuttle.\nEarly Spaceflights: Mercury and Gemini\nNASA's first high-profile program involving human spaceflight was Project Mercury, an effort to learn if humans could survive the rigors of spaceflight. On May 5, 1961, Alan B. Shepard Jr. became the first American to fly into space, when he rode his Mercury capsule on a 15-minute suborbital mission. John H. Glenn Jr. became the first U.S. astronaut to orbit the Earth on February 20, 1962. With six flights, Project Mercury achieved its goal of putting piloted spacecraft into Earth orbit and retrieving the astronauts safely.\nProject Gemini built on Mercury's achievements and extended NASA's human spaceflight program to spacecraft built for two astronauts. Gemini's 10 flights also provided NASA scientists and engineers with more data on weightlessness, perfected reentry and splashdown procedures, and demonstrated rendezvous and docking in space. One of the highlights of the program occurred during Gemini 4, on June 3, 1965, when Edward H. White, Jr., became the first U.S. astronaut to conduct a spacewalk.\n1\nGoing to the Moon - Project Apollo\nThe singular achievement of NASA during its early years involved the human exploration of the Moon, Project Apollo. Apollo became a NASA priority on May 25 1961, when President John F. Kennedy announced \"I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth.\" A direct response to Soviet successes in space, Kennedy used Apollo as a high-profile effort for the U.S. to demonstrate to the world its scientific and technological superiority over its cold war adversary.\nIn response to the Kennedy decision, NASA was consumed with carrying out Project Apollo and spent the next 11 years doing so. This effort required significant expenditures, costing $25.4 billion over the life of the program, to make it a reality. Only the building of the Panama Canal rivaled the size of the Apollo program as the largest nonmilitary technological endeavor ever undertaken by the United States; only the Manhattan Project was comparable in a wartime setting. Although there were major challenges and some failures - notably a January 27, 1967 fire in an Apollo capsule on the ground that took the lives of astronauts Roger B. Chaffee, Virgil \"Gus\" Grissom, and Edward H. White Jr. Jr. - the program moved forward inexorably.\nLess than two years later, in October 1968, NASA bounced back with the successful Apollo 7 mission, which orbited the Earth and tested the redesigned Apollo command module. The Apollo 8 mission, which orbited the Moon on December 24-25, 1968, when its crew read from the book of Genesis, was another crucial accomplishment on the way to the Moon.\n\"That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.\" Neil A. Armstrong uttered these famous words on July 20, 1969, when the Apollo 11 mission fulfilled Kennedy's challenge by successfully landing Armstrong and Edwin E. \"Buzz\" Aldrin, Jr. on the Moon. Armstrong dramatically piloted the lunar module to the lunar surface with less than 30 seconds worth of fuel remaining. After taking soil samples, photographs, and doing other tasks on the Moon, Armstrong and Aldrin rendezvoused with their colleague Michael Collins in lunar orbit for a safe voyage back to Earth.\nFive more successful lunar landing missions followed. The Apollo 13 mission of April 1970 attracted the public's attention when astronauts and ground crews had to improvise to end the mission safely after an oxygen tank burst midway through the journey to the Moon. Although this mission never landed on the Moon, it reinforced the notion that NASA had a remarkable ability to adapt to the unforeseen technical difficulties inherent in human spaceflight.\nWith the Apollo 17 mission of December 1972, NASA completed a successful engineering and scientific program. Fittingly, Harrison H. \"Jack\" Schmitt, a geologist who participated on this mission, was the first scientist to be selected as an astronaut. NASA learned a good deal about the origins of the Moon, as well as how to support humans in outer space. In total, 12 astronauts walked on the Moon during 6 Apollo lunar landing missions.\nIn 1975, NASA cooperated with the Soviet Union to achieve the first international human spaceflight, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). This project successfully tested joint rendezvous and docking procedures for spacecraft from the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. After being launched separately from their respective countries, the Apollo and Soyuz crews met in space and conducted various experiments for two days.\n2\nSpace Shuttle\nAfter a gap of six years, NASA returned to human spaceflight in 1981, with the advent of the Space Shuttle. The Shuttle's first mission, STS-1, took off on April 12, 1981, demonstrating that it could take off vertically and glide to an unpowered airplane-like landing. On STS-6, during April 4-9, 1983, F. Story Musgrave and Donald H. Peterson conducted the first Shuttle EVA, to test new spacesuits and work in the Shuttle's cargo bay. Sally K. Ride became the first American woman to fly in space when STS-7 lifted off on June 18, 1983, another early milestone of the Shuttle program.\nOn January 28, 1986 a leak in the joints of one of two Solid Rocket Boosters attached to the Challenger orbiter caused the main liquid fuel tank to explode 73 seconds after launch, killing all 7 crew members. The Shuttle program was grounded for over two years, while NASA and its contractors worked to redesign the Solid Rocket Boosters and implement management reforms to increase safety. On September 29, 1988, the Shuttle successfully returned to flight and NASA then flew a total of 87 successful missions.\nTragedy struck again on February 1, 2003, however. As the Columbia orbiter was returning to Earth on the STS-107 mission, it disintegrated about 15 minutes before it was to have landed. The Columbia Accident Investigation Board was quickly formed and determined that a small piece of foam had come off the External Tank and had struck the Reinforced Carbon Carbon panels on the underside of the left wing during launch on January 16. When the orbiter was returning to Earth, the breach in the RCC panels allowed hot gas to penetrate the orbiter, leading to a catastrophic failure and the loss of seven crewmembers.\nNASA is poised to return to flight again in summer 2005 with the STS-114 mission. There are three Shuttle orbiters in NASA's fleet: Atlantis, Discovery, and Endeavour.\nToward a Permanent Human Presence in Space\nThe core mission of any future space exploration will be humanity's departure from Earth orbit and journeying to the Moon or Mars, this time for extended and perhaps permanent stays. A dream for centuries, active efforts to develop both the technology and the scientific knowledge necessary to carry this off are now well underway.\nAn initial effort in this area was NASA's Skylab program in 1973. After Apollo, NASA used its huge Saturn rockets to launch a relatively small orbital space workshop. There were three human Skylab missions, with the crews staying aboard the orbital workshop for 28, 59, and then 84 days. The first crew manually fixed a broken meteoroid shield, demonstrating that humans could successfully work in space. The Skylab program also served as a successful experiment in long-duration human spaceflight.\nIn 1984, Congress authorized NASA to build a major new space station as a base for further exploration of space. By 1986, the design depicted a complex, large, and multipurpose facility. In 1991, after much debate over the station's purpose and budget, NASA released plans for a restructured facility called Space Station Freedom. Another redesign took place after the Clinton administration took office in 1993 and the facility became known as Space Station Alpha.\nThen Russia, which had many years of experience in long-duration human spaceflight, such as with its Salyut and Mir space stations, joined with the U.S. and other international partners in 1993 to build a joint facility that became known formally as the International Space Station (ISS). To prepare for building the ISS starting in late 1998, NASA participated in a series of Shuttle missions to Mir and seven American astronauts lived aboard Mir for extended stays. Permanent habitation of the ISS began with the launch of the Expedition One crew on October 31 and the docking on November 2, 2000.\nOn January 14, 2004, President George W. Bush visited NASA Headquarters and announced a new Vision for Space Exploration. This Vision entails sending humans back to the Moon and on to Mars by eventually retiring the Shuttle and developing a new, multipurpose Crew Exploration Vehicle. Robotic scientific exploration and technology development is also folded into this encompassing Vision.\n3\nThe Science of Space\nIn addition to major human spaceflight programs, there have been significant scientific probes that have explored the Moon, the planets, and other areas of our solar system. In particular, the 1970s heralded the advent of a new generation of scientific spacecraft. Two similar spacecraft, Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11, launched on March 2, 1972 and April 5, 1973, respectively, traveled to Jupiter and Saturn to study the composition of interplanetary space. Voyagers 1 and 2, launched on September 5, 1977 and August 20, 1977, respectively, conducted a \"Grand Tour\" of our solar system.\nIn 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope was launched into orbit around the Earth. Unfortunately, NASA scientists soon discovered that a microscopic spherical aberration in the polishing of the Hubble's mirror significantly limited the instrument's observing power. During a previously scheduled servicing mission in December, 1993, a team of astronauts performed a dramatic series of spacewalks to install a corrective optics package and other hardware. The hardware functioned like a contact lens and the elegant solution worked perfectly to restore Hubble's capabilities. The servicing mission again demonstrated the unique ability of humans to work in space, enabled Hubble to make a number of important astronomical discoveries, and greatly restored public confidence in NASA.\nSeveral months before this first HST servicing mission, however, NASA suffered another major disappointment when the Mars Observer spacecraft disappeared on August 21, 1993, just three days before it was to go into orbit around the red planet. In response, NASA began developing a series of \"better, faster, cheaper\" spacecraft to go to Mars.\nMars Global Surveyor was the first of these spacecraft; it was launched on November 7, 1996, and has been in a Martian orbit mapping Mars since 1998. Using some innovative technologies, the Mars Pathfinder spacecraft landed on Mars on July 4, 1997 and explored the surface of the planet with its miniature rover, Sojourner. The Mars Pathfinder mission was a scientific and popular success, with the world following along via the Internet. This success was followed by the landing of the Spirit and Opportunity rovers in January 2004, to much scientific and popular acclaim.\nOver the years, NASA has continued to look for life beyond our planet. In 1975, NASA launched the two Viking spacecraft to look for basic signs of life on Mars; the spacecraft arrived on Mars in 1976 but did not find any indications of past or present biological activity there. In 1996 a probe from the Galileo spacecraft that was examining Jupiter and its moon, Europa, revealed that Europa may contain ice or even liquid water, thought to be a key component in any life-sustaining environment. NASA also has used radio astronomy to scan the heavens for potential signals from extraterrestrial intelligent life. It continues to investigate whether any Martian meteorites contain microbiological organisms and in the late 1990s, organized an \"Origins\" program to search for life using powerful new telescopes and biological techniques. More recently scientists have found more and more evidence that water used to be present on Mars.\n4\nThe \"First A in NASA:\" Aeronautics Research\nBuilding on its roots in the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, NASA has continued to conduct many types of cutting-edge aeronautics research on aerodynamics, wind shear, and other important topics using wind tunnels, flight testing, and computer simulations. In the 1960s, NASA's highly successful X-15 program involved a rocket-powered airplane that flew above the atmosphere and then glided back to Earth unpowered. The X-15 pilots helped researchers gain much useful information about supersonic aeronautics and the program also provided data for development of the Space Shuttle. NASA also cooperated with the Air Force in the 1960s on the X-20 Dyna-Soar program, which was designed to fly into orbit. The Dyna-Soar was a precursor to later similar efforts such as the National Aerospace Plane, on which NASA and other Government agencies and private companies did advanced hypersonics research in such areas as structures, materials, propulsion, and aerodynamics.\nNASA has also done significant research on flight maneuverability on high speed aircraft that is often applicable to lower speed airplanes. NASA scientist Richard Whitcomb invented the \"supercritical wing\" that was specially shaped to delay and lessen the impact of shock waves on transonic military aircraft and had a significant impact on civil aircraft design. Beginning in 1972, the watershed F-8 digital-fly-by-wire (DFBW) program laid the groundwork for electronic DFBW flight in various later aircraft such as the F/A-18, the Boeing 777, and the Space Shuttle. More sophisticated DFBW systems were used on the X-29 and X-31 aircraft, which would have been uncontrollable otherwise. From 1963 to 1975, NASA conducted a research program on \"lifting bodies,\" aircraft without wings. This valuable research paved the way for the Shuttle to glide to a safe unpowered landing, as well as for the later X-33 project, and for a prototype for a future crew return vehicle from the International Space Station.\nIn 2004, the X-43A airplane used innovative scramjet technology to fly at ten times the speed of sound, setting a world's record for air-breathing aircraft.\n5\nApplications Satellites\nNASA did pioneering work in space applications such as communications satellites in the 1960s. The Echo, Telstar, Relay, and Syncom satellites were built by NASA or by the private sector based on significant NASA advances.\nIn the 1970s, NASA's Landsat program literally changed the way we look at our planet Earth. The first three Landsat satellites, launched in 1972, 1975, and 1978, transmitted back to Earth complex data streams that could be converted into colored pictures. Landsat data has been used in a variety of practical commercial applications such as crop management and fault line detection, and to track many kinds of weather such as droughts, forest fires, and ice floes. NASA has been involved in a variety of other Earth science efforts such as the Earth Observation System of spacecraft and data processing that have yielded important scientific results in such areas as tropical deforestation, global warming, and climate change.\nConclusion\nSince its inception in 1958, NASA has accomplished many great scientific and technological feats. NASA technology has been adapted for many non-aerospace uses by the private sector. NASA remains a leading force in scientific research and in stimulating public interest in aerospace exploration, as well as science and technology in general. Perhaps more importantly, our exploration of space has taught us to view the Earth, ourselves, and the universe in a new way. While the tremendous technical and scientific accomplishments of NASA demonstrate vividly that humans can achieve previously inconceivable feats, we also are humbled by the realization that Earth is just a tiny \"blue marble\" in the cosmos.\nFor further reading:\nRoger E. Bilstein, Testing Aircraft, Exploring Space: An Illustrated History of NACA and NASA. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins New Series in NASA History, 2003).\nFor a list of the titles in the NASA History Series, many of which are on-line, please see http://history.nasa.gov/series95.html on the Web.",
"CHRONOLOGY OF DEFINING EVENTS IN NASA HISTORY\nA CHRONOLOGY OF DEFINING EVENTS IN\nNASA HISTORY, 1958-1998\n1 Oct. 1958 On this date the National Aeronautics and Space Administration began operation. At the time it consisted of only about 8,000 employees and an annual budget of $100 million. In addition to a small headquarters staff in Washington that directed operations, NASA had at the time three major research laboratories inherited from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics-the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory established in 1918, the Ames Aeronautical Laboratory activated near San Francisco in 1940, and the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory built at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1941-and two small test facilities, one for high-speed flight research at Muroc Dry Lake in the high desert of California and one for sounding rockets at Wallops Island, Virginia. It soon added several other government research organizations.\n11 Oct. 1958 Pioneer I: First NASA launch.\n7 Nov. 1958 NASA research pilot John McKay made the last flight in the X-1E, the final model flown of the X-1 series. The various models of the X-1, together with the D-558-I and -II, the X-2, X-3, X-4, X-5, and XF-92A, provided data to correlate test results from the slotted throat wind tunnel at the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory (now NASA's Langley Research Center) with actual flight values. Together, results of flight research and wind tunnel testing enabled the U.S. aeronautical community to solve many of the problems that occur in the transonic speed range (0.7 to 1.3 times the speed of sound). The flight research investigated flight loads, buffeting, aeroelastic effects, pitch-up, instability, longitudinal control, and the effects of wing sweep, contributing to design principles that enabled reliable and routine flight of such aircraft as the century series of fighters (F-100, F-102, F-104, etc.). It contributed equally to the development of all commercial transport aircraft from the mid-1950s to the present.\n6 Dec. 1958 The United States launched Pioneer 3, the first U.S. satellite to ascend to an altitude of 63,580 miles.\n18 Dec. 1958 An Air Force Atlas booster placed into orbit a communications relay satellite, PROJECT SCORE or the \"talking atlas.\" A total of 8,750 pounds was placed in orbit, of which 150 pounds was the payload. On 19 Dec. President Eisenhower's Christmas message was beamed from the PROJECT SCORE satellite in orbit, the first voice sent from space.\n17 Feb. 1959 The United States launched Vanguard 2, the first successful launch of this principal IGY scientific satellite.\n28 Feb. 1959 The liquid-hydrogen Thor first stage, and an Agena upper stage, both originally developed by the U.S. Air Force, were used by NASA to launch Discoverer 1, a reconnaissance satellite for the Air Force on 28 Feb.\n3 Mar. 1959 The United States sent Pioneer 4 to the Moon, successfully making the first U.S. lunar flyby.\n9 Apr. 1959 After a two month selection process, on this date NASA unveiled the Mercury astronaut corps. NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan publicly introduced the astronauts in a press conference in Washington. The seven men-from the Marine Corps, Lt. Col. John H. Glenn, Jr. (1921- ); from the Navy, Lt. Cdr. Walter M. Schirra, Jr. (1923- ), Lt. Cdr. Alan B. Shepard, Jr. (1923- ), and Lt. M. Scott Carpenter (1925- ); and from the Air Force, Capt. L. Gordon Cooper (1927- ), Capt. Virgil I. \"Gus\" Grissom (1926-1967), and Capt. Donald K. Slayton (1924-1993)-became heroes in the eyes of the American public almost immediately.\n28 May 1959 The United States launches and recovers two monkeys, Able and Baker, after launch in Jupiter nosecone during a suborbital flight. The flight is successful, testing the capability to launch from Cape Canaveral, Florida, and to recover spacecraft in the Atlantic Ocean, but Able later died.\n8 Jun. 1959 North American Aviation, Inc. research pilot Scott Crossfield made the first unpowered glide flight in the joint X-15 hypersonic research program NASA conducted with the Air Force, the Navy, and North American. The program completed its 199th and final flight on 24 October 1968 in what many consider to have been the most successful flight research effort in history. It resulted in more than 765 research reports and provided significant data in a variety of hypersonic disciplines ranging from aircraft performance, stability and control, aerodynamic heating, the use of heat-resistant materials, shock interaction, and use of reaction controls. This data led to improved design tools for future hypersonic vehicles and contributed in important ways to the development of the Space Shuttle, including information from flights to the edge of space and back in 1961-1963. Data from these flights were important in designing the Shuttle's reentry flight profile. Also involved in the X-15 research was the development of energy management techniques for the return of the vehicle to its landing site that were essential for the future reentry and horizontal landing of the Shuttle and all future reusable launch vehicles.\n1 Apr. 1960 The United States launched TIROS 1, the first successful meteorological satellite, observing Earth's weather.\n13 Apr. 1960 The United States launched Transit 1B, the first experimental orbital navigation system.\n1 Jul. 1960 The first launch of the Scout launch vehicle took place on this date. The Scout's four-stage booster could place a 330 pound satellite into orbit, and it quickly became a workhorse in orbiting scientific payloads during the 1960s.\n1 Jul. 1960 On this date the Army Ballistic Missile Agency of the Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Alabama, formally became a part of NASA and was renamed the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center. This organization included the German \"rocket team\" led by Wernher von Braun that came to the United States at the conclusion of World War II. This group had been instrumental in building the V-2 rocket, the world's first operational long-range ballistic missile.\n12 Aug. 1960 NASA successfully orbited Echo 1, a 100-foot inflatable, aluminized balloon passive communications satellite. The objective was to bounce radio beams off the satellite as a means of long-distance communications. This effort, though successful, was quickly superseded be active-repeater communications satellites such as Telstar.\n19 Dec. 1960 NASA launched Mercury 1, the first Mercury-Redstone capsule-launch vehicle combination. This was an unoccupied test flight.\n31 Jan. 1961 NASA launched Mercury 2, a test mission of the Mercury-Redstone capsule-launch vehicle combination with the chimpanzee Ham aboard during a 16 1/2 minute flight in suborbital space. Ham and his capsule is successfully recovered.\n5 May 1961 Freedom 7, the first piloted Mercury spacecraft (No. 7) carrying Astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr., was launched from Cape Canaveral by MercuryRedstone (MR3) launch vehicle, to an altitude of 115 nautical miles and a range of 302 miles. It was the first American space flight involving human beings, and during his 15-minute suborbital flight, Shepard rode a Redstone booster to a splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean. Shepard demonstrated that individuals can control a vehicle during weightlessness and high G stresses, and significant scientific biomedical data were acquired. He reached a speed of 5,100 miles per hour and his flight lasted 14.8 minutes. Shepard was the second human and the first American to fly in space.\n25 May 1961 President John F. Kennedy unveiled the commitment to execute Project Apollo on this date in a speech on \"Urgent National Needs,\" billed as a second State of the Union message. He told Congress that the U.S. faced extraordinary challenges and needed to respond extraordinarily. In announcing the lunar landing commitment he said: \"I believe this Nation should commitment itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.\"\n21 Jul. 1961 The second piloted flight of a Mercury spacecraft took place on this date when astronaut \"Gus\" Grissom undertook a sub-orbital mission. The flight had problems. The hatch blew off prematurely from the Mercury capsule, Liberty Bell 7, and it sank into the Atlantic Ocean before it could be recovered. In the process the astronaut nearly drowned before being hoisted to safety in a helicopter. These suborbital flights, however, proved valuable for NASA technicians who found ways to solve or work around literally thousands of obstacles to successful space flight.\n23 Aug. 1961 NASA launched Ranger 1 on this date, with the mission of photographing and mapping part of the Moon's surface, but it failed to achieve its planned orbit.\n19 Sep. 1961 NASA Administrator James E. Webb announced on this date that the site of the NASA center dedicated to human space flight would be Houston, Texas. This became the Manned Spacecraft Center, renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973.\n25 Oct. 1961 On this date NASA announced the establishment on a deep south bayou the Mississippi Test Facility, renamed the John C. Stennis Space Center in 1988. This installation became the test site for the large Saturn boosters developed for Project Apollo.\n27 Oct. 1961 NASA accomplished the first successful test of the Saturn I rocket.\n21 Nov. 1961 On this date the Air Force launched a Titan ICBM from Cape Canaveral carrying target nose cone to be used in NikeZeus antimissilemissile tests. This was first Titan ICBM to be fired from Cape Canaveral by a military crew, the 6555th Aerospace Test Wing. The Titan rocket became a standard launch vehicle for the United States in the years that followed, going through several modifications to make it more reliable and capable.\n20 Feb. 1962 John Glenn became the first American to circle the Earth, making three orbits in his Friendship 7 Mercury spacecraft. Despite some problems with spacecraft-Glenn flew parts of the last two orbits manually because of an autopilot failure and left his normally jettisoned retrorocket pack attached to his capsule during reentry because of a loose heat shield-this flight was enormously successful. The public, more than celebrating the technological success, embraced Glenn as a personification of heroism and dignity. Among other engagements, Glenn addressed a joint session of Congress and participated in several ticker-tape parades around the country.\n7 Jun. 1962 At an all-day meeting at the Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA leaders met to hash out differences over the method of going to the Moon with Project Apollo, with the debate getting heated at times. The contention was essentially between Earth-orbit versus lunar-orbit rendezvous. After more than six hours of discussion those in favor of Earth-orbit rendezvous finally gave in to the lunar-orbit rendezvous mode, saying that its advocates had demonstrated adequately its feasibility and that any further contention would jeopardize the president's timetable. This cleared the path for the development of the hardware necessary to accomplish the president's goal.\n10 Jul. 1962 Telstar l: NASA launch of the first privately built satellite (for communications). First telephone and television signals carried via satellite.\n3 Oct. 1962 On this date astronaut Wally Schirra flew six orbits in the Mercury spacecraft Sigma 7.\n14 Dec. 1962 Mariner 2: First successful planetary flyby (Venus).\n15-16 May 1963 The capstone of Project Mercury took place on this date with the flight of astronaut L. Gordon Cooper, who circled the Earth 22 times in 34 hours aboard the Mercury capsule Faith 7.\n22 Aug. 1963 Experimental aircraft X-15 sets altitude record of 354,200 feet (67 miles).\n29 Jan. 1964 NASA's largest launch vehicle, Saturn SA-5, sends a record of 19 tons into orbit during a test flight.\n8 Apr. 1964 The first American Gemini flight took place on this date, an unpiloted test that made four orbits and was successfully recovered.\n28 May 1964 The United States placed the first Apollo Command Module (CM) in orbit. This Apollo capsule was launched during an automated test flight atop a Saturn I in preparation of the lunar landing program.\n28 Jul. 1964 The United States' Ranger 7 sends back to Earth 4,300 close-up images of the Moon before it impacts on the surface.\n30 Oct. 1964 NASA pilot Joseph Walker conducted the first flight in the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle (LLRV), known for its unusual shape as the \"Flying Bedstead.\" Two LLRVs and three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles developed from them provided realistic simulation that was critical for landing a spacecraft on the Moon in the Apollo program. The LLRVs also provided the controls design data base for the lunar module.\n23 Mar. 1965 Following two unoccupied test flights, the first operational mission-Gemini III-of Project Gemini took place. Former Mercury astronaut Gus Grissom commanded the mission, with John W. Young, a Naval aviator chosen as an astronaut in 1962, accompanying him.\n6 Apr. 1965 The United States launched Intelsat I, the first commercial satellite (communications), into geostationary orbit.\n3-7 Jun. 1965 The second piloted Gemini mission, Gemini IV, stayed aloft for four days and astronaut Edward H. White II performed the first EVA or spacewalk by an American. This was a critical task that would have to be mastered before landing on the Moon.\n14 Jul. 1965 An American space probe, Mariner 4, flies within 6,118 miles of Mars after an eight month journey. This mission provided the first close-up images of the red planet. The mission had been launched 28 Nov. 1964.\n21-29 Aug. 1965 During the flight of Gemini V, American astronauts Gordon Cooper and Pete Conrad set record with an eight day orbital flight.\n4-18 Dec. 1965 During the flight of Gemini VII, American astronauts Frank Borman and James A. Lovell set a duration record of fourteen days in Earth-orbit that holds for five years.\n15-16 Dec. 1965 During Gemini VI, U.S. astronauts Wally Schirra and Thomas P. Stafford complete the first true space rendezvous by flying within a few feet of Gemini VII.\n16 Mar. 1966 During Gemini VIII American astronauts Neil A. Armstrong and David Scott performed the first orbital docking their spacecraft to an Agena target vehicle, becoming the first coupling of two spacecraft. This was a critical task to master before attempting to land on the Moon, a mission that required several dockings and undockings of spacecraft.\n3 Apr. 1966 On this date the Soviet Union achieved lunar orbit with its Luna 10 space probe, the first such vehicle to do so. This robotic flight had been launched on 31 Mar. 1966 and it provided scientific data about the Moon to Earth for several weeks.\n2 Jun. 1966 On this date Surveyor 1 landed on the Moon and transmitted more than 10,000 high-quality photographs of the surface. This was the first American spacecraft to soft-land on the Moon. It had been launch on 30 May, and it touched down on the \"Ocean of Storms,\" a possible site for the Apollo landings.\n3-6 Jul. 1966 During the flight of Gemini IX on this date, American astronauts Tom Stafford and Eugene Cernan make a two-hour EVA.\n18-21 Jul. 1966 During Gemini X American astronauts Mike Collins and John Young make two rendezvous and docking maneuvers with Agena target vehicles, plus complete a complex EVA.\n10 Aug. 1966-1 Aug. 1967 The Lunar Orbiter project was conducted for a year between these dates. This project, originally not intended to support Apollo, was reconfigured in 1962 and 1963 to further the Kennedy mandate more specifically by mapping the surface. In addition to a powerful camera that could send photographs to Earth tracking stations, it carried three scientific experiments-selnodesy (the lunar equivalent of geodesy), meteoroid detection, and radiation measurement. While the returns from these instruments interested scientists in and of themselves, they were critical to Apollo. NASA launched five Lunar Orbiter satellites, all successfully achieving their objectives.\n11-15 Nov. 1966 The last Gemini flight, Gemini XII, was launched on this date. During this mission, American astronauts Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrin completed three EVAs and a docking with an Agena target vehicle.\n27 Jan. 1967 At 6:31 p.m. on this date, during a simulation aboard Apollo-Saturn (AS) 204 on the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, after several hours of work, a flash fire broke out in the pure oxygen atmosphere of the capsule and flames engulfed the capsule and the three astronauts aboard-Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee-died of asphyxiation. Although three other astronauts had been killed before this time-all in plane crashes-these were the first deaths directly attributable to the U.S. space program. As a result of this accident the Apollo program went into hiatus until the spacecraft could be redesigned. The program returned to flight status during Apollo 7 in October 1968.\n25 Apr. 1967 Air Force Col. Joseph Cotton and NASA research pilot Fitzhugh Fulton made the first NASA flight in the XB-70A. The 23 NASA flights in the 129-flight joint program with the Air Force investigated the stability and handling qualities of large, delta-wing aircraft flying at high supersonic speeds. Together these flights contributed data for designing future supersonic aircraft in such areas as environmental noise (including sonic booms), potential flight corridors, flight control, operational problems, and clear-air turbulence. It also validated wind tunnel data and revealed drag components not consistent with or not simulated by wind tunnel testing.\n3 Oct. 1967 The X-15 experimental rocket plane set a speed record for piloted vehicles by reaching 4,534 mph (mach 6.72) at a 99,000 feet altitude over the Mojave Desert in California. Piloted by Maj. William J. Knight, USAF, the X-15 no. 2 flight undertook experiments to: (1) test Martin ablative coating and ramjet local flow; (2) check out stability and control with dummy ramjets and characteristics of external tank separation; and (3) conduct fluidic temperature probes. The previous space record of 4,250 mph (mach 6.33) had been set by Maj. Knight on 18 Nov. 1966.\n9 Nov. 1967 During Apollo 4, an unpiloted test of the launcher and spacecraft, NASA proves that the combination could safely reach the Moon.\n22 Jan. 1968 In Apollo 5, NASA made the first flight test of the propulsion systems of the Lunar Module ascent/descent capability.\n14 Sep. 1968 In a significant first, the Soviet Union sent its Zond 5, lunar mission capsule around the Moon and brought it back safely to Earth. This was an unpiloted test of the system.\n11-22 Oct. 1968 The first piloted flight of the Apollo spacecraft, Apollo 7, and Saturn IB launch vehicle, this flight involved astronauts Wally Schirra, Donn F. Eisele, and Walter Cunningham who tested hardware in Earth orbit.\n21-27 Dec. 1968 On 21 Dec. 1968, Apollo 8 took off atop a Saturn V booster from the Kennedy Space Center with three astronauts aboard-Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr., and William A. Anders-for a historic mission to orbit the Moon. At first it was planned as a mission to test Apollo hardware in the relatively safe confines of low Earth orbit, but senior engineer George M. Low of the Manned Spacecraft Center at Houston, Texas (renamed the Johnson Space Center in 1973), and Samuel C. Phillips, Apollo Program Manager at NASA headquarters, pressed for approval to make it a circumlunar flight. The advantages of this could be important, both in technical and scientific knowledge gained as well as in a public demonstration of what the U.S. could achieve. In the summer of 1968 Low broached the idea to Phillips, who then carried it to the administrator, and in Nov. the agency reconfigured the mission for a lunar trip. After Apollo 8 made one and a half Earth orbits its third stage began a burn to put the spacecraft on a lunar trajectory. As it traveled outward the crew focused a portable television camera on Earth and for the first time humanity saw its home from afar, a tiny, lovely, and fragile \"blue marble\" hanging in the blackness of space. When it arrived at the Moon on Christmas Eve this image of Earth was even more strongly reinforced when the crew sent images of the planet back while reading the first part of the Bible-\"God created the heavens and the Earth, and the Earth was without form and void\"-before sending Christmas greetings to humanity. The next day they fired the boosters for a return flight and \"splashed down\" in the Pacific Ocean on 27 Dec. It was an enormously significant accomplishment coming at a time when American society was in crisis over Vietnam, race relations, urban problems, and a host of other difficulties. And if only for a few moments the nation united as one to focus on this epochal event. Two more Apollo missions occurred before the climax of the program, but they did little more than confirm that the time had come for a lunar landing.\n3-13 Mar. 1969 In Apollo 9, astronauts James McDivitt, David Scott, and Russell Schweickart orbit the Earth and test all of the hardware needed for a lunar landing.\n18-26 May 1969 In Apollo 10, Eugene Cernan, John Young, and Tom Stafford run the last dress rehearsal for the Moon landing. They take the Lunar Module (LM) for a test run within 10 miles of the lunar surface.\n16-24 Jul. 1969 The first lunar landing mission, Apollo 11 lifted off on 16 Jul. 1969, and after confirming that the hardware was working well began the three day trip to the Moon. At 4:18 p.m. EST on 20 Jul. 1969 the LM-with astronauts Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin-landed on the lunar surface while Michael Collins orbited overhead in the Apollo command module. After checkout, Armstrong set foot on the surface, telling the millions of listeners that it was \"one small step for man-one giant leap for mankind.\" Aldrin soon followed him out and the two plodded around the landing site in the 1/6 lunar gravity, planted an American flag but omitted claiming the land for the U.S. as had routinely been done during European exploration of the Americas, collected soil and rock samples, and set up some experiments. After more than 21 hours on the lunar surface, they returned to Collins on board \"Columbia,\" bringing 20.87 kilograms of lunar samples with them. The two Moonwalkers had left behind scientific instruments, an American flag and other mementos, including a plaque bearing the inscription: \"Here Men From Planet Earth First Set Foot Upon the Moon. Jul. 1969 A.D. We came in Peace For All Mankind.\" The next day they began the return trip to Earth, \"splashing down\" in the Pacific on 24 Jul.\n15 Sep. 1969 The presidentially-appointed Space Task Group issued its report on the post-Apollo space program on this date. Chartered on 13 Feb. 1969 under the chairmanship of Vice President Spiro T. Agnew, this group met throughout the spring and summer to plot a course for the space program. The politics of this effort was intense. NASA lobbied hard with the Group and especially its chair for a far-reaching post-Apollo space program that included development of a space station, a reusable Space Shuttle, a Moon base, and a human expedition to Mars. The NASA position was well reflected in the group's Sep. report, but Nixon did not act on the Group's recommendations. Instead, he was silent on the future of the U.S. space program until a Mar. 1970 statement that said \"we must also recognize that many critical problems here on this planet make high priority demands on our attention and our resources.\"\n14-24 Nov. 1969 In Apollo 12 U.S. astronauts Charles Conrad, Richard Gordon, and Alan Bean go to the Moon for second manned landing. They landed near the Surveyor 3 landing sight on 18 Nov. They spend 7.5 hours walking on the surface, including an inspection of the Surveyor probe.\n5 Mar. 1970 First NASA flight in a YF-12A with Fitzhugh Fulton as pilot. In a joint program with the Air Force, two YF-12As and a YF-12C were flown 296 times over nine years to explore high-speed, high-altitude flight. The program yielded a wealth of information on thermal stress, aerodynamics, the high-altitude environment, propulsion (including mixed compression inlet research), precision measurement of gust velocity, and flight control systems that will still be useful for designing future vehicles that will fly at three times the speed of sound or faster. It complemented the X-15 program in that it yielded information about sustained flight at Mach 3, whereas the much faster X-15 could only fly for comparatively short periods of time. Since 1990, SR-71 Blackbirds have done follow-on research to the work done by the XB-70 and YF-12s in support of NASA's High Speed Research program. (The SR-71s are similar to the YF-12s but improved by an integrated propulsion/flight control system developed in 1978 on the YF-12 to reduce the occurrence of inlet unstarts.)\n11-17 Apr. 1970 The flight of Apollo 13 was one of the near disasters of the Apollo program. At 56 hours into the flight, an oxygen tank in the Apollo service module ruptured and damaged several of the power, electrical, and life support systems. People throughout the world watched and waited and hoped as NASA personnel on the ground and the crew, well on their way to the Moon and with no way of returning until they went around it, worked together to find a way safely home. While NASA engineers quickly determined that sufficient air, water, and electricity did not exist in the Apollo capsule to sustain the three astronauts until they could return to Earth, they found that the LM-a self-contained spacecraft unaffected by the accident-could be used as a \"lifeboat\" to provide austere life support for the return trip. It was a close-run thing, but the crew returned safely on 17 Apr. 1970. The near disaster served several important purposes for the civil space program-especially prompting reconsideration of the propriety of the whole effort while also solidifying in the popular mind NASA's technological genius.\n31 Jan.-9 Feb. 1971 Apollo 14 was the third U.S. lunar landing mission, and the first since the near disaster of Apollo 13. Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell went to the Moon while Stuart Roosa piloted the CM. They perform nine hours of moonwalks and brought back 98 pounds of lunar material.\n9 Mar. 1971 NASA research pilot Thomas McMurtry completed the first flight in an F-8A modified with Langley researcher Richard Whitcomb's supercritical wing. The flight research program, which lasted until 1973, demonstrated that Whitcombís design reduced drag and therefore increased the fuel efficiency of an airplane flying in the transonic speed range. The concept is now widely used on commercial and military aircraft throughout the world. Follow-on research with the F-111 Transonic Aircraft Technology (TACT), Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Technology (HiMAT), Advanced Fighter Technology Integration F-16, and X-29 aircraft through the year 1988 has demonstrated the effects of various planforms and sweeps of the supercritical airfoil.\n26 Jul.-7 Aug. 1971 The first of the longer, expedition-style lunar landing missions, Apollo 15 was the first to include the lunar rover to extend the range of the astronauts on the Moon. They brought back 173 pounds of moon rocks, including one of the prize artifacts of the Apollo program, a sample of ancient lunar crust called the \"Genesis Rock.\"\n13 Nov. 1971 Mariner 9: The first mission to orbit another planet (Mars).\n5 Jan. 1972 NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher met with President Richard M. Nixon at the \"Western White House\" in San Clemente, California, to discuss the future of the space program and then issued a statement to the media announcing the decision to \"proceed at once with the development of an entirely new type of space transportation system designed to help transform the space frontier of the 1970s into familiar territory, easily accessible for human endeavor in the 1980s and '90s.\" This became the Space Shuttle, first flown in space on 12-14 Apr. 1981.\n3 Mar. 1972-Present To prepare the way for a possible mission to the four giant planets of the outer Solar System, Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 were launched to Jupiter. Both were small, nuclearpowered, spinstabilized spacecraft that AtlasCentaur launched. The first of these was launched on 3 Mar. 1972, traveled outward to Jupiter, and in May 1991 was about 52 Astronautical Units (AU), roughly twice the distance from Jupiter to the Sun, and still transmitting data. In 1973, NASA launched Pioneer 11, providing scientists with their closest view of Jupiter, from 26,600 miles above the cloud tops in Dec. 1974.\n16-27 Apr. 1972 During Apollo 16 astronauts John Young, Thomas Mattingly II, and Charles Duke make the fifth American landing on the Moon. Young and Duke spend 3 days with the lunar rover near the Descartes crater\n25 May 1972 NASA research pilot Gary Krier flew an F-8C modified with an all-electric, digital-fly-by-wire flight control system, kicking off the F-8 Digital Fly-By-Wire (DFBW) program that demonstrated its effectiveness by operating the aircraft without a mechanical back-up system. The F-8 DFBW laid the groundwork for and proved the concept of digital fly-by-wire that is now used in a variety of airplanes ranging from the F/A-18 to the Boeing 777 and the Space Shuttle. More advanced versions of DFBW were also used in the flight control systems of both the X-29 and X-31 research aircraft, which would have been uncontrollable without them.\n23 Jul. 1972-Present Landsat 1 was launched from Kennedy Space Center, to perform an Earth resource mapping mission. Initially called the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) and later renamed, Landsat 1 changed the way in which Americans looked at the planet. It provided data on vegetation, insect infestations, crop growth, and associated landuse information. Two more Landsat vehicles were launched in Jan. 1975 and Mar. 1978, performed their missions and exited service in the 1980s. Landsat 4, launched 16 Jul. 1982, and Landsat 5, launched 1 Mar. 1984, were \"second generation\" spacecraft, with greater capabilities to produce more detailed land-use data. The system enhanced the ability to develop a worldwide crop forecasting system, to devise a strategy for deploying equipment to contain oil spills, to aid navigation, to monitor pollution, to assist in water management, to site new power plants and pipelines, and to aid in agricultural development.\n7-19 Dec. 1972 Apollo 17 was the last of the six Apollo missions to the Moon, and the only one to include a scientist-astronaut/geologist Harrison Schmitt-as a member of the crew. Schmitt and Eugene Cernan, had extended EVAs on the Moon, 22 hours, 4 minutes for each. Ronald Evans piloted the CM.\n25 May-22 Jun. 1973 Following the launch of the United States' orbital workshop, Skylab 1, on 14 May 1973, the Skylab 2 mission began in which astronauts aboard Apollo spacecraft rendezvoused and docked with the orbital workshop. The workshop had developed technical problems due to vibrations during liftoff and the meteoroid shield-designed also to shade Skylab's workshop from the Sun's rays-ripped off, taking with it one of the spacecraft's two solar panels, and another piece wrapped around the other panel keeping it from properly deploying. In spite of this, the space station achieved a nearcircular orbit at the desired altitude of 270 miles. While NASA technicians worked on a solution to the problem, an intensive tenday period followed before the Skylab 2 crew launched to repair the workshop. This crew carried a parasol, tools, and replacement film to repair the orbital workshop. After substantial repairs requiring extravehicular activity (EVA), including deployment of a parasol sunshade that cooled the inside temperatures to 75 degrees Fahrenheit on 4 Jun., by the workshop was habitable. During a 7 Jun. EVA the crew freed the jammed solar array and increased power to the workshop. In orbit the crew conducted solar astronomy and Earth resources experiments, medical studies, and five student experiments. This crew made 404 orbits and carried out experiments for 392 hours, in the process making three EVAs totalling six hours and 20 minutes. The first group of astronauts returned to Earth on 22 Jun. 1973, and two other Skylab missions followed. The first of these, Skylab 3, was launched using Apollo hardware on 28 Jul. 1973 and its mission lasted 59 days. Skylab 4, the last mission on the workshop was launched on 16 Nov. 1973 and remained in orbit for 84 days. At the conclusion of Skylab 4 the orbital workshop was powered down for four years.\n3 Dec. 1973 Pioneer 10: The first flyby of Jupiter.\n17 May 1974 SMS-A: The launch of the first geosynchronous weather satellite.\n1 Sep. 1974 The interplanetary scientific probe Pioneer 11, launched 5 April 1973, began an encounter with Jupiter that brought it to within three times closer than sister space probe, Pioneer 10, visiting the planet a year earlier. It also sent back the first polar images of the planet. Because of the successful earlier Pioneer 10 mission, NASA was able to attempt a somewhat more risky approach with this space probe, a clockwise trajectory by the south polar region and then straight back up through the intense inner radiation belt by the equator and back out over Jupiter's north pole. Pioneer 11 closed to its closest point with Jupiter on 3 December, coming within 42,000 km of the surface at a speed of 171,000 kph. This mission gathered data on the planet's magnetic field, measured distributions of high-energy electrons and protons in the radiation belts; measured planetary geophysical characteristics, and studied gravity and atmosphere. It then headed on toward a September 1979 encounter with Saturn and eventual departure from the Solar System.\n15-24 Jul. 1975 The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was the first international human space flight, taking place at the height of the détente between the United States and the Soviet Union during the mid-1970s. It was specifically designed to test the compatibility of rendezvous and docking systems for American and Soviet spacecraft, and to open the way for international space rescue as well as future joint missions. To carry out this mission existing American Apollo and Soviet Soyuz spacecraft were used. The Apollo spacecraft was nearly identical to the one that orbited the Moon and later carried astronauts to Skylab, while the Soyuz craft was the primary Soviet vehicle used for cosmonaut flight since its introduction in 1967. A universal docking module was designed and constructed by NASA to serve as an airlock and transfer corridor between the two craft. Astronauts Tom Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Donald K. Slayton took off from Kennedy Space Center on 15 Jul., to meet the already orbiting Soyuz spacecraft. Some 45 hours later the two craft rendezvoused and docked, and then Apollo and Soyuz crews conducted a variety of experiments over a twoday period. The two spacecraft remained docked for 44 hours, separated, then redocked, separating finally a few hours later. After separation, the Apollo vehicle remained in space an additional six days while Soyuz returned to Earth approximately 43 hours after separation. The flight was more a symbol of the lessening of tensions between the two superpowers than a significant scientific endeavor, a sharp contrast with the competition for international prestige that had fueled much of the space activities of both nations since the late 1950s. This was the last Apollo spacecraft to be flown.\n5 Aug. 1975 NASA research pilot John Manke landed the X-24B lifting body on the Edwards Air Force Base runway, demonstrating that a Space Shuttle-like vehicle could be landed safely without a separate power source for landings on a designated runway after returning from orbit. Lasting from 1963 to 1975, the lifting-body program included the M2-F1, M2-F2, M2-F3, HL-10, X-24A, and X-24B wingless lifting vehicles and served as a precursor not only to the Space Shuttle but to the X-33 technology demonstrator for next-generation reusable space vehicles and the X-38 prototype for a crew return vehicle from the international space station.\n20 Aug. 1975-21 May 1983 Viking 1 was launched from the Kennedy Space Center, on a trip to Mars. The probe landed on 20 Jul. 1976, on the Chryse Planitia (Golden Plains). Viking 2 was launched for Mars on 9 Nov. 1975 and landed on 3 Sep. 1976. The Viking project's primary mission ended on 15 Nov. 1976, 11 days before Mars' superior conjunction (its passage behind the Sun), although the Viking spacecraft continued to operate for six years after first reaching Mars. Its last transmission reached Earth on 11 Nov. 1982. Controllers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory tried unsuccessfully for another six and onehalf months to regain contact with the lander, but finally closed down the overall mission on 21 May 1983.\n20 Jul. 1976 The Viking 1 planetary lander touched down on this date on the Chryse Planitia (Golden Plains) of Mars after a voyage of nearly one year. The Viking project's primary mission ended on 15 Nov. 1976, although the Viking spacecraft continued to transmit to Earth for six years after first reaching Mars.\n18 Feb. 1977 The first Space Shuttle orbiter, Enterprise (OV101)-named for the spacecraft made famous in the \"Star Trek\" television series after a promotional campaign by \"trekkers\" such as had never been seen before in space program history-was first flown in flight tests atop the Boeing 747 ferrying aircraft at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center in southern California. The Enterprise also made its first free flight test at Dryden on 12 August 1977. The fifth and last free test flight of the Enterprise took place on 26 October 1977 with NASA astronauts Fred Haise and Gordon Fullerton at the controls. The captive and free-flight tests demonstrated that the Shuttle could fly attached to the 747, which has served since 1981 as the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft to ferry the Orbiters from Dryden, where they landed for many years, to NASA's launch location at the Kennedy Space Center. The free-flight tests demonstrated that the Shuttle could glide to a landing on a runway, and the last landing uncovered a time delay problem with the Shuttle's flight control system that was corrected in a research program using NASA's F-8 Digital Fly-By-Wire aircraft between 1977 and 1981.\n20 Aug. 1977-Present During the latter 1960s NASA scientists found that once every 176 years both the Earth and all the giant planets of the Solar System gather on one side of the Sun. This geometric line-up made possible closeup observation of all the planets in the outer solar system (with the exception of Pluto) in a single flight, the \"Grand Tour.\" NASA launched two of these from Cape Canaveral, Florida: Voyager 2 lifting off on 20 Aug. 1977 and Voyager 1 entering space on a faster, shorter trajectory on 5 Sep. 1977. Both spacecraft were delivered to space aboard TitanCentaur expendable rockets. On Feb. 1979 Voyager 1 entered the Jovian system, its primary objective, yet it took until 5 Mar. 1979 to arc in to the closest point where it could explore the moons Io and Europa. In Jul. 1979 Voyager 2 its sister probe and explored Jupiter's moons. The spacecraft then traveled on to Saturn and in Jul. 1981 Voyager 2 began returning data from Saturn. A critical part of this encounter took place on 26 Aug. 1981 when Voyager 2 emerged from behind Saturn only to find the aiming mechanism was jammed, causing the instruments to be pointed out into space. This was corrected and Voyager 2 remained responsive to Earth-bound controller. Not so Voyager 1. It went up over the Saturn's orbital plane, never to be seen again. In Sep. 1981 Voyager 2 left Saturn behind. As the mission progressed, with the successful achievement of all its objectives at Jupiter and Saturn in Dec. 1980, additional flybys by Voyager 2 of the two outermost giant planets, Uranus and Neptune, proved possible. In Jan. 1986 Voyager 2 encountered Uranus and in 1989 it encountered Neptune. Eventually, between them, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 explored all the giant outer planets, 48 of their moons, and the unique systems of rings and magnetic fields those planets possess. In 1993 Voyager 2 also provided the first direct evidence of the long-sought after heliopause-the boundary between our Solar System and interstellar space.\n26 Oct. 1977 The fifth and last free test flight of the Space Shuttle Enterprise took place. In that flight the Enterprise encountered control problems at touchdown. While trying to slow the spacecraft for landing the pilot experienced a left roll, corrected for it, and touched down too hard. The Shuttle bounced once and eventually settled down to a longer landing than expected. This \"Pilot Induced Oscillation,\" as it was called, was occasioned by the pilot taking over from an automated system too late and not allowing himself sufficient time to get the \"feel\" of the craft. It was, fortunately, self-correcting when the pilot relaxed the controls, and the positive result led to a decision to take the Enterprise on to the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, for a series of ground vibration tests.\n20 May 1978-9 May 1979 The United States undertook a pugnacious mission to Venus that was intended to capitalize on scientific knowledge gained from the earlier Soviet Venera 9 and Venera 10 probes. It launched Pioneer Venus Orbiter on a mission to Venus on 20 May 1978 and Pioneer Venus 2 on 8 Aug. 1978. The latter mission was to plunge into the atmosphere and return scientific data about the planet before destruction of the vehicle. On 14 Dec. 1978 the Pioneer Venus Orbiter went into orbit around Venus and relayed data until its systems failed. On 9 May 1979 Pioneer Venus 2 sent five separate parts into the atmosphere of Venus at an average speed of 26,100 mph. Before their destruction they relayed scientific data on the climate, chemical makeup, and atmospheric conditions of the planet.\n26 Jun. 1978 Seasat-A was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, by an Atlas-Agena launch vehicle on this date. It was the first satellite to make global observations of the Earth's oceans. Attached to the Atlas-Agena launch vehicle was a sensor module which carried the payload of five microwave instruments and their antennas. The modules were about 21 meters long with a maximum diameter of 1.5 m without appendages deployed and weighed 2,300 kg. In orbit the satellite appeared to stand on end with the sensor and communications antennas pointing toward Earth and the Agena rocket nozzle and solar panels pointing toward space. Seasat-A was stabilized by a momentum wheel/horizon sensing system. The satellite was designed to demonstrate techniques for global monitoring of oceanographic phenomena and features, to provide oceanographic data, and to determine key features of an operational ocean-dynamics monitoring system. The major difference between Seasat-A and previous Earth observation satellites was the use of active and passive microwave sensors to achieve an all-weather capability. After 106 days of returning data, contact with Seasat-A was lost when a short circuit drained all power from its batteries.\n14 Aug. 1978 NASA research pilot William Dana flew the first of 27 data flights in an F-15 equipped with a 10-degree cone in an experiment to improve predictions based on wind-tunnel data. This flight research was sponsored by the USAF Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC) and conducted by NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center in cooperation with the AEDC. Researchers acquired data on the cone, using the same instrumentation and technique over a wide range of speeds and Reynolds numbers (for scaling of model-test measurements to full-scale vehicles in flight) in 23 wind tunnels and in the F-15. This experiment provided an assessment of flow quality in each of the tunnels as compared to free flight. Thus, it yielded valuable insights for interpreting data from models in individual tunnels and for choosing which tunnels should be used for particular transonic and supersonic tests.\n24 Oct. 1978 Nimbus 7: Launched environmental research satellite with multiple instruments, one that provided the global evidence of Antarctic ozone depletion in the 1980s.\n9 May 1979 The United States undertook a pugnacious mission to Venus that was intended to capitalize on scientific knowledge gained from the earlier Soviet Venera 9 and Venera 10 probes. It launched Pioneer Venus Orbiter on a mission to Venus on 20 May 1978 and Pioneer Venus 2 on 8 August 1978. The latter mission was to plunge into the atmosphere and return scientific data about the planet before destruction of the vehicle. On 14 December 1978 the Pioneer Venus Orbiter went into orbit around Venus and relayed data until its systems failed. On 9 May 1979 Pioneer Venus 2 sent five separate parts into the atmosphere of Venus at an average speed of 26,100 mph. Before their destruction they relayed scientific data on the climate, chemical makeup, and atmospheric conditions of the planet.\n11 Jul. 1979 Following the final occupied phase of the Skylab mission in 1974, NASA controllers performed some engineering tests of certain Skylab systems, positioned Skylab into a stable attitude and shut down its systems. In the fall of 1977 agency officials determined that Skylab had entered a rapidly decaying orbit-resulting from greater than predicted solar activity-and that it would reenter the Earth's atmosphere within two years. They steered the orbital workshop as best they could so that debris from reentry would fall over oceans and unpopulated areas of the planet. On 11 Jul. 1979, Skylab finally impacted the Earth's surface. The debris dispersion area stretched from the Southeastern Indian Ocean across a sparsely populated section of Western Australia.\n24 Jul. 1979 NASA research pilot Thomas McMurtry conducted the first flight of a KC-135 jet cargo/tanker aircraft modified with winglets developed by NASA Langley Research Center's Richard T. Whitcomb. In a joint program with the Air Force, NASA and AF pilots flew the KC-135 to demonstrate fuel efficiencies that could result from the use of the winglets. Whitcomb had tested several designs in Langley's wind tunnels before selecting roughly nine-foot long vertical fins tapering from about two to six feet in width from their tips to the base where they were attached to the airplane's wingtips. The program showed that, as Whitcomb had anticipated, the winglets helped produce a forward thrust in the vortices that typically swirl off the end of the wing, thereby reducing drag. This increased an aircraft's range by as much as seven percent at cruise speeds, resulting in the adoption of the concept by many transport and business aircraft such as the Gulfstream III and IV, the Boeing 747-400, the McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) MD-11 and C-17.\n14 Feb. 1980 Solar Maximum Mission: The first launch/mission to study the Sun in detail, over the course of heavy sunspot activity.\n7 Mar. 1980 Research pilot John Manke made several test flights in the Gossamer Albatross, part of a joint Dryden Flight Research Center/Langley Research Center project using humanpowered aircraft to collect data on large lightweight craft. Manke's flights were propelled by pedals on a bicycle-like arrangement that turned the propeller. Manke researched an altitude of 20 feet, and reported that the Albatross was like nothing he had ever flown before.\n12 Apr. 1981 Astronauts John W. Young and Robert L. Crippin flew Space Shuttle Columbia on the first flight of the Space Transportation System (STS-1). Columbia, which takes its name from three famous vessels including one of the first U.S. Navy ships to circumnavigate the globe, became the first airplane-like craft to land from orbit for reuse when it touched down at Edwards Air Force Base in southern California at approximately 10:21 a.m. Pacific Standard Time on 14 Apr. after a flight of 2 days, 6 hours and almost 21 minutes. The mission also was the first to employ both liquid- and solid-propellant rocket engines for the launch of a spacecraft carrying humans.\nJun. 1981-Feb. 1983 NASA's Ames-Dryden Flight Research Facility performed flight research in an F-15 jet aircraft with an advanced, digitally controlled engine designed by Pratt & Whitney. Flight evaluation at Dryden and engine tests at NASA's Lewis Research Center led to significant improvements in the operability and performance of the engine. The Digital Electronic Engine Control program demonstrated that the engine achieved stall-free performance throughout the entire F-15 flight envelope, faster throttle response, improved airstart capability, and an increase of 10,000 feet of altitude in afterburner capability. The system also eliminated the need to trim the engine periodically, which would translate to fuel savings and longer life for the engine. The results were impressive enough that the Air Force committed to full-scale development and production of what became the F-100-PW-220/229 engines. In a follow-on program, the Flight Research Facility conceived and tested active engine stall margin control in 1986-1987 on the F-15 Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control program, leading to engine and airplane performance improvements without adding weight that were used on the F-15E and F-22 airplanes.\n11-16 Nov. 1982 The United States launched STS-5, the Space Shuttle Columbia. The highlight of this mission was that the four astronauts aboard deployed two commercial communications satellites.\n4-9 Apr. 1983 The United States flew STS-6, the Space Shuttle Challenger. During this mission, the crew deployed the first of three new shuttle launch Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TDRSS) into geostationary orbit.\n18-24 Jun. 1983 Astronauts Robert L. Crippin and Frederick H. Hauck piloted Space Shuttle Challenger (STS-7) on a mission to launch two communications satellites and the reusable Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS 01). Sally K. Ride, one of three mission specialists on the first Shuttle flight with five crewmembers, became the first woman astronaut. Challenger was named after the HMS Challenger, an English research vessel operating from 1872 to 1876.\n30 Aug. 1983 Astronauts Richard H. Truly and Daniel C. Brandstein piloted Space Shuttle Challenger (STS-8) on another historic mission, carrying the first black American astronaut, Guion S. Bluford, into space as a mission specialist. The astronauts launched communications satellite Insat 1B into orbit.\n28 Nov. 1983 Astronauts John W. Young and Brewster W. Shaw piloted Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-9) on a mission that carried the first non-U.S. astronaut to fly in the U.S. space program, West German Ulf Merbold. Columbia also transported Spacelab 1, the first flight of this laboratory in space, carrying more than 70 experiments in 5 areas of scientific research: astronomy and solar physics, space plasma physics, atmospheric physics and Earth observations, life sciences, and materials science.\n25 Jan. 1984 President Ronald Reagan made an Apollo-like announcement to build a Space Station within a decade as part of the State of the Union Address before Congress. Reagan's decision came after a long internal discussion as to the viability of the station in the national space program.\n3-10 Feb. 1984 The flight of STS-41B, the Space Shuttle Challenger, took place. During this mission on 4 Feb. the first unteathered flights by American astronauts took place wearing the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU).\n6 Apr. 1984 STS-41C: First on-orbit satellite repair mission (Solar Maximum Mission aboard Space Shuttle Challenger); Crippen, Dick Scobee, Terry Hart, George Nelson, James Von Hoften).\n30 Aug. 1984 STS-41D: First flight of Space Shuttle Discovery.\n15 Dec. 1984-Mar. 1986 An international armada of spacecraft encounter the Comet Halley during its nearest approach to the Earth in 76 years. The Soviet Union launched Vega 1 (14 Dec. 1984) and Vega 2 (21 Dec. 1984), both probes that would encounter Venus and deploy landers on their way to their primary target, Halley's Comet. In 1985 the European Space Agency launched the Giotto probe to intercept Halley's Comet. Vega 1 deployed a lander to Venus on 11 Jun. 1985. Its lander released a balloon as it descended, taking measurements. On 15 Jun. 1985 Vega 2 performed the released a similar balloon. Both Soviet spacecraft continued on their way to Halley's Comet. Vega 1 had its closet encounter with the comet on 6 Mar. 1986, closing to within a distance of 5,525 miles. Three days later, 9 Mar., Vega 2 approached to within 4,991 miles of Halley's Comet. Finally, on 13-14 Mar. 1986 Giotto approached Halley's Comet at about 360 miles.\n8 Aug. 1985 STS-51J: First flight of Space Shuttle Atlantis.\n3-7 Oct. 1985 In the first Department of Defense-dedicated mission, the Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-51J) deployed a classified satellite.\n24 Jan. 1986-25 Aug. 1989 Voyager 2 encounters Uranus and Neptune.\n28 Jan. 1986 The Space Shuttle Challenger, STS-51L, was destroyed and its crew of seven-Francis R. (Dick) Scobee, Michael J. Smith, Judith A. Resnik, Ronald E. McNair, Ellison S. Onizuka, Gregory B. Jarvis, and Christa McAuliffe-was killed, during its launch from the Kennedy Space Center about 11:40 a.m. The explosion occurred 73 seconds into the flight as a result of a leak in one of two Solid Rocket Boosters that ignited the main liquid fuel tank. The crewmembers of the Challenger represented a cross-section of the American population in terms of race, gender, geography, background, and religion. The explosion became one of the most significant events of the 1980s, as billions around the world saw the accident on television and empathized with any one of the seven crewmembers killed. With this accident the Space Shuttle program went into hiatus as investigations, restructuring of management, and technical alterations to systems took place. On 12 May 1986 James C. Fletcher became the NASA Administrator for a second time, having previously served between 1971 and 1977, with the explicit task of overseeing the Agency's recovery from the accident. On 6 June 1986 the Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident was issued. The White House-appointed commission, chaired by former Secretary of State William P. Rogers, was deliberate and thorough and its findings gave as much emphasis to the accident's managerial as to its technical origins. Astronaut Richard H. Truly became the head of NASA's Shuttle program and directed much of the recovery effort. NASA also created the Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability, and Quality Assurance in response to findings from the teams investigating the Challenger accident. The return to flight came on 29 September 1988 when STS-26, Discovery, was launched.\n15 Aug. 1986 President Ronald Reagan announced that NASA would no longer launch commercial satellites, except those that were shuttle-unique or have national security o foreign policy implications.\n15 Aug. 1986 NASA secured Presidential and Congressional support for the acquisition of a replacement orbiter for Challenger. This would enable the Agency to continue its efforts to build the international Space Station.\n14 Jul. 1987 NASA submitted to President Ronald Reagan a report on the agency's implementation of the recommendations of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident.\nDec. 1987 The NASA Lewis Research Center's Advanced Turboprop Project (1976-1987) received the Robert Collier Trophy for outstanding research and development in aerospace activities. It was an ambitious project to return to fuel saving, propeller-driven aircraft. At its height it involved over 40 industrial contracts, 15 university grants, and contracts with all four NASA research centers, Lewis, Langley, Dryden, and Ames. The progress of the advanced turboprop development seemed to foreshadow its future dominance of commercial flight. The project had four technical stages: \"concept development\" from 1976 to 1978; \"enabling technology\" from 1978 to 1980; \"large scale integration\" from 1981 to 1987; and finally \"flight research\" in 1987. During each of these stages NASA's engineers confronted and solved specific technical problems that were necessary for the advanced turboprop project to meet the defined government objectives concerning safety, efficiency, and environmental protection. NASA Lewis marshaled the resources and support of the United States aeronautical community to bring the development of the new technology to the point of successful flight testing.\n29 Sep.-3 Oct. 1988 The twenty-sixth shuttle flight, this one by Discovery, represented the return to flight for the Space Shuttle. During this mission the crew launched the TDRS 3 satellite.\n4 May 1989-1993 The highly successful Magellan mission to Venus began on this date following launch on STS-30. The Magellan spacecraft set out for Venus to map the surface from orbit with imaging radar. The probe arrived at Venus in Sep. 1990 and mapped 99 percent of the surface at high resolution, parts of it in stereo. The amount of digital imaging data the spacecraft returned was more than twice the sum of all returns from previous missions. This data provided some surprises: among them the discovery that plate tectonics was at work on Venus and that lava flows showed clearly the evidence of volcanic activity. In 1993, at the end of its mission, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory shut down the major functions of the Magellan spacecraft and scientists turned their attention to a detailed analysis of its data.\n18 Oct. 1989-Present The Galileo spacecraft was launched from STS-34 on this date and began a gravityassisted journey to Jupiter, where it would send a probe into the atmosphere and observe the planet and its satellites for two years beginning in 1995. On the way to Jupiter Galileo encountered both Venus and the Earth and made the first close flyby of asteroid Gaspra in 1991, providing scientific data on all. But soon after deployment from the Space Shuttle, NASA engineers learned that Galileo's umbrellalike, highgain antenna could not be fully deployed. Without this antenna, communication with the spacecraft was both more difficult and time-consuming, and data transmission was greatly hampered. The engineering team working on the project tried a series of cooling exercises designed to shrink the antenna central tower and enable its deployment. Over a period of several months they worked on this maneuver repeatedly, but were unable to free the antenna.\n24 Apr. 1990-Present Launch of the Hubble Space Telescope from the Space Shuttle after more than a decade of puritanically-funded but productive research and development on the project in the 1970s and early 1980s. Soon after launch, controllers found that the telescope was flawed by a \"spherical aberration,\" a mirror defect only 1/25th the width of a human hair, that prevented Hubble from focusing all light to a single point. At first many believed that the spherical aberration would cripple the 43foot-long telescope, and NASA received considerable negative publicity, but soon scientists found a way with computer enhancement to work around the abnormality and engineers planned a Shuttle repair mission to fully correct it with an additional instrument. Even with the aberration, Hubble has made many important astronomical discoveries, including striking images of galaxy M87, providing evidence of a potentially massive black hole.\n17 Dec. 1990 Because of the difficulties NASA encountered in its major programs at the end of the 1980s, as well as the need periodically to review status and chart the course for the future, in 1990 President George Bush chartered an Advisory Committee on the Future of the U.S. Space Program under the leadership of Norman Augustine, chief executive officer of Martin Marietta. On this date Augustine submitted his commission's report, delineating the chief objectives of the agency and recommending several key actions. All of these related to the need to create a balanced space program-one that included human space flight, robotic probes, space science, applications, and exploration-within a tightly constrained budget.\n15 Jul. 1991 In a joint program involving NASA's Ames, Dryden, Langley, and Lewis research centers, research pilot Edward Schneider flew the F/A-18 High Angle-of-Attack Research Vehicle (HARV) for the first time with thrust-vectoring paddles engaged to enhance control and maneuvering at high angles of attack (angles at which the wind in the aircraft's flight path hit the wing). This research was important because the tendency of airplanes to stall at low speeds and high angles of attack severely limited their ability to maneuver. The HARV vehicle had begun control flights without the paddles to study airflow at up to 55 degrees angle of attack in 1987. Then in the five years after 1991, the HARV reached a controllable angle of attack of 70 degrees and also explored the maneuverability and control benefits of thrust vectoring. Together with related programs in the X-31 and F-15 ACTIVE (Advanced Controls for Integrated Vehicles), the HARV demonstrated a significant enhancement of high angle-of-attack agility and maneuverability. In addition, the HARV made a significant contribution to the applicability of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to high angle-of-attack flows by providing a comparison of CFD, wind-tunnel, and flight data at the same scale.\n2-16 May 1992 STS-49: First flight of Space Shuttle Endeavour, including the first three-person spacewalk, which captured a private satellite for repair and reboost.\n25 Sep. 1992-29 Oct. 1993 The Mars Observer was launched for an epic-making flight to the Red Planet. The spacecraft was to provide the most detailed data available about Mars as it orbited the planet since what had been collected by the Viking probes of the mid-1970s. The mission was progressing smoothly until about 9 p.m. on Saturday, 21 Aug. 1993, three days before the spacecraft's entry into orbit around Mars, when controllers lost contact with it. The engineering team working on the project at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory responded with a series of commands to turn on the spacecraft's transmitter and to point the spacecraft's antennas toward Earth. No signal from the spacecraft, however; the Mars Observer was not heard from again, probably because of an explosion in the propulsion system's tanks as they were pressurized. With no response from the Mars Observer, on 29 Oct. 1993, flight controllers concluded scheduled operations.\n2 Dec. 1993 Astronauts Richard O. Covey and Kenneth D. Bowersox piloted Space Shuttle Endeavour (STS-61) on a highly successful mission to repair the optics of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and perform routine servicing on the orbiting observatory. Following a precise and flawless rendezvous, grapple, and berthing of the telescope in the cargo bay of the Shuttle, the Endeavour flight crew, in concert with controllers at Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, and Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, completed all eleven planned servicing tasks during five extravehicular activities for full accomplishment of all STS-61 servicing objectives. This included installation of a new Wide Field & Planetary Camera and sets of corrective optics for all the other instruments, as well as replacement of faulty solar arrays, gyroscopes, magnetometers, and electrical components to restore the reliability of the observatory subsystem. The Endeavour then provided HST with a reboost into a 321-nautical-mile, nearly circular orbit. Re-deployment of a healthy HST back into orbit using the shuttle robotic arm occurred at 5:26 a.m. EST on 10 Dec., and the telescope was once again a fully operational, free-flying spacecraft with vastly improved optics. Orbital verification of HST's improved capabilities occurred in early Jan., well ahead of the March schedule. Endeavour, the newest of the orbiters, was named after the 18th century vessel captained by British explorer Capt. James Cook. The new Shuttle craft took its maiden voyage in May 1992.\n25 Jan.-3 May 1994 After launch from Cape Canaveral, Florida, the joint Department of Defense/NASA Clementine mission mapped most of the lunar surface at a number of resolutions and wavelengths from Ultra Violet to Infrared. The spacecraft was launched on 25 Jan., at 16:34 local time, and the nominal lunar mission lasted until the spacecraft left lunar orbit on 3 May. A malfunction in one of the on-board computers on 7 May at 14:39 UTC (9:39 AM EST) caused a thruster to fire until it had used up all of its fuel, leaving the spacecraft spinning at about 80 RPM with no spin control. The spacecraft remained in geocentric orbit and continued testing the spacecraft components until the end of mission. Perhaps the most important scientific finding of the mission was the possibility of an abundant supply of water on the Moon that would make establishment of a self-sustaining lunar colony much more feasible and less expensive than presently thought. Study of lunar samples revealed that the interior of the Moon is essentially devoid of water, so no underground supplies could be used by lunar inhabitants. However, the lunar surface is bombarded with water-rich objects such as comets, and scientists have suspected that some of the water in these objects could migrate to permanently dark areas at the lunar poles, perhaps accumulating to useable quantities. Analysis of data returned from a radio-wave experiment performed by Clementine revealed that deposits of ice exist in permanently dark regions near the south pole of the Moon. Initial estimates suggested that the volume of a small lake exists, 1 billion cubic meters.\n3-11 Feb. 1994 Astronauts Charles F. Bolden and Kenneth S. Reightler, Jr., flew Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-60) on a historic mission featuring the first Russian cosmonaut to fly on a U.S. mission in space, Mission Specialist Sergei K. Krikalev, veteran of two lengthy stays aboard the Russian Mir Space Station. This mission underlined the newly inaugurated cooperation in space between Russia and the U.S., featuring Russia's becoming an international partner in the international space station effort involving the U.S. and its international partners.\n3-11 Feb. 1995 Exactly one year after a major cooperative flight with the Russians in STS-60, NASA's Space Shuttle Discovery, this time STS-63, flew another historic mission featuring the flyby of the Russian Mir Space Station. It also featured the first time that a woman pilot, Eileen M. Collins, flew the Space Shuttle. Vladimir Titov is also aboard, the first Russian to be launched aboard a U.S. spacecraft.\n27 Jun.-7 Jul. 1995 Twenty years after the world's two greatest spacefaring nations and Cold War rivals staged a dramatic linkup between piloted spacecraft in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project during the summer of 1975, the space programs of the United States and Russia again met in Earth orbit when the Space Shuttle Atlantis docked to the Mir Space Station. The STS71 mission by Atlantis was the first of seven planned shuttle/Mir linkups between 1995 and 1997, including rendezvous, docking, and crew transfers. Atlantis docked with Mir on 29 Jul., and the combine crew of astronauts and cosmonauts performed several experiments. At the end of joint docked activities on 4 Jul., two Russian cosmonauts lifted to the Mir by the shuttle, assumed responsibility for operations of the Mir station. At the same time, the Mir18 crew, who had been aboard the station since 16 Mar. 1995-Commander Vladimir Dezhurov, Flight Engineer Gennady Strekalov, and American astronaut Norm Thagard-joined the STS71 crew for the return trip to Earth. Thagard returned home with the American record for a single space flight with more than 100 days in space. The previous record had been held by the Skylab4 crew with 84 days in 19731974. Thagard broke that record on 6 Jun. 1995.\n11-20 Nov. 1995 This mission by the Space Shuttle Atlantis carried up and attached a Russian-built docking port and orbiter docking system to the Mir space station for use in future shuttle dockings.\n28 Nov. 1995 A McDonnell-Douglas MD-11-equipped with a propulsion controlled aircraft (PCA) system developed by NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, McDonnell Douglas Aerospace, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, and Honeywell, Inc.-made the first-ever safe, fully automated landing of a transport aircraft using only engine thrust for control. NASA Dryden engineers and pilots began developing the system in the wake of a long series of failures of hydraulic flight control systems in the 1970s, three of which resulted in crashes claiming the lives of over 1,200 people. The system evolved through landings by NASA research pilot Gordon Fullerton of a NASA F-15 research aircraft using a similar system in April 1993 and of the MD-11 in August 1995 with a prototype system that required him to use cockpit knobs and thumbwheels aided by a still-developing software system. The system used for landings on 28 and 30 November 1995 relieved the pilot of virtually all manual manipulation beyond engaging the auto-land system. The PCA system has the potential of providing aircraft a back-up system to enable safe landings in the event the airplane loses its hydraulic controls.\n7 Dec. 1995 Galileo: Probe released into Jupiter's atmosphere.\n22-31 Mar. 1996 In this Atlantis shuttle mission to dock with the Russian space station Mir, the United States left astronaut Shannon Lucid, the first U.S. woman to fly on the station, aboard for a total of five months.\n7 Aug. 1996 NASA announced that a team of its scientists had uncovered evidence, however not conclusive proof, that microscopic life may have once existed on Mars. The team of scientists recounted the meteor's history, found in Antarctica in 1984 and why they suspect it is from Mars. The 4.2 pound, potato-sized rock, identified as ALH84001, is approximately the same age as the Red Planet. When ALH84001 formed as an igneous rock about 4.5 billion years ago, Mars was much warmer and probably contained oceans hospitable to life. Then, about 15 million years ago, a large asteroid hit the Red Planet and jettisoned the rock into space where it remained until it crashed into Antarctica about 11,000 B.C. The nine-member team of NASA and Stanford University scientists, led by Johnson Space Center scientists David S. McKay and Everett K. Gibson, Jr., presented three compelling, but not conclusive, pieces of evidence that suggest that fossil-like remains of Martian microorganisms, which date back 3.6 billion years, are present in ALH84001. During their two-and-a-half year investigation, the JSC team found trace minerals in the meteor that are usually associated with microscopic organisms. They also used a newly developed electron microscope to uncover possible microfossils that measure between 1/100 to 1/1000 the diameter of a human hair. Finally, discovered organic molecules called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in ALH84001, usually resulting when microorganisms die and their complex organic molecules breakdown. They called for additional research from other scientists either to confirm or refute these findings.\n13 Aug. 1996 Data from NASA's Galileo probe at Jupiter revealed that the gas giant's moon, Europa, may harbor \"warm ice\" or even liquid water-key elements in life-sustaining environments. Many scientists and science fiction writers have speculated that Europa-in addition to Mars and Saturn's moon Titan-is one of the three planetary bodies in this Solar System that might possess, or may have possessed, an environment where primitive life can exist. Galileo's photos of Europa were taken during a flyby of Ganymede some 96,000 miles away from Europa. They reveal what look like ice floes similar to those seen in Earth's polar regions. The pictures also reveal what look like giant cracks in Europa's ice where warm water \"environmental niches\" may exist. Although NASA officials stressed that the photos do not conclusively prove anything, they do think that the images are exciting, compelling, and suggestive.\n16-26 Sep. 1996 The Atlantis docked with Mir and retrieved Shannon Lucid and left John Blaha for continued joint operations aboard the Russian station. Astronaut Lucid set a new record for an American living in space and broke the world's record for a woman living in space by spending 181 days aboard the Russian Mir Space Station. President Clinton presented Lucid, who conducted microgravity and life sciences experiments aboard the Mir, with the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in an early December ceremony, citing Lucid \"for her contributions to international cooperation in space...Shannon Lucid is an explorer in the best tradition of those who dare to challenge the unknown.\"\n13 Jan. 1997 NASA scientists announced the discovery of three black holes in three normal galaxies, suggesting that nearly all galaxies may harbor supermassive black holes which once powered quasars (extremely luminous nuclei of galaxies), but now are quiescent. This conclusion was based on a census of 27 nearby galaxies carried out by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope and ground-based telescopes in Hawaii, which were used to conduct a spectroscopic and photometric survey of galaxies to find black holes which have consumed the mass of millions of Sun-like stars. The key results are: (1) supermassive black holes are so common that nearly every large galaxy has one, (2) a black hole's mass is proportional to the mass of the host galaxy, so that, for example, a galaxy twice as massive as another would have a black hole that is also twice as massive, (3) the number and masses of the black holes found are consistent with what would have been required to power the quasars.\n11-21 Feb. 1997 In a record five extravehicular activity (EVA) operations, astronauts from the shuttle Discovery performed the second Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission. This mission replaced the near-infra red camera (NICMOS) and the two-dimensional spectrograph and repaired insulation on the telescope.\n20 Feb. 1997 The space probe Galileo exploring Jupiter and its moons discovered Icebergs on Europa. Images captured during Galileo's closest flyby of Europa showed features of the Jovian moon, lending credence to the possibility of hidden, subsurface oceans. The findings generated new questions about the possibility of life on Europa.\n1-7 May 1997 A fleet of spacecraft with the International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program watched for a break in Comet Hale-Bopp's plasma ion tail. Amateur astronomers around the world were also put on watch the first week of May 1997 when space scientists predicted based on earlier data from ISTP spacecraft estimated that Comet Hale-Bopp's ion tail likely would be disrupted when it enters a region around the Sun known as the \"current sheet.\" Scientists explained that the disruption was a complicated interaction between the comet and the Sun's influence and magnetic fields. The comet first appeared in the spring and excited astronomers for its high visibility and ready analysis.\n4 Jul. 1997 The inexpensive Mars Pathfinder (costing only $267 million) landed on Mars, after its launch in December 1996. A small, 23-pound robotic rover, named Sojourner, departed the main lander and began to record weather patterns, atmospheric opacity, and the chemical composition of rocks washed down into the Ares Vallis flood plain, an ancient outflow channel in Mars' northern hemisphere. This vehicle completed its projected milestone 30-day mission on 3 Aug. 1997, capturing far more data on the atmosphere, weather, and geology of Mars than scientists had expected. In all, the Pathfinder mission returned more than 1.2 gigabits (1.2 billion bits) of data and over 10,000 tantalizing pictures of the Martian landscape. The images from both craft were posted to the Internet, to which individuals turned for information about the mission more than 500 million times through the end of July.\n25 Aug. 1997-Present Real-time data from NASA's Advanced Composition Explorer were incorporated into the daily weather forecasting system by the end of the year. NOAA's Space Environment Center in Boulder, Colorado, used data from this system to track solar disturbances. Positioned between the Sun and the Earth, the spacecraft intercepts solar winds and geomagnetic activity and allows forecasters to warn users such as satellite operators, power control centers, and others of the threat to their electronic systems resulting from sudden fluctuations in solar energy reaching Earth.\n11 Sep. 1997 The Mars Global Surveyor space probe, launched in December 1996, entered orbit at the red planet. The spacecraft's magnetometer, detected a magnetic field on 15 Sep. The existence of a planetary magnetic field has important implications for the geological history of Mars and for the possible development and continued existence of life on Mars. The magnetic field had important implications for the evolution of Mars. Planets like Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn generate their magnetic fields by means of a dynamo made up of moving molten metal at the core. This metal is a very good conductor of electricity, and the rotation of the planet creates electrical currents deep within the planet that give rise to the magnetic field. A molten interior suggests the existence of internal heat sources, which could give rise to volcanoes and a flowing crust responsible for moving continents over geologic time periods.\n25 Sep.-6 Oct. 1997 In this seventh docking mission with the Russian space station Mir, the shuttle Atlantis delivered three Russian air tanks and nine Mir batteries (170 pounds each). It also delivered a Spektor module repair kit (500 pounds), which enabled the station crew to begin serious repairs damaged in the Progress collision of 25 Jun. The mission also delivered 1,400 pounds of water; 1,033 pounds of U.S. science items; and 3,000 pounds of Russian supplies. During this mission Russian cosmonauts Parazynski and Titov conduct an EVA to retrieve four environmental effects space exposure experiments (MEEPS) on Mir's module. Atlantis also flew around Mir to assess the damage to the station. The astronaut Michael Foale also departed for Earth after a stay of nearly five months and was replaced by astronaut David Wolf.\n15 Oct. 1997 The international Cassini space probe mission left Earth bound for Saturn atop an Air Force Titan IV-B/Centaur rocket in a picture-perfect launch at Cape Canaveral, Florida. With the European Space Agency's Huygens probe and a high-gain antenna provided by the Italian Space Agency, Cassini will arrive at Saturn on 1 July 2004.\nDec. 1997 Scientists using the joint European Space Agency/NASA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) spacecraft have discovered \"jet streams\" or \"rivers\" of hot, electrically charged plasma flowing beneath the surface of the Sun. These new findings will help scientists understand the famous 11-year sunspot cycle and associated increases in solar activity that can disrupt the Earth's power and communications systems.\n6 Jan. 1998 Lunar Prospector was launched on this date for a one-year polar mission to explore the Moon, especially whether or not water ice is buried inside the lunar crust. Developed as part of the Discovery program of frequent, low-cost missions, Lunar Prospector carried a small payload of only five instruments. Besides water, Lunar Prospector was also to look for other natural resources, such as minerals and gases, that could be used to build and sustain a future human lunar base or in manufacturing fuel for launching spacecraft from the Moon to the rest of the Solar System. The spacecraft's Gamma Ray Spectrometer will also collect a large amount of scientific data about chemical composition of the lunar surface and will measure the Moon's magnetic and gravitational fields. Its Alpha Particle Spectrometer will sniff out small quantities of gases that leak out from the lunar interior. Collectively, the scientific data that Prospector will send back to Earth will help researchers construct a more complete and detailed map of the Moon. In Mar. 1998 Lunar Prospector detected the presence of water ice at both lunar poles, using data from the spacecraft's neutron spectrometer instrument. The lunar water ice is estimated at an overall range of eleven million to 330 million tons of lunar water ice dispersed over 3,600 to 18,000 square miles of water ice-bearing deposits across the northern pole, and an additional 1,800 to 7,200 square miles across the southern polar region. Furthermore, twice as much of the water ice mixture was detected by Lunar Prospector at the Moon's north pole as at the south.\n29 Jan. 1998 An International Space Station agreement among 15 countries met in Washington to sign agreements to establish the framework for cooperation among the partners on the design, development, operation, and utilization of the Space Station. Acting Secretary of State Strobe Talbott signed the 1998 Intergovernmental Agreement on Space Station Cooperation, along with representatives of Russia, Japan, Canada and participating countries of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom). Three bilateral memoranda of understanding were also signed by NASA Administrator Daniel S. Goldin separately with his counterparts: Russian Space Agency General Director Yuri Koptev, ESA Director General Antonio Rodota and Canadian Space Agency President William (Mac) Evans.\n12 Mar. 1998 Development of the X-38, a spacecraft design planned for use as a future International Space Station emergency crew return \"lifeboat,\" passed a major milestone today with a successful first unpiloted flight test. The first X-38 atmospheric test vehicle was dropped from under the wing of NASA's B-52 aircraft at the Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, CA, at 11:30 a.m. EST and completed a descent from a 23,000 foot altitude at 11:38 a.m. EST. The test focused on the use of the X-38's parafoil parachute, which deployed as planned within seconds after the vehicle's release from the B-52 and guided the test craft to landing. Atmospheric tests of the X-38 will continue for the next two years using three increasingly complex test vehicles. The drop tests will increase in altitude to a height of 50,000 feet and include longer flight times for the test craft prior to deployment of the parafoil. In 2000, an unpiloted space test vehicle is planned to be deployed from a Space Shuttle and descend to a landing. The X-38 crew return vehicle is targeted to begin operations aboard the International Space Station in 2003. Eventually, the X-38 will become the first new human spacecraft designed to return humans from orbit in more than twenty years, and it is being developed at a fraction of the cost of past human space vehicles. The primary application of the new spacecraft would be as an International Space Station \"lifeboat,\" but the project also aims at developing a design that could be easily modified for other uses, such as a possible joint U.S. and international human spacecraft that could be launched on expendable rockets as well as the Space Shuttle.\nMay 28, 1998 The Hubble Space Telescope gave humanity its first direct image of what is probably a planet outside our solar system-one apparently that has been ejected into deep space by its parent stars. Located in a star-forming region in the constellation Taurus, the object called TMR-1C, appears to lie at the end of a strange filament of light that suggests it has apparently been flung away from the vicinity of a newly forming pair of binary stars. At a distance of 450 light-years, the same distance as the newly formed stars, the candidate protoplanet would be ten thousand times less luminous than the Sun. If the object is a few hundred thousand years old, the same age as the newly formed star system which appears to have ejected it, it was estimated to be two to three times the mass of Jupiter, the largest gas giant planet in our Solar System.\nUpdated January 3, 2012\nBill Barry, NASA Chief Historian\nSteve Garber, NASA History Web Curator\nFor further information E-mail [email protected]",
"Where No Man Has Gone Before, Appendix 4\nChronology Of Major Events In Manned Space Flight And In Project Apollo, 1957-1975\n1957\nThe Soviet Union placed the first artificial earth satellite (Sputnik) into orbit.\n1958\nApril:\nThe Air Force contracted with the Yerkes Observatory, University of Chicago, to produce a new lunar photographic atlas. The Air Force published a development plan for its manned space program, which included two exploratory man-in-space projects, a lunar reconnaissance mission and a manned lunar landing and return; the plan envisioned completion of the program in seven years at a cost of $1.5 billion.\nJune:\nThe Air Force contracted with Rocketdyne to design a single-chamber rocket engine burning kerosene and liquid oxygen and producing 1 to 1.5 million pounds of thrust.\nJuly:\nPresident Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 (P.L. 85-568) establishing the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.\nOctober:\nThe Special Committee on Space Technology, created in January 1958 and chaired by H. Guyford Stever of MIT, reported its recommendations: development of both clustered- and single-engine boosters of million- pound thrust; vigorous attack on the problems of sustaining man in the space environment; development of lifting reentry vehicles; research on high-energy propellant systems for launch vehicle upper stages; and evaluation of existing boosters and upper stages followed by intensive development of those promising greatest utility.\nNovember:\nA Space Task Group (STG) was organized at Langley Research Center to implement NASA's first manned satellite project (Mercury). Robert R. Gilruth was named project manager.\n1959\nJanuary:\nIn a report of the staff of the House Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration entitled \"The Next Ten Years in Space, 1959-1969,\" Wernher von Braun of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency predicted a manned flight around the moon within 8 to 10 years and a manned lunar landing and return a few years later. NASA and industry officials envisioned similar progress.\nMarch:\nThe first F-1 engine was successfully test-fired by Rocketdyne, producing more than one million pounds of thrust.\nApril:\nNASA announced the selection of seven pilots for the Mercury program. NASA created a Research Steering Committee on Manned Space Flight. Over the next several months this committee examined long-term human-in-space problems to recommend future missions and coordination of research programs at the NASA centers. At its May 25-26 meeting the committee recommended the manned lunar landing as a focal point for studies in propulsion, vehicle configuration, structure, and guidance requirements, since a lunar landing would constitute an end objective that did not have to be justified in terms of its contribution to a more useful goal.\nNovember:\nSTG appointed a panel to study preliminary design of a multiperson spacecraft for a circumlunar mission, conduct mission analyses, and plan a test program.\n1960\nJanuary:\nNASA presented its ten-year plan to Congress, calling for a pro' gram leading to manned circumlunar flight and a permanent earth-orbiting space station to start in 1965-1967 and a manned lunar landing some time beyond 1970. Cost estimates for the plan ran to $1.5 billion annually for five years.\nFebruary:\nNASA approved Project Ranger, a project to send an unmanned, hard-landing spacecraft to the moon to relay television pictures of the lunar surface to earth during the final stages of its flight.\nMarch:\nThe Army Ballistic Missile Agency's Development Operations Division at Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Alabama, headed by Wernher von Braun, was transferred to NASA as the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center.\nApril-May:\nSTG developed guidelines for the advanced manned spacecraft program, including detailed propulsion and spacecraft requirements.\nMay:\nA meeting on space rendezvous was held at Langley Research Center to discuss the problems of bringing two spacecraft together in space.\nNASA began work on a project (later named\nSurveyor\n) to send a soft-landing spacecraft to the moon to provide scientific and engineering data on the lunar surface.\nJuly:\nThe House Committee on Science and Astronautics urged NASA to intensify its efforts to send humans to the moon and back \"in this decade.\" In the committee's view, NASA's ten-year plan did not go far enough and the space agency was not pressing forward with enough energy.\nJuly:\nThe name \"Apollo\" was approved for the advanced manned space flight program.\nNASA held its first NASA-Industry Program Plans Conference in Washington to brief industrial management on the overall space program. George M. Low, chief of NASA's Manned Space Flight program, stated that circumlunar flight and earth-orbiting missions would be carried out before 1970, leading eventually to a manned lunar landing and a permanent space station in earth orbit.\nSeptember:\nNASA issued a formal request for proposals for six-month feasibility studies for advanced manned spacecraft, to define a system fulfilling STG guidelines, formulate a plan for implementing the program, identify areas requiring long lead-time research and development, and estimate the total cost of the program. In October proposals were received from 14 companies, and in November contracts were awarded to Convair/Astronautics Division of General Dynamics Corp., General Electric Company, and The Martin Company.\nNovember:\nA program of detailed studies of lunar geology was undertaken by the U.S. Geological Survey, funded by NASA.\nSTG proposed to organize a number of Technical Liaison Groups to coordinate the activities of NASA centers in research for Apollo.\n1961\nJanuary:\nA meeting of the Space Exploration Program Council discussed the manned lunar landing project, with emphasis on three methods of conducting the mission: direct ascent, rendezvous of spacecraft in earth orbit, and rendezvous in lunar orbit. It was decided that all three methods should be explored thoroughly. The Council established a committee headed by George M. Low to define the elements of the project insofar as possible.\nFebruary:\nThe Instrumentation Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was selected to conduct a six- month study of a navigation and guidance system for the Apollo spacecraft.\nMarch:\nThe Space Science Board of the National Academy of Sciences recommended that \"scientific exploration of the moon and planets should be clearly stated as the ultimate objective of the U.S. space program for the forseeable future.\"\nApril:\n) carrying Major Yuri A. Gagarin on a one-orbit, 108- minute flight.\nMay:\nSTG proposed a new NASA development center to manage the development of manned spacecraft and projects.\nThe United States launched its first human into space, Lt. Cmdr. Alan B. Shepard, Jr., who rode a Mercury spacecraft (\nFreedom 7\n) on a parabolic flight path 116.5 miles high and landed 320 miles down range.\nFinal reports of the six-month feasibility studies for advanced manned spacecraft were submitted to STG by the three contractors.\nPresident John F. Kennedy addressed Congress on \"urgent national needs,\" which included new long-range goals for the American space program. Kennedy expressed his belief that the nation should adopt the goal, \"before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth.\" He requested additional appropriations of $611 million for NASA and DoD for fiscal 1962.\nNASA appointed a committee (Lundin committee) to study all possible approaches for accomplishing a manned lunar landing in the period 1967-1970 and to make rough estimates of costs and schedules.\nJuly:\nTwelve companies were invited to submit proposals for the Apollo spacecraft. A detailed statement of work, based on contractor and NASA design studies, was provided for a three-phase program terminating in a lunar landing. NASA and DoD created a Large Launch Vehicle Planning Group to study development of large launch vehicles for the national space program.\nAugust:\nNASA selected the Instrumentation Laboratory of MIT to develop the guidance and navigation system for the Apollo Spacecraft.\nSeptember:\nAfter a study of several locations around the country, NASA selected a site near Houston, Texas, for its new development center for manned spacecraft. The center would design, develop, and test new manned spacecraft, train astronauts, and operate the control center for manned space missions. In October the Space Task Group, still based at Langley, was formally redesignated as the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC); personnel would move to Houston starting in 1962.\nOctober:\nJohn C. Houbolt and others at Langley Research Center presented to the Large Launch Vehicle Planning Group a study on the use of lunar-orbit rendezvous in a manned lunar landing. November: After evaluation of proposals from five companies, NASA selected the Space and Information Division of North American Aviation, Inc., Downey, California, to design and build the Apollo spacecraft. December: MSC announced a new manned program using a two-man version of the Mercury spacecraft, which would test techniques of rendezvous in earth orbit.\n1962\nFebruary:\nThe first American to orbit the earth, Lt. Col. John H. Glenn, Jr., USMC, completed three orbits in a Mercury spacecraft and returned safely to earth. February-June: Several groups within NASA were intensively studying the various modes of going to the moon (direct ascent, rendezvous in earth orbit, rendezvous in lunar orbit). The third method required a separate spacecraft to detach itself, land on the moon, and return to lunar orbit to rendezvous with the Apollo spacecraft.\nMarch:\nAt the request of the Office of Manned Space Flight, American Telephone & Telegraph established a group called Bellcomm, Inc., to provide independent analysis of systems and problems in the manned space flight program. For the duration of Apollo, Bellcomm performed many services, including advice on selection of landing sites, for OMSF.\nJuly:\nNASA Headquarters announced that the lunar-orbit rendezvous mode had been selected for the manned lunar landing project and that requests for proposals would be issued for the second spacecraft (the \"lunar excursion module\"). MSC invited 11 firms to submit proposals for the lunar excursion module. Nine companies responded; in November NASA selected the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Company to build the module.\nAugust:\nA summer study conducted by the Space Science Board at the State University of Iowa examined the state of NASA's space research program and made recommendations concerning future efforts. Many scientists expressed objections to Apollo (which was not specifically on their agenda), but the study cautiously endorsed the program's scientific goals.\nSeptember:\nA second group of nine test-pilot astronauts was selected for the manned space flight program.\nNovember:\nMSC released sketches of the space suit assembly and portable lifesupport system to be used on the lunar surface.\nDecember:\nA contract was awarded for construction of a Vertical Assembly Building at NASA's Merritt Island Launch Area, Kennedy Space Center. The $100-million structure would provide space for assembling four Saturn V launch vehicles simultaneously.\n1963\nFebruary:\nThe President's budget request for fiscal 1964 included $5.712 billion for NASA. $1.207 billion was for Apollo - almost a threefold increase over the previous year.\nApril:\nPreliminary plans for Apollo scientific instruments were completed. Emphasis was placed on experiments that promised maximum return for the least weight and complexity and were man-oriented and compatible with weight and volume available in the spacecraft. Experiments would be selected after evaluation of proposals from outside scientists.\nMay:\nThe Mercury project ended with the 34-hour, 22-orbit flight of astronaut L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., in the spacecraft\nFaith 7\nFourteen more test pilots were selected as astronauts.\nNovember:\nA Manned Space Science Division was established in the Office of Space Science and Applications (OSSA), NASA Headquarters, to coordinate the efforts of OSSA and the Office of Manned Space Flight in developing scientific experiments for Apollo.\nMSC's Space Environment Division recommended 10 specific areas on the moon for evaluation as landing sites for Apollo. These sites and others would be photographed by Lunar Orbiter, after which some would be selected as targets for Surveyor, a project to land unmanned spacecraft on the moon and study the surface.\nPresident Lyndon B. Johnson announced that NASA's Launch Operations Center at Cape Canaveral (Atlantic Missile Range) would be designated the John F. Kennedy Space Center.\nDecember:\nAn ad hoc group working on Apollo experiments recommended the principal scientific objectives of the program: examination of the surface around the landed spacecraft, geological mapping, investigation of the moon's interior (with instruments), studies of the lunar atmosphere, and radio astronomy from the surface.\n1964\nMarch:\nNASA's Office of Space Science and Applications (OSSA) began organizing groups of scientists to assist in more specific definition of the scientific objectives of Apollo. Outside scientists were called upon to propose experiments in geology, geophysics, geochemistry, biology, and atmospheric science.\nApril:\nNASA enlisted the aid of the National Academy of Sciences in preparing a plan to recruit scientists for training as astronauts. The first flight of an unmanned Apollo spacecraft was launched from Kennedy Space Center, demonstrating the compatibility of the spacecraft and the launch vehicle. OSSA announced opportunities for scientists to fly experiments on manned space missions, including the lunar landing missions. The earliest Apollo flights expected to support scientific instruments were the fourth and fifth. Ranger VII returned the first close-up television pictures of the lunar surface, showing details as small as 1 meter across.\nAugust:\nMSC proposed to build a special lunar sample receiving laboratory in which lunar samples, protected from contamination, would be received, examined, and issued to qualified outside experimenters. The proposal set off several months of discussion between MSC, Headquarters, and the Space Science Board concerning the requirements for such a laboratory and its best location.\nMay:\nThe first flight of an unmanned Apollo Spacecraft was launched from Kennedy Space Center, demonstrating the compatibility of the spacecraft and the launch vehicle.\nJuly:\nOSSA announced opportunities for scientists to fly experiments on manned space missions, including the lunar landing missions. The earliest Apollo flights expected to support scientific instruments were the fourth and fifth.\nRanger VII returned the first close-up television pictures of the lunar surface, showing details as small as 1 meter across.\nAugust:\nMSC proposed to build a special lunar sample receiving laboratory in which lunar samples, protected from contamination, would be received, examined, and issued to qualified outside experimenters. The proposal set off several months of discussion between MSC, Headquarters, and the Space Science Board concerning the requirements for such a laboratory and its best location.\n1965\nFirst manned flight of a Gemini spacecraft, a three-orbit flight to test spacecraft systems.\nMay:\nThe Space Science Board recommended that samples and astronauts returning from the moon be quarantined until it could be ascertained that they had brought back no life forms that might contaminate the earth.\nThe NASA Administrator and the Surgeon General agreed to form an Interagency Committee on Back Contamination to define requirements for biological isolation and testing of material returned from the moon and to advise on the construction and operation of a quarantine facility for samples and astronauts.\nJune:\nSix scientists were selected for training as NASA astronauts. Two were qualified pilots; the other four were sent to Air Force flight training school before beginning astronaut training.\nJuly:\nOMSF established an Apollo Site Selection Board to work with OSSA, MSC, and Bellcomm in choosing the sites where Apollo missions would land on the moon.\nThe Space Science Board convened a Summer Study at Woods Hole, Mass., to recommend directions for future space research. The agenda included manned exploration of the moon and planets. Conferees drew up a list of 15 questions that should determine the course of lunar research. Following the Woods Hole sessions, another group met at Falmouth, Mass., to formulate specific recommendations for the Apollo and related unmanned projects.\nAugust:\nThree finns were awarded six-month contracts to design prototypes of an Apollo lunar surface experiments package, which would be left on the moon and would return data by telemetry over a period of time.\nSeptember:\nMeeting with MSC scientists, Public Health Service physicians insisted on rigorous quarantine of astronauts and lunar samples following each lunar mission.\nDecember:\nTwo Gemini spacecraft performed the first space rendezvous, maneuvering to a separation distance of one foot with no difficulty.\n1966\nFebruary:\nOSSA selected the experiment complement for the Apollo lunar surface experiments package (ALSEP).\nThe first Apollo spacecraft, a test version of the command and service module, was launched from Cape Canaveral on a two-stage Saturn 1-B rocket.\nMarch:\nThe\nGemini VIII\nspacecraft performed a rendezvous with an unmanned target vehicle, then docked with it - the first accomplishment of this critical procedure. The mission was aborted soon afterwards when a small thruster malfunctioned.\nNASA Headquarters selected the Bendix Corporation to build the lunar surface experiments package.\nMay:\nSurveyor I\n, the first instrumented spacecraft designed to soft-land on the moon and return scientific data, landed in Oceanus Procellarum.\nAugust:\nLunar Orbiter I\n, the first of five photographic satellites to be launched in the following 12 months, returned detailed photographs of nine primary and seven alternate Apollo landing sites. Contracts were let for the first two phases of construction of the lunar receiving laboratory at the Manned Spacecraft Center.\nDecember:\nMSC created a Science and Applications Directorate to manage the scientific activities of the center, removing this responsibility from the Engineering and Development Directorate.\n1967\nJanuary:\nA Lunar Missions Planning Board was established at MSC.\nA flash fire in Apollo command module 012 during preflight simulations at Cape Canaveral killed all three of the astronauts inside. Investigation of the cause of this tragedy by NASA and by Congress revealed serious shortcomings in the design of the spacecraft and management of manufacturing, testing, and manned simulations. Progress in the lunar landing program was drastically slowed; it was later estimated that the fire delayed the first lunar landing by 18 months.\nFebruary:\nMSC announced selection of a scientist, Dr. Wilmot N. Hess, of Goddard Space Flight Center, to head its new Science and Applications Directorate.\nMarch:\nThe Office of Space Science and Applications released the names of 110 principal investigators whose proposals for scientific research on the lunar samples had been accepted.\nEleven scientists were selected for astronaut training, bringing the total number of scientist-astronauts to 15.\nMay:\nPrime and backup crews were named for Apollo 7, the first mission to fly after the fire. No launch date was announced, but assignment of crews indicated NASA's confidence that problems uncovered by the fire were on the way to solution.\nJuly:\nConstruction of the lunar receiving laboratory was completed and work was under way to install its specialized scientific equipment.\nAugust:\nMSC named P. R. Bell, a radiation physicist at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, to head the lunar receiving laboratory. Bell would report to MSC's Director of Science and Applications.\nWilmot Hess convened a group of NASA and academic scientists at the University of California at Santa Cruz to prepare more detailed plans for lunar exploration based on current expectations for lunar missions. At the end of the conference Hess named a Group for Lunar Exploration Planning to work continuously with MSC in defining the scientific aspects of Apollo missions.\nSeptember:\nA Lunar Sample Preliminary Examination Team and a Lunar Sample Analysis Planning Team, both including outside and NASA scientists, were created to assist the staff of the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in the examination and apportionment of lunar samples.\nNovember:\nThe first test flight of a complete Saturn V was successfully launched from NASA's new facilities at Kennedy Space Center and completed without significant anomalies.\nDecember:\nOMSF established a Lunar Exploration Office within the Apollo Program Office, merging several program units concerned with lunar exploration. A Systems Development group staffed from OMSF would direct hardware development; a Lunar Science group staffed from OSSA would approve operating plans and scientific objectives, payloads, and principal investigators for specific missions.\nDuring the year:\nThe Interagency Committee on Back Contamination worked out procedures for quarantine and release of lunar astronauts and samples and defined a biological test program to search for extraterrestrial organisms.\nNASA and the National Academy of Sciences worked to establish a center for research on lunar and planetary samples adjacent to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The center, to be managed by a consortium of universities, would be the organization through which interested researchers could gain access to the lunar materials for scientific work and would provide office space and other support for visiting scientists.\n1968\nThe lunar module was given its first test (unmanned) in an earth-orbiting mission.\nAugust:\nPlans were set in motion to fly a circumlunar mission on the second manned Apollo flight.\nIn view of problems in building the instruments and constraints appearing in mission planning, OMSF decided not to fly the lunar surface experiments package on the first lunar landing mission. Instead, a simplified set of instruments (a laser reflector and a passive seismometer) would be developed for the first mission and the more extensive set currently in development would be flown later.\nOctober:\nApollo 7, the first manned flight of the Apollo command module, was launched for an 11-day earth-orbital test. All primary objectives of the flight were met.\nAn operational readiness inspection of the lunar receiving laboratory was conducted and numerous discrepancies were noted. A 10-day simulation of LRL operations similarly uncovered many shortcomings in equipment and procedures.\nDecember:\nThe first flight of a manned mission on a Saturn V was launched on December 21. Apollo 8 flew to the moon, completed 10 orbits, and returned safely to earth on December 27 . While in lunar orbit the crew made numerous visual and photographic observations of potential landing sites.\nDuring the year:\nThe Apollo Site Selection Board, working with the Group for Lunar Exploration Planning and Bellcomm, selected five sites as alternatives for the first lunar landing mission. Work continued into 1969 to produce and refine a list from which sites for subsequent exploration missions would be chosen.\n1969\nMarch:\nApollo 9 checked out manned operation of the lunar module, including rendezvous procedures, in a successful 10-day mission in earth orbit.\nMay:\nApollo 10 carried out all phases of a lunar landing mission except the final descent and landing. The lunar module descended to 50,000 feet ( 15,000 meters) above the lunar surface, visually verified the approach to the primary landing site for the first landing, and returned to lunar orbit to rendezvous with the command module.\nOMSF authorized the Marshall Space Flight Center to proceed with development of a manned lunar roving vehicle capable of carrying two astronauts several kilometers from their landed lunar module. The vehicle would be used on the later Apollo exploration missions.\nJuly:\nNASA awarded a contract to the Boeing Company to build the lunar roving vehicle.\nNovember:\nApollo 12 performed the first precision landing (within 1 km. of a preselected spot) at a site in Oceanus Procellarum near the spacecraft\nSurveyor III\n. In two surface excursions (more than 7% hours spent outside the lunar module) the astronauts emplaced the first complete ALSEP instrument package, collected almost 75 pounds (34 kg.) of samples, and removed several parts from the Surveyor for analysis.\n1970\nJanuary:\nThe Lunar Science Institute adjacent to the Manned Spacecraft Center was officially dedicated.\nDetailed reports on the analysis of samples from Apollo 11 were presented at a Lunar Science Conference in Houston, the first of a series of annual conferences on lunar (and later planetary) science.\nBudget restrictions and the need to get on with post-Apollo development forced NASA to cancel Apollo 20 and stretch out the remaining seven missions to six-month intervals.\nApril:\nApollo 13, launched on April 11, was aborted two days later when an oxygen tank containing an undetected defect exploded. Mission Control teams devised emergency procedures to conserve oxygen and electrical power, and the spacecraft and crew were brought back safely to earth on April 17 after looping around the moon. An investigation board concluded that the explosion resulted from a highly unlikely combination of circumstances that were traceable to human oversight.\nSeptember:\nTwo more missions, Apollo 15 and 19, were canceled because of budget cuts. The remaining four missions were designated Apollo 14, 15, I6 and 17.\n1971\nJanuary:\nApollo 14 landed at a site of prime scientific interest, the Fra Mauro Formation. During two excursions to the lunar surface the astronauts emplaced a second set of scientific instruments and collected some 92 pounds (40 kg.) of samples, but failed to reach a crater that had been one of their primary objectives. The orbiting CSM carried out considerable photography during the mission, including photography of a landing site proposed for a future mission (\"bootstrap\" photography).\nApril:\nOn the recommendation of the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination, NASA discontinued the practice of quarantining returned lunar samples and astronauts. No evidence of viable organisms on the moon had been produced on three lunar landing missions.\nJuly:\nApollo 15 carried the first extended lunar module and the first lunar roving vehicle to the moon. The mission landed near Mount Hadley and Hadley Rille and stayed almost 67 hours on the surface - twice as long as any prior mission. The astronauts made three trips from their lunar module, emplaced the third set of experiments (including a seismometer that completed a three-site seismic network on the moon), and drove the \"rover\" a total distance of 17 1/2 miles (28 km.). The orbiting CSM carried the first scientific instrument module (SIM), which housed sensors that recorded data from the moon's surface. A moon-circling subsatellite was launched to measure particles and fields in the lunar environment. During the trip back to earth the command module pilot retrieved film cassettes from the SIM experiments, the first extravehicular activity conducted during a moon-to-earth voyage.\n1972\nApril:\nApollo 16 continued NASA's steady extension of lunar exploration missions, staying 71 hours on the surface, planting the fourth set of instruments, and returning almost 200 pounds (91 kg.) of samples. A second set of SIM instruments was operated, and another subsatellite was launched.\nJuly:\nA summer study on post-Apollo lunar science outlined priorities for future study of Apollo samples and data. The plan called for two years of organization and preliminary analysis of the data, to be followed by two years of careful examination of those data, after which priority would be given to the key problems that emerged. The study recommended continued support of the curatorial facilities at MSC and collection of data from the lunar surface experiments as long as they produced significant new information.\nDecember:\nThe last lunar exploration mission, Apollo 17, carried the first scientist (geologist Harrison H. Schmitt) to the moon. After landing in the Taurus-Littrow region, the astronauts stayed 75 hours, spent 22 hours outside the lunar module, drove their rover 22 miles (35 km.), and collected nearly 250 pounds (113 km.) of samples.\n1973\nThe first post-Apollo manned space flight program began with the launch of\nSkylab 1\n, a Saturn S-IVB stage converted to a laboratory module capable of supporting three-person crews for long periods in earth orbit. Skylab was the outgrowth of earlier \"Apollo Applications\" planning intended to use the hardware developed for Apollo to collect scientific data.\nSkylab 1\nused the last Saturn V rocket ever launched. Crews occupied the laboratory for periods of 28, 59, and 84 days; the last mission ended on February 8, 1974.\nAugust:\nThe Office of Manned Space Flight designated an official to be responsible for the final phasing out of the Apollo project.\n1975\nJuly:\nThe Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), the first international manned space mission, was conducted in cooperation with the Soviet Union. An Apollo command and service module fitted with a special adapter docked with a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft to conduct joint operations in earth orbit. After separating from the Soyuz, the Apollo crew carried out a short program of scientific experiments. ASTP marked the last use of the launch vehicles and spacecraft built for the Apollo project."
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In which country was Anjelica Huston born?
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"Anjelica Huston (; born July 8, 1951) is an American actress, director and former fashion model. Huston became the third generation of her family to win an Academy Award, when she won Best Supporting Actress for her performance in 1985's Prizzi's Honor, joining her father, director John Huston, and grandfather, actor Walter Huston. She also received Academy Award nominations for Enemies, a Love Story (1989) and The Grifters (1990).\n\nHuston received British Academy Award nominations for her work in the Woody Allen films Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989) and Manhattan Murder Mystery (1993). Among her other roles, she starred as Morticia Addams in The Addams Family (1991) and Addams Family Values (1993), receiving Golden Globe nominations for both, and played the Grand High Witch in the children's movie The Witches (1990). She has frequently collaborated with director Wes Anderson, including The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) and The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004). She is also the author of two memoirs; A Story Lately Told and Watch Me.\n\nEarly life \n\nAnjelica Huston was born in Santa Monica, California, and is the daughter of director and actor John Huston and Italian–American prima ballerina and model Enrica Soma. Huston's paternal grandfather was Canadian-born actor Walter Huston. Huston has Scots-Irish, English and Welsh ancestry from her father.\n\nShe spent much of her childhood in Ireland, particularly near Craughwell, County Galway, and England, where she attended Holland Park School. In the late 1960s, she began taking a few small roles in her father's movies.\n\nShe started very small indeed, substituting her hands for Deborah Kerr's in the British Casino Royale and advanced to bigger roles in 1969, starring, for example, in A Walk with Love and Death, where she played the 16-year-old French noblewoman Claudia. In the same year, her mother, who was 39 years old, died in a car accident, and Anjelica relocated to the U.S., where she modeled for several years. While she modeled, she worked with photographers such as Richard Avedon and Bob Richardson. \n\nHuston has an older brother, Tony, a younger maternal half-sister named Allegra, whom she called \"Legs\", a younger paternal half-brother, actor Danny Huston, and an adopted older brother, Pablo. She is the aunt of Boardwalk Empire actor Jack Huston. \n\nCareer \n\nActing career \n\nDeciding to focus more on movies, in the early 1980s she studied acting. Her first notable role was in Bob Rafelson's remake of The Postman Always Rings Twice (1981). Later, her father cast her as Maerose, daughter of a Mafia don whose love is scorned by a hit man (Jack Nicholson) in the film adaptation of Richard Condon's Mafia-satire novel Prizzi's Honor (1985). Huston won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her performance, making her the first person in Academy Award history to win an Oscar when a parent and a grandparent had also won one.\n\nHuston earned a Best Actress Oscar nomination for her portrayal of a con artist in Stephen Frears' The Grifters (1990). She also starred as the lead in her father's final directorial film, The Dead (1987), an adaptation of a James Joyce story.\n\nShe was then cast as Morticia Addams, in the hugely successful 1991 movie adaptation of The Addams Family. In 1993, she reprised the role for the sequel Addams Family Values. Anjelica also starred in the 1998 Hollywood blockbuster, Ever After: A Cinderella Story alongside Drew Barrymore and Melanie Lynskey as the Baroness Rodmilla De Ghent. She starred in two Wes Anderson films, The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) and The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004), as well as appearing in a minor role in 2007's The Darjeeling Limited. She voiced the role of Queen Clarion in the Disney Fairies film series starring Tinker Bell. On January 22, 2010, Huston was honored on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\nIn 2011, Huston was in the film Horrid Henry: The Movie.\nHuston later appeared on the NBC television series, Smash, portraying Broadway producer Eileen Rand. In 2015, Huston appeared in two episodes of the second season of the Amazon Video series Transparent.\n\nDirecting career \n\nHuston has recently expanded her horizons, following in her father's footsteps in the director's chair. Her first directorial credit was Bastard Out of Carolina (1996), followed by Agnes Browne (1999), in which she both directed and starred, and then Riding the Bus with My Sister (2005).\n\nPolitical activism \n\n In November 2007, Huston led a letter campaign organized by the U.S. Campaign for Burma and Human Rights Action Center. The letter, signed by over twenty five high-profile individuals from the entertainment business, was addressed to the United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and urged him to \"personally intervene\" to secure the release of Nobel Peace Prize recipient Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma.United States Campaign for Burma. [http://www.uscampaignforburma.org/index.html Hollywood: UN Should Act on Burma]. United States Campaign for Burma's homepage, September 6, 2007. Received November \n\nIn December 2012, Huston recorded a public service announcement for PETA, urging her colleagues in Hollywood to refrain from using great apes in television, movies and advertisements. \nLater, the animal rights organization named her their Person of the Year 2012. \n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 1969, at age 18, Huston began dating photographer Bob Richardson who was 23 years her senior. Their relationship lasted almost four years. She met Jack Nicholson in 1973 and they lived together, on and off, from that year until 1990, when the media reported he had fathered a child with Rebecca Broussard. She was briefly involved in a relationship with Ryan O'Neal during one of her separations from Nicholson in the late 1970s.\n\nOn May 23, 1992, Huston married sculptor Robert Graham. The couple lived in a five-story house designed by Graham at 69 Windward Avenue in Venice, California, until his death on December 27, 2008. They did not have any children.\n\nHuston's home went on the market for $18 million in 2010, but initially failed to sell. In September 2012, the New York Post reported that Huston was planning to transform her house into a private social club; the actress was said to have accepted $12 million for the property and to serve on the advisory board for a new private club to be based there. In April 2014, Huston sold the house for $11.15 million. \n\nHuston was close friends with actor Gregory Peck, whom her father directed in Moby Dick (1956). The two of them first met on the set of the film when she was four years old as Peck was in costume as Captain Ahab. Decades later, after her father's death, Huston reunited with Peck and maintained a friendship that lasted until his death. \n\nHuston wrote her memoirs as one 900-page book; she split it into two books at her publisher's urging. \n\nFilmography \n\nFilm\n\nTelevision\n\nBibliography\n\nBooks\n\n* Also published in London by Simon & Schuster.\n**\n*\n\nCritical studies, reviews and biography\n\n* Review of A story lately told.\n\nAwards and nominations"
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"Anjelica Huston was born heir to a Hollywood dynasty. ... Anjelica's nephew, Jack Huston, ... but grew up on a country estate in Ireland.",
"Anjelica Huston. Born: 8-Jul-1951 Birthplace: ... where Anjelica won her Academy Award. At 16, ... Anjelica Huston:",
"Horoscope and astrology data of Anjelica Huston born on 8 July 1951 ... St. Mary's Town and Country and Holland Park ... Sy Scholfield quotes Anjelica Huston, ...",
"Anjelica Huston was born on July 8, ... 2007 The Irish Country House (Video) ... Anjelica Houston | Angelica Huston ..."
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"Anjelica Huston - Biography - IMDb\nAnjelica Huston\nBiography\nShowing all 59 items\nJump to: Overview (3) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (1) | Trivia (39) | Personal Quotes (13) | Salary (2)\nOverview (3)\n5' 10\" (1.78 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nAnjelica Huston was born on July 8, 1951 in Santa Monica, California, to prima ballerina Enrica \"Ricki\" (Soma) and director and actor John Huston . Her mother, who was from New York, was of Italian descent, and her father had English, Scottish, and Scots-Irish ancestry. Huston spent most of her childhood overseas, in Ireland and England, and in 1969 first dipped her toe into the acting profession, taking a few small roles in her father's movies. However, in that year her mother died in a car accident, at 39, and Huston relocated to the United States, where the tall, exotically beautiful young woman modeled for several years.\nWhile modeling, Huston had a few more small film roles, but decided to focus more on movies in the early 1980s. She prepared herself by reaching out to acting coach Peggy Feury and began to get roles. The first notable part was in Bob Rafelson 's remake of the classic noir movie The Postman Always Rings Twice (1981) (in which Jack Nicholson , with whom Huston was living at the time, was the star). After a few more years of on-again, off-again supporting work, her father perfectly cast her as calculating, imperious Maerose, the daughter of a Mafia don whose love is scorned by a hit man (Nicholson again) in his film adaptation of Richard Condon 's Mafia-satire novel Prizzi's Honor (1985). Huston won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her performance, making her the first person in Academy Award history to win an Oscar when a parent and a grandparent (her father and grandfather Walter Huston ) had also won one.\nHuston thereafter worked prolifically, including notable roles in Francis Ford Coppola 's - Gardens of Stone (1987), Barry Sonnenfeld 's film versions of the Charles Addams cartoons The Addams Family (1991) and Addams Family Values (1993), in which she portrayed Addams matriarch Morticia, Wes Anderson 's The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) and The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004). Probably her finest performance on-screen, however, was as Lilly, the veteran, iron-willed con artist in Stephen Frears ' The Grifters (1990), for which she received another Oscar nomination, this time for Best Actress. A sentimental favorite is her performance as the lead in her father's final film, an adaptation of James Joyce 's The Dead (1987) -- with her many years of residence in Ireland, Huston's Irish accent in the film is authentic.\nEndowed with her father's great height and personal boldness, and her mother's beauty and aristocratic nose, Huston certainly cuts an imposing figure, and brings great confidence and authority to her performances. She clearly takes her craft seriously and has come into her own as a strong actress, emerging from under the shadow of her father, who passed away in 1987. Huston married the sculptor Robert Graham in 1992, The couple lived in the Los Angeles area before Graham's death in 2008.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Larry-115\nSpouse (1)\nDaughter of John Huston and Ricki Soma.\nLived in Ireland when she was young.\nYounger sister of Tony Huston .\nShe had a brief career as a model.\nCurrently lives in Pacific Palisades, California.\nIs the third generation of Oscar winners.\nAttended Kylemore Abbey High School in Connemara, Ireland.\nGranddaughter of Walter Huston .\nCat lover -- during an appearance on The Rosie O'Donnell Show (1996), she divulged that she has eight outdoor cats and three indoor cats at her Venice, California home.\nWas offered the role of Annie Wilkes in the horror film Misery (1990), which she turned down. The role went to Kathy Bates .\nIn Blood Work (2002), she works with Clint Eastwood . In White Hunter Black Heart (1990), Eastwood plays a movie director based on her father, John Huston , in a story about his experiences making The African Queen (1951).\nHer husband Robert Graham was a famous sculptor.\nWas a member of the jury at the Cannes Film Festival in 1990.\nOlder half-sister of Danny Huston and Allegra Huston .\nWas President of the International Jury of the 53rd San Sebastian Film Festival (2005). Other members of the jury were actress Verónica Forqué , actor Enrico Lo Verso , directors Lone Scherfig and Claude Miller , production designer Dean Tavoularis and writer Antonio Skármeta .\nPresident of the Jury at San Sebastián International Film Festival. She decided the Silver Shell for the Best Actor: Juan José Ballesta . [September 2005]\nHer father, John Huston , directed The African Queen (1951) with Katharine Hepburn and played Gandalf in The Return of the King (1980). Anjelica herself later worked with her father's successor, Ian McKellen , in And the Band Played On (1993) and with Cate Blanchett , who appeared in the trilogy, as well as playing Hepburn in The Aviator (2004), in The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004). Also appearing in The Aviator (2004) was her brother, Danny Huston .\nIn Addams Family Values (1993), Wednesday and Pugsley are forced to watch children's videos. Among them is Annie (1982), which was directed by her father, John Huston .\nThere are three generations of Oscar winners in the Huston family: Anjelica, her grandfather Walter Huston and her father John Huston . They are the first family to do so, the second family were the Coppolas - Francis Ford Coppola , Sofia Coppola , Nicolas Cage and Carmine Coppola .\nHer performance as Lilly Dillon in The Grifters (1990) is ranked #84 on Premiere magazine's 100 Greatest Performances of All Time (2006).\nWas a member of the jury at the Venice Film Festival in 1996.\nWas listed as a potential nominee on the 2007 Razzie Award nominating ballot. She was suggested in the Worst Supporting Actress category for her performance in Material Girls (2006); however, she failed to receive a nomination.\nIs an avid reader and will read anything she can get her hands on.\nWas chosen for the role of Morticia Addams in The Addams Family (1991) above singer-actress Cher .\nWas named one of Barbara Walters ' Ten Most Fascinating People of 1991.\nSpeaks French fluently.\nWas born while her father was in Africa shooting The African Queen (1951).\nWhen she received her star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on January 22, 2010, she became the third in the Huston family to do so after her father, John Huston , and her grandfather, Walter Huston .\nNamed after her biological maternal grandmother Angelica Soma, who died when Anjelica's mother Ricki was a child.\nParents had an age difference of 23 years and both had children from affairs with other people during their marriage (her father's son, Danny Huston with Zoe Sallis and her mother's daughter, Allegra Huston with John Julius Norwich ). Despite this, they never divorced and remained legally married until her mother died in a car accident when Anjelica was age 18.\nWas in a relationship with Jack Nicholson (late April 1973 - early January 1990).\nPresented Myrna Loy with her honorary Oscar on March 25, 1991 at the 63rd Academy Awards ceremony.\nHer father had English, Scottish, Northern Irish, distant German, and very remote Portuguese, ancestry. Her mother was of Italian descent.\nIs one of 26 actresses to have won an Academy Award for their performance in a comedy; hers being for Prizzi's Honor (1985). The others, in chronological order, are: Claudette Colbert ( It Happened One Night (1934)), Loretta Young ( The Farmer's Daughter (1947)), Josephine Hull ( Harvey (1950)), Judy Holliday ( Born Yesterday (1950)), Audrey Hepburn ( Roman Holiday (1953)), Goldie Hawn ( Cactus Flower (1969)), Glenda Jackson ( A Touch of Class (1973)), Lee Grant ( Shampoo (1975)), Diane Keaton ( Annie Hall (1977)), Maggie Smith ( California Suite (1978)), Mary Steenburgen ( Melvin and Howard (1980)), Jessica Lange ( Tootsie (1982)), Olympia Dukakis ( Moonstruck (1987)), Cher ( Moonstruck (1987)), Jessica Tandy ( Driving Miss Daisy (1989)), Mercedes Ruehl ( The Fisher King (1991)), Dianne Wiest ( Bullets Over Broadway (1994)), Mira Sorvino ( Mighty Aphrodite (1995)), Frances McDormand ( Fargo (1996)), Helen Hunt ( As Good as It Gets (1997)), Judi Dench ( Shakespeare in Love (1998)), Gwyneth Paltrow ( Shakespeare in Love (1998)), Penelope Cruz ( Vicky Cristina Barcelona (2008)), and Jennifer Lawrence ( Silver Linings Playbook (2012)).\nWas the 91st actress to receive an Academy Award; she won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for Prizzi's Honor (1985) at The 58th Annual Academy Awards (1986) on March 24, 1986.\nShe was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6270 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California on January 22, 2010.\nPersonal Quotes (13)\nThere were many times when my father [ John Huston ] and I didn't agree, but we always became close again because I tended not to stand up to him for long. I seem to have been drawn to dominating men, like my father and Jack [ Jack Nicholson ].\nAge is not enviable in America. It's not applauded all that strongly. You have to take it all with a grain of salt.\nI have a very full life and I am very happy with where I am now. I don't want to change anything. I once wanted to have children and it was not my choice not to have children but it hasn't broken my heart that I haven't. I think unless you're truly, wholeheartedly prepared to make a full-time commitment, you have to really think about it. I certainly wouldn't adopt children just because everybody in show business seems to be doing it.\nI like to dance. I probably would have been a dancer. I love music, it's good for the soul and dancing is good for people. I dance on my own, I go to classes, I have that sort of energy. I need to dance. People only need to dance to make them feel happy.\nWhat do I think of the Yankees? I'm sorry, I don't follow football.\nI can't help feeling the world is on this terrible roller coaster where nobody can get it up since the atom bomb.\nOf course, drugs were fun. And that's what's so stupid about anti-drug campaigns - they don't admit that.\nI was never happily hedonistic. There's no hedonism without a downside.\nThere were times when I hated my nose. But you grow up and you start to recognize that maybe it wasn't a bad thing that you weren't born Barbie.\nI've never been the kind of actress whose sole interest was sex appeal, so I think that earns you some longevity. And I like character parts. It's a lot more fun and you don't have to rely on being the taste of the moment. That level of fame is probably very difficult to deal with. People screaming your name in the streets, quite honestly, isn't an audience I'm desperate to capture. I'm lucky. The people who tell me they like my work tend to be the kind of people I might be friends with anyway. I have a really nice audience.\nIt was difficult directing myself. For a woman it's extra-hard because you have to spend an hour and a half in hair and make-up and you're late to set up shots and you're changing clothes in the street and there's no time to recover.\nI think I'm basically a gypsy. You know, from modeling.\n[on working with her father John Huston on Prizzi's Honor (1985)] We had a great time on Prizzi's Honor. My father is extremely easy to work with. He chooses his actors, places his confidence in them and lets you get on with it. He is living proof that a director doesn't have to run all over the place.\nI think people become more watchable after 30, when they have something between their ears.\nSalary (2)",
"Anjelica Huston - Photo 1 - Pictures - CBS News\nAnjelica Huston\nNext\nAnjelica Huston poses backstage during the 8th Annual Costume Designers Guild Awards, at the Beverly Hilton Hotel, February 25, 2006 in Beverly Hills.\nActing is in her blood. In more than 50 movies, Anjelica Huston played some pretty imposing characters, like her Oscar-nominated role as a con artist in \"The Grifters,\" the ghoulish Morticia in \"The Addams Family,\" and the girlfriend of a mob hit man in \"Prizzi's Honor,\" for which she won an Academy Award.\nBy CBSNews.com senior producer David Morgan\nCredit: Mark Mainz/Getty Images\nLeft: Director John Huston, with his daughter Anjelica, at the 1961 Berlin Film Festival.\nAnjelica Huston was born heir to a Hollywood dynasty. Her grandfather, actor Walter Huston, won an Oscar for \"The Treasure of the Sierra Madre.\" It was directed by her father, John Huston, who took home an Oscar, too. Anjelica's older brother, Tony, became an actor and screenwriter, while her younger brother, Danny, also became an actor. Anjelica's nephew, Jack Huston, also took up acting (\"Boardwalk Empire\").\nCorrespondent Lee Cowan asked Anjelica, \"Did you feel it was a burden, a family burden?\"\n\"I always liked being a Huston,\" she replied. \"And I always felt like it was my right, and it was my birthright and it was who I was.\"\nCredit: Courtesy of Scribers Books\nAnjelica Huston kissed by her older brother, Tony.\nShe was born in Santa Monica, Calif., but grew up on a country estate in Ireland.\nCredit: Courtesy of Scribers Books\nAnjelica Huston with her mother, Enrica, a former ballerina who was John Huston's fourth wife; her older brother Tony; and her father John Huston, December 1956 in Tobago.\nCredit: Courtesy of Anjelica Huston\nAnjelica Huston in the summer of 1958.\nCredit: Courtesy of Anjelica Huston\nAnjelica Huston climbing a tree at age 7.\nCredit: Stephen Dane/Courtesy of Scribers Books\nA Huston family portrait in Ireland, 1962.\nCredit: Courtesy of Scribers Books\nAnjelika Huston on Victoria, in Rome, 1963.\nCredit: Courtesy of Anjelica Huston\nAn undated portrait of Anjelica Huston, at the Peggy Carty School in Ireland.\nCredit: Courtesy of Anjelica Huston\nWhen Anjelica was 16, John Huston cast her in her first movie, a medieval romance titled, \"A Walk With Love and Death.\"\nIn a 1987 interview with CBS News, John Huston said it was \"a big mistake\" casting his daughter: \"I put her into a picture at the wrong moment. She wasn't all that good in it.\"\nAnjelica Huston agreed, telling correspondent Lee Cowan, \"I wasn't ready to work with him. And he was too tough on me, and it was all too personal.\"\nThe critics tore her apart, but the harsh reviews were suddenly replaced by another harsh reality: the death of her mother in a car accident.\nCredit: 20th Century Fox\nLeft: Anjelica Huston applying makeup backstage at Zandra Rhodes' charity fashion show for the Newsvendor's Benevolent Fund at the Savoy in London, June 13, 1973.\nFollowing the death of her mother, Anjelica moved to New York, where she was soon modeling for the likes of Vogue. She also took up with well-known fashion photographer Bob Richardson, who was 23 years older than she.\nCredit: Tim Jenkins/Courtesy of Scribers Books\nAnjelica Huston arrives at the 58th annual Academy Awards ceremony with her \"Prizzi's Honor\" co-star Jack Nicholson, March 24, 1986 in Los Angeles.\nBeginning in 1973, Huston and Nicholson were together for 16 years -- their private life a source of constant speculation. Their relationship was very publicly ended when Nicholson fathered a child with someone else.\nCredit: AP Photo\nIn the 1985 crime comedy \"Prizzi's Honor,\" Anjelica Huston played Maerose, whose mob family connections include a former boyfriend, hit man Charley (Jack Nicholson).\nCredit: 20th Century Fox\nJack Nicholson, Kathleen Turner, director John Huston and Anjelica Huston in \"Prizzi's Honor\" (1985).\nHaving directed his father to an Oscar win, John Huston had the honor of directing his daughter to one, too.\nCredit: 20th Century Fox\nWinners at the 58th annual Academy Awards, March 24, 1986. From left are Best Actor William Hurt (\"Kiss of the Spider Woman\"); Best Supporting Actress Anjelica Huston (\"Prizzi's Honor\"); Best Actress Geraldine Page (\"The Trip to Bountiful\"); and director-producer Sidney Pollack (\"Out of Africa\").\nCredit: AP Photo/Lennox McLendon\nDonal McCann and Anjelica Huston in \"The Dead\" (1987), adapted from a short story by James Joyce. It was the last film directed by John Huston.\nCredit: Vestron Pictures\nAngelica Huston as the \"other woman\" in Woody Allen's \"Crimes and Misdemeanors\" (1989).\nHuston would return in a more comedic role in Allen's \"Manhattan Murder Mystery.\"\nCredit: Orion Pictures\nIn the 1989 \"Enemies: A Love Story,\" Anjelica Huston played a Holocaust survivor who arrives in New York City to locate her husband, Herman Broder (Ron Silver). Her arrival complicates matters for Broder, for Broder's current wife (Margaret Sophie Stein), and his married lover (Lena Olin).\nHuston received her second Academy Award nomination, as Best Supporting Actress, for her performance.\nCredit: 20th Century Fox\nAnjelica Huston and Robert Duvall in the miniseries \"Lonesome Dove\" (1989), based on the novel by Larry McMurtry.\nHuston received the first of six Emmy Award nominations for her performance. She has also been nominated for \"Buffalo Girls,\" \"Bastard Out of Carolina,\" \"The Mists of Avalon,\" \"Iron Jawed Angels,\" and \"Medium.\"\nCredit: CBS\nAnjelica Huston starred in the comic fantasy, \"The Witches\" (1990), based on the children's book by Roald Dahl, author of \"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory.\"\nHuston played the Grand High Witch leading a convention of witches at an English resort.\nCredit: Warner Brothers\nAnjelica Huston, John Cusack and Annette Bening starred in \"The Grifters\" (1990). Based on a novel by Jim Thompson, the modern film noir of con artists received four Academy Award nominations, including Best Actress (Huston), Best Supporting Actress (Bening), Best Director (Stephen Frears), and Best Adapted Screenplay (Donald E. Westlake).\nCredit: Miramax\nFrom \"The Grifters,\" the maternal advice of Lilly (Anjelica Huston) to her son, Roy (John Cusack), a budding con man:\n\"Get off the grift, Roy. You don't have the stomach for it.\"\nCredit: Miramax\nThey're creepy and they're kooky, mysterious and spooky...\nIn the 1991 comedy \"The Addams Family,\" Anjelica Huston was draped in the role of Morticia, matriarch of a most unusual clan. Also starring were Raul Julia as Gomez, Carel Struycken as Lurch, Judith Malina as Grandmama, Jimmy Workman as Pugsley Addams, Christopher Lloyd as Uncle Fester, and Christina Ricci as Wednesday.\nCredit: Paramount Pictures\nAnjelica Huston and Raul Julia as Morticia and Gomez Addams in the 1993 sequel, \"Addams Family Values.\"\nCredit: Paramount Pictures\nIn 1992 Anjelica Huston married famed sculptor Robert Graham. At left they are photographed attending a gala at the Geffen Contemporary at MOCA in Los Angeles, California.\nGraham died in 2008.\nCredit: Giulio Marcocchi/Getty Images\nBefore \"Prizzi's Honor,\" Anjelica Huston appeared in two of Jack Nicholson's films, albeit in tiny, even uncredited roles: \"One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest\" and \"The Postman Always Rings Twice.\"\nFollowing Huston's marriage to Robert Graham, Nicholson and Huston appeared together in \"The Crossing Guard\" (1995), written and directed by Sean Penn. They played a couple whose marriage was torn apart following the death of their daughter by a drunk driver.\nCredit: Miramax Films\nIn the romantic comedy-drama \"Agnes Browne\" (1999), director and star Anjelica Huston played an Irish mother left to fend for her seven children following the death of her husband. Also appearing, as himself, was singer Tom Jones.\nCredit: USA Films\nActresses Anjelica Huston and Lauren Bacall arrive at the 2001 Tony Awards Party June 3, 2001, in Santa Monica, Calif. Bacall was honored with the Julie Harris Lifetime Achievement Award.\nCredit: Frederick M. Brown/Getty Images\nAnjelica Huston's first film for director Wes Anderson was \"The Royal Tenenbaums\" (2001), playing the wife of Gene Hackman and mother of Ben Stiller, Luke Wilson and Gwyneth Paltrow.\nHuston also appeared in Anderson's \"The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou,\" and \"The Darjeeling Limited.\"\nCredit: Buena Vista Pictures\nActors Daniel Benzali, Kelly Lynch and Anjelica Huston participate in an anti-war demonstration on Hollywood Boulevard February 15, 2003 in West Hollywood, Calif.\nCredit: Frazer Harrison/Getty Images\nAnjelica Huston played the head mistress of a pre-school academy who finds a surprising competitor when Eddie Murphy opens up his own \"Daddy Day Care\" (2003).\nCredit: Columbia Pictures\nWes Anderson's \"The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou\" (2004) featured Anjelica Huston as the wife of a celebrated oceanographer (Bill Murray) who is searching for the elusive \"Jaguar shark.\"\nCredit: Buena Vista Pictures\nAfter receiving seven Golden Globe nominations for her film and TV performances, Anjelica Huston won the Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Series, Mini-Series or TV Movie) for \"Iron Jawed Angels.\" Here she poses with her award at the Beverly Hilton Hotel, January 16, 2005, in Beverly Hills, California.\nCredit: Kevin Winter/Getty Images\nAnjelica Huston arrives at the world gala film premiere for \"These Foolish Things,\" at the Odeon Kensington on March 8, 2006 in London.\nCredit: Chris Jackson/Getty Images\nActress Natalie Portman and Anjelica Huston pose at the after-party for the premiere of \"The Darjeeling Limited,\" at the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences, October 4, 2007, in Beverly Hills, Calif.\nCredit: Kevin Winter/Getty Images\nAnjelica Huston reteamed with her \"Grifters\" costar John Cusack in the 2007 comedy drama, \"Martian Child,\" about a writer whose adoptive child claims to be from Mars.\nCredit: New Line Cinema\nAnjelica Huston is photographed backstage during the 11th annual Costume Designers Guild Awards, at the Four Seasons Beverly Wilshire Hotel, February 17, 2009 in Beverly Hills.\nCredit: Charley Gallay/Getty Images for CDG\nPenelope Cruz, winner of the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for \"Vicky Cristina Barcelona,\" poses in the press room with award presenters (from left) Anjelica Huston, Tilda Swinton, Goldie Hawn, Eva Marie Saint and Whoopi Goldberg, at the 81st annual Academy Awards, held at Kodak Theatre on February 22, 2009 in Los Angeles.\nCredit: Jason Merritt/Getty Images\nAnjelica Huston as Eileen Rand and Jack Davenport as Derek Wills, the producer and director of a Broadway musical at the center of the TV series \"Smash.\"\nCredit: Will Hart/NBC\nAnjelica Huston and Nick Jonas in the \"Smash\" episode, \"The Cost of Art.\"\nCredit: Patrick Harbron/NBC\nAnjelica Houston, Debra Messing, Paula Patton, Amber Heard and Jessica Alba, along with Cash Warren and stylist Brad Goreski, attend the Michael Kors Fall 2012 fashion show during Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week, at The Theatre at Lincoln Center, February 15, 2012 in New York City.\nCredit: Dimitrios Kambouris/Getty Images for Michael Kors\nActors-siblings Danny Huston and Anjelica Huston attend a screening of \"Magic City,\" at the Academy Theater at Lighthouse International, March 22, 2012 in New York City. Danny Huston plays the gangster Ben \"The Butcher\" Diamond in the Starz TV series.\nDanny Huston's other film appearances include \"The Aviator,\" \"The Constant Gardener,\" \"Marie Antoinette,\" \"X-Men Origins: Wolverine,\" Ridley Scott's \"Robin Hood,\" and \"Hitchcock.\"\nCredit: D. Dipasupil/Getty Images\nNobel Peace Prize recipient Aung San Suu Kyi is applauded by Anjelica Huston before a speech to students at Queens College in New York, September 22, 2012.\nCredit: DON EMMERT/AFP/GettyImages\nAs evident from the just-released first volume of her two-part memoir, \"A Story Lately Told,\" Anjelica Huston says she's as proud to be a Huston now as she ever was -- on her terms, with few regrets.\n\"At least my life, I can go to the heights and I can go to the depths, and I can find my levels in-between,\" she told Lee Cowan. \"That's a good life.\"\nCredit: CBS News\nLeft: The cover of the first volume of Anjelica Huston's memoirs.\nFor more info:",
"Anjelica Huston\nAnjelica Huston\nNationality: United States\nExecutive summary: The Grifters\nAnjelica Huston is an American film actress from a preeminent Hollywood family. Her grandfather, Walter Huston , was a stage and screen star who won an Oscar for The Treasure of the Sierra Madre. Her father, John Huston , won an Oscar for directing that film, and also directed Prizzi's Honor, where Anjelica won her Academy Award.\nAt 16, she was an extra in the 1967 James Bond spoof Casino Royale. Her first real acting on film was in her father's forgettable A Walk with Love and Death, in 1969. And her first appearance in a typical-Anjelica-Huston role was as \"the woman of dark visage\" in 1976's Swashbuckler. The essential Huston includes the aforementioned Bastard, Prizzi's Honor, Crimes and Misdemeanors, The Grifters, Addams Family Values, Ever After, and The Dead (her father's last film).\nHer first film as a director was Bastard out of Carolina with Jennifer Jason Leigh and Jena Malone , based on Dorothy Allison's chilling novel about child abuse. It was filmed for Ted Turner 's TNT in 1996, but Turner blew a gasket and said TNT would not show the movie after he saw a rough cut. The film eventually aired on Showtime.\nHuston possesses dual citizenship, Irish and American. She has made public statements in support of legalized medical marijuana. Huston has no children, and no regrets about it.\nFather: John Huston (actor, director; b. 5-Aug-1906, d. 28-Aug-1987)\nMother: Enrica Soma (\"Ricki\", Russian ballet dancer; b. 1930, d. 1969)\nMother: Celeste Shane (stepmother)\nBrother: Tony Huston (screenwriter, b. 16-Apr-1950)\nBrother: Danny Huston (actor, b. 14-May-1962)\nSister: Allegra Huston (adopted)\nBoyfriend: Bob Richardson (fashion photographer; dated late 1970s to early 1980s)\nBoyfriend: Jack Nicholson (actor, cohabited 1973-83, dated until 1990)\nHusband: Robert Graham Jr. (artist, m. 1992)\n High School: Kylemore Abbey International School, Connemara, Galway, Ireland",
"Anjelica Huston, horoscope for birth date 8 July 1951, born in Beverly Hills, with Astrodatabank biography - Astro-Databank\nAnjelica Huston\nBiography\nAmerican third generation actress, granddaughter of actor Walter Huston, daughter of writer-director John Huston. She won the best supporting actress Oscar for \"Prizzi's Honor\" in 1985 and a National Society of Film Critics Award in 1990 for \"Enemies, A Love Story.\"\nBorn into a powerful artistic family, the second child of larger-than-life writer-director John Huston and his fourth wife, ballerina Enrica Soma, Anjelica was a very innocent, quiet child. Her dad, a gambler, sportsman and lady's man, moved the family to an estate in Ireland when she was a year old. Spending most of his time on locations around the world and coming home for holidays, Anjelica learned to dress up, mimic and make people laugh in order to gain approval from him. She sensed a tension between herself and one year older brother Tony, vying for dad's attention. Always conscious of his disapproval, he wasn't abusive, just tough on the children. Dad's little girl, she wouldn't dream of answering back. Her parents were atheists, but she was sent to convent school at eight to mix with other children. She rode horses and went antique shopping with her mom. Enrica and her three children lived on the estate in what was called \"the Little House\" and when John was home he brought his guests to \"the Big House.\" At about 11 she realized he father had other women as more than friends and her parents separated about that time. Anjelica, older brother Tony and younger brother Danny moved to London with their mother. She attended the Lycee Francaise, St. Mary's Town and Country and Holland Park Comprehensive schools. During her stormy adolescence when she was attending anti-war rallies in 1966 her dad pulled her out of school, awarding her a part in his film \"A Walk With Love and Death\" in order to play the role of a 14th century French heroine. The film was considered ponderous and archaic. Shortly before its release her mom, at 39 years old, died in a car crash. She felt loss and emptiness as her world turned upside down. Afraid her dad would put her in a convent, she ran to New York with the Tony Richardson company of Hamlet understudying the role of Ophelia. Becoming statuesque, her luminously pale skin, black coffee hair, green eyes and chiseled patrician face were a natural combination for fashion modeling on the runways of London, Paris, Milan and Germany. She appeared on the cover of \"Vogue\" and in other noted publications.\nPart of the Huston heritage is a love of work. She feels the more you work the less you criticize the work of others. Having to measure up to her dad's standards and having no real way to do so, she didn't take many parts in the 1970's. Feeling thwarted and depressed in her 20's because she didn't have early success, she now feels lucky as the odd crossing of her American and European background has provided her with the advantage of being discovered later in life. Never an ingénue type, people assumed she received parts because of her dad before her award-winning role in \"Prizzi's Honor\" when she was 34. A car accident in 1980 became a turning point, moving her out of the shadows into her own light. It was a wake-up call when she had a head-on collision at the bottom of Coldwater Canyon, going through the windshield, breaking her nose in four places and needing a six hour operation to repair it. She still has a tiny arrow tip of bone buried in the bridge of her nose.\nAnjelica met Jack Nicholson in Los Angeles in 1972. They became known as a Hollywood Royal couple, spending 17 years together. Giving one another a wide berth, neither of them were confrontational and lack of communication was part of their problem. An avid gardener, she tended to their home rather than to her own career. She felt defensive during those years, now she feels she is stronger and a survivor. The relationship with Nicholson ended when he fathered a child with another woman. It took two years to find her perfect house with no view; she hates views. Doing all the work herself, she has a garden that any Englishwoman would envy. She also owns a ranch north of Hollywood. After their breakup in 1990, she spent four years in a collaboration with the late acting coach Peggy Feury which enhanced her abilities immensely. During this time she also took singing lessons. Becoming an actress of enormous range, she has played as an extra in the film \"Frances\" and as Morticia in \"The Addams Family.\" She enjoys playing witches and responds well to eccentric characters. She has worked with both of her brothers. Tony wrote the screen play for \"The Dead\" in which Anjelica was directed by their dad. Their father died during filming on 8/28/1987. Her dad had emphysema and she smoked until the early 1990's. In 1989 she appeared in the acclaimed \"Lonesome Dove\" mini-series on TV. She has now branched out into the field of directing. In 1985 she won best supporting actress for \"Prizzi's Honor\" and in February 1990 she received the National Society of Film Critics Award for \"Enemies, A Love Story.\" She received a nomination for best actress in \"The Grifters\" in 1991.\nOn 8/28/1987 she married Mexican born, world-renowned Los Angeles sculptor Robert Graham. When being interviewed she stated, \"I'm a Cancer, I like my house and animals and I would love to have a child.\"\nHer husband died at age 70 on December 27, 2008 in Santa Monica, CA. The cause was not give.",
"Anjelica Huston - IMDb\nIMDb\nActress | Director | Producer\nAnjelica Huston was born on July 8, 1951 in Santa Monica, California, to prima ballerina Enrica \"Ricki\" (Soma) and director and actor John Huston . Her mother, who was from New York, was of Italian descent, and her father had English, Scottish, and Scots-Irish ancestry. Huston spent most of her childhood overseas, in Ireland and England, and in ... See full bio »\nBorn:"
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Who wrote the novel Delta Connection?
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"The Delta Connection A novel by Hammond Innes . The first killing occurs in Constantza, the Romanian seaport on the Black Sea, ...",
"The delta connection. [Hammond Innes] ... http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59645102> # The delta connection a schema:Book, schema:CreativeWork; ..."
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"The Delta Connection by Hammond Innes\nA novel by Hammond Innes\n \nThe first killing occurs in Constantza, the Romanian seaport on the Black Sea, but the next death happens a world away. At the heart of this thriller is the search for a missing woman - Vikki, the beautiful, adopted daughter of a dissident journalist.\n \nUsed availability for Hammond Innes's The Delta Connection\nSee all available used copies of this book at Abebooks UK or Abebooks US",
"The delta connection (Book, 1997) [WorldCat.org]\nFind more libraries Librarian? Claim your library to\nThe delta connection\n Print book : Fiction : English View all editions and formats\nDatabase:\nWorldCat\nSummary:\nA desperate escape from Romania after the fall of the Ceausescus... a violent introduction to the new rules of warfare on the borders of Afghanistan... then an icy struggle for survival among the world's highest mountains... Death follows those who seek beyond the 'Delta Connection' - searching for something closely guarded in the most dangerous region on earth\nRating:\nYou are connected to the University of Washington Libraries network\nHide local services for this item\nOCLC FirstSearch\nAdd library to Favorites\nPlease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours.\nAllow this favorite library to be seen by others\nKeep this favorite library private\nFind a copy in the library\nFinding libraries that hold this item...\nDetails\nOriginally published: London: Macmillan, 1996.\nDescription:\nHammond Innes.\nAbstract:\nThe first killing occurs in Constantza, the Romanian seaport on the Black Sea, but the next death happens a world away. At the heart of this thriller is the search for a missing woman - Vikki, the beautiful, adopted daughter of a dissident journalist. Read more...\nReviews\nAdd a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first.\nAdd a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first.\nTags\nAdd tags for \"The delta connection\". Be the first.\nSimilar Items"
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In the 70s George Lee was a world champion in which sport?
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"George Lee MBE on Gliding Three times World Gliding Champion and ex GSA member George Lee MBE talks to www ... I just managed to stay in touch with the sport that ...",
"... the full panorama of world sport is represented in the Asian continent. ... Asia's greatest sports heroes . ... George Lee: The Survivor ..."
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"RAF Gliding & Soaring Association - George Lee Article\nRAF Gliding & Soaring Association\nGSA Articles George Lee Article\nGeorge Lee Article\nGeorge Lee MBE on Gliding\nThree times World Gliding Champion and ex GSA member George Lee MBE talks to www.rafgsa.org about his exploits in gliding, competition flying and his love for silent flight.\nI was born in Ireland, just south of Dublin, and I had no connection to aviation with either family or friends. I did a lot of sea fishing in my younger years and I remember being fascinated by the sea birds soaring the local pier wall. I frequently dreamt that I was skimming along the waves in the manner of the albatross. A friend of mine told me one day that he was joining the RAF as an Aircraft Apprentice. I read the material that he had and saw that it was possible to be commissioned at the end of the three year training, so I decided to join up the same way. I discovered when I got to Halton that only two or three apprentices would be selected for commissioning out of an entry of some 160. As I was not gifted technically, I was not going to be one of that small group!\nJust over a year into the training, I heard about the RAFGSA Centre at Bicester and I decided to try gliding to show motivation towards becoming a pilot. My first flight in a glider was in March 1963; a three minute circuit in light rain off a winch launch in a T21. I was enthralled by the experience, completely hooked; whatever happened in my professional life, I would continue gliding! I did continue gliding for the remainder of my apprenticeship and during my years working as an electrical fitter on the Hastings aircraft at RAF Colerne, during the course of which I became an instructor.\nAgainst the odds, I was selected for pilot and officer training in 1967 and I did very little gliding over the next two years. When I completed my basic flying training there was a backlog in the system and I was faced with the prospect of spending a year away from flying training before commencing advanced training. I contacted Andy Gough, CFI of the RAFGSA Centre, and he arranged for me to spend that year on the staff at Bicester. Apart from running courses and building a lot of tugging hours, I flew a KA6CR in my first competition in 1970, the Inter-Services. I won the competition and, as with my first flight in a glider, I was hooked. Competition gliding is exciting!\nGliding again took a back seat from when I commenced advanced flying training until I was established on a Phantom squadron at RAF Coningsby. I flew a KA6E in my first Nationals at Dunstable in 1972, coming second. I then flew in various competitions over the next three years, winning the Open Class Nationals in 1974. I was selected to the British Team for the World Championships in Finland in 1976, winning in an ASW17. I was successful in retaining my title during the following two World Championships, becoming the first pilot to ever win three consecutive world titles.\nI left the RAF in 1983 and joined Cathay Pacific Airways to fly 747s out of Hong Kong for the next fifteen years. They were rewarding years professionally but my gliding really suffered and I just managed to stay in touch with the sport that I loved. I retired in 1999 to Australia with the first glider that I had ever owned, a Nimbus 4DM. The pipedream was to conduct advanced coaching courses for junior pilots of different nationalities who had shown talent and motivation. The vision was fully realised and I have now coached more than fifty pilots from the UK, Australia, USA, Austria and South Africa. The coaching courses will finish this year (2010) and I hope to do more of my own flying.\nGliding, particularly competition flying, has meant a great deal to me over the last forty seven years. Gliding was my first flying love and it is now my last flying love. I have always had a competitive nature and, for me, World Championships flying was the ultimate challenge. To fly for Great Britain against the top pilots who I had read so much about was a great privilege. It also gave rise to a very high level of stress and the management of that stress was an extremely important part of my success. I was pretty well stressed out during the practice period before my first World Championships in Finland, but a private chat with the Team Manager got that sorted out. I was then able to relax and it was such a thrill to go from a high level of self-imposed stress to the sheer joy of victory. As far as the next World Championships were concerned, I reasoned that nobody expected a newcomer to the scene to win a consecutive title. For the third championships I reasoned that nobody, but nobody, expected me to pull off the hat trick as it had never been done before! When I was flying in World Championships pairs flying was not a part of the scene and I am thankful for that as I enjoyed flying as an individual!\nApart from World Championships flying, the most exciting event that I have flown in was the Smirnoff Derby in 1977. This was an invitation only, sponsored event and five of us flew from Los Angeles across to the North-East corner of the U.S. It was a privilege to fly against pilots like Ingo Renner and George Moffat, although we usually never saw each other again all day after the “racehorse” start. Every day was a fresh navigational challenge as we flew over new, changing terrain, remembering that this was before GPS came on the scene.\nGliders and instrumentation have changed significantly over the years. The best glide angle of the ASW17 that I flew in the seventies with its wingspan of 20.5metres is now being matched by gliders with 15metres wingspan. The use of GPS has made an enormous impact on the sport and en-route navigation and final glides can be flown today with a degree of accuracy that could not have been envisaged in the seventies. Handling has also been transformed, an important factor that reduces pilot fatigue and therefore contributes towards improved performance. Although glider performance has improved markedly over the decades, the improvements have been incremental rather than dramatic. The next major step forward in performance may be associated with boundary layer control. Whatever the changes, we must remember that gliding is not all about technical advances. The late Philip Wills wrote beautifully about gliding, capturing the sheer romance and enjoyment of the sport as few have done. I hope that we glider pilots will never lose sight of the beauty and unpredictability of our wonderful sport.\nI have been honoured to receive many awards over the years, the most prestigious gliding award being the Lilienthal Medal which was awarded following my third WGC victory in 1981. It was also a very great honour to take Prince Charles up for his first flights in a glider in 1978.\nI have had a blessed and privileged life and I have much to thank the RAFGSA for. GSA clubs have always been associated with a high standard of flying and quality of equipment. With good club geographical representation, the opportunities are there for the taking. With talent and motivation being the key elements, the sky is the limit. Rank and size of bank balance are not determining factors, so dare to dream and set about its realisation!\nGeorge Lee MBE",
"Asia's Greatest Sports Heroes | CNN Travel\nAsia's greatest sports heroes\nAsia's greatest sports heroes\nIt's the world's most populous place, so bear with us -- there are a lot of 'em\n2 December, 2009\nFor each country's sports heroes, visit: Japan , Hong Kong , India , Singapore , China and Thailand . Did we overlook anyone? Hey, it's a big continent; if you feel that strongly about it, tell us in the comments below.\nPerhaps more than anywhere else on earth, the full panorama of world sport is represented in the Asian continent. Track, basketball, boxing, cricket, football, cycling -- for pete's sake, snooker! -- nearly every sport is regional in its reach, except here. Asia's a veritable gumbo of earth's many athletic diversions, making any attempt at assembling a list of its most elite athletes foolish at best and masochistic at worst. So without further ado, we present our list of Asia's most elite athletes!*\nUPDATE: December 3. THE PEOPLE HAVE SPOKEN! Not only that -- we listened. As we correctly guestimated, we could rely on our readership to right this ship and chime in with other great sports figures deemed deservant to end up on this list. These include a bunch of terrific stars from Pakistan, former cricketer and now politician Imran Khan and squash doyen Jahangir Khan. Malaysia's squash superstar Nicole David, Chinese table tennis player Ma Lin and Indonesian badminton players Susie Susanti and Taufik Hidayat. You said we should also throw in the Philippines' Efren \"Bata\" Reyes, Paeng Nepomuceno and Felicisimo Ampon. Naturally, we also expected at least someone to shout out Sachin Tendulkar's name. Thank you. We're glad you were able to point out these and other omissions. But we're keen for more so we can better organize this list. See the comments box at the bottom of this page. Over and out.\nRikidozan: Professional Wrestler ( Japan )\nRikidozan\nIn the decade after World War II, the Japanese population faced not only material poverty but an almost crippling depression about their defeat. In the early 1950s, however, professional wrestler Rikidozan came to the nation's rescue. He single-handedly worked to lift the nation's spirits by winning victory after victory over American wrestlers in widely-viewed televised matches.\nThe irony, however, was that the national hero Rikidozan was actually Korean, and like all good pro wrestling, the matches were rigged. No matter, Rikidozan still established pro wrestling as a major sport in Japan and closed the book on Japan's early post-war malaise.\nLiu Xiang: Olympian Hurdler ( China )\nThe 2007 world champion 110m hurdler is the first Asian gold-medalist in any Olympic track and field event. He won his event at the 2004 Athens Games with a world-record time of 12.91 seconds, but was forced to pull out of the Beijing Olympics with an Achilles injury. Liu recently returned to competition with a second-place finish at the Shanghai Golden Grand Prix and a first-place finish at the 2009 Asian Athletics Championships.\nLi Jiawei: Table tennis queen ( Singapore )\nThis Chinese lass might not have been born or bred in Singapore, but she had Singaporeans cheering during the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Li Jiawei , with teammates Feng Tianwei and Wang Yuegu, took the silver medal in team table tennis for Singapore. Why is it a huge deal? It was only the second Olympic medal ever won by the city-state (the first goes to weightlifter Tan Howe Liang in 1960 ). That feat, along with her personal track record as a perennial gold medalist at the Commonwealth Games, ITTF Pro Tour, and Southeast Asia Games since 1999, is enough to land her on our list of sports heroes. Li Jiawei takes the silver aganst Wang Chen of USA at the 2008 Beijing Olympics Table Tennis Women's Singles. YouTube video from Beanny46 .\nKim Yu-na: Figure Skater (South Korea)\nKim Yu-na\nKorean figure skater Kim Yu-na is currently the reigning world champion. She’s only 19. With more than nine titles under her belt, including her most recent 2009 World Championship victory, she shows no signs of slowing down. When she isn’t busy signing endorsement deals and autographs and wooing audiences around the world, she’s training with Canadian coach Brian Orser in Toronto. Kim Yu-na is arguably Korea’s proudest star and an inspiration to countless youths looking to follow in her footsteps. Not bad for a girl a few years shy of graduating university.\nKhaosai Galaxy: \"The Thai Tyson\"( Thailand )\nKhaosai Galaxy, aka \"The Thai Tyson,\" not only boasted a cool name but had a devastating left that kept him undefeated throughout his career. Considered by boxing experts as one of the greatest fighters of all time and a member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame, the former Muay Thai fighter defended his title 19 times, 16 by knockout, earning him the nickname “the Thai Tyson”. When his twin brother Khaokor won the title in 1988, they became the first twins to hold international belts. Khao Sai retired in 1991 as arguably Thailand’s greatest-ever athlete.\nLang Ping: Volleyball Olympian ( China )\nLike Li Ning, the “Iron Hammer” built her international reputation by capturing gold at the 1984 Olympics. A star hitter on the women’s volleyball team, her squad was the first Chinese team to win multiple world championships in a major international sport. She eventually retired and turned to coaching, where she’s captured Olympic silver twice -- once with China in 1996 and again in 2008 with the United States.\nSunil Gavaskar: Cricket ( India )\nSunil Gavaskar\nGavaskar batted in an era when the dangerous West Indian pace quartet was at peak ferocity. He didn’t wear the protective helmets of today, he didn’t have modern day umpires ruling a no ball for more than one bouncer per over. His opening partners changed dozens of times throughout his career, but the captain always held up his end. He was the first man to cross the unthinkable milestone of 10,000 runs in test cricket and surpassed Sir Don’s record for test centuries. He did it all seemingly without breaking a sweat and smiling, always, all the way to the commentary booth where he now sits. Sachin Tendulkar, by his own admission, grew up idolizing Gavaskar, and would undoubtedly rate him higher than himself.\nPatrick Lam: Equestrian Rider ( Hong Kong )\nHong Kong athletes hardly ever cross paths with Olympic gold. Which is why Hong Kong rider Patrick Lam shot to sports stardom when he upstaged the world No. 1 for one night in an Olympic equestrian race in 2008. The 26-year-old Lam outshone world No. 1 stadium jumper Meredith Michaels-Beerbaum of Germany when he flawlessly completed the preliminary round of showjumping. He didn’t end up with the gold, but later bagged a HK$5 million equine scholarship by the Hong Kong Jockey Club.\nThe Chinese-Austrian Eurasian recently made headlines again by winning Hong Kong’s second gold medal at the 11th National Games in men’s equestrian jumping. With wind at his back, expect more great things from this talented jockey.\nFandi Ahmad: Football ( Singapore )\nFandi Ahmad\nAll of Singapore roared at the final whistle of the 1994 Malaysia Cup final. The little red dot had won 4–0, and Fandi Ahmad led the way with a foot in almost every goal made or created. But he was far more. Ahmad was (and still is) the poster boy for soccer success. He was the first Singaporean who signed on with an European soccer club, the first Singaporean to score against soccer powerhouse Inter Milan. But most of all, Ahmad and his teammates succeeded where National Day campaigns failed -- they turned Singaporeans into \"One People, One Nation\" on match days, 7pm to 9pm.\nPone Kingpetch: Flyweight Boxer ( Thailand )\nPone Kingpetch did what his famous predecessor, the bantamweight boxer Chamroen Songkitrat of the 1950s, could not achieve in several attempts. The flyweight won a world title fight (in 1960), becoming Thailand’s first international belt holder. Taking a 15-round split decision over Argentine Pascual Perez in Bangkok, with their majesties the King and Queen of Thailand in attendance, Pone went on to defend his title later in the year in Los Angeles. A statue in Hua Hin commemorates this groundbreaking Thai athlete.\nKim Khan “Zig Zach” Zak: Muay Thai ( Singapore )\nKim Khan “Zig Zach” Zaki\nThink Singaporeans are passive folk who would \"beahh\" our way into submission? Kim Khan “Zig Zach” Zaki says otherwise with his elbows, fists, and knees. The personal trainer’s greatest achievement was being made Singapore’s entry for Contender Asia 2008 -- a reality TV show that pitted Muay Thai fighters from around the world against each other. While he bowed out early due to a dislocated shoulder, his rematch in the show's final episode showed audiences that this kid could fight. With that experience behind him, Kim is probably the only Singaporean Muay Thai fighter who takes part in international bouts, and has since recorded 13 wins out of 19 fights. That’s not too shabby at all.\nNirajan Malla: Footballer (Nepal)\nEighteen-year-old Nirajan Malla is a football star on the rise in Nepal, portrayed by local media as a player whose life is consumed by the sport. Having lead his country’s team to victory in major regional tournaments in the under-19 category, he is noted by teammates and competitors alike as a fierce striker who experiments with a variety of moves. And he’s also a teen heartthrob.\nYao Ming: Basketball Star ( China )\nYao Ming\nWe have to start with the obvious. China’s most recognizable export has recently been plagued by injury, but the 2.29m (7ft 6in) giant is still widely regarded as one of the NBA’s elite centers when healthy. A three-time Olympian, seven-time NBA All-Star and the first-ever foreign-born top pick in the NBA, Yao made US$51 million in 2008 and has led Forbes’ Chinese celebrities list in income and popularity for six straight years.\nWong Kam-po: Cyclist ( Hong Kong )\nWong Kam-po is possibly Hong Kong's most evergreen champion athlete. Apart from Olympic gold, the cyclist has won practically every top title within the cycling scene and he has never returned home from the China's National Games without a prize. This year, the permanently Lycra-clad sporting hero won his third gold medal at the 11th National Games -- at the ripe \"old\" age of 36.\nWong's coach of 15 years, Shen JinKang, stills remembers when he found out that Hong Kong had no professional cyclists on the official team, and that Wong was the only person who signed up for professional training. Wong has since inspired a whole generation of professional cyclists.\nWong Fei Hong: Wushu Grandmaster ( China )\nA noted physician, Wushu grandmaster and Chinese folk hero, Wong’s exploits are the stuff of legend and the subject of countless films over the years, including Jackie Chan’s Drunken Master and Jet Li’s Once Upon a Time in China . Wong himself was an expert in the Hung Gar style of martial arts, and was so lethal that he once reputedly defeated 30 gangsters using only a staff.\nBruce Lee: Martial Arts Legend ( Hong Kong )\nBruce Lee\nBruce Lee is the obvious choice, but we’ll explain it anyway: the silver screen fighter made martial arts the most glorified sport to come out of China, founded his own kung fu style, and put Hong Kong on the world map.\nAs a teen, the belligerent Lee trained under kung fu master Ip Man and quickly displayed a talent for Wing Chun, a popular branch of martial arts. Reckoning that traditional martial art rituals were too ornamental for street fighting, he developed his own system of flexible blows he called ‘Jeet Kune Do’ in 1965.\nAt 31 the hunk moved his talents to the Hollywood big screen and unleashed a global kung fu phenomenon.\nIn an age when fight films were unaided by special effects, Lee’s ability to perform superhuman feats, such as a two-fingered push up and the lethal one-inch punch, was jaw-dropping for Western audiences. It still wows us now.\nJames Wattana: Snooker phenom ( Thailand )\nIn 1986, the snooker world was turned upside-down when a skinny 16-year-old defeated all comers to win a major tournament. This teen phenom, James Wattana -- aka the Thai Tornado -- excelled at a sport that was not particularly popular in his native land. However, Wattana’s virtuosity on the felt was significant internationally as he broke the British’s dominance of the game, rising to number three in the world rankings.\nSadaharu Oh: The \"King\" of baseball ( Japan )\nMatsui, Dice-K and Ichiro have reached the top echelons of America's Major Leagues, but back in Japan, they still bow to the altar of Japanese baseball's best player of all-time -- Sadaharu Oh . Originally a star high school pitcher, Oh switched to first base in the majors and later became the world home run king, with 868 over the fence during his long career. After retiring at age 40 in 1980, Oh became a legendary coach for the Yomiuri Giants and the Fukuoka Hawks.\nBorn to a Taiwanese father and Japanese mother, Oh -- spelled with the Chinese character for \"king\" (王) -- has also become a powerful symbol of Japan's often ignored cultural diversity.\nYip Pin Xiu: Paralympian swimmer ( Singapore )\nYip Pin Xiu\nIn the 2008 Paralympics, Yip Pin Xiu and equestrienne Laurentia Tan won the first Paralympic medals for the republic. Yip, winner of silver in the 50m freestyle and gold in 50m backstroke, struggled with muscular dystrophy from birth. But under the tutelage of Ang Peng Siong (also known as Singapore’s \"flying fish\"), she developed into a competitive swimmer who regularly leaves opponents sputtering in her wake. More importantly, their success at the Paralympics sparked a debate on the recognition of disabled athletes and general attitudes towards the disabled.\nKapil Dev: Cricket ( India )\nIt's probably the most widely circulated image in Indian cricket history. Kapil Dev, at Lords, that overcast English evening in 1983, holding the World Cup aloft. He was India’s first true pace bowler. He bowled injury free, when bowlers today have a tough time lasting a series without a niggle. As national team captain Dev codified the phrase “Kapil’s Devils” in sporting lore. And he did it when no one gave a lanky lad from Haryana a chance, retiring as the highest wicket taker ever, anywhere and one of the best cricketing all rounders of all time.\nPrakash Padukone: Badminton ( India )\nPrakash Padukone\nThey called him ‘The Gentle Tiger,’ though his opposition post-1971 would likely object to the moniker; it was at about that time that Padukone dramatically augmented the aggressiveness of his game. But he always moved with a ballerina's grace on the court, and when he lifted the All England Championships cup in 1980, he put India in the same league with the game’s superpowers. Mild mannered, dignified, focused and still actively paying back the sport he loves, Padukone can still be seen gliding gingerly on the court at his Bangalore sports academy, playing against youngsters who look on in awe and admiration.\nLi Ning: Olympian Gymnast ( China )\nLi burst into the international spotlight by winning six medals including three golds (in floor exercise, pommel horse and rings) and topping the individual medal count at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics -- China’s first appearance at a Summer Games after a 32-year boycott. However, he’s now probably best known as the founder of China’s biggest sportswear company (Li Ning) and for his high-flying, cauldron-lighting appearance at the Opening Ceremonies of the 2008 Beijing Olympics.\nShizuka Arakawa: Olympian Figure Skater ( Japan )\nFigure skating has a long history in Japan, with the All-Japan Figure Skating Championships held since 1929. No Japanese figure skater, however, had ever taken the highest honor -- an Olympic gold -- until Shizuka Arakawa pulled it off at Turin in 2006.\nArakawa had been a highly-ranked Japanese skater, but going into Turin, enjoyed none of the media hype that her rivals like Miki Ando spun into product endorsement deals. Yet with a flawless execution of an Ina Bauer and a triple jump combination, Arakawa beat expectations and became Olympic champion. Arakawa not only became one of the top female Japanese athletes of all time but also showed the true modest Japanese sports spirit: all walk, no talk.\nManny 'Pacman' Pacquaio: Boxer (Philippines)\nManny Pacquiao\nEmmanuel Dapidran Pacquiao has won welterweight, lightweight, flyweight, featherweight and super featherweight, and bantam weight championships. He is the first boxer to win championships in seven different weight classes. The Pacman is revered in the Philippines. How revered? Check out this post from a fan on his website: \"Manny's life is so likely with Jesus Christ coming from the poorest of the poor but became famous, adore, love, praise, betroth and idolize. Manny was a chosen one from the Far East. He was called to be redeemer in a modern way. He was as popular as He was. Jesus Christ was the King of Kings and Manny is the King of the ring. Is Manny the chosen one to lead us...\"\nPrince Birabongse Bhanudej: Race-car Driver ( Thailand )\nPrince Birabongse Bhanudej is an iconic figure in Thai history. An international jet-setter and high-ranking royal who liked to fly his own planes and married six times, he was most famous as a race-car driver in the 1930s, '40s and '50s. Racing with Maserati, among other teams, he placed as high as second in Grand Prix races in the 1930s under the admiring gaze of a young prince (and now king), His Royal Highness Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand.\nVishwanathan Anand: Chess ( India )\nAnand doesn’t just look like a scientist, he prepares for his game like one. He has decimated former champions with the precision of a physicist dismantling an atomic bomb, blowing the likes of Kasparov, Karpov and Kramnik out of the water. World champion, grandmaster, Arjuna awardee, Chess Oscar winner, padma shri, padma bhushan, padma vibhushan and a global ambassador to the brainy sport. He may live his life in black and white, but Anand’s achievements are a brilliant rainbow on India's sports horizon.\nTakeru Kobayashi: World Champion Eater ( Japan )\nKobayashi\nBack in the old days, competitive eating was essentially a gag competition for giant Americans. Everything changed, however, with the professional debut of 173cm, 58kg Japanese eater Takeru Kobayashi. No one has done more to make the grotesque culinary event a \"sport.\"\nThanks to his special \"Solomon\" hot dog eating technique of dipping the buns in water and snapping the wiener in half, Kobayashi racked up six consecutive wins at Nathan's Coney Island hot-dog eating contest. Even new champions such as Joey Chestnut have used Kobayashi's innovations to beat the Japanese master at his own game.\nKobayashi has lost his hot-dog title, but don't worry, he is still reigning champ of the hamburger-based Krystal Square Off. Eat that, Chestnut.\nMarco Fu: Snooker ( Hong Kong )\nMarco Fu started playing snooker when he was nine years old and turned professional when he was 20 years old in 1998. His rookie year, he reached the final of the Grand Prix, beating Ronnie \"The Rocket\" O'Sullivan and then Peter Ebdon.\nFor the rest of the season, Fu qualifed for four more ranking tournaments including the World Championship. He was voted by World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association as Newcomer of the Year and World Snooker Association Young Player of the Year in 1999.\nIt seems that Fu rose too fast too soon -- after being tipped as the Hong Kong wunderkind to take over the future world of international snooker, Fu's subsequent performance was less than impressive and he slid in ranking.\nGeorge Lee: The Survivor ( Singapore )\nGeorge Lee\nThe Subaru Impreza Challenge is Singapore’s version of Survivor, except that it’s literally the last man standing who wins it all. The grueling competition pits contestants against rain, shine, mosquitoes, and gut-busting, infrequent toilet breaks in an effort to keep their palms on a brand new car. Sound impossible and sadistic? Well, army officer George Lee outlasted all other contenders with a record time of 81 hours, 32 minutes. That’s three-and-a-half days spent weathering the elements. He’s not spilling his secret, but we're guessing that his Ironman training helped. After all, triathletes are suckers for punishment.\nMilkha Singh: Runner ( India )\nHe was called ‘the flying Sikh.’ Pride of Punjab. Pride of the Sikhs. Pride of India. He did what no Indian did at the time. He ran -- as a profession. Singh is on this list for gold medals won in the Asian Games in 1958 and 1962. But he’s also here for the medal he narrowly missed in the 1960 Rome Olympics, a race in which he finished faster than the standing world record. At a time without byzantine 25th-century shoe technology, Singh ran barefoot for most of his career.\nUdomporn Polsak: Olympian Weightlifter ( Thailand )\nThailand’s first female Olympic champion, the powerful little lady from northeast Thailand defied traditional stereotypes of Thai women by taking a gold in, of all sports, weightlifting. Taking gold in the 53kg category and looking graceful all the while, she immediately became a national hero. Days later Pavina Thongsuk also took gold in weightlifting, showing that when it comes to sport, Thai athletes can be tough as nails."
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Who preceded Hosni Mubarak as President of Egypt?
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"Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak (,, '; born 4 May 1928) is a former Egyptian military and political leader who served as the fourth President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011.\n\nBefore he entered politics, Mubarak was a career officer in the Egyptian Air Force. He served as its commander from 1972 to 1975 and rose to the rank of air chief marshal in 1973. Some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor, remaining there until early 1959. He was appointed Vice President of Egypt by President Anwar Sadat in 1975 and assumed the presidency on 14 October 1981, eight days after Sadat's assassination. Mubarak's presidency lasted almost thirty years, making him Egypt's longest-serving ruler since Muhammad Ali Pasha, who ruled the country from 1805 to 1848, a reign of 43 years. Mubarak stepped down after 18 days of demonstrations during the Egyptian Revolution of 2011. On 11 February 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned as president and transferred authority to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. \n\nOn 13 April 2011, a prosecutor ordered Mubarak and both of his sons (Alaa and Gamal) to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power. Mubarak was then ordered to stand trial on charges of negligence for failing to halt the killing of peaceful protesters during the revolution. These trials began on 3 August 2011. On 2 June 2012, an Egyptian court sentenced Mubarak to life imprisonment. After sentencing, he was reported to have suffered a series of health crises. On 13 January 2013, Egypt's Court of Cassation (the nation's high court of appeal) overturned Mubarak's sentence and ordered a retrial. On retrial, Mubarak and his sons were convicted on 9 May 2015 of corruption and given prison sentences. Mubarak is detained in a military hospital and his sons were freed 12 October 2015 by a Cairo court. \n\nEarly life and Air Force career\n\nHosni Mubarak was born on 4 May 1928 in Kafr El-Meselha, Monufia Governorate, Egypt. After leaving high school, he joined the Egyptian Military Academy where he received a Bachelor's degree in Military Sciences in 1949. On 2 February 1949, he left the Military Academy and joined the Air Force Academy, gaining his commission as a pilot officer on 13 March 1950 and eventually receiving a Bachelor's degree in aviation sciences.\n\nMubarak served as an Egyptian Air Force officer in various formations and units; he spent two years in a Spitfire fighter squadron. Some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor, remaining there until early 1959. From February 1959 to June 1961, Mubarak undertook further training in the Soviet Union, attending a Soviet pilot training school in Moscow and another at Kant Air Base near Bishkek in the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic.\n\nMubarak undertook training on the Ilyushin Il-28 and Tupolev Tu-16 jet bombers. In 1964 he gained a place at the Frunze Military Academy in Moscow. On his return to Egypt, he served as a wing commander, then as a base commander; he commanded the Cairo West Air Base in October 1966 then briefly commanded the Beni Suef Air Base. In November 1967, Mubarak became the Air Force Academy's commander when he was credited with doubling the number of Air Force pilots and navigators during the pre-October War years. Two years later, he became Chief of Staff for the Egyptian Air Force.\n\nIn 1972, Mubarak became Commander of the Air Force and Egyptian Deputy Minister of Defense. On 6 October 1973, the Egyptian Air Force launched a surprise attack on Israeli soldiers on the east bank of the Suez Canal. Egyptian pilots hit 90% of their targets, making Mubarak a national hero. The next year he was promoted to Air Chief Marshal in recognition of service during the October War of 1973 against Israel. Mubarak was credited in some publications for Egypt's initial strong performance in the war. The Egyptian analyst Mohamed Hassanein Heikal said the Air Force played a mostly psychological role in the war, providing an inspirational sight for the Egyptian ground troops who carried out the crossing of the Suez Canal, rather than for any military necessity. However Mubarak's influence was also disputed by Shahdan El-Shazli, the daughter of the former Egyptian military Chief of Staff Saad el-Shazly. She said Mubarak exaggerated his role in the 1973 war. In an interview with the Egyptian independent newspaper Almasry Alyoum (26 February 2011), El-Shazli said Mubarak altered documents to take credit from her father for the initial success of the Egyptian forces in 1973. She also said photographs pertaining to the discussions in the military command room were altered and Saad El-Shazli was erased and replaced with Mubarak. She stated she intends to take legal action. \n\nVice President of Egypt\n\nIn April 1975, Sadat appointed Mubarak Vice President of Egypt. In this position, he took part in government consultations that dealt with the future disengagement of forces agreement with Israel. In September 1975, Mubarak went on a mission to Riyadh and Damascus to persuade the Saudi Arabian and Syrian governments to accept the disengagement agreement signed with the Israeli government (\"Sinai II\"), but was refused a meeting by the Syrian President Hafez Al-Assad. During his meetings with the Saudi government, Mubarak developed a friendship with the nation's powerful Crown Prince Fahd, whom Sadat had refused to meet or contact and who was now seen as major player who could help mend the failing relationship between Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Mubarak also developed friendships with several other important Arab figureheads, including Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud, Oman's Sultan Qaboos, Morocco's King Hassan II, and Sudan's President Jaafar Nimeiry.\n\nSadat also sent Mubarak to numerous meetings with foreign leaders outside the Arab world. Mubarak's political significance as Vice-President can be seen from a conversation held on 23 June 1975 between Foreign Minister Fahmy and US Ambassador Hermann Eilts. Fahmy told Eilts that \"Mobarek is, for the time being at least, likely to be a regular participant in all sensitive meetings\" and he advised the Ambassador not to antagonize Mubarak because he was Sadat's personal choice. Though supportive of Sadat's earlier efforts made to bring the Sinai Peninsula back into Egyptian control, Mubarak agreed with the views of various Arab figureheads and opposed the Camp David Accords for failing to address other issues relating to the Arab-Israeli conflict. Sadat even transferred his decisionmaking authority to Mubarak temporarily at times he went on vacations. \n\nPresident of Egypt\n\nMubarak was injured during the assassination of President Sadat in October 1981 by soldiers led by Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli. Following Sadat's death, Mubarak became the fourth president of Egypt and the chairman of the National Democratic Party (NDP).\n\nEgypt's return to the Arab League\n\nUntil Libya's suspension from the Arab League at the beginning of the Libyan Civil War, Egypt was the only state in the history of the organization to have had its membership suspended, because of President Sadat's peace treaty with Israel. In 1989, Egypt was re-admitted as a full member and the League's headquarters were moved to their original location in Cairo. \n\nGulf War of 1991\n\nEgypt was a member of the allied coalition during the 1991 Gulf War; Egyptian infantry were some of the first to land in Saudi Arabia to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Egypt's participation in the war solidified its central role in the Arab World and brought financial benefits for the Egyptian government. Reports that sums of up to per soldier were paid or debt forgiven were published in the news media. According to The Economist: The programme worked like a charm: a textbook case, says the [International Monetary Fund]. In fact, luck was on Hosni Mubarak's side; when the US was hunting for a military alliance to force Iraq out of Kuwait, Egypt's president joined without hesitation. After the war, his reward was that America, the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and Europe forgave Egypt around $20 billion of debt. \n\nGoverning style\n\nThroughout the 1980s, Mubarak increased the production of affordable housing, clothing, furniture, and medicine. He closely monitored his officials; he dismissed ministers at the first sign of wrongdoing and fined members of parliament for unnecessary absences. By the time he became President, Mubarak was one of a few Egyptian officials who refused to visit Israel and vowed to take a less enthusiastic approach to normalizing relations with the Israeli government. Mubarak was quick to deny that his policies would result in difficulties for Egyptian-Israeli dealings in the future. Egypt's heavy dependence on US aid and its hopes for US pressure on Israel for a Palestinian settlement continued under Mubarak. He quietly improved relations with the former Soviet Union. In 1987, Mubarak won an election to a second six-year term.\n\nIn his early years in power, Mubarak expanded the Egyptian State Security Investigations Service (Mabahith Amn ad-Dawla) and the Central Security Forces (anti-riot and containment forces). According to Tarek Osman, the experience of seeing his predecessor assassinated \"right in front of him\" and his lengthy military careerwhich was longer than those of Nasser or Sadatmay have instilled in him more focus and absorption with security than seemed the case with the latter heads of state. Mubarak sought advice and confidence not in leading ministers, senior advisers or leading intellectuals, but from his security chiefs—\"interior ministers, army commanders, and the heads of the ultra-influential intelligence services.\" \n\nBecause of his positions against Islamic fundamentalism and his diplomacy towards Israel, Mubarak was the target of repeated assassination attempts. According to the BBC, Mubarak survived six attempts on his life. In June 1995, there was an alleged assassination attempt involving noxious gases and Egyptian Islamic Jihad while Mubarak was in Ethiopia for a conference of the Organization of African Unity. Upon his return, Mubarak is said to have authorized bombings on Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya settlements, which by 1999 had seen 20,000 persons placed in detention related to the revolutionary Islamic organizations. He was also reportedly injured by a knife-wielding assailant in Port Said in September 1999. \n\nStance on the invasion of Iraq in 2003\n\nPresident Mubarak spoke out against the 2003 Iraq War, arguing that the Israeli–Palestinian conflict should have been resolved first. He also said the war would cause \"100 Bin Ladens.\" However, as President he did not support an immediate US withdrawal from Iraq because he believed it would probably lead to chaos. \n\n2005 elections\n\nPresident Mubarak was re-elected by majority votes in a referendum for successive terms on four occasions: in 1987, 1993, and 1999. No other candidates could run against the president because a restriction in the Egyptian constitution in which the People's Assembly played the main role in electing the President of the Republic. After increased domestic and international pressure for democratic reform in Egypt, Mubarak asked Parliament on 26 February 2005 to amend the constitution to allow multi-candidate presidential elections by September 2005. Previously, Mubarak secured his position by having himself nominated by Parliament then confirmed without opposition in a referendum.\n\nThe September 2005 ballot was a multiple-candidate election rather than a referendum, but the electoral institutions and security apparatus remain under the control of the President. On 28 July 2005, Mubarak announced his candidacy. The election was scheduled for 7 September 2005; according to civil organizations that observed the election it was marred by mass rigging activities. In a move widely seen as political persecution, Ayman Nour, a dissident and candidate for the El-Ghad Party (\"Tomorrow party\") was convicted of forgery and sentenced to five years' hard labor on 24 December 2005. \n\nState corruption during Mubarak's presidency\n\nWhile in office, political corruption in the Mubarak administration's Ministry of the Interior rose dramatically. Political figures and young activists were imprisoned without trial. Illegal, undocumented, hidden detention facilities were established, and universities, mosques, and newspaper staff were rejected because of political inclination. Military officers were allowed to violate citizens' privacy using unconditioned arrests under Egypt's emergency law.\n\nIn 2005 Freedom House, a non-governmental organization that conducts research into democracy, reported that the Egyptian government under Mubarak expanded bureaucratic regulations, registration requirements, and other controls that often feed corruption. Freedom House said, \"corruption remained a significant problem under Mubarak, who promised to do much, but in fact never did anything significant to tackle it effectively\". \n\nIn 2010, Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index report assessed Egypt with a CPI score of 3.1, based on perceptions of the degree of corruption from business people and country analysts, with 10 being very clean and 0 being highly corrupt. Egypt ranked 98th out of the 178 countries included in the report. \n\nWealth and allegations of personal corruption\n\nIn February 2011, ABC News reported that experts believed the personal wealth of Mubarak and his family was between and from military contracts made during his time as an air force officer. The Guardian reported that Mubarak and his family might be worth up to garnered from corruption, bribes and legitimate business activities. The money was said to be spread out in various bank accounts, including some in Switzerland and the UK, and invested in foreign property. The newspaper said some of the information about the family's wealth might be ten years old. According to Newsweek, these allegations are poorly substantiated and lack credibility. \n\nOn 12 February 2011, the government of Switzerland announced it was freezing the Swiss bank accounts of Mubarak and his family. On 20 February 2011, the Egyptian Prosecutor General ordered the freezing of Mubarak's assets and those of his wife Suzanne, his sons Alaa and Gamal Mubarak, and his daughters-in-law Heidi Rasekh and Khadiga Gamal. The Prosecutor General also ordered the Egyptian Foreign Minister to communicate this to other countries where Mubarak and his family could have assets. This order came two days after Egyptian newspapers reported that Mubarak filed his financial statement. Egyptian regulations mandate government officials to submit a financial statement listing their assets and sources of income while performing government work. On 21 February 2011, the Egyptian Military Council, which was temporarily given the presidential authorities following 25 January 2011 Revolution, said it had no objection to a trial of Mubarak on charges of corruption. \n\nOn 23 February 2011, the Egyptian newspaper Eldostor reported that a \"knowledgeable source\" described the order of the Prosecutor General to freeze Mubarak's assets and the threats of a legal action as nothing but a signal for Mubarak to leave Egypt after a number of attempts were made to encourage him to leave willingly. In February 2011, Voice of America reported that Egypt's top prosecutor had ordered a travel ban and an asset freeze for Mubarak and his family as he considered further action. On 21 May 2014 a Cairo court convicted Mubarak and his sons of embezzling the equivalent of of state funds which were allocated for renovation and maintenance of presidential palaces but were instead diverted to upgrade private family homes. The court ordered the repayment of , fined the trio , and sentenced Mubarak to three years in prison and each of his sons to four years.\n\nPresidential succession\n\nIn 2009, US Ambassador Margaret Scobey said, \"despite incessant whispered discussions, no one in Egypt has any certainty about who will eventually succeed Mubarak nor under what circumstances.\" She said presidential son Gamal Mubarak was the most likely successor; some thought intelligence chief Omar Suleiman might seek the office, or Arab League Secretary-General Amr Moussa might stand. President Mubarak and his son denied this; they said \"a multi-candidate electoral system introduced in 2005 has made the political process more transparent\". Nigerian Tribune journalist Abiodun Awolaja described a possible succession by Gamal Mubarak as a \"hereditary pseudo-monarchy.\" \n\nThe National Democratic Party of Egypt continued to state that Hosni Mubarak was to be the party's only candidate in the 2011 Presidential Election. Mubarak said on 1 February 2011 that he had no intention of standing in the 2011 presidential election. When this declaration failed to ease the protests, Mubarak's vice president stated that Gamal Mubarak would not run for president. With the escalation of the demonstration and the fall of Mubarak, Hamdy El-Sayed, a former influential figure in the National Democratic Party, said Gamal Mubarak intended to usurp the presidency, assisted by then Interior Minister, Habib El-Adly. \n\nIsraeli–Palestinian conflict\n\nDuring his presidency, Mubarak upheld the U.S. brokered Camp David Accords treaty signed between Egypt and Israel in 1978. Mubarak, on occasion also hosted meetings relating to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and made a number of attempts to serve as a broker between them. Mubarak was concerned that Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson didn't trust him on the issue and considered meeting him in New York. \n \nIn October 2000, Mubarak hosted an emergency summit meeting at Sharm el-Sheikh to discuss the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In attendance were: U.S. President Bill Clinton, P.L.O. Chairman Yasser Arafat, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, King Abdullah of Jordan, NATO Sec. General Javier Solana, and U.N. Sec. General Kofi Annan.\n\nMubarak was involved in the Arab League, supporting Arab efforts to achieve a lasting peace in the region. At the Beirut Summit on 28 March 2002, the league adopted the Arab Peace Initiative, a Saudi-inspired plan to end the Arab–Israeli conflict.\n\nIn June 2007, Mubarak held a summit meeting at Sharm el-Sheik with King Abdullah II of Jordan, President Mahmoud Abbas and Prime Minister Ehud Olmert. On 19 June 2008, the Egypt-brokered pause in hostilities between Israel and Hamas went into effect. According to The New York Times, neither side fully respected the terms of the ceasefire. \n\nThe agreement required Hamas to end rocket attacks on Israel and to enforce the ceasefire throughout Gaza. In exchange, Hamas expected the blockade to end, commerce in Gaza to resume, and truck shipments to be restored to 2005 levels. Israel tied an easing of the blockade to a reduction in rocket fire and gradually re-opened supply lines and permitted around 90 daily truck shipments to enter Gaza. Hamas criticized Israel for its continued blockade while Israel accused Hamas of continued weapons smuggling via tunnels to Egypt and pointed to continued rocket attacks.\n\nIn 2009, Mubarak's government banned the Cairo Anti-war Conference, which had criticised his lack of action against Israel. \n\nRevolution and overthrow\n\nMass protests against Mubarak and his regime erupted in Cairo and other Egyptian cities on 25 January 2011. On 1 February, Mubarak announced he would not contest the presidential election due in September. He also promised constitutional reform. This did not satisfy most protesters, who expected Mubarak to depart immediately. The demonstrations continued and on 2 February, violent clashes occurred between pro-Mubarak and anti-Mubarak protesters. \n\nOn 10 February, contrary to rumours, Mubarak said he would not resign until the September election, though he would be delegating responsibilities to Vice President Omar Suleiman. The next day, Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned. The announcement sparked cheers, flag-waving, and celebrations from protesters in Egypt. Discussions about the nation's future direction began. It had been suggested that Egypt be put in the hands of a caretaker government.\n\nProtests\n\nOn 25 January 2011, protests against Mubarak and his government erupted in Cairo and around Egypt calling for Mubarak's resignation. Mubarak stated in a speech that he would not leave, and would die on Egyptian soil. Opposition leader Mohamed ElBaradei paid no attention to Mubarak's remarks and labeled it as a trick designed to help Mubarak to stay in power. In a state televised broadcast on 1 February 2011, Mubarak announced that he would not seek re-election in September but would like to finish his current term and promised constitutional reform. This compromise was not acceptable for the protestors and violent demonstrations occurred in front of the Presidential Palace. On 11 February, then Vice President Omar Suleiman announced Mubarak had resigned and that power would be turned over to the Egyptian military.\n\nTwo and a half hours after Mubarak's resignation, an Egyptian military member came on air and thanked Mubarak for \"putting the interests of the country first.\" The statement, which said \"The Supreme Council is currently studying the situation,\" did not state what the council would do next. \n\nPost-resignation\n\nMubarak made no media appearances after his resignation. Except for his family and a close circle of aides, he reportedly refused to talk to anyoneeven his supporters. His health was speculated to be rapidly deteriorating; some reports said he was in a coma. Most sources said he was no longer interested in performing any duties and wanted to \"die in Sharm El-Sheikh\". \n\nOn 28 February 2011, the General Prosecutor of Egypt issued an order prohibiting Mubarak and his family from leaving Egypt. It was reported that Mubarak was in contact with his lawyer in case of possible criminal charges against him. As a result, Mubarak and his family were placed under house arrest at a presidential palace in the Red Sea resort of Sharm el-Sheikh. On 13 April 2011, a prosecutor originally appointed by Mubarak ordered the former president and both his sons to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power amid growing suspicion that the Egyptian military was more aligned with the Mubaraks than with the revolution. Gamal and Alaa were jailed in Tora Prison; state television reported that Mubarak was in police custody in a hospital near his residence following a heart attack. Former Israeli Cabinet minister Benjamin Ben Eliezer told Israeli Radio that he had offered Mubarak refuge in the southern Israeli city of Eilat. \n\nOn 11 May 2013, he told El-Watan in his first media appearance since his resignation said, \"History will judge and I am still certain that the coming generations will view me fairly.\" He added that President Mohammed Morsi faced a tough time and that it was too early to judge him. \n\nTrial\n\nOn 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters during the revolution and, if convicted, could face the death penalty. The decision to try Mubarak was made days before a scheduled protest in Tahrir Square. The full list of charges released by the public prosecutor was \"intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators ... misuse of influence, deliberately wasting public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits\".\n\nOn 28 May, a Cairo administrative court found Mubarak guilty of damaging the national economy during the protests by shutting down the Internet and telephone services. He was fined LE200 millionabout which the court ordered he must pay from his personal assets. This was the first court ruling against Mubarak, who would next have to answer to the murder charges. \n\nThe trial of Hosni Mubarak, his sons Ala'a and Gamal, former interior minister Habib el-Adly and six former top police officials began on 3 August 2011 at a temporary criminal court at the Police Academy in north Cairo. They were charged with corruption and the premeditated killing of peaceful protesters during the mass movement to oust the Mubarak government, the latter of which carries the death penalty. The trial was broadcast on Egyptian television; Mubarak made an unexpected appearancehis first since his resignation. He was taken into the court on a hospital bed and held in a cage for the session. Upon hearing the charges against him, Mubarak pleaded not guilty. Judge Ahmed Refaat adjourned the court, ruling that Mubarak be transferred under continued arrest to the military hospital on the outskirts of Cairo. The second court session scheduled for 15 August. On 15 August, the resumed trial lasted three hours. At the end of the session, Rifaat announced that the third session would take place on 5 September and that the remainder of the proceedings would be off-limits to television cameras. \n\nThe trial resumed in December 2011 and lasted until January 2012. The defense strategy was that Mubarak never actually resigned, was still president, and thus had immunity. On 2 June 2012, Mubarak was found guilty of not halting the killing of protesters by the Egyptian security forces; he was sentenced to life imprisonment. The court found Mubarak not guilty of ordering the crackdown on Egyptian protesters. All other charges against Mubarak, including profiteering and economic fraud, were dismissed. Mubarak's sons, Habib el-Adly, and six senior police officials were all acquitted for their roles in the killing of demonstrators because of a lack of evidence. According to The Guardian, the relatives of those killed by Mubarak's forces were angered by the verdict. Thousands of demonstrators protested the verdict in Tahrir Square, Arbein Square and Al-Qaed Ibrahim Square.\n\nIn January 2013, an appeals court overturned Mubarak's life sentence and ordered a retrial. He remained in custody and returned to court on 11 May 2013 for a retrial on charges of complicity in the murder of protesters. On 21 August 2013, a Cairo court ordered his release. Judicial sources confirmed that the court had upheld a petition from Mubarak's longtime lawyer that called for his release. A day later, interim prime minister Hazem el-Beblawi ordered that Mubarak be put under house arrest. \n\nOn 21 May 2014, while awaiting retrial, Mubarak and his sons were convicted on charges of embezzlement; Mubarak was sentenced to three years in prison, while his sons received four-year sentences. The three were fined the equivalent of , and were ordered to repay . \n\nIn November 2014, conspiracy to kill charges were dismissed by the Cairo Criminal Court on a technicality. The court also cleared Mubarak of corruption charges. On 13 January 2015, Egypt's Court of Cassation overturned Mubarak's and his sons' embezzlement charges, the last remaining conviction against him, and ordered a retrial. A retrial on the corruption charges led to a conviction and sentencing to three years in prison in May 2015 for Mubarak, with four-year terms for his sons, Gamal and Alaa. It was not immediately clear whether the sentence would take into account time already served – Mubarak and his sons have already spent more than three years in prison, so potentially will not have to serve any additional time. Supporters of Mubarak jeered the decision when it was announced in a Cairo courtroom on 9 May. The sentence also included a 125 million Egyptian pound (US$16.3 million) fine, and required the return of 21 million embezzled Egyptian pounds (US$2.7 million). These amounts were previously paid after the first trial.\n\nSupport for Sisi\n\nThough mostly out of the public eye, Mubarak granted a rare interview in February 2014 with Kuwaiti journalist Fajer al-Saeed, expressing support for then-Minister of Defense and Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces Abdel Fattah el-Sisi as the next President of Egypt, recognizing that Sisi was working to restore the confidence of the Egyptian people. \"The people want Sisi, and the people's will shall prevail,\" Mubarak noted. Mubarak also expressed great admiration and gratitude towards the late Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan al-Nahyan of the United Arab Emirates and his children, for their continuous support of Egypt and its people. However, Mubarak expressed his dislike of opposition politician Hamdeen Sabbahi, a Nasserist following the policies of Gamal Abdel Nasser. \n\nHealth problems\n\nIn July 2010, the media said Egypt was about to undergo dramatic change because Mubarak was thought to have cancer and because of the scheduled 2011 presidential election. Intelligence sources said he had esophageal cancer, stomach or pancreatic cancer; this was denied by Egyptian authorities. Speculation about his ill health increased after his resignation from the presidency. According to Egyptian media, Mubarak's condition worsened after he went into exile in Sharm el-Sheikh. He was reportedly depressed, refused to take medications, and was slipping in and out of consciousness. According to the sourcean unnamed Egyptian security official\"Mubarak wants to be left alone and die in his homeland\". The source denied that Mubarak was writing his memoirs, stating that he was almost completely unconscious. After his resignation, Egypt's ambassador to the United States Sameh Shoukry reported that his personal sources said Mubarak \"is possibly in somewhat of bad health\", while several Egyptian and Saudi Arabian newspapers reported that Mubarak was in a coma and close to death. On 12 April 2011, it was reported that he had been hospitalized after suffering a heart attack during questioning over possible corruption charges. \n\nIn June 2011, Mubarak's lawyer Farid el-Deeb said his client \"has stomach cancer, and the cancer is growing\". Mubarak had undergone surgery for the condition in Germany in 2010 and also suffered from circulatory problems with an irregular heart beat. On 13 July 2011, unconfirmed reports stated that Mubarak had slipped into a coma at his residence after giving his final speech, and on 17 July, el-Deeb confirmed the reports. On 26 July 2011, Mubarak was reported to be depressed and refusing solid food while in hospital being treated for a heart condition and in custody awaiting trial. \n\nOn 2 June 2012, Mubarak was reported as have suffered a health crisis while being transported to prison after his conviction on the charges of complicity in the killing of protestors. Some sources reported he had had a heart attack. Further reports stated that Mubarak's health continued to decline; some said he had to be treated with a defibrillator. On 27 December 2012, Mubarak was taken from Tora Prison to the Cairo military hospital after falling and breaking a rib. He was released from prison in August 2013. \n\nIn a new development, on 19 June 2014, Mubarak slipped in the bathroom at the military hospital in Cairo where he is being held and broke his left leg, also fracturing his left thighbone, requiring surgery. Mubarak is serving a three-year sentence for corruption and is also awaiting retrial regarding the killing of protesters during his regime. At one time, his release was ordered. However, Mubarak has remained at the military hospital since January 2014 due to his ongoing health issues. \n\nPersonal life\n\nHosni Mubarak is married to Suzanne Mubarak and has two sons: Alaa, and Gamal. Both sons served four years in Egyptian jail for corruption and were released in 2015. Through his son Alaa, Mubarak has two grandsons, Muhammed and Omar; and through his son Gamal, he has a granddaughter Farida. Muhammad died in 2014 from a fatal head injury.\n\nIn April 2016, Alaa Mubarak was named in the Panama Papers as someone with financial interests that intersect with that of Mossack Fonseca, the firm implicated in that scandal. \n\nPolitical and military posts\n\n* Chairman of the Non-Aligned Movement (2009-2011)\n* Re-elected for a fifth term of office (2005)\n* Chairman of the G-15 (1998 & 2002)\n* Re-elected for a fourth term of office (1999)\n* Chairman of the Arab Summit since June (1996)\n* Chairman of the OAU (1993–94)\n* Re-elected for a third term of office (1993)\n* Chairman of the OAU (1989–90)\n* Re-elected for a second term of office (1987)\n* President of the National Democratic Party (1982)\n\n* President of the Republic (1981)\n* Vice-President of the National Democratic Party (NDP) (1979)\n* Vice-President of the Arab Republic of Egypt (1975)\n* Promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General / Air Marshal (1974)\n* Commander of the Air Force and Deputy Minister of Defense (1972)\n* Chief of Staff of the Air Force (1969)\n* Director of the Air Force Academy (1968)\n* Commander of Cairo West Air Base (1964)\n* Joined Frunze Military Academy, USSR (1964)\n* Lecturer in Air Force Academy (1952–59)\n\nAwards\n\n* Jawaharlal Nehru Award (1995) \n* First Class of the Order of the State of Republic of Turkey (1998) \n* Honor Star Medal twice. \n* Military Training medal.\n* Military Honor Medal Knight Rank from the President of Syria.\n* Honor Star Medal from the PLO.\n* Decoration of King Abdul Aziz - Excellent Degree from King Faisal Bin Abdul Aziz Al-Saud.\n* Hamayon Merit from Emperor Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, Iran."
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"Profile: Hosni Mubarak - BBC News\nBBC News\nImage copyright AFP\nImage caption Mubarak (left) became Egypt's fourth president after the assassination of Anwar Sadat (right)\nHosni Mubarak ruled Egypt for almost 30 years until he was swept from power in a wave of mass protests in February 2011.\nFew expected that the little-known vice-president who was elevated to the presidency in the wake of Anwar Sadat's 1981 assassination would hold on to the country's top job for so long.\nSadat was assassinated by Islamist militants at a military parade in Cairo, and Mubarak was lucky to escape the shots as he sat next to him.\nSince then, he has survived at least six assassination attempts - the narrowest escape shortly after his arrival in the Ethiopian capital, Addis Ababa, in 1995 to attend an African summit, when his limousine came under attack.\nImage copyright AP\nImage caption The former president's numerous court appearances often saw him on a stretcher and wearing trademark sunglasses\nBesides his knack for dodging bullets, the former air force commander also managed to keep a hold on power by positioning himself as a trusted Western ally and fighting off a powerful opposition movement at home.\nIt all came to an end in a televised address on 1 February 2011, following mass protests in Cairo and other cities. Mubarak announced he had decided not to stand for re-election later that year.\nProtests continued and on 10 February he appeared on state television to say he was handing over powers to his vice-president, but would remain as president.\nThe following day Vice-President Omar Suleiman made a terse announcement saying Mubarak was stepping down and the military's supreme council would run the country.\nOn trial\nBy late May 2011, judicial officials announced that Mr Mubarak, along with his two sons - Alaa and Gamal - would stand trial over the deaths of anti-government protesters.\nSo began a protracted series of court appearances - with the former president often been seen in the dock in an upright stretcher wearing his trademark sunglasses.\nHe has steadfastly argued his innocence - telling a retrial in August that that he was approaching the end of his life \"with a good conscience\".\nImage copyright AP\nImage caption Mubarak was charged with corruption and involvement in the killing of protesters\nOn 2 June 2012 he was found guilty of complicity in the murder of some of the demonstrators who took part in the wave of protests that began on 25 January 2011. Along with his former Interior Minister, Habib al-Adly, he was sentenced to life imprisonment for his crimes.\nIn January 2013 a court upheld an appeal against Mubarak's and al-Adly's convictions and granted retrials. Mubarak and his sons were also ordered to be retried on corruption charges for which they were originally acquitted.\nMubarak was released from prison in August that year but placed under house arrest before being transferred to a military hospital.\nIn May 2014, Mubarak was found guilty of embezzlement, and sentenced to three years in prison. His sons were sentenced to four years each. The convictions were overturned in January 2015, but by May a retrial reinstated the same sentences.\nIn November 2014, he was finally acquitted in a retrial of conspiring to kill protesters during the 2011 uprising against his rule. At the same time, he was also acquitted of corruption charges involving gas exports to Israel.\nEarly life\nBorn in 1928 in a small village in Menofya province near Cairo, Muhammad Hosni Sayyid Mubarak insisted on keeping his private life out of the public domain while president.\nMarried to a half-British graduate of the American University in Cairo, Suzanne Mubarak, he was known to lead a strict life with a fixed daily schedule that began at 0600.\nNever a smoker or a drinker, he built himself a reputation as a fit man who led a healthy life.\nIn his younger days, close associates often complained of the president's schedule, which began with a workout in the gym or a game of squash.\nHe was sworn in as president on 14 October 1981, eight days after the Sadat assassination.\nDespite having little popular appeal or international profile at the time, the burly military man used his sponsorship of the issue behind Sadat's killing - peace with Israel - to build up his reputation as an international statesman.\nEmergency rule\nIn effect, Mr Mubarak ruled as a quasi-military leader when he took power.\nFor his entire period in office, he kept the country under emergency law, giving the state sweeping powers of arrest and curbing basic freedoms.\nThe government argued the draconian regime was necessary to combat Islamist terrorism, which came in waves during the decades of Mr Mubarak's rule - often targeting Egypt's lucrative tourism sector.\nImage copyright AP\nImage caption Hosni Mubarak was a key US ally in the Middle East\nHe presided over a period of domestic stability and economic development that meant most of his fellow countrymen accepted his monopolisation of power.\nBut towards the end of his tenure in power, Mr Mubarak felt for the first time the pressure to encourage democracy, both from within Egypt, and from his most powerful ally, the United States.\nMany supporters of reform doubted the veteran ruler's sincerity when he said he was all for opening up the political process.\nAhead of his declaration that he would not to stand again for the presidency, the US had heaped pressure on him to stand aside, calling for an \"orderly transition\" of power to a more democratic system.\nMr Mubarak won three elections unopposed since 1981, but for his fourth contest in 2005 - after a firm push from the US - he changed the system to allow rival candidates.\nCritics said the election was heavily weighted in favour of Mr Mubarak and the National Democratic Party (NDP). They accused the Egyptian leader of presiding over a sustained campaign of suppressing opposition groups, most notably the Muslim Brotherhood.\nHealth fears\nThe length of his time in power, along with his age and possible successors, had all been sensitive subjects in Egypt until the mass protests allowed the Egyptian people to find a voice.\nPeople around Mr Mubarak said his health and vigour belied his age - although a couple of health scares served as a reminder of his advancing years.\nRumours about the president's health gathered pace when he travelled to Germany in March 2010 for gall bladder surgery. They flared every time he missed a key gathering or disappeared from the media spotlight for any conspicuous length of time.\nHowever much Egyptian officials tried to deny them, they kept circulating, with reports in the Israeli and pan-Arab media.\nThe days of mass protests in Egyptian cities prompted Mr Mubarak to finally name a vice-president. On 29 January 2011, intelligence chief Omar Suleiman was elevated to the role in what was seen as an attempt by Mr Mubarak to bolster his support in the military.\nTwo weeks later Mr Mubarak's three-decade rule was over, and in March he was under arrest.\nIn the past, Mr Mubarak had said he would continue to serve Egypt until his last breath.\nIn his speech on 1 February 2011, he said: \"This dear nation... is where I lived, I fought for it and defended its soil, sovereignty and interests. On its soil I will die. History will judge me like it did others.\"",
"Hosni Mubarak | president of Egypt | Britannica.com\npresident of Egypt\nAlternative Titles: Ḥosnī Mubārak, Husnī Mubārak, Muḥammad Hosnī Said Mubārak, Muḥammad Husnī Said Mubārak\nHosni Mubarak\nRamses III\nHosni Mubarak, also spelled Ḥosnī Mubārak, in full Muḥammad Ḥosnī Said Mubārak, Ḥosnī also spelled Ḥusnī (born May 4, 1928, Al-Minūfiyyah governorate, Egypt), Egyptian military officer and politician who served as president of Egypt from October 1981 until February 2011, when popular unrest forced him to step down.\nḤosnī Mubārak, 2009.\nOffice of the Presidents of the Italian Republic\nBorn in the Nile River delta, Mubarak graduated from the Egyptian military academy at Cairo (1949) and the air academy at Bilbays (1950), receiving advanced flight and bomber training in the Soviet Union . He held command positions in the Egyptian air force and from 1966 to 1969 was director of the air academy. In 1972 President Anwar el-Sadat appointed Mubarak chief commander of the air force, and in this capacity he was credited with the successful performance of the Egyptian air force in the opening days of the war with Israel in October 1973. He was promoted to the rank of air marshal in 1974. In April 1975 Sadat named him vice president, and in subsequent years Mubarak was active in most of the negotiations involving Middle Eastern and Arab policy. He served as the chief mediator in the dispute between Morocco , Algeria , and Mauritania over the future of Western (Spanish) Sahara .\nMubarak became president following Sadat’s assassination on October 6, 1981, the anniversary of the start of the 1973 Egyptian-Israeli war. His years in office were marked by an improvement in Egypt’s relations with the other Arab countries and by a cooling of relations with Israel, especially following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. He reaffirmed Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel (1979) under the Camp David Accords , however, and cultivated good relations with the United States , which remained Egypt’s principal aid donor. In 1987 Mubarak was elected to a second six-year term as president. During the Persian Gulf crisis and war following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990–91, Mubarak led other Arab states in supporting the Saudi decision to invite the aid of a U.S.-led military coalition to recover Kuwait. He also played an important role in mediating the bilateral agreement between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization that was signed in 1993.\nReelected president in 1993, Mubarak faced a rise in guerrilla violence and growing unrest among opposition parties, which pressed for democratic electoral reforms (the last free elections in Egypt had been held in 1950). He launched a campaign against Islamic fundamentalists, especially the Islamic Group, which was responsible for a 1997 attack at Luxor that left some 60 foreign tourists dead. In 1995 he escaped an assassination attempt in Ethiopia and in 1999 was slightly wounded after being attacked by a knife-wielding assailant. Throughout, Mubarak continued to press for peace in the Middle East . Running unopposed, he was reelected to a fourth term as president in 1999. In 2005 Mubarak easily won Egypt’s first multicandidate presidential election, which was marred by low voter turnout and allegations of irregularities.\nU.S. president George W. Bush (left) and Egyptian president Hosnī Mubārak meeting in …\nEric Draper/The White House\nScientists Ponder Menopause in Killer Whales\nIn January 2011 thousands of protesters—angered by repression, corruption , and poverty in Egypt—took to the streets, calling for Mubarak to step down as president. Those demonstrations took place shortly after a popular uprising in Tunisia , known as the Jasmine Revolution , forced Tunisian President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali from power. Mubarak made no public appearances until January 28—the fourth day of clashes between protesters and police—when he gave a speech on Egyptian state television indicating that he intended to remain in office. In the speech he acknowledged the protesters’ demand for political change by announcing that he would dissolve his cabinet and implement new social and economic reforms. Those concessions , however, were dismissed by protesters as a ploy to remain in power and did little to calm the unrest. The following day Mubarak appointed a vice president for the first time in his presidency, choosing Omar Suleiman , the director of the Egyptian General Intelligence Service. On February 1, under pressure from continued protests, Mubarak appeared on Egyptian state television and announced that he would not stand in the presidential election scheduled for September 2011.\nEgypt Since the Pharoahs\nUnder continued pressure to step down immediately, Mubarak made another televised speech on February 10. Although it was widely expected that he would use the address to announce his immediate resignation, he reiterated that he would stay in office until the end of his term, delegating some of his powers to Suleiman. Mubarak promised to institute electoral reforms and vowed to lift Egypt’s emergency law, in place since 1981, when the security situation in Egypt became sufficiently stable.\nBritannica Lists & Quizzes\nEditor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies\nOn February 11 Mubarak left Cairo for Sharm el-Sheikh , a resort town on the Sinai Peninsula where he maintained a residence. Hours later Suleiman appeared on Egyptian television to announce that Mubarak had stepped down as president, leaving the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, a group of senior military officers, to govern the country. Upon learning of Mubarak’s resignation, crowds at Tahrir Square and other protest sites erupted in celebration.\nFollowing Mubarak’s departure, the Egyptian government began to investigate allegations of corruption and abuse of power within the Mubarak regime, questioning and arresting several former officials and business leaders with close ties to Mubarak. Calls for the investigation to focus on Mubarak himself intensified, fueled by reports that the Mubarak family had amassed a fortune worth billions of dollars in overseas accounts. On April 10 the public prosecutor announced that Mubarak and his sons, Alaa and Gamal, would be questioned by investigators. Following the announcement, Mubarak made his first public statements since stepping down as president, denying the accusations of corruption. On April 12, while waiting to be questioned, Mubarak was hospitalized after reportedly suffering a heart attack . Mubarak was held in a hospital in Sharm el-Sheikh after an official medical evaluation concluded that his health was too fragile for him to be transferred to prison in Cairo. In May the Egyptian state media reported that his condition had stabilized, although he needed to be treated for depression .\nOn May 24 the public prosecutor announced that Mubarak would stand trial for ordering the killing of protesters as well as for corruption and abuse of power. On August 3 Mubarak appeared in public for the first time since stepping down, as his trial commenced in Cairo amid heavy security. Although Mubarak, reportedly suffering from poor health, was wheeled into court in a hospital bed, he appeared alert during the hearing, denying all charges against him. In January 2012, prosecutors announced that they would seek the death penalty for Mubarak and several senior security officials accused of carrying out the crackdown. In June 2012 an Egyptian court found Mubarak guilty of complicity in the deaths of demonstrators and sentenced him to life in prison. He was acquitted on charges of corruption.\nConnect with Britannica",
"Hosni Mubarak Biography (President of Egypt)\nBirthplace: Kafr Moselha, Egypt\nBest known as: President of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 1981- 2011\nMuhammad Hosni Mubarak was the president of the Arab Republic of Egypt for 30 years, from 1981 until he was forced to resign by mass protests on 11 February 2011. Hosni Mubarak was trained as a pilot and rose in the ranks of Egypt's air force during the 1960s and '70s. President Anwar Sadat named Mubarak to be his vice president in 1975, and in 1978 Mubarak became the vice chairman of the National Democratic Party (NDP), the governing political party in Egypt. When Anwar Sadat was assassinated on 14 October 1981, Mubarak succeeded him and became the chairman of the NDP as well. Mubarak quickly became an old-style strongman with full control of the government. Running uncontested, Mubarak won the presidency in national referenda in 1987, 1993 and 1999; after a change in laws, he won running against token opposition in 2005. He focused on economic growth and inched toward political reform, but any economic gains in the 1990s were offset by criticisms that Egypt was a near-dictatorship; indeed, Mubarak never lifted the state of emergency imposed after Sadat's assassination. In February of 2005, Hosni Mubarak announced plans for a September 2005 election that would be Egypt's first-ever multi-candidate contest for the presidency. On 7 September 2005 he handily won his fifth consecutive term in those elections, but the victory was clouded by low voter turnout, reports of fraud and the imprisonment of his political rival, Ayman Nour. The next years were dominated by pressures for political reform and by Mubarak's love/hate relationship with the United States, a steady provider of military aid. Mubarak was rebuked for his lack of commitment to democracy by American leaders, including President George W. Bush and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice , but he remained an important U.S. ally in the region, especially during the U.S. war in Iraq. Egyptians took to the streets in January of 2011 to protest his rule; more than 900 protesters were killed in February of that year by Mubarak forces, and he was forced to resign. He was detained in April and held on charges of corruption and complicity in the killing of the protesters. Acquitted on the corruption charges, Mubarak was found guilty for his role in the protesters' deaths and sentenced to life in prison.\nExtra credit:\nHosni Mubarak’s wife is Suzanne Thabet Mubarak… Their son, Gamal Mubarak, was considered to be Hosni’s likely successor until the revolts of 2011 ended Mubarak’s reign.\nCopyright © 1998-2017 by Who2?, LLC. All rights reserved.",
"Conflicting reports about whether Mubarak has died - CNN.com\nConflicting reports about whether Mubarak has died\nBy the CNN Wire Staff\nUpdated 7:57 AM ET, Wed June 20, 2012\nChat with us in Facebook Messenger. Find out what's happening in the world as it unfolds.\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – Former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak has been held since he stepped down during the country's uprising in 2011. He was convicted in 2012 on charges of inciting violence against protesters and was sentenced to life in prison. But Mubarak appealed, and a retrial was granted.\nHide Caption\n1 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – Then-Vice President Mubarak, left, joins President Anwar Sadat at a military parade on October 6, 1981, the day Islamic fundamentalists from within the army assassinated Sadat. Mubarak succeeded Sadat as Egypt's president, maintaining power for nearly three decades.\nHide Caption\n2 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – Eight days after Sadat's assassination, Mubarak is officially sworn in as Egypt's president on October 14, 1981. Mubarak was re-elected in 1987, 1993, 1999 and 2005.\nHide Caption\n3 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – Mubarak poses with U.S. President Ronald Reagan at the White House in 1982.\nHide Caption\n4 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher meets with Mubarak in London in 1985.\nHide Caption\n5 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – Diana, Princess of Wales, visits Mubarak during a trip to Egypt in 1992.\nHide Caption\n6 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – Mubarak and U.S. President Bill Clinton hold a joint press conference in 1995.\nHide Caption\n7 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – The front page of the Ethiopian Herald reports a foiled assassination attempt on Mubarak on June 27, 1995. He survived an attempt by an al Qaeda-affiliated group in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.\nHide Caption\n8 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – Mubarak, third from left, joins President Bill Clinton, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, second from left, Jordan's King Hussein, third from right, and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat, second from right, in Washington in 1995. The Israeli leader and Arafat signed maps representing the redeployment of Israeli troops in the West Bank.\nHide Caption\n9 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – Mubarak welcomes Pope John Paul II to Egypt for a three-day visit in 2000.\nHide Caption\n10 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – U.S. President George W. Bush greets Mubarak at the White House in 2002 to talk about the Middle East crisis and the war in Afghanistan.\nHide Caption\n11 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – In 2005, Mubarak again runs for a six-year term in the country's first multiparty presidential election. He was declared the official winner with about 88% of the vote, but many considered the election to be a sham.\nHide Caption\n12 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – After weeks of Egyptians protesting Mubarak's 29-year reign, the president steps down from office on February 11, 2011, causing celebrations in Cairo's Tahrir Square.\nHide Caption\n13 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – The ousted leader lies in a medical bed inside a cage in a courtroom during his verdict hearing in Cairo on June 2, 2012. A judge sentenced Mubarak to life in prison for his role in ordering the killing of protesters in the 2011 uprisings.\nHide Caption\n14 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – Mubarak and his sons Gamal, left, and Alaa are seen behind the defendants' cage during their retrial at the Police Academy in Cairo. Mubarak was granted a retrial. Later, a court ordered Mubarak be freed, pending his retrial.\nHide Caption",
"Hosni Mubarak | Jewish Virtual Library\nTweet\nHosni Mubarak is an Egyptian politician and former military officer who served as the fourth President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011.\nMuhammad Hosni Sayyid Mubarak (born May 4, 1928) was raised in Kafr-al Meselha as the son of an inspector of the Ministry of Justice. Mubarak was educated at Egypt's national Military Academy and Air Force Academy and later at the Frunze General Staff Academy in Moscow .\nUnder Egyptian president Anwar al-Sadat , Mubarak served in a number of military posts, including deputy minister of war from 1972 to 1975; in 1975, he became vice president. After Sadat was assassinated, on October 6, 1981, Mubarak became president. He instituted a vigorous economic recovery program; remained committed to the peace treaty with Israel (signed in 1979); mended relations with other Arab states, which were damaged after Egypt's peace with Israel ; and initiated a policy he called positive neutrality toward the great powers.\nHe was reelected when his National Democratic Party won the October 1987 elections and was thus able to nominate him as the sole candidate for president. With serious economic problems and rising Islamic fundamental opposition at home, Mubarak continued to seek an end to the stalemate that had developed between Israel and Arab nations; in 1988 he visited the United States for talks on that subject.\nMubarak, supported the 1990 United Nations (UN) sanctions against Iraq when that country invaded Kuwait , orchestrated Arab League opposition to the invasion, committed about 38,500 troops to the anti-Iraq coalition in the Persian Gulf War (1991), and supported postwar efforts to achieve peace in the Middle East.\nReelected in 1993, Mubarak cracked down on Muslim fundamentalist opposition groups after an upsurge in guerrilla violence by Islamic extremists. Mubarak survived an assassination attempt unharmed in June 1995 in the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa. Five of the assailants were killed during or after the ambush and three escaped to Sudan , which is widely believed to have sponsored the attack. In November 1995, just before parliamentary elections, Mubarak's government accused the Muslim Brotherhood of helping violent Islamic groups. Many of the Muslim Brotherhood's members were arrested, and several who planned to run in the elections or monitor them were tried and sentenced to prison. Critics accused the government of trying to eliminate even peaceful opponents. In the elections that followed, Mubarak's National Democratic Party won an overwhelming victory. Mubarak was elected to a fourth six-year term in 1999.\nMubarak was elected to his fifth consecutive term as president in September 2005. The election was the first contested presidential election in Egypt's history, with official results showing Mubarak won 88.6% of the votes cast, however civil organizations observing the elections and the Egyptian Organization for Human Rights reported mass rigging activities, bought votes and fraud. Ayman Nour, a candidate for the Al-Ghad (Tomorrow) party, contested the election results on September 8, 2005. In a move widely seen as political persecution , Nour was convicted of forgery and sentenced to five years at hard labor on December 24, 2005.\nOn January 25, 2011, Egyptian protesters began staging largescale demonstrations throughout the country calling for Mubarak's resignation. The 'Arab Spring' sought to remove dictators across the Middle East and the demonstrators in Cairo's Tahrir Square quickly gained international attention . Though aggresive actions by the protesters were rare at the start, violence in the streets quickly escalated between Mubarak supporters and the opposition following his announcement on February 1 that though he would not resign from the presidency but also would not seek another term in the elections scheduled for September 2011.\nAfter this announcement the protests gained more steam and on February 10 Mubarak announced he would step down and hand over powers to his vice-president, Omar Suleiman , but would remain as president. The following day, Suleiman announced Mubarak's official 'resignation' and that the military's supreme council would run the country .\nOn May 24, 2011, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial in Cairo on charges of premeditated murder of protestors during the January revolution. The proceedings against Mubarak, his sons Ala'a and Gamal, former interior minister Habib al-Adli, and six top police officials — who had directly commanded security forces during the uprising — began on August 3 with the steepest crime of premeditated murder bearing the possibility of a death sentence. The trial was broadcast through Egyptian television and Mubarak made an appearance when he was brought into the prisoners cage on a hospital bed. He pled not guilty to all the charges levied against him.\nOn June 1, 2012, presiding judge Ahmed Refaat sentenced Mubarak and Interior Minister al-Adli to life imprisonment on the charge of killing demonstrators during the revolution . In his indictment, Judge Refaat said that Mubarak ruled for thirty years \"without a conscience and with a cold heart,\" subjecting his people to poverty, shanty towns and dirty drinking water. He said Mubarak allowed Egypt, once the \"beacon\" of the world, to collapse into \"one of the most deteriorated, backward countries.\"\nThough the life sentence against the former president marked an unprecedented milestone in the Egyptian march towards democratic rule , the euphoria of the decision was short-lived after Refaat handed down the other sentences. The murder charges against the six senior police officials were dismissed. In addition, Mubarak and his sons, Alaa and Gamal, were found not guilty of corruption charges.\nThe state news agency MENA reported that Mubarak suffered a \"health crisis\" after the court session and was treated by doctors on the flight to the prison. Egyptian news reports said he wept and resisted leaving the helicopter.\nOn August 20, 2013, an Egyptian court ordered Mubarak’s release, stating that there were no more legal grounds for his detention. A day later, interim prime minister Hazem el-Beblawi ordered that Mubarak be put under house arrest.\nIn September 2013 shamed Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak claimed that he personally started the Yom Kippur war during a secret mission during his time as an Egyptian air force commander. Mubarak stated that six munites before the large attack on Israel commenced including other Arab armies, he attacked an Israeli communications outpost in his fighter jet in the first attack of the war.",
"Egyptian court: Hosni Mubarak can go free - CNN.com\n14 of 15\nPhotos: Photos: Egyptians mark anniversary of Arab Spring uprising\nEgyptians mark anniversary of Arab Spring uprising – Egyptian police fire tear gas to disperse hundreds of supporters of ousted President Mohammed Morsy.\nHide Caption\n15 of 15\nJust a few years ago, throngs risked their lives to demand Mubarak's ouster. A short time later, they were glued to their televisions to watch his first trial.\nBut Cairo now is a lot different than in 2011. Some have a strong interest in what happens to Mubarak, be they his allies or his staunchest enemies, including those who lost loved ones amid demonstrations.\nOther Egyptians, though, are tired of all the legal back-and-forth. They don't have the same kind of energy for mass discontent, or the same patience for those who do.\nAnd they can't be surprised. The Muslim Brotherhood-dominated government, led by elected then deposed and convicted President Mohamed Morsy , is gone. Egypt's powerful military -- which helped prop up Mubarak for decades -- made sure of that. The army's former chief of staff, Abdel Fattah El-Sisi , is now the nation's president.\nLatest in Mubarak's roller coaster saga\nThe Cairo Court of Appeals decision won't just pave the way for the release of Hosni Mubarak.\nHis sons Gamal and Alaa, who were power-players during their father's stay in power, also had their sentences reduced by the court and were ordered freed, state-run Al Ahram newspaper reported.\nThe family won't get off entirely: The court slapped a multimillion-dollar fine on Mubarak and his sons to pay back the Egyptian government for embezzlement.\nHosni Mubarak -- seen here while on trial in May 2014 -- was taken into custody shortly after his ouster as Egypt's president.\nIt could be worse for the Mubaraks, but of course, it once was much better. Hosni Mubarak, after all, dominated Egypt from his ascension to president in 1981, shortly after the assassination of Anwar Sadat, right up until early 2011.\nEverything came crashing down then, as massive, vibrant forces broke out in Cairo's Tahrir Square and elsewhere in Egypt.\nSecurity forces cracked down, but the demonstrators didn't relent. Instead, they swelled in numbers in what was then the highlight of the Arab Spring, the movement of popular revolutions then sweeping North Africa and the Middle East.\nEventually, Mubarak bowed to the pressure by stepping down as president. And, in the process, he became even more of a marked man.\nThe Egyptian general prosecutor's office announced later that year that he and his sons, Gamal and Alaa, would stand trial on charges related to corruption and the killing of protesters -- setting off a legal roller coaster for the Mubaraks.\nIn June 2012, the longtime Egyptian leader was found guilty and sentenced to life in prison.\nBut he got a new trial the following year, one that culminated in May 2014 with the three-year prison sentence tied to a conviction for embezzlement. His two sons got four years each on the same charge.\nMubarak would be cleared of the same charges in November 2014 , only to have a court in January ordered the embezzlement case retried.\nHis freedom doesn't mean Mubarak's legal woes are over, including appeals and possibly new charges. The last few years have proved, if nothing else, that there can be a lot of twists in the Egyptian legal system that could affect its longtime leader.\nPhotos: Photos: Mubarak through the years\nMubarak through the years – Former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak has been held since he stepped down during the country's uprising in 2011. He was convicted in 2012 on charges of inciting violence against protesters and was sentenced to life in prison. But Mubarak appealed, and a retrial was granted.\nHide Caption"
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What instrument is associated with Illinois-born John Lewis?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"John Aaron Lewis (May 3, 1920 – March 29, 2001) was an American jazz pianist, composer and arranger, best known as the founder and musical director of the Modern Jazz Quartet.\n\nEarly life\n\nJohn Lewis was born in La Grange, Illinois, and raised in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and began learning classical music and piano at the age of seven. His family was musical and had a family band that allowed him to play frequently and he also played in a Boy Scout music group.Lyons, p. 77. Even though he learned piano by playing the classics, he was exposed to jazz from an early age because his aunt loved to dance and he would listen to the music she played. He attended the University of New Mexico, where he led a small dance band that he formedGiddins, p. 378. and double majored in Anthropology and Music. Eventually, he decided not to pursue Anthropology because he was advised that careers from degrees in Anthropology did not pay well. In 1942, Lewis entered the army and played piano alongside Kenny Clarke, who influenced him to move to New York once their service was over.Lyons, p. 76. Lewis moved to New York in 1945 to pursue his musical studies at the Manhattan School of Music and eventually graduated with a master's degree in music in 1953. Although his move to New York turned his musical attention more towards jazz, he still frequently played and listened to classical works and composers such as Chopin, Bach and Beethoven.\n\nJazz career\n\nOnce Lewis moved to New York, he and Clarke tried out for Dizzy Gillespie's bop-style big band by playing a song called \"Bright Lights\" that Lewis had written for the band they played for in the army. They both were asked to join Gillespie's band, and the tune they originally played for Gillespie, renamed \"Two Bass Hit\", became an instant success. Lewis composed, arranged and played piano for the band from 1945 until 1948 after the band made a concert tour of Europe. When Lewis returned from the tour with Gillespie's band, he left it to work individually. Lewis was an accompanist for Charlie Parker and played on some of Parker's famous recordings, such as \"Parker's Mood\" (1948) and \"Blues for Alice\" (1951), but also collaborated with other prominent jazz artists such as Lester Young, Ella Fitzgerald and Illinois Jacquet.\n\nIn an article about Dexter Gordon for WorldPress.com, reviewer Ted Panken suggests that \". . . Higgins’s buoyant ride cymbal and subtle touch propels the soloists through the master take of \"Milestones,\" a John Lewis line for which Miles Davis took credit on his 1947 Savoy debut with Charlie Parker on tenor.\" Panken seems certain of his claim but does not offer corroboration to a charge that Davis took credit for music that was not his own.\n\nLewis also was part of Miles Davis's Birth of the Cool sessions. While in Europe, Lewis received letters from Davis urging him to come back to the United States and collaborate with the trumpeter, Gil Evans, Gerry Mulligan and others on the second session of Birth of the Cool.Lyons, p. 78. From when he returned to the U.S. in 1948 through 1949, Lewis joined Davis's nonet and is considered \"one of the more prolific arrangers with the 1949 Miles Davis Nonet\".Davis, p. 228. For the Birth of the Cool sessions, Lewis arranged \"S'il Vous Plait\", \"Rouge\", \"Move\" and \"Budo\".\n\nLewis, vibraphonist Milt Jackson, drummer Clarke and bassist Ray Brown had been the small group within the Gillespie big band, and they frequently played their own short sets when the brass and reeds needed a break or even when Gillespie's band was not playing. The small band received a lot of positive recognition and it led to the foursome forming a full-time working group, which they initially called the Milt Jackson Quartet in 1951 but in 1952 renamed the Modern Jazz Quartet.\n\nModern Jazz Quartet\n\nThe Modern Jazz Quartet was formed out of the foursome's need for more freedom and complexity than Gillespie's big band, dance-intended sound allowed.Giddins, p. 380. While Lewis wanted the MJQ to have more improvisational freedom, he also wanted to incorporate some classical elements and arrangements to his compositions. Lewis noticed that the style of bebop had turned all focus towards the soloist, and Lewis, in his compositions for the MJQ, attempted to even out the periods of improvisation with periods that were distinctly arranged.Davis, p. 229. Lewis assumed the role of musical director from the start, even though the group claimed not to have a leader. It is commonly thought that \"John Lewis, for reasons of his contributions to the band, was apparently the first among the equals\". Davis even once said that \"John taught all of them, Milt couldn't read at all, and bassist Percy Heath hardly\". It was Lewis who elevated the group's collective talent because of his individual musical abilities.\n\nLewis gradually transformed the group away from strictly 1940's bebop style, which served as a vehicle for an individual artist's improvisations, and instead oriented it toward a more refined, polished, chamber style of music. Lewis's compositions for The Modern Jazz Quartet developed a \"neoclassical style\" of jazz that combined the bebop style with \"dynamic shading and dramatic pause more characteristic of jazz of the '20s and '30s\". Francis Davis, in his book In the Moment: Jazz in the 1980s, wrote that by \"fashioning a group music in which the improvised chorus and all that surrounded it were of equal importance, Lewis performed a feat of magic only a handful of jazz writers, including Duke Ellington and Jelly Roll Morton, had ever pulled off—he reconciled the composer's belief in predetermination with the improviser's yen for free will\".\n\nLewis also made sure that the band was always dressed impeccably.Giddins, p. 382. Lewis believed that it was important to dress the way that they came across in their music: polished, elegant and unique. Lewis once said in an interview with Down Beat magazine: \"My model for that was Duke Ellington. [His band] was the most elegant band I ever saw\".\n\nFrom 1952 through 1974, he wrote and performed with and for the quartet. Lewis's compositions were paramount in earning the MJQ a worldwide reputation for managing to make jazz mannered without cutting the swing out of the music. Gunther Schuller for High Fidelity Magazine wrote: It will not come as a surprise that the Quartet's growth has followed a line parallel to Lewis' own development as a composer. A study of his compositions from the early \"Afternoon in Paris\" to such recent pieces as \"La Cantatrice\" and \"Piazza Navona\" shows an increasing technical mastery and stylistic broadening. The wonder of his music is that the various influences upon his work—whether they be the fugal masterpieces of Bach, the folk-tinged music of Bartók, the clearly defined textures of Stravinsky's \"Agon\", or the deeply felt blues atmosphere that permeates all his music—these have all become synthesized into a thoroughly homogeneous personal idiom. That is why Lewis' music, though not radical in any sense, always sounds fresh and individual.Schuller, p. 56.\n\nDuring the same time period, Lewis held various other positions as well, including head of faculty for the summer sessions held at the Lenox School of Jazz in Lenox, Massachusetts from 1957 to 1960, director of the annual Monterey Jazz Festival in California from 1958 to 1983, and its musical consultant, and \"he formed the cooperative big band Orchestra U.S.A., which performed and recorded Third Stream compositions (1962–65)\". Orchestra U.S.A., along with all of Lewis's compositions in general, were very influential in developing \"Third Stream\" music, which was largely defined by the interweave between classical and jazz traditions. He also formed the Jazz and Classical Music Society in 1955, which hosted concerts in Town Hall in New York City that assisted in this new genre of classically influenced jazz to increase in popularity. Furthermore, Lewis was also commissioned to compose the score to the 1957 film Sait-On Jamais, and his later film work included the scores to Odds Against Tomorrow (1959), A Milanese Story (1962), Derek Jarman's version of The Tempest (1979), and the TV movie Emmanuelle 4: Concealed Fantasy (1994). His score to Odds Against Tomorrow was released on both an original soundtrack album (UA 5061) and an interpretation album by the MJQ in 1959.\n\nThe MJQ disbanded in 1974 because Jackson felt that the band was not getting enough money for the level of prestige the quartet had in the music scene.Lyons, pp. 81–82. During this break, Lewis taught at the City College of New York and at Harvard University. Lewis was also able to travel to Japan, where CBS commissioned his first solo piano album.Lyons, p. 80. While in Japan, Lewis also collaborated with Hank Jones and Marian McPartland, with whom he performed piano recitals on various occasions.\n\nIn 1981, the Modern Jazz Quartet re-formed for a tour of Japan and the United States, although the group did not plan on performing regularly together again. Since the MJQ was no longer his primary career, Lewis had time to form and play in a sextet called the John Lewis Group. A few years later, in 1985, Lewis collaborated with Gary Giddins and Roberta Swann to form the American Jazz Orchestra. Additionally, he continued to teach jazz piano to aspiring jazz students, which he had done throughout his career. His teaching style involved making sure the student was fluent in \"three basic forms: the blues, a ballad, and a piece that moves\". He continued teaching late into his life.\n\nIn the 1990s, Lewis partook of various musical ventures, including participating in the Re-birth of the Cool sessions with Gerry Mulligan in 1992, and \"The Birth of the Third Stream\" with Gunther Schuller, Charles Mingus and George Russell, and recorded his final albums with Atlantic Records, Evolution and Evolution II, in 1999 and 2000 respectively. He also continued playing sporadically with the MJQ until 1999, when Jackson died.\n\nLewis performed a final concert at Lincoln Center in New York and played a repertoire that represented his full musical ability—from solo piano to big-band and everything in between. John Lewis died in New York City on March 29, 2001, at the age of 80, after a long battle with prostate cancer.\n\nMusic\n\nStyle and influence\n\nLeonard Feather's opinion of Lewis's work is representative of many other knowledgeable jazz listeners and critics: \"Completely self-sufficient and self-confident, he knows exactly what he wants from his musicians, his writing and his career and he achieves it with an unusual quiet firmness of manner, coupled with modesty and a complete indifference to critical reaction.\" Lewis was not only this way with his music, but his personality exemplified these same qualities.\n\nLewis, who was significantly influenced by the arranging style and carriage of Count Basie,Giddins, p. 377. played with a tone quality that made listeners and critics feel as though every note was deliberate. Schuller remembered of Lewis at his memorial service that \"he had a deep concern for every detail, every nuance in the essentials of music\". Lewis became associated with representing a modernized Basie style, exceptionally skilled at creating music that was spacious, powerful and yet, refined. In an interview with Metronome magazine, Lewis himself said:\nMy ideals stem from what led to and became Count Basie's band of the '30s and '40s. This group produced an integration of ensemble playing which projected—and sounded like—the spontaneous playing of ideas which were the personal expression of each member of the band rather than the arrangers or composers. This band had some of the greatest jazz soloists exchanging and improvising ideas with and counter to the ensemble and the rhythm section, the whole permeated with the fold-blues element developed to a most exciting degree. I don't think it is possible to plan or make that kind of thing happen. It is a natural product and all we can do is reach and strive for it. \nIt is considered, however, that Lewis was successful in exemplifying, in his arrangements and compositions, this skill that he admired. Because of his classical training, in addition to his exposure to bebop, Lewis was able to combine the two disparate musical styles and refine jazz so that there was a \"sheathing of bop's pointed anger in exchange for concert hall respectability\". \n\nLewis was also influenced by the improvisations of Lester Young on the saxophone. Lewis had not been the first to be influenced by a horn player. Earl Hines in his early years looked to Louis Armstrong's improvisations for inspiration and Bud Powell looked to Charlie Parker. Lewis also claims to have been influenced by Hines himself.\n\nLewis was also heavily influenced by European classical music. Many of his compositions for the MJQ and his own personal compositions incorporated various classically European techniques such as fugue and counterpoint, and the instrumentation he chose for his pieces, sometimes including a string orchestra. \n\nIn the early 1980s, Lewis's influence came from the pianists he enjoyed listening to: Art Tatum, Hank Jones and Oscar Peterson.\n\nPiano style\n\nLen Lyons depicts Lewis's piano, composition and personal style when he introduces Lewis in Lyons' book The Great Jazz Pianists: \"Sitting straight-backed, jaw rigid, presiding over the glistening white keyboard of the grand piano, John Lewis clearly brooks no nonsense in his playing, indulges in no improvisational frvolity, and exhibits no breach of discipline nor any phrase that could be construed as formally incorrect. Lewis, of course, can swing, play soulful blues and emote through his instrument, but it is the swing and sweat of the concert hall, not of smoke-filled, noisy nightclubs.\" Although Lewis is considered to be a bebop pianist, he is also considered to be one of the more conservative players. Instead of emphasizing the intense, fast tempoed bebop style, his piano style was geared towards emphasizing jazz as an \"expression of quiet conflict\". His piano style, bridging the gap between classical, bop, stride and blues, made him so \"it was not unusual to hear him mentioned in the same breath with Morton, Ellington, and Monk\". On the piano, his improvisational style was primarily quiet and gentle and understated. Lewis once advised three saxophonists who were improvising on one of his original compositions: \"You have to put yourself at the service of the melody.... Your solos should expand the melody or contract it\".Davis, p. 234. This was how he approached his solos as well. He proved in his solos that taking a \"simple and straightforward... approach to a melody could... put [musicians] in touch with such complexities of feeling\", which the audience appreciated just as much as the musicians themselves.\n\nHis accompaniment for other musicians' solos was just as delicate. Thomas Owens describes his accompaniment style by noting that \"rather than comping—punctuating the melody with irregularly placed chords—he often played simple counter-melodies in octaves which combined with the solo and bass parts to form a polyphonic texture\".\n\nCompositions and arrangements\n\nSimilarly to his personal piano playing style, Lewis was drawn in his compositions to minimalism and simplicity. Many of his compositions were based on motifs and relied on few chord progressions. Francis Davis comments: \"I think too, that the same conservative lust for simplicity of forms that draws Lewis to the Renaissance and the Baroque draws him inevitably to the blues, another form of music permitting endless variation only within the logic of rigid boundaries\". \n\nHis compositions were influenced by 18th-century melodies and harmonies, but also showed an advanced understanding of the \"secrets of tension and release, the tenets of dynamic shading and dramatic pause\" that was reminiscent of classic arrangements by Basie and Ellington in the early swing era. This combining of techniques led to Lewis becoming a pioneer in Third Stream Jazz, which was combined classical, European practices with jazz's improvisational and big-band characteristics.\n\nLewis, in his compositions, experimented with writing fugues and incorporating classical instrumentation. An article in The New York Times wrote that \"His new pieces and reworkings of older pieces are designed to interweave string orchestra and jazz quartet as equals\". High Fidelity magazine wrote that his \"works not only show a firm control of the compositional medium, but tackle in a fresh way the complex problem of inprovisation with composed frameworks\".\n\nThomas Owen believes that \"[Lewis'] best pieces for the MJQ are Django, the ballet suite The Comedy (1962, Atl.), and especially the four pieces Versailles, Three Windows, Vendome and Concorde... combine fugal imitation and non-imitative polyphonic jazz in highly effective ways.\"\n\nDiscography\n\n;As leader/co-leader:\n* The Modern Jazz Society Presents a Concert of Contemporary Music (Norgan, 1955)\n* Grand Encounter (Pacific Jazz, 1956) - with Bill Perkins, Jim Hall, Percy Heath & Chico Hamilton\n* Afternoon in Paris (Atlantic, 1957) - with Sacha Distel\n* The John Lewis Piano (Atlantic, 1957) \n* European Windows (RCA-Victor, 1958)\n* Improvised Meditations and Excursions (Atlantic, 1959)\n*Odds Against Tomorrow (Soundtrack) (United Artists, 1959)\n* The Golden Striker (Atlantic, 1960)\n* The Wonderful World of Jazz (Atlantic, 1960)\n* Jazz Abstractions (Atlantic, 1960) - with Gunther Schuller and Jim Hall\n* Original Sin (Atlantic, 1961)\n* A Milanese Story (Soundtrack) (Atlantic, 1962)\n* European Encounter (Atlantic, 1962) - with Svend Asmussen\n* Animal Dance (Atlantic, 1962 [1964]) - with Albert Mangelsdorff \n* Essence (Atlantic, 1960-62) - music composed and arranged by Gary McFarland\n* P.O.V. (Columbia, 1975)\n* Statements and Sketches for Development (CBS, 1976) \n* Sensitive Scenery (Columbia, 1977)\n* Helen Merrill/John Lewis (Mercury, 1977) with Helen Merrill\n* Mirjana (Ahead, 1978) featuring Christian Escoudé\n* An Evening with Two Grand Pianos (Little David, 1979) with Hank Jones\n* Piano Play House (Toshiba, 1979) with Hank Jones\n* Duo (Eastword, 1981) with Lew Tabackin\n* Kansas City Breaks (Finesse, 1982)\n* Slavic Smile (Baystate, 1982) with the New Jazz Quartet\n* Preludes and Fugues from the Well-tempered Clavier Book 1 (1984, Philips)\n* The Bridge Game (1984, Philips)\n* The Chess Game Volume 1 (1990, Polygram Records)\n* The Chess Game Volume 2 (1990, Polygram Records)\n* Private Concert (1991, Emaecy)\n* Evolution (Atlantic, 1999)\n* Evolution II (Atlantic, 2000)\n\n;As sideman with Charlie Parker:\n* The Genius of Charlie Parker (1945–8, Savoy 12009)\n* \"Parker's Mood\" (1948)\n* Charlie Parker (1951–3, Clef 287)\n* \"Blues for Alice\" (1951)\n\n;As member of the Miles Davis Nonet:\n* The Complete Birth of the Cool (1948–50, Capitol Jazz)\n\n;As leader of Orchestra U.S.A. (with Gunther Schuller and Harold Farberman):\n* Orchestra U.S.A. (1963, Colpix 448), including \"Three Little Feelings\"\n\n;Recordings with the Modern Jazz Quartet:\n* Vendome (1952, Prestige 851)\n* Modern Jazz Quartet, ii (1954–5, Prestige 170) incl. \"Django\" (1954)\n* Concorde (1955, Prestige 7005)\n* Fontessa (1956, Atlantic 1231) included \"Versailles\"\n* The Modern Jazz Quartet Plays No Sun in Venice (Atlantic, 1957)\n* The Modern Jazz Quartet (Atlantic, 1957)\n* Third Stream Music (1957, 1959–60, Atlantic. 1345) including \"Sketch for Double String Quartet\" (1959)\n* The Modern Jazz Quartet and the Oscar Peterson Trio at the Opera House (Verve, 1957)\n* The Modern Jazz Quartet at Music Inn Volume 2 (Atlantic, 1958)\n* Music from Odds Against Tomorrow (United Artists, 1959)\n* Pyramid (Atlantic, 1960)\n* European Concert (Atlantic, 1960 [1962])\n* Dedicated to Connie (Atlantic, 1960 [1995])\n* The Modern Jazz Quartet & Orchestra (Atlantic, 1960)\n* The Comedy (1962, Atlantic 1390)\n* Lonely Woman (Atlantic, 1962)\n* A Quartet is a Quartet is a Quartet (1963, Atlantic 1420)\n* Collaboration (Atlantic, 1964) – with Laurindo Almeida\n* The Modern Jazz Quartet Plays George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess (Atlantic, 1964–65)\n* Jazz Dialogue (Atlantic, 1965) with the All-Star Jazz Band\n* Concert in Japan '66 (Atlantic [Japan], 1966)\n* Blues at Carnegie Hall (Atlantic, 1966)\n* Place Vendôme (Philips, 1966) – with The Swingle Singers\n* Under the Jasmin Tree (Apple, 1968)\n* Space (Apple, 1969)\n* Plastic Dreams (Atlantic, 1971)\n* The Legendary Profile (Atlantic, 1974)\n* In Memoriam (Little David, 1973)\n* Blues on Bach (Atlantic, 1973)\n* The Last Concert (Atlantic, 1974)\n* Reunion at Budokan 1981 (Pablo, 1981)\n* Together Again: Live at the Montreux Jazz Festival '82 (Pablo, 1982)\n* Echoes (Pablo, 1984)\n* Topsy: This One's for Basie (Pablo, 1985)\n* Three Windows (Atlantic, 1987)\n* For Ellington (East West, 1988)\n* MJQ & Friends: A 40th Anniversary Celebration (Atlantic, 1992–93)\nWith Clifford Brown\n* Memorial Album (Blue Note, 1953)\nWith Ruth Brown \n*Ruth Brown (Atlantic, 1957) \nWith Dizzy Gillespie\n*The Complete RCA Victor Recordings (Bluebird, 1937-1949, [1995])\n* The Bop Session (Sonet, 1975) with Sonny Stitt, Percy Heath and Max Roach\nWith Milt Jackson\n* Ballads & Blues (Atlantic, 1956)\nWith Joe Newman\n*I Feel Like a Newman (Storyville, 1956)\nWith Sonny Stitt\n* Sonny Stitt/Bud Powell/J. J. Johnson (Prestige, 1949 [1956]) – with J. J. Johnson\nBarney Wilen\n* Jazz Sur Seine (Philips, 1958 [2000])\n;Contributions\n* Bill Evans: A Tribute (Palo Alto, 1982) – performs \"I'll Remember April\"\n* The Jazztet and John Lewis (Argo, 1961) – as composer and arranger\n\nNotes"
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"History of Jazz -instrument match - Music History And Literature 143 with Navidad at Orange Coast College - StudyBlue\nGood to have you back! If you've signed in to StudyBlue with Facebook in the past, please do that again.\nHistory of Jazz -instrument match\nHistory of Jazz -instrument match\nJessica M.\n-played drums for Benny Goodman\n-brought drums to the forefront\n-great entertainer and performer\nEarl \"Fatha\" Hines\nPiano\ncreated a style based on ragtime and stride, but goes further and demonstrates that the piano can be a strong solo instrument. Made it sound like a trumpet.\nAlso took out webbing between fingers\nAdvertisement )\nattended churches and took spirituals as his inspiration\nuptown African American\nhad a lot of energy and volume\nquick minded: improv\nDeep, rich sonorous sound\nJohnny Hodges\nalto saxophonist; joined Ellington’s band in 1928; took Bechet as his model; became one of Ellington’s main soloists; sometimes he used a bluesy toughness and other times he used a gentle lyricism\nBenny Goodman\n-appliedjazz arrangements to current pop songs--brought dance music into mainstreasm\n-advocate of integration in jazz\nlaunced a number of small groups\nArt Tatum\n-Amazing technique and veolicty at the piano\n-Reharmonization\n-Blind in one eye and half blind in the other one\n-\"Willow Weep for Me\" and \"Tiger Rag\"\n-Transition to Be Bop\nHe was the first to record bass solos that departed from standard walking lines\nJo Jones\ndrummer; in the Count Basie band; a veteran of the Blue Devils; played with extraordinary lightness and a keen sense of ensemble\nFreddie Green\nclose coordination with bass and drums\nLewis, Meade \"Lux\"\njazz pianist known for promoting the booie-woogie style in late 1930's\nCharlie Christian\nJazz guitar with Benny Goodman - Electric guitar\nInfluence bebop\nHelped connect jazz to rock n roll\nAdvertisement\nragtime pianist\nFreddie Keppard\nCornet player known for use of mutes. Left with the Creole Jazz Band. He refused to record in 1916 b/c he though it would allow others to copy his sound/technique. Thus, the first band to record was the Original Dixie Land Jazz Band who were 5 white guys. >:(\nKid Ory\n-recorded with Hot Five and Seven groups\nKing Oliver\nProminent cornet play. First black musician with a creole band to get work outside of NOLA. Taught Louis Armstrong and that generation of jazz musicians\nThomas \"Fats\" Walter\nStudied with James P. Johnson\nbenny golson\nbandleader and drummer, The Jazz Messengers, roots of music in church and blues, virtuosic\nHARD BOP\nHorace Silver\n-Pianist\n-During his time spent in Art Blakey's band he composed many of the tunes that incarnated the Hard Bop esthetic\n-One of the top played jazz composers\n-Brought the funky into jazz with his \"comping\"\nsonny rollins\n-THE leading tenor sax player in jazz for past 60 years\n-mentored by thelonious monk\n-worked with bud powell and JJ johnson at 19\n-shares career with miles davis\n-still performs today at 84\nRay Brown\noriginal bass player in modern jazz quartet\nbebob\nShelly Manne\nNY drummer who flourished on the west coast (cool jazz flourished there in general). Worked with Charlie Parker and involved with Lennie Tristano in NY.\nHis west coast groups focused on sophisticated arrangements and modern compositions.\nJoan Gilberto\nsaxophonist who made biggest hit of Bossa Nova era\nCharlie Parker\nCharles Parker, Jr., also known as \"Yardbird\" and \"Bird\", was an American jazz saxophonist and composer\nMiles Davis\nLed one of the greatest bands of all time\nTrumpet style: cool, mello, lyrical\nuse of space\nemphasized playing as if he were singing.\nJazz Fusion\n-Formed the Modern Jazz Quartet\n-Collaborated with Gunther Schuller on Third Stream\nMax Roach\n American jazz drummer; pioneer of bebop and considered one of the most important drummers in history; made numerous musical statements relating to the civil rights movement; sided with Malcolm X in his political views\nCannonball Adderly\n-hard bop\nJohn Coltrane\nTenor Sax player. Working in the bebop and hard bop idioms early in his career, Coltrane helped pioneer the use of modes in jazz and later was at the forefront of free jazz.\nRed Garland\npiano player for Classic Miles Davis Quintet\nPaul Chambers\nBass player that played for Miles davis at Newport jazz festival\n\"Philly Joe\" Jones\ndrummer for Classic Miles Davis Quintet\nBill Evans\nnot always a steady baseline\nhornless trio\n· Played with Blakey’s Jazz messengers\n· Part of Miles Davis’s “second great quintet”\n· Hardbop, modal, and fusion\nplayed with John Lewis in a group led by Dizzy Gillespie\nJohn Lewis\nPianist of modern jazz quartet\npercy heath\nmoved beat from bass drum to ride cymbal\nintermittent \"punches\" aka \"dropping bombs\"\nMintons\n- term coined 1957 by Gunther Schuller\n- describes a synthesis of classical music and jazz, incorporating improvisation\n- collaboration between Schuller (French horn virtuoso) and John Lewis (jazz pianist) as Modern Jazz Quartet\n- part of breaking down of boundaries and mixture of styles/periods/genres that came to be viewed as musical Postmodernism\nThree vocal jazz techniques? \nBorn 1915 In Philadelphia. (eleanora fagen)\n· Nicknamed “Lady Day”\n· 1930 begins singing in harlem\n· discovered by John Hammond\n· Popular jazz singer/composer who wrote the Christmas song\n· Nicknamed “the velvet fog”\ngenre of music that combines cuban rhythm and jazz improve and jazz arangments \nHard Bop\n-Associated with Silver, Blakey, and Adderly\n-darker and more aggressive\n-driving feeling\n-more diverse piano compling an bebop\n * The material on this site is created by StudyBlue users. StudyBlue is not affiliated with, sponsored by or endorsed by the academic institution or instructor.\nWords From Our Students\n\"StudyBlue is great for studying. I love the study guides, flashcards and quizzes. So extremely helpful for all of my classes!\"\nAlice , Arizona State University\n\"I'm a student using StudyBlue, and I can 100% say that it helps me so much. Study materials for almost every subject in school are available in StudyBlue. It is so helpful for my education!\"\nTim , University of Florida\n\"StudyBlue provides way more features than other studying apps, and thus allows me to learn very quickly!??I actually feel much more comfortable taking my exams after I study with this app. It's amazing!\"\nJennifer , Rutgers University\n\"I love flashcards but carrying around physical flashcards is cumbersome and simply outdated. StudyBlue is exactly what I was looking for!\"\nJustin , LSU",
"The Scotsman, 1999\nJackson, Milt\nMilt Jackson was the first musician to work out a viable approach to playing bebop on his favoured instrument, the vibraharp, a slightly larger variant of the more familiar vibraphone. He took a distinctly different technical and expressive route to those established by Lionel Hampton and Red Norvo, developing a linear, rhythmically inflected line which owed more to the example of Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie than either of his two great predecessors on the instrument.\nHe was a hugely gifted soloist with a musical conception which was steeped in the earthy pragmatism of gospel and the blues, but dovetailed beautifully within the intricate classicism of John Lewis's compositions and arrangements for the Modern Jazz Quartet, a group he was associated with throughout much of his professional life.\nJakson's exhuberant solo flights provided a sharply contrasting flavouring within the MJQ's palette, and although he later said that he had felt restricted by Lewis's rhythmic experiments, it proved an enduring partnership, and provided many of his most memorable moments. The vibraphonist never really developed as an innovative leader in his own right, and profited from Lewis's firm sense of direction and purpose, even where the settings ran contrary to his natural instincts.\nHis trademark style was augmented by his manipulation of the actual sound of his instrument. He slowed down the speed of the oscillator (the rotating vanes which sustain the sound of a note) on his instruments, an adjustment which provided a richer, warmer sound when he allowed a note to ring. When combined with his penchant for subtle shadings of dynamics and a rhythmic accentuation much influenced by Charlie Parker's example, it gave him an instantly recognisable signature, and pushed the possibilites of the instrument in a different direction to that explored by Hampton and Norvo.\nIn an interview with jazz critic Nat Hentoff in 1958, Jackson explained his allegiance to the older adjustable instruments by noting that the single-speed vibraphone which became popular after the war failed to provide \"the degrees of vibrato my ear told me I had to have. Having the right vibrato makes a lot of difference in the feeling. It's evident in a sax player, and to me it's something a vibist can have too. My own vibrato tends to be slow.\"\nHe was born Milton Jackson, and began learning guitar at the age of seven. He added violin, piano, drums, tympani, xylophone and vibes to his accomplishments before leaving school, and sang in a gospel group called The Evangelist Singers while simultaneously playing jazz with local groups on the Detroit scene, including working with saxophonist Lucky Thompson, an association which enabled him to make his recording debut with Dinah Washington.\nHe almost joined the Earl Hines band in 1942, but instead was drafted, and served two years in the army. On his return to Detroit in 1944, he set up a jazz quartet called the Four Sharps, which Dizzy Gillespie heard while touring in the mid-West. Suitably impressed, Gillespie encouraged Jackson to move to New York in 1945 with the offer of a place in his band. By this time, Jackson had acquired his familiar nickname 'Bags', derived from the pouches under his eyes (the vibraphonist claimed the specific origin of the tag had been after a heavy drinking session to celebrate his release from the army).\nHe accompanied Gillespie and Charlie Parker to Los Angeles in 1945, partly as insurance against the notoriously unreliable Parker not turning up for gigs, to fulfil a famous engagement at Billy Berg's club in Los Angeles, the first time that New York bebop had been featured on the West Coast. On their return (minus Parker) to New York, he remained part of Gillespie's Sextet, playing both piano and vibes at that time, before choosing to concentrate on the latter instrument.\nWhen Gillespie put together his first ground-breaking bebop big band in 1946, he unwittingly laid the foundations for the group which would occupy much of Jackson's career. The rhythm section in that big band included Jackson, pianist John Lewis, bassist Ray Brown and drummer Kenny Clarke. That quartet were regularly featured within the big band's set to give the hard-working brass players a breather, and eventually evolved into the Milt Jackson Quartet in 1951.\nRay Brown opted to work with his then wife, Ella Fitzgerald, and was replaced by Percy Heath in 1952. The band took the name the Modern Jazz Quartet that year, and began one of the longest associations in jazz history. Clarke left the USA to live in Paris in 1955, and was replaced by Connie Kay to complete the familiar ensemble, which only changed again with Kay's death in 1994, when Mickey Roker and later Albert \"Tootie\" Heath, the brother of Percy Heath, took over the drum chair.\nJackson had already made several crucial contributions to the developing bebop style, not only with Dizzy Gillespie, but also in seminal recordings with pianist Thelonious Monk (notably in classic sessions for Blue Note in 1948 and 1951), trumpeters Howard McGhee and Miles Davis, and the Woody Herman Orchestra. His association with both Monk and Davis included the definitive version of his most famous composition, 'Bags Groove', laid down in a productive recording session for Prestige on Christmas Eve, 1954, and released on LP under the trumpeter's name as\nBags Groove\n.\nThose years established a pattern which Jackson would follow for much of his life, working on the one hand with the MJQ, and on the other either as a leader in his own right, or in collaborations with other stellar names, including albums with Coleman Hawkins, John Coltrane, Ray Charles and Oscar Peterson, among others. His primary identification, though, remained with the Modern Jazz Quartet, and provided a shining example of the way in which creative tension -- and even creative differences -- can produce positive results.\nMany jazz fans at the time (and since) felt that the MJQ's rather austere formal style of dress and presentation were inimical to the jazz spirit, and blamed Lewis for inhibiting Jackson, an accusation which the vibraphonist occasionally stoked with remarks in interviews, complaining in particular about the lack of a full-blooded swing feel in the music.\nThe aural evidence, however, presents a different aspect of the story. Lewis's light, ornate structures provided more sympathetic settings for Jackson than has often been allowed, and the sense of exhuberant release when the vibraphonist was set loose from some passage of intricate group interplay to spin one of his dazzlingly inventive flights often gave the resulting solo even greater impact than if it had emerged from a driving bop setting.\nThe MJQ became one of the most popular jazz groups of all time, and drew a following from well beyond the usual jazz audience. The band remained a potent (if still controversial) force for over twenty years, until Jackson chose to leave in 1974, citing both the limitations on his playing freedoms and the constant touring schedules as his reasons, although financial considerations in a period where jazz was not a big draw also influenced his decision.\nHis departure precipitated the break-up of the group. He freelanced and led his own groups for several years, but the lure of the growing jazz festival circuit saw the MJQ reform in 1981, and they continued to play on a more occasional basis well into the current decade, even after the death of Connie Kay.\nJackson had remained busy while the MJQ lay in abeyance, and continued to be so even after its reformation. He led his own small groups, toured extensively as a soloist playing with local rhythm sections, and co-led a band with bassist Ray Brown for a time in the late 80s. He recorded a number of albums for Norman Granz's Pablo label from the mid-70s, and a series of records at the behest of Quincy Jones for his Qwest label in the 90s.\nAlthough he was forced to cancel a number of engagements through ill health in 1998, Jackson was able to return to playing. He was reunited with Ray Brown and Oscar Peterson for an enagagment and live recording at the Blue Note club in New York at the end of 1998, and recorded with the Clayton-Hamilton Jazz Orchestra earlier this year, a final coda to an extensive and hugely important recorded legacy.\nEven in these late recordings, Jackson's deep roots in the blues remain evident, and if they do not have the excitement which marked him out in his prime, they still possess the greatness of both feeling and invention which characterised his playing, and made him not only a truly major voice on the vibraphone, but also one of the great jazz improvisers, irrespective of instrument.\nHe continued to play until shortly before his death from liver cancer. He is survived by his wife, Sandra; his daughter, Chrysie; and three brothers."
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What type of aid was developed my Miller Hutchinson in the early years of the 20th century?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Miller Reese Hutchison (1876–1944) was an American electrical engineer and inventor. He developed some of the first portable electric devices, such as a vehicle horn and a hearing aid.\n\nEarly life\n\nHutchison was born August 6, 1876 in Montrose, Alabama. His father was William Hutchison and mother born Tracie Elizabeth Magruder. He attended Marion Military Institute from 1889 through 1891, Spring Hill College 1891 through 1892, the University of Mobile Military Institute from 1892 through 1895, and graduated from Auburn University (then called Alabama Polytechnical Institute) in 1897. While still in school he invented and patented a lightning arrester for telegraph lines in 1895. \nAt the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in 1898, he volunteered and was appointed engineer for the United States Lighthouse Board, laying cables and mines to protect harbors in the Gulf of Mexico.\n\nHearing aids\n\nHutchison was the inventor of the first electrical hearing aid, called the Akoulathon when it was first developed around 1895. It was also known as the microtelephone since it was essentially a self-contained version of the early telephone as invented by Alexander Graham Bell in the 1870s. His hearing aid was an electrical analog of the ear trumpet: a large carbon microphone called the \"transmitter\" \ncaptured the sound and delivered it to a small carbon \"receiver\", which in turn delivered its output to the ear through headphones.\nHutchison's interest in the invention stemmed from a childhood friend, Lyman Gould, who was deaf from scarlet fever. Besides his training in engineering, Hutchison had attended classes at the Medical College of Alabama to study the anatomy of the ear.\nHe formed the Akouphone Company in Alabama to market the device, but the original bulky tabletop form was not practical.\n\nAfter the Spanish–American War Hutchison went to Europe to promote his hearing aids. Several members of royal families were known to suffer from hereditary hearing loss. Queen Alexandra of Denmark was so happy with the results, she invited Hutchison to the coronation ceremony in 1902 when her husband became King Edward VII of the United Kingdom. \nAround this time he moved to New York to continue improving the device and inventing others. \n\nBy 1902, he had refined the hearing aid into a more portable form powered by batteries, which he then called the Acousticon. \nThe American press called the device a \"miracle\", and Hutchison helped by staging publicity events, such as having Metropolitan Opera lead singer Suzanne Adams photographed singing to formerly deaf people. He exhibited at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, the world's fair in St. Louis, Missouri in 1904.\nMedical experts discovered the device had several drawbacks. Frequency and dynamic range were limited, and those who had total hearing loss were not helped. Batteries were still bulky and need to be changed often. However it was still regarded as \"the best electrical aid for the semi-deaf yet devised.\" \nHe also developed related devices known as the Akou-Massage (renamed the Massacon), and Akoulalion, which converted audio into vibrations, to help those with more profound hearing loss. They were widely adopted by schools for the deaf in the US and Europe.\n\nIn 1905 Hutchison turned over the rights for the Acousticon to Kelley Monroe Turner (1859–1927). Turner would improve hearing aids (such as adding a volume control ) and apply the technology to other products. One was the dictograph, which was an early hands-free inter-office intercom system. Turner's General Acoustic Company was renamed Dictograph Products Company because of the market success of the dictograph.\nOne of the first electric eavesdropping devices was called the Detective Dictograph, announced in 1910. \nThe carbon technology for hearing aids was used until the miniature vacuum tube replaced it in the 1940s. Advertisements in 1947 still carried the Acousticon brand name, and invoked Queen Alexandra's coronation image of 45 years earlier; model names were \"Coronation\" and \"Imperial\". \n\nOther inventions\n\nElectrical Klaxon horn in 1910\nHutchison was concerned with increased automobile traffic in New York City. An early version of a vehicle speed alarm was not readily adopted. \nWarning devices at the time were either bells or horns essentially derived from musical instruments. He realized that a more obnoxious sound would serve as a better warning. \nHe designed a steel diaphragm with a pin at its center, driving the pin with a cam through either a hand crank or electric batteries via a small motor. US Patent 923,048. Applied March 14, 1908, granted May 25, 1909.\n US Patent 923,049. Applied May 16, 1907, granted May 25, 1909.\n US Patent 923,122. Applied May 16, 1907, granted May 25, 1909.\nThe \"horn\" part of the device made the sound directional, so a pedestrian could be more likely to look in the direction of the oncoming vehicle. \nHe licensed the patents to Lovell-McConnell Manufacturing Company in early 1908, and it was marketed as the Klaxon horn. \nThe name came from the Greek work klaxo meaning \"shriek\" which described its sound. \nAt the January 1908 Importers' Automobile Salon in Madison Square Garden New York, mayor George Brinton McClellan, Jr. was reported to have used one to make sure he had the loudest car in the city. \n\nHutchison himself had a limosine custom-built in May 1908 to showcase the latest in automotive electrical technology. The Witherbee Igniter Company installed storage batteries that could be recharged from an on-board generator, or by plugging into a light socket. The car was equipped with three Klaxon horns and an external speaker to warn other traffic. An intercom similar to the dictograph allowed passengers to talk with the chauffeur. Many of the novel innovations in his vehicle are standard equipment today. Besides headlights with a dashboard switch, interior lamps lit automatically when doors were opened. The dashboard included lighted gauges, and alarms to indicate dangerous conditions. The car featured audible and visual back-up warning mechanisms. \n\nBy the next year Lovell-McConnell was shipping the horns throughout the USA and opened offices in Europe. They reportedly sent a gold-plated Klaxon for the British royal limousine. \nLovell-McConnell tried to keep prices high through contracts that prohibited discounting. However, competitors quickly came out with cheap imitations. Hutchison obtained further patents on improvements and fought the other horn vendors. \nDuring a series of lawsuits for patent infringement, an 1899 patent by Alexander N. Pierman for a bicycle horn was used as an example of a similar product with only a slightly different use. Federal judge Thomas Chatfield of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York ruled in favor of Hutchison. \nIn an appeal and other cases, however, Alfred Conkling Coxe, Sr. generally ruled that Hutchison's claims were overly broad, and thus invalidated many of them. \nCoxe called the horn's sound \"harsh, raucous, and diabolical\". \nLawyers said \"a noise is not patentable\". \nThe United Motors Company bought out Lovell-McConnell in 1916, renamed it their Kalaxon Company subsidiary, and soon made the horns standard on General Motors cars. \n\nBy 1908 Hutchison had developed an electrical tachometer that would give an accurate reading of the speed of steam ship engines. \nPreviously, ship speed was judged by spinning shafts that were mechanically connected to the propellers. The innovation of using a simple generator and voltmeter allowed much more precise control, and using wires the speed could be displayed remotely in the pilot house or captain's stateroom as well as engine room. The device even allowed speeds to be measured when the ship's engines were reversed. It was licensed to Industrial Instrument Company for production. \n\nHutchison became associated with Thomas Edison from 1909, and was chief engineer of Edison's laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey from August 1912 until July 1918. \nIn June 1913 he was awarded an honorary Electrical Engineer degree from Auburn, and in June 1914 an honorary Ph.D. from Spring Hill College.\n\nHutchison also developed technology for use by the military. The Klaxon warning device became standard equipment on all United States Navy ships.\nDuring World War I he worked on batteries for submarines in Edison's laboratory. \nAfter experimental batteries caused an explosion of hydrogen gas on the , Hutchison was accused of making false statements in a Navy inquiry. \n\nIn 1918 he left Edison's lab to devote full-time to his own company: Miller Reese Hutchison, Incorporated had been formed in 1916 to further develop and sell batteries developed at Edison's laboratory. After World War I he founded Hutchison Office Specialties Company for the new market of electric business machines. One popular product was the \"Spool-O-Wire\" fastener machine. As its name implied, it used a continuous spool of wire to attach business documents to each other. It was advertised as handling from two to 40 sheets of paper, cloth, or cardboard, with a single wire spool replacing 15,000 individual staples. \n\nIn 1921 he demonstrated a gun that could be used for embedding a projectile into steel at a precise velocity.\nThe dramatic demonstration was presented in his offices high in the Woolworth Building of Lower Manhattan.\nHe proposed using it to replace rivets for repairing ships underwater, while the press speculated on military uses as a weapon. \n\nAnother danger caused by the increased number of automobiles was carbon monoxide (CO). Motorists would sometimes pass out or die in high-traffic tunnels, for example, from the odorless gas. In 1924 he announced an additive to gasoline that would allow cleaner combustion with fewer harmful fumes. The additive was marketed as Hutch-Olene, but never caught on.\nAfter his second son was killed in an airplane crash in 1928, he became motivated to improve the safety of air travel.\nIn 1930 he announced a forerunner of today's Oxygen sensor called the Moto-Vita. It was a crude measurement of the unburned vapors that allowed a pilot (or driver of an automobile) to adjust the air-fuel ratio for both better efficiency and lower dangerous CO emissions. \nIn 1936 he was admitted to Alabama's hall of fame, with his number of patents estimated to be over 1000. \n\nFamily and death\n\nHutchison married Martha Jackman Pomeroy of Minnetonka, Minnesota in New York on May 31, 1901. Their children were: Miller Reese Hutchison born in 1902, Harold Pomeroy Hutchison born 1904, Juan Ceballo Hutchison born 1906, and Robley Pomeroy Hutchison born 1908.\nHe died suddenly on February 16, 1944 in New York. \nA common quip (sometimes attributed to Mark Twain) was that \"Hutchison invented the Klaxon horn to deafen people so they would have to buy Acousticons.\" \nHe was called \"one of Alabama's greatest contributions to science and invention.\""
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"Hearing Aid History - Hearing Aid Basics | HowStuffWorks\nHearing Aid History\nJohn Franklin/AFP/ Getty Images\nThe first hearing aids were enormous, horn-shaped trumpets with a large, open piece at one end that collected sound. The trumpet gradually tapered into a thin tube that funneled the sound into the ear.\nThe development of the modern hearing aid might not have been possible had it not been for the contributions of two of the greatest inventors of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Alexander Graham Bell electronically amplified sound in his telephone using a carbon microphone and battery -- a concept that was adopted by hearing aid manufacturers. In 1886, Thomas Edison invented the carbon transmitter, which changed sounds into electrical signals that could travel through wires and be converted back into sounds. This technology was used in the first hearing aids.\nUp Next\nWill nanobots perform surgery in the future?\nThe Industrial Revolution allowed for the mass production of hearing aids and created a new middle class that could afford the technology. In the 1800s, several companies, including George P. Pilling and Sons of Philadelphia , and Kirchner and Wilhelm of Stuttgart, Germany, produced their own versions of hearing aids. In 1898, the Dictograph Company introduced the first commercial carbon-type hearing aid. A year later, Miller Reese Hutchison, of the Akouphone company in Alabama, patented the first practical electrical hearing aid, which used a carbon transmitter and battery. It was so large that it had to sit on a table, and it sold for $400.\nIn the 1920s, vacuum tubes were introduced to hearing aids, which made sound amplification more efficient, but enormous batteries still made them cumbersome.\n1952 ushered in the age of the transistor hearing aids. The addition of these simple on/off switches finally enabled the advent of a smaller hearing aid. Early transistor hearing aids were designed to fit within the frames of eyeglasses . Later, they were adapted to fit behind the ear. The first transistor hearing aid to hit the market in late 1952 was sold by Sonotone for $229.50.\nIn the 1990s, hearing aids went digital. Sound quality improved and became more adjustable. Also during this time, programmable hearing aids were introduced.\nAt the turn of the 21st century, computer technology made hearing aids smaller and even more precise, with settings to accommodate virtually every type of listening environment. The newest generation of hearing aids can continually adjust themselves to improve sound quality and reduce background noise.\nFor more information on hearing aids and related topics, check out the links on the following page.",
"Puritanism - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com\nGoogle\nThe roots of Puritanism are to be found in the beginnings of the English Reformation. The name “Puritans” (they were sometimes called “precisionists”) was a term of contempt assigned to the movement by its enemies. Although the epithet first emerged in the 1560s, the process through which Puritanism developed had been initiated in the 1530s, when King Henry VIII repudiated papal authority and transformed the Church of Rome into a state Church of England. But the Church of England retained much of the liturgy and ritual of Roman Catholicism and seemed, to many dissenters, to be insufficiently reformed.\nDid You Know?\nIn keeping with their focus on the home, Puritan migration to the New World usually consisted of entire families, rather than the young, single men who comprised many other early European settlements.\nWell into the sixteenth century many priests were barely literate and often very poor. Employment by more than one parish was common, and the resulting itinerancy of priests, along with their immunity to certain penalties of the civil law, fed anticlerical hostility and contributed to their isolation from the spiritual needs of the people.\nThrough the reigns of the Protestant King Edward VI (1547-1553), who introduced the first vernacular prayer book, and the Catholic Queen Mary (1553-1558), who sent some dissenting clergymen to their deaths and others into exile, the Puritan movement–whether tolerated or suppressed–continued to grow. Some Puritans favored a presbyterian form of church organization; others, more radical, began to claim autonomy for individual congregations. Still others were content to remain within the structure of the national church, but set themselves against the doctrinal and liturgical vestiges of Catholic tradition, especially the vestments that symbolized episcopal authority. As they gained strength, Puritans were portrayed by their enemies as hairsplitters who slavishly followed their Bibles as guides to daily life; or they were caricatured as licentious hypocrites who adopted a grave aspect but cheated the very neighbors whom they judged inadequate Christians. They appeared in drama and satire as secretly lascivious purveyors of feigned piety.\nYet the Puritan attack on the established church gained popular strength, especially in East Anglia and among the lawyers and merchants of London. The movement found wide support among these new professional classes, in part because it was congenial to their growing discontent with mercantile economic restraints. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , an uneasy peace prevailed within English religious life, but the struggle over the tone and purpose of the church continued. Many men and women were more and more forced to contend with the dislocations–emotional as well as physical–that accompanied the beginnings of a market economy. Subsistence farmers were called upon to enter the world of production for profit. Under the rule of primogeniture, younger sons tended to enter the professions (especially the law) with increasing frequency and seek their livelihood in the burgeoning cities. With the growth of a continental market for wool, land enclosure for sheep farming became an attractive alternative for large landowners, who thereby disrupted centuries-old patterns of rural communal life. The English countryside was plagued by scavengers, highwaymen, and vagabonds–a newly visible class of the poor who strained the ancient charity laws and pressed upon the townsfolk new questions of social responsibility.\nIn the early decades of the seventeenth century some groups of worshipers began to separate themselves from the main body of their local parish church where preaching was inadequate and to engage an energetic “lecturer,” typically a young man with a fresh Cambridge degree, who was a lively speaker and steeped in reform theology. Some congregations went further, declared themselves separated from the national church, and remade themselves into communities of “visible saints,” withdrawn from the English City of Man into a self-proclaimed City of God.\nOne such faction was a group of separatist believers in the Yorkshire village of Scrooby, who, fearing for their safety, moved to Holland in 1608 and thence, in 1620, to the place they called Plymouth in New England. A decade later, a larger, better-financed group, mostly from East Anglia, migrated to Massachusetts Bay. There they set up gathered churches on much the same model as the transplanted church at Plymouth (with deacons, preaching elders, and, though not right away, a communion restricted to full church members, or “saints”). These Puritans called themselves “nonseparating congregationalists,” by which they meant that they had not repudiated the Church of England as a false church. But in practice they acted–from the point of view of Episcopalians and even Presbyterians at home–exactly as the separatists were acting. By the 1640s their enterprise at Massachusetts Bay had grown to about ten thousand persons, and through the inevitable centrifugal pressures of land scarcity within the borders of the swelling towns, ecclesiastical quarreling, and sheer restlessness of spirit, they had outgrown the bounds of the original settlement and spread into what would become Connecticut , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Maine , and eventually beyond the limits of New England.\nThe Puritan migration was overwhelmingly a migration of families (unlike other migrations to early America, which were composed largely of young unattached men). The literacy rate was high, and the intensity of devotional life, as recorded in the many surviving diaries, sermon notes, poems, and letters, was seldom to be matched in American life. The Puritans’ ecclesiastical order was as intolerant as the one they had fled. Yet, as a loosely confederated collection of gathered churches, Puritanism contained within itself the seed of its own fragmentation. Following hard upon the arrival in New England, dissident groups within the Puritan sect began to proliferate–Quakers, Antinomians, Baptists–fierce believers who carried the essential Puritan idea of the aloneness of each believer with an inscrutable God so far that even the ministry became an obstruction to faith.\nThe ensuing religious history of early New England is a tale of conflicts between congregational and synodical authority; between those who stressed the utter helplessness of the individual in the process of salvation and those who began to allow a place for human initiative; between those who believed that the Lord’s Supper was a sacrament reserved for the regenerate and those who believed that it could be a “converting ordinance”; and perhaps most divisively as time went on, between those who regarded baptism as a rite due only to the children of full communing church members and those who believed it could be safely extended to the children of “half-way” members– second-generation Puritans who had never stepped forward to make the profession of faith that the founders had required for entrance into the true church.\nThese sorts of disputes–which have a certain inevitability in any community where the quality of true faith is the only value worth disputing–make the history of American Puritanism seem a story of family rancor and, ultimately, of disintegration. But Puritanism as a basic attitude was remarkably durable and can hardly be overestimated as a formative element of early American life. Among its intellectual contributions was a psychological empiricism that has rarely, if ever, been exceeded in categorical subtlety. It furnished Americans with a sense of history as a progressive drama under the direction of God, in which they played a role akin to, if not prophetically aligned with, that of the Old Testament Jews as a new chosen people. Perhaps most important, as Max Weber profoundly understood, was the strength of Puritanism as a way of coping with the contradictory requirements of Christian ethics in a world on the verge of modernity. It supplied an ethics that somehow balanced the injunction to charity and the premium on self-discipline; it counseled moderation within a psychology that virtually ensured exertion toward worldly prosperity as the best sign of divine favor. Such an ethics was particularly urgent in a New World where opportunity can be as obvious as the source of moral authority is obscure.\nBy the beginning of the eighteenth century, Puritanism had both declined and shown its tenacity. Every New England generation, especially through the characteristic rhetoric of the jeremiad, sorrowfully proclaimed the end of “the faith once delivered to the saints.” If we measure the purity of Puritanism by its fidelity to its covenant of faith untainted by a covenant of works or to its original principles of restricted baptism and communion, then we must go even further than its severest internal critics and say that Puritanism never really existed in America at all. The burden of its American experience was its discovery that it had been, in essence, an oppositional movement; that life “in the free air of the New World” posed insuperable dangers to its coherence and survival. But if we regard Puritanism as a way of seeing the world, as an excruciating but exquisite program of self-scrutiny by which the stirrings of grace might be acknowledged and the divinely sanctioned energies of the soul put to use–in both benevolent and violently destructive ways–then we must account it the dominant spiritual regimen of early America.\nThough “the New England Way” evolved into a relatively minor system of organizing religious experience within the broader American scene, its central themes recur in the related religious communities of Quakers, Baptists, Presbyterians, Methodists, and a whole range of evangelical Protestants. More recently, the word “Puritan” has once again become a pejorative epithet, meaning prudish, constricted, cold–as in H. L. Mencken’s famous remark that a Puritan is one who suspects “somewhere someone is having a good time.” Puritanism, however, had a more significant persistence in American life than as the religion of black-frocked caricatures. It survived, perhaps most conspicuously, in the transmuted secular form of self-reliance and political localism that became, by the Age of Enlightenment , virtually the definition of Americanism. And in its bequest of intellectual and moral rigor to the New England mind, it established what was arguably the central strand of American cultural life until the twentieth century.\nAlan Heimert and Andrew Delbanco, eds., The Puritans in America (1985); Perry Miller, The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century (1939) and The New England Mind: From Colony to Province (1953).\nANDREW DELBANCO\nThe Reader’s Companion to American History. Eric Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors. Copyright © 1991 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.\nTags",
"Coca-Cola Collectibles: Bottles : The Coca-Cola Company\nThe toughest bottles to collect are the early Hutchinson bottles, the first bottles for\nCoca-Cola\n®, which were used from the mid 1890s to the early years of the 20th Century. Because they were in the market for a limited period of time, they're hard to find. In good condition, they can bring premium dollars. Petretti's guide lists a Hutchinson bottle with a script-lettered logo ranging from $2,500 to $4,000. Some sell for even more today. There are only a dozen or so varieties of Hutchinson\nCoca-Cola\nbottles from a few towns in Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee and Mississippi. Trying to amass a collection of Hutchinson bottles today is a major undertaking in terms of both time and finances.\nThe Hutchinson bottles derived their names from the metal stopper device used to seal them. The stopper contained a seal at the neck. To open the bottle, the consumer punched down on a metal loop in the stopper, which broke the seal and made a popping sound. That's what gave \"soda pop\" its name. After the turn of the century, the Hutchinson stoppers were gradually phased out and replaced by bottle caps or crowns.\nBetween the phasing out of the Hutchinson bottles and the phasing in of the familiar contour bottle, bottlers used a wide range of straight-sided bottles that were generic for both the soft-drink and brewing industries. Petretti's guide calls this era a \"gold mine\" for collectors. You can find an enormous variation in the sizes, colors and markings of bottles. The straight-sided bottles can vary in value from $25 up to around $400, depending on the condition and the uniqueness. Amber-colored bottles, sold widely in the South and Midwest, tend to be more valuable than the clear or light green or flint straight-sided bottles that were more common in other parts of the country.\nFlavor Bottles\nBefore The\nCoca-Cola\nCompany created a line of flavored drinks, most of the bottlers created their own brands, with orange, root beer, strawberry, grape and fruit-flavored drinks. Because they were not allowed to put them in bottles with the \"Coca-Cola\" script, the bottlers developed their own \"flavor bottles.\" The writing on many of these bottles indicates they are property of the local\nCoca-Cola\nbottling company. Collectors can find an enormous variety in flavor bottles, and most are very inexpensive to collect.\nIn the early 1900s, The\nCoca-Cola\nCompany sold its syrup to soda fountains, where it was mixed with carbonated water in proper proportions before serving the drink to customers. The syrup bottles were ornately etched and equipped with a metal cap for precise serving. They were staples of small soda fountains from the turn of the century well into the 1920s. The bottles can be very valuable today, with the earliest in the series worth several thousand dollars or more in mint condition.\nSome\nCoca-Cola\nbottlers carried a line of seltzer, adding carbon dioxide to water to make it effervescent. Seltzer bottles are another popular collectible and can be worth hundreds of dollars or more, depending on their condition. Some are extremely decorative, with a wide range of colors, designs and etchings. Some have script logos, as opposed to block type. Others have figures or animals.\nTown Names\nUntil the early 1960s, the town where the drink was bottled was embossed on the bottom of contour bottles. Many of us remember playing the \"distance game\" when we were younger; the person whose bottle carried the name of the most distant city was the winner. Many collectors are intent on getting every variant of those bottles. Veteran collector John Thom of Woodstock, Ga., has accumulated bottles from 1,200 of the 1,450 different towns he has identified that bottled\nCoca-Cola\n.\n\"The last 250 are extremely tough,\" John reports. \"I bought one from Lancaster, S.C., and at that time nobody had ever found one from there. I paid $25 and today it's probably worth $400 to $500.\"\nJohn started collecting bottles about 25 years ago when he was digging at a home site and found several old Coke bottles from the 1940s. His collection has grown to include some straight-sided bottles and even some Hutchinson\nCoca-Cola\nbottles. Several years ago, he came across a straight-sided bottle from the tiny town of Buena Vista, Ga., dating back to 1912 or 1913. The bottle was one of several that had been dug up near Warm Springs, Ga., and until that time there had been no record of straight-sided bottles made in Buena Vista. Finds like this add to the mystery and excitement of collecting.\nToday, John says he buys bottles mostly at different\nCoca-Cola\ncollectible conventions, through auctions or from other collectors. He still goes to flea markets and yard sales, although the competition for valuable items has picked up dramatically in recent years. \"The thing about Coke collecting is that good pieces are always going to be good pieces,\" he says.\nReturn of Embossing\nIn a special reintroduction in 2000, The\nCoca-Cola\nCompany restored the embossed bottles with the cities on the bottom to meet people's interest in recapturing part of the Company's heritage. This time, however, the 24 cities embossed on the bottom of the 8-ounce glass contour bottle were selected because of their special connection - either historical or just plain fun - to\nCoca-Cola\nAtlanta, Ga., was chosen because it is the hometown of\nCoca-Cola\n. Cokeville, Wyoming, has its name on a bottle because the Company just liked the way the small town's name sounds. And Roswell, N.M., stars on a bottle because if aliens ever were to land on earth and taste their first\nCoca-Cola\n, this just might be the place that would happen.\nIn a future column, I'll discuss the topic of collecting commemorative bottles that were issued to honor championship sports teams and to mark other memorable occasions. \nPhil Mooney is the director of the Archives Department.\nU.S. readers are invited to join My Coke Rewards Beta where you can vote for your #ClassicVsModernCoke bottle preference. Just for sharing your style, we’ll instantly reward you with +3 MCR status, a great way to begin earning\nCoca-Cola",
"Harry S. Truman: Life in Brief—Miller Center\nAbout the Administration\nHarry S. Truman became President of the United States with the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on April 12, 1945. During his nearly eight years in office, Truman confronted enormous challenges in both foreign and domestic affairs. Truman's policies abroad, and especially toward the Soviet Union in the emerging Cold War, would become staples of American foreign policy for generations. At home, Truman protected and reinforced the New Deal reforms of his predecessor, guided the American economy from a war-time to a peace-time footing, and advanced the cause of African-American civil rights. Historians now rank Truman among the nation's best Presidents.\nStudent and Soldier\nHarry Truman was a child of Missouri. Born on May 8, 1884, in the town of Lamar, Truman grew up in Independence, only ten miles east of Kansas City. As a child he devoured history books and literature, played the piano enthusiastically, and dreamed of becoming a great soldier. His poor eyesight made a commission to West Point impossible, however, and his family's financial problems kept him from attending a four-year college.\nTruman instead worked on the family farm between 1906 and 1914. Though he detested farming, it was during this difficult time that he fell in love with Virginia \"Bess\" Wallace, whom he had met as a child. Bess refused Harry's marriage proposal in 1911 but the romance continued. They wed in 1919 and five years later had their first and only child, Mary Margaret.\nIn 1914, after his father's death, Truman tried unsuccessfully to earn a living as an owner and operator of a small mining company and oil business, all the while remaining involved with the farm. In 1917, Truman's National Guard unit shipped out to France as part of the American Expeditionary Force fighting the world war. The soldiering life suited Truman, who turned his battery—which had a reputation for unruliness and ineffectiveness—into a top-notch unit.\nA Career in Politics\nBack home from the war, Truman opened a men's furnishings store (shirts, ties, underwear, sock, etc.—no suits, coats, or shoes) with an army buddy. The shop failed, however, after only a few years. In 1922, Thomas J. Pendergast, the Democratic boss of Kansas City, asked Truman to run for a judgeship on the county court of Jackson County's eastern district. Truman served one term, was defeated for a second, and then became presiding judge in 1926, a position he held until 1934. As presiding judge, Truman managed the county's finances during the early years of the Great Depression. Despite his association with the corrupt Pendergast, Truman established a reputation for personal integrity, honesty, and efficiency.\nIn 1934, Truman was elected to the U.S. Senate with help of the Pendergast political machine. Senator Truman supported the New Deal, although he proved only a marginally important legislator. He became a national figure during World War II when he chaired the \"Truman Committee\" investigating government defense spending. President Franklin D. Roosevelt chose Truman as his running mate in the 1944 presidential campaign largely because the Missourian passed muster with Southern Democrats and party officials. The Roosevelt-Truman ticket won a comfortable victory over its Republican opposition, though Truman would serve only eighty-two days as vice president. With the death of FDR on April 12, 1945, Harry S. Truman became the thirty-third President of the United States.\nTruman and Post-War America\nTruman took office as World War II in Europe drew to a close. The German leader Adolf Hitler committed suicide in Berlin only two weeks into Truman's presidency and the allies declared victory in Europe on May 7, 1945. The war in the Pacific, however, was far from being over; most experts believed it might last another year and require an American invasion of Japan. The U.S. and British governments, though, had secretly begun to develop the world's most deadly weapon—an atomic bomb. Upon its completion and successful testing in the summer of 1945, Truman approved its use against Japan. On August 6 and 9, 1945, the U.S. Army Air Force dropped atomic bombs on two cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, immediately killing upwards of 100,000 people (with perhaps twice that number dying from the aftereffects of radiation poisoning). Japanese emperor Hirohito agreed to surrender days later, bringing World War II to a close.\nTruman faced unprecedented and defining challenges in international affairs during the first years of his presidency. American relations with the Soviet Union—nominal allies in the battle against Germany and Japan—began to deteriorate even before victory in World War II. Serious ideological differences—the United States supported democratic institutions and market principles, while Soviet leaders were totalitarian and ran a command economy—separated the two countries. But it was the diverging interests of the emerging superpowers in Europe and Asia which sharpened their differences.\nIn response to what it viewed as Soviet threats, the Truman administration constructed foreign policies to contain the Soviet Union's political power and counter its military strength. By 1949, Soviet and American policies had divided Europe into a Soviet-controlled bloc in the east and an American-supported grouping in the west. That same year, a communist government sympathetic to the Soviet Union came to power in China, the world's most populous nation. The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, which would last for over forty years, had begun.\nAt home, President Truman presided over the difficult transition from a war-time to a peace-time economy. During World War II, the American government had intervened in the nation's economy to an unprecedented degree, controlling prices, wages, and production. Truman lobbied for a continuing government role in the immediate post-war economy and also for an expansive liberal agenda that built on the New Deal. Republicans and conservative Democrats attacked this strategy and the President mercilessly. An immediate postwar economy characterized by high inflation and consumer shortages further eroded Truman's support and contributed to the Democrats losing control of Congress in the 1946 midterm elections. Newly empowered Republicans and conservative Democrats stymied Truman's liberal proposals and began rolling back some New Deal gains, especially through the Taft-Hartley labor law moderately restricting union activity.\nElection of 1948\nTruman's political fortunes reached their low point in 1946 and 1947, a nadir from which few observers believed the President could recover to win a second term. Freed from shouldering primary responsibility for the nation's economy (which began to stabilize) and the nearly impossible burden of uniting the disparate Democratic party behind a progressive agenda, Truman let the Republicans try to govern. When they faltered or pushed conservative programs, Truman counterattacked with skill, fire, and wit. The President also took steps to energize his liberal Democratic base, especially blacks, unions, and urban dwellers, issuing executive orders that pushed forward the cause of African-American civil rights and vetoing (unsuccessfully) the Taft-Hartley bill.\nTruman won the presidential nomination of a severely divided Democratic party in the summer of 1948 and faced New York's Republican governor Thomas Dewey in the general election. Few expected him to win, but the President waged a vigorous campaign that excoriated Republicans in Congress as much as it attacked Dewey. Truman defeated Dewey in November 1948, capping one of the most stunning political comebacks in American history.\nA Troubled Second Term\nTruman viewed his reelection as a mandate for a liberal agenda, which he presented under the name \"The Fair Deal.\" The President miscalculated, however, as the American public and conservatives in both parties on Capitol Hill rejected most of his program. He did win passage of some important liberal legislation that raised the minimum wage and expanded Social Security. Moreover, the American economy began a period of sustained growth in the early 1950s that lasted for nearly two decades. Increasingly, though, his administration was buffeted by charges of corruption and being \"soft on communism.\" The latter critique was extremely damaging as anti-communism became one of the defining characteristics of early Cold War American political culture. Some of the most virulent (and irresponsible) anti-communists, like Wisconsin's Republican senator Joseph McCarthy, lambasted the administration and the State Department, in particular.\nSignificant foreign policy challenges persisted into Truman's second term. The President committed the United States to the defense of South Korea in the summer of 1950 after that nation, an American ally, was invaded by its communist neighbor, North Korea. The American military launched a counterattack that pushed the North Koreans back to the Chinese border, whereupon the Chinese entered the war in the fall of 1950. The conflict settled into a bloody and grisly stalemate that would not be resolved until Truman left office in 1953. The Korean War globalized the Cold War and spurred a massive American military build-up that began the nuclear arms race in earnest.\nTruman in Perspective\nTruman's popularity sank during his second term, due largely to accusations of corruption, charges that the administration was \"soft on communism,\" and the stalemated Korean War. Unsurprisingly, Truman chose not to run in 1952. The Democratic Party's candidate, Governor Adlai Stevenson, lost to war hero and Republican General Dwight D. Eisenhower in the fall election.\nTruman's legacy has become clearer and more impressive in the years since he left office. Most scholars admit that the President faced enormous challenges domestically, internationally, and politically. While he occasionally failed to measure accurately the nation's political tenor and committed some significant policy blunders, Truman achieved notable successes. Domestically, he took important first steps in civil rights, protected many of the New Deal's gains, and presided over an economy that would enjoy nearly two decades of unprecedented growth. In foreign affairs, the President and his advisers established many of the basic foundations of America foreign policy, especially in American-Soviet relations, that would guide the nation in the decades ahead. On the whole, Truman is currently celebrated by the public, politicians, and scholars alike.\nHarry S. Truman Essays"
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"Who said, ""My whole life has been one of rejection. Women. Dogs. Comic strips."""
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"Any Morning by William Stafford | The Writer's Almanac with Garrison Keillor\nThe Writer's Almanac with Garrison Keillor\nJust lying on the couch and being happy.\nOnly humming a little, the quiet sound in the head.\nTrouble is busy elsewhere at the moment, it has\nso much to do in the world.\nPeople who might judge are mostly asleep; they can't\nmonitor you all the time, and sometimes they forget.\nWhen dawn flows over the hedge you can\nget up and act busy.\nLittle corners like this, pieces of Heaven\nleft lying around, can be picked up and saved.\nPeople won't even see that you have them,\nthey are so light and easy to hide.\nLater in the day you can act like the others.\nYou can shake your head. You can frown.\n\"Any Morning\" by William Stafford from Ohio Review Volume 50 (1993). © 1993 by William Stafford. Used by permission of the Permissions Company, Inc. on behalf of the Estate of William Stafford. ( buy now )\nIt's the birthday of novelist Marilynne Robinson ( books by this author ), born in Sandpoint, Idaho (1943). Her first novel, Housekeeping (1980), is the story of two sisters in a town called Fingerbone, Idaho; their mother commits suicide and their aunt, an eccentric drifter, moves back to town to take care of them. Housekeeping got good reviews but didn't sell very well.\nRobinson got a teaching fellowship at the University of Kent in England. She was alarmed to learn about a nuclear facility that was dumping toxic waste into the Irish Sea, while local children suffered from unusually high rates of cancer. She wrote Mother Country: Britain, the Welfare State, and Nuclear Pollution (1989), criticizing Britain for not caring enough. She said: \"I began what amounted to an effort to reeducate myself. After all those years of school, I felt there was little I knew that I could trust, and I did not want my books to be one more tributary to the sea of nonsense that really is what most conventional wisdom amounts to.\"\nShe went back to teaching at the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop, and she immersed herself in reading. For years, she read journals and books about the early days of Iowa. She published a book of essays about theology. Then, almost 25 years after Housekeeping, Robinson published a second novel, called Gilead (2004). Set in 1956, the novel is a series of letters from a dying 76-year-old Congregationalist pastor in the town of Gilead, Iowa; the letters are all written to his seven-year-old son. A few years later, she published a third novel, Home (2008), a companion book to Gilead.\nIn Gilead, she wrote: \"Sometimes I have loved the peacefulness of an ordinary Sunday. It is like standing in a newly planted garden after a warm rain. You can feel the silent and invisible life. All it needs from you is that you take care not to trample on it.\"\nIt's the birthday of science writer Jonathan Weiner ( books by this author ), born in New York City (1953). His mother was a librarian and his father a physicist, and he was equally enchanted by literature and science; he couldn't decide which one to make the basis of his career. A few years out of Harvard, he was hired to write a companion book to the PBS series Planet Earth (1986), and he has been a science writer ever since. He won a Pulitzer Prize for his book The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolution in Our Time (1986), about the rapid evolution of Darwin's finches in the Galapagos in reaction to changes in their food. His most recent book, Long for This World (2010), is about the attempts to find scientific ways to achieve immortality.\nIt's the birthday of cartoonist Charles Schulz ( books by this author ), born in Minneapolis, Minnesota (1922). His parents left school after third grade, and his father was a barber who supported the family on 35 cent haircuts. Every Sunday, Schulz and his father read the \"funny pages\" together, and the boy hoped to become a cartoonist someday. But he had a tough time in school — he felt picked on by teachers and other students. He was smart enough to skip ahead a couple of grades, but that only made it worse. He wished someone would recognize his artistic talent, but his cartoons weren't even accepted by the high school yearbook.\nAfter high school, he was drafted into the Army; his mother died of cancer a couple of days before he left. When he came home, he moved in with his father in the apartment above the barbershop. He got a job teaching at Art Instruction, a correspondence course for cartooning that he had taken as a high schooler. There he fell in love with a red-haired woman named Donna Mae Johnson, who worked in the accounting department. They dated for a while, but when he asked her to marry him, she turned him down and soon after married someone else. Schulz was devastated, and remained bitter about it for the rest of his life. He said: \"I can think of no more emotionally damaging loss than to be turned down by someone whom you love very much. A person who not only turns you down, but almost immediately will marry the victor. What a bitter blow that is.\"\nSchulz started publishing a cartoon strip called L'il Folks in the local paper, the St. Paul Pioneer Press, but they dropped it after a couple of years. Schulz sent some of his favorite L'il Folks cartoons to the United Features Syndicate, and in 1950, the first Peanuts strip appeared in seven national newspapers. The first strip introduced Charlie Brown, and Snoopy made an appearance two days later. The rest of the Peanuts characters were added slowly over the years: Linus, Lucy, Schroeder, Pig Pen, Peppermint Patty, and many more. Throughout the years, the object of Charlie Brown's unrequited love is known simply as The Little Red-Haired Girl.\nPeanuts was eventually syndicated in more than 2,500 newspapers worldwide, and there were more than 300 million Peanuts books sold, as well as 40 TV specials, four movies, and a Broadway play.\nCharles Schulz said: \"My whole life has been one of rejection. Women. Dogs. Comic strips.\"\nBe well, do good work, and keep in touch.®\n \n«\n»\n“Writers end up writing stories—or rather, stories' shadows—and they're grateful if they can, but it is not enough. Nothing the writer can do is ever enough” —Joy Williams\n“I want to live other lives. I've never quite believed that one chance is all I get. Writing is my way of making other chances.” —Anne Tyler\n“Writing is a performance, like singing an aria or dancing a jig” —Stephen Greenblatt\n“All good writing is swimming under water and holding your breath.” —F. Scott Fitzgerald\n“Good writing is always about things that are important to you, things that are scary to you, things that eat you up.” —John Edgar Wideman\n“In certain ways writing is a form of prayer.” —Denise Levertov\n“Writing is a socially acceptable form of schizophrenia.” —E.L. Doctorow\n“Writing is like driving at night in the fog. You can only see as far as your headlights, but you can make the whole trip that way.” —E.L. Doctorow\n“Let's face it, writing is hell.” —William Styron\n“A writer is someone for whom writing is more difficult than it is for other people.” —Thomas Mann\n“Writing is 90 percent procrastination: reading magazines, eating cereal out of the box, watching infomercials.” —Paul Rudnick\n“Writing is a failure. Writing is not only useless, it's spoiled paper.” —Padget Powell\n“Writing is very hard work and knowing what you're doing the whole time.” —Shelby Foote\n“I think all writing is a disease. You can't stop it.” —William Carlos Williams\n“Writing is like getting married. One should never commit oneself until one is amazed at one's luck.” —Iris Murdoch\n“The less conscious one is of being ‘a writer,’ the better the writing.” —Pico Iyer\n“Writing is…that oddest of anomalies: an intimate letter to a stranger.” —Pico Iyer\n“Writing is my dharma.” —Raja Rao\n“Writing is a combination of intangible creative fantasy and appallingly hard work.” —Anthony Powell\n“I think writing is, by definition, an optimistic act.” —Michael Cunningham\nsponsor",
"Peanuts - Wikiquote\nPeanuts\nJump to: navigation , search\nPeanuts is a comic strip drawn by Charles M. Schulz from 1950 until 2000. It was also developed into several TV animated specials and four animated theatrical features. The strip's most recognizable icons are born-loser Charlie Brown and his anthropomorphic dog Snoopy, who always sleeps on top of his dog house instead of inside it.\nI can't stand it! (Sometimes accompanied by \"I just can't stand it!\")\nYou blockhead(s)!\n(usually Charlie Brown): That's the way it goes...\nAAUGH!!\n(usually Snoopy or some inanimate object): My mother didn't raise me to be...\nNo matter how hard you try, you can't... (do something silly and impossible)\nWhy can't I have a normal (dog, baseball team, groundskeeper, etc...) like everyone else?\nMy stomach hurts...\n(to Lucy in the Football gag) You'll pull it away and I'll land on my back and kill myself.\nI got a rock (multiple times in \"It's The Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown\")\nIt depresses a manager to see his team cry... (14 Jun 58)\n(sees Lucy wearing one of his shirts:) Well hello there, Charlie Brown, you blockhead!! (Violet and Patty crack up as Lucy sighs and Charlie Brown walks away) (22 Feb 59)\n(after proving there are no spiders in the baseball gloves:) In all the history of baseball, there has never been a manager who has had to go through what I have to go through! (6 Apr 61)\nOther kids' baseball heroes hit home runs. Mine gets sent down to the minors! (7 May 63)\nNothing takes the taste out of peanut butter like unrequited love! (15 Dec 64)\n(On the Little red-haired girl :) I hate myself for not having enough nerve to talk to her! Well, that's not exactly true... I hate myself for a lot of other reasons too. (17 Dec 64)\n(in the class spelling bee, asked to spell the word \"maze\":) M...A...Y...S ... AAUGH! (9 Feb 66)\n(waking up after getting hit with a line drive:) I'm dying, and all I hear is insults! ( 3 Aug 66 and A Boy Named Charlie Brown)\nSometimes I lie awake at night, and I ask, \"What can I do to keep my life from going by so fast?\" Then a voice comes to me that says, \"Try slowing down at the corners.\". ( 30 July 96 )\nI've developed a new philosophy. I only dread one day at a time. (8 Aug 66)\n(on being made a school crossing guard:) When I got called to the office, I was a nobody...now, I'm a man with a badge! (14 Nov 66)\nI don't have a ball team, I have a theological seminary! (17 Sep 67)\nAfter Linus asks if people should only worry about today instead of tomorrow No, that's giving up... I'm still hoping that yesterday will get better. (24 Mar 79)\nNow I know why we play baseball in the summer... When your shoes and socks get knocked off by a line drive, your feet don't get cold! (03 April 79)\nWouldn't it be something if that Little Red-Haired Girl came over here and gave me a kiss? I'd say, \"Thank you! What was that for?\", and wouldn't it be something if she said, \"Because I've always loved you!\" Then I'd give her a big hug, and she'd kiss me again! Wouldn't that be something? (Starts eating) Wouldn't it be something if it turned out that french fries were good for you? (26 Feb 81)\nThere's something lonely about a ball field when it's raining... What makes it lonely is being the only one dumb enough to be standing out here... (23 May 81)\n(After Peppermint Patty asks him if he likes Marcie and her ) I'm sorry... I'm not here anymore.. I've suddenly become a recording! (01 Jan 85)\nHow can I say the right thing and the wrong thing at the same time?\nYes, ma'am.. I'm late... I didn't plan to be late... The bus driver said I wasn't on her computer list so I had to walk... I also forgot my lunch and my homework, and I'm probably sitting in the wrong desk. (11 Sep 85)\n(Gives Snoopy the letter about Spike:) Here a letter from your brother Spike. (29 Mar 85)\nSometimes I lie awake at night, and I ask, \"Why me?\" Then a voice answers, \"Nothing personal... your name just happened to come up.\" (13 Nov 93)\n(in one of his last main strips:) This is my Joe Torre look. I'm going to use it next season. I'll manage the team from the bench like Joe Torre, and I'll stare at everybody like this, and we'll win every game. (27 Dec 99)\n(on the little red-haired girl:) I don't ever want to forget her face, but if I don't, I'll go crazy. How can I remember the face I can't forget? Suddenly I'm writing country-western music ! (4 Oct 69)\nThat's the secret to life... replace one worry with another... (2 Sept 81)\nThere's the house where the Little Red-Haired Girl lives.. Maybe if I stand here long enough, she'll come out.. She doesn't know that I could stand here for hours.. I have to because my mittens are frozen to the tree! (23 Feb 88)\nEmily! It's so nice to be dancing with you again! Just to see you, and hold you, and.. Ma'am? Who am I dancing with? Who am I talking to? Who... (Realizes Emily isn't there) Oh, good grief! (17 Feb 97)\nWhen you lose the first game of the season, it's a long walk home. If anything gets in your way, you just want to kick it! ( fails to kick the rock in front him, trips, and falls on his back. ) Then you discover you can't even kick good. (25 Mar 97)\nI never know what anyone is talking about. (11 May 97)\nWe all need help with our homework. We're all pleading for someone to listen. We're all desperate. (12 May 97)\nSomewhere in this great city there must be a mailbox with a love letter for me. But this isn't it.. Stupid mailbox! (16 May 97)\nMy anxieties have anxieties. (9 Nov 68)\n(mixing up his proverbs:) \"He to whom the early bird runs best learns wisdom and knowledge!\"\nFor one brief moment today I thought I was winning in the game of life. But there was a flag on the play!\nI'm not a poor loser, I'm a good loser. I'm so good at it I lose all the time! (2 Aug 98)\nSometimes I lie awake at night, and I ask myself, \"Why isn't the perfect?\" Then a voice comes to me that says, \"We admit it.. There are still a few kinks that need working out.\" (29 Aug 98)\nIt's all very strange.. You can be walking along not thinking of anything in particular. (falls head over heels) Suddenly, you're reminded of a lost love... (11 Feb 85)\nSometimes you lie in bed at night, and you don't have a single thing to worry about...That always worries me! (6 Jul 85)\n(After umpire calls out strike three when he was thinking about Peggy Jean) Whatever happened to strike one and two? (13 Sept 90)\nLife is like an ice cream cone...you have to learn to lick it. (11 Aug 68)\n(to Snoopy:) Why aren't you a pony?!! (26 Aug 65)\nYes ma'am, I understand, that's life: Front row in the classroom, last row, back deck in the ballpark. (07 Sep 95)\nA new season! This is where I belong! This is my life! I stand here like a captain of a ship! Nothing can sink this vessel except... (Lucy suddenly walks in, announcing she is ready) ..An iceberg! (17 March 97)\nThis is called the loser's walk. It's the way you're supposed to walk when you've lost again. (23 July 95)\n(making up a proverb)[to Patty] Life is like an all day Sucker...Here today, and Gone Tomorrow! (03 Jan 51)\n(after Peppermint Patty asks him if he'd like to play football with her)I think we've moved away, and I don't know what our new address is.. (21 Sept 98)\n(after Linus reads Charlie Brown's Christmas card to the Little Red-Haired Girl that says,\"Merry Christmas from your Sweet Babboo)(holding hand to his face)It's a family expression.. (20 Dec 98)\nI should take this bottle cap over to that Little Red-Haired Girl.. If she has a bottle cap collection, she'll throw her arms around me and say, \"Thank you! Thank you! That you!\"! (29 Nov 99)\n( Remarking on Snoopy's sitting in the rain waiting for a rich lady in a limousine to come by and take him home )Rich ladies in limousines don't drive through our back yard.. (30 Dec 99)\nYes, ma'am.. I have my report.. ' How I Wasted Another Sunday Afternoon Watching My Dog Sleep.. ' (30 May 99)\nThe thought of another school day makes my stomach hurt! [clutching stomach] When I get all those answers wrong, I get sharp pains right here.. Then when I see the other kids enjoying themselves at lunch time while I eat alone, my stomach starts to hurt again. My brain doesn't mind school at all... it's my stomach that hates it! (30 Jan 62)\nRemember the Alamo!! http://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/55/06/27\n(to Linus): My Sweet Babboo!\n(on Linus:) Isn't he the cutest thing?\n(to Charlie Brown) Kiss Her You Blockhead!\nI would like to say I enjoyed this first day at school. I realize the teachers have put in a lot of effort, and a host of administrators have worked hard to develop our current scholastic program. The PTA has also done its share as have the school custodians. Therefore, I would like very much to say I enjoyed this first day at school. But I didn't! (9 Sep 63)\n(in school, asked a question by her teacher:) Who was the father of Henry IV ?!? I COULD NOT POSSIBLY CARE LESS! ... I'm sorry... I apologize... That was just a gut reaction. (5 May 72)\nToday for \"Show and Tell\" I have brought my brother's dog. (watches as Snoopy begins to dance in front of the class) Which may turn out to be the biggest mistake of my life! (13 Sep 73)\nA centimeter? If any centimeters come crawling into this room, I'll step on 'em! (17 Oct 74)\nSchool starts again in two weeks. My furlough is almost over. ... How long do you have to be in before you get shore leave? (25 Aug 81)\n(bursting into Charlie Brown's room:) Wake up, Santa Claus came last night and he didn't leave you anything! (Pause) April fool! (25 Dec 91)\n(to one of her teachers, who immediately bursts into tears) My name is Sally Brown and I hate school. (4 Sep 69)\n(why she wants to be a nurse:) I like white shoes. (15 Jun 68)\nHappiness is having your own library card. (26 Apr 64)\n(going door to door with Charlie Brown, helping him sell his homemade Christmas wreaths:) Ask your mother if she'd like to buy a wreath. Tell her they were made from the famous forests of Lebanon . You can read about them in the second chapter of book of Chronicles. ... If you buy two, we'll throw in an autographed photo of King Solomon! (15 Dec 82)\n(at another door:) Good morning, would you like to buy a Christmas wreath made from some junky old branches my brother found in a Christmas tree lot?!? You wouldn't, would you? And I can't say I blame you! (to Charlie Brown) See, your way doesn't work either! (16 Dec 82)\nHow can I go to school if I don't know any of the answers? (8 Sep 74)\nI'm writing to Joe Garagiagiariolia.\nThat was weird, big brother. I could hear your face fall clear out in the other room! (23 Mar 81)\n(on Linus:) He's my Sweet Babboo and I'm his Babbooette. (11 Feb 91)\nSome philosophies take a thousand years. I think of them in two minutes. (15 April 97)\nI'm taking the advice of Theodore Roosevelt...speak softly and carry a beagle! (7 August 74)\nI'm addressing Christmas cards. Aren't they cute? Each one has a little bunny on it dressed up like a shepherd. Don't say I'm not religious! (3 Dec 76)\n(reciting 'Twas the Night Before Christmas :) The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, in hope that Jack Nicklaus soon would be there. (11 Dec 68)\n(reciting her \"Hark!\" line in the Christmas play:) Hockey stick! (22 Dec 83)\nI ruined the whole Christmas play! Everybody hates me! Moses hates me, Luke hates me... the Apostles hate me... ALL FIFTY OF 'EM! (23 Dec 83)\nThis butter is practically frozen.. Nobody told me life was going to be this hard! I hate getting up in the morning.. School drives me crazy... ..And now I have to butter my toast with chunky butter! (09 Mar 93)\nSally's school reports[ edit ]\nLight travels at a speed of 186,000 miles per second. ... So why are the afternoons so long? (1 Jun 76)\nOne \"Rod\" equals nine feet. One \"Span\" equals nine inches. One \"Pace\" equals three feet. One \"Handbreadth\" equals three inches. And one \"School Day\" equals a hundred years! Sorry, ma'am, I couldn't help slipping that in there. (9 May 84)\nToday is Abraham Lincoln 's birthday. ... Abraham Lincoln was our sixteenth king and he was the father of Lot 's wife. (12 Feb 70)\nEnglish Theme: \" Vandalism as a Problem Today.\" Who is the leader of these vandals? I will tell you. They are encouraged by Evandalists! (7 May 73)\nBritain was invaded in the year 43 by Roman Numerals. (6 Oct 84)\nLife in the village was peaceful until the volcano interrupted. (15 May 98)\nWhen writing about Church History, we have to go back to the very beginning. Our Pastor was born in 1930. (4 Sep 75)\nThis is my report on Rain. Rain is water which does not come out of faucets. Without rain, we would not get wet walking to school and catch a cold and have to stay home, which is not a bad idea. Rain was the inspiration for that immortal poem, \"Rain, rain, go away, come again some other day.\" After a storm, the rain goes down the drain which is where I sometimes feel my education is also going. (7 Nov 73)\nEnglish Theme: \"If I Had A Pony.\" If I had a pony, I'd saddle up and ride so far from this school it would make your head swim! (29 Sep 70)\nSome people are right-handed. Some people are left-handed. There are other people who are able to use both hands with equal ease. Such people are called Handbidextrous . (17 Oct 76)\nThere are seven continents: Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, South America, and Aunt Arctica . (5 May 81)\nThe largest dinosaur that ever lived was the Bronchitis. It soon became extinct. It coughed a lot. (11 Dec 72)\nTheme: Our School. Going to our school is an education in itself, which is not to be confused with actually getting an education. (crumples paper and tosses it, saying \"I don't need that kind of trouble!\") (10 Sep 73)\nIt was a dark and stormy night... (appeared for the first time on 12 Jul 65)\nThe opening line of the novel Snoopy is forever starting. A well-known quotation from Edward Bulwer-Lytton .\nHere's (Joe Cool/The World War I Flying Ace/The world-famous (insert occupation here)/etc.)\nMy mind reels with sarcastic replies.\n(to The Cat Next Door) Hey, stupid cat!\nYesterday I was a dog. Today I'm a dog. Tomorrow I'll probably still be a dog. *sigh!* There's so little hope for advancement. (15 Feb 58)\nSnoopy asked the \"Stupid Cat Next Door\" to help remove a splinter from his paw: Well that's one way of doing it - he removed me from the splinter! (19 Sep 81)\non why he doesn't chase rabbits: Some of us are born dogs, and some of us are born rabbits. When the chips are down, I'll have to admit that my sympathy lies with the rabbits. (18 Apr 61)\nTo me, the ugliest sight in the world is an empty dog dish! (27 Feb 62)\nas \"World-Famous Astronaut\": I did it! I'm the first beagle on the moon! I beat the Russians...I beat everybody...I even beat that stupid cat who lives next door! (14 Mar 69)\narm-wrestling Lucy: Succumb, you dark-haired fiend! (14 Feb 67)\non Molly Volley: I've had distemper, and I've played mixed doubles...I'd rather have distemper. (28 May 77)\nHere's Joe Cool hanging around the student union eyeing chicks. Lucy storms past. Actually, we Joe Cools are scared to death of chicks... (28 May 71)\nI remember last year about this time ... it was two o'clock in the morning, and I was sound asleep... Suddenly, out of nowhere, this crazy guy with a sled appears right on my roof. He was okay, but those stupid reindeer kept stepping on my stomach! (23 Dec 66)\nAs the World War I Flying Ace[ edit ]\nCurse you, Red Baron!\nCurses, foiled again!\nafter a trip to the vet: They tortured me, but all I gave them was my name, rank and serial number! (19 Aug 66)\nAs the \"World Famous Novelist\"[ edit ]\n\"A Love Story\" by Erich Beagle: \"I love you,\" she said, and together they laughed. Then one day she said, \"I hate you,\" and they cried. But not together. \"What happened to the love that we said would never die?\" she asked. \"It died,\" he said. The first time he saw her she was playing tennis. The last time he saw her she was playing tennis. \"Ours was a Love set,\" he said, \"but we double faulted.\" \"You always talked a better game than you played,\" she said. (27 May 73)\nThough her husband often went on business trips, she hated to be left alone. \"I've solved our problem,\" he said. \"I've bought you a St. Bernard. Its name is Great Reluctance. Now, when I go away, you shall know that I am leaving you with Great Reluctance!\" She hit him with a waffle iron. (6 Aug 73)\nWhy Dogs Are Superior to Cats: They just are, and that's all there is to it! (5 Jan 74)\nHer love affair had ended. She didn't want to live. She threw herself in front of a Zamboni. (27 Jun 91)\n(After Lucy tells him to write about something positive for a change:) It was a dark and stormy night. Suddenly, a kiss rang out! (19 Nov 81)\n(After Lucy tells him to write a political novel:) It was a dark and stormy night. Suddenly, a vote rang out! (14 Nov 83)\n(After Lucy tells him to write a Thanksgiving novel:) It was a dark and stormy night. Suddenly, a turkey rang out! (22 Nov 83)\n(After Lucy suggests he begin his story with \"Once upon a time\":) Once upon a time...It was a dark and stormy night. (7 Aug 83)\n(After Lucy suggests he write a book like If You Give a Mouse a Cookie :) \"If You Give a Beagle a Brownie.\" (15 Jan 94)\nOnce there were two mice who lived in a museum. One evening after the museum had closed, the first mouse crawled into a huge suit of armor. Before he knew it, he was lost. \"Help!\" he shouted to his friend. \"Help me make it through the knight!\" (6 Dec 74)\nThe Gift: It was the holiday season. She and her husband had decided to attend a performance of King Lear . It was their first night out together in months. During the second act one of the performers became ill. The manager of the theater walked onto the stage, and asked, \"Is there a doctor in the house?\" Her husband stood up, and shouted, \"I have an honorary degree from Anderson College!\" It was at that moment when she decided not to get him anything for Christmas. (22 Dec 74)\nTravel Tips, \"Arriving Home\": When putting away your luggage after arriving home, always close the zippers so bugs can't crawl in. (20 Sep 82)\nIt was a dark and stormy night. Suddenly, out of the mist a spooky figure appeared. How spooky was he? Spoooooooky! (8 Jul 91)\nHer real name was Dorothy Fledermaus. But all her friends called her \"Dee.\" Thus, she was frequently referred to as \" Dee Fledermaus .\" (shakes his head, crumples his paper into a ball and thinks, \"uh uh!\") (12 Jul 73)\n\"You love hockey more than you love me!\" she complained. \"You love those hockey gloves and shinguards and skates and elbow pads more than you love me!\" \"That's not true!\" he said. \"I love you much more than I love my elbow pads.\" (23 Nov 82)\n(After Lucy tells him to write an adventure story featuring a dashing hero:) He was a dark and stormy knight. (2 May 83)\nBeauty Tips - How to Look Younger: Don't be born so soon. (4 May 82)\n(Writes a new book on theology:) I have the perfect title... \"Has It Ever Occurred to You That You Might Be Wrong?\" (9 Aug 76)\nThus endeth....\n(to Sally): I'm not your Sweet Babboo! (9 Oct 78 and various other strips from there onwards)\n(usually on the Great Pumpkin) Just wait 'till next year!\n(on suckers:) Never jump into a pile of leaves with a wet sucker. (15 Nov 57)\n(on Miss Othmar, his teacher:) I've never said I worship her. I just said I'm very fond of the ground on which she walks! (8 Oct 59)\n(on why he can't watch Lucy making a jack-o-lantern:) You didn't tell me you were going to kill it! (31 Oct 59)\n(disappointed that the Great Pumpkin didn't show up:) I was a victim of false doctrine. (3 Nov 59)\nI love mankind - it's people I can't stand! (12 Nov 59)\nBig sisters are the crab grass in the lawn of life! (17 Jun 61)\n(to his blanket:) People are beginning to say nasty things about me. I'm sorry, blanket... I'm going to have to leave you here by the side of the road! (walks away, but quickly turns back after going only a few feet, and embraces his blanket again) It was whimpering! (20 Jul 61)\nThere are three things I have learned never to discuss with people...religion, politics and the Great Pumpkin! (25 Oct 61)\n(Lucy threatens to hit him for refusing to memorize his lines for the Christmas program:) Christmas is not only getting too commercial, it's getting too dangerous! (17 Dec 61)\n(on his blanket-hating grandmother:) She no sooner got in the house when she took my blanket away! She gave me a dollar to make up for it, but I'm gonna look awfully silly sucking my thumb and holding a dollar. ... And I don't feel very secure, either! (14 Jan 63)\nI guess I talk too much. My mom is mad at me... my grandma is mad at me... everyone is mad at me. Yesterday my grandma drank thirty-two cups of coffee. I shouldn't have said anything. I suggested that perhaps her drinking thirty-two cups of coffee was not unlike my need for a security blanket... She didn't like the comparison. (17 Jan 63)\n(Linus found his missing blanket:) There was a little mix-up in the kitchen. Lucy was using my blanket to dry the dishes. We now have very secure dishes! (20 Feb 64)\n(on the New Math :) How can you solve \"new math\" problems with an \"old math\" mind? (22 Apr 64)\n(in a snow fort:) I am king of all I survey! This is an impregnable fortress! No one can take it! I could defend this position from a hundred attackers! I have ammunition enough to fight the whole day! This fortress stands firm and unyielding! It is like the rock of Gibralter! [sic - please note this is how the word is spelled in the actual strip] It is like... (Lucy hits him from behind with a snowball) You'll notice that you had to use strategy though, didn't you?!? (2 Jan 66)\n(on his grandmother, who quit smoking to get Linus to give up his blanket:) That gray-haired, foxy old rascal! (1 Sep 67)\n(embracing his blanket after rescuing it from the trash burner as quoted above:) Are you all right, ol' buddy? (13 Sep 67)\n(Linus gave Snoopy his security blanket to keep for him in an attempt to break the habit, but when Linus decided he wanted the blanket back, he saw that Snoopy had the blanket made into sport coats for himself and Woodstock:) It's all your fault, Charlie Brown, because you own such a stupid beagle! Do you know what I just read in a medical journal? It said that a person who is deprived of his blanket by a stupid beagle who has it made into a sport coat cannot survive for more than forty-eight hours! (12 Nov 71)\n(on World War II; the Stupid Cat Next Door:) That's no kitten - that's a thousand-pound gully cat! (18 Apr 72)\nYou can't bluff an old theologian! (6 Dec 72)\n(after Linus explains to Eudora about the Great Pumpkin, and Lucy then tells Eudora, \"See?\":) How sharper than a serpent's tooth is a sister's \"see?\"! (26 Oct 80)\nGood ol' Charlie Brown... he's the Charlie Browniest!\n(at the end of every session at her psychiatric booth:) Five cents, please.\n(to Charlie Brown) I'll hold the ball and you come running up and kick it.\n(being chased by the other kids after purposely spoiling their games:) I'm frustrated and inhibited, and no one understands me. (24 Jan 54)\n(to Charlie Brown:) Don't let your team down by showing up! (16 Apr 63)\n(threatening Linus:) These five fingers: individually they're nothing, but when I curl them together like this into a single unit (making a fist), they form a weapon that is terrible to behold! (5 Jan 64)\n(panicking after Snoopy kisses her on the lips): AAUGH! I'VE BEEN KISSED BY A DOG!! I'VE BEEN POISONED! GET SOME IODINE! GET SOME HOT WATER! GERMS! GERMS! GERMS! (12 Dec 65 and several animations)\nCan I help it if I was born with crabby genes?!? (1 Feb 66)\n(on autumn:) See these leaves, Linus? They're flying south for the winter! (14 Oct 66)\n(to Linus:) Do you realize that people are coming up to me, and saying \"your brother pats birds on the head\"? Well, I want you to stop it! Do you hear me?!? Stop it!!! (Bird trips her) (30 May 67)\n(to Charlie Brown, at her psychiatric booth, explaining why people take advantage of him by talking too much:) It's your own fault! You're just too wishy-washy! People who talk too much deserve to be insulted! They deserve to have other people walk away from them! Talking too much is an unforgivable social sin - absolutely unforgivable! The only way to deal with people who talk too much is to let them know just how boring they really are. You can't waste your time with them, no, sir! Why should you sit and waste your valuable time while some bore talks on and on about nothing? Life is too short to waste it listening to some person who doesn't know when to shut up! Time is too valuable! Time is... (Charlie Brown sighs) (21 Jan 68)\n(in her psychiatric booth, consoling Charlie Brown after accidentally re-hooking Linus on security blankets after he kicked his habit on his own): In all of mankind's history, there has never been more damage done than by people who \"thought they were doing the right thing.\" Five cents, please. (18 Nov 71)\n(learning of Rerun's birth, after having thrown Linus out of the house:) A new baby brother?!!? But I just got rid of the old one!!! (23 May 72)\nWhat's wrong with a world where someone like Charlie Brown can get sick, and then not get any better? I NEED SOMEONE TO HIT!! (26 Jul 79)\n(in right field:) This guy can't hit it! He swings like my grandmother! (a handbag is thrown at Lucy from behind and hits her in the head) Sorry, Grandma... it was just an expression... (17 Jul 82)\nBy the time I've grown up, we'll probably have a woman president. You know what that means, don't you? It means I won't get to be the first one. BOY, THAT MAKES ME MAD!! (29 Mar 84)\nI keep wondering if Mom's planning to have more children. Lately she's been referring to me as \"Volume One.\" (17 Feb 96)\n(After Charlie Brown's kite explodes:) That's the first time I've ever seen a kite explode. (13 March 60)\nLucy the athlete[ edit ]\nNo problem, manager... I missed it, but the ground caught it! Nice catch, ground! You're doing a good job! (18 Jul 77)\nWatching your graceful movements on the pitcher's mound lulled me to sleep! (10 May 78)\n(her excuse for missing another fly ball:) I was having my quiet time! (23 Jul 61)\nI think there were toxic substances coming from my glove, and they made me dizzy. (24 May 81)\nWhen the sun reflects off the bright yellow dandelions, I can't see the ball. (2 Jun 99)\n(she waited for a grounder to stop rolling before she picked it up:) It was having a good time, and I didn't want to disturb it. (28 Jul 72)\n(after kicking a football backwards over her own head:) I'm too feminine for this game! (1 Dec 64)\nRerun van Pelt [ edit ]\n(his mother's lost three pounds by bicycling:) And through sheer terror I've lost five! (21 Jan 74)\nRiding around all day on the back of your mom's bicycle gives you plenty of time to think...it gives you time to think about people and about life...and about what would happen if we ran into a tree! (22 Jan 74)\n(to his basketball, angrily tossing it into the closet after he tried to shoot a basket twice and missed both times:)You can come out when you learn to behave! (30 Mar 97)\nYes, ma'am.. Read us again about the clumsy kid who fell down the rabbit hole . ... And about the Chesapeake Cat . .... And about how she met Tiger Woods . (28 Apr 97)\nI don't think I should go to school anymore. Instead of getting smarter, I'm getting dumber every day. I figure in about one more month I'll bottom out. (30 Apr 97)\nI can't go to school...I've been suspended again for one day...another whole day! Years from now, you know what people are going to say about me? \"He's one day dumber than he should be!\" (30 Oct 97)\nMy life is like a messy coloring book. (05 May 97)\nYes, ma'am.. I'm writing a story.. It's about this kid who's in kindergarten, and how the stress is slowly destroying him.. Every morning, he.. Ma'am? Well, I have another one here about some purple bunnies.. (15 May 97)\nI could run the whole world right here from under my bed! (27 Jan 98)\n(to Linus:) I'm your younger brother, and I don't suck my thumb or cling to a blanket for security.. ... As the years go by, you'll probably develop a real resentment toward me.. (after Linus drapes his blanket over Rerun's head) And find different ways to get even. (16 Nov 94)\nSchroeder [ edit ]\nOnly ____ days till Beethoven's birthday (text on the signs that Schroeder carries aroud usually in November and December)\n(after a fly ball hits Lucy, Snoopy, Linus, Violet, 5 and Pigpen in the head:) I think you're right; six bonks is a new record. (22 May 83)\nI'm inclined to agree with you, Charlie Brown. But on the other hand we must be cautious in our thinking. We must be careful not to \"throw out the baby with the bath.\" (Baby Sally, who is listening, suddenly looks panicked; Schroeder looks at her and says:) Please pardon the expression. (17 Oct 59)\nThe joy is in the playing. (27 Jan 73)\n(sees Lucy and Snoopy brawling:) Fighting under the mistletoe? How unfeminine...how unromantic...how gauche! (27 Dec 70)\n(Lucy asks if musicians make a lot of money:) Who cares about money?!? This is ART, you blockhead! This is great music I'm playing, and playing great music is an art! Do you hear me? An art! (pounding on piano) Art! Art! Art! Art! Art!\" (30 Sep 56) ]\n(when Charlie Brown asks him how he's able to play such complicated pieces on his toy piano when the black keys are just painted on:) [matter-of-factly] I practice a lot. (9 Apr 53)\n(when Lucy was crying over Charlie Brown in the hospital:) It's interesting that you should cry over him when you're the one who always treated him so mean! And stop wiping your tears with my piano! (19 Jul 79)\n(After Charlie brown carries in a package he ordered) \"BEETHOVEN!!! (sighs)\" (11 Nov 51)\n(After Lucy asks him to get her perfume for Beethoven's birthday) \"That's a good idea...I'll get you a bottle of 'Eau Dé Jumprope'\". (11 Nov 60)\n(to Marcie:) Stop calling me sir! (8 Jun 72 and numerous other strips from there onwards)\n(to Charlie Brown) Hi, Chuck!\n(on Charlie Brown:) I could strike him out on three straight pitches! (11 Mar 71 and other strips)\n(to Charlie Brown, flirtatiously:) You touched my hand, Chuck! (5 Jun 71 and other strips)\n(In Patty's very first strip, she watches Roy write to Linus:) Is he cute? If he is, tell him your very good friend, \"Peppermint\" Patty, says hello. Tell him what a real swinger I am. Put in a good word for me, Roy, and the next time we Indian wrestle, I'll try not to clobber you! (22 Aug 66)\n(on Schroeder:) I come clear across town to play ball, and who do I get for a catcher? A miniature Leonard Bernstein ! (1 Sep 66)\n(on Snoopy:) He's a good skater, but he's the funniest-looking kid I've ever seen! (10 Jan 69 - Patty did not realize until several years later that Snoopy is really a dog)\nNo book on psychology could be any good if one can understand it! (3 Jun 72)\nSubtraction? Oh, yes, ma'am, I can explain it. Subtraction is the awful feeling that you know less today than you did yesterday. (13 Nov 78)\nMa'am? What kind of test are we having today? Multiple choice? Good! I choose not to take it! (8 Jan 79)\nWho was the first Tudor king? Well, let me think... Is this for real, Ma'am? Or are we playing Trivia? (25 May 84)\n(the first day of school, after Patty was held back a grade the previous year:) Fasten your seat belt, ma'am! Here I come again! (4 Sep 84)\n(bowling a boy down the aisle at school after he insults her:) Watch for you and me on TV, kid...the program is called \"bowl a pupil\"! (6 Sep 84)\nMa'am? I don't understand this first question... which ocean are we studying? Could you be more Pacific? (7 Sep 88)\nI don't look so bad after all! That's always been my ambition... to not look so bad after all. (8 Aug 97)\nHere's my term paper, ma'am. Please judge it with mercy. Treat it as you would a newborn child. Which it is because I just wrote it this morning! (3 Mar 81)\nDon't hassle me with your sighs, Chuck! (5 Feb 76)\nThis is my report on Hamlet . A hamlet is a small village with a population of maybe a few hundred, and... (19 May 94)\nSometimes I think I tore all the ligaments in my head. (8 Jun 89)\n(after falling asleep in class:) I'm awake! The answer is twelve!\n(usually said after she tries to confide in Charlie Brown and he doesn't tell her what she wants to hear:) I hate talking to you, Chuck!\n(on why she gets bad grades:) Teachers don't like kids with big noses!\n(reporting on a classical concert she attended:) We went to the concert, and heard \" Adagio for Strings \" by Samuel The Barber . (30 Jul 95)\nThis is my report on the story of the Five Little Hogs. Or was it the Six Little Pigs? Or the Nine Little Hogs, or something like that.. which is the kind of report you get when you write it while walking from your desk to the front of the room. (21 Nov 94)\n(taking a test:) True! ... False! ... And one good old-fashioned MAYBE!!! (12 Sep 73)\nMarcie [ edit ]\n(to Peppermint Patty:) You're weird, sir!\nDo footballs mind being kicked, sir? Do you think it causes them to be traumatized? (12 Sep 82)\n(her father is taking her to a Mighty Ducks hockey game:) I think we're going to see the Mighty Flamingos. (17 Nov 93)\n(after the hockey game) I got to meet the guy who drives the Zucchini . (27 Sep 93)\nYour optimism should be framed, Charles. (16 Mar 83)\n(trying to clean a golf ball:) After I peeled the white cover off, I couldn't get the ball back in. (13 April 80)\n(on why she's taking violin lessons for the summer instead of going to camp:) You can't play Brahms on a canoe paddle, sir. (28 Jun 98)\n(on the Super Bowl:) We'll never make it to the Splendid Bowl, sir. (13 Nov 88)\n(on the Super Bowl:) Sometimes I get a little curious ... did anybody make a hole-in-one? (12 April 93)\n(after admiring Charlie Brown at his events:) I admire your élan, Charles.\nIt's just human nature...we all need someone to kiss us goodbye.\nFrieda [ edit ]\n(once more antagonizing Snoopy about being the only animal in the neighborhood:) You're so smug! You think you've got it made, don't you? You think you're king because you're the only animal around here! Well, do you know what I'm gonna do? I'm gonna get a cat! (15 May 61)\nPeople hate cats. People hate people who own cats. And people especially hate people with naturally curly hair who own cats! (12 Jul 61)\nYou're not pitching right, Charlie Brown. Whenever the other team hits the ball to us, and we try to catch it, the ball stings our hands! Try to pitch so that the ball won't sting our hands. (24 Apr 62)\nWhat's the good of having naturally curly hair if nobody's jealous?!? (24 Oct 62) <-- This link is wrong, could someone correct?\nPeople always expect more of you when you have naturally curly hair! (11 Dec 63)\n(berating Snoopy for his lack of exercise:) You're flabby! If a crisis ever occurred, your muscles would never respond! (12 Aug 64)\n(after Charlie Brown angrily discovered she reported his dog to the Head Beagle:) It was his own fault! He never wanted to go rabbit chasing with me! (14 Oct 69)\n(after everyone in the neighborhood turns their back on her for reporting Snoopy to the Head Beagle:) Everyone's mad at me! No one will speak to me. (After Linus replies, \"Of course, they won't! Anyone who would turn someone in to the Head Beagle doesn't deserve to be spoken to!\") I didn't know what I was doing! I was upset! (To which Linus answers, \"Don't talk to me, it's too late now!\") (17 Oct 69)\n(Lucy tells her that to hang around Schroeder, she has to like Beethoven:) All right, but I'll just have a small glass... (18 Jan 70)\nI have affixed to me the dust and dirt of countless ages...who am I to disturb history? (18 Sep 55)\nYou know what I am? I'm a dust magnet! (25 Nov 59)\n(after Violet chides him for being dirty and calls him a \"germ carrier\":) Even germs get tired of walking now and then! (14 Jul 61)\n(when Lucy asks him why he doesn't look neat like the other players on the team:) Last year I batted .712. Neatness doesn't bat .712! (20 Mar 97)\n(at the classroom) And if I'm elected class president, I promise to...\nViolet Gray [ edit ]\nI'm in business...these are ready-mix mud pies! (22 May 53)\n(to Patty:) You an' I have a lot in common...we both dislike the same things about Charlie Brown! (31 Aug 53)\n(after she and Patty tear into Charlie Brown again and he walks away, very dejected:) You know, it's a strange thing about Charlie Brown...you almost never see him laugh. (4 Dec 59)\nMy Dad can _______ better than your Dad.\n(to \"Pig-pen\") You can't be class president, 'Pig-Pen'! You're a mess, and you have no dignity!\n\"(to \"Snoopy\")\" Well, hello, there! You don't know me, do you? My name is \"Violet\". You're real cute... \"7 Feb 51)\"\nLittle girls are made of sugar and spice and everything nice. (hits Charlie Brown) That's what little girls are made of. (3 Oct 50)\nIt's a lot more fun not inviting people than it is inviting them! (14 Oct 52)\n(to Lucy:) You'll always be a crabby little girl! You were born crabby and you're going to stay crabby! Don't think you're going to change because you're not! (16 May 64)\nShermy [ edit ]\nWell! Here comes ol' Charlie Brown! Good ol' Charlie Brown...yes, sir! Good ol' Charlie Brown...how I hate him! (02 Oct 50 - the very first Peanuts strip)\n(telling Charlie Brown he's quitting the baseball team:) I'm the kind who needs to win now and then. With you it's different. I think you get sort of a neurotic pleasure out of losing all the time. (3 Aug 62)\nEvery Christmas it's the same - I always end up playing a shepherd. (Shermy's only line of dialogue in \"A Charlie Brown Christmas\")\nNothing makes me more mad than wasting a good haircut! Last Saturday I got a haircut so I'd look nice for school Monday morning. Then on Monday I got sick, and I couldn't go to school for three days. I wasted a good haircut! (21 Sep 62)\nEudora [ edit ]\nSaturday's the only day I never get anything wrong. (7 Oct 78)\n(on Orientation at camp:) If they try to ship us to the Orient, forget it! (15 Jun 78)\n(to teacher:) Our family just moved here from out of state. (...) No, ma'am...I don't know which state. I don't even know where I am now! (4 Oct 78)\nLydia [ edit ]\n(Linus is two months older:) Aren't you kind of old for me? (9 Jun 86)\n(to Linus:) You like mint chocolate chip? I'm surprised...most older people like vanilla! (Linus fumes.) (13 Jun 86)\nToday my name is (insert flowery-sounding or unusual female name here, such as: Melissa, Anna, Olivia, etc.)\n(during Charlie Brown's Christmas Tales (2002), she announces:) Today, my name is Jezebel. (Linus then tells her the story of the Biblical Jezebel's grisly death. She responds:) Today, my name is Susan. (18 Dec 87)\nSpike [ edit ]\nThe annual meeting of the Cactus Club will now come to order...\n(after Peppermint Patty loses a golf game:) Perhaps you'd like to invest in some choice real estate near Needles? My card!\n(on selling \"oceanview property\" in Needles:) I figured coyotes can see a long way.\n(puts hat on left side of cactus) Sometimes I hang my hat here,\n(puts hat on right side of cactus) And sometimes I hang my hat over here.\n(puts hat back on) Who said desert life is boring?\nSchroeder: There goes our shutout! (15 Aug 52)\nLucy: Can you take a little friendly criticism, Charlie Brown?\nCharlie Brown: Why, of course. I'm not above that sort of thing at all; a little friendly criticism can always be helpful to a person. What is it you wanted to say?\nLucy: You're kind of stupid. (17 May 55)\nSchroeder: (to Lucy:) I wouldn't marry you unless you were the last girl on earth!\nLucy: Did you say \"if\" or \"unless\"?\nSchroeder: I admit I said \"unless\"...\nCharlie Brown: Life is just too much for me. I've been confused right from the day I was born. I think the whole trouble is that we're thrown into life too fast... we're not really prepared.\nLinus: What did you want... a chance to warm up first? (9 Sep 59)\nLucy Van Pelt: Aren't the clouds beautiful? They look like big balls of cotton. I could just lie here all day and watch them drift by. If you use your imagination, you can see lots of things in the cloud's formations. What do you think you see, Linus?\nLinus Van Pelt: Well, those clouds up there look to me look like the map of the British Honduras on the Caribbean. [points up] That cloud up there looks a little like the profile of Thomas Eakins , the famous painter and sculptor. And that group of clouds over there... [points] ...gives me the impression of the Stoning of Stephen . I can see the Apostle Paul standing there to one side.\nLucy Van Pelt: Uh huh. That's very good. What do you see in the clouds, Charlie Brown?\nCharlie Brown: Well... I was going to say I saw a duckie and a horsie, but I changed my mind.\nCharlie Brown: Oh, good grief! (9 Mar 62)\nCharlie Brown: Is Linus back from lunch yet?\nSchroeder: Yes, he's back, and Shermy and Snoopy and Violet are back too...but now Patty and Lucy and Frieda have gone home for supper. (*Sigh*) This has been a long first inning! (5 Apr 63)\nCharlie Brown: Joe Shlabotnik? Really? You have a Joe Shlabotnik? You have a Joe Shlabotnik bubble gum card? He's my favorite player! I've been trying to get him on a bubble gum card for five years! You wanna trade? Here... I'll give you Whitey Ford , Mickey Mantle , Robin Roberts , Luis Aparicio , Bill Monbouquette , Dick Stuart and Juan Pizarro !\nLucy: No, I don't think so...\nCharlie Brown: How about Nellie Fox , Dick Donovan , Willie Kirkland , Frank Lary , Al Kaline , Orlando Pena , Jerry Lumpe , Camilo Pascual , Harmon Killebrew , Bob Turley and Albie Pearson ?\nLucy: No, I don't want to trade. I think Joe Shlabotnik is kind of cute.\nCharlie Brown: [increasingly desperate] I'll give you Tom Cheney , Chuck Cottier , Willie Mays , Orlando Cepeda , Maury Wills , Sandy Koufax , Frank Robinson , Bob Purkey , Bill Mazeroski , Harvey Haddix , Warren Spahn , Hank Aaron , Tony Gonzales , Art Mahaffey , Roger Craig , Duke Snider , Don Nottebart , Al Spangler , Curt Simmons , Stan Musial , Ernie Banks and Larry Jackson !\nLucy: No, I don't think so...\nCharlie Brown: For five years I've been trying to get a Joe Shlabotnik! My favorite baseball player, and I can't get him on a bubble gum card... Five years! My favorite player... [walks away, very depressed]\nLucy: [examines card for a few seconds] He's not as cute as I thought he was! [tosses card into the trash] (18 Aug 63)\nCharlie Brown: Next year I'm going to be a changed person!\nLucy: That's a laugh, Charlie Brown.\nCharlie Brown: I mean it! I'm going to be strong and firm.\nLucy: Forget it. You'll always be wishy-washy!\nCharlie Brown: Why can't I change just a little bit? I'll be wishy one day and washy the next! (31 Dec 65)\nCharlie Brown: Shovel your walk?\nPatty: For money?\nCharlie Brown: Yes, I don't have any use for beads!\nPatty slams the door in his face\nCharlie Brown: I guess a good businessman can't afford to be sarcastic. (18 Jan 66)\nLucy: (to Charlie Brown) You don't think my brother and I get along very well, do you? You just wait. After we've grown, we'll be very close!\nCharlie Brown: What does she mean by \"close\"?\nLinus: We may both live on the same continent! (30 Jul 66)\nCharlie Brown: Shovel your walk?\nViolet: YOU?\nCharlie Brown: I never know how to answer those one-word questions... (15 Dec 66)\nLucy: Here, I brought you a piece of toast.\nLinus: Well, thank you.\nLucy: (Holding the toast just out of Linus' reach) \"Thank you, dear sister.\"\nLinus: Thank you, dear sister.\nLucy: \"Thank you, dear sister... greatest of all sisters!\"\nLinus: Thank you, dear sister, greatest of all sisters!\nLucy: \"Thank you, dear sister, greatest of all sisters, without whom I'd never survive!\"\nLinus: Thank you, dear sister, greatest of all sisters, without whom I'd never survive!\nLucy: You're very welcome.\nLinus: How can I eat when I feel nauseated? (8 Jan 67)\nCharlie Brown: This is the time of year when all the big baseball trades are made. I'm going to try to improve our team with a few shrewd trades.\nLucy: That's a great idea, Charlie Brown. Why don't you trade yourself? (8 Nov 67)\nLucy: (walks up to Charlie Brown carrying a baseball glove) Hey, manager... some kid must have left his glove here. It has his name on it. See? Right here... \" Willie Mays .\" He wrote his name on his glove, see? Poor kid... he's probably been looking all over for it. We should have a \"Lost and Found.\" I don't know any kid around here named \"Willie Mays,\" do you? How are we gonna get it back to him? He was pretty smart putting his name on his glove this way, though. It's funny, I just don't remember any kid by that name...\nCharlie Brown: Look at the name on your glove.\nLucy: What?\nCharlie Brown: (appears slightly irritated) Look at your own glove. There's a name on it.\nLucy: (reads name on glove) \" Babe Ruth \"... Well, I'll be! How in the world do you suppose I got her glove?!? (3 Aug 69)\nCharlie Brown: I can't believe it!\nLucy: Charlie Brown, I'll hold the football, and you come running up and kick it.\nCharlie Brown: \"HOW LONG, O LORD?\"\nLucy: You're quoting from the sixth chapter of Isaiah , aren't you, Charlie Brown? \"Until cities lie waste without inhabitant, and houses without men, and the land is utterly desolate...\" Actually, there is a note of protest in the question as asked by Isaiah, for we might say he was unwilling to accept the finality of the Lord's judgment...\n[While Lucy has been quoting Scripture, Charlie Brown has taken a running start and taken off toward the football, hoping to kick the ball while Lucy is distracted. However...]\nCharlie Brown: AUGHH!\n[Without missing a beat, Lucy pulls the football away, and Charlie lands on the ground with a WUMP!]\nLucy: How long? All your life, Charlie Brown... all your life. (11 Oct 70)\nCharlie Brown: Why would the library ban Miss Helen Sweetstory's book?\nLinus: I can't believe it. I just can't believe it!\nCharlie Brown: Maybe there are some things in her book that we don't understand.\nSally: In that case, they should also ban my Math book! (24 Oct 72)\nLinus: Still moping? I can't believe it! But that was almost ten weeks ago!\nLucy: I can't help it! I'll never get over it! NEVER!!\nLinus: Well, why don't you write a letter or something like you said you were going to do? Maybe that will help.\nLucy: I guess I will. [gets a pencil and piece of paper and writes] \"Dear Bobby Riggs , You were lucky!!! \" (15 Jul 73)\n[Charlie Brown is watching a golf tournament on TV when Sally comes up behind him.]\nAnnouncer: All right, golf fans, this is it... The old pro has to make this one... He's down to the last putt, and he can't play it safe... He has to go for it... There's no tomorrow!\nSally: THERE'S NO TOMORROW?! [runs out of the house screaming] THERE'S NO TOMORROW!! [to Linus] THEY JUST ANNOUNCED ON TV THAT THERE'S NO TOMORRROW!!! [to Snoopy] THERE'S NO TOMORROW!! THEY JUST ANNOUNCED IT ON TV! PANIC! PANIC! RUN! HIDE! FLEE! RUN FOR THE HILLS! FLEE TO THE VALLEYS! RUN TO THE ROOF TOPS!\n[In the final panel, Sally, Linus and Snoopy are on top of Snoopy's doghouse.]\nLinus: Somehow I never thought it would end this way!\nSnoopy: I thought Elijah was to come first... (22 Jul 73)\nPeppermint Patty: Marcie, I'm short a player. I need you out in right field.\nMarcie: I don't know anything about baseball, sir.\nPeppermint Patty: All you have to do is stand out there. Please?\nMarcie: What if I get put in the penalty box?\nPeppermint Patty: There's no penalty box in baseball. Now, please get out there.\nMarcie: I forgot to ask if we're playing nine holes or eighteen. (26 Jul 73)\nLinus: What are you watching?\nLucy: The \"Rose Parade\" from Pasadena. They have some of the most beautiful floats this year I've ever seen.\nLinus: Has the Grand Marshal gone by yet?\nLucy: Yeah, you missed him... but he wasn't anyone you ever heard of! (1 Jan 74)\nLucy:Tomorrow is Beethoven's birthday... what are you going to buy me?\nSchroeder: I'm not going to buy you anything! [stands up from his piano and continues shouting at Lucy] You know why? Because you don't care anything about Beethoven! You never have! You don't care that he suffered! You don't care that his stomach hurt and that he couldn't hear! You never cared that the Countess turned him down, or that Therese married the Baron instead of him, or that Lobkowitz stopped his annuity!! [storms away]\nLucy: If the Countess hadn't turned him down, would you buy me something? (15 Dec 74)\nLucy: Hey, banana nose! I never knew you had an older brother!\nSnoopy: Do I bite her on the leg now, or do I wait until Spike gets here, and let him bite her? (5 Aug 75)\nTruffles:( to Linus on the roof of her grandfather's barn)Be careful, Linus... You're going to fall!\nLinus: I don't think I can get get down...It's too slippery...\nSally: I'm leaving on the bus, Linus, but don't worry! I'll send a helicopter for you! Be brave, my sweet babboo!\nLinus: Helicopter?\nTruffles: \"Sweet babboo\"? (28 Jan 77)\nSally:(to the class) There he was on the snow-covered barn roof! One false move would send him sliding to his death! What a predicament! Who would rescue my sweet babboo?\nLinus: I'M NOT YOUR SWEET BABBOO! (08 Feb 77)\nSally:Here, big brother, you got a letter.\nCharlie Brown: (reading the back of the letter)\"The Environmental Protection Agency\"\nSally: It's something about you biting a tree...\nCharlie Brown: Do you always read my mail?\nSally: Do you always bite trees? (02 March 77)\nLucy: Look.\nSally: Look at what?\nLucy: Look at that tiny bug.. Have you ever thought about how little he knows?\nSally: He doesn't know what day it is, that's for sure! He doesn't know what's on TV tonight, either..\nLucy: He's never even heard of Farrah Fawcett-Majors.\nLucy: He doesn't know there's a moon in the sky and fish in the ocean...\nSally: He doesn't know anything about kites, or Frisbees or even ice cream cones!\nLucy: And he's never heard of barbers, or baptism or bass drums...\nLinus: ( Walking up to Lucy and Sally ) Say, do any of you girls know where the new post office is?\nLucy: What new post office?\nSally: I didn't even know we had a new post office..\nThe Bug: ( talking to Linus in dots )\nLinus: Oh it is? Thank you very much.\nThe Bug: ( walks away from Lucy and Sally, humming ) (25 Sept 77)\nLinus: You know what? I think I've learned the secret of life. I went to the doctor yesterday because I had a sore throat... The nurse put me in a small room.. I could hear a kid in another room screaming his head off... When the doctor came in to see me, I told him I was glad I wasn't in that other room... \"Yes,\" he said... \"That kid will have to have his tonsils out... You're lucky you only have a mild inflammation\". The secret of life is to be in the right room! (16 Nov 77)\nMarcie: How many skating tests are there, sir?\nPeppermint Patty: Eight, Marcie, and they get harder and harder. Sometimes I think the only thing that keeps me going is the encouraging words of my coach...\nSnoopy: Growl, snarl, snap, growf, bark, woof! (4 Jan 78)\nLinus: It rains on the hills and in the valleys... It rains on the cities and in the fields. It rains on the just and the unjust.\nSnoopy: And in my face! (03 Feb 78)\nPeppermint Patty: You really liked that Little Red-Haired Girl, didn't you, Chuck? Which would you rather do, hit a home run with the bases loaded or marry the Little Red-Haired Girl?\nCharlie Brown: Why couldn't I do both?\nPeppermint Patty: We live in a real world, Chuck! (02 June 78)\nPeppermint Patty: Do you think I'm beautiful, Chuck?\nCharlie Brown: Of course... You have what is sometimes called a \" quiet beauty\".\nPeppermint Patty: You may be right, Chuck. I just wish it would speak up now and then! (30 June 78)\nCharlie Brown: I can't get that Little Red-Haired Girl out of my mind..\nLinus: Why don't you call her up, Charlie Brown?\nCharlie Brown: I'm afraid she'll hang up in my face!\nLinus: That's the beauty of calling her on the phone. One ear isn't a whole face! (28 August 78)\nCharlie Brown: Hello? Information? Yes, I'd like to talk to a certain Little Red-Haired Girl... No I already have her number... I was hoping you could tell me something else... What do I do when she answers the phone? (29 August 78)\nLucy: What's going on?\nCharlie Brown: Linus is trying to get his blanket back from that cat! He's going to drop on top of him from the helicopter!\nLucy: I have long suspected that insanity runs in our family! (27 October 78)\nSnoopy: Psst! Wake up, it's almost noon...the early bird gets the worm.\nWoodstock: |||||||\nSnoopy: That's true...you can get pizza until midnight! (22 Jan 80)\nLucy: I figured it out, Charlie Brown. If you stay depressed for two more days, you'll make it into the Book of World Records.\nCharlie Brown: Wow! That's great!\nLucy: You just blew it! (27 Mar 80)\nLucy: Here we go, Charlie Brown... I'll hold the ball, and you come running up and kick it.\nCharlie Brown: What you really mean is, you'll pull the ball away, and I'll land on my back and kill myself! Well, I have news for you... Never again! Forget it!\nLucy: Wait!\nCharlie Brown: (walking away) I said, forget it!! I'm just glad you're the only person in the world who thinks I'm dumb enough to fall for that trick again.\n(Charlie Brown then comes across Snoopy, Woodstock, Sally, Peppermint Patty and Marcie all grinning wickedly and holding footballs for him to run up and kick.) (16 Oct 83)\nPeppermint Patty: I'd like to ask the teacher a question, but I'm afraid she'll think it's dumb.\nMarcie: They say the only dumb question is the one that you don't ask.\nPeppermint Patty: Ma'am? Is it all right if we turn in our book reports a year late?\nMarcie: They were wrong! (2 Jan 84)\nPeppermint Patty: Let me borrow your ruler, Marcie.\nMarcie: As soon as you give my pen back.\nPeppermint Patty: If I give your pen back, I won't have any use for the ruler.\nMarcie: Sure, you need my pen to draw lines with my ruler on the ten sheets of paper you borrowed from me! (angrily begins gathering her school supplies) Here, why don't you take my eraser, my notebooks, my colored pencils, my comb, my lunch... (throws all of her school supplies at Patty) TAKE EVERYTHING I HAVE!!!\nPeppermint Patty: (buried in Marcie's school supplies) Do we have time for a garage sale, ma'am? (8 Jan 84)\nPeppermint Patty: Everyone had to write an essay on what we did during Christmas vacation. When I got mine back, the teacher had given me a \"D minus\"...well, I'm used to that, right, Chuck? Right! Now guess what...all those essays went into a city essay contest, and I won! Explain that, Chuck!\nSnoopy: Never listen to the reviewers. (9 Jan 85)\nPeppermint Patty: School starts next week. I hope I get better grades this year. I hope I'll be the prettiest and smartest girl in the whole class.\nMarcie: \"Hope is a good breakfast, but it is a bad supper.\"\nPeppermint Patty: When we go to college, Marcie, I'm not going to room with you. (27 Aug 86)\nPeppermint Patty: I called Chuck last night, Marcie.. I don't think he likes you more than he likes me as Marcie pulls her hair she yells YOU'RE TURNING HIM AGAINST ME!! MARCIE!\nMarcie: Want to borrow a comb before we go in, sir?\nhttp://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/1987/09/11/ (11 Sept 87)]\nLucy: Why can't you and your dog do some things together? Go out and chase some rabbits.\nCharlie Brown: I remember we tried that once...\nSnoopy: A rabbit chased us for five miles! (25 Jan 88)\nPeppermint Patty: D-minus! Good grief! I got a D-minus in every subject! And look what she wrote on the back... she said I'm not very cute! What does she mean, I'm not cute? Just because I've got a big nose and mousy-blah hair, doesn't mean I'm not cute! [kicks report card onto the ground] My dad thinks I'm cute! Every day when I was little, he'd say how cute I was...\nMarcie: [picking up card and examining it] She says your attention span is not very acute.\nPeppermint Patty: It's gonna be a long summer.\nCharlie Brown: You are? (25 Jul 90)\nLucy: Charlie Brown! I'll hold the ball and you come running up and kick it...\nCharlie Brown: Congratulate me! You have just nominated me \"most stupid kid of the year\"!\nLucy: But look, Charlie Brown, I've been reading this book about holding the ball... See? It tells how to hold it for the kickoff, for field goals and for extra points...\nCharlie Brown: If someone is reading a book about something, I guess you have to trust her.. This year I'm gonna kick that ball all the way to Omaha!\n(Lucy pulls the football away.)\nCharlie Brown: AAUGH!\n( He falls on his back. )\nWHAM!\nLucy: I wrote the book, Charlie Brown. (29 Sept 91)\nLydia: Linus.. Have you ever written a love note?\nLinus: I wouldn't know how.\nLydia: It's easy.. you just tell the girl how pretty you think she is.. or sweet.. That sort of thing... Girls appreciate love notes.\nLinus: Okay, I'll try it..\n(Pause.)\nLydia: Where's the love note?\nLinus: I gave it to the girl in front of me. (07 Jun 92)\nLucy: OH NO! ALL RIGHT! WHO'S BEEN IN MY COMIC BOOKS?!\nLinus (from another room)A storm is approaching! Everybody take cover!(gets under blanket)\nLucy: (barges in and starts yelling at Linus under his blanket)YOU'VE BEEN IN MY COMIC BOOKS AGAIN, HAVEN'T YOU?!! I TRY TO KEEP THEM IN ORDER AND NOW YOU'VE MESSED THEM ALL UP! YOU DRIVE ME CRAZY!! FROM NOW ON, LEAVE THEM ALONE! AND STAY OUT OF MY ROOM! (walks away, steaming mad)\nLinus Linus:(getting out from under blanket)The storm abates... The sun comes out.. Peace reigns again. (14 March 93)\nSally: I don't think the school bus is ever going to come..\nLucy: I think they've forgotten about us..\nCharlie Brown: Maybe we should start walking..\nLinus Does anyone remember the name of our school? (21 April 93)\n( Charlie Brown is at at Lucy's psychiatric booth )\nCharlie Brown: Some days I'm up and the next days I'm down.\nLucy: Like an emotional roller coaster, huh? Do you ever feel like you're on a roller coaster, Charlie Brown?\nCharlie Brown: How about bumper cars? (04 April 94)\nLucy: As sister and brother, we're almost like a team.. I'm the manager, and you're the worthless player who is good for nothing except sitting on the bench!\nLinus: It's going to be a long season. (30 April 94)\nSally: (to her brother, delivering his love note to the Little Red-Haired Girl while he hides behind a tree) She's reading your love note! Did you hear me? Are you still behind the tree? Wave your hand!\nCharlie Brown: (waves hand from behind the tree)\nSally: (to the Red-Haired Girl) He's still there.. Really? Oh, sure, I understand.. {to her brother, handing him back the love note) She said she couldn't read your smudgy writing... And when I told her you're in the same class at school, she said she didn't remember you.\nCharlie Brown: I can't stand it! (03 Aug 94)\nCharlie Brown: A letter! I got a letter from my Pen Pal in Scotland! (reading)\"Dear Charlie, Just been to the shops.. Ma maw's in bed with a sore heid and ma da's makin mince tatties for the dinner.. Love, Morag.\"\nSnoopy: She does prattle on, doesn't she? (27 Sept 94)\nSally: Why would some girl in Scotland waste her time writing to you?\nCharlie Brown: because we're pen pals.. maybe she likes my letters to her.. Sometimes pen pals fall in love..\nSnoopy: It's a wee early, lad, to thinkin' like that.. (29 Sept 94)\nCharlie Brown: (reading) \"Dear Charlie, This is your Pen Pal from Scotland. I would have written sooner, but I thirty other Pen Pals, and..\"(stops reading) THIRTY? (balls up paper and starts to cry) I thought I was the only one!\nSnoopy: Life's lesson number four thousand and fifty.. (06 Oct 94)\nCharlie Brown: I thought she was only writing to me.. Then she tells me she has thirty other Pen Pals!\nLinus Well, life is like a helicopter, Charlie Brown.\nCharlie Brown: Like a what?\nLinus Or maybe a skateboard.. No, life is like a T-shirt.. No life is like a gutter ball..\nCharlie Brown: I can't stand it! (07 Oct 94)\nCharlie Brown: Why should a person lie awake all night worrying about everything? Why should a person be burdening with all the cares of the world?\nLinus (under blanket): I'm not here. (10 Jul 97)\nPeppermint Patty: Quick, Marcie, I need a pencil and some paper. And I need an eraser, a pen and a ruler.\nMarcie: (to the teacher) No, Ma'am... I'm her caddie. (18 Sept 97)\nPeppermint Patty: ( to Charlie Brown on the phone ) Hi, Chuck! Do you miss me?\nCharlie Brown Do I WHAT?\nPeppermint Patty: Miss me, Chuck! Do you miss me?! What's the matter with you? Don't you understand any thing?!\nCharlie Brown Who is this?\nPeppermint Patty: WHAT DO YOU MEAN, WHO IS THIS?! IT'S ME, CHUCK! WHO DID YOU THINK IT WAS?!!\nCharlie Brown Oh.\nPeppermint Patty: '\"OH\"? WHAT DOES THAT MEAN? \"OH\"- IS THAT ALL YOU CAN SAY?!\nCharlie Brown I'm sorry.. I was thinking of something else... I have to feed my dog..\nPeppermint Patty: WAIT, CHUCK! DON'T HANG UP! SAY SOMETHING! SAY ANYTHING!\nCharlie Brown (Hands phone to Snoopy)\nSnoopy: Woof!\nPeppermint Patty: How sweet! (19 Oct 97)\nLucy: ( to Charlie Brown's kite ) FLY, YOU STUPID KITE! GET UP THERE! GO! FLY! FLY! GET UP THERE! GET UP THERE!\n( kite falls to the ground )\nLucy: YOU STUPID KITE! WHAT'S WRONG WITH YOU?! YOU'RE A DISGRACE TO KITEDOM! DON'T THINK YOU CAN GET AWAY WITH THIS! GET BACK UP THERE WHERE YOU BELONG!\n( kite suddenly starts flying )\nLater\nSally: So how did your kite flying go today?\nCharlie Brown I think I learned something, but I'm not sure what it was.. (01 Mar 98)\nLinus: See? There she is, Charlie Brown,.. There's the Little Red-Haired Girl just waiting for you to ask her to dance...\nCharlie Brown: I wish I were sophisticated like guys you read about in stories..\nSnoopy: Here's the Scott Fitzgerald hero standing boy the punch bowl \"trying to look uninterested in the dancers.Don't give it another thought, old sport!\" (21 May 98)\nCharlie Brown: I can't believe I'm doing this.. I'm walking toward the Little Red-Haired Girl.. I'm going to ask her to dance.. I'm getting closer.. I'm almost there.. I'm..\nPeppermint Patty: Chuck! we've been looking for you!\nMarcie: Come on, Charles, they're playing the \"Hockey-Pokey\".\nCharlie Brown: Oh, good grief! (22 May 98)\nSnoopy: Here's Gatsby standing by the punch bowl watching couples dance by... \"It was in nineteen-nineteen.. I only stayed five months.. That's why I can't really call myself an Oxford man. Both of us us loved each other all that time, old sport.\" (23 May 98)\nLinus: Charlie Brown! Where have you been?\nCharlie Brown: I've been doing the \"Hockey-Pokey with Patty and Marcie.. Listen.. There playing a Foxtrot.. Now I can ask that Little Red-Haired Girl to dance..\nLinus I think someone is head of you..\nSnoopy: (dancing with the Little Red-Haired Girl): \"Daisy and Gatsby danced.. I remember his graceful conservative foxtrot\". (25 May 98)\n( Peppermint Patty and Marcie are at Charlie Brown's doorstep )\nPeppermint Patty: The Hockey-Pokey wasn't very romantic, Chuck.\nMarcie: I saved you the Waltz, Charles, but I never saw you..\nPeppermint Patty: How about the limo, Chuck? We never saw a limo, either..\nMarcie: How come you fell down doing the Hockey-Pokey?\n( They start to leave, Charlie Brown in a strong state of confusion )\nPeppermint Patty: Don't invite us to any more dances, Chuck.\nMarcie: \"Many a heart is broken after the ball.\" (28 May 98)\nCharlie Brown: My arm hurts..\nLucy Why don't you let me pitch? I have a cute arm!\nCharlie Brown: Pitchers don't have cute arms!\nLucy I bet Ty Cobb had a cute arm, didn't she? (17 June 98)\nLucy: A good knows how to communicate with his players.. A good mana ger even shows cocern for their welfare..\n( Pause )\nCharlie Brown: How've you been?\nLucy: Listen to me.. Mom doesn't want you to have a dog, does she?\nRerun No..\nLucy Do you really think Santa Claus is going to bring you something Mom doesn't want you to have?\nRerun Ooo! Supreme Court stuff! ( 23 Dec 98 ) (22 June 98)\nRerun: Snoopy, who am I kidding? Lucy is right.. Santa Claus is never going to bring a dog to someone whose Mom doesn't want him to have a dog.. If I'm lucky, I'll get a pair of socks and an orange..\nSnoopy: If I get a rubber bone, I'll share it. ( 24 Dec 98 )\nFranklin: I never got around to reading the book we were supposed to read during Christmas vacation.\nMarcie: I started to read it, but I couldn't understand it...\nPeppermint Patty: What book? (4 Jan 99)\n( Charlie Brown is at at Lucy's psychiatric booth )\nCharlie Brown: I don't always want to be who I am.. So I'm wondering if I could ever learn to be the life of the party?\nLucy: YOU?! HA HA HA HA HA! ---I'm sorry..I shouldn't have laughed... Where were we? Oh, yes, now I remember.. You? The life of the party? HA HA HA HA!\n( Charlie Brown goes home. )\nSally: Well, how did your session with the psychiatrist go?\nCharlie Brown: I was asking her if I could ever learn to be the life of the party, and..\nSally: YOU?! HA HA HA HA!\nCharlie Brown: Actually, I've never been invited to a party. (04 April 99)\nLucy: Hey, manager, how come I always have to play right field?\nCharlie Brown: Because you're such a terrible player!\nLucy: I suppose you think you're such a great pitcher, huh? And I suppose you think you're such a great manager?\nCharlie Brown: This could turn ugly... (22 Jun 99)\nSally: Lucy's on the phone. She wants to know why she always has to play right field.\nCharlie Brown: Traditionally, the player who is weakest defensively plays right field.\nSally: (to Lucy on the phone) He says the dumbest player always plays right field.\nCharlie Brown: This could turn really ugly... (23 Jun 99)\nLucy: Hey, manager, I've decided if I have to play right field all the time, I'd rather not play at all..\nCharlie Brown: Really? Wow! That's great！ Boy, what a relief!\nLucy: Okay,I'll play right field.. (25 Jun 99)\nLittle Girl With the Braids: The teacher says we were supposed to paint these flowers..\nRerun I don't do flowers.. I do underground comic books.. See? Here's a spaceman on Mars fighting a purple monster!\nLittle Girl With the Braids Where are the women? I don't see any women..\nA Charlie Brown Christmas (1965)[ edit ]\nLinus (after Charlie Brown tells Linus about Christmas becoming depressing and too commercial): Charlie Brown, you're the only person I know that can take a wonderful season like Christmas and turn it into a problem. Maybe Lucy's right. Of all the Charlie Browns in the world, you're the Charlie Browniest.\nLinus: (catches a snowflake on his tongue, chewing and swallowing it) Mmmm.... needs sugar.\nLucy: It's too early. I never eat December snowflakes. I always wait until January.\nLinus: (examines snowflakes) They sure look ripe to me.\nLucy: (to Linus) You think you're so smart with that blanket. What are you gonna do with it when you grow up?\nLinus: Maybe I'll make it into a sport coat .\nLucy: Do you think you have pantophobia ?\nCharlie Brown: What's pantophobia?\nLucy: The fear of everything.\nCharlie Brown: THAT'S IT!!! (Lucy flies off her seat)Actually, Lucy, my trouble is Christmas.\nSally: (dictates her letter to Santa Claus to Charlie Brown) \"Dear Santa Claus, how have you been? Did you have a nice summer? How is your wife? I have been especially good this year, so I have a long list of presents that I want.\"\nCharlie Brown: Oh, brother.\nSally: \"Please note the size and color of each item, and send as many as possible. If it seems too complicated, make it easy on yourself. Just send money. How about 10's and 20's?\"\nCharlie Brown: 10's and 20's?!? OH, NO! Even my baby sister! (runs off, dismayed)\nSally: All I want is what I have coming to me. All I want is my fair share.\nPig-Pen (to Frieda, after hearing Charlie Brown's flattering assessment of his appearance): Sort of makes you want to treat me with more respect, doesn't it?\nFrieda: You're an absolute mess. Just look at yourself. (hands him a mirror)\nPig-Pen: (looks into the mirror and smiles) On the contrary, I didn't think I looked that good.\nLucy: Snoopy, you have to be all the animals in our play. Can you be a sheep?\nSnoopy: Baaaaaa...\nLucy: How about a cow?\nSnoopy: Moooooo...\nLucy: How about a penguin?\nSnoopy: [waddles like a penguin]\nLucy: Yes, he's even a good penguin.\nSnoopy: Argh!\n(Snoopy proceeds to attempt to fight with Lucy, then finally imitates a vulture on top of Lucy's head]\nLucy (with Snoopy behind her, mimicking her): No, no, no! Listen, all of you! You've got to take direction, you've got to have discipline, you've got to have respect for your director! (sees Snoopy and turns around) I oughta slug you! (swings at him and gets slurped) Ugh! I've been kissed by a dog! I have dog germs ! Get hot water ! Get some disinfectant ! Get some iodine !\nSnoopy: Bleah!\nLucy (to Linus, after he asks for one good reason to memorize his part fast): I'll give you five good reasons! (individually clenches her fingers and thumb into a fist) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5! (shows him her whole fist)\nLinus (shakes his head up and down): Those are good reasons. Christmas is not only getting too commercial. It's getting too dangerous.\nCharlie Brown: There's no time for foolishness. We've got to get on with our play!\nLucy: That's right! What about my part? What about the Christmas Queen, hmm? Are you going to let all this beauty go to waste? You do think I'm beautiful, don't you, Charlie Brown? (no response) You didn't answer right away. You had to think about it first, didn't you? If you really thought I was beautiful, you would have spoken right up. (storms off) I know when I've been insulted! I know when I've been insulted!\nCharlie Brown: Good grief.\nSnoopy: (howls at Charlie Brown's entrance, stopping when Charlie Brown sees him)\nCharlie Brown (sarcastically): Man's best friend.\nLinus: (reciting a Bible passage) \"And there were in the same country shepherds abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flocks by night, and lo the angel of the Lord came upon them and the glory of the Lord shone round about them, and they were sore afraid, and the angel said unto them, \"Fear not, for behold, I bring you tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people. For unto you is born this day in the city of David, a Savior, tis Christ the Lord. And this shall be a sign unto you. You shall find the babe wrapped in swaddling clothes lying in a manger. And suddenly there was with the Angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God and saying, 'Glory to God in the highest, and on Earth peace, goodwill toward men.'\"\nThat's what Christmas is all about, Charlie Brown.\nEverybody: (after showing Charlie Brown the Christmas tree) MERRY CHRISTMAS, CHARLIE BROWN!!!!!!!!!!!!!\nLinus: I never thought it was such a bad little tree. It's not bad at all, really. Maybe it just needs a little love.\nLucy: What are you doing, Charlie Brown?\nCharlie Brown: I'm waiting for Valentines!\nLucy: Oh... Well, good luck.\nCharlie Brown: Thank you.\nLucy: You'll need it.\nCharlie Brown: YOU DIDN'T HAVE TO SAY THAT!!\nCharlie Brown: I'd give anything if that Little Red-Haired Girl had sent me a valentine... Hey! Maybe she did sent me a valentine! Maybe she did send me one, and it didn't get here until today! Maybe it's in our mailbox right now! I'm afraid to look. If I look, and there's nothing there, I'll be crushed! But on the other hand, if she did send me a valentine..... I've got to look! Opens mailbox of which Snoopy pops out of, and kisses him on the nose. (Rubbing his nose) I hate Valentines Day.\nViolet: Charlie Brown, we've been feeling awfully guilty about not giving a Valentine this year. Here, I've erased my name from this one, I'd like you to have it.\nSchroeder: Hold on there! What are you doing? Who do you think you are? Where were you yesterday when everyone else was giving out Valentines? Is kindness and thoughtfulness something you can make retroactive? You and your friends are the most thoughtless bunch I have ever known. You don't care about Charlie Brown, you just hate to feel guilty! And now you have the nerve to come back next day and offer him a used Valentine! Well, let me tell you something, Charlie Brown doesn't need... (interrupted by Charlie Brown).\nCharlie Brown: Don't listen to him! I'll take it!\nCharlie Brown: [reappeared and lying on the ground after Lucy pulled the football away] I did it! I finally kicked that football!\nLucy: Oh no you didn't! I just pulled it away!\nCharlie Brown: I did it when I was invisible! I did it!\nLucy: You can't prove it, Charlie Brown. No one will believe you.\nCharlie Brown: Snoopy knows I did it. He made it possible.\nLucy: Why, that stupid dog of yours couldn't disappear himself out of a paper bag.\n[Snoopy, angered by Lucy's insult, casts a spell on Lucy, and she begins to rise in the air.]\nLucy: HEY! WHAT ARE YOU DOING?!? PUT ME DOWN!! PUT ME DOWN!! HEY!! HEY!! YOU CAN'T LEAVE ME UP HERE!! HEY!!\n[Snoopy and Charlie Brown laugh and dance away joyfully.]\nLucy: [still levitating] HEY, WHAT ABOUT ME?!? HEY! HEY, WHAT ABOUT ME?!!?\n[Lucy continues to levitate as the closing credits roll, until Linus walks by and brings her back down to earth with the help of his blanket. Crestfallen and humiliated, Lucy walks off.]\nLinus: I wonder where [Snoopy and his wife] will live?\nCharlie Brown: What do you mean?\nLinus: Maybe they'll move away to live in another town.\nCharlie Brown: MOVE AWAY?!!?\nLinus: But then again, maybe they'll all move in with you.\n[Sally bursts into tears]\nCharlie Brown: I wanted to buy Peggy Jean some gloves for Christmas, but they cost $25.\nSally: She's going to be disappointed when she finds out her boyfriend is a cheapskate!\nCharlie Brown: I'm not a cheapskate. I just don't have $25.\nSally: Put it on your credit card.\nCharlie Brown: I don't have a credit card.\nSally: So long, Peggy Jean!\nPeppermint Patty: Marcie, what book were we supposed to read during Thanksgiving vacation?\nMarcie: This is Christmas vacation, sir.\nPeppermint Patty: Christmas vacation?!? How can I read something during Christmas vacation when I didn't read what I was supposed to read during Thanksgiving vacation?!?\nMarcie: Duck, sir. Easter is coming.\nFranklin: (as Gabriel in the Christmas play) I am Gabriel. Do not be afraid, Mary.\nMarcie: (as Mary) Behold, I am the handmaiden of the Lord.\nPeppermint Patty: (as sheep) Baaaa! Baaaa! Baaaa! Baaaa!\nFranklin: I am Gabriel, Mary, and I couldn't hear you because of the sheep.\nMarcie: (as Mary) And there were shepherds in the field, keeping watch over their flock by night.\nPeppermint Patty: (as sheep) Woof, meow, moo! Whatever.\n(The audience breaks into laughter)\nPeppermint Patty: (singing as Marcie drags her off the stage with the crook of her staff) \"And a partridge in a pear tree!\" (Thump Thump Thump Thump Thump)\nSally: Hockey stick!\"\nA Boy Named Charlie Brown (1969)[ edit ]\nLucy Van Pelt: Aren't the clouds beautiful? They look like big balls of cotton. I could just lie here all day and watch them drift by. If you use your imagination, you can see lots of things in the cloud's formations. What do you think you see, Linus?\nLinus Van Pelt: Well, those clouds up there look to me look like the map of the British Honduras on the Caribbean. [points up] That cloud up there looks a little like the profile of Thomas Eakins , the famous painter and sculptor. And that group of clouds over there... [points] ...gives me the impression of the Stoning of Stephen . I can see the Apostle Paul standing there to one side.\nLucy Van Pelt: Uh huh. That's very good. What do you see in the clouds, Charlie Brown?\nCharlie Brown: Well... I was going to say I saw a duckie and a horsie, but I changed my mind.\nLucy Van Pelt: [Walks into Linus's bedroom and raises the shade] Wake up Linus. It's time to go to school.\nLinus Van Pelt: Again?\nLucy Van Pelt: What do you mean 'again'?\nLinus Van Pelt: [Snuggles back into bed] I went yesterday.\nLucy Van Pelt: Mom's already made your lunch.\nLinus Van Pelt: [Sits up in bed, sighs] Guess I might as well go to school. I can't waste a good lunch.\nCharlie Brown: The word is beagle?\nCharlie Brown: Beagle. B-E-A-G-E-L. Beagle.\n[everyone, including Charlie Brown, screams in disbelief]\nCharlie Brown: I've never gone through anything like that in my life. I never knew I could be so stupid. I never knew I had so many faults. I never felt so completely miserable.\nLucy Van Pelt: Wait until you get my bill.\nViolet: [noticing that Charlie Brown will volunteer for a spelling bee] You?! Volunteer for a spelling bee?! [laughs]\nLucy: Charlie Brown, you'll just make a fool of yourself!\nPatty: Besides that, you're Bound to be a complete failure!\n[the girls sing \"Failure Face\"]\nLinus Van Pelt: Life is difficult, isn't it, Charlie Brown?\nCharlie Brown: Yes, it is. But I've developed a new philosophy. I only dread one day at a time.\nLinus Van Pelt: You know, Charlie Brown, they say we learn more from losing than from winning.\nCharlie Brown: Then that must make me the smartest person in the world.\nLinus Van Pelt: Well, I can understand how you feel. You worked hard, studying for the spelling bee, and I suppose you feel you let everyone down, and you made a fool of yourself and everything. But did you notice something, Charlie Brown?\nCharlie Brown: What's that?"
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John Singer Sargent worked in which branch of the arts?
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"John Singer Sargent (; January 12, 1856 – April 14, 1925) was an American artist, considered the \"leading portrait painter of his generation\" for his evocations of Edwardian era luxury. During his career, he created roughly 900 oil paintings and more than 2,000 watercolors, as well as countless sketches and charcoal drawings. His oeuvre documents worldwide travel, from Venice to the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida.\n\nHis parents were American, but he was trained in Paris prior to moving to London. Sargent enjoyed international acclaim as a portrait painter, although not without controversy and some critical reservation; an early submission to the Paris Salon, his \"Portrait of Madame X\", was intended to consolidate his position as a society painter, but it resulted in scandal instead. From the beginning his work was characterized by remarkable technical facility, particularly in his ability to draw with a brush, which in later years inspired admiration as well as criticism for a supposed superficiality. His commissioned works were consistent with the grand manner of portraiture, while his informal studies and landscape paintings displayed a familiarity with Impressionism. In later life Sargent expressed ambivalence about the restrictions of formal portrait work, and devoted much of his energy to mural painting and working en plein air. He lived most of his life in Europe. Art historians generally ignored the society artists such as Sargent until the late 20th century. \n\nEarly life\n\nBefore Sargent's birth, his father, FitzWilliam (b. 1820 Gloucester, Massachusetts), was an eye surgeon at the Wills Eye Hospital in Philadelphia 1844–1854. After John's older sister died at the age of two, his mother, Mary (née Singer), suffered a breakdown, and the couple decided to go abroad to recover. They remained nomadic expatriates for the rest of their lives. Although based in Paris, Sargent's parents moved regularly with the seasons to the sea and the mountain resorts in France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. While Mary was pregnant, they stopped in Florence, Tuscany, because of a cholera epidemic. Sargent was born there in 1856. A year later, his sister Mary was born. After her birth, FitzWilliam reluctantly resigned his post in Philadelphia and accepted his wife's entreaties to remain abroad. They lived modestly on a small inheritance and savings, living a quiet life with their children. They generally avoided society and other Americans except for friends in the art world. Four more children were born abroad, of whom only two lived past childhood. \n\nAlthough his father was a patient teacher of basic subjects, young Sargent was a rambunctious child, more interested in outdoor activities than his studies. As his father wrote home, \"He is quite a close observer of animated nature.\" His mother was quite convinced that traveling around Europe, and visiting museums and churches, would give young Sargent a satisfactory education. Several attempts to have him formally schooled failed, owing mostly to their itinerant life. Sargent's mother was a fine amateur artist and his father was a skilled medical illustrator. Early on, she gave him sketchbooks and encouraged drawing excursions. Young Sargent worked with care on his drawings, and he enthusiastically copied images from The Illustrated London News of ships and made detailed sketches of landscapes. FitzWilliam had hoped that his son's interest in ships and the sea might lead him toward a naval career.\n\nAt thirteen, his mother reported that John \"sketches quite nicely, & has a remarkably quick and correct eye. If we could afford to give him really good lessons, he would soon be quite a little artist.\" At the age of thirteen, he received some watercolor lessons from Carl Welsch, a German landscape painter. Although his education was far from complete, Sargent grew up to be a highly literate and cosmopolitan young man, accomplished in art, music, and literature. He was fluent in French, Italian, and German. At seventeen, Sargent was described as \"willful, curious, determined and strong\" (after his mother) yet shy, generous, and modest (after his father). He was well-acquainted with many of the great masters from first hand observation, as he wrote in 1874, \"I have learned in Venice to admire Tintoretto immensely and to consider him perhaps second only to Michelangelo and Titian.\" \n\nTraining \n\nAn attempt to study at the Academy of Florence failed as the school was re-organizing at the time, so after returning to Paris from Florence, Sargent began his art studies with Carolus-Duran. The young French portrait artist, who had a meteoric rise, was noted for his bold technique and modern teaching methods, and his influence would be pivotal to Sargent during the period from 1874 to 1878. \n\nIn 1874, on the first attempt, Sargent passed the rigorous exam required to gain admission to the École des Beaux-Arts, the premier art school in France. He took drawing classes, which included anatomy and perspective, and gained a silver prize. He also spent much time in self-study, drawing in museums and painting in a studio he shared with James Carroll Beckwith. He became both a valuable friend and Sargent's primary connection with the American artists abroad. Sargent also took some lessons from Léon Bonnat.\n\nCarolus-Duran's atelier was progressive, dispensing with the traditional academic approach, which required careful drawing and underpainting, in favor of the alla prima method of working directly on the canvas with a loaded brush, derived from Diego Velázquez. It was an approach that relied on the proper placement of tones of paint. \n\nThis approach also permitted spontaneous flourishes of color not bound to an under-drawing. It was markedly different from the traditional atelier of Jean-Léon Gérôme, where Americans Thomas Eakins and Julian Alden Weir had studied.\nSargent was the star student in short order. Weir met Sargent in 1874 and noted that Sargent was \"one of the most talented fellows I have ever come across; his drawings are like the old masters, and his color is equally fine.\" Sargent's excellent command of French and his superior talent made him both popular and admired. Through his friendship with Paul César Helleu, Sargent would meet giants of the art world, including Degas, Rodin, Monet, and Whistler.\n\nSargent's early enthusiasm was for landscapes, not portraiture, as evidenced by his voluminous sketches full of mountains, seascapes, and buildings. Carolus-Duran's expertise in portraiture finally influenced Sargent in that direction. Commissions for history paintings were still considered more prestigious, but were much harder to get. Portrait painting, on the other hand, was the best way of promoting an art career, getting exhibited in the Salon, and gaining commissions to earn a livelihood.\n\nSargent's first major portrait was of his friend Fanny Watts in 1877, and was also his first Salon admission. Its particularly well-executed pose drew attention. His second salon entry was the Oyster Gatherers of Cançale, an impressionistic painting of which he made two copies, one of which he sent back to the United States, and both received warm reviews. \n\nEarly career\n\nIn 1879, at the age of 23, Sargent painted a portrait of teacher Carolus-Duran; the virtuoso effort met with public approval, and announced the direction his mature work would take. Its showing at the Paris Salon was both a tribute to his teacher and an advertisement for portrait commissions. Of Sargent's early work, Henry James wrote that the artist offered \"the slightly 'uncanny' spectacle of a talent which on the very threshold of its career has nothing more to learn.\" \n\nAfter leaving Carolus-Duran's atelier, Sargent visited Spain. There he studied the paintings of Velázquez with a passion, absorbing the master's technique, and in his travels gathered ideas for future works. He was entranced with Spanish music and dance. The trip also re-awakened his own talent for music (which was nearly equal to his artistic talent), and which found visual expression in his early masterpiece El Jaleo (1882). Music would continue to play a major part in his social life as well, as he was a skillful accompanist of both amateur and professional musicians. Sargent became a strong advocate for modern composers, especially Gabriel Fauré. Trips to Italy provided sketches and ideas for several Venetian street scenes genre paintings, which effectively captured gestures and postures he would find useful in later portraiture. \n\nUpon his return, Sargent quickly received several portrait commissions. His career was launched. He immediately demonstrated the concentration and stamina that enabled him to paint with workman-like steadiness for the next twenty-five years. He filled in the gaps between commissions with many non-commissioned portraits of friends and colleagues. His fine manners, perfect French, and great skill made him a standout among the newer portraitists, and his fame quickly spread. He confidently set high prices and turned down unsatisfactory sitters. He mentored his friend Emil Fuchs who was learning to paint portraits in oils.\n\nWorks \n\nPortraits\n\nIn the early 1880s Sargent regularly exhibited portraits at the Salon, and these were mostly full-length portrayals of women, such as Madame Edouard Pailleron (1880) (done en plein-air) and Madame Ramón Subercaseaux (1881). He continued to receive positive critical notice. \n\nSargent's best portraits reveal the individuality and personality of the sitters; his most ardent admirers think he is matched in this only by Velázquez, who was one of Sargent's great influences. The Spanish master's spell is apparent in Sargent's The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit, 1882, a haunting interior that echoes Velázquez's Las Meninas. As in many of his early portraits, Sargent confidently tries different approaches with each new challenge, here employing both unusual composition and lighting to striking effect. One of his most widely exhibited and best loved works of the 1880s was The Lady with the Rose (1882), a portrait of Charlotte Burckhardt, a close friend and possible romantic attachment. \n\nHis most controversial work, Portrait of Madame X (Madame Pierre Gautreau) (1884) is now considered one of his best works, and was the artist's personal favorite; he stated in 1915, \"I suppose it is the best thing I have done.\" when unveiled in Paris at the 1884 Salon, it aroused such a negative reaction that it likely prompted Sargent's move to London. Sargent's self-confidence had led him to attempt another risky experiment in portraiture—but this time it unexpectedly back-fired. The painting was not commissioned by her and he pursued her for the opportunity, quite unlike most of his portrait work where clients sought him out. Sargent wrote to a mutual acquaintance:\n\nIt took well over a year to complete the painting. The first version of the portrait of Madame Gautreau, with the famously plunging neckline, white-powdered skin, and arrogantly cocked head, featured an off-the-shoulder dress strap which made the overall effect more daring and sensual. Sargent changed the strap to try to dampen the furor, but the damage had been done. French commissions dried up and he told his friend Edmund Gosse in 1885 that he contemplated giving up painting for music or business. \n\nWriting of the reaction of visitors, Judith Gautier observed:\n\nPrior to the Madame X scandal of 1884, Sargent had painted exotic beauties such as Rosina Ferrara of Capri, and the Spanish expatriate model Carmela Bertagna, but the earlier pictures had not been intended for broad public reception. Sargent kept the painting prominently displayed in his London studio until he sold it to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1916, a few months after Gautreau's death.\n\nBefore arriving in England, Sargent began sending paintings for exhibition at the Royal Academy. These included the portraits of Dr. Pozzi at Home (1881), a flamboyant essay in red and his first full-length male portrait, and the more traditional Mrs. Henry White (1883). The ensuing portrait commissions encouraged Sargent to complete his move to London in 1886. Notwithstanding the Madame X scandal, he had considered moving to London as early as 1882; he had been urged to do so repeatedly by his new friend, the novelist Henry James. In retrospect his transfer to London may be seen to have been inevitable. \n\nEnglish critics were not warm at first, faulting Sargent for his \"clever\" \"Frenchified\" handling of paint. One reviewer seeing his portrait of Mrs. Henry White described his technique as \"hard\" and \"almost metallic\" with \"no taste in expression, air, or modeling.\" With help from Mrs. White, however, Sargent soon gained the admiration of English patrons and critics. Henry James also gave the artist \"a push to the best of my ability.\" \n\nSargent spent much time painting outdoors in the English countryside when not in his studio. On a visit to Monet at Giverny in 1885, Sargent painted one of his most Impressionistic portraits, of Monet at work painting outdoors with his new bride nearby. Sargent is usually not thought of as an Impressionist painter, but he sometimes used impressionistic techniques to great effect. His Claude Monet Painting at the Edge of a Wood is rendered in his own version of the impressionist style. In the 1880s, he attended the Impressionist exhibitions and he began to paint outdoors in the plein-air manner after that visit to Monet. Sargent purchased four Monet works for his personal collection during that time. \n\nSargent was similarly inspired to do a portrait of his artist friend Paul César Helleu, also painting outdoors with his wife by his side. A photograph very similar to the painting suggests that Sargent occasionally used photography as an aid to composition. Through Helleu, Sargent met and painted the famed French sculptor Auguste Rodin in 1884, a rather somber portrait reminiscent of works by Thomas Eakins. Although the British critics classified Sargent in the Impressionist camp, the French Impressionists thought otherwise. As Monet later stated, \"He is not an Impressionist in the sense that we use the word, he is too much under the influence of Carolus-Duran.\" \n\nSargent's first major success at the Royal Academy came in 1887, with the enthusiastic response to Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose, a large piece, painted on site, of two young girls lighting lanterns in an English garden in Broadway in the Cotswolds. The painting was immediately purchased by the Tate Gallery.\n\nHis first trip to New York and Boston as a professional artist in 1887–88 produced over twenty important commissions, including portraits of Isabella Stewart Gardner, the famed Boston art patron. His portrait of Mrs. Adrian Iselin, wife of a New York businessman, revealed her character in one of his most insightful works. In Boston, Sargent was honored with his first solo exhibition, which presented twenty-two of his paintings. Here he became friends with painter Dennis Miller Bunker who traveled to England in the summer of 1888 to paint with him en plein air and is the subject of Sargents painting 'Dennis Miller Bunker Painting at Calcot' 1888.\n\nBack in London, Sargent was quickly busy again. His working methods were by then well-established, following many of the steps employed by other master portrait painters before him. After securing a commission through negotiations which he carried out, Sargent would visit the client's home to see where the painting was to hang. He would often review a client's wardrobe to pick suitable attire. Some portraits were done in the client's home, but more often in his studio, which was well-stocked with furniture and background materials he chose for proper effect. He usually required eight to ten sittings from his clients, although he would try to capture the face in one sitting. He usually kept up pleasant conversation and sometimes he would take a break and play the piano for his sitter. Sargent seldom used pencil or oil sketches, and instead lay down oil paint directly. Finally, he would select an appropriate frame.\n\nSargent had no assistants; he handled all the tasks, such as preparing his canvases, varnishing the painting, arranging for photography, shipping, and documentation. He commanded about $5,000 per portrait, or about $130,000 in current dollars. Some American clients traveled to London at their own expense to have Sargent paint their portrait.\n\nAround 1890, Sargent painted two daring non-commissioned portraits as show pieces—one of actress Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth and one of the popular Spanish dancer La Carmencita. Sargent was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and was made a full member three years later. In the 1890s, he averaged fourteen portrait commissions per year, none more beautiful than the genteel Lady Agnew of Lochnaw, 1892. His portrait of Mrs. Hugh Hammersley (Mrs. Hugh Hammersley, 1892) was equally well received for its lively depiction of one of London's most notable hostesses. As a portrait painter in the grand manner, Sargent had unmatched success; he portrayed subjects who were at once ennobled and often possessed of nervous energy. Sargent was referred to as \"the Van Dyck of our times.\" Although Sargent was an American expatriate, he returned to the United States many times, often to answer the demand for commissioned portraits.\n\nSargent painted a series of three portraits of Robert Louis Stevenson. The second, Portrait of Robert Louis Stevenson and his Wife (1885), was one of his best known. He also completed portraits of two U.S. presidents: Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson.\n\nAsher Wertheimer, a wealthy Jewish art dealer living in London, commissioned from Sargent a series of a dozen portraits of his family, the artist's largest commission from a single patron. The paintings reveal a pleasant familiarity between the artist and his subjects. Wertheimer bequeathed most of the paintings to the National Gallery. In 1888, Sargent released his portrait of Alice Vanderbilt Shepard, great-granddaughter of Cornelius Vanderbilt. Many of his most important works are in museums in the United States.\n\n \nBy 1900, Sargent was at the height of his fame. Cartoonist Max Beerbohm completed one of his seventeen caricatures of Sargent, making well-known to the public the artist's paunchy physique. Although only in his forties, Sargent began to travel more and to devote relatively less time to portrait painting. His An Interior in Venice (1900), a portrait of four members of the Curtis family in their elegant palatial home, Palazzo Barbaro, was a resounding success. But, Whistler did not approve of the looseness of Sargent's brushwork, which he summed up as \"smudge everywhere.\" One of Sargent's last major portraits in his bravura style was that of Lord Ribblesdale, in 1902, finely attired in an elegant hunting uniform. Between 1900 and 1907, Sargent continued his high productivity, which included, in addition to dozens of oil portraits, hundreds of portrait drawings at about $400 each. \n\nIn 1907, at the age of fifty-one, Sargent officially closed his studio. Relieved, he stated, \"Painting a portrait would be quite amusing if one were not forced to talk while working…What a nuisance having to entertain the sitter and to look happy when one feels wretched.\" In that same year, Sargent painted his modest and serious self-portrait, his last, for the celebrated self-portrait collection of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy. \n\nAs Sargent wearied of portraiture he pursued architectural and landscapes subjects . During a visit to Rome in 1906 Sargent made an oil painting and several pencil sketches of the exterior staircase and balustrade in front of the Church of Saints Dominic and Sixtus, now the church of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. The double staircase built in 1654 is the design of architect and sculptor Orazio Torriani (fl.1602–1657). In 1907 he wrote: \"I did in Rome a study of a magnificent curved staircase and balustrade, leading to a grand facade that would reduce a millionaire to a worm....\" The painting now hangs at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University and the pencil sketches are in the collection of the Harvard University art collection of the Fogg Museum. Sargent later used the architectural features of this stair and balustrade in a portrait of Charles William Eliot, President of Harvard University from 1869 to 1909. \n\nSargent's fame was still considerable and museums eagerly bought his works. That year he declined a knighthood and decided instead to keep his American citizenship. From 1907 on, Sargent largely forsook portrait painting and focused on landscapes in his later years. He made numerous visits to the United States in the last decade of his life, including a stay of two full years from 1915 to 1917. \n\nBy the time Sargent finished his portrait of John D. Rockefeller in 1917, most critics began to consign him to the masters of the past, \"a brilliant ambassador between his patrons and posterity.\" Modernists treated him more harshly, considering him completely out of touch with the reality of American life and with emerging artistic trends including Cubism and Futurism. Sargent quietly accepted the criticism, but refused to alter his negative opinions of modern art. He retorted, \"Ingres, Raphael and El Greco, these are now my admirations, these are what I like.\" In 1925, soon before he died, Sargent painted his last oil portrait, a canvas of Grace Curzon, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston. The painting was purchased in 1936 by the Currier Museum of Art, where it is on display. \n\nWatercolors\n\nDuring Sargent's long career, he painted more than 2,000 watercolors, roving from the English countryside to Venice to the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida. Each destination offered pictorial stimulation and treasure. Even at his leisure, in escaping the pressures of the portrait studio, he painted with restless intensity, often painting from morning until night.\n\nHis hundreds of watercolors of Venice are especially notable, many done from the perspective of a gondola. His colors were sometimes extremely vivid and as one reviewer noted, \"Everything is given with the intensity of a dream.\" In the Middle East and North Africa Sargent painted Bedouins, goatherds, and fisherman. In the last decade of his life, he produced many watercolors in Maine, Florida, and in the American West, of fauna, flora, and native peoples.\n\nWith his watercolors, Sargent was able to indulge his earliest artistic inclinations for nature, architecture, exotic peoples, and noble mountain landscapes. And it is in some of his late works where one senses Sargent painting most purely for himself. His watercolors were executed with a joyful fluidness. He also painted extensively family, friends, gardens, and fountains. In watercolors, he playfully portrayed his friends and family dressed in Orientalist costume, relaxing in brightly lit landscapes that allowed for a more vivid palette and experimental handling than did his commissions (The Chess Game, 1906). His first major solo exhibit of watercolor works was at the Carfax Gallery in London in 1905. In 1909, he exhibited eighty-six watercolors in New York City, eighty-three of which were bought by the Brooklyn Museum. Evan Charteris wrote in 1927:\n\nTo live with Sargent's water-colours is to live with sunshine captured and held, with the luster of a bright and legible world, 'the refluent shade' and 'the Ambient ardours of the noon.' \n\nAlthough not generally accorded the critical respect given Winslow Homer, perhaps America's greatest watercolorist, scholarship has revealed that Sargent was fluent in the entire range of opaque and transparent watercolor technique, including the methods used by Homer. \n\nOther work\n\nAs a concession to the insatiable demand of wealthy patrons for portraits, Sargent dashed off hundreds of rapid charcoal portrait sketches, which he called \"Mugs.\" Forty-six of these, spanning the years 1890–1916, were exhibited at the Royal Society of Portrait Painters in 1916. \n\nAll of Sargent's murals are to be found in the Boston/Cambridge area. They are in the Boston Public Library, the Museum of Fine Arts, and Harvard's Widener Library. Sargent's largest scale works are the mural decorations that grace the Boston Public Library depicting the history of religion and the gods of polytheism. They were attached to the walls of the library by means of marouflage. He worked on the cycle for almost thirty years but never completed the final mural. Sargent drew on his extensive travels and museum visits to create a dense art historial melange. The murals were restored in 2003–2004. \n\nSargent worked on the murals from 1895 through 1919; they were intended to show religion's (and society's) progress, from pagan superstition up through the ascension of Christianity, concluding with a painting depicting Jesus delivering the Sermon on the Mount. But Sargent's paintings of \"The Church\" and \"The Synagogue,\" installed in late 1919, inspired a debate about whether the artist had represented Judaism in a stereotypical, or even an anti-Semitic, manner. Drawing upon iconography that was used in medieval paintings, Sargent portrayed Judaism and the synagogue as a blind, ugly hag, and Christianity and the church as a lovely, and radiant young woman. He also failed to understand how these representations might be problematic for the Jews of Boston; he was both surprised and hurt when the paintings were criticized. The paintings were objectionable to Boston Jews since they seemed to show Judaism defeated, and Christianity triumphant. The Boston newspapers also followed the controversy, noting that while many found the paintings offensive, not everyone was in agreement. In the end, Sargent abandoned his plan to finish the murals, and the controversy eventually died down.\n\nUpon his return to England in 1918 after a visit to the United States, Sargent was commissioned as a war artist by the British Ministry of Information. In his large painting Gassed and in many watercolors, he depicted scenes from the Great War. \n\nLater life and death\n\nIn 1922 Sargent co-founded New York City's Grand Central Art Galleries together with Edmund Greacen, Walter Leighton Clark, and others.\"Painters and Sculptors' Gallery Association to Begin Work\", New York Times, December 19, 1922. Sargent actively participated in the Grand Central Art Galleries and their academy, the Grand Central School of Art, until his death in 1925. The Galleries held a major retrospective exhibit of Sargent's work in 1924. He then returned to England, where he died on April 14, 1925 of heart disease. Sargent is interred in Brookwood Cemetery near Woking, Surrey. \n\nMemorial exhibitions of Sargent's work were held in Boston in 1925, and at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and the Royal Academy and Tate Gallery in London in 1926. The Grand Central Art Galleries also organized a posthumous exhibition in 1928 of previously unseen sketches and drawings from throughout his career. \n\nRelationships and personal life\n\nSargent was a lifelong bachelor with a wide circle of friends. Biographers once portrayed him as a staid reticent individual; however recent scholarship has suggested that he was a private, complex and passionate man with a homosexual identity that shaped his art.Failing, Patricia, The Hidden Sargent,Art News, May 2001, http://www.artnews.com/2001/05/01/the-hidden-sargent/Davis, Deborah Strapless: John Singer Sargent And The Fall Of Madam X, Tarcher, 2003, ASIN: B015QKNWS0, pp254 This view is based on his friends and associations; the overall alluring remoteness of his portraits; the way several challenge nineteenth century notions of gender difference; his erotic and previously ignored male nudes; and some sensitive and erotic male portraits, including those as Thomas E. McKeller, Bartholomy Maganosco, Olimpio Fusco, and that of the handsome aristocratic artist Albert de Belleroche, which hung in his Chelsea dining room.Tóibín, Colm The secret life of John Singer Sargent,The Telegraph, 15 February 2015, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/art/artists/the-secret-life-of-john-singer-sargent/ Sargent had a long and intense romantic friendship with Belleroche, whom he met in 1882, and who later went on to marry: a surviving drawing hints that Sargent may have used him as a model for Madame X. \n\nIt has been suggested that Sargent's reputation in the 1890s as \"the painter of the Jews\" may have been due to his empathy with, and complicit enjoyment of their mutual social otherness. One such client, Betty Wertheimer, wrote that when in Venice Sargent \"was only interested in the Venetian gondoliers\". The painter Jacques-Émile Blanche, who was one of his early sitters, said after Sargent's death that his sex life \"was notorious in Paris, and in Venice, positively scandalous. He was a frenzied bugger.\" The truth of this may never be established.\n\nThere were many friendships with women: it has been suggested that those with his sitters Rosina Ferrara, Amélie Gautreau, and Judith Gautier may have tipped into infatuation. As a young man, Sargent also courted for a time Louise Burkhardt, the model for Lady with the Rose. \n\nSargent's friends and supporters Henry James, Isabella Stewart Gardner (who commissioned and purchased works from Sargent, and sought his advice on other acquisitions), and Edward VII., and Paul César Helleu His associations also included Prince Edmond de Polignac and Count Robert de Montesquiou. Other artists Sargent associated with were Dennis Miller Bunker, James Carroll Beckwith, Edwin Austin Abbey (who also worked on the Boston Public Library murals), Francis David Millet and Claude Monet, whom Sargent painted. Between 1905 and 1914, Sargent's frequent traveling companions were the married artist couple Wilfrid de Glehn and Jane Emmet de Glehn. The trio would often spend summers in France, Spain or Italy and all three would depict one another in their paintings during their travels. \n\nCritical assessment\n\nIn a time when the art world focused, in turn, on Impressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism, Sargent practiced his own form of Realism, which made brilliant references to Velázquez, Van Dyck, and Gainsborough. His seemingly effortless facility for paraphrasing the masters in a contemporary fashion led to a stream of commissioned portraits of remarkable virtuosity (Arsène Vigeant, 1885, Musées de Metz; Mr. and Mrs. Isaac Newton Phelps-Stokes, 1897, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) and earned Sargent the moniker, \"the Van Dyck of our times.\" \n\nStill, during his life his work engendered negative responses from some of his colleagues: Camille Pissarro wrote \"he is not an enthusiast but rather an adroit performer,\" and Walter Sickert published a satirical turn under the heading \"Sargentolatry.\" By the time of his death he was dismissed as an anachronism, a relic of the Gilded Age and out of step with the artistic sentiments of post-World War I Europe. Elizabeth Prettejohn suggests that the decline of Sargent's reputation was due partly to the rise of anti-Semitism, and the resultant intolerance of 'celebrations of Jewish prosperity.' It has been suggested that the exotic qualities inherent in his work appealed to the sympathies of the Jewish clients whom he painted from the 1890s on.\n\nNowhere is this more apparent than in his portrait Almina, Daughter of Asher Wertheimer (1908), in which the subject is seen wearing a Persian costume, a pearl encrusted turban, and strumming an Indian tambura, accoutrements all meant to convey sensuality and mystery. If Sargent used this portrait to explore issues of sexuality and identity, it seems to have met with the satisfaction of the subject's father, Asher Wertheimer, a wealthy Jewish art dealer.\n\nForemost of Sargent's detractors was the influential English art critic Roger Fry, of the Bloomsbury Group, who at the 1926 Sargent retrospective in London dismissed Sargent's work as lacking aesthetic quality: \"Wonderful indeed, but most wonderful that this wonderful performance should ever have been confused with that of an artist.\" And, in the 1930s, Lewis Mumford led a chorus of the severest critics: \"Sargent remained to the end an illustrator ... the most adroit appearance of workmanship, the most dashing eye for effect, cannot conceal the essential emptiness of Sargent's mind, or the contemptuous and cynical superficiality of a certain part of his execution.\"\n\nPart of Sargent's devaluation is also attributed to his expatriate life, which made him seem less American at a time when \"authentic\" socially conscious American art, as exemplified by the Stieglitz circle and by the Ashcan School, was on the ascent. \n\nAfter such a long period of critical disfavor, Sargent's reputation has increased steadily since the 1950s. In the 1960s, a revival of Victorian art and new scholarship directed at Sargent strengthened his reputation. Sargent has been the subject of large-scale exhibitions in major museums, including a retrospective exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1986, and a 1999 \"blockbuster\" traveling show that exhibited at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the National Gallery of Art Washington, and the National Gallery, London.\n\nIn 1986, Andy Warhol commented to Sargent scholar Trevor Fairbrother that Sargent \"made everybody look glamorous. Taller. Thinner. But they all have mood, every one of them has a different mood.\" \nIn a TIME magazine article from the 1980s, critic Robert Hughes praised Sargent as \"the unrivaled recorder of male power and female beauty in a day that, like ours, paid excessive court to both.\" \n\nPosthumous sales\n\nPortrait of Robert Louis Stevenson and his Wife was sold in 2004 for $US 8.8 million to Las Vegas casino mogul Steve Wynn to be installed at his newest casino, Wynn Las Vegas.\n\nIn December 2004, Group with Parasols (A Siesta) (1905) sold for $US 23.5 million, nearly double the Sotheby's estimate of $12 million. The previous highest price for a Sargent painting was $US 11 million. \n\nSelected works\n\nPortraits\n\nFile:Madame_Paul_Poirson_by_John_Singer_Sargent.jpg| ', 1885 Detroit Institute of Arts\nFile:John Singer Sargent - Mrs. Cecil Wade - Google Art Project.jpg|Mrs. Cecil Wade, 1886 The Nelson-Atkins Museum\nFile:Elizabeth Allen Marquand.jpg|Elizabeth Allen Marquand, 1887, Princeton University Art Museum\nFile:John Singer Sargent - 'Edwin Booth', 1890.jpg|Edwin Booth, 1890, Amon Carter Museum of American Art\nFile:Mrs Hugh Hammersley.jpg|Mrs. Hugh Hammersley, 1892\nFile:Frederick Law Olmsted.jpg|Frederick Law Olmsted, 1895\nFile:John Singer Sargent - Mrs Carl Meyer and her Children - Google Art Project.jpg|Mrs. Carl Meyer and her Children, 1896 \nFile:John Singer Sargent - Mrs. Joshua Montgomery Sears (Sarah Choate Sears) - Google Art Project.jpg|Mrs. Joshua Montgomery Sears (Sarah Choate Sears), 1899\nFile:The Wyndham Sisters - Lady Elcho, Mrs. Adeane, and Mrs. Tenant .jpg|The Wyndham Sisters - Lady Elcho, Mrs. Adeane, and Mrs. Tenant, 1899\nFile:Sargent Portrait of Lady Helen Vincent 1904.jpg|Lady Helen Vincent in Venice, 1904\nFile:John Singer Sargent - Mrs. Fiske Warren (Gretchen Osgood) and Her Daughter Rachel - Google Art Project.jpg|Mrs. Fiske Warren (Gretchen Osgood) and Her Daughter Rachel, 1903\nFile:Nancy Viscountess Astor by John Singer Sargent.jpeg|Mrs. Waldorf Astor, 1909\nFile:George Nathaniel Curzon by John Singer Sargent 1914.jpeg|George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, 1914, Royal Geographical Society\nFile:Cora Countess of Strafford.jpg|Cora, Countess of Strafford, 1908 \nFile:John D. Rockefeller 1917 painting.jpg|John D. Rockefeller, 1917\n\nWorks in oil\n\nFile:John Singer Sargent - Le verre de porto (A Dinner Table at Night) - Google Art Project.jpg|A Dinner Table at Night, 1884, De Young Museum, San Francisco, CA\nFile:John Singer Sargent - Street in Venice (NGAi).jpg|Street in Venice, c. 1882, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC\nFile:The Misses Vickers John Singer Sargent 1884.jpeg|The Misses Vickers, 1884, Weston Park Museum\nFile:John Singer Sargent - A Capriote - Google Art Project.jpg|Dans Les Oliviers, 1878\nFile:John Singer Sargent - Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose - Google Art Project.jpg|Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose, 1885–86, the Tate, London\nFile:Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth.jpg|Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth, 1889\nFile:Sargent - Familie Sitwell.jpg|The Sitwell Family, 1900. From left: Dame Edith Sitwell (1887–1964), Sir George Sitwell, Lady Ida Sitwell, Sir Sacheverell Sitwell (1897–1988), and Sir Osbert Sitwell (1892–1969)\nFile:John Singer Sargent - The Fountain, Villa Torlonia, Frascati, Italy - Google Art Project.jpg|The Fountain, Villa Torlonia, Frascati, Italy, 1907 \n\nWatercolor\n\nFile:Bedouins John Singer Sargent.jpeg|Bedouins, c. 1905–06, watercolor, Brooklyn Museum of Art\nFile:John Singer Sargent - Villa di Marlia, Lucca - Google Art Project.jpg|Villa di Marlia, Lucca, 1910, watercolor, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston\nFile:Artist in the Simplon John Singer Sargent.jpeg|Artist in the Simplon, c. 1909, watercolor, Fogg Museum of Art\nFile:On the Deck of the Yacht Constellation.jpeg|On the Deck of the Yacht Constellation, 1924, watercolor, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts\nFile:Karer See John Singer Sargent 1914.jpeg|Karer See, 1914, watercolor\nFile:John Singer Sargent - Simplon Pass- The Tease - Google Art Project.jpg|Simplon Pass- The Tease, 1911, transparent watercolor, opaque watercolor and wax over graphite pencil on paper\nFile:John Singer Sargent - The Garden Wall - Google Art Project.jpg|The Garden Wall, 1910, watercolor \nFile:Brooklyn Museum - Gourds - John Singer Sargent.jpg|Gourds, 1906–10, watercolor, Brooklyn Museum\n\nList of selected works\n\n* Portrait of Madame Edouard Pailleron (1880) \n* John Singer Sargent's paintings \n*Fumée d'ambre gris (Smoke of Ambergris) (1880) \n*Portrait of Madame Ramón Subercaseaux (1881) \n*Dr. Pozzi at Home (1881) \n*Lady with the Rose (1882) \n*El Jaleo (1882) \n*The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit (1882) \n*Portrait of Mrs. Henry White (1883) \n*Portrait of Madame X (1884) \n*Portrait of Robert Louis Stevenson and his wife (1885) \n*Portrait of Arsène Vigeant (1885) \n*Claude Monet Painting by the Edge of a Wood (1885) \n*Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose (1885–6) \n*Portrait of Elizabeth Allen Marquand (1887) \n*Boston Public Library murals (1890–1919) \n*Portrait of Isabella Stewart Gardner (1888) \n*Portrait of the composer Gabriel Fauré (1889) \n*[http://www.jssgallery.org/Paintings/10218.html Portrait of Edwin Booth] (1890), formerly hanging at The Players Club, now in the collection of the Amon Carter Museum of American Art\n*La Carmencita. Portrait of the dancer Carmencita. Musée d'Orsay, Paris (1890)\n*Portrait of Mrs. Thomas Lincoln Manson Jr. (ca. 1890) Honolulu Museum of Art\n*Egyptian Girl (1891) \n*Portrait of Mrs. Hugh Hammersley (1892) \n*Lady Agnew of Lochnaw (1892) \n*Portrait of Frederick Law Olmsted (1895) \n*Portrait of Mr. and Mrs. Isaac Newton Phelps-Stokes (1897) \n*On his holidays (1901) \n*Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt (1903) \n*Santa Maria della Salute (1904) \n*The Chess Game (1906) \n*Mrs. Louis E. Raphael (Henriette Goldschmidt) (ca. 1906) \n* [http://www.dia.org/object-info/cc39c3a6-da4d-4422-b525-6cfb09f06f28.aspx?position=1 Mosquito Nets] (1908) Detroit Institute of Arts\n*Portrait of Almina, Daughter of Asher Wertheimer (1908) \n*In a Garden, Corfu (Portrait of Jane Emmet de Glehn) (1909) \n*Portrait of John D. Rockefeller (1917)\n*Portrait of Grace Curzon, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston (1925)\n\nNotes"
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"... John Singer Sargent, The Sketchers (1913), Oil on canvas, ... Arts, the Arthur and ... John Singer Sargent was born in Florence to wealthy American parents.",
"... John Singer Sargent in fact provided a glimpse of the modern world. ... How John Singer Sargent made a scene ... Sargent had married his art.",
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"John Singer Sargent - The complete works\nJohn Singer Sargent (January 12, 1856 – April 14, 1925) was the most successful portrait painter of his era, as well as a gifted landscape painter and watercolorist. Sargent was born in Florence, Italy to American parents.\nSargent studied in Italy and Germany, and then in Paris under Emile Auguste Carolus-Duran.\nSargent studied with Carolus-Duran, whose influence would be pivotal, from 1874-1878. Carolus-Duran's atelier was progressive, dispensing with the traditional academic approach which required careful drawing and underpainting, in favor of the alla prima method of working directly on the canvas with a loaded brush, derived from Diego Velázquez. It was an approach which relied on the proper placement of tones of paint.",
"John Singer Sargent | The Sketchers (1913) | Artsy\nbiography articles\nA popular society portraitist and landscape painter, John Singer Sargent was born in Florence to wealthy American parents. He studied painting in France, where he enjoyed both critical acclaim and important patronage. Although he spent most of his time in Europe, he frequently accepted commissions from collectors in the United States. Whether rendered in oil, watercolor, or charcoal, Sargent’s works are characterized by naturalism, lively mark-making, and a sense of immediacy. Influenced by his friendship with Claude Monet , Sargent loved working en plein air , depicting the various places he traveled, including Italy, rural England, Giverny, the Mediterranean, northern Africa, and the Alps. During his later years, Sargent completed several mural projects, as well as working as an artist-correspondent during World War I.\nAmerican, 1856-1925, Florence, Italy, based in Paris & London\nGroup Shows on Artsy",
"How John Singer Sargent made a scene | Art and design | The Guardian\nArt and design\nHow John Singer Sargent made a scene\nOften derided as staidly traditional, John Singer Sargent in fact provided a glimpse of the modern world. Ahead of a major new exhibition, Sarah Chuchwell surveys the sensational portraits that caught the imagination of painters and authors alike\nRich and dark spaces … a detail from Le Verre de Porto by John Singer Sargent (1884). Photograph: Image Courtesy of The Fine Arts\nSarah Churchwell\nFriday 30 January 2015 09.30 EST\nLast modified on Tuesday 20 September 2016 06.13 EDT\nShare on Messenger\nClose\nIn 1893, Henry James wrote an essay praising his friend, the painter John Singer Sargent, in which he declared: “There is no greater work of art than a great portrait,” because of the empathetic vision it required. Sargent was remarkable, said James, for the “extraordinarily immediate” translation of his perception into a picture, “as if painting were pure tact of vision, a simple manner of feeling”. In particular, he admired Sargent’s “faculty of taking a fresh, direct, independent, unborrowed impression”. This admiration was widely shared: after seeing The Misses Hunter in 1902, Rodin called Sargent “the Van Dyck of our times”. But after Sargent’s death, his realism was viewed increasingly as anachronistic and facile, the work of a society painter, a careerist happy to pander to aristocratic privilege. One of the most successful and esteemed painters of his day was rapidly dismissed as virtuosic but lightweight, a slick craftsman rather than an innovative creator, superseded by Matisse and Picasso. He was a Gilded Age flatterer, “not an enthusiast,” sniffed Pissarro, “but rather an adroit performer”.\nThe forthcoming exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery aims to end that assessment for good by crediting the texture and inventiveness of Sargent’s realism. It is not a full retrospective, focusing instead on Sargent’s interactions in artistic and intellectual circles, but it certainly makes the case for a show that would reveal all of Sargent’s range – not only the many magnificent portraits on display in this exhibition, but also his landscapes, watercolours, sketches and murals, as well as the extraordinary Gassed, the colossal late painting of soldiers blinded on the western front that anticipates “proletarian realism”.\nModernism – in the evolving forms of impressionism, fauvism, cubism –increasingly directed the energies of the art world during Sargent’s life, but while defiantly sticking to realism, Sargent redefined it by putting Van Dyck , Velázquez , Reynolds and Gainsborough into dialogue with moderns including Manet and Monet, using visual echoes and quotations to create a new fusion of classic and modern technique (portraits painted, following Monet, en plein air and sur le motif) with contemporary subjects and perspectives. James understood this, praising Sargent’s portraiture for “the quality in light of which the artist sees deep into his subject, undergoes it, absorbs it, becomes patient with it, and almost reverent, and, in short, enlarges and humanises the technical problem” of creating a realistic portrait.\nPinterest\nLily, Lily, Rose by John Singer Sarhent, 1885-6. Photograph courtesy of Tate, London, 2015\nThis notion of art as perfect empathy is also the novelist’s art; it is no coincidence that James and Sargent have so often been paired. They had much in common, not least as Americans raised across the European continent by affluent parents on a kind of permanent grand tour. Sargent was born in Florence in 1856, and spent his formative years travelling around France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and Spain. This “Baedeker education” made Sargent multilingual, “civilised to his fingertips”, in James’s words. But their affinities ran much deeper than being well-travelled cosmopolitans who focused largely on high-society subjects. Both brought to an apparently conventional realism an experimental sensibility, exploring psychology, narrative and identity. Sargent is the novelist’s painter, his portraits intimating entire worlds, dramas or what James always called “scenes”. Like James, Sargent had an instinctive appreciation for what it meant to “make a scene”. Sargent’s first biographer, his friend Evan Charteris, wrote in 1927 that Sargent’s best portraits reveal “Jamesian perplexities, the play of social type against personality, of the sitter’s inner nature against fashion’s constantly shifting ideals”.\nA celebrity in his day, Sargent was notoriously publicity-shy, avoiding interviews and ferociously guarding his privacy. The artist William Rothenstein recalled: “I think of his huge frame, of his superb appetite, his constant consumption of cigars; of his odd shyness too, and his self-consciousness, of his decided opinions expressed with a Jamesian defensiveness.” Just over 6ft tall, he was affable, urbane and social, and devoted to the creation of beauty. Sargent told his cousin that his earliest memory was of a deep red cobblestone in a gutter in Florence that obsessed him. Drawing from a young age, he studied painting in Paris with Carolus-Duran, who became the subject of his first major portrait in 1879. His paintings elicited praise from the start and began to win prizes, his virtuosity of technique recognised almost immediately. At just 26, he painted both El Jaleo and The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit, as well as the beautiful Lady with the Rose. James called El Jaleo “astonishing” for “the sense it gives of assimilated secrets and instinct and knowledge”. The famous Daughters of Edward Darley Boit offers a salute to Velázquez’s Las Meninas , but daringly composes its apparently conventional Edwardian subject around empty space, giving the painting a dark, enigmatic edge.\nRAM Stevenson, a cousin of Robert Louis Stevenson who studied with Sargent in Paris, wrote of his classmate’s remarkable talent: “Sargent’s painting is strict painting, as Bach’s fugues are strict music.” An accomplished musician himself, Sargent was known for talking constantly while he painted, and would walk around the room (he once estimated that he walked four miles every day going back and forth around his model and the easel) and interrupt his work to play the piano. Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose, painted in the late summer of 1885 and 1886, was named for a popular song; its style “is poised”, the exhibition catalogue notes, “between several aesthetics: French impressionism, English pre-Raphaelitism and aestheticism”. Sargent’s chief aim in this portrait, all who watched him create it agreed, was to capture en plein air the transient quality of “fugitive evening light”. It took him two years to achieve, for he could only paint for 25 minutes each night in late summer: every evening at 6:45 Sargent “would drop his tennis racquet”, remembered a friend, and “lug out the big canvas” from his 70ft-long studio into the garden, where he would paint for as long as “the effect lasted”. He had almost certainly been to Giverny by then, and had watched Monet paint out of doors. He came to share Monet’s preoccupation with the play of natural light, but he never fully embraced impressionism’s subordination of subject to technique, its willingness to dissolve representation into paint, colour and light.\nAlthough Sargent’s subjects were often posed, his oeuvre suggests the painter as flaneur, strolling through metropolitan cities and capturing the personalities he encountered, the scenes he saw. His own coterie was stylish, knowing, chic: he portrayed other painters, sculptors, musicians, actors, dancers, including WB Yeats, Eleonora Duse, Edwin Booth, Edmund Gosse, George Meredith, Antonio Mancini (whom Sargent once described as “the best living painter”), the collector and hostess Isabella Stewart Gardner. There is the famous portrait of Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth, raising the crown on to her head, and the 1885 picture of Robert Louis Stevenson and his wife, Fanny, who said their portrait was “like an open box of jewels”. He painted a Chilean mining heiress, formidable and stylishly dressed, who became a lay nun and had her habit designed by Coco Chanel . There is An Interior of Venice, depicting the Palazzo Barbaro on the Grand Canal, where James wrote The Wings of the Dove, and which some have speculated may have helped inspire The Aspern Papers. Sargent presented the painting as a gift to his hostess, but, offended by her appearance and her son’s informal pose, she rejected it, to the dismay of James, who wrote to her that he “absolutely and unreservedly adored” the painting. She did not change her mind. There is Sargent’s first double portrait, from 1881, of the Pailleron children. They are in a claustrophobic, dark but richly furnished space, and seem to have a knowing gaze; viewers have since been reminded of the doubtful children in James’s Turn of the Screw, written more than 15 years after the picture was first shown. There is the scarlet Dr Pozzi, painted as a handsome, louche aesthete, whose dressing gown slyly evokes cardinals: contemporary British reviewers found it objectionably Parisian, too insolent, too en vogue. Sargent’s paintings may look staidly traditional now, but they were seen as modern when he painted them.\nPinterest\nRobert Louis Stevenson and His Wife by John Singer Sargent (1885). Courtesy of Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville, Arkansas. Photography by Dwight Primiano\nCelebrity and theatricality were central to Sargent’s style, and his success. It is the portrait of Amélie Gautreau, titled Madame X, for which he remains best known. Working on the painting, he told his friend the writer Vernon Lee that he was “struggling with the unpaintable beauty and hopeless laziness” of his sitter, but eventually, fusing techniques from Velázquez, Titian and Manet, as well as Sargent’s then fashionable interest in Japanese art, he produced a painting now seen as a masterpiece, but which first inspired outrage, creating a succes de scandale when it was exhibited at the 1884 Paris Salon. Reviews either objected to Madame Gautreau’s appearance (some complaining at the powder-blue pallor of her skin, others at the depth of her decolletage or the shockingly wanton shoulder strap allowed to fall suggestively loose) or hailed the modernity of Sargent’s technique.\nWhen he sold Madame X to the New York Metropolitan Museum years later, Sargent admitted to feeling it might have been the best work he had ever done, but at the time he was unnerved by the malice it elicited. He beat a retreat to London, where James had promised him a more sympathetic reception. British critics did not, in fact, instantly embrace Sargent: The Misses Vickers was voted the worst painting of 1886 by the Royal Academy, for example, while the Spectator demanded: “Could we fancy anyone a hundred years hence caring to possess such a picture as this?” Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose might strike some viewers as prettily pre-Raphaelite (although they would have to ignore its spectacular luminescence), but it provoked controversy when it was purchased through the Chantrey Bequest, one journal reporting that “artists [had] almost come to blows over this picture”. Modern, too, are the expressionist portrait of Lee, who appears to be chattering away, and a lovely impressionist evocation of one of Sargent’s touchstones, Monet, characteristically painting outside, sur le motif. There is the famous 1913 portrait of James for his 70th birthday, which, as the catalogue notes, delighted the Master: “Sargent at his very best and poor old HJ not at his worst; in short a living breathing likeness and a masterpiece of painting.”\nOf Sargent’s private life, little is known. He never married; although twice he was suspected of being on the verge of an engagement, nothing came of it. Many have come to believe that his extreme privacy was a sign on the closet door, signalling a life kept carefully secret to hide desires deemed unacceptable (and illegal). Certainly Sargent executed many – very beautiful – drawings of male nudes, which he did not exhibit during his life. It is also true that a number of men with similarly suppressed or hidden desires, including James, were among his close circle of friends. But so were married couples, and heterosexual philanderers. The painter Jacques-Émile Blanche, who once sat for Sargent, claimed after his death that Sargent was “notorious in Paris, and in Venice, positively scandalous. He was a frenzied bugger.” But no other affirmation of this claim has come to light, and Sargent’s private papers were destroyed. Many scholars believe he had an affair with Louise Burckhardt, who sat for Lady with the Rose, while some of his female nudes have struck viewers as being as erotic as his males.\nBut in the end this is all conjecture. For better or worse – again like James – Sargent had married his art. Lee wrote after his death that the only useful biographical summation would be two words: “he painted”. Late in life, Sargent declined the honour of a knighthood, because he was American. He died at 69, in his sleep, a volume of Voltaire beside him. It was 14 April 1925, four days after The Great Gatsby was published; the modern era was at hand, and it was Sargent, whether we know it or not, who helped show us what it would look like.\n• Sargent: Portrait of Artists and Friends opens at the National Portrait Gallery, London WC2H, on 12 February. npg.org.uk",
"John Singer Sargent (1856–1925) | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art\nThe Metropolitan Museum of Art\nJohn Singer Sargent (1856–1925)\nSee works of art\nWorks of Art (17)\nEssay\nThe family of John Singer Sargent (1856–1925) had deep roots in New England. His grandfather, Winthrop Sargent IV, descended from one of the oldest colonial families, had failed in the merchant-shipping business in Gloucester, Massachusetts, and had moved his family to Philadelphia. There, his son Fitzwilliam Sargent became a physician and in 1850 married Mary Newbold Singer, daughter of a successful local merchant. The couple left Philadelphia for Europe in late summer 1854, seeking a healthful climate and a distraction after the death a year earlier of their firstborn child. The Sargents’ stay in Europe was meant to be temporary, but they became expatriates, passing winters in Florence, Rome, or Nice and summers in the Alps or other cooler regions. Their son John was born in Florence in January 1856.\nJohn Sargent was given little regular schooling. As a result of his “Baedeker education,” he learned Italian, French, and German. He studied geography, arithmetic, reading, and other disciplines under his father’s tutelage. He also became an accomplished pianist. His mother, an amateur artist, encouraged him to draw, and her wanderlust furnished him with subjects. He enrolled for his first-documented formal art training during the winter of 1873–74 at the Accademia di Belle Arti in Florence. In spring 1874, Fitzwilliam Sargent resolved to nourish his son’s talent in Paris , which had become the world’s most powerful magnet for art students.\nIn May 1874, Sargent entered the teaching atelier of a youthful, stylish painter, Carolus-Duran, a leading portraitist in Third Republic France who encouraged his students to paint immediately (rather than make preliminary drawings), to exploit broad planes of viscous pigment, and to preserve the freshness of the sketch in completed works. He also exhorted them to study artists who demonstrated painterly freedom: Frans Hals and Rembrandt ; Sir Anthony van Dyck and Sir Joshua Reynolds; and, above all others, the Spanish master Diego Velázquez . The young American moved close to his teacher stylistically and became his protégé. There is almost no work by Sargent, beginning with his successful submissions to the Paris Salons as early as 1877, that does not reflect the manner of Carolus-Duran or the old masters of the painterly tradition.\nIn May 1876, accompanied by his mother and his sister Emily, Sargent began his first trip to the United States, which would include visits to the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia and Niagara Falls. By autumn 1879, no longer attending classes regularly and concentrating on building his career, Sargent began a period of extensive travel to view works by the old masters and to gather ideas for pictures, visiting Spain, Holland, and Venice. Picturesque locales prompted Sargent to paint genre scenes, which he showed alongside his portraits as he built his reputation. Some of his sun-drenched canvases of the late 1870s bespeak the influence of Claude Monet , whom Sargent seems to have met in Paris as early as 1876 at the second Impressionist exhibition.\nAlthough Sargent painted, showed, and won praise for both portraits and subject pictures at the Salons between 1877 and 1882, commissions for portraits increasingly demanded his attention and defined his reputation. Sargent’s best-known portrait, Madame X ( 16.53 ), which he undertook without a commission, enlisted a palette and brushwork derived from Velázquez; a profile view that recalls Titian ; and an unmodulated treatment of the face and figure inspired by the style of Édouard Manet and Japanese prints . The picture’s novelty and quality notwithstanding, it was a succès de scandale in the 1884 Salon, provoking criticism for Sargent’s indifference to conventions of pose, modeling, and treatment of space, even twenty years after Manet’s pioneering efforts.\nHaving gained notoriety rather than fame, Sargent decided that London, where he had thought of settling as early as 1882, would be more hospitable than Paris. In spring 1886, he moved to England for the rest of his life. Fearful that Sargent might sacrifice characterization to a show of “French style,” which they associated with Madame X and, perforce, disliked, English patrons at first withheld commissions. With time and creative energy to spare, Sargent spent several summers engaged in Impressionist projects. These were nourished by his contact with Monet, whom he visited several times at Giverny, beginning in early summer 1885, and by the chance to work outdoors during the summers of 1885 and 1886 in the Cotswolds village of Broadway, Worcestershire.\nSargent’s most ambitious Broadway canvas was the ravishing Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose (Tate Britain, London). The painting’s display at the Royal Academy in 1887 assuaged the doubts of English critics, and its acquisition for the British nation augured well for his career in London. Although English patrons still hesitated to sit for Sargent during the late 1880s, Americans were eager to do so during his visits to the United States between 1887 and 1889. Reassured by the conspicuous quality of Sargent’s portraits, British patrons finally responded with numerous commissions during the 1890s. While his subjects included businessmen and their families, artists, and performers, Sargent flourished particularly as a purveyor of likenesses to the English aristocracy. He maintained a dialogue with tradition, creating grand-manner pendants to family heirlooms by van Dyck, Reynolds, and others. American patrons also continued to call upon Sargent’s skills.\nAfter the turn of the century, Sargent grew tired of the demands of portrait painting. He was constantly preoccupied with mural paintings for the Boston Public Library, Boston’s Museum of Fine Arts, and the Harry Elkins Widener Memorial Library at Harvard University, for which he had received a series of commissions beginning in 1890. Travel studies in watercolor also came to occupy more of his time and became a new source of critical and financial support. Beginning in 1903, he showed such pictures to acclaim in London and New York, stimulating a great demand for them. Sargent engineered his career so astutely that by 1907, when he pledged not to accept any more portrait commissions, he had established a solid reputation as a watercolorist.\nH. Barbara Weinberg\nThe American Wing, The Metropolitan Museum of Art\nOctober 2004\nCitation\nWeinberg, H. Barbara. “John Singer Sargent (1856–1925).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sarg/hd_sarg.htm (October 2004)\nFurther Reading\nKilmurray, Elaine, and Richard Ormond, eds. John Singer Sargent. Exhibition catalogue. London: Tate Gallery, 1998.\nAdditional Essays by H. Barbara Weinberg\nWeinberg, H. Barbara. “ American Impressionism .” (October 2004)",
"John Singer Sargent Watercolors | Museum of Fine Arts, Boston\nMuseum of Fine Arts, Boston\nOctober 13, 2013 – January 20, 2014\nAnn and Graham Gund Gallery (Gallery LG31)\nA triumphant show combines the two best collections of John Singer Sargent’s dazzling watercolors\nPrepare for bedazzlement—The New York Times\n“To live with Sargent’s water-colours is to live with sunshine captured and held,” according to the painter’s first biographer. Presenting more than 90 of Sargent’s dazzling works, this exhibition, co-organized with the Brooklyn Museum, combines for the first time the two most significant collections of watercolor paintings by John Singer Sargent (1856–1925), images created by a consummate artist with daring compositional strategies and a complex technique. “John Singer Sargent Watercolors” also celebrates a century of Sargent watercolors at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.\n“John Singer Sargent Watercolors” offers visitors an unprecedented opportunity to view the magnificent works Sargent produced between 1902 and 1911, when he was at the height of his artistic powers and internationally recognized as the greatest American painter of his age. His bold and experimental approach to the medium caused a sensation in Britain and great excitement in America. The Brooklyn and Boston holdings (never before explored in a focused exhibition) were purchased by the two museums straight from Sargent’s only two American watercolor exhibitions, held at Knoedler Gallery in New York. (Brooklyn acquired its collection in 1909, and the MFA in 1912.) These daringly conceived compositions (along with a select group of oils), made in Spain and Portugal, Greece, Switzerland and the Alps, regions of Italy, Syria and Palestine, demonstrate the unity of Sargent’s artistic vision after the turn of the 20th century, when he sought to liberate himself from the burden of portrait commissions and to devote himself instead to painting scenes of landscape, labor, and leisure.\nThe exhibition is accompanied by a full-color catalogue exploring Sargent’s engagement with watercolor painting and examining the technical mastery that led to such brilliant work.\nAbove: John Singer Sargent, Simplon Pass: Reading, 1911. Watercolor and wax resist over graphite on paper. The Hayden Collection—Charles Henry Hayden Fund.",
"John Singer Sargent Paintings, Prints & Artwork | JohnSingerSargent.net\nBuy Now from Art.com\nJohn Singer Sargent was a breathtaking American portrait painter whose career spanned the late 19th to early 20th centuries\nHaving been born in Florence, Sargent also had strong ties to European art and the influences of that are clear to see in his work.\nThis was a highly competitive time for western art but Singer Sargent had the skills required to really draw attention to his work and this would then lead onwards to some truly prestigious commissions, with many famous celebrities falling over themselves to attract his services.\nThe best known portrait painting by the artist could be Theodore Roosevelt when considering the status of this subject, but there are also many other significant portrait paintings which technically are just as impressive. Check out more on Singer Sargent here.\nThe versatility and productivity of Singer Sargent was incredible, always looking to produce more and more and a selection of different mediums which he would happily experiment in order to push his own career achievements onwards.\nWatercolours and oils were the artist's main focus and he created hundreds of works in both formats during an extended career which takes some time to really look into in the detail that it undoubtedly deserves.\nSargent also produced many charcoal drawings too, and these help us to appreciate his raw technical skills that lay behind his work in all different mediums. Sketches play in a significant part in the work of many portrait painters, such as Gustav Klimt and Egon Schiele, as they looked to hone their skills.\nSargent was born into an international family, American parents living in Europe, and this may have been the secret behind his passion for travel. His art documents his constant travels, with work capturing stunning scenes in the likes of Venice, Corfu and the Middle East plus Montana, Maine and Florida in the United States.\nSargent received his artistic training in mid to late 20th century Paris. The French capital was the centre for international art at that time, and was to gift us several key art movements including Impressionism and Cubism, to name just two.\nJohn attended the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts and this his first step along the path to developing his natural talents.\nThe artists's travels progressed his development as an artist beyond all recognition, such as his spell in Spain where he was to study in detail the wor of Diego Velazquez. This was a different approach to painting which he found exciting and more original than the academically approved methods which he had been taught previously.\nFrench art had an even greater impact on this open-minded artist, thanks to meetings with significant artists like Degas, Rodin, Monet and Whistler. It was an important time in European art at that time, and Singer Sargent was right in the middle of it.\nThe earlier work from the American was predominantly landscape based, before his passion was to switch to portraits later on in his life. It then returned to landscape art after that, when Plein Air was to become his preferred artistic environment.\nSargent's travels were aided by his impressive language skills, being fluent in English, French, Italian and German. This was to help him to understand more about the art that he came across during his travels, as well as the stories behind it. For example, in Italy he was to be impressed with several works of Tintoretto, comparing them to the achievements of Michelangelo and Titian.",
"New Appreciation for the Watercolor Works of Sargent - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nArts |Examining Sargent’s Shift From Oil to Watercolors\nSearch\nContinue reading the main story\nBY the time John Singer Sargent reached his mid-40s at the beginning of the 20th century, he had long been saluted as the best society portrait painter of the Gilded Age. But he was having a midlife career crisis.\nHe was a darling of established critics, but to up-and-coming artists, he seemed old-fashioned. Around 1900, he put down his oils and turned to watercolors, capturing landscapes, gardens, exotic locales, and people at leisure, at work and at rest, often on his travels in Europe and the Middle East. Experimenting with unusual compositions and new techniques, he reinvented himself aesthetically.\nSargent never did convince modernist artists that he was one of them. But the curators at the two museums that bought many of those works a century ago are hoping for a different outcome when “John Singer Sargent Watercolors” goes on view, first at the Brooklyn Museum on April 5, then at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston on Oct. 13. The exhibition brings together 93 of Sargent’s best watercolors from 1902-12 for the first time.\n“These were years when he was very experimental,” said Teresa A. Carbone, the curator of American art at the Brooklyn. Sargent was living in London, where watercolors were highly prized. His, though, were different from those of British watercolorists — more gestural, for one thing, and mystifying for their use of opaque watercolors at a time when they were typically translucent.\nContinue reading the main story\nThe lush results are not only “very beautiful,” Ms. Carbone said, but also innovative in ways that are just now being appreciated — even by her and Erica E. Hirshler, senior curator of American paintings at the Boston museum, who collaborated on the exhibition.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nMs. Carbone planted the seed for the show in 2008, with an e-mail to Ms. Hirshler. “We were besieged by requests for loans of the Sargent watercolors, and I thought we ought to think about what we wanted to do with them ourselves,” Ms. Carbone said. Her first thought was, why not unite the two collections? Ms. Hirshler agreed.\n“Then it became more interesting,” Ms. Hirshler said, as the two curators began their research. Among the things they discovered was that these works represented Sargent’s own “vision of himself as a watercolorist at a very important moment.” As such, they were far from tangential to his career.\nPhoto\n\"Carrara: Lizzatori I,\" a watercolor by John Singer Sargent in 1911. Credit Museum of Fine Arts, Boston\nSargent, “an obsessive traveler” in the words of Ms. Carbone, would sit with his brushes and watercolors on his journeys, capturing the scenes before him, often from odd angles — low in a Venetian gondola, for example. He made dozens and dozens of images, many in a series, intending to keep them himself. When he allowed some to be exhibited in London in 1903, 1905 and 1908, they elicited mostly good reviews. But they were never for sale.\nThen, in 1908, his friend, the Boston artist Edward Darley Boit — whose family was the subject of Sargent’s renowned 1882 painting “The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit” — wrote to him. Boit proposed a joint exhibition at the Knoedler & Company gallery in New York. Sargent eventually agreed, probably to help his old friend’s career.\nAs Ms. Hirshler recounts in her essay for the exhibition catalog, he wrote to Boit that “sketches from nature give me pleasure to do + pleasure to keep + more than the small amount of money that one could ask for them.” He did not want to be bothered by repeated requests to see them.\nRelenting slightly, Sargent raised a possibility: “... I really do not care to sell them — at any rate not piecemeal. If by any chance some Eastern Museum, or some Eastern collector wanted to buy the whole lot en bloc, I might consider it.” His watercolors, he declared, “only amount to anything when taken as a lot together.”\nSargent selected 86 watercolors and packed them off to New York, where they drew glowing reviews and crowds of viewers. Knoedler, aware of the artist’s wishes, contacted museums in hopes of making a sale.\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nThe Brooklyn Museum quickly made an offer for 83 of the watercolors (three were truly not for sale). Sargent hesitated, wondering if Boston, where he had more patrons and closer ties, was interested. Boit and his brother called the Museum of Fine Arts there, but its bid came too late and was smaller. Brooklyn won the trove for $20,000 (about $500,000 in today’s dollars).\nSoon Boit proposed another joint exhibition, and Sargent agreed. The date was set for 1912. This time, the Boston museum raised its hand early in the preparation for the exhibition, and before the opening it bought 45 watercolors for about $10,800.\nAdvertisement\nAs visitors to “John Singer Sargent Watercolors” will see, the two collections are very different.\nPhoto\n\"In a Medici Villa,\" by John Singer Sargent in 1906. Credit Brooklyn Museum\nBrooklyn’s works are mostly smaller, freer, more expressive. Almost none are signed. Knowing that his next works would land in Boston, Sargent made them larger and more finished, and signed them.\n“They are all just a delight,” Ms. Carbone said. “We don’t tire of looking at them, and people will experience that when they come. Some of the subjects have pictorial depth, but not a lot. It’s all about Sargent’s immersion in the process.”\nThey are all spontaneous, she added, but it’s also clear that Sargent “worked the sheets very aggressively. There are nuances, shifts in technique.” Many, like “In a Medici Villa,” from 1906, show Sargent as a master of reflected light. Some, like a series portraying the marble quarries above Carrara, border on the abstract. What he didn’t paint is often as interesting as what he did.\nOne of Sargent’s favorites, “Bedouins,” from 1905-6, was shown and critically acclaimed twice in London before he sent it to New York. It shows two tribesmen, with faces sharply rendered; their garments are suggested as if the watercolors dissolved.\nSome are reminiscent of his oils. “The Cashmere Shawl,” from about 1911, is one. It depicts a woman in a white dress and patterned shawl, an example of his use of the wax resist technique, which left some spaces perfectly white. “It’s a phenomenal work,” Ms. Carbone said. “It’s close to his regular portrait practice, but the whole sheet is executed all the way to the edges. It’s freer.”\nIn Brooklyn, the museum engaged a watercolorist to demonstrate six of Sargent’s watercolor techniques, including wax resist and scraping, in videos that will be shown on small monitors in the galleries.\nAs they view these works, visitors will see, as many contemporaries did, that far from stagnating, Sargent was innovating in his watercolors. Yet it’s easy to understand why appreciation of them faded. By 1910, abstract art was budding in Europe and America.\nA year after Sargent’s second exhibition at Knoedler, the momentous 1913 Armory Show in New York took place, changing everything in the art world. “His modernism becomes old-fashioned very quickly,” said Ms. Hirshler. Sargent’s reputation declined, and it wasn’t until the 1950s that his oils came back into favor. Now, perhaps, is the time for his watercolors to regain their renown.\nA version of this article appears in print on March 21, 2013, on Page F8 of the New York edition with the headline: Examining Sargent’s Shift From Oil to Watercolors. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe",
"The Fountain, Villa Torlonia, Frascati, Italy | The Art Institute of Chicago\nExhibition, Publication and Ownership Histories\nExhibition History\nArt Institute of Chicago, Twenty-fifth Annual Exhibition of American Oil Paintings and Sculpture, November 5-December 8, 1912, cat. 228.\nNew York, Grand Central Art Galleries, Retrospective Exhibition of Important Works of John Singer Sargent, February 23-March 22, 1924, cat. 48.\nNew York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Memorial Exhibition of the Work of John Singer Sargent, January 4-February 14, 1926, cat. 50.\nState Fair of Texas, Art Department, 1933 Exhibition Showing the Changes in Painting for the Last Hundred Years in Europe and America, 1933, cat. 76.\nArt Institute of Chicago, A Century of Progress, June 1-November 1, 1934, cat. 407.\nIndiana, South Bend Art Association, American Painting in the Manner of the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries, February 10-March 31, 1948, cat. 46.\nArt Institute of Chicago, Sargent, Whistler and Mary Cassatt, January 14-February 25, 1954; traveled to New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, March 25-May 23, 1954.\nGrand Rapids Art Museum, Cassatt, Whistler, Sargent Exhibition, September 15-October 15, 1955, cat. 27.\nDurand Art Institute, Lake Forest College, A Century of American Painting: Masterpieces Loaned by The Art Institute of Chicago, June 10-16, 1957, cat. 16, as The Fountain, Villa Torlonia, Frascati.\nWashington, D.C., Corcoran Gallery of Art, The Private World of John Singer Sargent, April 18-June 14, 1964; traveled to Cleveland Museum of Art, July 7-August 16, 1964; Worcester Art Museum, September 17-November 1, 1964; Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute, November 15, 1964-January 3, 1965, cat. 73.\nNew York, Whitney Museum of American Art, John Singer Sargent, October 1, 1986-January 4, 1987, cat. 149.\nBoston, Museum of Fine Arts, The Lure of Italy, September 16-December 13, 1992; traveled to Cleveland Museum of Art, February 3-April 11, 1993, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, May 23-August 8, 1993, cat. 44.\nLondon, Tate Gallery, John Singer Sargent, October 15, 1998-January 11, 1999, traveled to National Gallery, Washington, D.C. February 28-May 31, 1999, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, June 23-September 26, 1999.\nStanford, Clifornia, Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts, Stanford University, The Changing Garden: European and American Gardens and Parks, June 11-September 7, 2003.\nCanberra, Australia, National Gallery of Australia, The Edwardians: Secrets and Desires, March 12–June 14, 2004; traveled to Adelaide, Art Gallery of South Australia, July 9–September 12, 2004.\nLondon, National Portrait Gallery, Sargent: Portraits of Artists and Friends, February 12-May 25, 2015; traveled to The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, June 29-October 4, 2015, cat. 83.\nPublication History\nGiselle D’Unger, “The Chicago Beautiful—Woman and Art The Vital Forces,” Fine Arts Journal, 30 (January-June 1914), p. 302, ill.\n“Gifts of the Friends,” Bulletin of the Art Institute of Chicago, 7 (April 1914), p. 158, ill.\nGeneral Catalogue of Paintings, Sculpture and Other Objects in the Museum, (Chicago, 1914), p. 158, ill.\nThe Art Institute of Chicago Handbook of Paintings and Drawings (Chicago, 1920), p. 45.\nRose V.S. Berry, “John Singer Sargent: Some of His American Work,” Art and Archaeology, 18 (September 924), p. 100, ill. p. 99.\nWilliam Howe Downes, John S. Sargent: His Life and Work (Boston, 1925), pp. 62, 227, ill. f. p. 272).\nA Guide to the Paintings in the Permanent Collection (Chicago, 1925), p. 152.\nA Guide to the Paintings in the Permanent Collection (Chicago, 1932), p. 170.\nCharles Merrill Mount, John Singer Sargent: A Biography (New York: W.W. Norton, 1955), p. 449.\nPaintings in the Art Institute of Chicago (Chicago, 1961), p. 411.\nRichard Ormond, John Singer Sargent: Paintings, Drawings, Watercolors (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), p. 75.\nTom Armstrong, “The New Field-McCormick Galleries in the Art Institute of Chicago,” Magazine Antiques, 134, 4 (October 1988), pp. 822-835, pl. 19, p. 835 ill.\nHolland Cotter, “Artists From the New World in Love,” New York Times, Sunday, November 1, 1992.\nJames N. Wood and Teri J. Edelstein, The Art Institute of Chicago: Twentieth-Century Painting and Sculpture (Chicago / Hudson Hills Press, 1996), p. 15.\nJudith A. Barter et al, American Arts at The Art Institute of Chicago: From Colonial Times to World War I, (Art Institute of Chicago, 1998).\nJudith A. Barter et al, The Age of American Impressionism: Masterpieces from the Art Institute of Chicago (Art Institute of Chicago/Yale University Press, 2011), no. 39.\nLance Mayer et al., \"American Painters on Technique: 1860-1945\" (J. Paul Getty Museum/Getty Publications, 2013), cover (ill.).\nOwnership History\nJohn Singer Sargent, London, England, 1907; sold to the Art Institute, 1914.\nAdd this item to:"
],
"title": [
"John Singer Sargent - The complete works",
"John Singer Sargent | The Sketchers (1913) | Artsy",
"How John Singer Sargent made a scene | Art and design ...",
"John Singer Sargent at the Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art ...",
"John Singer Sargent Watercolors | Museum of Fine Arts, Boston",
"John Singer Sargent Paintings, Prints & Artwork ...",
"New Appreciation for the Watercolor Works of Sargent - The ...",
"The Fountain, Villa Torlonia, Frascati, Italy | The Art ..."
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"http://www.johnsingersargent.org/",
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Cuscatlan international airport is in which country?
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tc_813
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero International Airport (Spanish: Aeropuerto Internacional Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero) , previously known as Comalapa International Airport (Spanish: Aeropuerto Internacional de Comalapa); previous Official name El Salvador International Airport (Spanish: Aeropuerto Internacional El Salvador). is an airport located about 50 km from San Salvador in El Salvador. With 2,076,258 passengers in 2008, it is the busiest airport in El Salvador and third-busiest in Central America by passenger traffic.\n\nHistory\n\nThe airport was built in the late 1970s to replace its predecessor, Ilopango International Airport, which is now used for regional, air taxi, military and charter aviation. The airport's name change was made by former president Mauricio Funes, but it's still locally known as Comalapa International Airport ( Spanish: \"Aeropuerto Internacional de Comalapa\") Funding for this project was provided through the Government of Japan. Engineering and building came under the direction of Hazama Ando (then Hazama Gumi). The electrical work for all lighting and communications was completed by Toshiba (then TOKYO SHIBAURA ELECTRIC). The Airport entered in operation on 31 January 1980 with its first flight being a TACA airliner bound for Guatemala City.\n\nSince 1998 when the first expansion of the airport occurred (AIES II), the airport has been suffering from saturation in areas of check-in, screening, immigration and baggage at the Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero International Airport (AIES) as it continues to serve more than 2 million passengers arrive each year. In late 2012, CEPA has been able to begin their rehabilitation, modernization and optimization project in the airport. As of November 2013, three of the seventeen boarding bridges have been replaced with modern boarding bridges. In addition, more than fifty percent of the restrooms and air conditioning systems have been enhanced. New stairs and elevators have been replaced with more modern equipment. During this initial phase which is projected to be completed by May 2014, CEPA is planning to repair many of the issues that the airport has been living for over fifteen years. The rehabilitation, modernization and optimization project was completed in April 2015.\n\nOn 16 January 2014, El Salvador President Mauricio Funes announced in San Salvador 's Presidential House the renaming of El Salvador International Airport to Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero. The Comalapa name will remain until the phase or renaming is complete which is expected to be completed before his presidential term ends. The Legislature of El Salvador approved the name change on 19 March 2014 without the vote of ARENA and PDC, to Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero International Airport. El Salvador's former President Mauricio Funes on 24 March 2014 unveiled a ceremonial plaque with the renaming of the airport as Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero International Airport.\n\nFuture\n\nExpanding the International Airport of El Salvador (AIES) will cost $492.7 million and will occur in four phases from 2014-2032, as provided by new master plan for development of the terminal, which was presented by the CEPA in December 2013. The autonomous values first choice for funding expanded Public-Private Partnership (PPP). Unlike the Master Plan 2007 of Airports of Paris, this new proposal by Kimley Horn does not include building a new passenger terminal. Instead, it will restore and rehabilitate and expand the terminal. The new renovated terminal will have a three-story building where it will separate the traffic flows of passengers arriving and departing.\n\n* Expansion Phase I (2014–2017)\nIncludes the expansion of a passenger terminal at 45,000 square meters, on the south side of the terminal, which will allow its current capacity of 1.6 through 3.6 million passengers. Creation of more businesses, at this stage in the parking lot improvements, check in-area, landscaping, surrounding streets, purchase signage and lighting systems are also contemplated. Also in the works are plans to add equipment the new cargo terminal. Additionally planned is to develop 80.9 acres of airport surrounding areas to interested companies may be installed in the vicinity of the airport. This phase will cost approximately US$115.5 million.\n\n* Expansion Phase II (2018–2022)\nPhase II includes the construction of seven additional gatehouses for passengers as well as new aircraft parking positions to exceed more than 20 new gates. This phase will cost approximately US$100.9 million.\n\n* Expansion Phase III (2023–2027) and Phase IV (2028–2032)\nAccording to CEPA, Phase III and IV are of \"medium and long term\", which consider extensions depending on future demand of the airport. Phase III will invest US$78.3 million and Phase IV will invest US$198.5 million. During this stage, CEPA is planning and projecting to construct a new train station within the airport. This will allow passengers to transport to places like San Salvador, San Miguel and La Union. By 2032, the airport is projected to have 43 gates. By 2032, it is expected airport would be capable to receive 6.6 million passengers.\n\nAirport infrastructure\n\nMonseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero International Airport (or locally known as Comalapa International Airport) serves as the main hub for TACA Airlines, now Avianca Airlines and the Salvadoran airline, Veca Airlines, which started service in June 2014, Veca currently flies only within Central America. The cargo terminal, located a few meters west of the passenger terminal, handles millions of tons of cargo each year. Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero International Airport is located about 50 km from the city of San Salvador. Roads connect the airport with the city. It handles international flights to Central America, North America and South America including some daily flights to parts of Europe such as Spain.\n\nWhen the airport was built, it originally had only 7 gates. It was designed to handle around 400,000 passengers a year, but the high increase of passengers in the last 15 years brought the airport to its capacity. The airport has had two main expansions in the last decade or so. In its first phase (named AIES I), the airport grew from 7 boarding gates to 12, and later the second phase AIES II, added 5 more gates bringing the total to 17. Along with new gates, new expanded passenger waiting areas were built. Even though all these expansions have been made, the airport once again has reached the peak of its capacity handling over 2 million passengers in 2006.\n\nThere are several drug enforcement agents conducting random security checks and interviews of travelers at the airport. These agents can be identified due to the items they wear such as a fanny pack, either around the waist or over the shoulder. They also carry an airport access identification card around the neck. One side of the badge carrier shows the airport identification and access card with their photo, the other side of the carrier has the Salvadorean drug enforcement agency official badge.\n\nThe airport has a main runway (07/25) , with an effective running surface of and shoulders. Parallel to the main track and the same length as this, is the taxiway Alpha, which is connected to the track through six starts. For the use of small aircraft, there is also a secondary runway built (18/36), , which is currently used for parking of \"long life\" for aircraft that require it.\n\nThe platform of the Passenger Terminal Building (ETP) has seventeen aircraft parking positions, fourteen of which have their boarding bridges, which connect the aircraft directly to their waiting rooms. The three remaining positions are \"remote\", i.e., passengers disembark at any of them are transferred to the ETP through aerobuses. the remote gates are mostly used by turboprop aircraft. The ETP has a total constructed area of , which houses the waiting rooms and corridors, areas of Immigration and Customs and diversity of stores.\n\nThe platform of the Cargo Terminal Building (ETC) has three positions for cargo aircraft parking, and also has a platform for the maintenance of five aircraft that require it, just in front of hangars Aeromantenimiento (AEROMAN), a modern workshop repairs that have achieved high levels of service in Latin America and represent an added value for the airport. The ETC has a built area, between warehouses and offices, of .\n\nFacts\n\nThe airport's modern facilities include duty-free shops, fast food and full-service restaurants, bars, air conditioned areas, tourist facilities, car rental, and spacious waiting rooms. With space for 17 airplanes on the main terminal, 3 on the cargo terminal, 5 in Aeroman, and around 20 in the \"Long Term Parking\" which is runway 18/36. 94.5% of the airport's flights are on time (2005 data). The airport and runway have been closed at least 10 times in the almost quarter century since opening. They were closed for several hours following the devastating earthquake of 2001, followed up with minor repairs to the east end of the runway. They were closed again for several hours in 2005 due to Hurricane Stan. Although the airport is located near the Pacific Ocean, storms and hurricanes are not frequent.\n\nThere is Wifi availability throughout much of the airport. Near Gate 17, a café called \"The Coffee Cup\" has free WiFi for all customers.\nAlso Claro El Salvador has free Wifi throughout the whole airport.\n\nShops & restaurants\n\nAirport passengers can make purchases in a wide range of duty-free shopping, including clothing, perfume, and spirits. There are also a variety of craft shops and restaurants. Other services include twelve car rental companies. Hotel chains such as Marriott International, Radisson, Intercontinental, Hilton, Terrace, and Comfort also offer representative & check-in desks at the airport.\n\nSecurity\n\nThe International Airport of El Salvador, based in the town of San Luis Talpa, La Paz, received an international certification from the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), after an investment of $8 million and a process of four years and two extensions.\n\nThe document credits the Salvadorian airport terminal compliance with all safety regulations issued under the Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), on fire control and health care, removal of rubber from the runways, lights and safety signs.\n\nThe certification will enable El Salvador to keep the category 1ante Federal Aviation Administration United States. \"From the start of operations of the airport in January 1980, the terminal has been characterized by its safety,\" said Ricardo Sauerbrey, head of the Salvadorian terminal.\n\nAirlines and destinations\n\n Iberia makes a stop in Guatemala City, but the airline does not have traffic rights to transport passengers solely between Guatemala City and San Salvador.\n\nAirport statistics\n\nAccidents and incidents\n\nMonseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero International Airport hasn't had any fatalities or accidents. However, there has been one emergency landing from a flight passing near the airport.\n\n*In 2001, El Salvador experienced an earthquake (7.6 in the Richter scale). El Salvador International Airport (SAL) closed several hours due to airport damage, all damage was successfully repaired.\n\n* November 2013, A Copa Airlines Flight from Los Angeles with destination to Panama City, Panama, had to perform an emergency landing at El Salvador Intl. Airport due to technical problems.\n\n*On 29 December 2013, flights to/from Honduras and Nicaragua were suspended due to the eruption of the Chaparrastique Volcano (San Miguel Volcano), which caused an ash plume that had a 10 kilometers height. Flights to/from Honduras and Nicaragua resumed when it was safe to fly by and the Yellow and Orange Alerts were gone; by 5 January 2014 all flights were resumed."
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"Top 10 Hotels Near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) in San Salvador, El Salvador | Hotels.com\nHotels in San Salvador near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL)\nCuscatlan International Airport (SAL) in the San Salvador area, El Salvador\nAre you looking for a cheap Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotel, a 5 star Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotel or a family friendly Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotel? You just landed in the best site to find the best deals and offers on the most amazing accommodations for your stay.\nWhen you search for hotels near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) with Hotels.com, you need to first check our online map and see the distance you will be from Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL), El Salvador.\nOur maps are based on hotel search and display areas and neighborhoods of each hotel so you can see how close you are from Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) and refine your search within San Salvador or El Salvador based on closest public transportation, restaurants and entertainment so you can easily get around the city. All the hotels details page show an option for free or paid onsite parking.\nIf you wish to see the hotels with the highest featuring discounts and deals near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL), simply filter by price/ average nightly rate. We recommend you filter by star rating and read our genuine guest reviews so you can get the best quality hotel with the best discount.\nOne of the new features on Hotels.com guest reviews is that also show reviews from Expedia for Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotels and the TripAdvisor Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotels reviews so you can make sure that you checking with a reliable source. See the review scores on our San Salvador hotel information pages.\nMake the most out of your family vacation when you book your accommodation with Hotels.com – book your hotel near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL), San Salvador after reviewing the facilities and amenities listed for each hotel.\nAfter booking your hotel near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL), expect to receive your reservation confirmation in the mail in less than 10 minutes. The confirmation email contains more information on all nearby attractions, local directions and weather forecast, so you can better plan the days during your trip.\nAfter getting the best hotel rates you can still save more by winning 1 free night! That’s right, book 10 nights in any hotel near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL), San Salvador and after you sign up for the Welcome Rewards program, you are eligible hotel you receive 1 night free*\nThe best hotel deals are here: We have Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotel deals, Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) last minute deals and offers to get you the cheapest Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotel with our lowest price guarantee.",
"Top 10 Hotels Near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) in San Salvador, El Salvador | Hotels.com\nCuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotels - San Salvador\nCuscatlan International Airport (SAL) is situated in the San Salvador area, El Salvador\nWhether it's a cheap Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotel, a 5 star Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotel or a family friendly Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotel, Hotels.com has the best accommodation for your stay.\nIf visiting Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) is a must, then be sure to check out our detailed location mapping to find the best hotel closest to Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL), El Salvador.\nOur map based hotel search can be accessed from the above map image on this page (or via standard search results) and with the locations of each hotel shown clearly around Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) you're able to refine your search within San Salvador or El Salvador based upon other nearby landmarks and neighbourhoods as well as transport options to help you get around. If you're driving be sure to also check the hotels for onsite parking.\nTo get the best hotel deals near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) you can also filter by price/ average nightly rate and if you're concerned with quality, you can also filter by star rating and our own guest review rating.\nAs well as our Hotels.com guest reviews, we also display reviews from Expedia for Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotels and the TripAdvisor Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotels review score on each of our San Salvador hotel information pages.\nIf you're visiting Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL), San Salvador with the family or in a group, be sure to check out the room options and facilities we list for each hotel to ensure we help find the perfect hotel for you.\nWhen you've made your booking for your hotel near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL), in our confirmation email we'll also send you information on all nearby attractions as well as directions on how to get to your chosen hotel and the weather forecast, helping you to plan your trip.\nTo get yourself an even better deal on hotels near Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL), San Salvador why not sign up to our Welcome Rewards program? It's free and when you stay 10 nights at any eligible hotel you receive 1 night free*\nWe have Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotel deals, even Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) last minute deals and offers to get you the cheap est Cuscatlan International Airport (SAL) hotel with our lowest price gaurantee."
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Who was Pope for the shortest length of time in the 20th century?
|
tc_815
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
|
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"The Pope ( from pappas, a child's word for \"father\") is the Bishop of Rome and the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The primacy of the Roman bishop is largely derived from his role as the traditional successor to Saint Peter, to whom Jesus is supposed to have given the keys of Heaven and the powers of \"binding and loosing\", naming him as the \"rock\" upon which the church would be built. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, succeeding Benedict XVI.[http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/E/EU_VATICAN_POPE?SITEAP&SECTION\nHOME&TEMPLATEDEFAULT&CTIME\n2013-03-13-14-10-46 News from The Associated Press]\n\nThe office of the Pope is the papacy. His ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the Diocese of Rome, is often called \"the Holy See\" or \"the Apostolic See\", the latter name being based upon the belief that the Bishop of Rome is the successor of Peter the Apostle. The pope is considered one of the world's most powerful people because of his diplomatic and cultural influence. He is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome.\n\nThe papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history. The popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of secular importance in Western Europe, often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialog, charitable work, and the defense of human rights. \n\nPopes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, and papal authority is now once again almost exclusively restricted to matters of religion. Over the centuries, papal claims of spiritual authority have been ever more firmly expressed, culminating in 1870 with the proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for rare occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra—literally \"from the chair (of Saint Peter)\"—to issue a formal definition of faith or morals.\n\nHistory\n\nTitle and etymology\n\nThe word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning \"father\". In the early centuries of Christianity, this title was applied, especially in the east, to all bishops and other senior clergy, and later became reserved in the west to the Bishop of Rome, a reservation made official only in the 11th century. The earliest record of the use of this title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria, Pope Heraclas of Alexandria (232–248). The earliest recorded use of the title \"pope\" in English dates to the mid-10th century, when it was used in reference to Pope Vitalian in an Old English translation of Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. \n\nPosition within the Church\n\nThe Catholic Church teaches that the pastoral office, the office of shepherding the Church, that was held by the apostles, as a group or \"college\" with Saint Peter at their head, is now held by their successors, the bishops, with the bishop of Rome (the pope) at their head. \n\nThe Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as leader of the Church and in its dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops, presenting the latter as the successors of the former, with the pope as successor of Peter in that he is head of the bishops as Peter was head of the apostles. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome and founded the episcopal see there can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century. The writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD 180 reflect a belief that Peter \"founded and organised\" the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peter's presence in the early Roman Church. Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the \"struggles in our time\" and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, \"first, the greatest and most just columns\", the \"good apostles\" Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero, although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine. \n\nProtestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome. Others, using Peter's own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. Others have argued that the church is indeed built upon Jesus and faith, but also on the disciples as the roots and foundations of the church on the basis of Paul's teaching in Romans and Ephesians, though not primarily Peter. \n\nFirst-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches. Gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome. In Rome there were many who claimed to be the rightful bishop though again Irenaeus stressed the validity of one line of bishops from the time of St. Peter up to his contemporary Pope Victor I and listed them. Some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops but not necessarily monarchical bishops.\n\nDocuments of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is very unclear at this period. \n\nEarly Christianity (c. 30–325)\n\nIt seems that at first the terms \"episcopos\" and \"presbyter\" were used interchangeably. The consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable. Some say that there was probably \"no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century ... and likely later.\" Other scholars and historians disagree, citing the historical records of St. Ignatius of Antioch (d 107) and St. Irenaeus who recorded the linear succession of Bishops of Rome (the popes) up until their own times. They also cite the importance accorded to the Bishops of Rome in the ecumenical councils, including the early ones. \n\nIn the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on the leadership of worldwide Church. James the Just, known as \"the brother of the Lord\", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honored as the \"Mother Church\" in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria had been a center of Jewish learning and became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period whom Paul the Apostle addressed in his Epistle to the Romans, and according to tradition Paul was martyred there. \n\nDuring the 1st century of the Church (c. 30–130), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance. Clement I, at the end of the 1st century, wrote an epistle to the Church in Corinth intervening in a major dispute, and apologizing for not having taken action earlier. However, there are only a few other references of that time to recognition of the authoritative primacy of the Roman See outside of Rome. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: \"41. Both sides agree ... that Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St Ignatius of Antioch, occupied the first place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the Bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium.\" \n\nIn the late 2nd century AD, there were more manifestations of Roman authority over other churches. In 189, assertion of the primacy of the Church of Rome may be indicated in Irenaeus's Against Heresies (3:3:2): \"With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree ... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition.\" In AD 195, Pope Victor I, in what is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan, the date of the Jewish Passover, a tradition handed down by John the Evangelist (see Easter controversy). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the pope, is the system that has prevailed (see computus). \n\nNicaea to East-West Schism (325–1054)\n\nThe Edict of Milan in 313 granted freedom to all religions in the Roman Empire, beginning the Peace of the Church. In 325, the First Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism, declaring trinitarianism dogmatic, and in its sixth canon recognized the special role of the sees of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Great defenders of Trinitarian faith included the popes, especially Pope Liberius, who was exiled to Berea by Constantius II for his Trinitarian faith, Damasus I, and several other bishops. \n\nIn 380, the Edict of Thessalonica declared Nicene Christianity to be the state religion of the empire, with the name \"Catholic Christians\" reserved for those who accepted that faith. While the civil power in the Eastern Roman Empire controlled the church, and the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, the capital, wielded much power, in the Western Roman Empire, the Bishops of Rome were able to consolidate the influence and power they already possessed. After the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, barbarian tribes were converted to Arian Christianity or Catholicism; Clovis I, king of the Franks, was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to Catholicism rather than Arianism, allying himself with the papacy. Other tribes, such as the Visigoths, later abandoned Arianism in favour of Catholicism.\n\nMiddle Ages\n\nAfter the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, the pope served as a source of authority and continuity. Pope Gregory I (c 540–604) administered the church with strict reform. From an ancient senatorial family, Gregory worked with the stern judgement and discipline typical of ancient Roman rule. Theologically, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook; his popular writings are full of dramatic miracles, potent relics, demons, angels, ghosts, and the approaching end of the world.\n\nGregory's successors were largely dominated by the Exarch of Ravenna, the Byzantine emperor's representative in the Italian Peninsula. These humiliations, the weakening of the Byzantine Empire in the face of the Muslim conquests, and the inability of the emperor to protect the papal estates against the Lombards, made Pope Stephen II turn from Emperor Constantine V. He appealed to the Franks to protect his lands. Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards and donated Italian land to the papacy. When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne (800) as Roman Emperor, he established the precedent that, in Western Europe, no man would be emperor without being crowned by a pope.\n\nThe low point of the papacy was 867–1049. This period includes the Saeculum obscurum, the Crescentii era, and the Tusculan Papacy. The papacy came under the control of vying political factions. Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed, and deposed by force. The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years. The official's great-grandson, Pope John XII, held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran Palace. Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected a layman as Pope Leo VIII. John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as pope. Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly.\n\nIn 1049, Leo IX became pope, at last a pope with the character to face the papacy's problems. He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably simony and clerical marriage and concubinage. With his long journey, he restored the prestige of the papacy in Northern Europe.\n\nFrom the 7th century it became common for European monarchies and nobility to found churches and perform investiture or deposition of clergy in their states and fiefdoms, their personal interests causing corruption among the clergy. This practice had become common because often the prelates and secular rulers were also participants in public life. To combat this and other practices that had corrupted the Church between the years 900 and 1050, centres emerged promoting ecclesiastical reform, the most important being the Abbey of Cluny, which spread its ideals throughout Europe. This reform movement gained strength with the election of Pope Gregory VII in 1073, who adopted a series of measures in the movement known as the Gregorian Reform, in order to fight strongly against simony and the abuse of civil power and try to restore ecclesiastical discipline, including clerical celibacy. The conflict between popes and secular autocratic rulers such as the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Henry I of England, known as the Investiture Controversy, was only resolved in 1122, by the Concordat of Worms, in which Pope Callixtus II decreed that clerics were to be invested by clerical leaders, and temporal rulers by lay investiture. Soon after, Pope Alexander III began reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law.\n\nSince the beginning of the 7th century, the Caliphate had conquered much of the southern Mediterranean, and represented a threat to Christianity. In 1095, the Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos, asked for military aid from Pope Urban II in the ongoing Byzantine–Seljuq wars. Urban, at the council of Clermont, called the First Crusade to assist the Byzantine Empire to regain the old Christian territories, especially Jerusalem.\n\nEast–West Schism to Reformation (1054–1517)\n\nWith the East–West Schism, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church split definitively in 1054. This fracture was caused more by political events than by slight divergences of creed. Popes had galled the Byzantine emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the Exarchate of Ravenna, and driving into Greek Italy.\n\nIn the Middle Ages, popes struggled with monarchs over power.\n\nFrom 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in Avignon. The Avignon Papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of the Kingdom of France, alienating France's enemies, such as the Kingdom of England.\n\nThe pope was understood to have the power to draw on the Treasury of Merit built up by the saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences, reducing one's time in purgatory. The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution. The popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses, but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences.\n\nPopes also contended with the cardinals, who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of Catholic Ecumenical Councils over the pope's. Conciliarism holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope. Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century. The failure of Conciliarism to gain broad acceptance after the 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation. \n\nVarious Antipopes challenged papal authority, especially during the Western Schism (1378–1417). In this schism, the papacy had returned to Rome from Avignon, but an antipope was installed in Avignon, as if to extend the papacy there.\n\nThe Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern Emperor tried to force the Eastern Church to reunify with the West. First in the Second Council of Lyon (1272-1274) and secondly in the Council of Florence (1431-1449). Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople.\n\nReformation to present (1517 to today)\n\nProtestant Reformers criticized the papacy as corrupt and characterized the pope as the antichrist. \n\nPopes instituted a Catholic Reformation (1560–1648), which addressed the challenges of the Protestant Reformation and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III initiated the Council of Trent (1545-1563), whose definitions of doctrine and whose reforms sealed the triumph of the papacy over elements in the church that sought conciliation with Protestants and opposed papal claims. \n\nGradually forced to give up secular power, the popes focused on spiritual issues.\n\nIn 1870, the First Vatican Council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for those rare occasions the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a solemn definition of faith or morals. \n\nLater the same year, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy seized Rome from the pope's control and substantially completed the Italian unification.\n\nIn 1929, the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See established Vatican City as an independent city-state, guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule.\n\nIn 1950, Pope Pius XII defined the Assumption of Mary as dogma, the only time that a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared. \n\nThe Petrine Doctrine is still controversial as an issue of doctrine that continues to divide the eastern and western churches and separate Protestants from Rome. \n\nSaint Peter and the origin of the papal office \n\nThe Catholic Church teaches that, within the Christian community, the bishops as a body have succeeded to the body of the apostles (apostolic succession) and the Bishop of Rome has succeeded to Saint Peter.\n\nScriptural texts proposed in support of Peter's special position in relation to the church include:\n*Matthew 16: \n*Luke 22: \n*John 21:\n\nThe symbolic keys in the Papal coats of arms are a reference to the phrase \"the keys of the kingdom of heaven\" in the first of these texts. Some Protestant writers have maintained that the \"rock\" that Jesus speaks of in this text is Jesus himself or the faith expressed by Peter. This idea is undermined by the Biblical usage of \"Cephas,\" which is the masculine form of \"rock\" in Aramaic, to describe Peter. The Encyclopaedia Britannica comments that \"the consensus of the great majority of scholars today is that the most obvious and traditional understanding should be construed, namely, that rock refers to the person of Peter\". \n\nElection, death and resignation\n\nElection\n\nThe pope was originally chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near Rome. In 1059 the electorate was restricted to the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. The electors are now limited to those who have not reached 80 on the day before the death or resignation of a pope. Since the pope is Bishop of Rome, only those who can be ordained a bishop can be elected, which means that any male baptized Catholic is eligible. The last to be elected when not yet a bishop was Pope Gregory XVI in 1831, and the last to be elected when not even a priest was Pope Leo X in 1513, and the last to be elected when not a cardinal was Pope Urban VI in 1378. If someone who is not a bishop is elected, he must be given episcopal ordination before the election is announced to the people.\n\nThe Second Council of Lyon was convened on 7 May 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year sede vacante following the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268. By the mid-16th century, the electoral process had evolved into its present form, allowing for variation in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors. \n\nTraditionally, the vote was conducted by Acclamation, by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote.\n\nThe election of the pope almost always takes place in the Sistine Chapel, in a sequestered meeting called a \"conclave\" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, cum clave, i.e., with key, until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for \"one whom under God I think ought to be elected\" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar. in the Papal conclave, 2005, a special urn was used for this purpose instead of a chalice and plate. The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for electors to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the ballots are counted while still folded; if the number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until someone is elected by a two-thirds majority. \n\nOne of the most prominent aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special stove erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from Saint Peter's Square. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound to create black smoke, or fumata nera. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to produce the black smoke, but this was not completely reliable. The chemical compound is more reliable than the straw.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (fumata bianca) through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. Starting with the Papal conclave, 2005, church bells are also rung as a signal that a new pope has been chosen. \n\nThe Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks two solemn questions of the cardinal who has been elected. First he asks, \"Do you freely accept your election as Supreme Pontiff?\" If he replies with the word \"Accepto\", his reign begins at that instant. If he replies not, his reign begins at the inauguration ceremony several days afterward. The Dean asks next, \"By what name shall you be called?\" The new pope announces the regnal name he has chosen. If the Dean himself is elected pope, the Vice Dean performs this task. \n\nThe new pope is led through the \"Door of Tears\" to a dressing room where three sets of white papal vestments (immantatio) await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the \"Fisherman's Ring\" by the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, whom he first either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope assumes a place of honor as the rest of the cardinals wait in turn to offer their first \"obedience\" (adoratio) and to receive his blessing. \n\nThe Senior Cardinal Deacon announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following proclamation: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam! (\"I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!\"). He announces the new pope's Christian name along with his newly chosen regnal name. \n\nUntil 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the Papal coronation, which started with a procession with great pomp and circumstance from the Sistine Chapel to St. Peter's Basilica, with the newly elected pope borne in the sedia gestatoria. After a solemn Papal Mass, the new pope was crowned with the triregnum (papal tiara) and he gave for the first time as pope the famous blessing Urbi et Orbi (\"to the City [Rome] and to the World\"). Another renowned part of the coronation was the lighting of a bundle of flax at the top of a gilded pole, which would flare brightly for a moment and then promptly extinguish, as he said, Sic transit gloria mundi (\"Thus passes worldly glory\"). A similar warning against papal hubris made on this occasion was the traditional exclamation, \"Annos Petri non videbis\", reminding the newly crowned pope that he would not live to see his rule lasting as long as that of St. Peter. According to tradition, he headed the church for 35 years and has thus far been the longest-reigning pope in the history of the Catholic Church. \n\nA traditionalist Catholic belief that lacks reliable authority claims that a Papal Oath was sworn, at their coronation, by all popes from Pope Agatho to Pope Paul VI and that it was omitted with the abolition of the coronation ceremony.\n\nThe Latin term, sede vacante (\"while the see is vacant\"), refers to a papal interregnum, the period between the death or resignation of a pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the term sedevacantism, which designates a category of dissident Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected pope, and that there is therefore a sede vacante. One of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the Second Vatican Council, and especially the reform of the Tridentine Mass with the Mass of Paul VI, are heretical and that those responsible for initiating and maintaining these changes are heretics and not true popes.\n\nFor centuries, from 1378 on, those elected to the papacy were predominantly Italians. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal Karol Wojtyla as Pope John Paul II in 1978, the last non-Italian was Pope Adrian VI of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by election of the German-born Pope Benedict XVI, who was in turn followed by Argentine-born Pope Francis. \n\nDeath\n\nThe current regulations regarding a papal interregnum—that is, a sede vacante (\"vacant seat\")—were promulgated by Pope John Paul II in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis. During the \"sede vacante\" period, the College of Cardinals is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church; however, canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the Holy See. Any decision that requires the assent of the pope has to wait until the new pope has been elected and accepts office. \n\nIn recent centuries, when a pope was judged to have died, it was reportedly traditional for the Cardinal Camerlengo to confirm the death ceremonially by gently tapping the pope's head thrice with a silver hammer, calling his birth name each time. This was not done on the deaths of popes John Paul I and John Paul II. The Cardinal Camerlengo retrieves the Ring of the Fisherman and cuts it in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed. \n\nThe body lies in state for several days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral; all popes who have died in the 20th and 21st centuries have been interred in St. Peter's Basilica. A nine-day period of mourning (novendialis) follows the interment.\n\nResignation\n\nIt is highly unusual for a pope to resign. The 1983 Code of Canon Law states, \"If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone.\" Benedict XVI, who vacated the Holy See on 28 February 2013, was the most recent to do so since Gregory XII's resignation in 1415. \n\nTitles\n\nOfficial list of titles\n\nThe official list of titles of the pope, in the order in which they are given in the Annuario Pontificio, is:\n\nThe best-known title, that of \"Pope\", does not appear in the official list, but is commonly used in the titles of documents, and appears, in abbreviated form, in their signatures. Thus Pope Paul VI signed as \"Paulus PP. VI\", the \"PP.\" standing for \"papa\" (\"pope\"). \n\nThe title \"Pope\" was from the early 3rd century an honorific designation used for any bishop in the West. In the East, it was used only for the Bishop of Alexandria. Pope Marcellinus (d. 304) is the first Bishop of Rome shown in sources to have had the title \"Pope\" used of him. From the 6th century, the imperial chancery of Constantinople normally reserved this designation for the Bishop of Rome. From the early 6th century, it began to be confined in the West to the Bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the 11th century, when Pope Gregory VII declared it reserved for the Bishop of Rome. \n\nIn Eastern Christianity, where the title \"Pope\" is used also of the Bishop of Alexandria, the Bishop of Rome is often referred to as the \"Pope of Rome\", regardless of whether the speaker or writer is in communion with Rome or not. \n\nVicar of Jesus Christ\n\n While it is only one of the terms with which the pope is referred to as \"Vicar\", it is \"more expressive of his supreme headship of the Church on Earth, which he bears in virtue of the commission of Christ and with vicarial power derived from him\", a vicarial power believed to have been conferred on Saint Peter when Christ said to him: \"Feed my lambs...Feed my sheep\" (). \n\nThe first record of the application of this title to a Bishop of Rome appears in a synod of 495 with reference to Pope Gelasius I. But at that time, and down to the 9th century, other bishops too referred to themselves as vicars of Christ, and for another four centuries this description was sometimes used of kings and even judges, as it had been used in the 5th and 6th centuries to refer to the Byzantine emperor. Earlier still, in the 3rd century, Tertullian used \"vicar of Christ\" to refer to the Holy Spirit sent by Jesus. Its use specifically for the pope appears in the 13th century in connection with the reforms of Pope Innocent III, as can be observed already in his 1199 letter to Leo I, King of Armenia. Other historians suggest that this title was already used in this way in association with the pontificate of Pope Eugene III (1145–1153).\n\nThis title \"Vicar of Christ\" is thus not used of the pope alone and has been used of all bishops since the early centuries. The Second Vatican Council referred to all bishops as \"vicars and ambassadors of Christ\", and this description of the bishops was repeated by Pope John Paul II in his encyclical [http://www.vatican.va/edocs/ENG0221/__PT.HTM Ut unum sint,] 95. The difference is that the other bishops are vicars of Christ for their own local churches, the pope is vicar of Christ for the whole Church. \n\nOn at least one occasion the title \"Vicar of God\" (a reference to Christ as God) was used of the pope.\n\nThe title \"Vicar of Peter\" (Vicarius Petri) is used only of the pope, not of other bishops. Variations of it include: \"Vicar of the Prince of the Apostles\" (Vicarius Principis Apostolorum) and \"Vicar of the Apostolic See\" (Vicarius Sedis Apostolicae). Saint Boniface described Pope Gregory II as vicar of Peter in the oath of fealty that he took in 722. In today's Roman Missal, the description \"vicar of Peter\" is found also in the collect of the Mass for a saint who was a pope. \n\nSupreme Pontiff \n\nThe term \"pontiff\" is derived from the , which literally means \"bridge builder\" (pons + facere) and which designated a member of the principal college of priests in ancient Rome. The Latin word was translated into ancient Greek variously: as , , , (hierophant), or (archiereus, high priest) The head of the college was known as the Pontifex Maximus (the greatest pontiff). \n\nIn Christian use, pontifex appears in the Vulgate translation of the New Testament to indicate the High Priest of Israel (in the original Koine Greek, ἀρχιερεύς). The term came to be applied to any Christian bishop, but since the 11th century commonly refers specifically to the Bishop of Rome, who is more strictly called the \"Roman Pontiff\". The use of the term to refer to bishops in general is reflected in the terms \"Roman Pontifical\" (a book containing rites reserved for bishops, such as confirmation and ordination), and \"pontificals\" (the insignia of bishops). \n\nThe Annuario Pontificio lists as one of the official titles of the pope that of \"Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church\" (). He is also commonly called the Supreme Pontiff or the Sovereign Pontiff (). \n\nPontifex Maximus, similar in meaning to Summus Pontifex, is a title commonly found in inscriptions on papal buildings, paintings, statues and coins, usually abbreviated as \"Pont. Max\" or \"P.M.\" The office of Pontifex Maximus, or head of the College of Pontiffs, was held by Julius Caesar and thereafter, by the Roman emperors, until Gratian (375-383) relinquished it. Tertullian, when he had become a Montanist, used the title derisively of either the pope or the Bishop of Carthage. The popes began to use this title regularly only in the 15th century.Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Pontifex Maximus\n\nServant of the servants of God\n\nAlthough the description \"servant of the servants of God\" () was also used by other Church leaders, including Augustine of Hippo and Benedict of Nursia, it was first used extensively as a papal title by Pope Gregory I, reportedly as a lesson in humility for the Patriarch of Constantinople, John the Faster, who had assumed the title \"Ecumenical Patriarch\". It became reserved for the pope in the 12th century and is used in papal bulls and similar important papal documents. \n\nPatriarch of the West\n\nFrom 1863 until 2005, the Annuario Pontificio also included the title \"Patriarch of the West\". This title was first used by Pope Theodore I in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On 22 March 2006, the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a \"historical and theological reality\" and of \"being useful to ecumenical dialogue\". The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church—and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the Eastern Churches, as solemnly proclaimed by the Second Vatican Council. \n\nOther titles\n\nOther titles commonly used are \"His Holiness\" (either used alone or as an honorific prefix \"His Holiness Pope Francis\"; and as \"Your Holiness\" as a form of address), \"Holy Father\". In Spanish and Italian, \"Beatísimo/Beatissimo Padre\" (Most Blessed Father) is often used in preference to \"Santísimo/Santissimo Padre\" (Most Holy Father). In the medieval period, \"Dominus Apostolicus\" (\"the Apostolic Lord\") was also used. \n\nSignature\n\nPope Francis signs some documents with his name alone, either in Latin (\"Franciscus\", as in an encyclical dated 29 June 2013) or in another language. Other documents he signs in accordance with the tradition of using Latin only and including, in the abbreviated form \"PP.\", the description \"Papa\". Popes who have an ordinal numeral in their name traditionally place the abbreviation \"PP.\" before the ordinal numeral, as in \"Benedictus PP. XVI\" (Pope Benedict XVI), except in bulls of canonization and decrees of ecumenical councils, which a pope signs with the formula, \"Ego N. Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae\", without the numeral, as in \"Ego Benedictus Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae\" (I, Benedict, Bishop of the Catholic Church). The pope's signature is followed, in bulls of canonization, by those of all the cardinals resident in Rome, and in decrees of ecumenical councils, by the signatures of the other bishops participating in the council, each signing as Bishop of a particular see.\n\nPapal bulls are headed N. Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei (\"Name, Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God\"). In general, they are not signed by the pope, but Pope John Paul II introduced in the mid-1980s the custom by which the pope signs not only bulls of canonization but also, using his normal signature, such as \"Benedictus PP. XVI\", bulls of nomination of bishops. \n\nRegalia and insignia\n\n* Triregnum, also called the \"tiara\" or \"triple crown\", represents the pope's three functions as \"supreme pastor\", \"supreme teacher\" and \"supreme priest\". Recent popes have not, however, worn the triregnum, though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies the pope wears an episcopal mitre (an erect cloth hat). \n* Crosier topped by a crucifix, a custom established before the 13th century (see Papal ferula). \n* Pallium, or pall, a circular band of fabric worn around the neck over the chasuble. It forms a yoke about the neck, breast and shoulders and has two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Previously, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the primates, but in 2005, Pope Benedict XVI began to use a distinct papal pallium that is larger than the primatial, and was adorned with red crosses instead of black. \n* \"Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven\", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolizes the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven. \n* Ring of the Fisherman, a gold or gilt ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the pope's name around it.\n* Umbraculum (better known in the Italian form ombrellino) is a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions. \n* Sedia gestatoria, a mobile throne carried by twelve footmen (palafrenieri) in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing flabella (fans made of white ostrich feathers), and sometimes a large canopy, carried by eight attendants. The use of the flabella was discontinued by Pope John Paul I. The use of the sedia gestatoria was discontinued by Pope John Paul II. \n\nIn heraldry, each pope has his own personal coat of arms. Though unique for each pope, the arms have for several centuries been traditionally accompanied by two keys in saltire (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an X) behind the escutcheon (shield) (one silver key and one gold key, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver triregnum with three gold crowns and red infulae (lappets—two strips of fabric hanging from the back of the triregnum which fall over the neck and shoulders when worn). This is blazoned: \"two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or\"). The 21st century has seen departures from this tradition. In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI, while maintaining the crossed keys behind the shield, omitted the papal tiara from his personal coat of arms, replacing it with a mitre with three horizontal lines. Beneath the shield he added the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan archbishops as a sign of communion with the See of Rome. Though the tiara was omitted in the pope's personal coat of arms; the coat of arms of the Holy See, which includes the tiara, remained unaltered. In 2013, Pope Francis maintained the mitre that replaced the tiara, but omitted the pallium. He also departed from papal tradition by adding beneath the shield his personal pastoral motto: Miserando atque eligendo. \n\nThe flag most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See (blazoned: \"Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or\") on the right-hand side (the \"fly\") in the white half of the flag (the left-hand side—the \"hoist\"—is yellow). The pope's escucheon does not appear on the flag. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold. Although Pope Benedict XVI replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, it has been retained on the flag. \n\nPapal garments\n\nPope Pius V (reigned 1566-1572), is often credited with having originated the custom whereby the pope wears white, by continuing after his election to wear the white habit of the Dominican order. In reality, the basic papal attire was white long before. The earliest document that describes it as such is the Ordo XIII, a book of ceremonies compiled in about 1274. Later books of ceremonies describe the pope as wearing a red mantle, mozzetta, camauro and shoes, and a white cassock and stockings. Many contemporary portraits of 15th and 16th-century predecessors of Pius V show them wearing a white cassock similar to his. \n\nStatus and authority\n\nFirst Vatican Council\n\nThe status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council on 18 July 1870. In its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ, the Council established the following canons: \n\n\"If anyone says that the blessed Apostle Peter was not established by the Lord Christ as the chief of all the apostles, and the visible head of the whole militant Church, or, that the same received great honour but did not receive from the same our Lord Jesus Christ directly and immediately the primacy in true and proper jurisdiction: let him be anathema. \n\nIf anyone says that it is not from the institution of Christ the Lord Himself, or by divine right that the blessed Peter has perpetual successors in the primacy over the universal Church, or that the Roman Pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in the same primacy, let him be anathema. \n\nIf anyone thus speaks, that the Roman Pontiff has only the office of inspection or direction, but not the full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the universal Church, not only in things which pertain to faith and morals, but also in those which pertain to the discipline and government of the Church spread over the whole world; or, that he possesses only the more important parts, but not the whole plenitude of this supreme power; or that this power of his is not ordinary and immediate, or over the churches altogether and individually, and over the pastors and the faithful altogether and individually: let him be anathema. \n\nWe, adhering faithfully to the tradition received from the beginning of the Christian faith, to the glory of God, our Saviour, the elevation of the Catholic religion and the salvation of Christian peoples, with the approbation of the sacred Council, teach and explain that the dogma has been divinely revealed: that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, when carrying out the duty of the pastor and teacher of all Christians by his supreme apostolic authority he defines a doctrine of faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, through the divine assistance promised him in blessed Peter, operates with that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer wished that His church be instructed in defining doctrine on faith and morals; and so such definitions of the Roman Pontiff from himself, but not from the consensus of the Church, are unalterable. But if anyone presumes to contradict this definition of Ours, which may God forbid: let him be anathema.\" \n\nSecond Vatican Council\n\nIn its Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (1964), the Second Vatican Council declared:\n\nOn 11 October 2012, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the opening of the Second Vatican Council 60 prominent theologians, (including Hans Küng), put out a Declaration, stating that the intention of Vatican II to balance authority in the Church has not been realised. \"Many of the key insights of Vatican II have not at all, or only partially, been implemented . . . A principal source of present-day stagnation lies in misunderstanding and abuse affecting the exercise of authority in our Church.\" \n\nPolitics of the Holy See\n\nResidence and jurisdiction\n\nThe pope's official seat or cathedral is the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, and his official residence is the Apostolic Palace. He also possesses a summer residence at Castel Gandolfo, situated on the site of the ancient city of Alba Longa. Until the time of the Avignon Papacy, the residence of the pope was the Lateran Palace, donated by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great. \n\nThe pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the Holy See) is distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It is the Holy See that conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the papal court (the Roman Curia) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church. \n\nThe names \"Holy See\" and \"Apostolic see\" are ecclesiastical terminology for the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the Apostle Saint Peter (see Apostolic succession). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ubi Papa, ibi Curia, wherever the pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the popes lived in Avignon, France (see Avignon Papacy), a period often called the Babylonian captivity in allusion to the Biblical narrative of Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah living as captives in Babylonia. \n\nThough the pope is the diocesan Bishop of the Diocese of Rome, he delegates most of the day-to-day work of leading the diocese to the Cardinal Vicar, who assures direct episcopal oversight of the diocese's pastoral needs, not in his own name but in that of the pope. The current Cardinal Vicar is Agostino Vallini, who was appointed to the office in June 2008. \n\nPolitical role\n\nThough the progressive Christianisation of the Roman Empire in the 4th century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the pope the senior imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by Pope Leo I's confrontation with Attila in 452. The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the Donation of Sutri, which in turn was substantially increased in 754, when the Frankish ruler Pippin the Younger gave to the pope the land from his conquest of the Lombards. The pope may have utilized the forged Donation of Constantine to gain this land, which formed the core of the Papal States. This document, accepted as genuine until the 15th century, states that Constantine the Great placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish ruler Charlemagne as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the Holy Roman Empire; from that date onward the popes claimed the prerogative to crown the Emperor, though the right fell into disuse after the coronation of Charles V in 1530. Pope Pius VII was present at the coronation of Napoleon I in 1804 but did not actually perform the crowning. As mentioned above, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by Italy.\n\nPopes like Alexander VI, an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and Pope Julius II, a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy. This political and temporal authority was demonstrated through the papal role in the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of Pope Gregory VII and Pope Alexander III). Papal bulls, interdict, and excommunication (or the threat thereof) have been used many times to increase papal power. The Bull Laudabiliter in 1155 authorized Henry II of England to invade Ireland. In 1207, Innocent III placed England under interdict until King John made his kingdom a fiefdom to the Pope, complete with yearly tribute, saying, \"we offer and freely yield...to our lord Pope Innocent III and his catholic successors, the whole kingdom of England and the whole kingdom of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenences for the remission of our sins\". The Bull Inter caetera in 1493 led to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world into areas of Spanish and Portuguese rule. The Bull Regnans in Excelsis in 1570 excommunicated Elizabeth I of England and declared that all her subjects were released from all allegiance to her. The Bull, Inter gravissimas, in 1582 established the Gregorian calendar. \n\nInternational position\n\nUnder international law, a serving head of state has sovereign immunity from the jurisdiction of the courts of other countries, though not from that of international tribunals. This immunity is sometimes loosely referred to as \"diplomatic immunity\", which is, strictly speaking, the immunity enjoyed by the diplomatic representatives of a head of state.\n\nInternational law treats the Holy See, essentially the central government of the Roman Catholic Church, as the juridical equal of a state. It is distinct from the state of Vatican City, existing for many centuries before the foundation of the latter. (It is common for publications and news media to use \"the Vatican\", \"Vatican City\", and even \"Rome\" as metonyms for the Holy See.) Most countries of the world maintain the same form of diplomatic relations with the Holy See that they entertain with other states. Even countries without those diplomatic relations participate in international organizations of which the Holy See is a full member.\n\nIt is as head of the state-equivalent worldwide religious jurisdiction of the Holy See (not of the territory of Vatican City) that the U.S. Justice Department ruled that the pope enjoys head-of-state immunity. This head-of-state immunity, recognized by the United States, must be distinguished from that envisaged under the United States' Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976, which, while recognizing the basic immunity of foreign governments from being sued in American courts, lays down nine exceptions, including commercial activity and actions in the United States by agents or employees of the foreign governments. It was in relation to the latter that, in November 2008, the United States Court of Appeals in Cincinnati decided that a case over sexual abuse by Catholic priests could proceed, provided the plaintiffs could prove that the bishops accused of negligent supervision were acting as employees or agents of the Holy See and were following official Holy See policy. \n\nIn April 2010, there was press coverage in Britain concerning a proposed plan by atheist campaigners and a prominent barrister to have Pope Benedict XVI arrested and prosecuted in the UK for alleged offences, dating from several decades before, in failing to take appropriate action regarding Catholic sex abuse cases and concerning their disputing his immunity from prosecution in that country. This was generally dismissed as \"unrealistic and spurious\". Another barrister said that it was a \"matter of embarrassment that a senior British lawyer would want to allow himself to be associated with such a silly idea\".Zenit News Agency, 15 April 2010: [http://zenit.org/article-28914?l\nenglish Arrest the Pope?]\n\nObjections to the papacy\n\nThe pope's claim to authority is either disputed or not recognised at all by other churches. The reasons for these objections differ from denomination to denomination.\n\nOrthodox, Anglican and Old Catholic churches\n\nOther traditional Christian churches (Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Old Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Independent Catholic churches, etc.) accept the doctrine of Apostolic succession and, to varying extents, papal claims to a primacy of honour while generally rejecting that the pope is the successor to Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop. Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the Roman Empire, a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon. These churches see no foundation to papal claims of universal immediate jurisdiction, or to claims of papal infallibility. Several of these churches refer to such claims as ultramontanism.\n\nProtestant denominations\n\nProtestant denominations of Christianity reject the claims of Petrine primacy of honor, Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, and papal infallibility. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the pope's claim to authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the pope is the Antichrist from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search1%20John%202:18;&version\n9; 1 John 2:18], the Man of Sin from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search2%20Thessalonians%202:3-12&version\n9 2 Thessalonians 2:3-12], and the Beast out of the Earth from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchRevelation%2013:11-18;&version\n9; Revelation 13:11-18]. \n\nThis sweeping rejection is held by, among others, some denominations of Lutherans: Confessional Lutherans hold that the pope is the Antichrist, stating that this article of faith is part of a quia rather than quatenus subscription to the Book of Concord. In 1932, one of these Confessional churches, the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), adopted A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod, which a small number of Lutheran church bodies now hold. The Lutheran Churches of the Reformation[http://www.lcrusa.org/a-brief-statement-of-doctrinal-position.html], the Concordia Lutheran Conference[http://www.concordialutheranconf.com/doctrine/1932-2.cfm], the Church of the Lutheran Confession[http://clclutheran.org/library/BriefStatement.html], and the Illinois Lutheran Conference [http://www.illinoislutheranconference.org/our-solid-foundation/doctrinal-position-of-the-ilc.lwp/odyframe.htm] all hold to the Brief Statement, which the LCMS places on its website. \n\nHistorically, Protestants objected to the papacy's claim of temporal power over all secular governments, including territorial claims in Italy, the papacy's complex relationship with secular states such as the Roman and Byzantine Empires, and the autocratic character of the papal office. In Western Christianity these objections both contributed to and are products of the Protestant Reformation.\n\nAntipopes\n\nGroups sometimes form around antipopes, who claim the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it.\n\nTraditionally, this term was reserved for claimants with a significant following of cardinals or other clergy. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church (heresy) or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (schism). Briefly in the 15th century, three separate lines of popes claimed authenticity (see Papal Schism). Even Catholics do not all agree whether certain historical figures were popes or antipopes. Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor fringe causes.\n\nOther uses of the title \"Pope\"\n\nIn the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title \"Pope\", meaning \"father\", had been used by all bishops. Some popes used the term and others did not. Eventually, the title became associated especially with the Bishop of Rome. In a few cases, the term is used for other Christian clerical authorities.\n\nIn the Roman Catholic Church\n\n\"Black Pope\" is a name that was popularly, but unofficially, given to the Superior General of the Society of Jesus due to the Jesuits' importance within the Church. This name, based on the black colour of his cassock, was used to suggest a parallel between him and the \"White Pope\" (since the time of Pope Pius V the popes dress in white) and the Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples (formerly called the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), whose red cardinal's cassock gave him the name of the \"Red Pope\" in view of the authority over all territories that were not considered in some way Catholic. In the present time this cardinal has power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia,[http://www.chiesa.espressonline.it/dettaglio.jsp?id\n7049&eng=ylink Sandro Magister], Espresso Online. but in the past his competence extended also to all lands where Protestants or Eastern Christianity was dominant. Some remnants of this situation remain, with the result that, for instance, New Zealand is still in the care of this Congregation.\n\nIn the Eastern Churches\n\nSince the papacy of Heraclas in the 3rd century, the Bishop of the Alexandria in both the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria continue to be called \"Pope\", the former being called \"Coptic Pope\" or, more properly, \"Pope and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle\" and the latter called \"Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa\". \n\nIn the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Russian Orthodox Church and Serbian Orthodox Church, it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a \"pope\" (\"поп\" pop). However, this should be differentiated from the words used for the head of the Catholic Church (Bulgarian \"папа\" papa, Russian \"папа римский\" papa rimskiy).\n\nIn new religious movements\n\nSome new religious movements, especially those that have disassociated themselves from the Catholic Church yet retain a Catholic hierarchical framework, have used the designation \"pope\" for a movement's founder or current leader. One example in Africa is the Legio Maria Church of Africa. Another example is Cao Dai, a Vietnamese faith that duplicates the Catholic hierarchy, which is declared legitimate by religious authorities in Cao Dai due to the fact that, according to them, God created both Catholicism and Cao Dai.\n\nLengths of papal reign\n\nLongest-reigning popes\n\nAlthough the average reign of the pope from the Middle Ages was a decade, a number of those whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following:\n# Peter (c. 30-64/67): c. 34-c.37 years (12,410-13,505 days).\n# Pius IX (1846–1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days).\n# St. John Paul II (1978–2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,665 days).\n# Leo XIII (1878–1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days).\n# Pius VI (1775–1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days).\n# Adrian I (772–795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days).\n# Pius VII (1800–1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days).\n# Alexander III (1159–1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days).\n# St. Sylvester I (314–335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days).\n# St. Leo I (440–461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days (7,713 days).\n# Urban VIII (1623–1644): 20 years, 11 months and 24 days (7,664 days).\n\nDuring the Western Schism, Avignon Pope Benedict XIII (1394–1423) ruled for 28 years, seven months and 12 days. However, since he is regarded as an anti-pope, he is not mentioned in the list above.\n\nShortest-reigning popes\n\nThere have been a number of popes whose reign lasted about a month or less. In the following list the number of calendar days includes partial days. Thus, for example, if a pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this would count as having reigned for two calendar days.\n#Urban VII (15–27 September 1590): reigned for 13 calendar days, died before coronation.\n#Boniface VI (April 896): reigned for 16 calendar days\n#Celestine IV (25 October – 10 November 1241): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before coronation.\n#Theodore II (December 897): reigned for 20 calendar days\n#Sisinnius (15 January – 4 February 708): reigned for 21 calendar days\n#Marcellus II (9 April – 1 May 1555): reigned for 23 calendar days\n#Damasus II (17 July – 9 August 1048): reigned for 24 calendar days\n#Pius III (22 September – 18 October 1503): reigned for 27 calendar days\n#Leo XI (1–27 April 1605): reigned for 28 calendar days\n#Benedict V (22 May – 23 June 964): reigned for 33 calendar days\n#John Paul I (26 August – 28 September 1978): reigned for 34 calendar days.\n\nStephen (23–26 March 752), died of stroke three days after his election, and before his consecration as a bishop. He is not recognized as a valid pope, but was added to the lists of popes in the 15th century as Stephen II, causing difficulties in enumerating later popes named Stephen. The Holy See's Annuario Pontificio, in its list of popes and antipopes, attaches a footnote to its mention of Stephen II (III):\n\nPublished every year by the Roman Curia, the Annuario Pontificio attaches no consecutive numbers to the popes, stating that it is impossible to decide which side represented at various times the legitimate succession, in particular regarding Pope Leo VIII, Pope Benedict V and some mid-11th-century popes."
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"Top 10 Popes With The Shortest Reigns ... The following list is comprised of reigns so short that most people at the time probably never even knew they were Pope at all.",
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"Pope John Paul I (1978) ... His reign is among the shortest in papal history, ... John Paul I was the first Pope to be born in the 20th century, ...",
"Popes of the 21st Century. History of the Roman Catholic Papacy and Church. ... Roman Catholic Popes of the 20th Century; Benedict XVI, Pope Emeritus of the Catholic ...",
"As Pope Benedict XVI ... RSS TIME Apps TIME for Kids Advertising Reprints and Permissions Site Map Help Customer Service © 2016 Time Inc ... 19th-Century Italian ...",
"Chronological List Of Popes 16th-21st Centuries. ... Shortest-reigning pope; ... Twenty- First Century. Pontificate: Name English ..."
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"Top 10 Popes With The Shortest Reigns Ever - Toptenz.net\nToptenz.net\nPosted by Simon Griffin on\nFebruary 27, 2013\nin History | 8,837 Views | 4 Responses\nAfter February 28th, we will be sans Pope. Benedict XVI will retire after eight years as head of the Catholic Church, and go back to simply being Joseph Ratzinger: man of God and man who’s dead tired of all those Emperor Palpatine jokes.\nDear Internet: after eight years, WE GET IT\nNow, eight years is not a terribly long time time for a Pope; there have only been nine of them since 1903 out of a total of 266, so most of us won’t have seen more than a few come and go. But compared to some of his predecessors, Benedict was around for an eternity.\nThe following list is comprised of reigns so short that most people at the time probably never even knew they were Pope at all.\n10. Benedict V and John Paul I (tied at 33 days)\nIn 963, Otto I, Duke of the Saxons, King of the Germans and Holy Roman Emperor, deposed of Pope John XII and placed Leo VIII in his place. The Roman people didn’t accept Leo, however, and elected Benedict V as their true Pope. Outraged by this, Otto went to Rome, put Leo XII back in power, and brought Benedict V back to Germany, where he spent the rest of his life. Eventually, his remains were returned to Rome. Some do not regard Benedict as a true Pope, though both he and Leo are included in the official list of Popes.\nIn more recent times, John Paul I was elected Pope August 26, 1978, and died of a heart attack September 28th of that same year. Though many believe his death was due to something far m0re sinister , the Church officially lists his death as being from a heart attack. His immediate successor became John Paul II in tribute, and went on to record the third-longest Papacy of all time.\n9. Leo XI and Pius III (tied at 26 days)\nAlessandro Ottaviano de’ Medici ( Leo XI ) was elected Pope on April 1st in 1605, presumably as an April fool’s joke that got extraordinarily out of hand. He was 69 years of age when elected, and almost immediately got sick and died. Although brief, his stint as Pope was by no means fruitless: the fact that his reign was so short earned him the nickname “The Lightning Pope”, which we can only pray to God becomes a superhero film soon.\nFrancesco Todeschini Piccolomini was elected Pope in 1503 and took the name Pius III , in honor of his uncle, Pope Pius II. He was elected when the conclave couldn’t agree on any other candidate, though he was still very popular, viewed as a man with great integrity. He attempted to reform the church in many ways, but unfortunately for Pius (and possibly history), he suffered from gout and died after just 26 days.\n8. Damasus II (23 days)\nThis guy was born to be Pope. If you don’t believe us, just check out his real name: Poppo . His full name was Poppo or, as the Catholic Encyclopedia lists it, POPPO. No last name was required, because who else would give their child a name like that? Fortunately for Poppo, he got to choose himself a new name upon becoming Pope. Unfortunately for Poppo, he died a few weeks later from malaria he contracted from a mosquito , when he left Rome to escape the heat.\n7. Marcellus II (22 days)\nBorn Marcello Cervini deli Spannochi, and elected Pope in April 1555, Marcellus II also had big dreams of Church reform. However, he took on far too much at once, since he was elected during Lent, just before Holy Week & Easter . As a result, he fell ill from overexerting himself. He was bled, and appeared to recover briefly. On April 30th he suffered a stroke, slipped into a coma, and died.\n6. Sisinnius (21 days)\nWhile not much is known about Sisinnius , we do know that he was elected Pope in 708. Although his pontificate lasted less than three weeks, he had laid out plans to repair the walls of Rome, which were seen through by Pope Gregory II. Also afflicted with gout, Sisinnius was unable to do so much as feed himself, and succumbed to his illness shortly after being elected. At least his sinister-sounding name could provide us with an arch-nemesis for Lightning Pope in the upcoming summer blockbuster that Hollywood better be making right now.\n5. Theodore II (20 days)\nAgain, not much is known about this pope, but the best guess is that his pontificate was sometime in December of 897. The most interesting thing about Theodore II was that he reburied Pope Formosus. You’re probably thinking that that’s not very interesting, but the reason Formosus had to be reburied was because his body had been exhumed from its grave and put on trial for “ecclesiastical offenses”, so that he could be declared an illegitimate Pope. Why the body had to be physically on trial is anyone’s guess. Theodore recovered the body, which had been thrown in the Tiber river and brought back in by a flood , and gave it a proper, Papal burial. Then he died somehow, at some point, really quickly. Record-keeping in the late 800’s was scarce, at best.\n4. Celestine IV (17 days)\nBorn Goffredo Castiglione and beginning his papacy in October 1241, was, once again, the nephew of another Pope. Even less is known about Celestine IV than many of the previous entries on this list, making us wonder if the Vatican archives are so secret simply because they actually have nothing in them. To add insult to injury (death is an injury, right?), the Church has reinforced that they know nothing about this man by losing the exact location of his grave. Ironic then that, instead of being lost to history, he’s claimed the number 4 spot on this list.\n3. Boniface VI (15 days)\nSuccessor of the aforementioned Pope Formosus, Pope Boniface VI joins the league of forgotten Popes. Very little is known about him, and what is known, he probably wishes we’d forget. Pope for just 15 days, Boniface died from gout. Perhaps some celebrity should launch a Kickstarter campaign, to help fund research into gout-stricken Popes. Two years after his death, John IX declared Boniface Vi’s election null and void (meanie,) but he is still included in the official list of Popes.\n2. Urban VII (13 days)\nDespite sounding like another loathsome X-Factor boy band, Urban VII was an extremely popular man when he was elected Pope in 1590. He had an extreme amount of experience, and was considered a genius. He chose the name “Urban,” which signified kindness; he certainly reflected this in his short run, as one of his first acts was to make a list of all the poor in Rome, so that he could help them. He paid off debts, ordered that loaves of bread be made larger and cheaper, and was all-around a good guy. Alas, he soon fell ill, and died less than two weeks into his papacy.\n1. Stephen II (3 days)\nStephen II was unanimously elected to be Pope in March of 752 but, three days after his election, he suffered apoplexy (kind of like a stroke with hemorrhaging) and died. Since he was never consecrated, many did not view him as a real Pope, but now he is counted among them. This has led to a lot of difficulty with the numbering of Pope Stephens. His immediate successor took the name “Stephen II,” but is now referred to as Stephen III. There have been a total of ten Pope Stephens, so it could get pretty confusing if you ever have to distinguish between them.\nDr. Matthew D. Zarzeczny, FINS\nMarch 3, 2013",
"Popes of the 20th Century\nPopes of the 20th Century\nPopes of the 20th Century\nHistory of the Roman Catholic Papacy and Church\nFox Photos / Stringer/Hulton Archive/Getty Images\nBy Austin Cline\nUpdated September 11, 2016.\nBelow is a list of all of the popes who reigned during the twentieth century. The first number is which pope they were. This is followed by their chosen name, the starting and ending dates of their reigns, and finally the number of years they were pope. Follow the links to read short biographies of each pope and learn about what they did, what they believed, and what impact they had on the course of the Roman Catholic Church .\n \n257. Pope Leo XIII : February 20, 1878 - July 20, 1903 (25 years)\nPope Leo XIII not only ushered the Church into the 20th century, he also tried to help improve the Church's transition into a modern world and modern cultures. He supported some democratic reforms and the rights of workers.\n258. Pope Pius X : August 4, 1903 - August 20, 1914 (11 years)\nPope Pius X is known as a thoroughly anti - modernist pope, using Church power in order to maintain the line of tradition against the forces of modernity and liberalism. He opposed democratic institutions and created a secret network of informers to report on the suspicious activities of priests and others.\n259. Pope Benedict XV: September 1, 1914 - January 22, 1922 (7 years)\nNot only inconsequential during World War I because of his attempt to provide a voice of neutrality, Benedict XV was viewed with suspicion by all governments because of his efforts to reunite displaced families.\n260. Pope Pius XI : February 6, 1922 - February 10, 1939 (17 years)\nFor Pope Pius XI, communism was a greater evil than Nazism - and as a result, he signed a concordat with Hitler in the hopes that this relationship might help stem the rising tide of communism which was threatening from the East.\n261. Pope Pius XII : March 2, 1939 - October 9, 1958 (19 years, 7 months)\nThe papacy of Eugenio Pacelli occurred during the difficult era of World War II, and it is likely that even the best of popes would have had a troubling reign. Pope Pius XII may have exacerbated his problems, however, by failing to do enough to help the Jews who were suffering persecution.\n262. John XXIII : October 28, 1958 - June 3, 1963 (4 years, 7 months)\nNot to be confused with the 15th-century antipope Baldassarre Cossa , this John XXIII continues to be one of the most beloved popes in recent Church history. John was the one who convened the Second Vatican Council, a meeting which inaugurated many changes in the Roman Catholic Church - not as many as some hoped for and more than some feared.\n263. Pope Paul VI : June 21, 1963 - August 6, 1978 (15 years)\nAlthough Paul VI was not responsible for calling the Second Vatican Council, he was responsible to ending it and for beginning the process of carrying out its decisions. He is perhaps most remembered, however for his encyclical Humanae Vitae.\n264. Pope John Paul I : August 26, 1978 - September 28, 1978 (33 days)\nPope John Paul I had one of the shortest reigns in the history of the papacy - and his death is a matter of some speculation among conspiracy theorists. Many believe that he was murdered in order to prevent him from learning or revealing embarrassing facts about the Church.\n265. Pope John Paul II : October 16, 1978 - April 2, 2005\nThe currently reigning pope, Pope John Paul II is also one of the longest reigning popes in the history of the Church. John Paul as tried to steera course between reform and tradition, often siding more strongly with the forces of tradition, much to the dismay of progressive Catholics.",
"Pope John Paul I (1978) - YouTube\nPope John Paul I (1978)\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on Jan 3, 2012\nCategory",
"Popes of the 20th Century\nPopes of the 20th Century\nPopes of the 20th Century\nHistory of the Roman Catholic Papacy and Church\nFox Photos / Stringer/Hulton Archive/Getty Images\nBy Austin Cline\nUpdated September 11, 2016.\nBelow is a list of all of the popes who reigned during the twentieth century. The first number is which pope they were. This is followed by their chosen name, the starting and ending dates of their reigns, and finally the number of years they were pope. Follow the links to read short biographies of each pope and learn about what they did, what they believed, and what impact they had on the course of the Roman Catholic Church .\n \n257. Pope Leo XIII : February 20, 1878 - July 20, 1903 (25 years)\nPope Leo XIII not only ushered the Church into the 20th century, he also tried to help improve the Church's transition into a modern world and modern cultures. He supported some democratic reforms and the rights of workers.\n258. Pope Pius X : August 4, 1903 - August 20, 1914 (11 years)\nPope Pius X is known as a thoroughly anti - modernist pope, using Church power in order to maintain the line of tradition against the forces of modernity and liberalism. He opposed democratic institutions and created a secret network of informers to report on the suspicious activities of priests and others.\n259. Pope Benedict XV: September 1, 1914 - January 22, 1922 (7 years)\nNot only inconsequential during World War I because of his attempt to provide a voice of neutrality, Benedict XV was viewed with suspicion by all governments because of his efforts to reunite displaced families.\n260. Pope Pius XI : February 6, 1922 - February 10, 1939 (17 years)\nFor Pope Pius XI, communism was a greater evil than Nazism - and as a result, he signed a concordat with Hitler in the hopes that this relationship might help stem the rising tide of communism which was threatening from the East.\n261. Pope Pius XII : March 2, 1939 - October 9, 1958 (19 years, 7 months)\nThe papacy of Eugenio Pacelli occurred during the difficult era of World War II, and it is likely that even the best of popes would have had a troubling reign. Pope Pius XII may have exacerbated his problems, however, by failing to do enough to help the Jews who were suffering persecution.\n262. John XXIII : October 28, 1958 - June 3, 1963 (4 years, 7 months)\nNot to be confused with the 15th-century antipope Baldassarre Cossa , this John XXIII continues to be one of the most beloved popes in recent Church history. John was the one who convened the Second Vatican Council, a meeting which inaugurated many changes in the Roman Catholic Church - not as many as some hoped for and more than some feared.\n263. Pope Paul VI : June 21, 1963 - August 6, 1978 (15 years)\nAlthough Paul VI was not responsible for calling the Second Vatican Council, he was responsible to ending it and for beginning the process of carrying out its decisions. He is perhaps most remembered, however for his encyclical Humanae Vitae.\n264. Pope John Paul I : August 26, 1978 - September 28, 1978 (33 days)\nPope John Paul I had one of the shortest reigns in the history of the papacy - and his death is a matter of some speculation among conspiracy theorists. Many believe that he was murdered in order to prevent him from learning or revealing embarrassing facts about the Church.\n265. Pope John Paul II : October 16, 1978 - April 2, 2005\nThe currently reigning pope, Pope John Paul II is also one of the longest reigning popes in the history of the Church. John Paul as tried to steera course between reform and tradition, often siding more strongly with the forces of tradition, much to the dismay of progressive Catholics.",
"A Brief History of Sainthood - TIME\nFollow @TIME\nOn Oct. 12, Pope Benedict XVI canonized four new saints to the Catholic liturgy: 19th-Century Italian priest Gaetano Errico; Mary Bernard (Verena) Bütler, a Swiss nun and missionary in Latin America who died in 1924; Alfonsa of the Immaculate Conception, a nun who who died in 1946 and is the first named female saint from India; and Narcisa de Jesús Martillo Morán, a pious laywoman from Ecuador who died in 1869. In the Catholic faith, only God can make a saint; these four are among those who \"have emerged as individuals who can light the way ahead,\" as the Modern Catholic Encyclopedia puts it. But the means by which these saints are identified and by whom has varied over the history of the church.\nThe first Catholics revered as saints were martyrs who died under Roman persecution in the first centuries after Jesus Christ was born. These martyrs were honored as saints almost instantaneously after their deaths, as Catholics who had sacrificed their lives in the name of God. Over the next few centuries, however, sainthood was extended to those who had defended the faith and led pious lives. With the criteria for canonization not as strict, the number of saints soared by the sixth and seventh centuries. Bishops stepped in to oversee the process, and around 1200, Pope Alexander III, outraged over the proliferation, decreed that only the pope had the power to determine who could be identified as a saint. (Alexander was reportedly angered about one saint in particular whom he believed had been killed in an alcohol-fueled brawl and was therefore not worthy of canonization.)\nIn the 17th century, the Vatican's standards for sainthood were formalized. A non-martyr would need to have performed four posthumous miracles, usually spontaneous healings. (Today, the church requires a team of doctors to verify their veracity and prove that miraculous healings were not the result of modern medicine.) The process included two major steps: beatification, the pope's recognition that a person is worthy of consideration, which begins a lengthy investigation process; and canonization, the pope's formal recognition that a person is truly a saint. In each case the argument for sainthood would be rebutted by a Devil's Advocate, a person appointed by the Church to argue against the case for sainthood. Before becoming pontiff, Pope Benedict XIV was one of the foremost Devil's Advocates of the 18th century. It wasn't until 1983 that a revised Code of Canon Law was published that included reforms to the canonization process begun in 1913. Under Pope John Paul II the procedures for investigating and recognizing a saint were streamlined, the Devil's Advocate position was eliminated and the number of miracles required for beatification and canonization was reduced to two.\nOver his 27-year tenure, Pope John Paul II named more saints than all his predecessors combined, beatifying more than 1,300 people and canonizing nearly 500. He fast-tracked Mother Theresa's canonization, and made a distinct effort to identify saints in Africa and Asia. In 2000, much to the chagrin of the communist government there, John Paul II canonized the first saints in China, naming 87 Chinese citizens and 33 foreign missionaries who had died in the country between 1648 and 1930. He also named the first saint from Brazil, home to more Catholics than any other country. Many within the Catholic church disapproved of the mass canonizations, which one critic calling the pope's actions \"Vatican marketing decisions.\"\nBut at Pope John Paul II's funeral in 2005, those gathered at St. Peter's Basilica shouted \"Santo subito!\" Sainthood now! The current pope, Benedict XVI, began the beatification process for John Paul II within a month of his death, waiving the five-year waiting period usually required between a candidate's death and the beatification process.\nEarly this year, the Vatican announced it would make the procedures to name saints more rigorous. The latest canonizations bring to 18 the number of saints named so far in Pope Benedict XVI's papacy. \"For all of Catholic history, the saints have been a central part of Catholic spirituality,\" says James Martin, a Jesuit priest and author of My Life with the Saints. They are, he says, like \"elder brothers and sisters people who help you along.\"",
"Chronological List of Popes\nChronological List Of Popes\nAge at start/end of papacy\nNotes\n22 September 1503 - 18 October 1503 (26 days)\nPius III Papa PIUS Tertius\nFrancesco Todeschini Piccolomini\n31 October 1503 - 21 February 1513 (9 years, 113 days)\nJulius II Papa IULIUS Secundus\nGiuliano della Rovere\nAlbisola, Republic of Genoa\n59 / 69\nNephew of Sixtus IV; Convened the Fifth Council of the Lateran, 1512. Took effective control of the whole territory of the Papal States for the first time. Commissioned Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Proposed plans for rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica\n9 March 1513 - 1 December 1521 (8 years, 267 days)\nLeo X Papa LEO Decimus\nGiovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici\nFlorence, Republic of Florence\nSon of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Excommunicated Martin Luther. Extended the Spanish Inquisition into Portugal.\n9 January 1522 - 14 September 1523 (1 year, 248 days)\nAdrian VI Papa HADRIANUS Sextus\nAdriaan Floriszoon Boeyens\nUtrecht, Bishopric of Utrecht, Holy Roman Empire (presently The Netherlands\n62 / 64\nThe only Dutch pope. Last non-Italian to be elected pope until John Paul II in 1978. The tutor of Emperor Charles V\n26 November 1523 - 25 September 1534 (10 years, 303 days\nClement VII Papa CLEMENS Septimus\nGiulio di Giuliano de' Medici\nFlorence, Republic of Florence\n45 / 56\nCousin of Leo X. Rome plundered by imperial troops (\"Sacco di Roma\"), 1527. He forbade the divorce of Henry VIII and crowned Charles V Emperor at Bologna in 1530. His niece Catherine de' Medici was married to the future Henry II of France.\n13 October 1534 - 10 November 1549 (15 years, 28 days)\nPaul III Papa PAULUS Tertius\nAlessandro Farnese\n19 May 1769 - 22 September 1774 (5 years, 126 days)\nClement XIV, O.F.M. Conv. Papa CLEMENS Quartus Decimus\nGiovanni Vincenzo Antonio Ganganelli\nSant' Arcangelo di Romagna, Papal States\n63 / 68\nMember of the Conventual Franciscan Order. Suppressed the Jesuit Order.\n15 February 1775 - 29 August 1799 (24 years, 195 days)\nPius VI Papa PIUS Sextus\nCount Giovanni Angelo Braschi\nCesena, Papal States\n57 / 81\nCondemned the French Revolution and was expelled from the Papal States by French troops from 1798 until his death.\n14 March 1800 - 20 August 1823 (23 years, 159 days)\nPius VII, O.S.B. Papa PIUS Septimus\nBarnaba Chiaramonti\nCesena, Papal States\n57 / 81\nMember of the Order of Saint Benedict. Present at Napoleon's coronation as Emperor of the French. Temporarily expelled from the Papal States by the French between 1809 and 1814.\nNineteenth Century\nMember of the Camaldolese Order. The last non-bishop to be elected\n16 June 1846 - 7 February 1878 (31 years, 236 days)\nBd. Pius IX, O.F.S. Papa PIUS Nonus\nCount Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti\nSenigallia, Marche, Papal States\n54 / 85\nOpened First Vatican Council; lost the Papal States to Italy. Longest serving pope in history (see note on St. Peter.)\n20 February 1878 - 20 July 1903 (25 years, 150 days)\nLeo XIII, O.F.S. Papa LEO Tertius Decimus\nGioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Pecci\nCarpineto Romano, Rome departement, French Empire (now Italy)\n67 / 93\nLaid down the seeds of Catholic social teaching through his encyclical, Rerum Novarum (On Capital and Labor) and supported Christian democracy as against communism; he is the third-longest reigning pope after Pius IX (reigned for 31 years) and John Paul II (reigned for 26 years\nTwentieth Century\nSigned the Lateran Treaty with Italy, establishing the Vatican City as a sovereign state.\n2 March 1939 - 9 October 1958 (19 years, 221 days)\nVen. Pius XII Papa PIUS Duodecimus\nEugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli\nRome, Italy\nInvoked papal infallibility in encyclical Munificentissimus Deus\n28 October 1958 - 3 June 1963 (4 years, 218 days)\nBd. John XXIII Papa IOANNES Vicesimus Tertius\nAngelo Giuseppe Roncalli\nSotto il Monte, Bergamo, Italy\n76 / 81\nOpened Second Vatican Council; sometimes called \"Good Pope John\".\n21 June 1963 - 6 August 1978 (15 years, 46 days)\nServant of God Paul VI Papa PAULUS Sextus\nGiovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini\nConcesio, Brescia, Italy\n65 / 80\nThe last pope to be crowned with the Papal Tiara. First pope to travel to the United States. Concluded Second Vatican Council.\n26 August 1978 - 28 September 1978 (33 days)\nServant of God John Paul I Papa IOANNES PAULUS Primus\nAlbino Luciani\nForno di Canale, Veneto, Italy\n65 / 65\nFirst pope to use 'the First' in regnal name. First pope with two names, for his two immediate predecessors. Died early into a charismatic reign.\n16 October 1978 - 2 April 2005 (26 years, 168 days)\nVen. John Paul II (John Paul the Great) Papa IOANNES PAULUS Secundus\nKarol Jozef Wojtyla\nWadowice, Poland\n58 / 84\nFirst Polish pope and first non-Italian pope in 455 years. Canonized more saints than all predecessors. Traveled extensively. Longest serving pope since Pius IX (1846-1878) and 2nd longest serving pope to date (see note on St. Peter. )\nTwenty- First Century"
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"Top 10 Popes With The Shortest Reigns Ever - Toptenz.net",
"Popes of the 20th Century - About.com Religion & Spirituality",
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"A Brief History of Sainthood - TIME",
"Chronological List of Popes - e-Catholic 2000"
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What was Gene Kelly's middle name?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Eugene Curran \"Gene\" Kelly (August 23, 1912 – February 2, 1996) was an American dancer, actor, singer, film director, producer and choreographer. He was known for his energetic and athletic dancing style, his good looks, and the likeable characters that he played on screen.\n\nBest known today for his performances in films such as An American in Paris (1951), Anchors Aweigh (1945), and Singin' in the Rain (1952), he was a dominant force in musical films until they fell out of fashion in the late 1950s. Among others, he starred in many successful musical films throughout the 1940s, including For Me and My Gal (1942), Du Barry Was a Lady (1943), Thousands Cheer (1943), The Three Musketeers (1948) and On the Town (1949). In his later career he starred in two notable films which were outside the musical genre. They are Inherit the Wind (1960) and What a Way to Go!, although his 1955 film It's Always Fair Weather, in later life, gained recognition among his fans largely due to his musical and dance performances. Throughout his career he had directed films, some of which he starred in. Kelly did not star in Hello, Dolly he directed. Despite being a commercial failure at the time, it is now regarded as one of the greatest musical films ever. The film was even nominated in 1969 for the Academy Award for Best Picture at the 42nd Academy Awards. \n\nHis many innovations transformed the Hollywood musical and he is credited with almost single-handedly making the ballet form commercially acceptable to film audiences.\n\nKelly received an Academy Honorary Award in 1952 for his career achievements. He later received lifetime achievement awards in the Kennedy Center Honors (1982), and from the Screen Actors Guild and American Film Institute. In 1999, the American Film Institute also numbered him 15th in their Greatest Male Stars of Classic Hollywood cinema list.\n\nEarly life\n\nKelly was born in the East Liberty neighborhood of Pittsburgh. He was the third son of James Patrick Joseph Kelly, a phonograph salesman, and his wife Harriet Catherine Curran. His father was born in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, to an Irish Canadian family. His maternal grandfather was an immigrant from Derry, Northern Ireland, and his maternal grandmother was of German ancestry. When he was eight, Kelly's mother enrolled him and his brother James in dance classes. They both rebelled, as recalled by Kelly: \"We didn't like it much and were continually involved in fistfights with the neighborhood boys who called us sissies...I didn't dance again until I was fifteen.\" At one time his childhood dream was to play shortstop for the hometown Pittsburgh Pirates. By the time he decided to dance, he was an accomplished sportsman and able to defend himself. He attended St. Raphael Elementary School in the Morningside neighborhood of Pittsburgh and graduated from Peabody High School at age sixteen. He entered Pennsylvania State College as a journalism major, but the 1929 crash forced him to work to help his family. He created dance routines with his younger brother Fred to earn prize money in local talent contests. They also performed in local nightclubs.\n\nIn 1931, Kelly enrolled at the University of Pittsburgh to study economics, joining the Phi Kappa Theta fraternity. He became involved in the university's Cap and Gown Club, which staged original musical productions. After graduating in 1933, he continued to be active with the Cap and Gown Club, serving as the director from 1934 to 1938. Kelly was admitted to the University of Pittsburgh Law School. \n\nHis family opened a dance studio in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood of Pittsburgh. In 1932, they renamed it The Gene Kelly Studio of the Dance and opened a second location in Johnstown, Pennsylvania in 1933. Kelly served as a teacher at the studio during his undergraduate and law student years at Pitt. In 1931 he was approached by the Rodef Shalom synagogue in Pittsburgh to teach dance, and to stage the annual Kermess. This venture was successful enough that they retained his services for seven years, until he departed for New York. \n\nKelly eventually decided to pursue a career as a dance teacher and full-time entertainer, so he dropped out of law school after two months. He began to increasingly focus on performing, and later claimed: \"With time I became disenchanted with teaching because the ratio of girls to boys was more than ten to one, and once the girls reached sixteen the dropout rate was very high.\" In 1937, having successfully managed and developed the family's dance school business, he finally did move to New York City in search of work as a choreographer. Kelly returned to Pittsburgh, to his family home at 7514 Kensington Street by 1940, and worked as a theatrical actor. \n\nStage career\n\nAfter a fruitless search for work in New York, Kelly returned to Pittsburgh to his first position as a choreographer with the Charles Gaynor musical revue Hold Your Hats at the Pittsburgh Playhouse in April 1938. Kelly appeared in six of the sketches, one of which, La Cumparsita, became the basis of an extended Spanish number in the film Anchors Aweigh (film) eight years later.\n\nHis first Broadway assignment, in November 1938, was as a dancer in Cole Porter's Leave It to Me!—as the American ambassador's secretary who supports Mary Martin while she sings My Heart Belongs to Daddy. He had been hired by Robert Alton, who had staged a show at the Pittsburgh Playhouse where he was impressed by Kelly's teaching skills. When Alton moved on to choreograph One for the Money he hired Kelly to act, sing, and dance in eight routines. In 1939, he was selected for a musical revue, One for the Money, produced by the actress Katharine Cornell, who was known for finding and hiring talented young actors.\n\nKelly's first big breakthrough was in the Pulitzer Prize-winning The Time of Your Life, which opened on October 25, 1939—in which, for the first time on Broadway, he danced to his own choreography. In the same year he received his first assignment as a Broadway choreographer, for Billy Rose's Diamond Horseshoe. He began dating a cast member, Betsy Blair, and they got married on October 16, 1941.\n\nIn 1940 he got the lead role in Rodgers and Hart's Pal Joey, again choreographed by Robert Alton. This role propelled him to stardom. During its run he told reporters: \"I don't believe in conformity to any school of dancing. I create what the drama and the music demand. While I am a hundred percent for ballet technique, I use only what I can adapt to my own use. I never let technique get in the way of mood or continuity.\" His colleagues at this time noticed his great commitment to rehearsal and hard work. Van Johnson—who also appeared in Pal Joey—recalled: \"I watched him rehearsing, and it seemed to me that there was no possible room for improvement. Yet he wasn't satisfied. It was midnight and we had been rehearsing since eight in the morning. I was making my way sleepily down the long flight of stairs when I heard staccato steps coming from the stage...I could see just a single lamp burning. Under it, a figure was dancing...Gene.\"\n\nOffers from Hollywood began to arrive, but Kelly was in no hurry to leave New York. Eventually, he signed with David O. Selznick, agreeing to go to Hollywood at the end of his commitment to Pal Joey, in October 1941. Prior to his contract, he also managed to fit in choreographing the stage production of Best Foot Forward.\n\nFilm career\n\n1941–1945: Becoming established in Hollywood\n\nSelznick sold half of Kelly's contract to MGM for his first motion picture: For Me and My Gal (1942) starring box-office champion Judy Garland. Kelly claimed to be \"...appalled at the sight of myself blown up twenty times. I had an awful feeling that I was a tremendous flop.\" For Me and My Gal performed very well and, in the face of much internal resistance, Arthur Freed of MGM picked up the other half of Kelly's contract. After appearing in a cheap B-movie drama, Pilot #5 (1943) and in Christmas Holiday (1944), he took the male lead in Cole Porter's Du Barry Was a Lady (1943) opposite Lucille Ball (in a part originally intended for Ann Sothern). His first opportunity to dance to his own choreography came in his next picture, Thousands Cheer (1943), where he performed a mock-love dance with a mop.\n\nHe achieved a significant breakthrough as a dancer on film when MGM loaned him to Columbia to work with Rita Hayworth in Cover Girl (1944), a film that foreshadowed the best of his future work. He created a memorable routine dancing to his own reflection. Despite this, noted critic Manny Farber was moved to praise Kelly's \"attitude,\" \"clarity,\" and \"feeling\" as an actor while inauspiciously concluding, \"The two things he does least well - singing and dancing - are what he is given most consistently to do.\" At the end of 1944, Kelly enlisted in the U.S. Naval Air Service and was commissioned as lieutenant junior grade. He was stationed in the Photographic Section, Washington D.C., where he was involved in writing and directing a range of documentaries, and this stimulated his interest in the production side of film-making. \n\nIn Kelly's next film, Anchors Aweigh (1945), MGM gave him a free hand to devise a range of dance routines—including a celebrated animated dance with Jerry Mouse, and his duets with co-star Frank Sinatra. The iconic performance was enough for Manny Farber to completely reverse his previous assessment of Kelly's skills. Reviewing the film, Farber enthused, \"Kelly is the most exciting dancer to appear in Hollywood movies.\" Anchors Aweigh became one of the most successful films of 1945 and it garnered Kelly his first and only Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. In Ziegfeld Follies (1946) – which was produced in 1944 but not released until 1946 – Kelly collaborated with Fred Astaire, for whom he had the greatest admiration, in the famous \"The Babbitt and the Bromide\" challenge dance routine.\n\n1946–1952: MGM\n\nAfter Kelly returned to Hollywood in 1946, MGM had nothing planned and used him in a routine, black-and-white movie: Living in a Big Way. The film was considered so weak that the studio asked Kelly to design and insert a series of dance routines, and they noticed his ability to carry off such assignments. This led to a lead part in his next picture, with Judy Garland and director Vincente Minnelli— a musical film version of S.N. Behrman's play, The Pirate, with songs by Cole Porter, in which Kelly plays the lead. The Pirate gave full rein to Kelly's athleticism. It is also notable for Kelly's work with The Nicholas Brothers – the leading black dancers of their day – in a virtuoso dance routine. Now regarded as a classic, the film was ahead of its time, but flopped at the box-office.\n\nMGM wanted Kelly to return to safer and more commercial vehicles, but he ceaselessly fought for an opportunity to direct his own musical film. In the interim, he capitalized on his swashbuckling image as d'Artagnan in The Three Musketeers—and also appeared with Vera-Ellen in the Slaughter on Tenth Avenue ballet in Words and Music (1948). He was due to play the male lead opposite Garland in Easter Parade (1948), but broke his ankle playing volleyball. He withdrew from the film and convinced Fred Astaire to come out of retirement to replace him. There followed Take Me Out to the Ball Game (1949), his second film with Sinatra, where Kelly paid tribute to his Irish heritage in The Hat My Father Wore on St. Patrick's Day routine. This musical film persuaded Arthur Freed to have Kelly make On the Town, in which he partnered with Frank Sinatra for the third and final time. A breakthrough in the musical film genre, it has been described as \"the most inventive and effervescent musical thus far produced in Hollywood.\"\n\nStanley Donen, brought to Hollywood by Kelly to be his assistant choreographer, received co-director credit for On the Town. According to Kelly: \"...when you are involved in doing choreography for film you must have expert assistants. I needed one to watch my performance, and one to work with the cameraman on the timing..without such people as Stanley, Carol Haney and Jeanne Coyne I could never have done these things. When we came to do On the Town, I knew it was time for Stanley to get screen credit because we weren't boss-assistant anymore but co-creators.\" Together, they opened up the musical form, taking the film musical out of the studio and into real locations, with Donen taking responsibility for the staging and Kelly handling the choreography. Kelly went much further than before in introducing modern ballet into his dance sequences, going so far in the \"Day in New York\" routine as to substitute four leading ballet specialists for Sinatra, Munshin, Garrett and Miller.\n\nKelly asked the studio for a straight acting role and he took the lead role in the early mafia melodrama: Black Hand (1950). This exposé of organized crime is set in New York's \"Little Italy\" during late 19th century, and focuses on the Black Hand, a group which extorts money upon threat of death. In real-life incidents upon which this film is based, it was the Mafia, not the Black Hand, who functioned as the villain. Even in 1950, however, Hollywood had to tread gingerly whenever dealing with big-time crime, it being safer to go after a \"dead\" criminal organization than a \"live\" one. There followed Summer Stock (1950) – Garland's last musical film for MGM – in which Kelly performed the celebrated \"You, You Wonderful You\" solo routine with a newspaper and a squeaky floorboard. In his book \"Easy the Hard Way\", Joe Pasternak, head of one of the other musical units within MGM, singled out Kelly for his patience and willingness to spend as much time as necessary to enable the ailing Garland to complete her part.\n\nThere followed in quick succession two musicals which have secured Kelly's reputation as a major figure in the American musical film, An American in Paris (1951) and – probably the most popular and admired of all film musicals – Singin' in the Rain (1952). As co-director, lead star and choreographer, Kelly was the central driving force. Johnny Green, head of music at MGM at the time, said of him:\n\"Gene is easygoing as long as you know exactly what you are doing when you're working with him. He's a hard taskmaster and he loves hard work. If you want to play on his team you'd better like hard work, too. He isn't cruel but he is tough, and if Gene believed in something he didn't care who he was talking to, whether it was Louis B. Mayer or the gatekeeper. He wasn't awed by anybody, and he had a good record of getting what he wanted\".\n\nAn American in Paris won six Academy Awards, including Best Picture and, in the same year, Kelly received an honorary Academy Award for his contribution to film musicals and the art of choreography. The film also marked the debut of Leslie Caron, who Kelly had spotted in Paris and brought to Hollywood. Its dream ballet sequence, lasting an unprecedented seventeen minutes, was the most expensive production number ever filmed at that time. Bosley Crowther described it as, \"...whoop-de-doo ... one of the finest ever put on the screen.\"\n\nSingin' in the Rain featured Kelly's celebrated and much imitated solo dance routine to the title song, along with the \"Moses Supposes\" routine with Donald O'Connor and the \"Broadway Melody\" finale with Cyd Charisse. Though the film did not initially generate the same enthusiasm as An American in Paris, it subsequently overtook the earlier film to occupy its current pre-eminent place among critics and filmgoers alike. \n\n1953–57: The decline of the Hollywood musical\n\nAt the peak of his creative powers, Kelly made what in retrospect some see as a mistake. In December 1951, he signed a contract with MGM that sent him to Europe for nineteen months to use MGM funds frozen in Europe to make three pictures while personally benefiting from tax exemptions. Only one of these pictures was a musical, Invitation to the Dance, a pet project of Kelly's to bring modern ballet to mainstream film audiences. It was beset with delays and technical problems, and flopped when finally released in 1956. When Kelly returned to Hollywood in 1953, the film musical was already beginning to feel the pressures from television, and MGM cut the budget for his next picture Brigadoon (1954), with Cyd Charisse, forcing him to make the film on studio back lots instead of on location in Scotland. This year also saw him appear as guest star with his brother Fred in the celebrated I Love to Go Swimmin' with Wimmen routine in Deep in My Heart. MGM's refusal to loan him out for Guys and Dolls and Pal Joey put further strains on his relationship with the studio. He negotiated an exit to his contract which involved making three further pictures for MGM. The first of these, It's Always Fair Weather (1956) co-directed with Donen, was a musical satire on television and advertising, and includes his famous roller skate dance routine to I Like Myself, and a dance trio with Michael Kidd and Dan Dailey that Kelly used to experiment with the widescreen possibilities of Cinemascope. MGM had lost faith in Kelly's box-office appeal, and as a result It's Always Fair Weather \"premiered\" at seventeen drive-in theatres around the Los Angeles metroplex. Next followed Kelly's last musical film for MGM, Les Girls (1957), in which he partnered a trio of leading ladies, Mitzi Gaynor, Kay Kendall and Taina Elg. It too sold few movie tickets. The third picture he completed was a co-production between MGM and himself, a cheapie B-film, The Happy Road, set in his beloved France, his first foray in a new role as producer-director-actor. After leaving MGM, Kelly returned to stage work.\n\n1958–1996: After MGM\n\nIn 1958, he directed Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical play Flower Drum Song. Early in 1960, Kelly, an ardent Francophile and fluent French speaker, was invited by A. M. Julien, the general administrator of the Paris Opéra and Opéra-Comique, to select his own material and create a modern ballet for the company, the first time an American had received such an assignment. The result was Pas de Dieux, based on Greek mythology, combined with the music of George Gershwin's Concerto in F. It was a major success, and led to his being honored with the Chevalier of the Legion d'Honneur by the French Government. Kelly continued to make some film appearances, such as Hornbeck in the 1960 Hollywood production of Inherit the Wind. However, most of his efforts were now concentrated on film production and directing. In 1962 he directed Jackie Gleason in Gigot in Paris, but the film was drastically re-cut by Seven Arts Productions and flopped. Another French effort, Jacques Demy's homage to the MGM musical, Les Demoiselles de Rochefort (1967), in which Kelly appeared, was popular in France and nominated for Academy Awards for Best Music and Score of a Musical Picture (Original or Adaptation), but performed poorly elsewhere. He appeared as himself in George Cukor's Let's Make Love (1960).\n\nHe was asked to direct the film version of The Sound of Music, which had been previously turned down by Stanley Donen. He escorted Ernest Lehman out of his house saying \"Go find someone else to direct this piece of shit.\" \n\nHis first foray into television was a documentary for NBC's Omnibus, Dancing is a Man's Game (1958), where he assembled a group of America's greatest sportsmen – including Mickey Mantle, Sugar Ray Robinson and Bob Cousy – and re-interpreted their moves choreographically, as part of his lifelong quest to remove the effeminate stereotype of the art of dance, while articulating the philosophy behind his dance style. It gained an Emmy nomination for choreography and now stands as the key document explaining Kelly's approach to modern dance.\n\nKelly appeared frequently on television shows during the 1960s, including Going My Way, which was based on the 1944 film same name. It enjoyed great popularity in Roman Catholic countries outside the U.S.\n\nHe also appeared in three major TV specials: New York, New York (1966), The Julie Andrews' Show (1965), and Jack and the Beanstalk (1967)—a show he produced and directed that again combined cartoon animation and live dance, winning him an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program. In 1963, Kelly joined Universal Pictures for a two-year stint. He joined 20th Century Fox in 1965, but had little to do—partly due to his decision to decline assignments away from Los Angeles for family reasons. His perseverance finally paid off, with the major box-office hit A Guide for the Married Man (1967) where he directed Walter Matthau. Then, a major opportunity arose when Fox – buoyed by the returns from The Sound of Music (1965) – commissioned Kelly to direct Hello, Dolly! (1969), again directing Matthau along with Barbra Streisand. The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and won three.\n\nIn 1970, he made another TV special: Gene Kelly and 50 Girls and was invited to bring the show to Las Vegas, Nevada—which he did for an eight-week stint on the condition he be paid more than any artist had ever been paid there. He directed veteran actors James Stewart and Henry Fonda in the comedy western The Cheyenne Social Club (1970) which performed poorly at the box-office. In 1973, he worked again with Frank Sinatra as part of Sinatra's Emmy nominated TV special, Magnavox Presents Frank Sinatra. Then, in 1974, he appeared as one of many special narrators in the surprise hit of the year That's Entertainment!. He subsequently directed and co-starred with his friend Fred Astaire in the sequel That's Entertainment, Part II (1976). It was a measure of his powers of persuasion that he managed to coax the 77-year-old Astaire – who had insisted that his contract rule out any dancing, having long since retired—into performing a series of song and dance duets, evoking a powerful nostalgia for the glory days of the American musical film.\n\nIn 1977, Kelly starred in the poorly received action film Viva Knievel, with the popular stuntman, Evel Knievel. Kelly continued to make frequent TV appearances and, in 1980, appeared in an acting and dancing role with Olivia Newton-John in Xanadu (1980)—an expensive theatrical flop that has since attained a cult following. In Kelly's opinion, \"The concept was marvelous but it just didn't come off.\" In the same year, he was invited by Francis Ford Coppola to recruit a production staff for American Zoetrope's One from the Heart (1982). Although Coppola's ambition was for him to establish a production unit to rival the Freed Unit at MGM, the film's failure put an end to this idea. In 1985 Kelly served as executive producer and co-host of That's Dancing! – a celebration of the history of dance in the American musical. Kelly's final on-screen appearance was to introduce That's Entertainment! III. His final film project was in 1994 for the animated film Cats Don't Dance, released in 1997 and dedicated to him, on which Kelly acted as an uncredited choreographic consultant.\n\nWorking methods and influence on filmed dance\n\nWhen he began his collaborative film work, he was influenced by Robert Alton and John Murray Anderson, striving to create moods and character insight with his dances. He choreographed his own movement, along with that of the ensemble, with the assistance of Jeanne Coyne, Stanley Donen, Carol Haney and Alex Romero. He experimented with lighting, camera techniques and special effects in order to achieve true integration of dance with film, and was one of the first to use split screens, double images, live action with animation and is credited as the person who made the ballet form commercially acceptable to film audiences.\n\nThere was a clear progression in his development, from an early concentration on tap and musical comedy style to greater complexity using ballet and modern dance forms. Kelly himself refused to categorize his style: \"I don't have a name for my style of dancing...It's certainly hybrid...I've borrowed from the modern dance, from the classical, and certainly from the American folk dance – tap-dancing, jitterbugging...But I have tried to develop a style which is indigenous to the environment in which I was reared.\" He especially acknowledged the influence of George M. Cohan: \"I have a lot of Cohan in me. It's an Irish quality, a jaw-jutting, up-on-the-toes cockiness – which is a good quality for a male dancer to have.\" He was also heavily influenced by an African-American dancer, Dancing Dotson, whom he saw perform at Loew's Penn Theatre around 1929. He was briefly taught by Frank Harrington, an African-American tap specialist from New York. However, his main interest was in ballet, which he studied under Kotchetovsky in the early Thirties. As biographer Clive Hirschhorn explains: \"As a child he used to run for miles through parks and streets and woods – anywhere, just as long as he could feel the wind against his body and through his hair. Ballet gave him the same feeling of exhilaration, and in 1933 he was convinced it was the most satisfying form of self-expression.\" He also studied Spanish dancing under Angel Cansino, Rita Hayworth's uncle. Generally speaking, he tended to use tap and other popular dance idioms to express joy and exuberance – as in the title song from Singin' in the Rain or \"I Got Rhythm\" from An American in Paris, whereas pensive or romantic feelings were more often expressed via ballet or modern dance, as in \"Heather on the Hill\" from Brigadoon or \"Our Love Is Here to Stay\" from An American in Paris.\n\nAccording to Delamater, Kelly's work \"seems to represent the fulfillment of dance-film integration in the 1940s and 1950s\". While Fred Astaire had revolutionized the filming of dance in the 1930s by insisting on full-figure photography of dancers while allowing only a modest degree of camera movement, Kelly freed up the camera, making greater use of space, camera movement, camera angles and editing, creating a partnership between dance movement and camera movement without sacrificing full-figure framing. Kelly's reasoning behind this was that he felt the kinetic force of live dance often evaporated when brought to film, and he sought to partially overcome this by involving the camera in movement and giving the dancer a greater number of directions in which to move. Examples of this abound in Kelly's work and are well illustrated in the \"Prehistoric Man\" sequence from On the Town and \"The Hat My Father Wore on St. Patrick's Day\" from Take Me Out to the Ball Game. In 1951, he summed up his vision as follows: \"If the camera is to make a contribution at all to dance, this must be the focal point of its contribution; the fluid background, giving each spectator an undistorted and altogether similar view of dancer and background. To accomplish this, the camera is made fluid, moving with the dancer, so that the lens becomes the eye of the spectator, your eye\".\n\nKelly's athleticism gave his moves a distinctive broad, muscular quality, and this was a very deliberate choice on his part, as he explained: \"There's a strong link between sports and dancing, and my own dancing springs from my early days as an athlete...I think dancing is a man's game and if he does it well he does it better than a woman.\" He railed against what he saw as the widespread effeminacy in male dancing which, in his opinion, \"tragically\" stigmatized the genre, alienating boys from entering the field: \"Dancing does attract effeminate young men. I don't object to that as long as they don't dance effeminately. I just say that if a man dances effeminately he dances badly — just as if a woman comes out on stage and starts to sing bass. Unfortunately, people confuse gracefulness with softness. John Wayne is a graceful man and so are some of the great ball players...but, of course, they don't run the risk of being called sissies.\" In his view, \"one of our problems is that so much dancing is taught by women. You can spot many male dancers who have this tuition by their arm movements — they are soft, limp and feminine.\" He acknowledged that, in spite of his efforts — in TV programs such as Dancing: A Man's Game (1958) for example — the situation changed little over the years.\n\nHe also sought to break from the class-conscious conventions of the 1930s and early 40s, when top hat and tails or tuxedos were the norm, by dancing in casual or everyday work clothes, so as to make his dancing more relevant to the cinema-going public. As his first wife, actress and dancer Betsy Blair explained: \"A sailor suit or his white socks and loafers, or the T-shirts on his muscular torso, gave everyone the feeling that he was a regular guy, and perhaps they too could express love and joy by dancing in the street or stomping through puddles...he democratized the dance in movies.\" In particular, he wanted to create a completely different image from that associated with Fred Astaire, not least because he believed his physique didn't suit such refined elegance: \"I used to envy his cool aristocratic style, so intimate and contained. Fred wears top hat and tails to the Manor born — I put them on and look like a truck driver.\"\n\nPersonal life\n\nMarriages\n\nKelly married actress Betsy Blair in 1941. They had one child, Kerry (b. 1942), and divorced in April 1957. \n\nIn 1960 Kelly married his choreographic assistant Jeanne Coyne, who had divorced Stanley Donen in 1949 after a brief marriage. He remained married to Coyne until her death in 1973. They had two children, Timothy (b. 1962) and Bridget (b. 1964). He was married to Patricia Ward from 1990 until his death in 1996. \n\nPolitical and religious views\n\nKelly was a lifelong supporter of the Democratic Party. His period of greatest prominence coincided with the McCarthy era in the U.S. In 1947, he was part of the Committee for the First Amendment, the Hollywood delegation that flew to Washington to protest at the first official hearings by the House Committee on Un-American Activities. His first wife, Betsy Blair, was suspected of being a Communist sympathizer and when United Artists, who had offered Blair a part in Marty (1955), were considering withdrawing her under pressure from the American Legion, Kelly successfully threatened MGM's influence on United Artists with a pullout from It's Always Fair Weather unless his wife was restored to the part. He used his position on the board of directors of the Writers Guild of America, West on a number of occasions to mediate disputes between unions and the Hollywood studios.\n\nHe was raised as a Roman Catholic, and he was a member of the Good Shepherd Parish and the Catholic Motion Picture Guild in Beverly Hills, California. However, after becoming disenchanted by the Roman Catholic Church's support for Francisco Franco against the Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War, he officially severed his ties with the church in September 1939. This separation was prompted, in part, by a trip Kelly made to Mexico in which he became convinced of the Church’s failure in helping the poor. After his departure from the Catholic Church, Kelly became an agnostic, and had previously described himself as such. He retained a lifelong passion for sports and relished competition. He was known as a big fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers and New York Yankees. From the mid-1940s through the early 1950s, he and Blair organized weekly parties at their Beverly Hills home, and they often played an intensely competitive and physical version of charades, known as \"The Game\".\n\nAfter his death it was reported that Kelly had donated money to the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) during the 1970s. His papers are currently housed at the Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center at Boston University.\n\nLate in life, Gene Kelly was awarded Irish citizenship under Ireland's Citizenship by Foreign Birth program. The application was initiated on his behalf by his wife Patricia Ward Kelly. \n\nIllness and death\n\nKelly's health declined steadily in the late 1980s. A stroke in July 1994 resulted in a seven-week hospital stay and another stroke in early 1995 left Kelly mostly bedridden in his Beverly Hills home. He died in his sleep at 8:15 a.m. on February 2, 1996, and was cremated, without funeral or memorial services.cf. Blair, p. 8\n\nAwards and honors\n\n* 1942 – Best Actor award from the National Board of Review for his performance in For Me and My Gal\n* 1946 – Academy Award nomination for Best Actor in Anchors Aweigh (1945)\n* 1951 – Nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for An American in Paris\n* 1952 – Honorary Academy Award \"in appreciation of his versatility as an actor, singer, director and dancer, and specifically for his brilliant achievements in the art of choreography on film.\" This Oscar was lost in a fire in 1983 and replaced at the 1984 Academy Awards.\n* 1953 – Nomination from the Directors Guild of America, Best Director for An American in Paris, 1952.\n* 1956 – Golden Bear at the 6th Berlin International Film Festival for Invitation to the Dance. \n* 1958 – Nomination for Golden Laurel Award for Best Male Musical Performance in Les Girls.\n* 1958 – Dance Magazines annual TV Award for Dancing: A Man's Game from the Omnibus television series. It was also nominated for an Emmy for best singing.\n* 1960 – In France, Kelly was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor.\n* 1962 – Gene Kelly Dance Film Festival staged by the Museum of Modern Art.\n* 1964 – Silver Sail Best Actor for What a Way to Go! (1964) at the Locarno International Film Festival.\n* 1967 – Emmy for Outstanding Children's Program for Jack and the Beanstalk.\n* 1970 – Nomination for Golden Globe, Best Director for Hello, Dolly!, 1969.\n* 1970 – Nomination from the Directors Guid of America, Best Director for Hello, Dolly!, 1969.\n* 1981 – Cecil B. DeMille Award at Golden Globes.\n* 1981 – Kelly was the subject of a two-week film festival in France.\n* 1982 – Lifetime Achievement Award in the fifth annual Kennedy Center Honors.\n* 1985 – Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute.\n* 1989 – Life Achievement Award from Screen Actors Guild.\n* 1991 – Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera inaugurates The Gene Kelly Awards, given annually to high-school musicals in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania.\n* 1992 – Induction into the American Theater Hall of Fame. \n* 1994 – National Medal of Arts awarded by United States President Bill Clinton. \n* 1994 – The Three Tenors performed \"Singin' in the Rain\" in his presence during a concert at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles.\n* 1996 – Honorary César Award, The César is the main national film award in France.\n* 1996 – At the Academy Awards ceremony, director Quincy Jones organized a tribute to the just-deceased Kelly, in which Savion Glover performed the dance to \"Singin' in the Rain\".\n* 1997 – Ranked number 26 in Empire (UK) magazine's \"The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time\" list.\n* 1999 – Ranked number 15 in the American Film Institute's \"Greatest Male Legends\" of Classic Hollywood list.\n* 2013 - \"Singin' in the Rain\" ranked number 1 in \"The Nation's Favourite Dance Moment\".\n\nFilmography\n\nMusical films\n\nKelly appeared as actor and dancer in the following musical films. He always choreographed his own dance routines and often the dance routines of others and used assistants. As was the practice at the time, he was rarely formally credited in the film titles:\n\nStage\n\nTelevision\n\nRadio appearances\n\nNotes"
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"Climbing up Gene Kelly’s Family Tree | What's Past is Prologue\nWhat's Past is Prologue\nSeptember 3, 2010 by Donna Pointkouski\nThis month’s COG (for which I am late…the dog ate my homework, Teacher Jasia!) asked us to Research From Scratch by starting a search on someone else’s family tree. When I began my own family research about 21 years ago, there were not any records available on the internet. Lately I’ve wondered how much I could have found if I had waited until today to begin my search and how much easier it would have been. This challenge was an opportunity to find out. The subject of my experiment: actor-singer-dancer-director Gene Kelly. As most visitors to this site have since surmised, Gene Kelly is what I call my “other gene hobby.” Gene was well known for his smiling “Irish eyes”, but I was curious about his Canadian and German ancestry as well. Starting from scratch, how much could I find in a few hours? In that short amount of time, I learned a lot about his ancestry. But I also learned some research lessons that I’d like to share.\nStart by interviewing your family, but don’t believe everything they say as fact.\nWhen I began my own research, I started by asking my parents questions about their parents and grandparents, and I also referred to an interview with my grandmother when I was in grade school and needed to complete a family history project. That same advice holds true today – you need basic facts about a family to begin your research. In the case of my subject, I couldn’t actually talk to Mr. Kelly. So instead I turned to the only biography that was written during his lifetime in which the author interviewed Kelly himself.\nThe book is Gene Kelly by Clive Hirschhorn (Chicago : H. Regnery, 1975). While it is not entirely accurate – especially since it begins with the incorrect birth date of its subject – it was a way to get basic information about his brothers and sisters, parents, and grandparents – as close as I can get to acquring the info from Gene himself.\nFrom the first chapter of the biography, I learned enough basic facts to begin my research on the Kelly family:\nGene’s parents were James Patrick Joseph Kelly and Harriet Curran. They married in 1906.\nBoth came from large families; James was one of eleven children, and Harriet one of 13.\nHarriet’s father, Billy Curran, “had emigrated to New York from Londonderry in 1845…via Dunfermline in Scotland.” Billy met “Miss Eckhart”, of German descent, married and moved to Houtzdale, PA. They later moved to Pittsburgh.\nBilly died before 1907 from pneumonia after he was left in the cold at night after being robbed.\nThere were 9 Curran children, and 4 who died, but only 7 are named: Frank, Edward, Harry, John, Lillian, Harriet, and Gus.\nJames Kelly was born in Peterborough Canada in 1875\nJames died in 1966, and Harriet died in 1972. Of Harriet, Mr. Hirschhorn says, “No one quite knows whether she was 85, 87, or 89.”\nIn addition to Gene’s parents’ info were the basics about their children. In birth order, the Kelly family included Harriet, James, Eugene Curran, Louise, and Frederic. Gene was born on August 23, 1912. This is plenty of information to begin a search. But, don’t believe everything you read or everything your family members tell you – sometimes the “facts” can be wrong, and only research will find the truth!\nCensus records are a great place to begin your research.\nBack in 1989, my research began at the National Archives with the U.S. Federal Census records. Of course, back then the first available census was from 1910, and none of the records were digitized. Today, I still think census records are the best place to start researching a family. I used Ancestry.com and began with the 1930 census. Despite many “James Kelly” families in Pittsburgh, PA, it was relatively easy to find the entire Kelly clan. As I continued backward with earlier census records and Harriet Kelly’s Curran family, I found some similarities to issues I had in my own family research:\nNames can be misspelled. I expected this with Zawodny and Piontkowski, but not with Curran! The Curran family is listed as “Curn” on the 1900 census.\nAges are not necessarily correct. It seems that Harriet Curran Kelly has a similar condition to many of my female ancestors – she ages less than ten years every decade and grows younger!\nInformation can differ from census to census, and these conflicts can only be resolved by using other record resources. Despite birth year variations for both Gene’s mother and father, James Kelly’s immigration year differed on each census as did Harriet’s father’s birthplace (Pennsylvania, Ireland, or Scotland?).\nFinding in-laws is a bonus, and a great way to discover maiden names. If I didn’t already know that Harriet’s maiden name was Curran (from Gene’s biography – and it is also Gene’s middle name), I would have discovered it on the 1930 census since her brother Frank Curran was living with the Kelly family. Also, I knew Harriet’s mother’s maiden name was “Eckhart” from the biography, and the 1880 census of the Curran family lists her brother and sisters – James, Jennie, and Josephine Eckerd.\nIn the few hours of research on census records alone, I was able to trace Gene’s father only to 1910 after his marriage to Harriet. In 1900 he was single, and I was unable to find a recent Canadian immigrant named James Kelly. Gene’s maternal line ran dry with the Curran’s in 1880. William Curran and Mary Elizabeth “Eckhart” married after 1870. There are too many William Curran’s from Ireland to determine the correct one, and I was unable to locate the Eckhart family prior to 1880.\nNaturalization records provide the best information – after 1906.\nThe signature of Gene Kelly’s father from his “declaration of intention” petition in 1913.\nAncestry.com also provided James Kelly’s naturalization record. In addition to confirming his birth in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada in 1875 (also found in Ancestry’s World War 1 Draft records), the petition lists his immigration information and the birthdates of the first 4 Kelly children (youngest son Fred was not born at the time of his father’s naturalization). Unfortunately the record does not list the birthplace of Harriet other than as Pennsylvania. Was it in Houtzdale, PA, where her parents resided in 1880 or elsewhere?\nAlthough Ancestry has Canadian census records, I was unable to definitely find James Kelly in Ontario on the 1881 or 1891 census.\nThe internet helps you find a lot of information, but not everything is online.\nCensus records can only get you so far before you need vital records. While many states also have these records online, Gene Kelly’s ancestors settled in the same state as mine, Pennsylvania, which is not one of the “friendlier” states when it comes to accessing vital records. If I were to continue with the Kelly research, vital records would have to be obtained offline. It would be useful to obtain the marriage record for William Curran and Mary Elizabeth Eckhart, which may have occurred in Clearfield County since that was their residence in 1880. Finding this record would reveal both sets of parents’ names and possibly birth information for William and Mary Elizabeth. For the Kelly side of the family, I would likely attempt to obtain James Kelly’s birth record in Peterborough.\n [Side note: I have met several of Kelly’s relatives. One cousin has delved deeper into the Peterborough roots of the Kelly family as well as James Kelly’s maternal line, the Barry family. There is an interesting newspaper article on a house that may have belonged to the Canadian Kelly’s called One Little House Leads to Many Connections .]\nConclusion\nI was able to confirm many of the intial facts I started with, but I didn’t learn any essential information in addition to those facts. Specifically, I hoped to learn more about Gene’s maternal grandmother’s German roots, but I was unable to find out anything more about the Eckhart – Eckerd family using Ancestry.com alone. More offline research is learn more about this branch of the family. I did learn more about Gene’s aunts and uncles – this is important because researching collateral lines can lead to important information about shared direct ancestors. Finally, I learned that it is much easier to start from scratch now than it was 21 years ago. Even though the record sources I used were the same, digitization and the internet has made it much faster to find information! And easier, which is great because it will hopefully prompt more people to start from scratch! What are you waiting for? Start researching your family!\n[Submitted (late) for the 97th Carnival of Genealogy: Research from Scratch ]\nRate this:\n“The internet helps you find a lot of information, but not everything is online.” I hear you, I so hear you!\nVery interesting read!",
"Gene Kelly Biography - life, family, childhood, children, school, mother, son, information, born, college\nGene Kelly Biography\nBeverly Hills, California\nAmerican dancer, actor, and choreographer\nAlthough Gene Kelly established his reputation as an actor and a dancer, his contribution to the Hollywood, California, musical also includes choreography (creating dances) and movie direction.\nAthletic childhood\nEugene Curran Kelly was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on August 23, 1912, the middle son of five children. His father was Canadian-born and loved sports, especially hockey. Every winter Kelly Sr. would flood the family backyard and make an ice rink for hockey.\nKelly Jr. later credited hockey for some of his dance steps, which he described as \"wide open and close to the ground.\" At fifteen Kelly played with a semiprofessional ice hockey team. He also played football, baseball, and participated in gymnastics.\nTurns to dancing\nKelly's other major influence was his mother, who loved the theater. She was the one who sent him to dancing lessons. At first Kelly did not want to continue with his dance lessons because the other students made fun of him. But then he discovered that the girls liked a boy who could dance, so he decided to stick with the lessons.\nIn 1929 Kelly left for Pennsylvania State College, but because of the Great Depression, his family lost their money. The Great Depression (1929–39) was a time of worldwide economic trouble that led to global unemployment and poverty. Kelly had to move back home and attend the University of Pittsburgh in order to save the cost of room and board. While at the university, Kelly worked at a variety of odd jobs to pay his tuition: he dug ditches, worked at a soda fountain, and pumped gas. Kelly's mother began to work as a receptionist at a local dance school. She came up with the idea of the family running its own dance studio. They did and the studio was a big success.\nAfter Kelly graduated from the University of Pittsburgh he taught dance for another six years. In 1937 he left for New York City. He believed that he was talented enough to find work and he was right. He got a job in theater his first week in New York. Kelly's big break came in 1940, when he was cast as the lead in the Rodgers and Hart musical Pal Joey.\nGoes to Hollywood\nProducers from Hollywood saw the show in New York and offered Kelly a contract with Metro Goldwyn Mayer (MGM). He worked for MGM for the next sixteen years. His first Hollywood film was For Me and My Gal (1942), in which he starred opposite Judy Garland (1922–1969). Garland was only twenty, but already a major star. She had seen Kelly's work and insisted that Kelly have the role. She tutored (taught) him how to act for the movies.\nKelly made a breakthrough with Cover Girl (1944). At one point in the film, his character dances with a mirror image of himself. It caught all the critics' attention. Kelly told Interview magazine, \"[That is] when I began to see that you could make dances for cinema that weren't just photographed stage dancing. That was my big insight into Hollywood, and Hollywood's big insight into me.\"\nGene Kelly.",
"Gene Kelly - IMDb\nIMDb\nActor | Soundtrack | Director\nEugene Curran Kelly was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the third son of Harriet Catherine (Curran) and James Patrick Joseph Kelly, a phonograph salesman. His father was of Irish descent and his mother was of Irish and German ancestry. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer was the largest and most powerful studio in Hollywood when Gene Kelly arrived in town in ... See full bio »\nBorn:\na list of 26 people\ncreated 13 Jan 2012\na list of 36 people\ncreated 26 Jun 2013\na list of 43 people\ncreated 12 Aug 2013\na list of 35 images\ncreated 4 months ago\na list of 37 people\ncreated 2 weeks ago\nDo you have a demo reel?\nAdd it to your IMDbPage\nHow much of Gene Kelly's work have you seen?\nUser Polls\nNominated for 1 Oscar. Another 10 wins & 8 nominations. See more awards »\nKnown For\n 1984 The Love Boat (TV Series)\nCharles Dane\n 1957 Schlitz Playhouse (TV Series)\nTom T. Triplet\n 2015 My Hindu Friend (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\")\n 2015/I The Intern (performer: \"You Were Meant For Me\")\n 2015 Dough (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\" from tt0045152)\n Dancing with the Stars (TV Series) (2 episodes, 2006 - 2014) (performer - 1 episode, 2009)\n- Round Three: Results Show (2009) ... (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\" - uncredited)\n- Round 7 (2006) ... (\"Singin' in the Rain\")\n 2014 Call the Midwife (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Episode #3.4 (2014) ... (performer: \"You Were Meant for Me\" - uncredited)\n 2012 Sawako no asa (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Jay Kabira (2012) ... (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\")\n 2012 Gintberg på kanten (TV Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Rigshospitalet (2012) ... (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\" - uncredited)\n 2012 The Neighbors (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Pilot (2012) ... (performer: \"Good Morning\" - uncredited)\n 2011 Gent de paraula (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Episode #1.17 (2011) ... (performer: \"New York, New York\")\n 2010 Wishful Drinking (TV Movie documentary) (performer: \"Singing in the Rain\")\n 2009 50 años de (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Calle (2009) ... (performer: \"Singin' In the Rain\")\n 2009 Hollywood Singing and Dancing: A Musical History - The 1940s: Stars, Stripes and Singing (Video documentary) (performer: \"New York, New York\", \"Make Way for Tomorrow\" - uncredited)\n 2008 Parashat Ha-Shavua (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- VaYakhel (2008) ... (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\")\n 2008 Hollywood Singing and Dancing: A Musical Treasure (TV Movie documentary) (performer: \"New York, New York\", \"An American in Paris Ballet\", \"Good Morning\", \"Alter Ego Dance\", \"Dig-Dig-Dig Dig for Your Dinner\", \"Our Love Is Here to Stay\", \"Singin' in the Rain\" - uncredited)\n 2007 Por Toda Minha Vida (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Nara Leão (2007) ... (performer: \"Singing in the Rain\")\n 2007 American Masters (TV Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode)\n 2007 The Pirate: A Musical Treasure Chest (Video documentary short) (performer: \"Be a Clown\")\n 2007 Family Guy (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Road to Rupert (2007) ... (performer: \"The King Who Couldn't Dance (The Worry Song))\n 2000 Strangers with Candy (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Blank Relay (2000) ... (performer: \"I Love to Go Swimmin' with Wimmen\" - uncredited)\n 1998 The Object of My Affection (performer: \"You Were Meant for Me\")\n 1997 MGM Sing-Alongs: Friends (Video short) (performer: \"Take Me Out to the Ballgame\")\n 1997 MGM Sing-Alongs: Searching for Your Dreams (Video short) (performer: \"The Worry Song\")\n 1995 Friends (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- The One with Phoebe's Husband (1995) ... (performer: \"Singing in the Rain\" - uncredited)\n 1995 Forget Paris (performer: \"Love Is Here To Stay\")\n 1994 Léon: The Professional (performer: \"I Like Myself\")\n 1994 That's Entertainment! III (Documentary) (performer: \"On the Town\" (1944), \"Ballin' the Jack\" (1913), \"You Wonderful You\" (1950), \"Slaughter on Tenth Avenue\" (1936), \"An American in Paris Ballet\" (1936), \"Fit as a Fiddle\" (1932), \"The Heather on the Hill\" (1947) - uncredited)\n 1992 MGM: When the Lion Roars (TV Mini-Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode)\n- The Lion in Winter (1992) ... (performer: \"The King Who Couldn't Dance (The Worry Song)\", \"New York, New York\", \"Be a Clown\", \"An American in Paris Ballet\", \"Singin' in the Rain\", \"Good Morning\", \"I'll Go Home with Bonnie Jean\" - uncredited)\n 1991 Great Performances (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n 1989 Somebody or The Rise and Fall of Philosophy (Short) (performer: \"You Are My Lucky Star\")\n 1986 Frankenstein Punk (Short) (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\")\n 1986 Precious Images (Documentary short) (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\")\n 1985 Moonlighting (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Knowing Her (1985) ... (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\")\n 1985 That's Dancing! (Documentary) (performer: \"Moses\", \"Sinbad the Sailor\", \"The Binge\")\n 1981 The Muppet Show (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Gene Kelly (1981) ... (performer: \"You Wonderful You\" - uncredited)\n 1980 Xanadu (performer: \"Whenever You're Away From Me\")\n 1979 Der ganz normale Wahnsinn (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Viertes Kapitel (1979) ... (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\" - uncredited)\n 1976 That's Entertainment, Part II (Documentary) (performer: \"For Me and My Gal\" (1917), \"Be a Clown\" (1948), \"Color Change\" (1976), \"Shubert Alley\" (1976), \"Good Morning\" (1939), \"I Got Rhythm\" (1930), \"I Begged Her\" (1944), \"Love Is Here to Stay\" (1938), \"Cartoon Sequence\" (1976), \"Sinbad the Sailor\" (1956), \"Broadway Rhythm\" (1935), \"I Like Myself\" (1954), \"Finale\" (1976) - uncredited)\n 1976 The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Episode dated 4 May 1976 (1976) ... (performer: \"I've Got A Crush On You\", \"For Me and My Gal\" - uncredited)\n 1976 It's Showtime (Documentary) (performer: \"Fido and Me\" - uncredited)\n 1974 That's Entertainment! (performer: \"Singin' in the Rain\" (1929), \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\" (1908), \"The Babbitt and the Bromide\" (1927), \"Be a Clown\" (1948), \"The Pirate Ballet\" (1948), \"New York, New York\" (1944), \"The King Who Couldn't Dance (The Worry Song)\" (1945), \"The Broadway Ballet\" (1935), \"An American in Paris Ballet\" (1951) - uncredited)\n 1973 Magnavox Presents Frank Sinatra (TV Special documentary) (performer: \"We Can't Do That Anymore\", \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\", \"For Me and My Gal\", \"New York, New York\", \"Nice and Easy\")\n 1971 A Clockwork Orange (performer: \"Singin' In the Rain\")\n 1967 The Young Girls of Rochefort (performer: \"Andy Amoureux\", \"De Hambourg à Rochefort\", \"Les Rencontres\", \"Concerto (ballet)\" - uncredited)\n 1967 Jack and the Beanstalk (TV Movie) (performer: \"Half Past April, and a Quarter to May\", \"A Tiny Bit of Faith\", \"It's Been Nice\", \"The Woggle-Bird Song\", \"One Starry Moment\" (Reprise))\n 1964 What a Way to Go! (performer: \"I Think that You and I Should Get Acquainted\", \"Musical Extravaganza\")\n 1963 The Danny Kaye Show (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n- Episode #1.5 (1963) ... (performer: \"Ballin' the Jack\")\n 1959 The Gene Kelly Show (TV Movie) (performer: \"For Me and My Gal\")\n 1957 Les Girls (performer: \"Les Girls\", \"You're Just Too Too!\", \"Why Am I So Gone (About that Gal)?\", \"The Rope Dance\" - uncredited)\n 1956 Invitation to the Dance (performer: \"Circus\", \"Ring Around The Rosy\", \"Sinbad the Sailor\")\n 1955-1956 MGM Parade (TV Series) (performer - 4 episodes)\n- Episode #1.19 (1956) ... (performer: \"The Babbitt and the Bromide\")\n- Episode #1.11 (1955) ... (performer: \"For Me and My Gal\" - uncredited)\n- Episode #1.10 (1955) ... (performer: \"For Me and My Gal\" - uncredited)\n- Episode #1.2 (1955) ... (performer: \"I Like Myself\" - uncredited)\n 1955 It's Always Fair Weather (performer: \"March, March\" (1955), \"The Time for Parting\" (1955), \"Once Upon a Time\" (1955), \"I Shouldn't Have Come\" (1955), \"I Like Myself\" (1955) - uncredited)\n 1954 Deep in My Heart (performer: \"I Love to Go Swimmin' with Wimmen\")\n 1954 Brigadoon (performer: \"I'll Go Home with Bonnie Jean\", \"The Heather on the Hill\", \"Almost Like Being in Love\", \"The Heather on the Hill\" (reprise) - uncredited)\n 1952 Singin' in the Rain (performer: \"Fit as a Fiddle\" (1932), \"You Were Meant For Me\" (1929), \"Moses Supposes\" (1952), \"Good Morning\" (1939), \"Singin' in the Rain\" (1929), \"Broadway Rhythm Ballet\" (1952), \"Singin in the Rain (in A-Flat)\" (1929), \"You Are My Lucky Star\" (1935), \"Main Title\" (uncredited), \"Would You? (End Title)\" (uncredited))\n 1951 An American in Paris (performer: \"Our Love Is Here to Stay\" (1937), \"By Strauss\" (1936), \"Tra-la-la (This Time It's Really Love)\" (1922), \"I Got Rhythm\" (1930), \"'S Wonderful\" (1927), \"An American in Paris Ballet\" - uncredited)\n 1950 Summer Stock (performer: \"All for You\", \"Dig-Dig-Dig Dig For Your Dinner\", \" (Howdy Neighbor) Happy Harvest\", \"Heavenly Music\", \"You Wonderful You\", \"Portland Fancy\" - uncredited)\n 1949 On the Town (performer: \"New York, New York\", \"A Day in New York\", \"Prehistoric Man\" (uncredited), \"Main Street\" (uncredited), \"On the Town\" (uncredited), \"Count on Me\" (uncredited), \"That's All There Is, Folks\" (uncredited))\n 1949 Take Me Out to the Ball Game (performer: \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\", \"Yes, Indeedy\" (uncredited), \"O'Brien to Ryan to Goldberg\" (uncredited), \"Strictly U.S.A.\" (uncredited), \"The Hat My Dear Old Father Wore upon St. Patrick's Day\" (uncredited))",
"Gene Kelly - Biography - IMDb\nGene Kelly\nBiography\nShowing all 72 items\nJump to: Overview (4) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (3) | Trade Mark (1) | Trivia (45) | Personal Quotes (18)\nOverview (4)\n5' 8\" (1.73 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nEugene Curran Kelly was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the third son of Harriet Catherine (Curran) and James Patrick Joseph Kelly, a phonograph salesman. His father was of Irish descent and his mother was of Irish and German ancestry.\nMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer was the largest and most powerful studio in Hollywood when Gene Kelly arrived in town in 1941. He came direct from the hit 1940 original Broadway production of \"Pal Joey\" and planned to return to the Broadway stage after making the one film required by his contract. His first picture for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer was For Me and My Gal (1942) with Judy Garland . What kept Kelly in Hollywood were \"the kindred creative spirits\" he found behind the scenes at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The talent pool was especially large during World War II, when Hollywood was a refuge for many musicians and others in the performing arts of Europe who were forced to flee the Nazis. After the war, a new generation was coming of age. Those who saw An American in Paris (1951) would try to make real life as romantic as the reel life they saw portrayed in that musical, and the first time they saw Paris, they were seeing again in memory the seventeen-minute ballet sequence set to the title song written by George Gershwin and choreographed by Kelly. The sequence cost a half million dollars (U.S.) to make in 1951 dollars. Another Kelly musical of the era, Singin' in the Rain (1952), was one of the first 25 films selected by the Library of Congress for its National Film Registry. Kelly was in the same league as Fred Astaire , but instead of a top hat and tails Kelly wore work clothes that went with his masculine, athletic dance style.\nGene Kelly died at age 83 of complications from two strokes on February 2, 1996 in Beverly Hills, Los Angeles, California.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Dale O'Connor <[email protected]>\nSpouse (3)\nKnown for his innovative, athletic style of dancing\nTrivia (45)\nDuring World War II, he was a sailor stationed at the United States Naval Photographic Center in Anacostia, D.C. (where the documentary Victory at Sea (1952) was later assembled for NBC-TV). He starred in several Navy films while on active duty there and in \"civilian\" films while on leave.\nAttended Peabody High School in the East Liberty section of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.\nRanked #26 in Empire (UK) magazine's \"The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time\" list. [October 1997]\nInducted into the Theater Hall of Fame in 1992.\nKelly's father was Al Jolson 's road manager in the 1920s.\nHad three children: Kerry Kelly , with Betsy Blair , in 1942, and Bridget Kelly and Tim Kelly, with Jeanne Coyne , in the 1960s.\nHad a half-moon shaped scar on his left cheek caused by a bicycle accident he had as a young boy.\nWas dance consultant for Madonna 's 1993 \"Girlie Show\" tour.\nAttended Penn State University before transferring to University of Pittsburgh, where he graduated.\nHis first two wives were dancers. Actress Betsy Blair met Gene while she was a performer and he a choreographer in the show \"Diamond Horseshoe\". Second wife Jeanne Coyne was Gene's dancing assistant for many years before they married in 1960. A major talent in her own right, her dazzling footwork can be seen in the \"From This Moment On\" number alongside partner Bobby Van , Ann Miller , Tommy Rall , Carol Haney and Bob Fosse in Kiss Me Kate (1953) (1953). She died of leukemia in 1973.\nHe and his younger brother Fred Kelly appeared together in a dancing vaudeville act. When Gene got his big break as Harry the hoofer in the dramatic Broadway production of \"The Time of Your Life\" in 1939, he was eventually replaced by brother Fred, who took it on the road and won a Donaldson award for his efforts.\nWorking on an autobiography at the time of his death.\nGraduated from the University of Pittsburgh with a degree in economics.\nKennedy Center Honoree, 1982\nA stage version of \"Singin' in the Rain\" was awarded the Laurence Olivier Theatre Award in 2001 for Outstanding Musical Production, with choreography by Kelly.\nMartial arts stars Jackie Chan and David Carradine both cite him as an influence.\nAwarded the National Medal of Arts by President Bill Clinton in 1994.\nBiography in: John Wakeman, editor. \"World Film Directors, Volume Two, 1945-1985\". Pages 510-515. New York: The H.W. Wilson Company, 1988.\nHe was voted the 42nd Greatest Movie Star of all time by Entertainment Weekly.\nWas named the #15 greatest actor on The 50 Greatest Screen Legends list by the American Film Institute\nIs one of the many movie stars mentioned in Madonna 's song \"Vogue\"\nBiography in: \"American National Biography\". Supplement 1, pp. 309-312. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.\nMember of the jury at the Cannes Film Festival in 1959\nRay Bradbury 's novel \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" was dedicated to Kelly.\nHas a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6153 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California.\nHis last movie musical was Xanadu (1980) co-starring Olivia Newton-John .\nHad a fever of 103 degrees while filming the famous rain scene in Singin' in the Rain (1952).\nFamed producer David O. Selznick signed Gene to his first Hollywood contract after seeing him star in \"Pal Joey\" while on Broadway. Though Gene had had other offers from studios, he chose to sign with Selznick mostly because his was the only studio that did not insist on a screen test before signing him. Selznick sold Kelly's contact to MGM before he could find a suitable role for him to appear in.\nHe and MGM studio head Louis B. Mayer shared a long standing feud stemming from even before Kelly entered the motion picture business. One evening after seeing Gene perform in \"Pal Joey\" on Broadway, Mayer met Kelly backstage and offered to sign him to MGM without a screen test. When Kelly later received a call from a MGM representative requesting a screen test, he insisted there was some sort of mistake saying he had Mayer's word he did not have to make one and told the rep to ask Mayer himself. When the rep did, he called back days later stating that he did talk to Mayer and that he still had to make a test. Gene was furious and wrote a scathing letter to Mayer for retracting his promise. For the first couple of years he worked for Mayer, Kelly was uncertain that Mayer even read the letter until Louis brought it up in an argument one evening.\nTony Martin the husband of MGM star/dancer Cyd Charisse said he could tell who she had been dancing with that day on an MGM set. If she came home covered with bruises on her, it was the very physically-demanding Gene Kelly , if not it was the smooth and agile Fred Astaire .\nWas originally set to star as Don Hewes alongside Judy Garland in Easter Parade (1948). However, before filming began, he broke his leg, resulting in Fred Astaire coming out of retirement in order to replace him in the film.\nBob Fosse originally wanted him for a lead role in a musical film adaptation of the Maurine Dallas Watkins play \"Chicago\" around the early 1970s. He eventually gave up the choice, and Fosse opted to do a stage musical instead.\nHis death is mentioned in the Dream Theater song \"Take Away My Pain\" from their album \"Falling into Infinity\" released in 1997 with the lyric \"he said look at poor Gene Kelly, I guess he won't be singing in the rain\".\nJoined the Phi Kappa Theta fraternity while studying at the University of Pittsburgh.\nHe was a lifelong staunch liberal Democrat.\nWas a fan of the Pittsburg Steelers.\nHis father was of Irish descent and his mother was of half Irish and half German ancestry.\nJeanne Coyne, Kelly's second wife, was previously married to his show-business partner Stanley Donen.\nInducted into the International Tap Dance Hall of Fame in 2014.\nHis trademark scar on the left side of his face was the result of a bike accident when Gene was 5 years old, which required stitches.\nThe actor-director named \"A Tree Grows in Brooklyn\" as his favorite film for the AFI.\nIn order to secure the film rights to the hit musical \"Best Foot Forward,\" MGM loaned the services of Gene Kelly to Columbia for one picture. Although it was assumed the studio would mount an adaptation of Kelly's stage hit \"Pal Joey,\" for which they owned the screen rights, they instead co-starred him with their top star, Rita Hayworth, in \"Cover Girl.\" Ironically when they did finally film the property over a decade later with Frank Sinatra, Hayworth again co-starred.\nAfter his death it was reported that Kelly had donated money to the Provisional IRA in the 1970s.\nIn early 1943 MGM announced Gene Kelly was to appear in the forthcoming production The Human Comedy (1943). He eventually did not appear in the film.\nWas one of Heath Ledger's idols.\nPersonal Quotes (18)\n[on his working experience with Debbie Reynolds while filming Singin' in the Rain (1952) (1952)] I wasn't nice to Debbie. It's a wonder she still speaks to me.\nThere was no model for what I tried to do with dance . . . and the thing Fred Astaire and I used to bitch about was that critics didn't know how to categorize us. They called us tap dancers because that was considered the American style. But neither of us were basically tap dancers.\nThe contract system at Hollywood studios like MGM was a very efficient system in that because we were at the studio all the time we could rehearse a lot. But it also really repressed people. There were no union regulations yet, and we were all indentured servants - you can call us slaves if you want - like ballplayers before free agency. We had seven-year contracts, but every six months the studio could decide to fire you if your picture wasn't a hit. And if you turned down a role, they cut off your salary and simply added the time to your contract.\nKids talk to me and say they want to do musicals again because they've studied the tapes of the old films. We didn't have that. We thought once we had made it, even on film, it was gone except for the archives.\nI arrived in Hollywood twenty pounds overweight and as strong as an ox. But if I put on a white tails and tux like [ Fred Astaire ], I still looked like a truck driver."
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What was the profession of William Eugene Smith?
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tc_817
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"William Eugene Smith (December 30, 1918 – October 15, 1978), was an American photojournalist, renowned for the dedication he devoted to his projects and his uncompromising professional and ethical standards. Smith developed the photo essay into a sophisticated visual form. His most famous studies included brutally vivid World War II photographs, the clinic of Dr Schweitzer in French Equatorial Africa, the city of Pittsburgh, the dedication of an American country doctor and a nurse midwife, and the pollution which damaged the health of the residents of Minamata in Japan.\n\nLife and early work \n\nWilliam Smith was born in Wichita, Kansas in December 1918. Smith graduated from Wichita North High School in 1936. He began his career by taking pictures for two local newspapers, The Wichita Eagle (morning circulation) and the Beacon (evening circulation). Smith eventually moved to New York City and began working for Newsweek. He became known there for his incessant perfectionism and thorny personality. Smith was fired from Newsweek for refusing to use medium format cameras, and joined Life Magazine in 1939 using a 35mm camera.\n\nWar work \n\nAs a correspondent for Ziff-Davis Publishing, and then again Life Magazine, Smith was often on the front lines in the Pacific theater of World War II. He was with the American forces during their island-hopping offensive against Japan, photographing U.S. Marines and Japanese prisoners of war at Saipan, Guam, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. In 1945, while he was photographing battle conditions on Okinawa, Smith was hit by mortar fire. After recovering, he continued at Life, until 1954.\n\n1950s \n\nSmith continued to work at perfecting the technique of the photo-essay with a humanist perspective. In 1950, he was sent to the United Kingdom to cover the General Election, in which the Labour Party, under Clement Attlee, was narrowly victorious. Life Magazine had taken an editorial stance against the Labour government. In the end, a limited number of Smith's photographs of British working-class people were published, including three shots of the South Wales valleys. In a documentary made by BBC Wales, Professor Dai Smith traced a miner who described how he and two colleagues had met Smith on their way home from work at the pit and had been instructed on how to pose for one of the photos published in Life.\n\nSmith severed his ties with Life because of the way the magazine had used his photographs of Albert Schweitzer (one of which was revealed to be heavily manipulated later on). Upon leaving the magazine, Smith joined the Magnum photo agency in 1955. There he started his project to document the city of Pittsburgh. The project was supposed to take him three weeks, but spanned three years and encompassed tens of thousands of photographic negatives. It was too large to ever be shown, although a series of book-length photo essays were eventually produced.\n\nJazz Loft Project\n\nFrom 1957 to 1965 Smith took photographs and made recordings of jazz musicians playing at a Manhattan loft shared by David X. Young, Dick Cary, and Hall Overton. The Jazz Loft Project, devoted to preserving and cataloging the works of Smith, is directed by Sam Stephenson at the Center for Documentary Studies in cooperation with Center for Creative Photography (CCP) and the Smith estate. From 1957 to 1965, Smith made approximately 4,000 hours of recordings on 1,740 reel-to-reel tapes and nearly 40,000 photographs in a loft building in Manhattan's wholesale flower district where major jazz musicians of the day gathered and played their music. The tapes have not been played since they were archived at the CCP (part of the University of Arizona), following Smith's death in 1978. \n\nThe project is preserving and cataloging Smith's tapes, researching the photographs, and obtaining oral history interviews with all surviving loft participants. The transferred recordings reveal high sound quality and musical and cultural content, offering unusual documentation of an after-hours New York jazz scene. Smith's work includes tapes of: Thelonious Monk, Zoot Sims, Roland Kirk, Bill Evans, Chick Corea, Roy Haynes, and Lee Konitz. Underground legends such as drummer Ronnie Free, bassist Henry Grimes, drummer Edgar Bateman, multi-instrumentalist Eddie Listengart, and saxophonist Lin Halliday, as well as many unknowns are also included in the archives. Research on the preserved tapes so far indicates that at least 300 different musicians are represented. Monk was recorded in private collaborations with Hall Overton, a loft resident, and full band rehearsals for now-famous concerts at Town Hall, Lincoln Center, and Carnegie Hall in 1959, 1963, and 1964. As of summer 2010, nearly four hundred people have been interviewed as part of the project. The tapes also contain many Smith obsessions and oddities, such as recorded street noise in the flower district, late-night radio talk shows, telephone calls, television and radio news programs, and many random loft dialogues among musicians, artists, and other Smith friends and associates.\n\nJapan and Minamata \n\nIn January 1972, Smith was attacked by Chisso Company employees near Tokyo, in an attempt to stop him from further publicizing the effects of Minamata disease to the world. Smith survived the attack, but with limited vision in one eye. During the time Smith was not able to work due to his injuries, his wife of Japanese origin, Aileen M. Smith, continued his work. Smith and his wife lived in the city of Minamata from 1971 to 1973, and created a photo essay detailing the effects of the poison induced disease, caused by a Chisso factory discharging heavy metals into water sources around Minamata. The essay was published in 1975 as \"'Minamata', Words and Photographs by W.E. Smith and A.M. Smith.\" One of his most famous works, Tomoko Uemura in Her Bath, taken in December 1971, and published a few months after the 1972 attack, drew worldwide attention to the effects of Minamata disease. \n\nMove to Arizona and death\n\nSmith returned from his stay in Minamata, Japan, in November 1974, and, after completing the Minamata book, he moved to a studio in New York with a new partner, Sherry Suris. Smith's friends were alarmed by his deteriorating health and arranged for Smith to join the teaching faculty of the Art Department and Department of Journalism at the University of Arizona. Smith and Suris moved to Tucson, Arizona in November 1977. On 23 December 1977, Smith suffered a massive stroke, but made a partial recovery and continued to teach and organize his archive. Smith suffered a second stroke and died on October 15, 1978. He was cremated and his ashes interred in Crum Elbow Rural Cemetery, Hyde Park, New York. \n\nLegacy\n\nSummarizing Smith's achievements, Ben Maddow wrote that Smith claimed that his vocation was \"to do nothing less than record, by word and photograph, the human condition. No one could really succeed at such a job: yet Smith almost did. During his relatively brief and often painful life, he created at least fifty images so powerful that they have changed the perception of our history. \n\nSmith was arguably the originator and certainly the master of the photo-essay. In addition to Pittsburgh, these works include Nurse Midwife, Minamata, Spanish Village, Country Doctor, and Albert Schweitzer–A Man of Mercy. \n\nToday, Smith's legacy lives on through the W. Eugene Smith Memorial Fund to promote \"humanistic photography\". Since 1980, the fund has awarded photographers for exceptional accomplishments in the field.\n\nThe Big Book \n\nThe Big Book is a conceptual photobook that Smith created at the beginning of the 1960s, intending to serve as retrospective sum of his work as well as a reflection of his life philosophies. Considered \"unviable and non-commercial\" at the time, due to having 380 pages and 450 images, it was not published at the time, but as part of his legacy, was finally published as a facsimile reproduction in 2013 by the University of Texas Press. A vast magnum opus, the work includes two of Smith's original volumes, which present his imagery not according to story (as they would have been published at the time of their creation) but rather according to Smith's own creative process. The modern publication comes with a third book included in the slip-case, offering contemporary essays and notes.\n\nCollections and notable photographs\n\n*1944 photograph in which a wounded infant is found by an American soldier on Saipan\n*1945 photograph in which Marines blow up a Japanese cave on Iwo Jima, published on the cover of Life magazine, April 9, 1945.\n*\"The Walk to Paradise Garden\" (1946) single photo of his two children walking hand in hand towards a clearing in woods. It was the closing image in the groundbreaking 1955 MOMA exhibition, \"The Family of Man,\" organized by Edward Steichen with 503 photographs, by 273 photographers from 68 countries, that he recognized as picturing \"the essential oneness of mankind throughout the world [showing] the gamut of life from birth to death.\"\n*\"Country Doctor\" (1948) photo essay on Dr. Ernest Ceriani in the small Colorado town of Kremmling. Credited as the first \"photo story\" of the modern photojournalism age.\n*Spanish Village (1950) photo essay on the small Spanish town of Deleitosa.\n*\"Nurse Midwife\" (1951) photo essay on midwife Maude E. Callen in South Carolina.\n*A Man of Mercy (1954) photo essay on Dr. Albert Schweitzer and his humanitarian work in French Equatorial Africa.\n*\"Pittsburgh\" (1955–1958) three-year-long project on the city, hired initially by photo editor Stefan Lorant for a three-week assignment.\n*Haiti 1958–1959 photo essay on a psychiatric institute in Haiti.\n*\"Tomoko Uemura in Her Bath\" (1971) the centerpiece photograph in Minamata, a long-term photo essay by Smith on the effects of mercury poisoning in the fishing village of Minamata, Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan (see Minamata disease). The photograph depicts a mother cradling her severely deformed, naked daughter in a traditional Japanese bathing chamber. This has been withdrawn from circulation in accordance with the parents' wishes. The photograph was the centerpiece of a Minamata disease exhibition held in Tokyo, Japan, in 1974."
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"... William Eugene Smith lived with Aileen Mioko Sprauge Smith, his wife, in Minamata, Japan. William Eugene Smith took this photo, and together ...",
"William Eugene Smith dit Gene Smith, photographe engagé (né le 30 décembre 1918 à Wichita,... Facebook logo. Email or Phone: Password: Forgot account? William ...",
"William Eugene Smith was born on ... W. Eugene Smith was inducted into the International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum in 1984 and his honorary panel ...",
"William Eugene Smith was born on December 30, ... “honesty is not of a profession, but within the individual and what he brings to his work. ..."
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"1000+ images about William Eugene Smith on Pinterest | Spanish, Maze and Interview\nForward\nThe American Society of Media Photographers recently discovered the transcript of an interview of Mr. Smith, conducted by the great portraitist Philippe Halsmann and the society’s first president. The interview apparently took place in New York during an American Society of Media Photographers meeting in 1956, although the organization is unsure of the date. The transcript has been lightly edited. photo: W. Eugene Smith - SPAIN. Extremadura. Province of Caceres. Deleitosa. - 1951\nSee More",
"William Eugene Smith Photographer - All About Photo\nBiography:\nNationality: American | Born: 1918 - Died: 1978\nWilliam Eugene Smith was an American photojournalist known for his refusal to compromise professional standards and his brutally vivid World War II photographs. Smith graduated from Wichita North High School in 1936. He began his career by taking pictures for two local newspapers, The Wichita Eagle (morning circulation) and the Beacon (evening circulation). He moved to New York City and began work for Newsweek and became known for his incessant perfectionism and thorny personality. Smith was fired from Newsweek for refusing to use medium format cameras and joined Life Magazine in 1939 using a 35mm camera. In 1945 he was wounded while photographing battle conditions in the Pacific theater of World War II. As a correspondent for Ziff-Davis Publishing and then Life again, Smith entered World War II on the front lines of the island-hopping American offensive against Japan, photographing U.S. Marines and Japanese prisoners of war at Saipan, Guam, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. On Okinawa, Smith was hit by mortar fire. After recovering, he continued at Life and perfected the photo essay from 1947 to 1954. In 1950, he was sent to the United Kingdom to cover the General Election, in which the Labour Party, under Clement Attlee, was narrowly victorious. Life had taken an editorial stance against the Labour government. In the end, a limited number of Smith's photographs of working-class Britain were published, including three shots of the South Wales valleys. In a documentary made by BBC Wales, Professor Dai Smith traced a miner who described how he and two colleagues had met Smith on their way home from work at the pit and had been instructed on how to pose for one of the photos published in Life. Smith severed his ties with Life over the way in which the magazine used his photographs of Albert Schweitzer. Upon leaving Life, Smith joined the Magnum photo agency in 1955. There he started his project to document Pittsburgh. This project was supposed to take him three weeks, but spanned three years and tens of thousands of negatives. It was too large ever to be shown, although a series of book-length photo essays were eventually produced. From 1957 to 1965 he took photographs and made recordings of jazz musicians at a Manhattan loft shared by David X. Young, Dick Cary and Hall Overton. In January 1972, Smith was attacked by Chisso employees near Tokyo, in an attempt to stop him from further publicizing the Minamata disease to the world.Although Smith survived the attack, his sight in one eye deteriorated. Smith and his Japanese wife lived in the city of Minamata from 1971 to 1973 and took many photos as part of a photo essay detailing the effects of Minamata disease, which was caused by a Chisso factory discharging heavy metals into water sources around Minamata. One of his most famous works, Tomoko Uemura in Her Bath, taken in December 1971 and published a few months after the 1972 attack, drew worldwide attention to the effects of Minamata disease. Complications from his longterm consumption of drugs, notably amphetamines (taken to enable his workaholic tendencies), and alcohol led to a massive stroke, from which Smith died in 1978. He is buried in Crum Elbow Cemetery, Pleasant Valley, New York. Smith was perhaps the originator and arguably the master of the photo-essay. In addition to Pittsburgh, these works include Nurse Midwife, Minamata, Country Doctor, and Albert Schweitzer - A Man of Mercy. Today, Smith's legacy lives on through the W. Eugene Smith Memorial Fund to promote \"humanistic photography.\" Since 1980, the fund has awarded photographers for exceptional accomplishments in the field.\nSource Wikipedia",
"William Eugene Smith\n1971 or 1972 - Minamata, Japan\n In the early 1970s, William Eugene Smith lived with Aileen Mioko Sprauge Smith, his wife, in Minamata, Japan.\n William Eugene Smith took this photo, and together with the help of Aileen Mioko Sprauge Smith and Ishikawa Takeshi, a local photographer, many other photos were taken of the effects of long term environmental industrial mercury poisoning on the local population.\n Here, on the Japanese Island of Kyushu, we see an image of an outwardly healthy mother bathing her fetal-poisoned 16 year old daughter, Tomoko Uemura, grotesquely deformed, physically crippled and blind since birth due to environmental industrial mercury poisoning in the local Minamata, Japan, water supply.\n This may well be the first environmental pollution photojournalism. Note also the invariable comparison to Michelangelo Buonarroti 's Pieta .\n The photograph is from a series on industrial pollution by William Eugene Smith and Aileen Mioko Sprauge Smith for which they jointly received the World Understanding Award-U.S.A.\n William Eugene Smith, who was severely beaten by goons hired by the offending chemical company, also received the Robert Capa Gold Modal-U.S.A. for \"photography requiring exceptional courage and enterprise.\"\nMinolta 16mm f/2.8 Lens\nWilliam Eugene Smith\n1972 - Minamata, Japan\n Pouring its wastes into the air as well as the waters, the Chisso chemical complex dominates the city of Minamata.\n Waste chemicals, dumped into the bay, worked their way up the food chain to the people of the city and caused what has come to be known as Minamata Disease.\n500x337 57kb\nWilliam Eugene Smith\n1972 - Minamata, Japan\n Plaintiffs demonstrate with photos of their dead on the last day of the trial in October 1972.\n The court victory could only offer money in return for life and normalcy.\n500x346 53kb\nWilliam Eugene Smith\n1972 - Minamata, Japan\n An aide mops the brow of Chisso's President Shimada during one of the grueling negotiating sessions for compensation.\n This image is a stark comparison to the photo of Tomoko Uemura being bathed by her mother above .\n Visit The National Institute for Minamata Disease at http://www.nimd.go.jp/English for more information.\n322x500 60kb\nLoosely from The Encyclopedia of Photography, by Michael Busselle, 1983, Octopus Books Limited, and Let Truth Be the Prejudice, W. Eugene Smith: His Life and Photographs, by Ben Maddow and the staff at Aperture, 1985, Aperture:\n William Eugene Smith was born in Witchita, Kansas, in 1918. He was raised Catholic by Nettie Smith, his mother, who was a photographer who had a darkroom at home. William Eugene Smith wanted to fly, and ordered pictures of airplanes through the mail - his mother refused to pay, suggesting that he take her camera to the airfield and get his own pictures. A photographer was born! William Eugene Smith became a local Witchita, Kansas, news photographer at the age of 15. \n He won a scholarship to learn photography at Notre Dame University , Notre Dame, Indiana US. Unsatisfied, he went to New York Institute of Photography in New York City, New York US, and invited his mother to join him as his assistant - she agreed. He become a photographer for Newsweek magazine. During World War II he was a correspondent photographer and covered numerous invasions and combat missions. He was badly wounded taking photographs of US soldiers during a Japanese mortar attack in which he refused to protect himself, hoping to get authentic images of war and spent a year recuperating, although his left hand was severely crippled the rest of his life, making it difficult for him to handle his cameras. He joined Life magazine in 1947, but after a series of differences over the way his many successful pictures were used, he resigned in 1955 to join the international photographic agency Magnum Photography Agency .\n William Eugene Smith personified the concerned photographer, one for whom the medium was more a means of expressing his own fears and misgivings about the world than of simply creating effective images. He was invariably extremely involved with his subject and often spent periods of a year or more working on a particular story. \n His final assignment, typical of his anguish and concern over man's inhumanity to man, was a series of pictures taken over three years on the effects of industrial waste on the life of a small fishing community of Japan. More than 100,000 people had eaten poisoned fish, and more then 10,000 people had gotten ill, a story still in the news 30 years later. The third year, 1974, he received support money from various sources, including doing TV commercials for Minolta Camera, Japan. His involvement led to him being badly beaten up by men from the chemical company as the men attacked a group of demonstrators of which he was a participating photographer. He never fully recovered. After returning to America, be gave up photojournalism and devoted the rest of his life to photography through lecturing and exhibiting.\n Not only was he one of the great masters of the picture story, but his pictures individually combine the harsh imagery of the documentary approach with the rich, brooding quality that characterizes his finely made prints.\nFred W. McDarrah\nPortrait of William Eugene Smith\nApril 8, 1975",
"William Eugene Smith added 2 new photos to the album: Spanish Village 1951 .\n· July 10, 2016 ·\nFrom \"Spanish Village\" photo-essay.\nOriginally published in the April 9, 1951, issue of LIFE magazine, W. Eugene Smith’s photo essay, “Spanish Village,” has been lauded for more than six decades as the most moving photographic portrait ever made of daily life in rural Spain during the rule of dictator Francisco Franco. But, as the years have passed, the most chilling image from the piece—the closed, hard faces of three members of Franco’s feared Guardia Civil—has been exalted... to a point where the essays’ other masterful, evocative pictures have been largely forgotten.\nFor countless people around the world, including photography buffs who really ought to know better, Smith’s Guardia Civil photograph is the “Spanish Village” essay.\nHere, LIFE.com presents “Spanish Village” in its entirety. Even as the faces in the essay’s most famous picture evince the cruelty and arrogance often assumed by small men granted great power over others, other photographs illuminate the timeless rhythms of a small, isolated Spanish town of the last century, about which LIFE wrote: “It lives in ancient poverty and faith.”\nIn the 1951 article that accompanied Smith’s pictures, the magazine told its readers:\nThe village of Deleitosa, a place of about 2,300 peasant people, sits on the high, dry, western Spanish tableland called Estramadura, about halfway between Madrid and the border of Portugal. Its name means “delightful,” which it no longer is, and its origins are obscure, though they may go back a thousand years to Spain’s Moorish period. In any event it is very old and LIFE photographer Eugene Smith, wandering off the main road into the village, found that its ways had advanced little since medieval times.\nMany Deleitosans have never seen a railroad because the nearest one is 25 miles away. Mail comes in by burro. The nearest telephone is 12 miles away in another town. Deleitosa’s water system still consists of the sort of aqueducts and open wells from which villagers have drawn water for centuries . . . and the streets smell strongly of the villagers’ donkeys and pigs.\n[A] small movie theater, which shows some American films, sits among the sprinkling of little shops near the main square. But the village scene is dominated now as always by the high, brown structure of the 16th century church, the center of society in Catholic Deleitosa. And the lives of the villagers are dominated as always by the bare and brutal problems of subsistence. For Deleitosa, barren of history, unfavored by nature, reduced by wars, lives in poverty—a poverty shared by nearly all and relieved only by the seasonal work of the soil, and the faith that sustains most Deleitosans from the hour of First Communion until the simple funeral that marks one’s end.\nWilliam Eugene Smith added 2 new photos to the album: Docteur Albert Schweitzer, USA 1949, Gabon 1954 .\n· July 7, 2016 ·\nDr. Albert Schweitzer, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1952, was a pastor, a theologist, a doctor, an organist and a musicologist. These photographs were taken by W. Eugene Smith in 1954 at his hospital at Lambaréné in French Equatorial Africa.\nHaving decided to go to Africa as a medical missionary rather than as a pastor, Schweitzer in 1905 began the study of medicine at the University of Strasbourg. In 1913, having obtained his M.D. degree, he founded the hospital at Lam...baréné. In 1917 he and his wife were sent to a French internment camp as prisoners of war.\nSchweitzer returned to Lambaréné in 1924 and, except for relatively short periods of time, spent the remainder of his life there. With the funds earned from his own royalties and personal appearance fees, and with those donated from all parts of the world, he expanded the hospital to seventy buildings which by the early 1960's could take care of over 500 patients in residence at any one time.\nAt Lambaréné, Schweitzer was doctor and surgeon in the hospital, pastor of a congregation, administrator of a village, superintendent of buildings and grounds, writer of scholarly books, commentator on contemporary history, musician, and host to countless visitors. The honors he received were numerous, including the Goethe Prize of Frankfurt and honorary doctorates from many universities emphasizing one or another of his achievements. The Nobel Peace Prize for 1952, having been withheld in that year, was given to him on December 10, 1953. With the $33,000 prize money, he started the leprosarium at Lambaréné.\nAlbert Schweitzer died on September 4, 1965, and was buried at Lambaréné.\nWilliam Eugene Smith added 2 new photos to the album: Spanish Village 1951 .\n· July 3, 2016 ·\nFrom \"Spanish Village\" photo-essay.\nOriginally published in the April 9, 1951, issue of LIFE magazine, W. Eugene Smith’s photo essay, “Spanish Village,” has been lauded for more than six decades as the most moving photographic portrait ever made of daily life in rural Spain during the rule of dictator Francisco Franco. But, as the years have passed, the most chilling image from the piece—the closed, hard faces of three members of Franco’s feared Guardia Civil—has been exalted... to a point where the essays’ other masterful, evocative pictures have been largely forgotten.\nFor countless people around the world, including photography buffs who really ought to know better, Smith’s Guardia Civil photograph is the “Spanish Village” essay.\nHere, LIFE.com presents “Spanish Village” in its entirety. Even as the faces in the essay’s most famous picture evince the cruelty and arrogance often assumed by small men granted great power over others, other photographs illuminate the timeless rhythms of a small, isolated Spanish town of the last century, about which LIFE wrote: “It lives in ancient poverty and faith.”\nIn the 1951 article that accompanied Smith’s pictures, the magazine told its readers:\nThe village of Deleitosa, a place of about 2,300 peasant people, sits on the high, dry, western Spanish tableland called Estramadura, about halfway between Madrid and the border of Portugal. Its name means “delightful,” which it no longer is, and its origins are obscure, though they may go back a thousand years to Spain’s Moorish period. In any event it is very old and LIFE photographer Eugene Smith, wandering off the main road into the village, found that its ways had advanced little since medieval times.\nMany Deleitosans have never seen a railroad because the nearest one is 25 miles away. Mail comes in by burro. The nearest telephone is 12 miles away in another town. Deleitosa’s water system still consists of the sort of aqueducts and open wells from which villagers have drawn water for centuries . . . and the streets smell strongly of the villagers’ donkeys and pigs.\n[A] small movie theater, which shows some American films, sits among the sprinkling of little shops near the main square. But the village scene is dominated now as always by the high, brown structure of the 16th century church, the center of society in Catholic Deleitosa. And the lives of the villagers are dominated as always by the bare and brutal problems of subsistence. For Deleitosa, barren of history, unfavored by nature, reduced by wars, lives in poverty—a poverty shared by nearly all and relieved only by the seasonal work of the soil, and the faith that sustains most Deleitosans from the hour of First Communion until the simple funeral that marks one’s end.",
"William Eugene Smith | International Photography Hall of Fame\n1918-1978\nAbout\nWilliam Eugene Smith was born on December 30, 1918, in Wichita, Kansas and was introduced to photography by his mother, who was an enthusiastic amateur. His childhood was “typical” until his father committed suicide during Smith’s senior year in high school. His camera quickly became an obsession, perhaps to help Smith cope with his tragic loss.\nAlthough young, his photography talent was soon evident, and he was hired by the local newspaper to photograph sports, aviation and the devastation of the Dust Bowl. Smith’s talent led to a special scholarship designed specifically for him to study photography at Notre Dame, but he left after his first semester. His restlessness took him to New York, where he was hired by Newsweek. Eventually, he worked for Life and freelanced for periodicals including Colliers, American, The New York Times and Harper’s Bazaar. During this time he married and had two children.\nWhile working for Life, Smith was assigned as a war correspondent and became legendary for his emotionally charged and truthful images. It was important to Smith to photograph the war with heart and preciseness. He photographed 26 carrier combat missions and 13 invasions in the Pacific and in Europe, on land, sea and in the air. His images were even published in Japanese magazines.\nHis work was interrupted in 1945, May 22, during the invasion of Okinawa. His face and hands were severely injured by a grenade. After two painful years of numerous surgeries and recovery, Smith could barely hold a camera but felt a growing need and desire to make images that were signs of hope and happiness and socially conscious. “ The day I again tried for the first time to make a photograph, I could barely load the roll of film into the camera. Yet I was determined that the first photograph would be a contrast to the war photographs and that it would speak an affirmation of life… “\nHis first photograph after his injury was of his two young children emerging from a dark wooded area. It was titled The Walk to Paradise Garden. It became one of his most famous and best-loved works, and was chosen by Edward Steichen as the final image in The Family of Man exhibit. Returning to his work, Smith went on to produce a series of provocative photographic essays including the most famous The Spanish Village, Country Doctor, and Nurse Midwife. He spent weeks immersing himself in the lives of his subjects, an approach almost unheard of at the time.\nLife published several of these essays, and although his photojournalistic methods were cutting-edge and brilliant, he had a difficult time with editors. Smith refused to allow any photographs and their layout to be anything but his own personal vision. He resigned from Life magazine and joined Magnum, which supported and fought for photojournalistic rights.\nAfter Smith left Life, he continued to produce photo essays, supported by three Guggenheim fellowship grants. One of the largest photographic essays that he produced was of the city of Pittsburgh. He moved to Pittsburgh where he threw himself, obsessively, into the project. Smith took more than 11,000 photographs, but was physically, mentally and financially broke after the project. The images were never published and caused turmoil with Magnum and Smith’s family. He left Magnum and his family and moved to New York where he produced a series of images from his window.\nA more successful photographic essay was Minimata. In 1971 Smith married Aileen Mioka Sprague and began his feverous project on Minimata, a small fishing village in Japan. The water in the village had been poisoned with mercury because of industrialization. An entire generation of people were born with horrible defects.\nBy this time Smith was the recipient of numerous awards and traveled extensively to teach and lecture. He moved to Tucson, Arizona in 1977 to teach at the University of Arizona and organize his archive at the Center for Creative Photography. On October 15, 1978, Smith suffered a fatal stroke.\nW. Eugene Smith was inducted into the International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum in 1984 and his honorary panel is sponsored by Rangefinder Magazine. He was inducted for his revolutionary photojournalism and setting the standard for the photo essay. Hal Gould said, “W. Eugene Smith was famous at twenty and a legend at forty. During the 1940s and 50s, when the leading edge of creative photography was found in photojournalism, Smith’s deeply humanistic style of photographic reportage continually restructured and expanded the expressive possibilities of the photo essay to a major credit level.”\nThe Center for Creative Photography in Arizona holds the largest collection of W. Eugene Smith, which includes 3,000 master prints, thousands of negatives, contact sheets, proof and study prints, book dummies, magazine layouts, letters, cameras, darkroom equipment and records. The Smith family has founded the W. Eugene Smith Memorial Fund, a grant-giving organization recognizing photographers who demonstrate a commitment to humanitarian photography.\n“…I am always torn between the attitude of the journalist, who is a recorder of facts, and the artist, who is often necessarily at odds with the facts. My principle concern is for honesty, and above all honesty with myself….”\nBy Lori Oden For IPHF\nJOIN OUR MISSION\nSign up for our newsletter\n*",
"W. Eugene Smith – A Complicated Life – The Gallery of Photographic History\nRob Cook\nNote: This is a paper I wrote for a photo history class I took at Utah State University. It is with Eugene Smith and this class that my interest in and love for photographic history was born.\n“Photography is a small voice, at best, but sometimes – just sometimes – one photograph or a group of them, can lure our senses to awareness. Much depends upon the viewer; in some, photographs can summon enough emotion to be a catalyst to thought. Someone – or perhaps many – among us head to reason, to find a way to right that which is wrong, and may even search for a cure to an illness. the rest of us may even fell a greater sense of understanding and compassion for those whose lives are alien to our own. Photography is a small voice. I believe in it. If it is well conceived it sometimes works.”\nWilliam Eugene Smith was born on December 30, 1918, in Wichita, Kansas. His mother was a photographer and his father was a businessman working in the Wichita area.\nSmith’s work in photography began at age 14 photographing airplanes at the airport in Wichita. Photography soon became his main interest. He was given early encouragement and advice from Pulitzer Prize winning photojournalist Frank Noel. At age 18 Smith started working for the Wichita Eagle and Beacon, local newspapers in Wichita. While working for these newspapers Smith started photographing the environmental devastation during the dust bowl. About his early work Smith said, “The dust bowl photography, as people called it, matured me very early in life. I was really photographing the destruction of my own family as well as the destruction of an entire area.” Smith later burned all of his early images because they were inadequate in describing what he felt as he watched the destruction. Smith later wrote: “I had an intuitive sense of timing, an\nimpossibly poor technique, an excitement to the fact of the event rather then of interpretive insight. Although I was deeply moved I did not have the power to communicate it.” Being able to express his feelings, for Smith, was very important, It gave nobility to his photographs of ordinary things.\nIn 1936 Smith’s father committed suicide and the sensationalism of the local newspaper’s coverage of his death caused Smith to bitterly hate dishonest journalism. Smith almost decided to quit journalism, but a friend convinced him that, “honesty is not of a profession, but within the individual and what he brings to his work.”\nAt age 19 Smith began his studies at Notre Dame University on a special scholarship created for him. After one semester Smith left school and moved to New York City and began working for Newsweek Magazine. Smith was fired from Newsweek for using a small format camera. About his work at Newsweek Smith said, “It was lucky that they fired me because then I started working for Life.” Smith spent three years at Life doing ordinary mundane assignments. During this time Smith discovered the world of music. Smith started a record collection that in time grew to over 25,000 records. Smith once said, “I learned much more from music, literature, the stag\ne, and the other arts, then I ever learned from photography . . . . I picked up timing and a sense of drama, and also how to relate pictures together.”\nDuring this time Smith was married to Carmen Martinez and a year later they had their first child, Marissa.\nIn 1942 Smith resigned his contract with Life Magazine and free-lanced in the New York area for awhile. During this time Smith was injured while shooting an assignment for Parade Magazine. About this time Smith became interested in World War II, but his injury left Smith physically disqualified from service in the war. Smith applied for service in Edward Stiechen’s Naval Photographic unit but was turned down three times for physical reasons. Smith then joined the staff of Ziff-Davis Publishing Company and was assigned to the aircraft carriers Independence and Bunker Hill. During this time Smith photographed battles on Wake Island, Rabual, Tarawa, Naru Island, Kavieng, and the Mariana Islands. Smith then returned home to New York for leave and resigned his contract with Ziff-Davis.\nSmith again joined the staff of Life magazine in May 1944, and returned to the Pacific to continue his work. During his work for Life Smith photographed the invasions of Saipan, Guam, and Okinawa. On Okinawa Smith was severely wounded in the head, chest, and back by shell fire. He was evacuated to Guam and in June returned to New York to continue his recovery. Smith later said of his work in the Pacific: “I would that my photographs might not be the coverage of a news event, but an indictment of war – the brutal corrupting viciousness of its doing to the minds and bodies of men; and, that my photographs might be a powerful emotional catalyst to the reasoning which would help this vile and criminal stupidity from beginning again.” “Each time I pressed the shutter release it was a shouted condemnation of war.” Smith had an idealistic hope that some how his photographs would help prevent future wars.\nAfter two years of medical treatment and painful recovery Smith exposed his first negative. It was an image of his two children walking through a garden, called “The Walk to Paradise Garden.” About this image that concluded Edward Steichens “The Family of Man” exhibition, Smith wrote: “The children in the photograph are my children, and on the day I made this photographic effort, I was not sure I would be capable of ever photographing again . . . . But now this day I would endeavor to refute two years of negation. On this day, for the first time since my injuries, I would try again to make the camera work for me. I would try to force my body to control the mechanics of the camera; and, as well, I would try to command my creative spirit out of exile.\n“Urgently, something compelled that this first photograph must not be a failure – pray God that I could so much as physically force a roll of film into the camera! I was determined that this first photograph must sing of more than\nbeing a technical accomplishment. I was determined that it would speak of a gentle moment of spirited purity in contrast to the depraved savagery I had raged against with my war photographs – my last photographs. I was almost desperate in this determination, in my insistence that for some reason this first exposure must have a special quality. I have never quite understood why it had to be thus, why it had to be the first and not the second; why, if not accomplished today, it could not be accomplished the next week; yet that day I challenged myself to do it, against my nerves, against my reason . . . . What ever the reason, probably more complex then one – I felt, without labeling it as such, that it was to be a day of spiritual decision . . . .\n“Still, and regardless of the conflict that raged within me, there was no change in my determination, and of my intentions for that first photograph. These woods with these children prancing in through them in happiness . . . as against war photographs I had made of a terrified mother and her child wheeling in bewilderment behind a shell broken tree . . . . ”\nIn 1947 Smith returned to Life Magazine, and had to prove his ability to photograph again. Between the years of 1947 – 1957 Smith photographed many photo essays for Life. These included, “Folk Singers” (1947), “Trial by Jury” (1948), “Country Doctor” (1948), “Hard Times on Broadway” (1949), “Life Without Germs” (1949), “Recording Artist” (1951), “Spanish Village” (1951), “Nurse Midwife” (1951), “Chaplin at Work” (1952), “The Reign of Chemistry” (1953), “My Daughter Juanita” (1953), and “A Man of Mercy” (1954).\nAmong these photo essays is some of Smith’s most influential and important work. When talking about Smith’s desire to somehow change the world through his work, three of these essays stand above the rest – “Country Doctor”, “Spanish Village”, and “Nurse Midwife”. Through these series of photographs Smith gained even greater fame and was able to raise the conscious level of the world.\nThe “Spanish Village” essay showed Smiths hatred for un-fair rule. Smith went to Spain to “try and show what living is like under the heel and police of a dictator.” Talking about the death scene in the “Spanish Village” essay Smith said: “In the death scene in the “Spanish Village,” I did not want to intrude into the morning scene. But as the picture came about, the day before I had been quite ill with an upset stomach in the field just at the edge of the village. A man offered me some wine, which I didn’t want but I drank it anyway just because of the gesture of kindness. Then the next day he came to me and said his father had died that night. He had gangrene and they wanted to bury him as quickly as possible, so he asked me if I could take him to the county seat so he could get the necessary papers registered. When we came back, he went to his house. I could see into the house, it was a very moving scene that was happening in the back of the room, but I could not bring myself to go in, just walk in; I just couldn’t do it. I paced back and forth outside storming at myself because I knew it was an important picture, and it was important to the whole story. But yet I did not feel I had the right to intrude, and I knew that a great number of photographers would have just gone in. Whether they would have come out with a great picture I don’t know, because they probably would have disturbed the people in there. Well, I stayed outside for awhile. Then I saw the son of the man come to the door, and I suddenly went up to him and said, ‘sir, I do not wish to dishonor your father, but would it be permissible for me to enter your house and to photograph?’ and he said, ‘please come in, I would be honored.’ So I went in with one assistant. The only light in there was a candle about three feet over his head, and with all that black they were wearing, it was very difficult. But I wanted to hold the same mood of lighting, so it was one of the few times I used a flashbulb. I took the reflector off and just used the bare bulb. By hand signals alone I motioned my assistant to work his way around behind the people to a position where he could hold the bulb over the candle so that it would simulate the candle lighting. I made one exposure and immediately realized that it was not good, that the picture was all out of rhythm. I made one more and thought I had at least a good picture. I would have loved to have stayed there and photographed a couple of rolls, but then I saw the son standing in the doorway peering in. I again motioned without words for my assistant to go through the other doorway so that the mourners in the other room and the son in the doorway could be seen, made one more exposure, and then very reluctantly I left. All this time never having said a word, hoping I never created much of a disturbance.”\nIn 1955 Smith once again resigned from Life magazine because of a dispute over the “A Man of Mercy” essay. About Life magazine Smith wrote, ” My attitude was almost always friendly towards Life; in spite of all their faults and failures they were a great magazine; otherwise it would not have been worth the fight. The resignation over the Schweitzer essay – it was a battle over the right of responsibility for my reportage, I was never bluntly saying they could never run a story of mine and distort it, and I resigned trying to force them to work out the problems about the story . . . . All the resignations were for the purposes of trying to help me gain the quality in the magazine I felt was my responsibility as a journalist. And I take that responsibility very seriously.’\nAfter his second resignation from Life, Smith joined Magnum Photos. While employed with Magnum Photos Smith began his most ambitious essay. It was a photo study of the city of Pittsburgh. Photo historian William S Johnson, wrote about the Pittsburgh essay: Feeling that he must vindicate himself, and driven by the desire to prove his ideas about the full possibilities of the photographic essay, Smith turned a simple project to do some illustrations for a book about Pittsburgh into a huge three-year-long project. The Pittsburgh essay, composed of thousands of photographs, was an astonishing act of creative energy and talent. In every other way it was a disaster for Smith. During those years he drove himself into financial bankruptcy and physical and emotional breakdowns in his obsessive urge to complete the story as he wished.” Smith personally financed the project in the beginning but later received two grants from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation to help him finish it.\nAbout this time Smith began his first major work in color. He was commissioned by the American Institute of Architects to do ten 18 foot long transparencies of contemporary American architecture. This project was entitled “Ten Buildings in America’s Future.”\nBy the end of the 1950s Smith’s reputation was higher then ever, but his family life was in chaos. In 1957 Smith divorced his wife and moved into a loft on Sixth Avenue in New York City. During the next several years Smith photographed the seasonal changes and events that happened outside his window. Out of this work came his “As From My Window I Sometimes Glance”, and “The Loft From Inside In” essays.\nIn 1959, part of the “As From My Window I Sometimes Glance” essay was published in Life Magazine under the name “Drama Beneath a City Window” was selected by the United States Information Agency for publication and distribution to Russia. Without Smith’s knowledge or consent the U.S.I.A. airbrushed out a police car that was in one of the photographs.\nDuring this time Smith was recognized as one of the worlds 10 greatest photographers by an international poll conducted by Popular Photography Magazine. Also about this time Smith began an essay on a Haitian Mental Clinic. The essay was finished, but never published in its entirety.\nIn 1958 Smith began work on a book that would cover his life’s work. The book was titled “The Walk To Paradise Garden”. About this book Smith said, “This is a statement of my philosophies and discriminations . . . letting truth be my prejudice . . . dedicated to those not taking the past in proof against the future.” The dummy for the book was finished in 1961.\nIn the early 1960s Smith exhibited his work all over the country and began teaching private classes in photojournalism.\nIn 1961 Smith was commissioned by the Japanese manufacturing company, Hitachi Limited, to photograph its operations. Over the next year Smith had several portfolios published in Japanese magazines. Smith also worked on a book that Hitachi was to produce. In 1962 Smith returned to New York.\nDuring 1963 – 1964 Smith published an essay in Life Magazine on his work done for Hitachi called “Colossus of the Orient”. The book produced by Hitachi was also published under the title, “A Chapter of Image.”\nIn 1964 Smith was appointed to the Presidents Committee on Photography.\nIn 1965 Smith worked on the development of the magazine Sensorium with Carol Thomas, his assistant over the past seven years. The project was later unpublished because of lack of financial backing.\nDuring the later end of the 1960s Smith wrote and taught about photography. He did not produce any work that matched his previous accomplishments, but he did do some smaller projects on Woodstock, a small town in Ohio, a trip across the United States, and demonstrations against the Vietnam war.\nIn 1971 Smith and his new Japanese/American wife, Aileen, moved back to Japan to begin his final and probably greatest work, “Minamata”. Smith and his wife moved to a small Japanese fishing village called Minamata. The people of the village were suffering from a strange disease later named, Minamata disease. This disease was proved to be coming from a local chemical company who was dumping mercury into the bay by the village. Smith and his wife spent four years in the village documenting the struggle by the disease victims to gain compensation from the chemical company for their destroyed lives. Smith and his wife, who was also a photographer, created many articles, essays, and traveling exhibitions that showed the struggle of the victims. In 1975 Smith and his wife published the book, Minamata . An overview of their work in Minamata. This book had a world – wide impact on the public awareness of this disease and pollution.\nDuring the coverage of a press conference dealing with the disease Smith was beat up by the chemical company’s guards and severely injured. This only helped to gain even more sympathy for the victims of the disease. Of the many photographs shot in Minamata, one special photograph of a mother and her child became the symbolic photograph of their work. It also has become one of Smith’s best known images. This photograph has been called the Pieta of the 20th Century. Shelly Rice in her article “W. Eugene Smith, A Dream of Life” wrote about this photograph: “The only light shines on the mother and the child, whose deformed body is stretched horizontally as she lies, helpless in the tub. Yet in spite of Tomoko’s malformed limbs, in spite of the problems her condition has caused, her mother, seated vertically, holds her gently, intimately, as she looks at her with maternal tenderness. Life may have delt these two women an excruciatingly bad hand, and government and Chisso officials may have treated them with neglect and abuse, but the emotional bonds that link Tomoko and her mother, and their courage to live and love, have survived intact.”\nSmith also wrote about the photograph: “As we photographed other things, things around her, and even the family, it grew in my mind that to me the symbol of Minamata was, finally, a picture of this woman and the child, Tomoko. One day I simply said to Aileen that if every thing is all right up there, and they are not too busy, let us try and make that symbolic picture. Now this does not in any way mean that I was posing the picture in the sense of posing a picture. It meant that I was interpreting what by now I knew full well to be true, because I would never have done it otherwise. So we went there and sat; and we talked for awhile; and, I actually explained what kind of a picture – I didn’t explain that I wanted that look, that look of courage – I simply said that I wanted something of the caring for Tomoko. I thought maybe away from the bath would be the picture that would best show what had happened to Tomoko’s body. We started, the mother herself suggested that the photograph should be in the bath; so we decided to try that. The mother went through her ordinary bath routine with the child, and this was the result.”\nAfter Minamata, Smith and his wife, Aileen divorced, and Smith returned to New York to begin two years of promotional appearances.\nIn 1977 Smith went to Tucson and began to teach photography at the University of Arizona, Still feeling the effects of his beating at Minamata, and a life of drug and alcohol abuse, Smith suffered a severe stroke. This began a year of painful recovery. During this time Smith began to organize his life’s work and planning his auto-biography. In the fall of 1978 Smith suffered a second stroke and died.\nW. Eugene Smith’s philosophy about photography is best said by letting him say it. “I put so much passion and so much energy into the doing of my photographs that beyond photography for art’s sake, ‘art for art’s sake,’ or such, I much prefer to have my photographs add this other element, that possibly they will stir someone to action, to do something about something. I would like to make clear at the very beginning that I have no conflict between journalism and my artist self. At one time I did, but then I realized to be a good journalist I needed to be the finest artist I could possibly be.\n“As far as I am concerned, I just very quietly accept photography as an art. Some of the photographs I have taken have changed others’ lives, too, because I know from the history of my own work that at times through photographs I have been able to destroy a concentration camp; I have been able to build a clinic for a nurse midwife; I have in some measure been able to help a little fighting the disease of pollution and racism.\n“I don’t feel all that dedicated. I just feel like a normal guy that too many people insist upon becoming a legend, but I feel humble and always on the threshold of knowing how to do my work.”\nThe reason I wanted to do this paper on W. Eugene Smith is because he is probably the photographer who has influenced me and my work the most. While studying Smith’s life and philosophy about photography I realized that photography has an unseen power beyond recording an event and freezing life. Photography has the power to destroy as well as build the photographer. Smith was so dedicated to his work that photography, in a way, destroyed his life. When Smith died in 1978, he died like many other creative people. He died alone and without much money.\nDuring most of Smith’s life he abused drugs and alcohol. Smith never denied the fact that he had these problems, but he always believed that they didn’t effect his performance behind the camera.\nWhen I look at Smith’s work I don’t see a man who hated the world and tried to escape from it by drinking and taking drugs. I see a man who hated the values of the world and tried to correct them. I think Smith understood people, but didn’t understand how he as a person fit into the world.\nSmith looked at himself as the defender of truth for the world. Smith’s essay on the nurse midwife, Maude Callen, is a great example of his desire to change the world. At a time when it wasn’t socially acceptable to deal with blacks, Smith went to North Carolina and spent weeks getting to know this woman and became her friend. I think that Smith gained this woman’s trust and respect. His photographs show it. Through Smith’s photographs published in Life , $18,500 was donated by Life’s readers toward building a clinic for this woman.\nThis same scenario was repeated many times and with many different situations all over the world.\nSmith’s photographs have a special quality that draw people to them. Technically I don’t think Smith was any better then other photographers of the time, but one quality that set Smith apart was his use of light and the quality of light that he consistently had in his photographs. Smith was a master of light and the electronic flash.\nOne very good example of Smiths use of light, is his photograph of the Spanish Civil Guards in his “Spanish Village” essay. Smith hated these men, who to him represented everything that was bad in the world. One day they asked Smith to photograph them for his story, so he placed them facing into the sun so they would have to squint. The quality of the noon day sun gave the guards a harsh, evil look. Smith told the guards that the light made them look better.\nThere are two of Smith’s photographs that I enjoy the most. They cover an emotional range from good to bad.\nThe first is a photograph of a mental patient in Haiti. The photograph shows just the head of a black mental patient against a black background. The patient’s white eyes jump out at you. The expression on the man’s face is that of a man in great pain. Smith’s use of hard contrasting light and the expression on the mans face helps one viewing the image to better understand the empty world of this man.\nThe second photograph is of a nun waiting for the survivors of the Andrea Doria. There is nothing exceptional about the photograph itself, but to me this is the W. Eugene Smith image I enjoy the most. This picture is simply of a young nun against a dark background, but the striking quality of this photograph is not formed by dramatic lighting or incredible action. It is the expression on the nun’s face. It is an expression of concern and hope, but most of all it is a look of great faith in God. This to me is why I admire Smith’s work. He had the ability to evoke great expression from those he photographed.\nThe photograph of the spinner from the “Spanish Village” essay has that Smithian quality of great expression. The image of Tomoko in the bath with her mother from the Minamata essay is another example of the expression Smith was able to see in his subjects. The expression of love on this mother’s face is striking.\nW. Eugene Smith was surrounded all his life by people who cared for him and loved him. He spent his whole life trying to make the world a better place for others. After studying Smith’s life it is ironic to me that when Smith died, he died alone, apart from his family and doing something he probably didn’t enjoy as much as photographing-teaching. In a way photography destroyed itself and Smith.\nSmith’s ashes were buried in upstate New York. Present at his funeral were his second wife, Aileen, all his children, his first wife, Carmen, and most of his 13 grandchildren. After Smith’s death a cable came signed by three men in Minamata:\nWE COME UPON THE UNEXPECTED NEWS OF YOUR DEATH AND PROFOUNDLY CANNOT ENDURE OUR GRIEF.\nYOUR HISTORY IS OUR COURAGE ITSELF.\nWE PLEDGE OUR INHERITANCE OF THE MIGHTY FOOTSTEPS YOU LEFT BEHIND IN MINAMATA.\nBibliography\n1- W. Eugene Smith, Aileen Smith, Minamata, Publ. by Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, © 1975.\n2- William S Johnson, W. Eugene Smith, Publ. by Pantheon Books © 1986, Translated from French.\n3- Kenneth Kobre, Photojournalism The Professionals Approach, Publ. by Focal Press, Butterworth Publishers, Boston, © 1980, Pgs. 282 – 305.\n4- Time – Life Books, Great Photographers 1983, Publ. by Time – Life Books, Alexandria, Virginia, © 1983, Pg. 176.\n5- Parry Janis, Wendy MacNeel, Photography Within the humanities, Publ. by Addison House, Danbury N. H., © 1977, Pgs. 96 – 109.\n6- Aperture, W. Eugene Smith, Publ. by Aperture Inc., New York, © 1969.\n7- Shelly Rice, W. Eugene Smith: A Dream of Life, Publ by Lens on Campus Magazine, part one, March 1986, Hearst Business Communica\ntions, Inc., Garden City, New York, Pgs 14 – 17.\n8- Shelly Rice, W. Eugene Smith: A Dream of Life, Publ by Lens on Campus Magazine, part two, April 1986, Hearst Business Communica\ntions, Inc., Garden City, New York, Pgs 10 – 13.\n9- Aperture, Let Truth be Prejudice, Publ. by Aperture Inc., New York, © 1987.\nShare this:\nI have copy and pasted from your awesome article into my blog… if you have any objections whatsoever I will remove immediately…\nI have credited and given full reference to you and your site…\nWilliam Eugene Smith is amazing… this is how I want my pictures to be!\nI doubt you will get too many “hits” from my site as I do this mostly just as a hobby and do not have a following… however, I felt it important to give credit where it’s due!"
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Which country does the airline Pluna come form?
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tc_819
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"PLUNA Líneas Aéreas Uruguayas S.A. was the flag carrier of Uruguay. It was headquartered in Carrasco, Montevideo and operated scheduled services within South America, as well as scheduled cargo and charter services from its hub at Carrasco International Airport.\n\nOn , only two days after the carrier's employees went on strike amid mounting financial difficulties, the Uruguayan government decided to close the airline down and to liquidate it. The carrier was wholly owned by the government at the time of its closure.\n\nHistory \n\nFoundation \n\nThe airline was established in September 1936 and started operations the following month, on . It was set up by Jorge and Alberto Márquez Vaesa, two brothers who had obtained the necessary financial and technical support through the ambassador of the United Kingdom to Uruguay at the time, Sir Eugen Millington-Drake. He writes in his memoirs that he suggested the airline be named using a memorable acronym, taking SABENA as an example. It was then decided on \"PLUNA\", an acronym for Primeras Líneas Uruguayas de Navegación Aérea (). Millington-Drake knew De Havilland's representative in Buenos Aires at the time, which helped in the acquisition of the airline's first aircraft. The airline flew two five-seater de Havilland Dragonflys from Montevideo to Salto and Paysandú. The two planes were christened Churrinche and San Alberto, the latter in honor of the brothers' father. PLUNA flew 2,600 passengers in their first fiscal year, a huge success for that era. It also flew 20,000 pieces of mail and 70,000 newspapers.\n\nThe carrier saw the incorporation of both the Potez 62 and the Douglas DC-2 into its fleet in the early 1940s, the latter acquired from the U.S. government. Following the outbreak of World War II, PLUNA was forced to suspend operations between 1942 and 1944 due to the lack of spare parts. The delicate position PLUNA was in at this time led the Uruguayan Government to aid the company by boosting its stake to 85% on . The first Douglas DC-3 entered PLUNA's fleet in February 1946. The airline launched regular services to Porto Alegre, Brazil, in May 1948. The carrier later added the cities of Santa Cruz in Bolivia and Buenos Aires, Rosario and Córdoba in Argentina to its network.\n\nNationalisation \n\nThe airline became a wholly government-owned company on . After World War II, PLUNA's fleet included two Douglas DC-2s which were operated on the Montevideo–Paysandú–Salto route until they were retired by 1951. In the same year, a Douglas DC-3 and four de Havilland Herons were added to the fleet. The Herons only stayed in PLUNA's fleet for a short time and by 1957 they had been sold. The DC-3s remained in service much longer, and in 1971 the last four of them were sold to the Fuerza Aérea Uruguaya.\n\nSão Paulo was added to the route network in January 1954. On the carrier entered the turbine era with the delivery of its first of three Vickers Viscounts four-engined turboprops purchased new from Vickers; it later acquired two Viscount 700s from Alitalia and three Viscount 800s from VASP.\n\nPLUNA's growth slowed considerably for the next three decades, but it entered the jet age soon after jets were introduced to the world, and added John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK) in New York, and Miami to its destinations, using Boeing 707 and Boeing 737 aircraft.\n\nIn the 1980s PLUNA began flying to Madrid, Asunción, Rio de Janeiro and Santiago de Chile, but services to JFK and Miami were suspended. In the meantime, as the city of Punta del Este flourished as a major tourist destination, PLUNA benefited from that. During this time, an office was also opened in Tel Aviv, Israel.\n\nPrivatisation \n\nThe 1990s saw financial trouble loom for PLUNA. In 1995, the company was transformed into a public–private partnership and the government sold 51% of the shares to a holding formed by an Argentine consortium named Tevycom and Uruguayan businessmen; the holding later sold half of its participation in PLUNA to Varig. \n\nAt , the airline had employees. At this time the fleet consisted of Boeing 737-200 Advanced and McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 to serve a network that included Asunción, Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Florianopolis, Madrid, Montevideo, Punta del Este, Rio de Janeiro, Rosario, Salvador, Santiago and São Paulo. By late , the airline's major shareholders were the Government of Uruguay (49%) and Varig (49%), and private investors held the balance. When Varig entered Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on , it sought a bidder for its 49% stake in PLUNA. For almost a year, it looked as if it might go to Venezuela's state-run Conviasa, but the deal officially fell through in .\n\nOn , the Government of Uruguay started negotiations to sell 75% of it shares to a private consortium of investors from Germany, United States, Uruguay and Argentina called Leadgate Investment, a subsidiary of Latin American Regional Aviation Holding Corporation (LARAH), that committed to inject million in the company. In July the same year, the government awarded 75% of PLUNA's stock to LARAH, and the acquisition of seven Bombardier CRJ-900s in a deal worth million was announced. \n\nIn late , PLUNA presented its new corporate image, developed by Australian design company Cato Partners. This new image is based on the interpretation of the name \"Uruguay\" as meaning \"river of the painted birds\" or \"river of the colorful birds\" (). The first of seven brand new CRJ900s that would be incorporated into the fleet during 2008 arrived in that year; these new aircraft permitted increasing frequencies to existing routes, as well as expanding services to new destinations. \n\nIn , the Canadian airline holding company Jazz Air Income Fund invested million in LARAH. The move gave this holding an indirect control of 25% of the Uruguayan flag carrier, as LARAH had a participation of 75% into PLUNA at that time; the Government of Uruguay held the balance. \n\nIn September and October 2010 three additional new CRJ900s aircraft were delivered from the Bombardier factory. In April 2011 three options were taken up for delivery at the end of 2011 and these were delivered between September and November 2011. With these additions, PLUNA's fleet consisted of 13 airplanes, the highest number in its history.\n\nCollapse\n\nIn early , PLUNA's then CEO, Matías Campiani, disclosed that the airline might face collapse amid a financial distress that led to a loss of million for the eight months ending in February the same year, partly due to the protectionism of the government of Argentina —where the carrier concentrated 21% of its operations— following the renationalisation of Aerolíneas Argentinas in 2008, and partly due to the slowdown of the Brazilian economy in the preceding months. Later on, with losses totalling million, Leadgate disposed of their 75% stake in the airline, transferring it back to the Uruguayan government. By that time, that percentage of PLUNA's stock was owned by LARAH, which was in turn 75% owned by Leadgate and 25% by Jazz Air. Despite it being initially disclosed that Jazz Air was not interested in taking over the entire 75% stock, and that it was later informed that the Canadian airline was actually evaluating the acquisition, the government suspended PLUNA's operations on —following a strike that started two days earlier, after failing to find new investors for the company.\n\nThe government announced that both PLUNA's fleet and routes would be auctioned. There are no plans for the government to have any stake in PLUNA's successor. In , the auction of the seven Bombardier aircraft that belonged to the liquidated carrier was delayed until as there were no bidders. Cosmo Airlines, a Spanish charter carrier, eventually purchased seven Bombardier CRJ900s at a price of $137 million. \n\nRegionally, the void created by PLUNA's collapse benefits foreign airlines on some routes.\n\nDestinations \n\n, PLUNA linked Uruguay with two destinations in Argentina, one in Chile, one in Paraguay, and eight in Brazil.\n\nCodeshare agreements \n\nPLUNA had a codeshare agreement with Iberia, which operates the Montevideo–Madrid–Montevideo route. Under the same codeshare agreement, passengers also connected from Madrid to many destinations within Spain and also to Frankfurt. PLUNA also announced a codeshare agreement with American Airlines, which would have placed PLUNA's code on American's Miami-Montevideo route, if it had government approval.\n\nFleet \n\nPrior to its collapse, PLUNA's fleet consisted of 13 Bombardier CRJ900s regional jet aircraft, with an average age of 2.7 years, . Each aircraft was equipped with 90 seats in an all-economy class layout. The list below also includes equipment operated by the carrier throughout its history.\n\nPLUNA had previously considered the Bombardier Q400 for the expansion into new markets. Nevertheless, on the airline announced it had converted some of the outstanding options for 3 new CRJ900 aircraft into firm orders for delivery before the end of 2011.\n\nAccidents and incidents \n\nPLUNA had only one fatal accident with the loss of ten crew members, the Aviation Safety Network records 3 hull-loss accidents/incidents for the airline. \n\n*: A Douglas DC-2-124, registration CX-AEG, was destroyed during a thunderstorm in Uruguay. \n*: A Douglas C-47A, registration CX-AGE, crashed during a final test flight. The crash occurred during takeoff from Carrasco International Airport, when the right wing grazed the runway, bouncing the aircraft and causing the right tire to burst, then bouncing the aircraft again causing the engine to smash into the ground at almost full throttle, and finally rolling over and coming to rest upside down. A fire broke out shortly afterwards. All 10 crew members died. \n*: A Vickers 769D Viscount, registration CX-AQO, flying a scheduled Carrasco International Airport–Buenos Aires-Aeroparque service, ran off the end of the runway at the destination airport on landing. The damage wrote off the aircraft. All 57 passengers and crew survived the incident."
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Who directed A Passage To India?
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"A Passage to India is a 1984 drama film written and directed by David Lean. The screenplay is based on the 1924 novel of the same title by E. M. Forster and the 1960 play by Santha Rama Rau that was inspired by the novel.\n\nThis was the final film of Lean's career, and the first feature-film he had directed in fourteen years, since Ryan's Daughter in 1970. Receiving universal critical acclaim upon its release with many praising as Lean's finest since Lawrence of Arabia, A Passage to India received eleven nominations at the Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director for Lean, and Best Actress for Judy Davis for her portrayal as Adela Quested. Peggy Ashcroft won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal as Mrs Moore, making her, at 77, the oldest actress to win the award, and Maurice Jarre won his third Academy Award for Best Original Score.\n\nPlot\n\nThe film is set in the 1920s during the period of growing influence of the Indian independence movement in the British Raj. Adela Quested (Judy Davis) and Mrs Moore (Peggy Ashcroft) sail from England to India, where Ronny Heaslop (Nigel Havers), Mrs Moore's son and Adela's fiancé, is the magistrate in the provincial town of Chandrapore.\n\nThrough school superintendent Richard Fielding (James Fox), the two visitors meet eccentric elderly Hindu Brahmin scholar Professor Narayan Godbole (Alec Guinness), and they befriend Dr Aziz Ahmed (Victor Banerjee), an impoverished widower who initially meets Mrs Moore in a moonlit mosque overlooking the Ganges River. Their sensitivity and unprejudiced attitude toward native Indians endears them to him. When Mrs Moore and Adela express an interest in seeing the \"real\" India, as opposed to the Anglicised environment of cricket, polo, and afternoon tea the British expatriates created for themselves, Aziz offers to host an excursion to the remote Marabar Caves.\n\nThe outing goes reasonably well until the women begin exploring the caves with Aziz and his sizeable entourage. Mrs Moore experiences an overwhelming sense of claustrophobia that forces her to return to the open air. She encourages Adela and Aziz to continue their exploration but suggests they take just one guide. The three set off for caves far from the rest of the group, and before entering, Aziz steps away to smoke a cigarette. He returns to find Adela has disappeared; shortly after he sees her running headlong down the hill, bloody and dishevelled. Upon their return to town, Aziz is jailed to await trial for attempted rape, and an uproar ensues between the local Indians and the British colonial rules.\n\nThe case becomes a cause celebre among the British. When Mrs Moore makes it clear that she firmly believes in Aziz's innocence and will not testify against him, it is decided she should return to England. She subsequently suffers a fatal heart attack during the voyage and is buried at sea.\n\nTo the consternation of her fiancé and friends, Adela has a change of heart and clears Aziz in court. The Colonials are forced into an ignominious retreat while the Indians carry the exonerated man from the courtroom on their shoulders, cheering wildly. Fielding looks after Adela since she has no one else to turn to. In the aftermath, Adela leaves India, while Dr Aziz, feeling betrayed by his friend Fielding, abandons his Western attire, dons traditional dress, and withdraws from ex-pat society, opening a clinic in Kashmir near the Himalayas. Meanwhile, through Adela, Fielding had married Stella Moore, Mrs. Moore's daughter from second marriage and both expect their first born child. While he remains angry and bitter for years, Aziz eventually reconciles with Fielding and writes to Adela to convey his thanks and forgiveness.\n\nCast\n\n*Judy Davis as Adela Quested\n*Peggy Ashcroft as Mrs Moore\n*Victor Banerjee as Dr Aziz Ahmed\n*James Fox as Richard Fielding\n*Alec Guinness as Professor Godbole\n*Nigel Havers as Ronny Heaslop\n*Sandra Hotz as Stella \n*Rashid Karapiet as Das\n*Michael Culver as Major McBryde\n*Clive Swift as Major Callendar\n*Ann Firbank as Mrs. Callendar \n*Art Malik as Ali\n*H.S. Krishnamurthy as Hassan \n*Dina Pathak as Begum Hamidullah \n*Ashok Mandanna as Anthony \n*Z.H. Khan as Dr. Panna Lal \n*Mohammed Ashiq as Haq \n*Saeed Jaffrey as Advocate Hamidullah\n*Roshan Seth as Advocate Amrit Rao\n*Richard Wilson as Turton\n*Antonia Pemberton as Mrs. Turton\n\nProduction\n\nBackground\n\nE. M. Forster began writing A Passage to India during a stay in India from the autumn of 1912 to the spring of 1913 (he was drawn there by a young Indian Muslim, Syed Ross Masood, whom he had tutored in Latin), completing it only after he returned to India as secretary to a maharajah in 1921. The novel was published on 6 June 1924. It differs from Forster's other major works in the overt political content, as opposed to the lighter tone and more subdued political subtext in works such as Howards End and A Room With a View.\n\nA Passage to India deals with the delicate balance between the English and the Indians during the British Raj. It follows the story of a British woman, Adela Quested, who claims she has been sexually assaulted by the Indian, Dr Aziz, while on a sightseeing tour of the whispering Marabar caves. Aziz is accused of rape in court, the British community is outraged, but the Indians strongly support Dr Aziz, who vows he is innocent. The question of what actually happened in the caves remains unanswered in the novel. A Passage to India sold well and was widely praised in literary circles. It is generally regarded as Forster's best novel, quickly becoming a classic of English literature. \n\nOver many years several film directors were interested in adapting the novel to the big screen, but Forster, who was criticized when the novel was published, rejected every offer for the film rights believing that any film of his novel would be a travesty. He feared that whoever made it would come down on the side of the English or the Indians, and he wanted balance. However he did allow Indian author Santha Rama Rau to adapt the novel for the theatre in 1956. The play, staged as a courtroom drama, begins in Fielding's house with Aziz doing the collar scene and ends at the trial. It was produced for the Oxford Playhouse, later moving to the West End in London in 1960 for 261 performances. The play was directed by Frank Hauser, with Pakistani actor Zia Mohyeddin as Aziz, Norman Woddland as Fielding, and Enid Lorimer as Mrs Moore.\n\nDavid Lean had read the novel and saw the play in London in 1960, and, impressed, attempted to purchase the rights at that time, but Forster, who rejected Santha Rama Rau's suggestion to allow Indian film director Satyajit Ray to make a film, said no. Forster, however, allowed a television production of the play by the BBC in 1965. This production was directed by Waris Hussein, an Indian working for the BBC. Zia Mohyeddin was cast as Aziz and Sybil Thorndike played Mrs Moore. The television play was well received. However, having given this limited permission, Forster remained adamant in his denial on anyone making a film from his novel. Following Forster's death in 1970, the governing board of fellows of King's College at Cambridge inherited the rights to his books. However, Donald A Parry, chief executor, turned down all approaches, including those of Joseph Losey, Ismail Merchant and James Ivory, and Waris Hussein, who after adapting Santha Rama Rau's play now wanted to make a feature film. Ten years later, when Professor Bernard Williams, a film enthusiast, became chief executor, the rights for a film adaptation became available.\n\nLord Brabourne, (John Knatchbull, 7th Baron Brabourne), whose father had been Governor of Bombay and later Governor of Bengal, and who was married to the daughter of Lord Mountbatten, the last viceroy, had sought the film rights for twenty years. He had produced Franco Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet and films based on Agatha Christie’s mysteries including the 1974 Murder on the Orient Express. In March 1981, John Brabourne and his business partner, Richard Goodwin, obtained the rights to make a film adaptation of A Passage to India. The contract stipulated that Santha Rama Rau write the screenplay and it reserved the right to approve the director.\n\nBrabourne, an admirer of the film Doctor Zhivago, wanted David Lean to direct the film. Lean was ready to break his 14-year hiatus from filmmaking following mostly negative reviews received for Ryan's Daughter in 1970. Since then, Lean had fought to make a two-part epic telling the true story of the mutiny on the Bounty, for which he could not obtain financing, and had given some thought about doing a film adaptation of Out of Africa, from the book by Isak Dinesen, which Sydney Pollack ultimately directed in 1985. By September 1981, Lean was approved as director and Santha Rama Rau completed a draft of the script.\n\nWriting\n\nThe contract stipulated that Santha Rama Rau would write the screenplay. She had met with E. M. Forster; had successfully adapted A Passage to India as a play; and the author had charged her with preserving the spirit of the novel. However, Lean was determined to exercise input in the writing process. He met with Santha Rama Rau in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, and over ten days they talked about the novel and discussed the script.\n\nThe initial script by Santha Rama Rau pleased neither the producer, John Brabourne, nor David Lean. They considered it too worldly and literary, the work of a playwright, and unsuitable for a film. Most of the scenes took place indoors and in offices while Lean had in mind to film outdoor as much as possible. With India in the title of the film, he reasoned, audiences would expect to see many scenes filmed of the Indian landscape. Lean commented: \"We are blessed with a fine movie title, A Passage to India. But it has built in danger; it holds out such a promise. The very mention of India conjures up high expectations. It has sweep and size and is very romantic\". Lean did not want to present a poor man's India when for the same amount of money he could show the country's visual richness.\n\nDuring 1982, Lean worked on the script. He spent six months in New Delhi, to have a close feeling of the country while writing. As he could not stay longer than that for tax reasons, then he moved to Zurich for three months finishing it there. Following the same method he had employed adapting Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations, he went through his copy of the novel, picking out the episodes that were indispensable and passing over those that did not advance the plot. Lean typed out the whole screenplay himself correcting it as he went along, following the principle that scripts are not written, but rewritten.\n\nCasting\n\nThe director cast Australian actress Judy Davis, then 28, as the naive Miss Quested after a two-hour meeting. When Davis gave her interpretation of what happened in the caves — “She can’t cope with her own sexuality, she just freaks out” — Lean said that the part was hers. Davis had garnered international attention in Gillian Armstrong’s My Brilliant Career (1979) and had appeared in A Woman Called Golda (1982) as a young Golda Meir.\n\nLean wanted Celia Johnson, star of Brief Encounter, to play Mrs Moore, but she turned down the part and died before the film was released. The director then offered the part to Peggy Ashcroft, a stage actress who had appeared in films only sporadically. She was not enthusiastic when Lean asked her to be Mrs Moore. \"Mr Lean, I’m 75-years-old,\" she protested. \"So am I,\" he replied. Although she had recently worked in India on the T.V. miniseries The Jewel in the Crown, she said, \"I thought, 'Oh dear, I really don’t want to do it', but it's very difficult to turn down a Lean film.\"\n\nSatyajit Ray, who had hoped to direct his adaptation of A Passage to India, recommended 38-year-old Bengali actor Victor Banerjee for the role of Dr Aziz. The character required a combination of foolishness, bravery, honour and anger. After some hesitation, Lean cast Banerjee, but the director had to overcome the restrictions of British equity to employ an Indian actor. Lean got his way, and the casting made headlines in India. \"It was a matter of national pride that an Indian was cast instead of an Asian from England,\" observed Banerjee.\n\nPeter O'Toole was Lean's first choice to play Fielding. The role eventually went to James Fox. Despite having quarrelled with Lean in the 1960s about a proposed film about Gandhi that ultimately was scrapped, Alec Guinness agreed to portray Professor Godbole. The relationship between the two men deteriorated during filming, and when Guinness learned that much of his performance was left on the cutting room floor due to time constraints, he saw it as a personal affront. Guinness would not speak to Lean for years afterwards, only patching things up in the last years of Lean's life. Nigel Hawthorne was cast as Turton but fell ill and was replaced on-set by Richard Wilson.\n\nLocations\n\nThe Marabar Caves are based on the Barabar Caves, some 35 km north of Gaya, in Bihar. Lean visited the caves during pre-production, and found them flat and unattractive; concerns about bandits were also prevalent. Instead he used the hills of Savandurga and Ramadevarabetta some tens of kilometers from Bangalore, where much of the principal film took place, small cave entrances were created by the production company. Other scenes were filmed in Ramanagaram (Karnataka) and Udhagamandalam (Tamil Nadu) and in Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir) with some interiors being shot at Shepperton Studios in Surrey and in Bangalore Palace\n\nFilming Dates\n\nNovember 1983 - June 1984\n\nCritical reception\n\nLean's final film became a critics' favourite in 1984, opening to tremendous praise worldwide.\nVincent Canby of the New York Times called Lean's film \"his best work since The Bridge on the River Kwai and Lawrence of Arabia and perhaps his most humane and moving film since Brief Encounter. Though vast in physical scale and set against a tumultuous Indian background, it is also intimate, funny and moving in the manner of a film maker completely in control of his material . . . Though [Lean] has made A Passage to India both less mysterious and more cryptic than the book, the film remains a wonderfully provocative tale, full of vivid characters, all played to near perfection.\" \n\nRoger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times observed, \"Forster's novel is one of the literary landmarks of this century, and now David Lean has made it into one of the greatest screen adaptations I have ever seen . . . [He] is a meticulous craftsman, famous for going to any length to make every shot look just the way he thinks it should. His actors here are encouraged to give sound, thoughtful, unflashy performances . . . and his screenplay is a model of clarity.\" \n\nVariety called the film \"impeccably faithful, beautifully played and occasionally languorous\" and added, \"Lean has succeeded to a great degree in the tricky task of capturing Forster's finely edged tone of rational bemusement and irony.\" \n\nTime Out London thought the film was \"a curiously modest affair, abandoning the tub-thumping epic style of Lean's late years. While adhering to perhaps 80 per cent of the book's incident, Lean veers very wide of the mark over E.M. Forster's hatred of the British presence in India, and comes down much more heavily on the side of the British. But he has assembled his strongest cast in years . . . And once again Lean indulges his taste for scenery, demonstrating an ability with sheer scale which has virtually eluded British cinema throughout its history. Not for literary purists, but if you like your entertainment well tailored, then feel the quality and the width.\" \n\nChannel 4 said, \"Lean was always preoccupied with landscapes and obsessed with the perfect shot – but here his canvas is way smaller than in Lawrence of Arabia, for instance . . . Still, while the storytelling is rather toothless, A Passage to India is certainly well worth watching for fans of the director's epic style.\" \n\nAwards and nominations\n\n;Academy Awards \nWins\n*Best Actress in a Supporting Role: Peggy Ashcroft\n*Best Music (Original Score): Maurice Jarre\nNominations\n*Best Picture: John Brabourne and Richard Goodwin\n*Best Directing: David Lean\n*Best Actress in a Leading Role: Judy Davis\n*Best Writing (Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium): David Lean\n*Best Art Direction: Art Direction: John Box, Leslie Tomkins; Set Decoration: Hugh Scaife\n*Best Cinematography: Ernest Day\n*Best Costume Design: Judy Moorcroft\n*Best Film Editing: David Lean\n*Best Sound: Graham V. Hartstone, Nicolas Le Messurier, Michael A. Carter and John W. Mitchell\n\n;Other awards\n*Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actress (Judy Davis, winner)\n*Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress (Peggy Ashcroft, winner)\n*Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing - Feature Film (David Lean, nominee)\n*Evening Standard British Film Award for Best Actor (Victor Banerjee, winner)\n*Kansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best Film (winner)\n*Kansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director (David Lean, winner)\n*Kansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress (Peggy Ashcroft, winner)\n*Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress (Peggy Ashcroft, winner)\n*National Board of Review Award for Best Picture (winner)\n*National Board of Review Award for Best Actor (Victor Banerjee, winner)\n*National Board of Review Award for Best Actress (Peggy Ashcroft, winner)\n*National Board of Review Award for Best Director (David Lean, winner)\n*New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Film (winner)\n*New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress (Peggy Ashcroft, winner)\n*New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director (David Lean, winner)\n*Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay (David Lean, nominee)\n\n;Golden Globes\nWins\n*Best Foreign Film\n*Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture: Peggy Ashcroft\n*Best Original Score: Maurice Jarre\nNominations\n*Best Director: David Lean\n*Best Screenplay: David Lean\n\n;BAFTAs\nWins\n*Best Actress in a Leading Role: Peggy Ashcroft\nNominations\n*Best Film\n*Best Actor: Victor Banerjee\n*Best Actor in a Supporting Role: James Fox\n*Best Adapted Screenplay: David Lean\n*Best Cinematography: Ernest Day\n*Best Costume Design: Judy Moorcroft\n*Best Production Design: John Box\n*Best Film Music: Maurice Jarre\n\nHome video\n\nSony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first DVD on 20 March 2001. It was in anamorphic widescreen format with audio tracks and subtitles in English, French, and Spanish. Bonus features included Reflections of David Lean, an interview with the screenwriter/director, cast biographies, and production notes.\n\nOn 9 September 2003, Columbia Pictures released the box set The David Lean Collection, which included Lawrence of Arabia, The Bridge on the River Kwai, and A Passage to India.\n\nOn 15 April 2008, Sony released A Passage To India (2-Disc Collector's Edition). In addition to Reflections of David Lean from the 2001 release, bonus features included commentary with producer Richard B. Goodwin; E.M. Forster: A Profile of an Author, covering some of the main themes of the original book; An Epic Takes Shape, in which cast and crew members discuss the evolution of the film; An Indian Affair, detailing the primary production period; Only Connect: A Vision of India, detailing the final days of shooting at Shepperton Studios and the post-production period; Casting a Classic, in which casting director Priscilla John discusses the challenges of bringing characters from the book to life; and David Lean: Shooting with the Master, a profile of the director.\nOn 15 April 2008, Sony released a Blu-ray HD Collector's Edition. With a restored print and new digital mastering.",
"A Passage to India (1924) is a novel by English author E. M. Forster set against the backdrop of the British Raj and the Indian independence movement in the 1920s. It was selected as one of the 100 great works of 20th century English literature by the Modern Library and won the 1924 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction. Time magazine included the novel in its \"All Time 100 Novels\" list. The novel is based on Forster's experiences in India, borrowing the title from Walt Whitman's 1870 poem in Leaves of Grass.\n\nThe story revolves around four characters: Dr. Aziz, his British friend Mr. Cyril Fielding, Mrs. Moore, and Miss Adela Quested. During a trip to the Marabar Caves (modelled on the Barabar Caves of Bihar), Adela thinks she finds herself alone with Dr. Aziz in one of the caves (when in fact he is in an entirely different cave), and subsequently panics and flees; it is assumed that Dr. Aziz has attempted to assault her. Aziz's trial, and its run-up and aftermath, bring to a boil the common racial tensions and prejudices between Indians and the British who rule India.\n\nPlot summary\n\nA young British schoolmistress, Adela Quested, and her elderly friend, Mrs. Moore, visit the fictional city of Chandrapore, British India. Adela is to decide if she wants to marry Mrs. Moore's son, Ronny Heaslop, the city magistrate.\n\nMeanwhile, Dr. Aziz, a young Indian Muslim physician, is dining with two of his Indian friends and conversing about whether it is possible to be a friend of an Englishman. During the meal, a summons arrives from Major Callendar, Aziz's unpleasant superior at the hospital. Aziz hastens to Callendar's bungalow as ordered but is delayed by a flat tyre and difficulty in finding a tonga and the major has already left in a huff.\n\nDisconsolate, Aziz walks down the road toward the railway station. When he sees his favourite mosque, he enters on impulse. He sees a strange Englishwoman there and yells at her not to profane this sacred place. The woman, Mrs Moore, has respect for native customs. This disarms Aziz, and the two chat and part as friends.\n\nMrs. Moore returns to the British club down the road and relates her experience at the mosque. Ronny Heaslop, her son, initially thinks she is talking about an Englishman and becomes indignant when he learns the facts. Adela, however, is intrigued.\n\nBecause the newcomers had expressed a desire to see Indians, Mr. Turton, the city tax collector, invites numerous Indian gentlemen to a party at his house. The party turns out to be an awkward business, thanks to the Indians' timidity and the Britons' bigotry, but Adela meets Cyril Fielding, headmaster of Chandrapore's government-run college for Indians. Fielding invites Adela and Mrs. Moore to a tea party with him and a Hindu-Brahmin professor named Narayan Godbole. At Adela's request, he extends his invitation to Dr. Aziz.\n\nAt Fielding's tea party, everyone has a good time conversing about India, and Fielding and Aziz become friends. Aziz promises to take Mrs. Moore and Adela to see the Marabar Caves, a distant cave complex. Ronny Heaslop arrives and rudely breaks up the party.\n\nAziz mistakenly believes that the women are offended that he has not followed through on his promise and arranges an outing to the caves at great expense to himself. Fielding and Godbole were supposed to accompany the expedition, but they miss the train.\n\nAziz and the women explore the caves. In the first cave, Mrs. Moore is overcome with claustrophobia. But worse than the claustrophobia is the echo. Disturbed by the sound, Mrs. Moore declines to continue exploring. Adela and Aziz, accompanied by a guide, climb to the next caves.\n\nAs Aziz helps Adela up the hill, she asks whether he has more than one wife. Disconcerted by the bluntness of the remark, he ducks into a cave to compose himself. When he comes out, he finds the guide alone outside the caves. The guide says Adela has gone into a cave by herself. Aziz looks for her in vain. Deciding she is lost, he strikes the guide, who runs away. Aziz looks around and discovers Adela's field glasses lying broken on the ground. He puts them in his pocket.\n\nThen Aziz looks down the hill and sees Adela speaking to another young Englishwoman, Miss Derek, who has arrived with Fielding in a car. Aziz runs down the hill and greets Fielding, but Miss Derek and Adela drive off without explanation. Fielding, Mrs. Moore, and Aziz return to Chandrapore on the train.\n\nAt the train station, Aziz is arrested and charged with sexually assaulting Adela in a cave. The run-up to his trial releases the racial tensions between the British and the Indians. Adela says that Aziz followed her into the cave and tried to grab her, and that she fended him off by swinging her field glasses at him. The only evidence the British have is the field glasses in the possession of Aziz. Despite this, the British colonists believe that Aziz is guilty. They are stunned when Fielding proclaims his belief in Aziz's innocence. Fielding is ostracised and condemned as a blood-traitor. But the Indians, who consider the assault allegation a fraud, welcome him.\n\nDuring the weeks before the trial, Mrs. Moore is apathetic and irritable. Although she professes her belief in Aziz's innocence, she does nothing to help him. Ronny, alarmed by his mother's assertion that Aziz is innocent, arranges for her return by ship to England before she can testify at the trial. Mrs. Moore dies during the voyage. Her absence from India becomes a major issue at the trial, where Aziz's legal defenders assert that her testimony would have proven the accused's innocence.\n\nAdela becomes confused as to Aziz's guilt. At the trial, she is asked whether Aziz sexually assaulted her. She has a vision of the cave, and it turns out that Adela had, while in the cave, received a shock similar to Mrs. Moore's. The echo had disconcerted her so much that she became unhinged. At the time, Adela mistakenly interpreted her shock as an assault by Aziz. She admits that she was mistaken, and the case is dismissed. (Note: In the 1913 draft of the novel, EM Forster had Aziz guilty of the assault and found guilty in the court but changed this in the 1924 draft to create a more ambiguous ending.)\n\nRonny Heaslop breaks off their engagement. Adela stays at Fielding's house until her passage on a boat to England is arranged. After explaining to Fielding that the echo was the cause of the whole business, she departs India, never to return.\n\nAlthough he is vindicated, Aziz is angry that Fielding befriended Adela after she nearly ruined his life. Believing it to be the gentlemanly thing to do, Fielding convinces Aziz not to seek monetary redress from her. The men's friendship suffers, and Fielding departs for England. Aziz believes that he is leaving to marry Adela for her money. Bitter at his friend's perceived betrayal, he vows never again to befriend a white person. Aziz moves to the Hindu-ruled state of Mau and begins a new life.\n\nTwo years later, Fielding returns to India. His wife is Stella, Mrs. Moore's daughter from a second marriage. Aziz, now the Raja's chief physician, comes to respect and love Fielding again. However, he does not give up his dream of a free and united India. In the novel's last sentences, he explains that he and Fielding cannot be friends until India is free of the British Raj.\n\nCriticism \n\nSignificant criticism of the novel has been performed by Benita Parry in Delusions and Discoveries: India in the British Imagination, Edward Said in Culture and Imperialism and Sara Suleri in The Rhetoric of the English in India.\n\nCharacter list\n\n; Dr. Aziz : A young Muslim Indian physician who works at the British hospital in Chandrapore, which is said to have been based on the city of Bankipur, a suburb of Patna in the state of Bihar. He relies heavily on intuition over logic, and he is more emotional than his best friend, Fielding. He makes friends easily and seems quite garrulous at times. His chief drawback is an inability to view a situation without emotion, which Forster suggests is a typical Indian difficulty. Aziz seems to possess a profound love for his late wife but only thinks of her intermittently. Initially he is somewhat indifferent to the British colonists, but comes to resent them after his treatment during the trial.\n; Cyril Fielding : The 45-year-old, unmarried British headmaster of the small government-run college for Indians. Fielding's logical Western mind cannot comprehend the muddle (or mystery) of India, but he is highly tolerant and respectful toward Indians. He befriends Dr. Aziz, but cultural and racial differences, and personal misunderstandings, separate them.\n; Adela Quested : A young British schoolmistress who is visiting India with the vague intention of marrying Ronny Heaslop. Intelligent, brave, honest, but slightly prudish, she is what Fielding calls a \"prig.\" She arrives with the intention of seeing the real India. But after a frightening trip to the Marabar Caves, she falsely accuses Aziz of sexually assaulting her.\n; Mrs. Moore : The elderly, thoughtful mother of Ronny Heaslop. She is visiting Chandrapore to oversee her son's engagement to Adela Quested. She respects Indians and their customs, and the Indians in the novel appreciate her more than they do any other Briton. After undergoing an experience similar to Adela's, she becomes apathetic and bitter.\n; Ronny Heaslop : The British city magistrate of Chandrapore. Though not a bad man, he shares many of his colonial colleagues' racist view of Indians. He breaks off his engagement to Adela after she retracts her accusation against Aziz. He considers it a betrayal of their race.\n; Professor Narayan Godbole : An elderly, courteous, contemplative Brahmin who views the world with equanimity. He remains totally aloof from the novel's conflicts.\n; Mr. Turton : The British city collector of Chandrapore. He does not hate Indians, for that would be to negate his life's work. Nevertheless, he is fiercely loyal to his race, reviles less bigoted people like Fielding, and regards natives with thinly veiled contempt.\n; Mrs. Turton : Mr. Turton's wife. Openly racist, snobbish, and rude toward Indians and those Europeans who are different, she screams at Adela in the courtroom when the latter retracts her accusation against Aziz.\n; Maj. Callendar : The British head doctor and Aziz's superior at the hospital. He is more openly racist than any other male character. Rumors circulate among Indians that Callendar actually tortured an injured Indian by putting pepper instead of antiseptic on his wounds.\n; Mr. McBryde : The British superintendent of police in Chandrapore. Like Mr. Turton, he considers dark-skinned races inferior to light-skinned ones. During Aziz's trial, he publicly asserts that it is a scientific fact that dark men lust after white women. Nevertheless, he is more tolerant of Indians than most Britons, and he is on friendly terms with Fielding.\n; Miss Derek : An Englishwoman employed by a Hindu royal family. She frequently borrows their car—and does not trouble to ask their permission or return it in time. She is too boisterous and easygoing for most of her compatriots' tastes. She has an affair with McBryde.\n; Nawab Bahadur : The chief Indian gentleman in Chandrapore, a Muslim. Wealthy (he owns a car) and generous, he is loyal to the British (he lends his car to Ronny Heaslop). But after the trial, he gives up his title of \"nawab,\" which the British bestowed on him, in favour of plain \"Mr. Zulfiqar.\"\n; Hamidullah : Aziz's uncle and friend. Educated in law at Cambridge University, he declares at the beginning of the novel that it is easier to be a friend of an Englishman in England than in India. Aziz comes to agree with him.\n; Amritrao : A prominent Indian lawyer from Calcutta, called in to defend Aziz. He is known for his strong anti-British sentiment. He takes the case for political reasons and becomes disgusted when the case evaporates in court.\n; Mahmoud Ali : A Muslim Indian barrister who openly hates the British.\n; Dr. Panna Lal : A low-born Hindu doctor and Aziz's rival at the hospital.\n; Ralph Moore : A timid, sensitive and discerning youth, the second son of Mrs. Moore.\n; Stella Moore : Mrs. Moore's daughter and, later, Fielding's beautiful younger wife.\n\nAwards\n\n* 1924 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction.\n\nAdaptations\n\n* A play written by Santha Rama Rau based on the novel ran on the West End in 1960, and on Broadway from 31 January 1962 through 28 April 1962 \n* A BBC TV adaptation of the play by Santha Rama Rau in the Play of the Month series, starring Sybil Thorndike, Virginia McKenna, Cyril Cusack and Saeed Jaffrey, first transmitted on 16 November 1965. \n* The Indian parallel Bengali film director Satyajit Ray intended to direct a theatrical adaptation of the novel, but the project was never realised. \n* The 1984 film version directed by David Lean, and starring Judy Davis, Victor Banerjee, James Fox, Peggy Ashcroft and Alec Guinness, won two Oscars and numerous other awards. \n* Martin Sherman's adaptation for theatre company Shared Experience premiered in Richmond in 2002. It has toured the UK and played at the Brooklyn Academy of Music Harvey Theater in November 2004. \n\nManuscript \n \nIn 1960 the manuscript of A Passage to India was donated to Rupert Hart-Davis by Forster and sold to raise money for the London Library; selling for the then record sum of £6,500 for a modern English manuscript."
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"Directed by David Lean. With Judy Davis, Victor Banerjee, Peggy Ashcroft, James Fox. ... Title: A Passage to India (1984) 7.4 /10. Want to share IMDb's ...",
"A Passage to India. 1984 Directed by David Lean. ... A Passage to India was nothing truly special, and a little heavy handed in its British India bent, ...",
"Directed By: David Lean. Written By: Santha Rama Rau, David Lean. In Theaters: Dec 14, 1984 wide. On DVD: Mar 20, 2001. ... A Passage to India is a visual treat, ...",
"A Passage to India (Widescreen) ... Directed by: David Lean: ... \"A Passage to India\" was David Lean's last film.",
"A Passage to India (Blu-ray, Collector's Edition) ... for $5.98 from OLDIES.com Drama Directed by David Lean; ... A Passage to India (Blu-ray, Collector's Edition) ..."
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"A Passage to India (1984) - IMDb\nIMDb\nThere was an error trying to load your rating for this title.\nSome parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later.\nX Beta I'm Watching This!\nKeep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.\nError\nA Passage to India ( 1984 )\nPG |\nCultural mistrust and false accusations doom a friendship in British colonial India between an Indian doctor, an Englishwoman engaged to marry a city magistrate, and an English educator.\nDirector:\nE.M. Forster (by), E.M. Forster (based on the novel by) | 2 more credits »\nStars:\nFrom $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video\nON DISC\na list of 30 titles\ncreated 18 Jan 2013\na list of 27 titles\ncreated 23 Apr 2013\na list of 23 titles\ncreated 04 Jan 2014\na list of 45 titles\ncreated 17 Jan 2015\na list of 28 titles\ncreated 26 Jul 2015\nTitle: A Passage to India (1984)\n7.4/10\nWant to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.\nYou must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.\nWon 2 Oscars. Another 19 wins & 26 nominations. See more awards »\nVideos\nSet in the wake of the 1916 Easter Rising, a married woman in a small Irish village has an affair with a troubled British officer.\nDirector: David Lean\nThe life of a Russian physician and poet who, although married to another, falls in love with a political activist's wife and experiences hardship during the First World War and then the October Revolution.\nDirector: David Lean\nA humble orphan suddenly becomes a gentleman with the help of an unknown benefactor.\nDirector: David Lean\nAn orphan named Oliver Twist meets a pickpocket on the streets of London. From there, he joins a household of boys who are trained to steal for their master.\nDirector: David Lean\nA lonely American woman unexpectedly finds romance in Venice, Italy.\nDirector: David Lean\nMeeting a stranger in a railway station, a woman is tempted to cheat on her husband.\nDirector: David Lean\nAfter settling his differences with a Japanese PoW camp commander, a British colonel co-operates to oversee his men's construction of a railway bridge for their captors - while oblivious to a plan by the Allies to destroy it.\nDirector: David Lean\nThis \"story of a ship,\" the British destroyer HMS Torrin, is told in flash backs by survivors as they cling to a life raft.\nDirectors: Noël Coward, David Lean\nStars: Noël Coward, John Mills, Bernard Miles\nEdit\nStoryline\nCirca 1920, during the Indian British rule, Dr. Aziz H. Ahmed was born and brought up in India. He is proficient in English, and wears Western style clothing. He meets an old lady, Mrs. Moore, at a mosque, who asks him to accompany her and her companion, Adela Quested, for sight-seeing around some caves. Thereafter the organized life of Aziz is turned upside down when Adela accuses him of molesting her in a cave. Aziz is arrested and brought before the courts, where he learns that the entire British administration is against him, and would like to see him found guilty and punished severely, to teach all native Indians what it means to molest a British citizen. Aziz is all set to witness the \"fairness\" of the British system, whose unofficial motto is \"guilty until proved innocent.\" Written by rAjOo ([email protected])\nSee All (73) »\nTaglines:\nDavid Lean, the Director of \"Doctor Zhivago\", \"Lawrence of Arabia\" and \"The Bridge on the River Kwai\", invites you on . . .[A Passage to India]\nGenres:\n1 February 1985 (USA) See more »\nAlso Known As:\nPasaje a la India See more »\nFilming Locations:\nPeggy Ashcroft 's favorite scene was when she got to ride an elephant. See more »\nGoofs\nIn a faraway shot at the \"bridge\" party at the club, an all-Indian band is playing, but the conductor's beat pattern is off- the song is in common time (4/4 time), but he is beating beat 3 when the band is playing beat 1. See more »\nQuotes\nMrs. Moore : My dear, life rarely gives us what we want at the moment we consider appropriate. Adventures do occur, but not punctually.\n(United States) – See all my reviews\nSometimes, what you don't see can be of equal importance to what you do see in a film. David Lean's film is no exception ... but more on that later.\nA film of epic quality, it follows two travelers on their journey from England to India during the Raj colonial period of the 1920s. For Adela Quested, it's her first time out of England to anywhere. For Mrs. Moore, it's a chance to visit her son, Ronny, who is expected to marry Adela during the visit. But, their visit is not without incident.\nWhat both Adela and Mrs. Moore discover is an India ruled by British bureaucrats (Ronny being one of them, a city magistrate) who exude personal and cultural superiority over Indians. This was a shock to them since they both expected to find Indians and Britons meeting socially and on friendly terms. The only exception to that rule appears to be Fielding, principal of a college.\nThrough Fielding, Adela is introduced socially to Professor Godbole (a Hindu holy man) and Dr. Aziz (a Muslim physician). Mrs. Moore met Aziz in a previous scene but had not yet met Godbole until that moment. One note on that (a film flaw). During the mosque scene where Mrs. Moore meets Dr. Aziz, Aziz never once mentions his name to her ... yet later, Adela knows his name as mentioned to her by Mrs. Moore. Perhaps his name was mentioned in a brief scene that ended up on the cutting-room floor. But, that omission is trivial and in no way detracts from the enjoyment of the film.\nDuring this social introduction, Aziz invites Mrs. Moore and Adela on a journey to the Marabar caves, a tourist destination. On the trip, and tired from all the activity, Mrs. Moore stays at the encampment near the lower caves and encourages Aziz and Adela to explore the higher caves alone.\nThen, something happened ... and I won't tell you what (grin). Suffice it to say that Aziz finds himself in police custody. A court trial ensues that pits culture against culture, race against race, and clearly demonstrates the differences in attitudes between resident British citizens and Indians. But the trial's climax isn't the most moving part of the film. Lean has risen the film's denouement to a higher level ... one that leaves you smiling and crying at the same time. But what Lean does NOT mention in the film is equally interesting.\nIn today's world, India is beset by inter-sect angst between Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and persons of other faiths. In theory, this inter-sect rivalry has been around since before India became a British colony. But, this rivalry was not mentioned once in the film. It is perhaps a testament to the novelist (E.M. Forster) and Lean to realize a potent underlying force in the story ... that British colonial rule held these rivalries in abeyance ... uniting Indians of all faiths into a common bond that eventually forced colonialism to end in India.\nThe film is a masterpiece on every level and remains one of my favorites of all time.\nP.S. Closing comment to those (like me) who own region-free DVD players that render both PAL and NTSC DVDs. For some reason unknown to me, it's over $10 cheaper to buy the DVD from Amazon.co.uk than it is from Amazon.com ... even after overseas shipping is added in. That's where I ordered mine (from the UK).\n37 of 49 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you?\nYes",
"A Passage to India (1984) directed by David Lean • Reviews, film + cast • Letterboxd\n1\nFor one, Judy Davis is a towering force beyond words while acting in this film. I can't come close to saying the same for any of the actors, but Davis is absolutely brilliant. God, I love that woman...\nThe film itself feels bland and unimaginative until about an hour and a half in when it jumps off the rails and becomes a poignant social justice drama, along with a gripping mystery. Of course, everything switches gears in the ending and becomes un-compelling, bland and pointless, but throughout the rest of the film, A Passage to India was very good. It's a shame Lean ended it as he did.\nReview by Varghese Eapen ★★½\nDavid Lean's swansong is a crushing disappointment. Is this the same director who made Lawrence of Arabia and Bridge on The River Kwai? Visually gorgeous but it never amounts to anything memorable plus it drags around a lot. The casting of Alec Guinness falls flat on it's face. Even the courtroom finale is a joke.\nReview by lobsta ★★★\nPassage to India has all the makings of a great epic of Leans but something just didn't connect with me like the other films he's made. The opening and the scale of the cave scenes really ticked the Lean grandeur box with such immense scale and choreography no CGI manages to do justice. Perhaps it's the melodrama playing off against the colonial history that just didn't seem right to me, although it was pleasing to see the racism/colonialism dealt with such equal balance. The way the film showed the hypocrisy in so many forms large or small was pretty interesting but the 'incident' scene irked me more than intrigued me. Perhaps it's the recent watching of Satyajit Ray films but his depiction of India or little colonial Britain didn't grab me as strongly as I would have hoped for the 3 hour length.\nReview by oscarcl ★★★\nSlow-moving drama about 2 women in RAJ India. Not always satisfying plot turns bizarre and the quiet, passive journey builds toward and ends in underwhelming manner. Hopefully, the historical accuracy is good enough to appreciate the cruel treatment of the Indians by the British rulers.\nReview by ralch ★★★★\nAlec Guinness' role (physically and symbolically) notwithstanding, this is a remarkable portrait of codes of conduct and conflicting (to put it mildly) relations between colonizer and colonized. David Lean's decision to make the central narrative incident less ambiguous than in the novel (reportedly) doesn't bother me at all. Instead, it gives the Adela character a richly contradictory identity in the context of the themes explored. Judy Davis is quite good as her, too. And Dr. Aziz reminds me of several people I know. Simultaneously grand and understated storytelling, beautiful to see and with a pointed acidic tone.",
"Super Reviewer\n½\nIn an India seething with anti-colonial fervor versus colonial superiority and \"duty\", a young Englishwoman accuses an Indian doctor of \"the worst\". David Lean does everything but star and score the music, in this his final bow. Beyond the obvious politics and racism he leaves us with a human story, one of hopes and aspirations for a better world ... and then he casts a white man as an Indian brahmin. Revealing hypocrisy.\nKevin M. Williams\nSuper Reviewer\nThe first half of the movie was relatively watchable but the second half was appalling. Why would a woman accuse someone of raping her, and why in God's name would she withdraw it only when she's called to the witness box, is beyond me. Okay, it's because she's honest and she couldn't accept someone being unjustly crucified for a crime that was never committed. So she withdraws everything only and only when she's called to the witness box. Applause for the lady's courage!!! I can understand that she may have made such an accusation because she wasn't well when she made it and might have done so under someone's influence. But at least after recovery, she could have taken back the false charges. Her conscience was probably on leave during the earlier proceedings of the court. The range of my imagination is quite poor at times. I know that such a dramatization is essential to create a greater effect for the movie, but the way this particular part was executed was very poor. Anyway, I liked the way characters were developed and the interactions between them. I'd also like to mention that except for that idiotic part in the movie, I found the rest of the movie well done. Victor Banerjee sucked as Dr. Aziz while Alec Guinness excelled as Godbole, a veteran with foresight and better understanding of the human life.\nfamiliar stranger\nSuper Reviewer\nLean's farewell, a stunning and beautiful tale of prejudice. great soundtrack, grateful performances, an overlooked marvel.\nPierluigi Puccini",
"A Passage to India (Widescreen) DVD (1984) Directed by David Lean; Starring Alec Guinness, Judy Davis, James Fox & Peggy Ashcroft; Sony Pictures | OLDIES.com\nDavid Lean\nMemorable Quotes and Dialog:\n\"I want to state what I believe to be a universal truth. The darker races are attracted to the fairer, but not vice versa.\"\n\"Even when the lady is less attractive than the gentleman'\"\n -\nCourtroom exchange between prosecuting attorney McBryde (Michael Culver) and defense attorney Amritrao (Roshan Seth) during the trial of Dr. Aziz for the attempted rape of Adela Quested.\nMajor Awards:\nAcademy Awards 1984 - Best Original Score: Maurice Jarre\nAcademy Awards 1984 - Best Supporting Actress: Peggy Ashcroft\nEntertainment Reviews:\n\"...Affecting scenes which Lean accomplishes with all his old panache...\"\nNew York Times - 12/14/1984\n\"...Very much a full theatrical meal....Remarkably faithful to the novel...\"\nVariety - 12/12/1984\n\"...Impeccably faithful, beautifully played....Magnificently crafted in the expected Lean manner and full of old-fashioned virtues...\"\nProduct Description:\nDavid Lean returned to filmmaking after a 14-year absence to direct this award-winning adaptation of E.M. Forster's novel. Adela Quested (Judy Davis), a young and spirited Englishwoman, travels to India alongside the somewhat older Mrs. Moore (Peggy Ashcroft). Mrs. Moore's hope is that her son, an administrator in the British Raj, and Adela will wed. Once in India, the two women pay scant heed to the customs followed by English society. They even agree to accompany a \"native\"--the charming and educated Dr. Aziz (Victor Banerjee)--on a tour of the mystical, ancient Marabar Caves. But their innocent outing turns ugly when Adela emerges from the cave's darkness accusing Aziz of rape. British authorities eagerly pursue--even pressure--Adela to go to court. The truth, however, is not as clear as the bigoted colonial government believes it is.\nKeywords:\n\"A Passage to India\" was David Lean's last film.\nColor by Technicolor, with Metrocolor prints.\nAdditional credit: Rak Yedekar (art director).\nAcademy Award Nominations: 11, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actress--Judy Davis, Best (Adapted) Screenplay. Academy Awards: 2, including Best Supporting Actress--Dame Peggy Ashcroft.\n22% OFF",
"A Passage to India (Blu-ray, Collector's Edition) (1984) Directed by David Lean; Starring Judy Davis & Peggy Ashcroft; Sony Pictures | OLDIES.com\nDavid Lean\nMemorable Quotes and Dialog:\n\"I want to state what I believe to be a universal truth. The darker races are attracted to the fairer, but not vice versa.\"\n\"Even when the lady is less attractive than the gentleman'\"\n -\nCourtroom exchange between prosecuting attorney McBryde (Michael Culver) and defense attorney Amritrao (Roshan Seth) during the trial of Dr. Aziz for the attempted rape of Adela Quested.\nMajor Awards:\nAcademy Awards 1984 - Best Original Score: Maurice Jarre\nAcademy Awards 1984 - Best Supporting Actress: Peggy Ashcroft\nEntertainment Reviews:\n\"...Affecting scenes which Lean accomplishes with all his old panache...\"\nNew York Times - 12/14/1984\n\"...Very much a full theatrical meal....Remarkably faithful to the novel...\"\nVariety - 12/12/1984\n\"...Impeccably faithful, beautifully played....Magnificently crafted in the expected Lean manner and full of old-fashioned virtues...\"\nProduct Description:\nDavid Lean returned to filmmaking after a 14-year absence to direct this award-winning adaptation of E.M. Forster's novel. Adela Quested (Judy Davis), a young and spirited Englishwoman, travels to India alongside the somewhat older Mrs. Moore (Peggy Ashcroft). Mrs. Moore's hope is that her son, an administrator in the British Raj, and Adela will wed. Once in India, the two women pay scant heed to the customs followed by English society. They even agree to accompany a \"native\"--the charming and educated Dr. Aziz (Victor Banerjee)--on a tour of the mystical, ancient Marabar Caves. But their innocent outing turns ugly when Adela emerges from the cave's darkness accusing Aziz of rape. British authorities eagerly pursue--even pressure--Adela to go to court. The truth, however, is not as clear as the bigoted colonial government believes it is.\nKeywords:\n\"A Passage to India\" was David Lean's last film.\nColor by Technicolor, with Metrocolor prints.\nAdditional credit: Rak Yedekar (art director).\nAcademy Award Nominations: 11, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actress--Judy Davis, Best (Adapted) Screenplay. Academy Awards: 2, including Best Supporting Actress--Dame Peggy Ashcroft.\n22% OFF"
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"Eldred Gregory Peck (April 5, 1916 – June 12, 2003) was an American actor who was one of the most popular film stars from the 1940s to the 1960s. Peck continued to play major film roles until the late 1970s. His performance as Atticus Finch in the 1962 film To Kill a Mockingbird earned him the Academy Award for Best Actor. He had also been nominated for an Oscar for the same category for The Keys of the Kingdom (1944), The Yearling (1946), Gentleman's Agreement (1947) and Twelve O'Clock High (1949). Other notable films he appeared in include Spellbound (1945), The Paradine Case (1947), The World in His Arms (1952), Roman Holiday (1953), Moby Dick (1956, and its 1998 miniseries), The Guns of Navarone (1961), Cape Fear (1962, and its 1991 remake), How the West Was Won (1962), The Omen (1976) and The Boys from Brazil (1978).\n\nPresident Lyndon Johnson honored Peck with the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969 for his lifetime humanitarian efforts. In 1999, the American Film Institute named Peck among Greatest Male Stars of Classic Hollywood cinema, ranking at No. 12. He was named to the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame in 1983. \n\nEarly life \n\nEldred Gregory Peck was born on April 5, 1916, in La Jolla, San Diego, California, the son of Gregory Pearl Peck, a New York-born chemist and pharmacist, and his Missouri-born wife Bernice Mary \"Bunny\" (née Ayres). His father was of English (paternal) and Irish (maternal) heritage and his mother of English and Scots ancestry. She converted to her husband's religion, Roman Catholicism, when she married his father, and Peck was raised as a Catholic. Through his Irish-born paternal grandmother Catherine Ashe, Peck was related to Thomas Ashe, who participated in the Easter Rising less than three weeks after Peck's birth and died while on hunger strike in 1917.\n\nPeck's parents divorced when he was five and he was brought up by his maternal grandmother, who took him to the movies every week. At the age of 10 he was sent to a Catholic military school, St. John's Military Academy in Los Angeles. While he was a student there, his grandmother died. At 14, he moved back to San Diego to live with his father, attended San Diego High School, and after graduating enrolled for one year at San Diego State Teacher's College, (now known as San Diego State University). While there he joined the track team, took his first theatre and public-speaking courses, and pledged the Epsilon Eta fraternity. Peck however had ambitions to be a doctor and the following year gained admission to the University of California, Berkeley, as an English major and pre-medical student. Standing 6 ft, he rowed on the university crew. Although his tuition fee was only $26 per year, Peck still struggled to pay, and took a job as a \"hasher\" (kitchen helper) for the Gamma Phi Beta sorority in exchange for meals\n\nAt Berkeley, encouraged by the acting coach, who saw in him perfect material for university theater, Peck became more and more interested in acting. He was recruited by Edwin Duerr, director of the university's Little Theater, and appeared in five plays during his senior year. Peck would later say about Berkeley that, \"it was a very special experience for me and three of the greatest years of my life. It woke me up and made me a human being.\" In 1997, Peck donated $25,000 to the Berkeley rowing crew in honor of his coach, the renowned Ky Ebright.\n\nActing career\n\nStage\n\nAfter graduating from Berkeley with a BA degree in English, Peck dropped the name \"Eldred\" and headed to New York City to study at the Neighborhood Playhouse with the legendary acting teacher Sanford Meisner. He was often broke and sometimes slept in Central Park. He worked at the 1939 World's Fair and as a tour guide for NBC's television broadcasting. In 1940, Peck learned more of the acting craft, working in exchange for food, at the Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia, appearing in five plays including Family Portrait and On Earth As It Is. \n\nHis stage career began in 1941 when he played the secretary in a Katharine Cornell production of George Bernard Shaw's play The Doctor's Dilemma. Unfortunately, the play opened in San Francisco just one week before the attack on Pearl Harbor. He made his Broadway debut as the lead in Emlyn Williams' The Morning Star in 1942. His second Broadway performance that year was in The Willow and I with Edward Pawley. Peck's acting abilities were in high demand during World War II because he was exempt from military service owing to a back injury suffered while receiving dance and movement lessons from Martha Graham as part of his acting training. Twentieth Century Fox claimed he had injured his back while rowing at university, but in Peck's words, \"In Hollywood, they didn't think a dance class was macho enough, I guess. I've been trying to straighten out that story for years.\" \n\nIn 1947, Peck co-founded The La Jolla Playhouse, at his birthplace, with Mel Ferrer and Dorothy McGuire. This local community theater and landmark (now in a new home at the University of California, San Diego) still thrives today. It has attracted Hollywood film stars on hiatus both as performers and enthusiastic supporters since its inception.\n\nFilm\n\nPeck's first film, Days of Glory, was released in 1944. He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor five times, four of which came in his first five years of film acting: for The Keys of the Kingdom (1944), The Yearling (1946), Gentleman's Agreement (1947), and Twelve O'Clock High (1949).\n\nThe Keys of the Kingdom emphasized his stately presence. As the farmer Ezra \"Penny\" Baxter in The Yearling, his good-humored warmth and affection toward the characters playing his son and wife confounded critics who had been insisting he was a lifeless performer. Duel in the Sun (1946) showed his range as an actor in his first \"against type\" role as a cruel, libidinous gunslinger. Gentleman's Agreement established his power in the \"social conscience\" genre in a film that took on the deep-seated but subtle antisemitism of mid-century corporate America. Twelve O'Clock High was the first of many successful war films in which Peck embodied the brave, effective, yet human fighting man.\n\nAmong his other films were Spellbound (1945), The Paradine Case (1947), The Gunfighter (1950), Moby Dick (1956), The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (1956), On the Beach (1959), which brought to life the terrors of global nuclear war, The Guns of Navarone (1961), and Roman Holiday (1953), with Audrey Hepburn in her Oscar-winning role. Peck and Hepburn were close friends until her death; Peck even introduced her to her first husband, Mel Ferrer. Peck once again teamed up with director William Wyler in the epic Western The Big Country (1958), which he co-produced.\n\nPeck won the Academy Award with his fifth nomination, playing Atticus Finch, a Depression-era lawyer and widowed father, in a film adaptation of the Harper Lee novel To Kill a Mockingbird. Released in 1962 during the height of the US civil rights movement in the South, this film and his role were Peck's favorites. In 2003, Peck's portrayal of Atticus Finch was named the greatest film hero of the past 100 years by the American Film Institute. \n\nPeck served as the president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 1967, Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the American Film Institute from 1967 to 1969, Chairman of the Motion Picture and Television Relief Fund in 1971, and National Chairman of the American Cancer Society in 1966. He was a member of the National Council on the Arts from 1964 to 1966. \n\nA physically powerful man, he was known to do a majority of his own fight scenes, rarely using body or stunt doubles. In fact, Robert Mitchum, his on-screen opponent in Cape Fear, told about the time Peck once accidentally punched him for real during their final fight scene in the movie. He felt the impact for days afterward. Peck's rare attempts at villainous roles were not acclaimed. Early on, he played the renegade son in the Western Duel in the Sun and, later in his career, the infamous Nazi doctor Josef Mengele in The Boys from Brazil co-starring Laurence Olivier. \n\nLater work\n\nIn the 1980s, Peck moved to television, where he starred in the mini-series The Blue and the Gray, playing Abraham Lincoln. He also starred with Christopher Plummer, John Gielgud, and Barbara Bouchet in the television film The Scarlet and The Black, about Monsignor Hugh O'Flaherty, a real-life Catholic priest in the Vatican who smuggled Jews and other refugees away from the Nazis during World War II.\n\nPeck, Mitchum, and Martin Balsam all had roles in the 1991 remake of Cape Fear directed by Martin Scorsese. All three were in the original 1962 version. In the remake, Peck played Max Cady's lawyer.\n\nHis last prominent film role also came in 1991, in Other People's Money, directed by Norman Jewison and based on the stage play of that name. Peck played a business owner trying to save his company against a hostile takeover bid by a Wall Street liquidator played by Danny DeVito.\n\nPeck retired from active film-making at that point. Peck spent the last few years of his life touring the world doing speaking engagements in which he would show clips from his movies, reminisce, and take questions from the audience. He did come out of retirement for a 1998 miniseries version of one of his most famous films, Moby Dick, portraying Father Mapple (played by Orson Welles in the 1956 version), with Patrick Stewart as Captain Ahab, the role Peck played in the earlier film. It would be his final performance, and it won him the Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film.\n\nPeck had been offered the role of Grandpa Joe in the 2005 film Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, but died before he could accept it. The Irish actor David Kelly was then given the part. \n\nPolitics\n\nIn 1947, while many Hollywood figures were being blacklisted for similar activities, Peck signed a letter deploring a House Un-American Activities Committee investigation of alleged communists in the film industry.\n\nA lifelong supporter of the Democratic Party, Peck was suggested in 1970 as a possible Democratic candidate to run against Ronald Reagan for the office of California Governor. Although he later admitted that he had no interest in being a candidate himself for public office, Peck encouraged one of his sons, Carey Peck, to run for political office. Carey was defeated both times by slim margins in races in 1978 and 1980 against Republican U.S. Representative Bob Dornan, another former actor.\n\nIn an interview with the Irish media, Peck revealed that former President Lyndon Johnson had told him that, had he sought re-election in 1968, he intended to offer Peck the post of U.S. ambassador to Ireland – a post Peck, owing to his Irish ancestry, said he might well have taken, saying \"[It] would have been a great adventure\". The actor's biographer Michael Freedland substantiates the report and says that Johnson indicated that his presentation of the Medal of Freedom to Peck would perhaps make up for his inability to confer the ambassadorship. President Richard Nixon, though, placed Peck on his enemies list owing to his liberal activism. \n\nPeck was outspoken against the Vietnam War, while remaining supportive of his son, Stephen, who fought there. In 1972, Peck produced the film version of Daniel Berrigan's play The Trial of the Catonsville Nine about the prosecution of a group of Vietnam protesters for civil disobedience. Despite his reservations about American general Douglas MacArthur as a man, Peck had long wanted to play him on film, and did so in MacArthur in 1976. \n\nIn 1978, Peck traveled to Alabama, the setting of To Kill a Mockingbird, to campaign for Democratic U.S. Senate nominee Donald W. Stewart of Anniston, who defeated the Republican candidate, James D. Martin, a former U.S. representative from Gadsden.\n\nIn 1987, Peck undertook the voice-overs for television commercials opposing President Reagan's Supreme Court nomination of conservative judge Robert Bork. Bork's nomination was defeated. Peck was also a vocal supporter of a worldwide ban of nuclear weapons, and a lifelong advocate of gun control. \n\nPersonal life and death\n\nIn October 1942, Peck married Finnish-born Greta Kukkonen (1911–2008), with whom he had three sons, Jonathan (1944–1975), Stephen (b. 1946), and Carey Paul (b. 1949). They were divorced on December 30, 1955.\n\nDuring his marriage with Greta, Peck had a brief affair with Spellbound co-star Ingrid Bergman. He confessed the affair to Brad Darrach of People in a 1987 interview, saying \"All I can say is that I had a real love for her (Bergman), and I think that's where I ought to stop... I was young. She was young. We were involved for weeks in close and intense work.\" \n\nOn December 31, 1955, the day after his divorce was finalized, Peck married Veronique Passani (1932–2012), a Paris news reporter who had interviewed him in 1952 before he went to Italy to film Roman Holiday. He asked her to lunch six months later and they became inseparable. They had a son, Anthony Peck (b. 1956), and a daughter, Cecilia Peck (b. 1958). The couple remained married until Gregory Peck's death. His daughter Cecilia lives in Los Angeles.\n\nPeck had grandchildren from both marriages. One of his grandsons from his first marriage is actor Ethan Peck.\n\nPeck owned the thoroughbred steeplechase race horse Different Class, which raced in England. The horse was favored for the 1968 Grand National but finished third. Peck was close friends with French president Jacques Chirac. \n\nPeck was Roman Catholic and once considered entering the priesthood. Later in his career, a journalist asked Peck if he was a practicing Catholic. Peck answered, \"I am a Roman Catholic. Not a fanatic, but I practice enough to keep the franchise. I don't always agree with the Pope... there are issues that concern me, like abortion, contraception, the ordination of women...and others.\" His second marriage was performed by a justice of the peace, and not the Roman Catholic Church, because the Church prohibits multiple sacramental marriages when both spouses of a sacramental marriage are still living and have not had their original marriage annulled. Peck was a significant fundraiser for a priest friend of his (Father Albert O'Hara), and served as co-producer of a cassette recording of the New Testament with his son Stephen.\n\nOn June 12, 2003, Peck died in his sleep at home from bronchopneumonia at the age of 87. His wife, Veronique, was by his side. \n\nGregory Peck is entombed in the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels mausoleum in Los Angeles. His eulogy was read by Brock Peters, whose character, Tom Robinson, was defended by Peck's Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird. The celebrities who attended Peck's funeral included Lauren Bacall, Sidney Poitier, Harry Belafonte, Shari Belafonte, Harrison Ford, Calista Flockhart, Mike Farrell, Shelley Fabares, Jimmy Smits, Louis Jourdan, Dyan Cannon, Stephanie Zimbalist, Michael York, Angie Dickinson, Larry Gelbart, Michael Jackson, Anjelica Huston, Lionel Richie, Louise Fletcher, Tony Danza, and Piper Laurie. \n\nAwards and honors\n\nPeck was nominated for five Academy Awards, winning once. He was nominated for The Keys of the Kingdom (1945), The Yearling (1946), Gentleman's Agreement (1947), and Twelve O'Clock High (1949). He won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as Atticus Finch in the 1962 film To Kill a Mockingbird. In 1968, he received the Academy's Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award.\n\nPeck also received many Golden Globe awards. He won in 1947 for The Yearling, in 1963 for To Kill a Mockingbird, and in 1999 for the TV miniseries Moby Dick. He was nominated in 1978 for The Boys from Brazil. He received the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1969, and was given the Henrietta Award in 1951 and 1955 for World Film Favorite – Male.\n\nIn 1969, US President Lyndon Johnson honored Peck with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor. In 1971, the Screen Actors Guild presented Peck with the SAG Life Achievement Award. In 1989, the American Film Institute gave Peck the AFI Life Achievement Award. He received the Crystal Globe award for outstanding artistic contribution to world cinema in 1996.\n\nIn 1986, Peck was honored alongside actress Gene Tierney with the first Donostia Lifetime Achievement Award at the San Sebastian Film Festival in Spain for their body of work.\n\nIn 1987, Peck was awarded the George Eastman Award, given by George Eastman House for distinguished contribution to the art of film. \n\nIn 1993, Peck was awarded with an Honorary Golden Bear at the 43rd Berlin International Film Festival. \n\nIn 1998, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts. \n\nIn 2000, Peck was made a Doctor of Letters by the National University of Ireland. He was a founding patron of the University College Dublin School of Film, where he persuaded Martin Scorsese to become an honorary patron. Peck was also chairman of the American Cancer Society for a short time.\n\nFor his contribution to the motion picture industry, Gregory Peck has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6100 Hollywood Blvd. In November 2005, the star was stolen, and has since been replaced. \n\nOn April 28, 2011, a ceremony was held in Beverly Hills, California, celebrating the first day of issue of a U.S. postage stamp commemorating Peck. The stamp is the 17th commemorative stamp in the Legends of Hollywood series. \n\nOn April 5, 2016, the 100th anniversary of Peck's birth, Turner Classic Movies honored the actor by showing several of his films.\n\nArchives\n\nThe moving image collection of Gregory Peck is held at the Academy Film Archive. The film material at the Academy Film Archive is complemented by material in the Gregory Peck papers at the Academy’s Margaret Herrick Library. \n\nFilmography"
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"Gregory Peck - Biography - IMDb\nGregory Peck\nBiography\nShowing all 193 items\nJump to: Overview (5) | Mini Bio (2) | Spouse (2) | Trade Mark (5) | Trivia (136) | Personal Quotes (38) | Salary (5)\nOverview (5)\n6' 3\" (1.91 m)\nMini Bio (2)\nEldred Gregory Peck was born in La Jolla, California, to Bernice Mary (Ayres) and Gregory Pearl Peck, a chemist and druggist in San Diego. He had Irish (from his paternal grandmother), English, and some German, ancestry. His parents divorced when he was five years old. An only child, he was sent to live with his grandmother. He never felt he had a stable childhood. His fondest memories are of his grandmother taking him to the movies every week and of his dog, which followed him everywhere. He studied pre-med at UC-Berkeley and, while there, got bitten by the acting bug and decided to change the focus of his studies. He enrolled in the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York and debuted on Broadway after graduation. His debut was in Emlyn Williams ' play \"The Morning Star\" (1942). By 1943 he was in Hollywood, where he debuted in the RKO film Days of Glory (1944).\nStardom came with his next film, The Keys of the Kingdom (1944), for which he was nominated for an Academy Award. Peck's screen presence displayed the qualities for which he became well known. He was tall, rugged and heroic, with a basic decency that transcended his roles. He appeared in Alfred Hitchcock 's Spellbound (1945) as an amnesia victim accused of murder. In The Yearling (1946), he was again nominated for an Academy Award and won the Golden Globe. He was especially effective in westerns and appeared in such varied fare as David O. Selznick 's critically blasted Duel in the Sun (1946), the somewhat better received Yellow Sky (1948) and the acclaimed The Gunfighter (1950). He was nominated again for the Academy Award for his roles in Gentleman's Agreement (1947), which dealt with anti-Semitism, and Twelve O'Clock High (1949), a story of high-level stress in an Air Force bomber unit in World War II.\nWith a string of hits to his credit, Peck made the decision to only work in films that interested him. He continued to appear as the heroic, larger-than-life figures in such films as Captain Horatio Hornblower R.N. (1951) and Moby Dick (1956). He worked with Audrey Hepburn in her debut film, Roman Holiday (1953). Peck finally won the Oscar, after four nominations, for his performance as lawyer Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962). In the early 1960s he appeared in two darker films than he usually made, Cape Fear (1962) and Captain Newman, M.D. (1963), which dealt with the way people live. He also gave a powerful performance as Capt. Keith Mallory in The Guns of Navarone (1961), one of the biggest box-office hits of that year.\nIn the early 1970s he produced two films, The Trial of the Catonsville Nine (1972) and The Dove (1974), when his film career stalled. He made a comeback playing, somewhat woodenly, Robert Thorn in the horror film The Omen (1976). After that, he returned to the bigger-than-life roles he was best known for, such as MacArthur (1977) and the monstrous Nazi Dr. Josef Mengele in the huge hit The Boys from Brazil (1978). In the 1980s he moved into television with the mini-series The Blue and the Gray (1982) and The Scarlet and the Black (1983). In 1991 he appeared in the remake of his 1962 film, playing a different part, in Martin Scorsese 's Cape Fear (1991). He was also cast as the progressive-thinking owner of a wire and cable business in Other People's Money (1991).\nIn 1967 Peck received the Academy's Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award. He was also been awarded the US Presidential Medal of Freedom. Always politically progressive, Peck was active in such causes as anti-war protests, workers' rights and civil rights. He died in June 2003, aged 87.\nChildren with Veronique Peck : Tony Peck (b. 1956) and Cecilia Peck (b. 1958).\nOldest son, Jon, committed suicide by gunshot. [1975]\nChairman, Motion Picture & Television Relief Fund. [1971]\nRecipient, Presidential Medal of Freedom, nation's highest civilian award, awarded by Lyndon Johnson . [1969]\n(1968-1974) Charter Member, National Council on the Arts.\nNational Chairman, American Cancer Society. [1966]\n(1964-1966) Charter Member, National Council on the Arts.\n(1967-1969) Chairman, American Film Institute. He was the first Chairman of the AFI.\nStating he was worried about the 600,000 jobs hanging on the survival of the Chrysler Corporation, he volunteered to become an unpaid TV pitchman for the company in 1980.\nHe took in former co-star Ava Gardner 's housekeeper and dog after her death in 1990.\nWas in the original version of Cape Fear (1962) in 1962, playing Sam Bowden. He was later brought back for a part in another version of Cape Fear (1991), playing Max Cady's attorney.\nHonorary chair, Los Angeles Library Foundation. [1995]\nWas president of the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts & Sciences from 1967-1970. He made the decision to postpone the 1968 Oscar ceremony after Martin Luther King 's assassination.\nChosen by producer Darryl F. Zanuck for the epic film David and Bathsheba (1951) because Zanuck thought Peck had a \"biblical face\".\nHis ancestry included Irish, English, some German, and distant Welsh. His paternal grandparents were Samuel Peck and Catherine Ashe, and his maternal grandparents were John Daggett Ayers and Katherine Elizabeth Forse. His paternal grandmother was an immigrant from County Kerry, Ireland. She was a relative of Thomas Ashe, an Irish patriot who fought in the Easter Rising in 1916 and died on hunger strike the following year. Many of Gregory's other ancestors were from families that had lived in New England since the 1600s.\nSeriously considered challenging then California Governor Ronald Reagan 's re-election campaign in 1970 but decided against it at the last minute despite state and national pressure from the Democrat Party of California and The Democratic National Committee.\nMarched with Martin Luther King .\nHis character from To Kill a Mockingbird (1962), Atticus Finch, was voted the greatest screen hero of all time by the American Film Institute in May 2003, only two weeks before his death (beating out Indiana Jones, who was placed second, and James Bond who came third).\nAlong with Dorothy McGuire , Mel Ferrer and David O. Selznick , he co-founded the La Jolla Playhouse, located in his hometown, and produced many of the classics there. Due to film commitments, he could not return to Broadway but whet his appetite for live theater on occasion at the Playhouse, keeping it firmly established with a strong, reputable name over the years.\nDuring his lean salad days, he supported himself as a Radio City Music Hall tour guide and as a catalog model for Montgomery Ward.\nBrock Peters delivered his eulogy on the day of his funeral and burial, June 16, 2003. In To Kill a Mockingbird (1962), Peters played Tom Robinson, the black man accused of raping a white girl that Atticus Finch (Peck's character) defended in court.\nWas the first native Californian to win an Academy Award for Best Actor.\nA back injury incurred in college kept him out of the services in World War II.\nInducted into the Hall of Great Western Performers of the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum in 1979.\nSon, Stephen did a tour in Vietnam with the Marine Corps. Peck was proud of his son's military service even though he disagreed with the war itself.\nWhen he arrived in Italy to shoot Roman Holiday (1953), Gregory was privately depressed about his recent separation and imminent divorce from his first wife, Greta. However, during the shoot, he met and fell in love with a French woman named Veronique Passani After his divorce, he married Passani and they remained together for the rest of his life. So, in a way, he lived out his own \"movie romance\".\nAccording to at least one biography, he took his role in The Omen (1976) at a huge cut in salary (a mere $250,000) but was guaranteed 10% of the film's box office take. It went on to gross more than $60 million in the U.S. alone, and became the film for which he earned the most money in his career.\nWhile studying at UC Berkeley, Peck was a houseboy for the school's chapter of the Gamma Phi Beta sorority.\nHe was voted the 58th Greatest Movie Star of all time by Entertainment Weekly.\nAttended San Diego High School.\nHe was voted the 27th Greatest Movie Star of all time by Premiere Magazine.\nNamed the #12 greatest actor on The 50 Greatest Screen Legends list by the American Film Institute\nIn late November of 2005, thieves stole Peck's \"Hollywood Walk of Fame\" star using a cement saw to cut the bronze-and-terrazzo marker out of the sidewalk. In a simple ceremony, a new star honoring the late actor was unveiled on December 1st to replace the stolen one. Hollywood's honorary mayor Johnny Grant lifted a covering and announced, \"Ladies and gentlemen, we proudly welcome back to the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Gregory Peck.\" Peck's star was the fourth to be stolen since the Walk of Fame was inaugurated. James Stewart 's and Kirk Douglas ' stars disappeared some years ago after being removed for construction and were later recovered by police in the nearby city of South Gate. Gene Autry 's star also vanished during a construction project. A call saying it had been found in Iowa proved to be a false alarm.\nHe and The Big Country (1958) co-star Charlton Heston both played the infamous Nazi war criminal Dr. Josef Mengele : Peck in The Boys from Brazil (1978), Heston in Rua Alguem 5555: My Father (2003).\nIn the spring of 1939, Peck skipped graduation at the University of California at Berkeley and, with $160 and a letter of introduction in his pocket, went by train to New York, traveling coach, to embark on his acting career.\nStudied acting with Michael Chekhov , who later played a supporting role in Peck's Spellbound (1945).\nFather-in-law of Daniel Voll .\nHe was awarded the American National Medal of the Arts in 1998 by the National Endowment of the Arts in Washington D.C.\nWas Warner Bros. original choice to play Grandpa Joe in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005). He was offered the role and seriously considered it but passed away before he could give them an answer.\nHis performance as Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) is ranked #13 on Premiere Magazine's 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time.\nCited that his favorite leading ladies were Audrey Hepburn , Ingrid Bergman , and Ava Gardner .\nOnce owned a thoroughbred named \"Different Class,\" who was the favorite in the 1968 Grand National Steeplechase in the UK - but finished 3rd.\nIn 1997, as a presenter at the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) awards ceremony, he said, \"It just seems silly to me that something so right and simple has to be fought for at all.\"\nMourners for the public service held after his burial held huge black-and-white portraits of Peck as they approached the Cathedral, designed by artist/sculptor Robert Graham, husband of Anjelica Huston . Church officials estimated that almost 3,000 people attended. Seats were reserved for Peck's friends, a sizable number of whom were celebrities - they were instructed to whisper the secret password \"Atticus\" to the red-coated ushers who escorted them to the reserved section - Harry Belafonte , Anjelica Huston , Michael York , Louise Fletcher , Tony Danza , Piper Laurie , Harrison Ford , Calista Flockhart . Michael Jackson , wearing a red jacket, caused a stir when he arrived 20 minutes late. Decked out in a bright blue suit and clutching a program with Peck's picture on it was his first wife Greta, looking hale and hearty at 92. Roger Mahony , Archbishop of Los Angeles, presided over the service. The program included bible readings by Peck's children Carey, Cecilia and Tony. Mahoney said, \"He lived his life authentically, as God called and willed him and placed him in his room, with gifts and talents.\" Brock Peters , who played the black man defended by Peck's character Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962), delivered the eulogy. The film spawned a close friendship between the two stars that lasted more than 40 years. \"In art there is compassion,\" said Peters, \"in compassion there is humanity, with humanity there is generosity and love. Gregory Peck gave us these attributes in full measure.\" The crowd visibly warmed to a videotape performance of Peck featuring a lecture he gave several years before. He said he hoped to be remembered first as a good husband, father and grandfather. Then, with quiet strength and unforgettable presence, he added: \"I'd like to be thought of as a good storyteller\".\nHe had always wanted to do a Walt Disney movie.\nIn the 1950s, the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum near Tucson, AZ, named one of their male javalinas \"Gregory Peckory\" in his honor; incidentally, their female was named \"Olivia de Javalina\" to honor actress Olivia de Havilland .\nHe was a vocal opponent of the Vietnam War, while remaining supportive of his son who was serving there.\nIn 1947, at the beginning of the anti-communist investigations in Hollywood, Peck signed a letter deploring the witch hunts despite being warned his signature could hurt his career.\nBroke his ankle in three places in a fall from a horse while filming Yellow Sky (1948).\nTurned down Gary Cooper 's Oscar-winning role as Marshal Will Kane in High Noon (1952) because he felt the story was too similar to his The Gunfighter (1950). When the film proved to be a huge success Peck admitted he had made a mistake, though he said he didn't believe he could have played the character as well as Cooper.\nIn 1999 he supported the decision to give Elia Kazan an honorary Oscar for lifetime achievement, saying he believed that a man's work should be separate from his life.\nHe was a close friend of Michael Jackson for the last 25 years of his life, and often went horse riding with the singer at his Neverland Ranch. During the Jordie Chandler scandal in 1993, Peck wrote a letter defending Jackson. He also gave a glowing video tribute to Jackson at his 30th Anniversary concert in New York in 2001.\nIn 1987 he joined Burt Lancaster , Martin Sheen and Lloyd Bridges in narrating a TV commercial for People for the American Way, opposing the confirmation of President Ronald Reagan 's nominee to the Supreme Court, ultra-conservative judge Robert Bork . Bork, who came under intense criticism in part because of his past vociferous opposition to civil rights laws, ultimately failed to be confirmed by the Senate.\nHe was a close friend of Jane Fonda , and frequently attended political rallies with her.\nHe was an active supporter of AIDS fund raising.\nAdvertised Chesterfield cigarettes.\nIn 1946 he met and befriended Gary Cooper , with whom he was often compared in terms of looks and acting style.\nDuring the Vietnam War Peck was a vocal supporter of young men who wished to avoid the draft because of their moral convictions against the war, calling them \"patriots\" and \"heroes\" and saying that burning their draft cards was part of their civic duty. He produced the anti-war play and subsequent film, The Trial of the Catonsville Nine (1972) using his own money, in order to provoke more opposition to the conflict.\nAppeared on President Richard Nixon 's infamous \"enemies list\" in 1972.\nAfter Peck stormed off the set of The Big Country (1958), director William Wyler said of him: \"I wouldn't direct Peck again for a million dollars, and you can quote me on that.\".\nAs a board member of Handgun Control Inc. (along with Martin Sheen and Susan Sarandon ), Peck was sometimes criticized for his friendship with Charlton Heston , a longtime advocate of gun ownership who served as President of the National Rifle Assocation (NRA) from 1998 to 2003. When anti-gun activist James Brady , who'd been grievously wounded during the assassination attempt on his boss, Ronald Reagan , asked him why, Peck replied, \"We're colleagues rather than friends. We're civil to each other when we meet. I, of course, disagree vehemently with him on gun control.\".\nIn his 80s his frail and thin appearance frequently sparked press rumors of his impending death, particularly when in 2001 he attended Jack Lemmon 's funeral with his head bandaged from a recent fall.\nHe was given the role of Ambassador Robert Thorn in The Omen (1976) after Charlton Heston turned it down in order to make Midway (1976).\nIn 1948, amid the anti-Communist hysteria sweeping the country during the McCarthy \"Red Scare\" era, he was called before a \"fact-finding committee\" set up by the California Legislature to ferret out alleged Communists and their sympathizers in the entertainment industry. Along with several other stars, Peck received his subpoena because of his association with a host of \"liberal\" organizations and causes. He gave the committee a list of every organization to which he had contributed money, along with their letterheads, and said that he made those contributions because they were legitimate organizations. He told the committee, \"I am not now and never have been associated with any communist organization or supporters of communism. I am not a communist, never was a communist and I have no sympathy with communist activities\".\nHe was a heavy drinker as a young actor in Hollywood. In 1949 he was hospitalized with heart spasms, and while filming David and Bathsheba (1951) he was hospitalized with a suspected heart attack. Though it turned out to be a palpitation brought on by his lifestyle and overwork, he began to drink less thereafter. However, he did not stop smoking for many more years.\nHis few attempts to play a villain were considered unsuccessful, perhaps because the public could not accept Peck as anything other than a man who ultimately did the right thing.. He was considered too young at 38 (the movie was filmed in 1954) to play Captain Ahab in Moby Dick (1956), especially since the character was described in Herman Melville 's novel as an old man. Peck admitted he only agreed to play Nazi Dr Josef Mengele in The Boys from Brazil (1978) because he wanted to work with Sir Laurence Olivier . Although the film and his performance were savaged by the critics, Peck remained loyal to it.\nHe was originally cast in the role played by Robert Taylor in Quo Vadis (1951), opposite Elizabeth Taylor . The film shot in Rome for approximately two weeks, under the direction of John Huston, until the studio shut down production after executives were dissatisfied with the footage.\nCampaigned for Harry S. Truman in the 1948 presidential election.\nHe did not get along with director Elia Kazan while filming Gentleman's Agreement (1947). Kazan told the press he was very disappointed with Peck's performance and the two men never worked together again.\nAfter making Arabesque (1966), Peck withdrew from acting for three years in order to concentrate on various humanitarian causes, including the American Cancer Society.\nHe is listed in the Cal Berkeley Alumni roster as a graduate of the Class of 1942 who studied as an English major and where he acted in plays at the Associated Students sponsored 'Little Theatre' on campus. Incidentally while under the watch of the University's Committee on Music and Drama led by Professor William Popper as chairman, the University's Department of Dramatic Arts was just being established towards the end of his student tenure in 1941.\nIn 1996, veteran character actor Richard Jaeckel , Peck's costar in The Gunfighter (1950), was diagnosed with cancer, and Jaeckel's wife had Alzheimer's disease. The Jaeckels had lost their Brentwood home, were over a million dollars in debt, leaving them basically homeless. His family tried unsuccessfully to enter him into Motion Picture and Television Country Home and Hospital. Once Peck lobbied for Jaeckel's admittance he was treated within three days. Jaeckel stayed in the hospital until his death in June 1997.\nThe financial failure of Cape Fear (1962) ended his company, Melville Productions.\nOnly the Valiant (1951) was his least favorite film. He thought the western potboiler was a step backwards after starring in The Gunfighter (1950).\nWhen he was the President of the Academy of Motion Pictures and Science, Peck lobbied the organization's Board of Governors to make animated feature films eligible for nomination as Best Picture. It wasn't until 1991 that Disney's Beauty and the Beast (1991) became the first animated film to be nominated for Best Picture, although it did not win.\nTurned down Yves Montand 's role in Let's Make Love (1960) because he didn't want to work with Marilyn Monroe .\nSon of Gregory Pearl Peck and wife Bernice Mae Ayres.\nHe had always wanted to act in a Shakespearean play, but by the time the opportunity presented itself in 1951 he decided it was too late to start.\nFormed a solid friendship with Mary Badham , who played his daughter \"Scout\" in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962). They remained in contact until his passing. According to Badham, she always called him \"Atticus\" and he always called her \"Scout\".\nHis favorite singers were Frank Sinatra and Michael Jackson . He was also a big fan of Elton John .\nHis favorite drink was Guinness, which he drank every day. Eventually he had a tap installed in the bar at his house.\nIn 1999, the American Film Institute named Peck among the Greatest Male Stars of All Time, ranking at No. 12.\nA physically powerful man, Peck was known to do a majority of his own fight scenes, rarely using body or stunt doubles. Robert Mitchum , his on-screen opponent in Cape Fear (1962), said that Peck once accidentally punched him for real during their final fight scene in the movie. He recalled feeling the impact of the punch for days afterwards and said, \"I don't feel sorry for anyone dumb enough who picks a fight with him.\".\nIn December 2002 Peck visited his wife in hospital in Los Angeles after she underwent surgery to relieve pressure on two vertebrae. The sight of the veteran actor in hospital sparked more press rumors that he was seriously ill.\nHis mother died in May 1992 at the age of 97.\nAgreed to star in David and Bathsheba (1951) as a riposte to the Biblical epics of Cecil B. DeMille .\nBy 1974, following a series of flops, Peck's career had declined to such an extent that he admitted in an interview that he was thinking of retiring from acting. Two years later however he made an enormous comeback with The Omen (1976).\nHe was considered for Rock Hudson 's role in Ice Station Zebra (1968).\nOne of his greatest heroes from childhood was President Abraham Lincoln . Peck was initially concerned about playing him in The Blue and the Gray (1982), since at 66 he was a decade older than Lincoln was when he was assassinated. Some 17 years later, when he was the director Rod Lurie 's first choice to play the role of a fictional U.S. President in The Contender (2000), he declined saying he was 'too damn old.'.\nIn the early 1990s Peck considered writing his autobiography, however he decided against it when he realized he wasn't as good at writing as his friend David Niven .\nOften stated how disappointed he was that many American viewers did not realize how anti-war The Guns of Navarone (1961) was.\nMGM wanted Peck to play Roger Thornhill in North by Northwest (1959), but the director Alfred Hitchcock thought Peck was too serious and cast Cary Grant instead.\nHe was a lifelong opponent of nuclear weapons, and made On the Beach (1959) for this reason.\nPersonally chose Lewis Milestone to direct the anti-war movie Pork Chop Hill (1959), because Milestone's All Quiet on the Western Front (1930) had made a deep impression on him.\nIn 1999 he publicly berated Congress for failing to pass legislation preventing teenagers from buying guns, following the Columbine high school massacre.\nHis election as President of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 1967 was widely seen as heralding in a new, younger, progressive and decidedly liberal era of filmmaking in Hollywood.\nWhile filming The Bravados (1958), he decided to become a cowboy in real life, so he purchased a vast working ranch near Santa Barbara, California - already stocked with 600 head of prize cattle.\nHe was a close friend and ardent supporter of President Lyndon Johnson , spending much time at the White House and the Johnson Ranch. However, towards the end of Johnson's presidency relations between the two men were strained, owing to Peck's very vocal opposition to US involvement in Vietnam.\nBiography in: \"The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives\". Volume 7, 2003-2005, pages 417-420. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale, 2007.\nHe regularly visited the terminally ill Humphrey Bogart while filming Designing Woman (1957) with Bogart's wife, Peck's old friend, Lauren Bacall . Peck was reportedly devastated by Bogart's death in January 1957.\nWas the second choice to play Prof. Henry Jones Sr. in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989), had first choice Sean Connery declined the role. Star Harrison Ford cited Peck as one of his favorite actors and To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) as one of his favorite films.\nHe was a close friend of former French President Jacques Chirac .\nHe visited Michael Jackson on the set of filming the \"Smooth Criminal\" segment for Moonwalker (1988). Also visiting the set was Robert De Niro and Bruce Willis .\nWas kept out of military service during WWII due to a back injury.\nIn February 1955 Peck was set to star in The Proud Ones (1956), but the role was eventually played by Robert Ryan .\nWas offered but declined the role of Det. Steve McGarrett in Hawaii Five-O (1968).\nGrandfather of actor Ethan Peck .\nHis picture appears on a nondenominated USA commemorative postage stamp in the Legends of Hollywood series, issued 28 April 2011. Peck is shown as the character Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962). Price on day of issue was 44¢. First day of issue ceremonies were held at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.\nAccording to Lewis Milestone , Pork Chop Hill (1959) was cut by nearly twenty minutes because Peck's wife felt that her husband made his first entrance too late into the picture. True or not, the film does show signs of post-production tampering, with flashes of several excised scenes showing up under the main title credits.\nWas a lifelong Democrat and generously donated time and money to many causes.\nThe name \"Gregory Peck\" is used as the Cockney Rhyming Slang for neck (as used traditionally by the inhabitants of East London), so the expression \"Get it down your Gregory\" means \"Drink this!\".\nIs one of 8 actors who have received an Oscar nomination for their performance as a priest. The others, in chronological order, are: Spencer Tracy for San Francisco (1936) and Boys Town (1938); Charles Bickford for The Song of Bernadette (1943); Bing Crosby for Going My Way (1944) and The Bells of St. Mary's (1945); Barry Fitzgerald for Going My Way (1944); Karl Malden for On the Waterfront (1954); Jason Miller for The Exorcist (1973); and Philip Seymour Hoffman for Doubt (2008). Tracy, Crosby and Fitzgerald all won Oscars for their performances.\nOrson Welles had once hoped to make a film of the DC Comics hero Batman with Peck in the lead role but the project never came to fruition. This was revealed to have been a hoax.\nMark Waid and Alex Ross based the design of the older Bruce Wayne/Batman on Peck for Their seminal 1996 graphic novel ''Kingdom Come''. Frank Miller also based the design of young Bruce in his iconic story ''Batman: Year One''.\nTravelling in Alabama making campaign appearances for Democratic U.S. Senate Candidate Donald W. Stewart, who was running in a special election to complete the term of U.S. Senator James B. Allen, who had died in office. Stewart won the seat. [October 1978]\nBecame friends with Audrey Hepburn after working with her in Roman Holiday (1953). Peck successfully persuaded Paramount executives to give her star billing equal to his, rather than \"Introducing\" credit, because he strongly believed the film rested dramatically on her character's -- and Hepburn's -- shoulders, and not his. Indeed, Hepburn went on to win the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 1954 Oscars and they both remained close until her death in 1993. That same year, Peck presented her son Sean H. Ferrer with the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in recognition for her work with UNICEF.\nOwned a race horse called Owen Sedge which he saw come 7th in the 1963 Grand National. He then flew back to the States to attended the Oscar ceremony and won Best Actor Award for To Kill a Mockingbird (1962).\nWas awarded the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in 1967.\nStrongly disliked his first name of Eldred, a name his mother insisted on giving him because she felt it was distinct and would distinguish him with its uniqueness, but to him it felt like an awkward and difficult name to use casually. Early in adulthood he made it a point of using his middle name of Gregory, which he used for the rest of his life.\nJohn Wayne reportedly turned down two of Peck's most iconic roles: The Gunfighter (1950) and Twelve O'Clock High (1949).\nPeck spent time early in his career working at the Barter Theatre in Abingdon, VA - the State Theatre of Virginia. A picture hangs in the theatre of him with an old pickup truck, showing how he worked both behind the scenes as well as on stage. The Barter also boasts stints from Ernest Borgnine, Patricia Neal, Larry Linville, and Kevin Spacey.\nPeck's first effort as producer, \"Thieves' Market,\" in which he planned to star with Ava Gardner , was abandoned because \"we were unable to develop the script properly.\".\nPeck's father encouraged him to take up medicine but his grades weren't good enough to get him into medical school. He later took a public speaking course at San Diego State, which was his introduction to acting.\nThe two people he regretted most not working with are John Ford and Greta Garbo .\nHis favourite director was Henry King and his favourite co-star was Ava Gardner .\nInjured his spine in a physical training class resulting in his having to wear a back brace for six years and a World War II exemption. \"I can ride horses, but I can't pick up a suitcase.\".\nHe shared an April 5 birthday with double Oscar winners Melvyn Douglas , Spencer Tracy , and Bette Davis .\nAlong with Peter Ustinov , Peck delivered the eulogy for friend and two-time co-star David Niven .\nA major opponent of US involvement in the Korean and Vietnam wars. Peck felt the United States should have retained good relations with the Soviet Union and China after World War II.\nThe friendship Peck hit off with director William Wyler on Roman Holiday (1953) almost ended during the stressful shoot of The Big Country (1958), on which Peck was the film's co-producer, where the two men clashed so often that by the end they were not on speaking terms with each other. They mended their friendship a year later, after Wyler won the Oscar for Ben-Hur (1959) but they never worked together again.\nHe strongly opposed the possibility of the United States entering World War II until the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941.\nStrongly opposed the use of atomic weapons in World War II as he believed a naval blockade would have starved Japan into unconditional surrender.\nPersonal Quotes (38)\n[when he discovered that his second wife, French journalist Veronique Peck , had passed up an opportunity to interview Albert Schweitzer at a lunch hosted by Jean-Paul Sartre in order to go out on a date with Peck] You made the right choice, kiddo!\n[on his 1962 Oscar-winning role in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962)] I put everything I had into it - all my feelings and everything I'd learned in 46 years of living, about family life and fathers and children. And my feelings about racial justice and inequality and opportunity.\nThey say the bad guys are more interesting to play but there is more to it than that - playing the good guys is more challenging because it's harder to make them interesting.\nI just do things I really enjoy. I enjoy acting. When I'm driving to the studio, I sing in the car. I love my work and my wife and my kids and my friends. And I think, \"You're a lucky man, Gregory Peck, a damn lucky man.\"\nGregory Peck is the hottest thing in town. Some say he is a second Gary Cooper . Actually, he is the first Gregory Peck.\n[on gay rights] It just seems silly to me that something so right and simple has to be fought for at all.\nI'm not a do-gooder. It embarrassed me to be classified as a humanitarian. I simply take part in activities that I believe in.\nI don't lecture and I don't grind any axes. I just want to entertain.\nYou have to dream, you have to have a vision, and you have to set a goal for yourself that might even scare you a little because sometimes that seems far beyond your reach. Then I think you have to develop a kind of resistance to rejection, and to the disappointments that are sure to come your way.\nI am a Roman Catholic. Not a fanatic, but I practice enough to keep the franchise. I don't always agree with the Pope . . . there are issues that concern me, like abortion, contraception, the ordination of women . . . and others. I think the Church should open up.\n[when asked what he thought about the John Holmes porn trial] You know, someone once asked me that and I said the day that Laurence Olivier drops his pants on the screen is the day that I will support adult actors, and then I saw the movie The Betsy (1978).\n[1987] Robert Bork wants to be a Supreme Court justice. But the record shows he has a strange idea of what justice is. He defended poll taxes and literacy tests, which kept many Americans from voting. He opposed the civil rights law that ended \"whites only\" signs at lunch counters. He doesn't believe the Constitution protects your privacy. Please urge your senators to vote against the Bork nomination. Because, if Robert Bork wins a seat on the Supreme Court, it will be for life. His life . . . and yours.\nFaith is a force, a powerful force. To me, it's been like an anchor to windward - something that's seen me through troubled times and some personal tragedies and also through the good times and success and the happy times.\n[on meeting Pope John Paul II at the White House in 1978] He impressed me more than any other man I've ever met, and I've met a lot. My wife and I happened to be seated on one of the aisles, and the Pope came right down and he saw me and smiled. The smile was genuine, not a politician smile, the practiced smile. He shook hands with me and went on. And then [US President Jimmy Carter ] said, \"Hello, Gregory, what are you doing here?\" and I said, \"Well, Mr. President, you invited me\". He said, \"Just a minute\"--and damned if he didn't run after the Pope, grabbing him by the arm and pulled him back. He said, \"Your Excellency, this is one of our best-known, most beloved American film actors\". And he looked at me, ah! There was a glimmer as if somehow he must have seen me in a movie. His eyes widened and he took me in his arms. And he sort of grabbed me by the elbow and said, \"God bless you, Gregory. God bless you in your mission\". And he went on.\n[on Gentleman's Agreement (1947)] We felt we were brave pioneers exploring anti-Semitism in the United States - today, it seems a little dated.\n[on The Boys from Brazil (1978)] I felt, Laurence Olivier felt, friends of mine like Walter Matthau and Jack Lemmon felt, that I was good in this part. Some critics seem unwilling to accept actors when they break what they think is the mold or the image.\nI've had my ups and downs. There have been times when I wanted to quit. Times when I hit the bottle. Marital problems. I've touched most of the bases.\n[1956] Of the movies I've done, there isn't much I really like. The Gunfighter (1950), Roman Holiday (1953), Twelve O'Clock High (1949) I feel were my best.\nThat's why those fellas were so magnificent playing the same part, because they'd played it forty times. That's why John Wayne finally became a good actor in True Grit (1969) - he's got 150 of them behind him. Now he's developed a saltiness and an earthiness and a humor and a subtlety that comes from mining that same vein over and over again.\n[1987] I would give up everything I do and everything I have if I could make a significant difference in getting the nuclear arms race reversed. It is the number-one priority in my life. My work was the main thing in my life for a long time; now I'm beginning to think a little more about what the future will hold and what kind of world my kids will live in.\nI realize now how very short life is, because I've got to be considered to be in the home stretch. But I won't waste time on recriminations and regrets. And the same goes for my shortcomings and my own failures.\nEvery script I'm offered has Cary Grant 's paw prints on it.\n[in 1965] There are times when I could cheerfully walk out on the whole goddamn setup. I don't have to make pictures any more. When I first came out here to work from the New York stage, I was carved up in all directions, a dumb actor tied to a slew of contractual clauses. Today I'm my own man - free, off the hook. This is a collective business, I know. But now it's up to me to decide the stories we use and the kind of picture in which I'm prepared to get involved. I'm no longer the dumb and trusting ham being shuttled from picture to picture at someone else's whim. I'm a company boss who has to make big decisions right or wrong, responsible only to myself in the long run. For years we actors have been fighting for our so-called artistic freedom. We wanted to get rid of the moguls and their accountants. We damned the studio shylocks for their materialism and lack of taste. Now, most of us are on our own. So what happens? This morning I had to call my office and scrap a production on which people had been working for months . . . I decided it would be best to chuck it in rather than risk making a bad picture. All night I've been pacing up and down the house trying to make the right decision. I tell you there are times when I wish Hollywood actors had retained the status of bums and gypsies and left the planning to others. Right now, I'm tempted to say, \"The hell with all of it\". The picture has changed, my friend. The old omnipotent caliphs are dying fast. Television plus the weight of years has weakened the survivors. It will need energy and a fresh executive approach to redirect the creative drive, re-channel the talent. The monopolies of the studios have been broken. The anti-trust laws have severed their distribution outlets. The shackling of actors to loaded long-term contracts is virtually a thing of the past. In effect, I have complete control over what I do. A year of two back this was considered some kind of victory of art over tyranny. Now I'm not so sure. I'm a free soul, you remember. Before I became an actor, I wanted to be a writer. Freedom of mind and action is important to me. Right now I'd like to take off for Mexico and fish for a while and swim and read books without wondering whether they would make a good picture. Now I'll have to follow another production through from the drawing board to the cutting room. And then go out on the road and sell it with personal appearances. It can be stimulating. A challenge, as they say at Chasens. But there are times when actors like myself find themselves wishing we could resurrect Irving Thalberg and pass the ball to him or people like him. The town's wide open for any operator with the ability to finance, package and sell motion pictures.\n[on Robert Mitchum ] I had given him the role and had paid him a terrific amount of money. It was obvious he had the better role. I thought he would understand that, but he apparently thought he acted me off the screen. I didn't think highly of him for that.\nMarilyn Monroe may have been a bit of an extreme example, but she was given the best stories to suit her talents, she was stroked and cared for and treasured and treated like a little princess, treated as a valuable, talented person. What it was that led her to drink and take pills, I don't know. I don't think anyone can put it all together, but it's too easy to say that Hollywood wrung her out and exhausted her, strained her nerves and destroyed her. I think she'd have gone to pieces even sooner without the adulation and the care she received at the hands of her directors and producers and the big studios.\n[on what he thought about stars being paid $30 million per movie] I was born too soon!\n[2000] Do I think there's a glamorous male actor today? No way.\n[on Frank Sinatra ] Undeniably the title holder in the soft-touch department.\nOne good thing about the bad movies is that people don't remember them. Nobody ever comes up to me and says, 'I hated you in I Walk the Line (1970)!'.\nI enjoy practicing my craft as well as I possibly can. I enjoy the work for its own sake.\n[on James Cagney ] Now, you take a great cinema actor, in my opinion, James Cagney. He went very far. He was very theatrical, very intense, and yet always believable. He riveted the audience's attention. His acting advice was, \"Believe what you say -- say what you believe.\" And that says it, really.\nI can honestly say that in twenty years of making movies I never had a part that came close to being the real me until Atticus Finch.\n[on preferring his middle name to his first name] There's no nickname for Eldred.\n(On Mackenna's Gold (1969) and Marooned (1969)] They weren't very good, but they were the best that was offered. I did not do them only for the money. I knew they weren;t worth much when I read the scripts. But as soon as I started working on them, damned if I didn't start believing in them. It just goes to prove you can't be an actor and Pauline Kael at the same time.\nWhen I'm wrongly cast, or in a poor script, I sink with the ship.\n(In 1984 Peck claimed to have been misquoted in a 1967 interview in which he said Elia Kazan was the wrong director for Gentleman's Agreement (1947).) That's a misunderstanding. I don't think there could have been a better director for the film.\" What I meant was that he and I didn't have a rapport; emotionally, we were not on the same wave length. I don't think that I did my best work for him. If I worked with him now - as a mature man - I think I would give him everything he would want.\n[on The Yearling (1946) in a 1967 interview] It was much too lushly done... The boy cried too much.\nPeople identify the Stanislavsky method with a group of actors who are physically unlike me - Marlon Brando , James Dean , nowadays Al Pacino , Robert De Niro . That doesn't mean a tall, lanky California actor can't use it. I do and always have.\nSalary (5)",
"Gregory Peck — Ethnicity of Celebs | What Nationality Ancestry Race\nby follers on May 23, 2014\nBirth Name: Eldred Gregory Peck\nDate of Birth: April 5, 1916\nPlace of Birth: San Diego, California\nDate of Death: June 12, 2003\nPlace of Death: Los Angeles, California\nEthnicity: Irish (paternal grandmother), English, some German, distant Welsh\nGregory Peck was an American actor. His paternal grandmother was Irish. His other ancestry is English, some German, and distant Welsh. Many of his family lines have been in the United States since the 1600s. Gregory’s grandson is actor Ethan Peck .\nGregory’s paternal grandparents were Samuel Peck and Catherine Ashe (the daughter of John Gregory Ashe and Catherine/Katherine Mary Prendiville). Gregory’s grandmother Catherine was born in East Minard, County Kerry, Ireland. John was the son of Gregory Coke Ashe and Bridget Kennedy or Honoria O’Donnell. Gregory’s great-grandmother Catherine was the daughter of John Prenderville.\nGregory’s maternal grandparents were John Daggett Ayers II (the son of William Henry Ayers and Elizabeth/Eliza Maria/Marie Daggett) and Kathryn/Katherine Elizabeth Forse/Force (the daughter of Albert Thomas Forse and Catherine Woodruff). William was the son of Isaac Ayers and Emily Woodruff. Gregory’s great-grandmother Elizabeth was the daughter of John Dickinson Daggett and Sarah B. Sparks. Albert was the son of Thomas Manning Forse and Nancy Elizabeth Ann Reiter.\nSources: Genealogies of Gregory Peck – http://www.geni.com\nGenealogy of Gregory Peck (focusing on his father’s side) – http://www.wikitree.com\nSome family history of Gregory Peck (focusing on his mother’s side) – http://www.americanancestors.org\nInformation about Gregory’s visit to Ireland – http://www.askaboutireland.ie\nPhoto by /Bigstock.com",
"Eldred Gregory Peck (1916 - 2003) - Genealogy\nEldred Gregory Peck\nLa Jolla, San Diego, California, United States\nDeath:\nin Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States\nImmediate Family:\nFather of Jonathan “Jon” Gregory Peck ; <private> Peck; <private> Peck; <private> Voll (Peck) and <private> Peck\nOccupation:\nAdded 2013-08-25 02:36:21 -0700 by Private User\nCollection:\nApr 5 1916 - La Jolla, San Diego, California, USA\nDeath:\nJune 12 2003 - Los Angeles, California, USA\nParents:\nGeorgory Earl Peck, Bernice May Ayres\nSibling:\nGregory Peck, Bernice Peck (born Ayres)\nWife:\nGregory Pearl Peck, Bernice Mary Peck (born Ayres)\nWife:\nApr 5 1916 - California, Estados Unidos da América\nDeath:\nMay 10 2003 - Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California\nParents:\nGregory Pearl Peck, Bernice Mae Ayres\nWife:\nGregory Pearl Peck, Harriet Peck (born Harrington)\nBrother:\nApr 5 1916 - La Jolla, San Diego, California, United States\nDeath:\nJune 12 2003 - Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California\nParents:\nGregory Pearl Peck, Bernice Mae Ayres\nSiblings:\nApr 5 1916 - La Jolla\nDeath:\nGregory Peck, Beatrice Peck (born Ayres)\nBrother:\nApr 5 1916 - California, Estados Unidos da América\nDeath:\nMay 10 2003 - Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California\nChildren:\nApr 5 1916 - San Diego, California\nDeath:\nJune 12 2003 - Los Angeles, California\nParents:\nApr 5 1916 - La Jolla, California\nDeath:\nJune 12 2003 - Los Angeles, CA\nParents:\nGregory Pearl Peck, Bernice Mae Peck\nEx-wife:\nApr 5 1916 - La Jolla, San Diego, California, United States\nDeath:\nJune 12 2003 - Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America\nParents:\nUnknown Peck, Bernice Mae Peck (born Ayres)\nWife:\nGreta Rice Peck (born Konen)\nChildren:\nstepmother\nAbout Gregory Peck\nGregory Peck (April 5, 1916 – June 12, 2003), born Eldred Gregory Peck, was an Oscar-winning American film actor. He was one of 20th Century Pictures most popular film stars, from the 1940s to the 1960s, and played important roles well into the 1990s.\nOne of his most notable performances was as Atticus Finch in the 1963 film version of To Kill a Mockingbird, for which he won an Academy Award. President Lyndon Johnson honored Peck with the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969 for his lifetime humanitarian efforts.[1] In 1999, the American Film Institute named Peck among the Greatest Male Stars of All Time, ranking at No. 12.\nPeck was born in San Diego, California's seaside community of La Jolla, the son of Bernice Ayres, a Missouri-born convert to Catholicism, and Gregory Peck, a chemist/pharmacist of Armenian ancestry from his paternal grandfather Sam Peck and Irish-English maternal ancestry. Peck's second wife, Veronique Passani, was the one responsible for tracing Peck's ancestry and discovering his Armenian lineage. She urged him to learn of his partial Armenian heritage and to learn the Armenian language. He took Armenian classes in his middle age. Gregory's paternal grandmother, Catherine Ashe, was related to the Irish patriot Thomas Ashe, who took part in the Easter Rising less than three weeks after Peck's birth and died while on a hunger strike in 1917. Despite their strict Catholicism, Peck's parents divorced when he was five and he was raised by his grandmother.\nPeck was sent to a Roman Catholic military school in Los Angeles at the age of 10 and then to San Diego High School. When he graduated, he enrolled at San Diego State University to improve his grades so that he could earn admission to his first-choice college, the University of California, Berkeley. For a short time, he took a job driving a truck for an oil company. In 1936, he enrolled as a pre-med student at UC Berkeley, majoring in English.\nSince he was 6'3\" and very strong, he also decided to row on the university crew. Because of his great stature, the Berkeley acting coach spotted him and decided he would be perfect for his play. He developed an interest in acting and was recruited by Edwin Duerr, director of the school's Little Theater. He went on to appear in five plays during his senior year. Although his tuition fee was only $26 a year, Peck still struggled to pay, and had to work as a \"hasher\" (kitchen helper) for the Alpha Gamma Delta sorority in exchange for meals. Peck would later say about Berkeley that, \"it was a very special experience for me and three of the greatest years of my life. It woke me up and made me a human being.\" In 1997, he donated $25,000 to the Berkeley crew team in honor of his coach, Ky Ebright.\nAfter graduating from Berkeley with a BA degree in English, Peck dropped the name \"Eldred\" and headed to New York City to study at the Neighborhood Playhouse. He was often broke and sometimes slept in Central Park. He worked at the 1939 World's Fair and as a tour guide for NBC's television broadcasting.\nHe made his Broadway debut as the lead in Emlyn Williams' The Morning Star in 1942. His second Broadway performance that year was in The Willow and I with Edward Pawley. Peck's acting abilities were in high demand during World War II, since he was exempt from military service owing to a back injury suffered while receiving dance and movement lessons from Martha Graham as part of his acting training. Twentieth Century Fox claimed he had injured his back while rowing at university, but in Peck's words, \"In Hollywood, they didn't think a dance class was macho enough, I guess. I've been trying to straighten out that story for years.\"\nPeck's first film was Days of Glory, released in 1944. Though many critics initially dismissed Peck's acting as wooden, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor five times, four of which came in his first five years of film acting: for The Keys of the Kingdom (1944), The Yearling (1946), Gentleman's Agreement (1947), and Twelve O'Clock High (1949).\nEach of these early films introduced an aspect of Peck's persona. The Keys of the Kingdom emphasized his stately presence. As the farmer Penny Barker in The Yearling his good-humored warmth and affection toward the characters playing his son and wife confounded critics who had been insisting he was a lifeless performer. Duel in the Sun (1946) showed his range as an actor in his first \"against type\" role as a cruel, libidinous gunslinger. Gentleman's Agreement established his power in the \"social conscience\" genre in a film that took on the deep-seated but subtle anti-Semitism of mid-century corporate America.Twelve O'Clock High was the first of many successful war films in which Peck embodied the brave, effective, yet human fighting man.\nAmong his other popular films were Moby Dick (1956), On the Beach (1959), which brought to life the terrors of global nuclear war, The Guns of Navarone (1961), and Roman Holiday (1953), with Audrey Hepburn in her Oscar-winning film debut. Peck and Hepburn were close friends until her death; Peck even introduced her to her first husband, Mel Ferrer.\nPeck won the Academy award for his fifth nomination, playing Atticus Finch, a Depression-era lawyer and widowed father, in a film adaptation of the Harper Lee novel To Kill a Mockingbird. Released in 1962 during the height of the US civil rights movement in the South, this movie and his role were Peck's favorites. In 2003, Atticus Finch was named the top film hero of the past 100 years by the American Film Institute.\nIn 1949, Peck founded The La Jolla Playhouse, at his birthplace, along with his friends Jose Ferrer and Dorothy McGuire. This local community theater and landmark (now in a new home at the University of California, San Diego) still thrives today. It has attracted Hollywood film stars on hiatus both as performers and enthusiastic supporters since its inception.\nHe served as the president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 1967, Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the American Film Institute from 1967 to 1969, Chairman of the Motion Picture and Television Relief Fund in 1971, and National Chairman of the American Cancer Society in 1966. He was a member of the National Council on the Arts from 1964 to 1966.\nThough so well known, he was not above all criticism. Pauline Kael described him as \"competent but always a little boring\"[1]. Even those greatly admiring him would admit stiffness in certain roles. Yet these qualities may have been a necessary trade-off for the iconic status he reached, and he may have known it. His few attempts at playing villainous characters were not critically acclaimed.\nA physically powerful man, he was known to do a majority of his own fight scenes, rarely using body or stunt doubles. In fact, Robert Mitchum, his on-screen opponent in Cape Fear, often said that Peck once accidentally punched him for real during their final fight scene in the movie. He said that he felt the impact of the punch for days afterwards and said \"I don't feel sorry for anyone dumb enough who picks a fight with him.\"\nIn the 1980s, Peck moved to television, where he starred in the mini-series The Blue and the Gray, playing Abraham Lincoln. He also starred with Barbara Bouchet in the TV film The Scarlet and The Black, about a real-life Roman Catholic priest in the Vatican who smuggled Jews and other refugees away from the Nazis during World War II.\nPeck retired from active film-making in 1991. Like Cary Grant before him, Peck spent the last few years of his life touring the world doing speaking engagements in which he would show clips from his movies, reminisce, and answer questions from the audience.\nHe came out of retirement to appear in the 1998 remake of one of his most famous films, Moby Dick, portraying \"Father Mapple\" (played by Orson Welles in the 1956 version), with Patrick Stewart playing Captain Ahab, the role Peck made famous in the 1956 film.\nIn 1947, while many Hollywood figures were being blacklisted for similar activities, he signed a letter deploring a House Un-American Activities Committee investigation of alleged communists in the film industry.\nPresident Richard Nixon placed Peck on his enemies list due to his liberal activism.[2] Peck was always proud of this fact, but he lost five movie deals because of Nixon's list.\nA lifelong supporter of the Democratic Party, Peck was suggested in 1970 as a possible Democratic candidate to run against Ronald Reagan for the office of Governor of California. Gregory Peck encouraged one of his sons, Carey Peck, to run for political office. Carey was defeated both times he tried for Congress, in 1978 and in 1980, by Republican Congressman Robert K. Dornan, both times by slim margins.\nIn an interview with the Irish media, Peck revealed that former President Lyndon Johnson had told him that, had he sought re-election, he intended to offer Peck the post of U.S. ambassador to Ireland — a post Peck, due to his Irish ancestry, said he might well have taken, saying \"it would have been a great adventure\".\nHe was outspoken against the Vietnam War, while remaining supportive of his son, Stephen, who was fighting there. In 1972, Peck produced the film version of Daniel Berrigan's play The Trial of the Catonsville Nine about the prosecution of a group of Vietnam protesters for civil disobedience. Despite his initial reluctance to portray the controversial General Douglas MacArthur on screen, he did so in 1977 and ended up with a great admiration for the man.\nIn 1987 Peck led a charge opposing President Ronald Reagan's Supreme Court nomination of Robert Bork.\nIn October of 1943, Gregory Peck married Greta Kukkonen with whom he had three sons. Greta was awarded the Rose of Finland, equivalent to a Medal of Freedom. They were divorced on December 30, 1955 and maintained a very good relationship as parents.\nTheir sons are Jonathan, Stephen and Carey Peck. Jonathan Peck, a television news reporter, committed suicide in 1975. Stephen Peck is active in support of American veterans from the Vietnam war and Stephen's first wife Kimi Peck is an accomplished screenplay writer. Gregory supported Carey's political ambitions when running for a California Representative. Carey's wife Lita Albuquerque is an outstanding artist.\nOn December 31, 1955, he married his second wife, Veronique Passani, a Paris news reporter who had interviewed him in 1953 before he went to Italy to film Roman Holiday. He asked her to lunch six months later and they became inseparable. They had a son Anthony Peck, and a daughter Cecelia Peck.\nGregory Peck has many grandchildren from both marriages. Stephen has a daughter named Marisa, and a younger son named Ethan. Carey has four children, three daughters Marisa, Isabelle, and Jasmine, and a son Christopher.\nPeck owned the thoroughbred steeplechase racehorse Different Class[3] which raced in England. The horse was the favorite for the 1968 Grand National but finished 3rd.\nGregory Peck was close friends with French president Jacques Chirac.[4]\nHe was of Armenian, English, and Irish descent.\nIn early 2003 Gregory Peck was offered the role of Grandpa Joe in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. He said he'd seriously consider it. He was looking forward to playing Grandpa Joe, which he considered \"the greatest swan song of them all\", but he died before he could accept.\nOn June 12, 2003, Peck died in his sleep from cardiorespiratory arrest, and bronchial pneumonia, at the age of 87 in Los Angeles. His wife of 48 years was at his side. Peck is buried in the mausoleum of the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles, California.\nPeck was nominated for five Academy Awards, winning once. He was nominated in 1946 for The Keys of the Kingdom, in 1947 for The Yearling, in 1948 for Gentleman's Agreement, and in 1950 for Twelve O'Clock High. He won the Oscar in 1963 for To Kill a Mockingbird. In 1948, he was awarded with the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award.\nPeck received many Golden Globe awards. He won in 1947 for The Yearling, in 1963 for To Kill a Mockingbird, and in 1999 for Moby Dick. He was nominated in 1978 for The Boys from Brazil. He received the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1969, and was given the Henrietta Award in 1951 and 1955 for World Film Favorite — Male.\nIn 1969, Lyndon Johnson honored Peck with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian award.\nIn 1971, the Screen Actors Guild presented Peck with the SAG Life Achievement Award. In 1989, the American Film Institute gave Peck the AFI Life Achievement Award. He received the Crystal Globe award for outstanding artistic contribution to world cinema in 1996.\nIn 2000, Peck was made a Doctor of Letters by the National University of Ireland. He was a founding patron of the University College Dublin School of Film, where he persuaded Martin Scorsese to become an honorary patron. Peck also became chair of the American Cancer Society for a short time.\nFor his contribution to the motion picture industry, Gregory Peck has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6100 Hollywood Blvd. In November, 2005, the star was stolen. It has since been replaced.\n“ I put everything I had into it – all my feelings and everything I'd learned in 46 years of living, about family life and fathers and children. And my feelings about racial justice and inequality and opportunity. ”\n— on his role as Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird\nQUOTES:\n“ They say the bad guys are more interesting to play but there is more to it than that — playing the good guys is more challenging because it's harder to make them interesting. ”\n“ I'm not a do-gooder. It embarrassed me to be classified as a humanitarian. I simply take part in activities that I believe in. ”\n“ You have to dream, you have to have a vision, and you have to set a goal for yourself that might even scare you a little because sometimes that seems far beyond your reach. Then I think you have to develop a kind of resistance to rejection, and to the disappointments that are sure to come your way. ”\n“ It just seems silly to me that something so right and simple has to be fought for at all. ”\n— speaking at the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation awards\nFILMS:\nThe Keys of the Kingdom (1944)\nThe Valley of Decision (1945)\nSpellbound (1945)\nDuel in the Sun (1946)\nThe Macomber Affair (1947)\nThe Boys from Brazil (1978)\nThe Sea Wolves: The Last Charge of the Calcutta Light Horse (1980)\nThe Scarlet and the Black (1983)\nSanford Meisner: The American Theatre's Best Kept Secret (1985) (documentary)\nDirected by William Wyler (1986) (documentary)\nAmazing Grace and Chuck (1987)\nOld Gringo (1989)\nFrederic Remington: The Truth of Other Days (1991) (documentary) (narrator)\nCape Fear (1991)\nL'Hidato Shel Adolf Eichmann (1994) (documentary) (narrator)\nWild Bill: Hollywood Maverick (1996) (documentary)\nThe Art of Norton Simon (1999) (short subject) (narrator)\nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_peck\nGregory Peck (April 5, 1916 – June 12, 2003) was an American actor.\nOne of 20th Century Fox's most popular film stars from the 1940s to the 1960s, Peck continued to play important roles well into the 1980s. His notable performances include that of Atticus Finch in the 1962 film To Kill a Mockingbird, for which he won his Academy Award.\nPresident Lyndon Johnson honored Peck with the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969 for his lifetime humanitarian efforts.[1] In 1999, the American Film Institute named Peck among the Greatest Male Stars of All Time, ranking at #12.",
"Gregory Peck - IMDb\nIMDb\nActor | Producer | Soundtrack\nEldred Gregory Peck was born in La Jolla, California, to Bernice Mary (Ayres) and Gregory Pearl Peck, a chemist and druggist in San Diego. He had Irish (from his paternal grandmother), English, and some German, ancestry. His parents divorced when he was five years old. An only child, he was sent to live with his grandmother. He never felt he had a... See full bio »\nBorn:\na list of 24 people\ncreated 18 Feb 2011\na list of 32 people\ncreated 20 Feb 2011\na list of 36 people\ncreated 09 Jun 2011\na list of 26 people\ncreated 11 Nov 2013\na list of 33 people\ncreated 11 Nov 2015\nDo you have a demo reel?\nAdd it to your IMDbPage\nHow much of Gregory Peck's work have you seen?\nUser Polls\nWon 1 Oscar. Another 30 wins & 23 nominations. See more awards »\nKnown For\n 1993 The Portrait (TV Movie)\nGardner Church\n 1956 The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (performer: \"(I'm a) Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech\" (1908) - uncredited)\n 1954 Man with a Million (\"Tempus adest floridum\", uncredited) / (performer: \"The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo\" - uncredited)\n 1946 Duel in the Sun (performer: \"I've Been Working on the Railroad\" - uncredited)\n 1945 The Valley of Decision (\"Pop! Goes the Weasel\", uncredited)\nHide \n 2001/I The Making of 'Cape Fear' (Video documentary) (special thanks)\nHide \n 2001 Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration (TV Special documentary)\nHimself\n 2001 Hollywood Greats (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2001/II The Making of 'Cape Fear' (Video documentary short)\nHimself\n 2000 Memories of Navarone (Video documentary short)\nHimself - Mallory\n 1986-1999 American Masters (TV Series documentary)\nHimself / Himself - Narrator\n 1998 Fearful Symmetry (Video documentary)\nHimself\n 1997 Howard Stern (TV Series)\nHimself\n 1995 Sinatra: 80 Years My Way (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 1995 Biography (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 1995 La nuit des Césars (TV Series documentary)\nHimself - Winner: César d'honneur\n 1994 Baseball (TV Mini-Series documentary)\nVarious / Himself\n 1993 Audrey Hepburn Remembered (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 1989 Film 2016 (TV Series)\nHimself\n 1987 Happy 100th Birthday, Hollywood (TV Special documentary)\nHimself\n 1986 Liberty Weekend (TV Special documentary)\nHimself\n 1985 An American Portrait (TV Series documentary)\nHimself - Host\n 1984 Olympic Gala (TV Special documentary)\nHimself - Guest\n 1982 The 54th Annual Academy Awards (TV Special documentary)\nHimself - Presenter: Hersholt Award\n 1979 The 51st Annual Academy Awards (TV Special documentary)\nHimself - Presenter: Honorary Award to the Museum of Modern Art, Dept. of Film\n 1978 Hollywood's Diamond Jubilee (TV Special)\nHimself - Interviewee\n 1978 Good Morning America (TV Series)\nHimself - Guest\n 1972-1976 V.I.P.-Schaukel (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 1972 Film Night (TV Series)\nHimself\n 1969 Hollywood: The Selznick Years (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself (uncredited)\n- Episode #2.66 (1967) ... Himself - Guest\n 1967 Africa (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself - Narrator (voice)\n 1965 Salute to Stan Laurel (TV Special documentary)\nHimself\n 1961 Here's Hollywood (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2014-2015 Inside Edition (TV Series documentary)\nAtticus Finch\n 2008 World Film Report (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2008 Oscar, que empiece el espectáculo (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 2007 Cámara negra. Teatro Victoria Eugenia (TV Short documentary)\nHimself\n 2007 Cannes, 60 ans d'histoires (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 2006 Infrarouge (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2005 The Curse of 'The Omen' (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 2005 Cinema mil (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2005 Private Screenings (TV Series)\nHimself\n 2003 Starring - Taina Elg (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 2003 La guerra en el cine (Video documentary short)\nGeneral Savage\n 2002 Remembering 'Roman Holiday' (Video documentary short)\nHimself\n 1995 The Universal Story (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 1949 The Art Director (Documentary short)\nHimself - edited from 'Gentleman's Agreement' (uncredited)\nRelated Videos\nPersonal Details\nOther Works:\nHe acted in George S. Kaufman and Moss Hart's play, \"You Can't Take It With You,\" at the Cape Playhouse in Dennis, Massachusetts with Fred Stone and Paula Stone in the cast. See more »\nPublicity Listings:\n4 Biographical Movies | 5 Print Biographies | 2 Portrayals | 28 Articles | 2 Pictorials | 9 Magazine Cover Photos | See more »\nHeight:\nDid You Know?\nPersonal Quote:\nPeople identify the Stanislavsky method with a group of actors who are physically unlike me - Marlon Brando , James Dean , nowadays Al Pacino , Robert De Niro . That doesn't mean a tall, lanky California actor can't use it. I do and always have. See more »\nTrivia:\nWas in the original version of Cape Fear (1962) in 1962, playing Sam Bowden. He was later brought back for a part in another version of Cape Fear (1991), playing Max Cady's attorney. See more »\nTrademark:",
"Gregory Peck | About Gregory Peck | American Masters | PBS\nAbout Gregory Peck\nA Conversation with Gregory Peck\nAbout Gregory Peck\nComments\nAmong the celebrated pantheon of Hollywood royalty, few are as well-respected and universally adored as Gregory Peck. For more than fifty years, he was a major presence in the theater, on television, and most importantly, on the big screen. For many, Peck was a symbol of the American man at his best – a pillar of moral courage and a constant defender of traditional values. As General MacArthur, Melville’s Captain Ahab, and Atticus Finch, he presented audiences with compelling stories of strength and masculinity.\nEldred Gregory Peck was born in 1916, and spent most of his early life in and around La Jolla, California. By the time he was six, his parents had divorced. His mother married a travelling salesman and was often away with her new husband, while his father, a local pharmacist, spent much of the time working the night-shift. For a number of years he lived with his maternal grandmother, but at the age of ten was sent to St. John’s Military Academy in Los Angeles. The four years he spent there were important in forming his sense of personal discipline. There he also began to acquire a sensitivity to the social importance of authority figures – a topic that remained important throughout his career. After the Academy, he returned to live with his father, and to attend public high school.\nAfter graduating, Peck enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley. Greatly influenced by his father’s desires for him to be a doctor, Peck began as a pre-med student. By the time he was a senior, however, he found his real interests to be in writing and acting. Initially drawn to the communal, almost familial, aspects of the theater, Peck soon realized that he had a natural gift as both an expressive actor and a storyteller. After graduating in 1939, he changed his name from Eldred to Gregory and moved to New York. There, his abilities were almost immediately recognized. Within a year he began to fill small roles in travelling shows and in 1942, made his debut on Broadway with “The Morning Star.” Though many of his early plays were doomed to short runs, it seemed clear that Peck was destined for something bigger. In 1944 that “something bigger” arrived in the form of his first two Hollywood roles, as Vladimir in DAYS OF GLORY and Father Francis Chisholm in THE KEYS TO THE KINGDOM.\nWhile DAYS OF GLORY was coolly received, his role as the taciturn Scottish missionary in THE KEYS TO THE KINGDOM was a resounding triumph and brought him his first Oscar nominations for Best Actor. This early success provided him the rare opportunity of working with the best directors in Hollywood. Over the next three years he appeared in Alfred Hitchcock’s SPELLBOUND (1945), King Vidor’s DUEL IN THE SUN (1946), and Elia Kazan’s GENTLEMAN’S AGREEMENT (1947). More than any other of his early roles, it was as Phil Green in the ground-breaking depiction of American anti-Semitism, GENTLEMAN’S AGREEMENT, that solidified his image as a man of great moral conviction. Despite concerns over public acceptance of the project, it surprised many by winning an Oscar for Best Picture and a nomination for Best Actor. This success seemed not only a validation of Peck’s abilities as an artist but of his moral convictions as well.\nThough an amiable and fun-loving man at home, Peck’s stern presence made him one of the screen’s great patriarchs. Tough and caring, he was the quintessential mid-century American man – the good-looking romantic lead across from Audrey Hepburn as well as the rugged World War II bomber commander. For many, the actor and the characters he portrayed were inseparable; the authority of his passionate yet firm demeanor was attractive to post-war Americans who longed for a more stable time.\nDuring the 1960s and 1970s, Peck continued to challenge himself as an actor, appearing in thrillers, war films, westerns and in his best known film, TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD. Based on the book by Harper Lee, TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD addresses problems of racism and moral justice in personal and powerful ways. As Atticus Finch, a lawyer in a small Southern town, Peck created a character that remains a great example of an individual’s struggle for humanity within deeply inhumane conditions. It seems clear however, that the reason for Peck’s constant assertion that TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD is his best (and favorite) film, was the film’s attention to the lives of children and the importance of family. From THE YEARLING (1946) to CAPE FEAR (1962) familial concern has been the underlying structure from which his greatest characters have grown.\nWhile continuing to act on television and in Hollywood throughout the 1980s and 1990s, including a remake of CAPE FEAR in 1991, Peck focused much of his energy on spending time with his wife, children, and grandchildren. For Peck, life as a father and as a public figure have been inseparable-; he was simultaneously a major voice against the Vietnam war, while remaining a patriotic supporter of his son who was fighting there. If years of breathing life into characters such as Captain Keith Mallory and General MacArthur taught him anything, it was that life during wartime was profoundly complex; and rarely has there been a time free from war or struggle. In his more than fifty films, Peck continually attempted to investigate these complex struggles, and in doing so, created a library of stories that shed light on human possibility and social reality.\nAt 85, Peck turned his attention back to where he got his start, the stage. He traveled the country visiting small play houses and colleges, speaking about his life and experiences as a father, a celebrity, and as an actor.\nGregory Peck passed away on June 12th, 2003, at the age of 87."
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Golfer Bobby Jones was born in which state?
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"Golf is a club and ball sport in which players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of holes on a course in as few strokes as possible.\n\nGolf is one of the few ball games that do not require a standardized playing area. The game is played on a course with an arranged progression of either nine or 18 holes. Each hole on the course must contain a tee box to start from, and a putting green containing the actual cup. There are other standard forms of terrain in between, such as the fairway, rough, and hazards, but each hole on a course is unique in its specific layout and arrangement.\n\nGolf is played for the lowest number of strokes by an individual, known as stroke play, or the lowest score on the most individual holes in a complete round by an individual or team, known as match play. Stroke play is the most commonly seen format at all levels.\n\nOrigin\n\nWhile the modern game of golf originated in 15th-century Scotland, the game's ancient origins are unclear and much debated. Some historians trace the sport back to the Roman game of paganica, in which participants used a bent stick to hit a stuffed leather ball. One theory asserts that paganica spread throughout Europe as the Romans conquered most of the continent, during the first century BC, and eventually evolved into the modern game. Others cite chuiwan (\"chui\" means striking and \"wan\" means small ball) as the progenitor, a Chinese game played between the eighth and 14th centuries. A Ming Dynasty scroll dating back to 1368 entitled \"The Autumn Banquet\" shows a member of the Chinese Imperial court swinging what appears to be a golf club at a small ball with the aim of sinking it into a hole. The game is thought to have been introduced into Europe during the Middle Ages. Another early game that resembled modern golf was known as cambuca in England and chambot in France. The Persian game chaugán is another possible ancient origin. In addition, kolven (a game involving a ball and curved bats) was played annually in Loenen, Netherlands, beginning in 1297, to commemorate the capture of the assassin of Floris V, a year earlier.\n\nThe modern game originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James II's banning of the game in 1457, as an unwelcome distraction to learning archery. James IV lifted the ban in 1502 when he became a golfer himself, with golf clubs first recorded in 1503-1504: \"For golf clubbes and balles to the King that he playit with\". To many golfers, the Old Course at St Andrews, a links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage. In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. Golf is documented as being played on Musselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records. The oldest surviving rules of golf were compiled in March 1744 for the Company of Gentlemen Golfers, later renamed The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers, which was played at Leith, Scotland. The world's oldest golf tournament in existence, and golf's first major, is The Open Championship, which was first played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club, in Ayrshire, Scotland, with Scottish golfers winning the earliest majors. Two Scotsmen from Dunfermline, John Reid and Robert Lockhart, first demonstrated golf in the US by setting up a hole in an orchard in 1888, with Reid setting up America's first golf club the same year, St. Andrews Golf Club in Yonkers, New York. \n\nGolf course\n\nA golf course consists of either 9 or 18 holes, each with a teeing ground that is set off by two markers showing the bounds of the legal tee area, fairway, rough and other hazards, and the putting green surrounded by the fringe with the pin (normally a flagstick) and cup.\n\nThe levels of grass are varied to increase difficulty, or to allow for putting in the case of the green. While many holes are designed with a direct line-of-sight from the teeing area to the green, some holes may bend either to the left or to the right. This is commonly called a \"dogleg\", in reference to a dog's knee. The hole is called a \"dogleg left\" if the hole angles leftwards and \"dogleg right\" if it bends right. Sometimes, a hole's direction may bend twice; this is called a \"double dogleg\".\n\nA regular golf course consists of 18 holes, but nine-hole courses are common and can be played twice through for a full round of 18 holes. \n\nEarly Scottish golf courses were primarily laid out on links land, soil-covered sand dunes directly inland from beaches. This gave rise to the term \"golf links\", particularly applied to seaside courses and those built on naturally sandy soil inland.\n\nThe first 18-hole golf course in the United States was on a sheep farm in Downers Grove, Illinois, in 1892. The course is still there today. \n\nPlay of the game\n\nEvery round of golf is based on playing a number of holes in a given order. A \"round\" typically consists of 18 holes that are played in the order determined by the course layout. Each hole is played once in the round on a standard course of 18 holes; on a nine-hole course, players may play a \"short game\" playing each hole once, or a \"full round\" by playing each hole twice.\n\nPlaying a hole on a golf course is initiated by putting a ball into play by striking it with a club on the teeing ground (also called the tee box, or simply the tee). For this first shot on each hole, it is allowed but not required for the golfer to place the ball on a tee prior to striking it. A tee is a small peg that can be used to elevate the ball slightly above the ground up to a few centimetres high. Tees are commonly made of wood but may be constructed of any material, including plastic. Traditionally, golfers used mounds of sand to elevate the ball, and containers of sand were provided for the purpose. A few courses still require sand to be used instead of peg tees, to reduce litter and reduce damage to the teeing ground. Tees help reduce the interference of the ground or grass on the movement of the club making the ball easier to hit, and also places the ball in the very centre of the striking face of the club (the \"sweet spot\") for better distance.\n\nWhen the initial shot on a hole is intended to move the ball a long distance (typically more than 225 yd), the shot is commonly called a \"drive\" and is generally made with a long-shafted, large-headed wood club called a \"driver\". Shorter holes may be initiated with other clubs, such as higher-numbered woods or irons. Once the ball comes to rest, the golfer strikes it again as many times as necessary using shots that are variously known as a \"lay-up\", an \"approach\", a \"pitch\", or a \"chip\", until the ball reaches the green, where he or she then \"putts\" the ball into the hole (commonly called \"sinking the putt\" or \"holing out\"). The goal of getting the ball into the hole (\"holing\" the ball) in as few strokes as possible may be impeded by obstacles such as areas of longer grass called \"rough\" (usually found alongside fairways), which both slows any ball that contacts it and makes it harder to advance a ball that has stopped on it; \"doglegs\", which are changes in the direction of the fairway that often require shorter shots to play around them; bunkers (or sand traps); and water hazards such as ponds or streams.\n\nIn stroke play competitions played according to strict rules, each player plays his or her ball until it is holed no matter how many strokes that may take. In match play it is acceptable to simply pick up one's ball and \"surrender the hole\" after enough strokes have been made by a player that it is mathematically impossible for the player to win the hole. It is also acceptable in informal stroke play to surrender the hole after hitting three strokes more than the \"par\" rating of the hole (a \"triple bogey\" - see below); while technically a violation of Rule 3-2, this practice speeds play as a courtesy to others, and avoids \"runaway scores\", excessive frustration and injuries caused by overexertion.\n\nThe total distance from the first tee box to the 18th green can be quite long; total yardages \"through the green\" can be in excess of 7000 yd, and when adding in the travel distance between the green of one hole and the tee of the next, even skilled players may easily travel five miles or more during a round. At some courses, electric golf carts are used to travel between shots, which can speed-up play and allows participation by individuals unable to walk a whole round. On other courses players generally walk the course, either carrying their bag using a shoulder strap or using a \"golf trolley\" for their bag. These trolleys may or may not be battery assisted. At many amateur tournaments including U.S. high school and college play, players are required to walk and to carry their own bags, but at the professional and top amateur level, as well as at high-level private clubs, players may be accompanied by caddies, who carry and manage the players' equipment and who are allowed by the rules to give advice on the play of the course. A caddy's advice can only be given to the player or players for whom the caddy is working, and not to other competing players.\n\nRules and regulations\n\nThe rules of golf are internationally standardised and are jointly governed by The R&A, spun off in 2004 from The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews (founded 1754), and the United States Golf Association (USGA).\n\nThe underlying principle of the rules is fairness. As stated on the back cover of the official rule book:\nPlay the ball as it lies, play the course as you find it, and if you cannot do either, do what is fair.\n\nThere are strict regulations regarding the amateur status of golfers. Essentially, anybody who has ever received payment or compensation for giving instruction, or played golf for money, is not considered an amateur and may not participate in competitions limited solely to amateurs. However, amateur golfers may receive expenses that comply with strict guidelines and they may accept non-cash prizes within the limits established by the Rules of Amateur Status.\n\nIn addition to the officially printed rules, golfers also abide by a set of guidelines called golf etiquette. Etiquette guidelines cover matters such as safety, fairness, pace of play, and a player's obligation to contribute to the care of the course. Though there are no penalties for breach of etiquette rules, players generally follow the rules of golf etiquette in an effort to improve everyone's playing experience.\n\nPenalties\n\nPenalties are incurred in certain situations. They are counted towards a player's score as if there were extra swing(s) at the ball. Strokes are added for rule infractions or for hitting one's ball into an unplayable situation.\n\nA lost ball or a ball hit out of bounds result in a penalty of one stroke and distance (Rule 27–1). A one-stroke penalty is assessed if a player's equipment causes the ball to move or the removal of a loose impediment causes the ball to move (Rule 18–2). If a golfer makes a stroke at the wrong ball (Rule 19–2) or hits a fellow golfer's ball with a putt (Rule 19–5), the player incurs a two-stroke penalty. Most rule infractions lead to stroke penalties but also can lead to disqualification. Disqualification could be from cheating, signing for a lower score, or from rule infractions that lead to improper play. \n\nEquipment\n\nGolf clubs are used to hit the golf ball. Each club is composed of a shaft with a lance (or \"grip\") on the top end and a club head on the bottom. Long clubs, which have a lower amount of degree loft, are those meant to propel the ball a comparatively longer distance, and short clubs a higher degree of loft and a comparatively shorter distance. The actual physical length of each club is longer or shorter, depending on the distance the club is intended to propel the ball.\n\nGolf clubs have traditionally been arranged into three basic types. Woods are large-headed, long-shafted clubs meant to propel the ball a long distance from relatively \"open\" lies, such as the tee box and fairway. Of particular importance is the driver or \"1-wood\", which is the lowest lofted wood club, and in modern times has become highly specialized for making extremely long-distance tee shots, up to 300 yd or more in the hands of a professional golfer. Traditionally these clubs had heads made of a hardwood, hence the name, but virtually all modern woods are now made of metal such as titanium, or of composite materials. Irons are shorter-shafted clubs with a metal head primarily consisting of a flat, angled striking face. Traditionally the clubhead was forged from iron; modern iron clubheads are investment-cast from a steel alloy. Irons of varying loft are used for a variety of shots from virtually anywhere on the course, but most often for shorter-distance shots approaching the green, or to get the ball out of tricky lies such as sand traps. The third class is the putter, which evolved from the irons to create a low-lofted, balanced club designed to roll the ball along the green and into the hole. Putters are virtually always used on the green or in the surrounding rough/fringe. A fourth class, called hybrids, evolved as a cross between woods and irons, and are typically seen replacing the low-lofted irons with a club that provides similar distance, but a higher launch angle and a more forgiving nature.\n\nA maximum of 14 clubs is allowed in a player's bag at one time during a stipulated round. The choice of clubs is at the golfer's discretion, although every club must be constructed in accordance with parameters outlined in the rules. (Clubs that meet these parameters are usually called \"conforming\".) Violation of these rules can result in disqualification.\n\nThe exact shot hit at any given time on a golf course, and which club is used to accomplish the shot, are always completely at the discretion of the golfer; in other words, there is no restriction whatsoever on which club a golfer may or may not use at any time for any shot.\n\nGolf balls are spherical, usually white (although other colours are allowed), and minutely pock-marked by dimples that decrease aerodynamic drag by increasing air turbulence around the ball in motion, which delays \"boundary layer\" separation and reduces the drag-inducing \"wake\" behind the ball,\nthereby allowing the ball to fly farther. The combination of a soft \"boundary layer\" and a hard \"core\" enables both distance and spin.\n\nA tee is allowed only for the first stroke on each hole, unless the player must hit a provisional tee shot or replay his or her first shot from the tee.\n\nMany golfers wear golf shoes with metal or plastic spikes designed to increase traction, thus allowing for longer and more accurate shots.\n\nA golf bag is used to transport golf clubs and the player's other or personal equipment. Golf bags have several pockets designed for carrying equipment and supplies such as tees, balls, and gloves. Golf bags can be carried, pulled on a trolley or harnessed to a motorized golf cart during play. Golf bags have both a hand strap and shoulder strap for carrying, and sometimes have retractable legs that allow the bag to stand upright when at rest.\n\nStroke mechanics\n\nThe golf swing is outwardly similar to many other motions involving swinging a tool or playing implement, such as an axe or a baseball bat; however, unlike many of these motions, the result of the swing is highly dependent on several sub-motions being properly aligned and timed, to ensure that the club travels up to the ball in line with the desired path, the clubface is in line with the swing path, and the ball impacts the centre or \"sweet spot\" of the clubface. The ability to do this consistently, across a complete set of clubs with a wide range of shaft lengths and clubface areas, is a key skill for any golfer, and takes a significant effort to achieve.\n\nGolfers start with the non-dominant side of the body facing the target (for a right-hander, the target is to their left). At address, the player's body and the centerline of the club face are positioned parallel to the desired line of travel, with the feet either perpendicular to that line or slightly splayed outward. The feet are commonly shoulder-width apart for middle irons and putters, narrower for short irons and wider for long irons and woods. The ball is typically positioned more to the \"front\" of the player's stance (closer to the leading foot) for lower-lofted clubs, with the usual ball position for a drive being just behind the arch of the leading foot. The ball is placed further \"back\" in the player's stance (toward the trailing foot) as the loft of the club to be used increases. Most iron shots and putts are made with the ball roughly centered in the stance, while a few mid- and short-iron shots are made with the ball slightly behind the centre of the stance to ensure consistent contact between the ball and clubface, so the ball is on its way before the club continues down into the turf.\n\nThe golfer chooses a golf club, grip, and stroke appropriate to the distance:\n* The \"drive\" or \"full swing\" is used on the teeing ground and fairway, typically with a wood or long iron, to produce the maximum distance capable with the club. In the extreme, the windup can end with the shaft of the club parallel to the ground above the player's shoulders.\n* The \"approach\" or \"3/4 swing\" is used in medium- and long-distance situations where an exact distance and good accuracy is preferable to maximum possible distance, such as to place the ball on the green or \"lay up\" in front of a hazard. The windup or \"backswing\" of such a shot typically ends up with the shaft of the club pointing straight upwards or slightly towards the player.\n* The \"chip\" or \"half-swing\" is used for relatively short-distance shots near the green, with high-lofted irons and wedges. The goal of the chip is to land the ball safely on the green, allowing it to roll out towards the hole. It can also be used from other places to accurately position the ball into a more advantageous lie. The backswing typically ends with the head of the club between hip and head height.\n* The \"putt\" is used in short-distance shots on or near the green, typically made with the eponymous \"putter\", although similar strokes can be made with medium to high-numbered irons to carry a short distance in the air and then roll (a \"bump and run\"). the backswing and follow-through of the putt are both abbreviated compared to other strokes, with the head of the club rarely rising above the knee. The goal of the putt is usually to put the ball in the hole, although a long-distance putt may be called a \"lag\" and is made with the primary intention of simply closing distance to the hole or otherwise placing the ball advantageously.\n\nHaving chosen a club and stroke to produce the desired distance, the player addresses the ball by taking their stance to the side of it and (except when the ball lies in a hazard) grounding the club behind the ball. The golfer then takes their backswing, rotating the club, their arms and their upper body away from the ball, and then begins their swing, bringing the clubhead back down and around to hit the ball. A proper golf swing is a complex combination of motions, and slight variations in posture or positioning can make a great deal of difference in how well the ball is hit and how straight it travels. The general goal of a player making a full swing is to propel the clubhead as fast as possible while maintaining a single \"plane\" of motion of the club and clubhead, to send the clubhead into the ball along the desired path of travel and with the clubhead also pointing that direction.\n\nAccuracy and consistency is typically stressed over pure distance. A player with a straight drive that travels only 220 yd will nevertheless be able to accurately place the ball into a favourable lie on the fairway, and can make up for the lesser distance of any given club by simply using \"more club\" (a lower loft) on their tee shot or on subsequent fairway and approach shots. However, a golfer with a drive that may go 280 yd but often doesn't fly straight will be less able to position their ball advantageously; the ball may \"hook\", \"pull\", \"draw\", \"fade\", \"push\" or \"slice\" off the intended line and land out of bounds or in the rough or hazards, and thus the player will require many more strokes to hole out.\n\nMusculature\n\nA golf stroke uses muscles on core (especially erector spinae muscles and latissimus dorsi muscle when turning), hamstring, shoulder, and wrist. Stronger muscles on wrist can prevent wrists from being twisted at swings, while stronger shoulders increase the turning force. Weak wrists can also deliver the impacts to elbows and even neck and lead to injury of them. (When a muscle contracts, it pulls equally from both ends and, in order to have movement at only one end of the muscle, other muscles must come into play to stabilize the bone to which the other end of the muscle is attached.) Golf is a unilateral exercise that can break body balances, requiring exercises to keep the balance in muscles. \n\nTypes of putting\n\nPutting is considered to be the most important component of the game of golf. As the game of golf has evolved, there have been many different putting techniques and grips that have been devised to give golfers the best chance to make putts. When the game originated, golfers would putt with their dominate hand on the bottom of the grip and their weak hand on top of the grip. This grip and putting style is known as \"conventional\". There are many variations of conventional including overlap, where the golfer overlaps the off hand index finger onto off the dominant pinky; interlock, where the offhand index finger interlocks with the dominant pinky and ring finger; double or triple overlap and so on. Recently, \"cross handed\" putting has become a popular trend amongst professional golfers and amateurs. Cross handed putting is the idea that the dominant hand is on top of the grip where the weak hand is on the bottom. This grip restricts the motion in your dominant hand and eliminates the possibility of wrist breakdowns through the putting stroke. \n\nOther notable putting styles include \"the claw\", a style that has the grip directly in between the thumb and index finger of the dominant hand while the palm faces the target. The weak hand placed normally on the putter. Anchored putting, a style that requires a longer putter shaft that can be anchored into the players stomach or below the chin; the idea is to stabilize one end of the putter thus creating a more consistent pendulum stroke. This style will be banned in 2016 on the profession circuits. \n\nScoring and handicapping\n\nPar\n\nA hole is classified by its par, meaning the number of strokes a skilled golfer should require to complete play of the hole. The minimum par of any hole is 3 because par always includes a stroke for the tee shot and two putts. Pars of 4 and 5 strokes are ubiquitous on golf courses; more rarely, a few courses feature par-6 and even par-7 holes. Strokes other than the tee shot and putts are expected to be made from the fairway; for example, a skilled golfer expects to reach the green on a par-4 hole in two strokes—one from the tee (the \"drive\") and another, second, stroke to the green (the \"approach\")—and then roll the ball into the hole in two putts for par. Putting the ball on the green with two strokes remaining for putts is called making \"green in regulation\" or GIR. Missing a GIR does not necessarily mean a golfer won't make par, but it does make doing so more difficult as it reduces the number of putts available; conversely, making a GIR does not guarantee a par, as the player might require three or more putts to \"hole out\". Professional golfers typically make between 60% and 70% of greens in regulation. \n\nThe primary factor for classifying the par of a relatively straight, hazard-free hole is the distance from the tee to the green. A typical par-3 hole is less than 250 yards (225 m) in length, with a par-4 hole ranging between 251 and 475 yards (225–434 m), and a par-5 hole being longer than 475 yards (435 m). The rare par-6s can stretch well over 650 yd. These distances are based on the typical scratch golfer's drive distance of between 240 and; a green further than the average player's drive will require additional shots from the fairway. However, other considerations must be taken into account; the key question is \"how many strokes would a scratch golfer take to make the green by playing along the fairway?\". The grade of the land from the tee to the hole might increase or decrease the carry and rolling distance of shots as measured linearly along the ground. Sharp turns or hazards may require golfers to \"lay up\" on the fairway in order to change direction or hit over the hazard with their next shot. These design considerations will affect how even a scratch golfer would play the hole, irrespective of total distance from tee to green, and must be included in a determination of par. However, a par score never includes \"expected\" penalty strokes, as a scratch player is never \"expected\" to hit a ball into a water hazard or other unplayable situation. So, the placement of hazards only affect par when considering how a scratch golfer would avoid them.\n\nEighteen-hole courses typically total to an overall par score of 72 for a complete round; this is based on an average par of 4 for every hole, and so is often arrived at by designing a course with an equal number of par-5 and par-3 holes, the rest being par-4. Many combinations exist that total to par-72, and other course pars exist from 68 up to 76, and are not less worthy than courses of par-72. Additionally, in some countries including the United States, courses are classified according to their play difficulty, which may be used to calculate a golfer's playing handicap for a given course. \n\nThe two primary difficulty ratings in the U.S. are the Course Rating, which is effectively the expected score for a zero-handicap \"scratch golfer\" playing the course (and may differ from the course par), and the Slope Rating, which is a measure of how much worse a \"bogey golfer\" (with an 18 handicap) would be expected to play than a \"scratch golfer\". These two numbers are available for any USGA-sanctioned course, and are used in a weighted system to calculate handicaps (see below).\n\nScoring\n\nThe goal is to play as few strokes per round as possible. A golfer's score is usually expressed as the difference between the player's number of strokes and the par score. A hole in one (or an \"ace\") occurs when a golfer sinks his ball into the cup with his first stroke from the tee. Common scores for a hole also have specific terms.\n\nIn a typical professional tournament or among \"scratch\" amateur players, \"birdie-bogey\" play is common; a player will \"lose\" a stroke by bogeying a hole, then \"gain\" one by scoring a birdie. Eagles are uncommon but not rare; however, only 18 players have scored an albatross in a men's major championship.\n\nBasic forms of golf\n\nThere are two basic forms of golf play, match play and stroke play. Stroke play is more popular.\n\nMatch play\n\nTwo players (or two teams) play each hole as a separate contest against each other in what is called match play. The party with the lower score wins that hole, or if the scores of both players or teams are equal the hole is \"halved\" (or tied). The game is won by the party that wins more holes than the other. In the case that one team or player has taken a lead that cannot be overcome in the number of holes remaining to be played, the match is deemed to be won by the party in the lead, and the remainder of the holes are not played. For example, if one party already has a lead of six holes, and only five holes remain to be played on the course, the match is over and the winning party is deemed to have won \"6 & 5\". At any given point, if the lead is equal to the number of holes remaining, the party leading the match is said to be \"dormie\", and the match is continued until the party increases the lead by one hole or ties any of the remaining holes, thereby winning the match, or until the match ends in a tie with the lead player's opponent winning all remaining holes. When the game is tied after the predetermined number of holes have been played, it may be continued until one side takes a one-hole lead.\n\nStroke play\n\nThe score achieved for each and every hole of the round or tournament is added to produce the total score, and the player with the lowest score wins in stroke play. Stroke play is the game most commonly played by professional golfers. If there is a tie after the regulation number of holes in a professional tournament, a playoff takes place between all tied players. Playoffs either are sudden death or employ a pre-determined number of holes, anywhere from three to a full 18. In sudden death, a player who scores lower on a hole than all of his opponents wins the match. If at least two players remain tied after such a playoff using a pre-determined number of holes, then play continues in sudden death format, where the first player to win a hole wins the tournament.\n\nOther forms of play\n\nThe other forms of play in the game of golf are Bogey competition, Skins, 9-points, Stableford, team play, and Unofficial team variations.\n\nBogey competition\n\nA bogey competition is a scoring format sometimes seen in at informal tournaments. Its scoring is similar to match play, except each player compares their hole score to the hole's par rating instead of the score of another player. The player \"wins\" the hole if they score a birdie or better, they \"lose\" the hole if they score a bogey or worse, and they \"halve\" the hole by scoring par. By recording only this simple win-loss-halve score on the sheet, a player can shrug off a very poorly-played hole with a simple \"-\" mark and move on. As used in competitions, the player or pair with the best win-loss \"differential\" wins the competition.\n\nSkins\n\nA skins game is a variation on match play where each hole has an amount of money (the \"skin\") attached. This may be prize money at the professional level (the most famous event to use these rules was the \"LG Skins Game\", played at Indian Wells Golf Resort in California until 2008), or an amount wagered for each hole among amateur players. The player with the lowest score on the hole wins the skin for that hole; if two or more players tie for the lowest score, the skin carries over to the next hole. This continues until a player wins a hole outright, which may (and often does) result in a player receiving money for a previous hole that they hadn't tied for. If players tie the 18th hole, either all players or only the tying players repeat the 18th hole until an outright winner is decided for that hole (and all undecided skins).\n\n9-Points\n\nA nine-point game is another variant of match play typically played among threesomes, where each hole is worth a total of nine points. The player with the lowest score on a hole receives five points, the next-lowest score 3 and the next-lowest score 1. Ties are generally resolved by summing the points contested and dividing them among the tying players; a two-way tie for first is worth four points to both players, a two-way tie for second is worth two points to both players, and a three-way tie is worth three points to each player. The player with the highest score after 18 holes (in which there are 162 points to be awarded) wins the game. This format can be used to wager on the game systematically; players each contribute the same amount of money to the pot, and a dollar value is assigned to each point scored (or each point after 18) based on the amount of money in the pot, with any overage going to the overall winner. \n\nStableford\n\nThe Stableford system is a simplification of stroke play that awards players points based on their score relative to the hole's par; the score for a hole is calculated by taking the par score, adding 2, then subtracting the player's hole score, making the result zero if negative. Alternately stated, a double bogey or worse is zero points, a bogey is worth one point, par is two, a birdie three, an eagle four, and so on. The advantages of this system over stroke play are a more natural \"higher is better\" scoring, the ability to compare Stableford scores between plays on courses with different total par scores (scoring an \"even\" in stroke play will always give a Stableford score of 36), discouraging the tendency to abandon the entire game after playing a particularly bad hole (a novice playing by strict rules may score as high as an 8 or 10 on a single difficult hole; their Stableford score for the hole would be zero, which puts them only two points behind par no matter how badly they played), and the ability to simply pick up one's ball once it is impossible to score any points for the hole, which speeds play.\n\nThe USGA and R&A sanction a \"Modified Stableford\" system for scratch players, which makes par worth zero, a birdie worth 2, eagle 5 and double-eagle 8, while a bogey is a penalty of -1 and a double-bogey or worse -3. As with the original system, the highest score wins the game, and terrible scores on one or two holes won't wreck an entire game, but this system rewards \"bogey-birdie\" play more than the original, encouraging golfers to try to make the riskier birdie putt or eagle chipshot instead of simply parring each hole.\n\nTeam play\n\n* Foursome: defined in Rule 29, this is played between two teams of two players each, in which each team has only one ball and players alternate playing it. For example, if players \"A\" and \"B\" form a team, \"A\" tees off on the first hole, \"B\" will play the second shot, \"A\" the third, and so on until the hole is finished. On the second hole, \"B\" will tee off (regardless who played the last putt on the first hole), then \"A\" plays the second shot, and so on. Foursomes can be played as match play or stroke play. \n* Fourball: defined in Rules 30 and 31, this is also played between two teams of two players each, but every player plays their own ball and for each team, the lower score on each hole counts. Fourballs can be played as match play or stroke play. \n\nUnofficial team variations\n\n* Scramble: also known as ambrose or best-shot; each player in a team tees off on each hole, and the players decide which shot was best. Every player then plays their second shot from within a clublength of where the best shot has come to rest (and no closer to the hole), and the procedure is repeated until the hole is finished. This system is very common at informal tournaments such as for charity, as it speeds play (due to the reduced number of shots taken from bad lies), allows teams of varying sizes, and allows players of widely varying skill levels to participate without a profoundly negative impact on team score.\n* Champagne scramble: a combination of a scramble and best-ball, only the first shot of each hole is a scramble; all players tee off, decide on the best tee shot, then each player plays their own ball starting at that point until they hole out, without deciding any further \"best shots\". The best score amongst the team's players is counted. \n* Better ball or best-ball: like fourball, each player plays the hole as normal, but the lowest score of all the players on the team counts as the team's score for the hole. \n* Greensome (also known as Scotch Foursomes): also called modified alternate shot, this is played in pairs; both players tee off, and then pick the best shot as in a scramble. The player who did not shoot the best first shot plays the second shot. The play then alternates as in a foursome. A variant of greensome is sometimes played where the opposing team chooses which of their opponent's tee shots the opponents should use. The player who did not shoot the chosen first shot plays the second shot. Play then continues as a greensome.\n* Wolf (also known as Ship, Captain & Crew, Captain, Pig): a version of match play; with a foursome an order of play for each player is established for the duration of the round. The first player hits a ball from the tee, then waits for each successive player to hit (2nd, 3rd and 4th). After each player hits the 1st player has the option of choosing a partner for the hole (the 1st player is the Wolf for that hole) usually by calling Wolf before the next player hits. Once a partner is picked, each two-some (the Wolf and his or her partner vs the remaining two players) scores their total strokes and the winning two-some is awarded 1-point each for winning a hole and zero points for tying. The next hole, the rotation moves forward (e.g. the 2nd player is now hitting 1st and the Wolf and the previous Wolf hits last). A Wolf can decide to go alone to win extra points, but they must beat all other players in stroke play on that hole. If alone, the Wolf is awarded 2-points for going alone after everyone has hit or 4 points for declaring Lone Wolf before anyone else hits. If the Lone Wolf loses, to even one player, the 3 other players get 1-point each. The winner is the player with the most points at the end of the round. Strategically, care must be taken not to let a low-handicap player run away with all the points by being constantly paired with the Wolf. , \n\nShotgun starts are mainly used for amateur tournament play. In this variant, each of the groups playing starts their game on a different hole, allowing for all players to start and end their round at roughly the same time. All 18 holes are still played, but a player or foursome may, for instance, start on hole 5, play through to the 18th hole, then continue with hole 1 and end on hole 4. This speeds the completion of the entire event as players are not kept waiting for progressive tee times at the first hole. This form of play, as a minor variation to stroke or match play, is neither defined nor disallowed by strict rules and so is used according to local rules for an event.\n\nHandicap systems\n\nA handicap is a numerical measure of an amateur golfer's ability to play golf over the course of 18 holes. A player's handicap generally represents the number of strokes above par that the player will make over the course of an above-average round of golf. The better the player the lower their handicap is. Someone with a handicap of 0 or less is often called a scratch golfer, and would typically score or beat the course par on a round of play (depending on course difficulty).\n\nCalculating a handicap is often complicated, the general reason being that golf courses are not uniformly challenging from course to course or between skill levels. A player scoring even par on Course A might average four over par on course B, while a player averaging 20 over par on course A might average only 16 over on course B. So, to the \"scratch golfer\", Course B is more difficult, but to the \"bogey golfer\", Course A is more difficult. The reasons for this are inherent in the types of challenges presented by the same course to both golfers. Distance is often a problem for amateur \"bogey\" golfers with slower swing speeds, who get less distance with each club, and so typically require more shots to get to the green, raising their score compared to a scratch golfer with a stronger swing. However, courses are often designed with hazard placement to mitigate this advantage, forcing the scratch player to \"lay up\" to avoid bunkers or water, while the bogey golfer is more or less unaffected as the hazard lies out of their range. Finally, terrain features and fairway maintenance can affect golfers of all skill levels; narrowing the fairway by adding obstacles or widening the rough on each side will typically increase the percentage of shots made from disadvantageous lies, increasing the challenge for all players.\n\nBy USGA rules, handicap calculation first requires calculating a \"Handicap Differential\" for each round of play the player has completed by strict rules. That in itself is a function of the player's \"gross adjusted score\" (adjustments can be made to mitigate various deviations either from strict rules or from a player's normal capabilities, for handicap purposes only) and two course-specific difficulty ratings: the Course Rating, a calculated expected score for a hypothetical \"scratch golfer\": and the Slope Rating, a number based on how much worse a hypothetical 20-handicap \"bogey golfer\" would score compared to the \"scratch golfer\". The average Slope Rating of all USGA-rated courses as of 2012 is 113, which also factors into the Differential computation.\n\nThe most recent Differentials are logged, up to 20 of them, and then the best of these (the number used depends on the number available) are selected, averaged, multiplied by .96 (an \"excellence factor\" that reduces the handicap of higher-scoring players, encouraging them to play better and thus lower their handicap), and truncated to the tenths place to produce the \"Handicap Index\". Additional calculations can be used to place higher significance on a player's recent tournament scores. A player's Handicap Index is then multiplied by the Slope Rating of the course to be played, divided by the average Slope Rating of 113, then rounded to the nearest integer to produce the player's Course Handicap.\n\nOnce calculated, the Course Handicap is applied in stroke play by simply reducing the player's gross score by the handicap, to produce a net score. So, a gross score of 96 with a handicap of 22 would produce a net score of 74. In match play, the lower handicap is subtracted from the higher handicap, and the resulting handicap strokes are awarded to the higher handicapper by distributing them among the holes according to each hole's difficulty; holes are ranked on the scorecard from 1 to 18 (or however many holes are available), and one stroke is applied to each hole from the most difficult to the least difficult. So, if one player has a 9 handicap and another has a 25 handicap, the 25-handicap player receives one handicap stroke on each of the most difficult 16 holes (25-9). If the 25-handicapper were playing against a \"scratch golfer\" (zero handicap), all 25 strokes would be distributed, first by applying one stroke to each hole, then applying the remaining strokes, one each, to the most difficult 7 holes; so, the handicap player would subtract 2 strokes from each of the most difficult 7 holes, and 1 each from the remaining 11.\n\nHandicap systems have potential for abuse by players who may intentionally play badly to increase their handicap (\"throwing their 'cap\") before playing to their potential at an important event with a valuable prize. For this reason, professional golf associations do not use them, but they can be calculated and used along with other criteria to determine the relative strengths of various professional players. Touring professionals, being the best of the best, often have negative handicaps; they can be expected, on average, to score lower than the Course Rating on any course.\n\nPopularity\n\nIn 2005 Golf Digest calculated that the countries with most golf courses per capita, in order, were: Scotland, New Zealand, Australia, Ireland, Canada, Wales, United States, Sweden, and England (countries with fewer than 500,000 people were excluded).\n\nThe number of course in other territories increases, an example of this being the expansion of golf in China. The first golf course in China opened in 1984, but by the end of 2009 there were roughly 600 in the country. For much of the 21st century, development of new golf courses in China has been officially banned (with the exception of the island province of Hainan), but the number of courses had nonetheless tripled from 2004 to 2009; the \"ban\" has been evaded with the government's tacit approval simply by not mentioning golf in any development plans. \n\nIn the United States, the number of people who play golf twenty-five times or more per year decreased from 6.9 million in 2000 to 4.6 million in 2005, according to the National Golf Foundation. The NGF reported that the number who played golf at all decreased from 30 to 26 million over the same period.\n\nGolf courses worldwide\n\nNumber of golf courses by country in 2008 \n\nProfessional golf\n\nThe majority of professional golfers work as club or teaching professionals (\"pros\"), and only compete in local competitions. A small elite of professional golfers are \"tournament pros\" who compete full-time on international \"tours\". Many club and teaching professionals working in the golf industry start as caddies or with a general interest in the game, finding employment at golf courses and eventually moving on to certifications in their chosen profession. These programs include independent institutions and universities, and those that eventually lead to a Class A golf professional certification. Touring professionals typically start as amateur players, who attain their \"pro\" status after success in major tournaments that win them either prize money and/or notice from corporate sponsors. Jack Nicklaus, for example, gained widespread notice by finishing second in the 1960 U.S. Open to champion Arnold Palmer, with a 72-hole score of 282 (the best score to date in that tournament by an amateur). He played one more amateur year in 1961, winning that year's U.S. Amateur Championship, before turning pro in 1962.\n\nInstruction\n\nGolf instruction involves the teaching and learning of the game of golf. Proficiency in teaching golf instruction requires not only technical and physical ability but also knowledge of the rules and etiquette of the game. In some countries, golf instruction is best performed by teachers certified by the Professional Golfers Association. Some top instructors who work with professional golfers have become quite well known in their own right. Instructors use a combination of physical conditioning, mental visualization, classroom sessions, club fitting, driving range instruction, on-course play under real conditions, and review of videotaped swings in slow motion to teach golf.\n\nGolf tours\n\nThere are at least twenty professional golf tours, each run by a PGA or an independent tour organization, which is responsible for arranging events, finding sponsors, and regulating the tour. Typically a tour has \"members\" who are entitled to compete in most of its events, and also invites non-members to compete in some of them. Gaining membership of an elite tour is highly competitive, and most professional golfers never achieve it.\n\nPerhaps the most widely known tour is the PGA Tour, which tends to attract the strongest fields, outside the four Majors and the four World Golf Championships events. This is due mostly to the fact that most PGA Tour events have a first prize of at least 800,000 USD. The European Tour, which attracts a substantial number of top golfers from outside North America, ranks second to the PGA Tour in worldwide prestige. Some top professionals from outside North America play enough tournaments to maintain membership on both the PGA Tour and European Tour. In three of the four most recent golf seasons, both tours' money titles were claimed by the same individual, with Luke Donald doing so in 2011 and Rory McIlroy in 2012 and 2014. In 2013, Henrik Stenson won the FedEx Cup points race on the PGA Tour and the European Tour money title, but did not top the PGA Tour money list (that honour going to Tiger Woods).\n\nThe other leading men's tours include the Japan Golf Tour, the Asian Tour (Asia outside Japan), the PGA Tour of Australasia, and the Sunshine Tour (for southern Africa, primarily South Africa). The Japan, Australasian, Sunshine, PGA, and European Tours are the charter members of the trade body of the world's main tours, the International Federation of PGA Tours, founded in 1996. The Asian Tour became a full member in 1999. The Canadian Tour became an associate member of the Federation in 2000, and the Tour de las Américas (Latin America) became an associate member of the Federation in 2007. The Federation underwent a major expansion in 2009 that saw eleven new tours become full members – the Canadian Tour, Tour de las Américas, China Golf Association, the Korea Professional Golfers' Association, Professional Golf Tour of India, and the operators of all six major women's tours worldwide. The OneAsia Tour, founded in 2009, is not a member of the Federation, but was founded as a joint venture of the Australasia, China, Japan, and Korean tours. In 2011, the Tour de las Américas was effectively taken over by the PGA Tour, and in 2012 was folded into the new PGA Tour Latinoamérica. Also in 2012, the Canadian Tour was renamed PGA Tour Canada after it agreed to be taken over by the PGA Tour. All men's tours that are Federation members, except the India tour, offer points in the Official World Golf Ranking (OWGR) to players who place sufficiently high in their events. The OneAsia Tour also offers ranking points.\n\nGolf is unique in having lucrative competition for older players. There are several senior tours for men aged fifty and over, arguably the best known of which is the U.S.-based Champions Tour.\n\nThere are six principal tours for women, each based in a different country or continent. The most prestigious of these is the United States-based LPGA Tour. All of the principal tours offer points in the Women's World Golf Rankings for high finishers in their events.\n\nAll of the leading professional tours for under-50 players have an official developmental tour, in which the leading players at the end of the season will earn a tour card on the main tour for the following season. Examples include the Web.com Tour, which feeds to the PGA Tour, and the Challenge Tour, which is the developmental tour of the European Tour. The Web.com and Challenge Tours also offer OWGR points.\n\nMen's major championships\n\nThe major championships are the four most prestigious men's tournaments of the year. In chronological order they are: The Masters, the U.S. Open, The Open Championship (referred to in North America as the British Open) and the PGA Championship. \n\nThe fields for these events include the top several dozen golfers from all over the world. The Masters has been played at Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta, Georgia, since its inception in 1934. It is the only major championship that is played at the same course each year. The U.S. Open and PGA Championship are played at courses around the United States, while the Open Championship is played at courses around the United Kingdom. \n\nPrior to the advent of the PGA Championship and The Masters, the four Majors were the U.S. Open, the U.S. Amateur, the Open Championship, and the British Amateur.\n\nWomen's major championships\n\nWomen's golf does not have a globally agreed set of majors. The list of majors recognised by the dominant women's tour, the LPGA Tour in the U.S., has changed several times over the years, with the most recent changes occurring in 2001 and 2013. Like the PGA Tour, the (U.S.) LPGA tour long had four majors, but now has five: the ANA Inspiration (previously known by several other names, most recently the Kraft Nabisco Championship), the Women's PGA Championship (previously known as the LPGA Championship), the U.S. Women's Open, the Women's British Open (which replaced the du Maurier Classic as a major in 2001) and The Evian Championship (added as the fifth major in 2013). Only the last two are also recognised as majors by the Ladies European Tour. However, the significance of this is limited, as the LPGA is far more dominant in women's golf than the PGA Tour is in mainstream men's golf. For example, the BBC has been known to use the U.S. definition of \"women's majors\" without qualifying it. Also, the Ladies' Golf Union, the governing body for women's golf in Great Britain and Ireland, stated on its official website that the Women's British Open was \"the only Women's Major to be played outside the U.S.\" (this was before the elevation of The Evian Championship to major status). For many years, the Ladies European Tour tacitly acknowledged the dominance of the LPGA Tour by not scheduling any of its own events to conflict with the three LPGA majors played in the U.S., but that changed beginning in 2008, when the LET scheduled an event opposite the LPGA Championship. The second-richest women's tour, the LPGA of Japan Tour, does not recognise any of the U.S. LPGA or European majors as it has its own set of majors (historically three, since 2008 four). However, these events attract little notice outside Japan.\n\nSenior major championships\n\nSenior (aged fifty and over) men's golf does not have a globally agreed set of majors. The list of senior majors on the U.S.-based Champions Tour has changed over the years, but always by expansion. The Champions Tour now recognises five majors: the Senior PGA Championship, The Tradition, the Senior Players Championship, the United States Senior Open, and The Senior (British) Open Championship.\n\nOf the five events, the Senior PGA is by far the oldest, having been founded in 1937. The other events all date from the 1980s, when senior golf became a commercial success as the first golf stars of the television era, such as Arnold Palmer and Gary Player, reached the relevant age. The Senior British Open was not recognised as a major by the Champions Tour until 2003. The European Seniors Tour recognises only the Senior PGA and the two Senior Opens as majors. However, the Champions Tour is arguably more dominant in global senior golf than the U.S. LPGA is in global women's golf.\n\nInternational events\n\n* Golf at the Asian Games\n* Golf at the Pan American Games\n* Golf at the Summer Olympics\n* Golf at the Summer Universiade\n* Ryder Cup\n* Presidents Cup\n* Solheim Cup\n* International Crown\n* Seve Trophy\n* EurAsia Cup\n* Walker Cup\n* Curtis Cup",
"Robert Tyre \"Bobby\" Jones Jr. (March 17, 1902 – December 18, 1971) was an American amateur golfer, and a lawyer by profession. Jones founded and helped design the Augusta National Golf Club, and co-founded the Masters Tournament. The innovations that he introduced at the Masters have been copied by virtually every professional golf tournament in the world.\n\nJones was the most successful amateur golfer ever to compete at a national and international level. During his peak from 1923 to 1930, he dominated top-level amateur competition, and competed very successfully against the world's best professional golfers. Jones often beat stars such as Walter Hagen and Gene Sarazen, the era's top pros. Jones earned his living mainly as a lawyer, and competed in golf only as an amateur, primarily on a part-time basis, and chose to retire from competition at age 28, though he earned significant money from golf after that, as an instructor and equipment designer.\n\nExplaining his decision to retire, Jones said, \"It [championship golf] is something like a cage. First you are expected to get into it and then you are expected to stay there. But of course, nobody can stay there.\" Jones is most famous for his unique \"Grand Slam,\" consisting of his victory in all four major golf tournaments of his era (the open and amateur championships in both the U.S. & the U.K.) in a single calendar year (1930). In all Jones played in 31 majors, winning 13 and placing among the top ten finishers 27 times.\n\nAfter retiring from competitive golf in 1930, Jones founded and helped design the Augusta National Golf Club soon afterwards in 1933. He also co-founded the Masters Tournament, which has been annually staged by the club since 1934 (except for 1943–45, when it was canceled due to World War II). The Masters evolved into one of golf's four major championships. Jones came out of retirement in 1934 to play in the Masters on an exhibition basis through 1948. Jones played his last round of golf at East Lake Golf Club, his home course in Atlanta, on August 18, 1948. A picture commemorating the event now sits in the clubhouse at East Lake. Citing health reasons, he quit golf permanently thereafter.\n\nBobby Jones was often confused with the prolific golf course designer, Robert Trent Jones, with whom he worked from time to time. \"People always used to get them confused, so when they met, they decided each be called something different,\" Robert Trent Jones Jr. said. To help avoid confusion, the golfer was called \"Bobby,\" and the golf course designer was called \"Trent.\" \n\nBiography\n\nEarly years\n\nBorn in Atlanta, Georgia, Jones battled health issues as a young boy, and golf was prescribed to strengthen him. Encouraged by his father, \"Colonel\" Robert Purmedus Jones, an Atlanta lawyer, Jones loved golf from the start. He developed quickly into a child prodigy, who won his first children's tournament at the age of six at his home course at East Lake Golf Club. In 1916, Jones won his first major golf event when he claimed the inaugural Georgia Amateur Championship conducted by the Georgia State Golf Association at the Capital City Club, in Brookhaven, at age 14. His victory at this event put him in the national spotlight for the first time. The Georgia Amateur win caught the eye of the United States Golf Association which awarded Jones his first invitation to the U.S. Amateur at Merion near Philadelphia. Jones advanced to the quarterfinals in his first playing in the event. \n\nHe was influenced by club professional Stewart Maiden, a native of Carnoustie, Scotland. Maiden was the professional at the Atlanta Athletic Club's East Lake Golf Club, who also trained Alexa Stirling, five years older than Jones but also a prodigy, at East Lake around the same time. Jones also received golf lessons from Willie Ogg when he was in his teenage years. Jones played frequently with his father, a skilled player himself. The younger Jones sometimes battled his own temper on the course, but later controlled his emotions as he became more experienced. Jones toured the U.S. during World War I from 1917–18, playing exhibition matches before large crowds, often with Alexa Stirling and Perry Adair, to generate income for war relief. Playing in front of such crowds in these matches helped him, as he moved into national competition a bit later on.\n\nJones successfully represented the United States for the first time, in two winning international amateur team matches against Canada, in 1919 and 1920, earning three of a possible four points in foursomes and singles play. In 1919 he traveled to Hamilton Golf and Country Club, for his first serious competitive action outside the U.S., while in 1920, Engineers Country Club, in Roslyn, Long Island, hosted the matches. Still a teenager, he was by far the youngest player in the series. Jones also played in the 1919 Canadian Open while in Hamilton, Ontario, performing very well to place tied for second, but 16 shots behind winner J. Douglas Edgar. Edgar had immigrated from England in 1919 to take a club professional's job in Atlanta at Druid Hills Golf Club; Edgar mentored and played frequently with Jones from 1919 to 1921. Edgar was credited by Jones with helping develop his game significantly. \n\nJones qualified for his first U.S. Open at age 18 in 1920, and was paired with the legendary Harry Vardon for the first two rounds. He won the Southern Amateur three times: 1917, 1920, and 1922. \n\nFirst majors\n\nAs an adult, he hit his stride and won his first U.S. Open in 1923. From that win at New York's Inwood Country Club, through his 1930 victory in the U.S. Amateur, he won 13 major championships (as they were counted at the time) in 20 attempts. Jones was the first player to win The Double, both the U.S. and British Open Championships in the same year (1926). He was the second (and last) to win the U.S. Open and U.S. Amateur in the same year (1930), first accomplished in 1916 by Chick Evans. \n\n1930: Grand Slam\n\nJones is the only player ever to have won the (pre-Masters) Grand Slam, or all four major championships, in the same calendar year (1930). Jones' path to the 1930 Grand Slam title was:\n\n#The Amateur Championship, Old Course at St Andrews, Scotland\n#The Open Championship, Royal Liverpool Golf Club, Hoylake, England\n#U.S. Open, Interlachen Country Club, Minnesota\n#U.S. Amateur, Merion Golf Club, Pennsylvania\n\nJones made a bet on himself achieving this extraordinary feat with British bookmakers early in 1930, before the first tournament of the Slam, at odds of 50–1, and collected over $60,000 when he did it.The Grand Slam, television program produced by the Golf Channel, part of \"Classics\" series\n\nJones represented the United States in the Walker Cup five times, winning nine of his 10 matches, and the U.S. won the trophy all five times. He served as playing captain of the U.S. team in 1928 and 1930. He also won two other tournaments against professionals: the 1927 Southern Open and the 1930 Southeastern Open. Jones was a lifelong member of the Atlanta Athletic Club (at the club's original site, now the East Lake Golf Club), and the Capital City Club in Atlanta.\n\nJones is considered one of the five giants of the 1920s American sports scene, along with baseball's Babe Ruth, boxing's Jack Dempsey, football's Red Grange, and tennis player Bill Tilden. He was the first recipient of the AAU's Sullivan Award as the top amateur athlete in the United States. He is the only sports figure to receive two ticker-tape parades in New York City, the first in 1926 and the second in 1930. Jones is memorialized in Augusta, Georgia, at the Golf Gardens and has the Bobby Jones Expressway, also known as Interstate 520, named for him. \n\nSportsmanship\n\nJones was not only a consummately skilled golfer but exemplified the principles of sportsmanship and fair play. In the first round of the 1925 U.S. Open at the Worcester Country Club near Boston, his approach shot to the 11th hole's elevated green fell short into the deep rough of the embankment. As he took his stance to pitch onto the green, the head of his club brushed the grass and caused a slight movement of the ball. He took the shot, then informed his playing partner Walter Hagen and the USGA official covering their match that he was calling a penalty on himself. Hagen was unable to talk him out of it, and they continued play. After the round and before he signed his scorecard, officials argued with Jones but he insisted that he had violated Rule 18, moving a ball at rest after address, and took a 77 instead of the 76 he otherwise would have carded. Jones' self-imposed one-stroke penalty eventually cost him the win by a stroke in regulation, necessitating a playoff, which he then lost. Although praised by many sports writers for his gesture, Jones was reported to have said, \"You might as well praise me for not robbing banks.\" \n\nA similar event occurred in the next U.S. Open, played at the Scioto Country Club in Columbus, Ohio. In the second round, after his opening round put him in second place, Jones was putting on the 15th green in the face of a strong wind. After grounding his putter during address to square up the club face, the ball rolled a half turn in the wind when Jones lifted the club head to place it behind the ball. Although no one else observed this movement of the ball either, again Jones called a penalty on himself, but this time Jones went on to win the tournament, the second of his four U.S. Open victories. \n\nThe USGA's sportsmanship award is named the Bob Jones Award in his honor.\n\nSt Andrews, Scotland\n\nJones had a unique relationship with the town of St Andrews, Scotland. On his first appearance on the Old Course in The Open Championship of 1921, he withdrew after 11 holes in the third round, when he failed to complete the hole (in effect disqualifying himself), and tore up his scorecard, although he finished the round and indeed played the fourth round as well. He firmly stated his dislike for The Old Course and the town reciprocated, saying in the press, \"Master Bobby is just a boy, and an ordinary boy at that.\" Later, he came to love the Old Course and the town like few others. When he won the Open at the Old Course in 1927, he wowed the crowd by asking that the trophy remain with his friends at the Royal and Ancient Golf Club rather than return with him to Atlanta. He won the British Amateur over The Old Course in 1930, and scored a double eagle 2 on the fourth hole (then a par-5, now a par-4), by holing a very long shot from a fairway bunker. In 1958, he was named a Freeman of the City of St Andrews, becoming only the second American to be so honored, the other being Benjamin Franklin in 1759. As Jones departed Younger Hall with his honor, the assembly spontaneously serenaded him off to the traditional tune of Will Ye No Come Back Again? in a famously moving tribute. Today, a scholarship exchange bearing the Jones name exists between the University of St Andrews and Emory University, Queen's University, The University of Western Ontario and the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta. At Emory, four students are sent to St Andrews for an all-expenses-paid year of study and travel. In return, Emory accepts four students from St Andrews each year. The program, the Robert T. Jones Scholarship, is among the most unusual scholarships offered by any university. \n\nUniversity, family, career\n\nJones was highly successful outside of golf as well. He earned his B.S. in Mechanical Engineering from Georgia Tech in 1922 and played for the varsity golf team, lettering all four years. Jones was a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity, and the Georgia Phi chapter house at Georgia Tech is named in his honor.\n\nHe then earned an A.B. in English Literature from Harvard College in 1924, where he was a member of the Owl Club. In 1926 he entered Emory University School of Law and became a member of Phi Delta Phi. After only three semesters he passed the Georgia bar exam and subsequently joined his father's law firm, Jones, Evins, Moore and Powell, (predecessor to Alston & Bird), in Atlanta, Georgia.\n\nJones married Mary Rice Malone in 1924, whom he met in 1919 while a freshman at Georgia Tech. They had three children — Clara Malone (1925–1994), Robert Tyre III (1926–1973), and Mary Ellen (b. 1931).\n\nWhen he retired from golf at age 28, he concentrated on his Atlanta law practice. That same year, 1930, he was honored with the first James E. Sullivan Award, awarded annually by the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) to the most outstanding amateur athlete in the United States.\n\nGolf films, golf club design\n\nJones made 18 instructional golf films in Hollywood between 1931 and 1933 in which he coached well-known film stars with golf pointers. The films were popular, and Jones gave up his amateur status while earning lucrative contract money for this venture. These films were put into storage and were unavailable for decades, but a surviving print was located 60 years later and put into video format for preservation by Ely Callaway, a distant cousin of Jones's.\n\nIn the early 1930s Jones worked with J Victor East (an Australian) of A.G. Spalding & Co. to develop the first set of matched steel-shafted clubs; the clubs sold very well and are still considered among the best-designed sets ever made.\n\nAugusta National Golf Club\n\nFollowing his retirement from competitive golf in 1930, and even in the years leading up to that, Jones had become one of the most famous sports figures in the world, and was recognized virtually everywhere he went in public. While certainly appreciative of the enormous adulation and media coverage, this massive attention caused Jones to lose personal privacy in golf circles, and he wished to create a private golf club where he and his friends could play golf in peace and quiet. For several years, he searched for a property near Atlanta where he could develop his own golf club. His friend Clifford Roberts, a New York City investment dealer, knew of Jones's desire, became aware of a promising property for sale in Augusta, Georgia, where Jones's mother-in-law had grown up, and informed Jones about it. Jones first visited Fruitlands, an Augusta arboretum and indigo plantation since the Civil War era, in the spring of 1930, and he purchased it for $70,000 in 1931, with the plan to design a golf course on the site. \n\nJones co-designed the Augusta National course with Alister MacKenzie; the new club opened in early 1933. He founded the Masters Tournament, first played at Augusta in March 1934. The new tournament, originally known as the Augusta National Invitational, was an immediate success, and attracted most of the world's top players right from its start. Jones came out of retirement to play, essentially on an exhibition basis, and his presence guaranteed enormous media attention, boosting the new tournament's fame.\n\nDuring World War II, Jones served as an officer in the U.S. Army Air Forces. His superiors wanted him to play exhibition golf in the United States, but Jones was insistent on serving overseas. In 1943 he was promoted to major and trained as an intelligence officer, serving in England with the 84th Fighter Wing, which was part of the Ninth Air Force. While in England, he made the acquaintance of General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Landing in Normandy on June 7, 1944, Jones spent two months with a front line division as a prisoner of war interrogator, reaching the rank of lieutenant colonel. During the war, Jones permitted the U.S. Army to graze cattle on the grounds at Augusta National. Later, in 1947, he founded Peachtree Golf Club in Atlanta and co-designed the course with Robert Trent Jones.\n\nIn 1966, the governing board and membership of Augusta National passed a resolution naming Jones President in Perpetuity. \n\nMasters Tournament, health worries\n\nJones played in the first dozen Masters, through 1948, but only in the first as a competitor. By then, his health at age 46 had declined to the stage where this was no longer possible. With his health difficulties, being past his prime, and not competing elsewhere to stay in tournament form, he never truly contended at the Masters, although his scores were usually respectable. These were almost all ceremonial performances, since his main duty was as host of the event. His extraordinary popularity, efforts with the course design, and tournament organization boosted the profile of the Masters significantly. The tournament, jointly run by Jones and Clifford Roberts, made many important innovations which became the norm elsewhere, such as gallery ropes to control the flow of the large crowds, many scoreboards around the course, the use of red / green numbers on those scoreboards to denote under / over par scores, an international field of top players, high-caliber television coverage, and week-long admission passes for patrons, which became extremely hard to obtain. The tournament also sought and welcomed feedback from players, fans, and writers, leading to continual improvement over the years. The Masters gradually evolved to being one of the most respected tournaments in the world, one of the four major championships.\n\nIncapacity and death\n\nIn 1948, Jones was diagnosed with syringomyelia, a fluid-filled cavity in his spinal cord which caused first crippling pain, then paralysis; he was eventually restricted to a wheelchair. He died in Atlanta on December 18, 1971, three days after converting to Catholicism. Jones was baptized on his death bed by Monsignor John D. Stapleton, pastor of the Cathedral of Christ the King in Atlanta, and attended by the Jones family was buried in Atlanta's historic Oakland Cemetery. Jones was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974. \n\nHis widow Mary died less than four years later in 1975 at age 72, following the death of their son, Robert T. Jones III, of a heart attack in 1973 at age 47. Daughter Clara died in 1994 at age 68.\n\nMajor championships\n\nWins (13)\n\nThe Opens (7)\n\n1 Defeated Bobby Cruickshank in an 18-hole playoff: Jones 76 (+4), Cruickshank 78 (+6). \n2 Defeated Al Espinosa in a 36-hole playoff: Jones 72-69141 (−3), Espinosa 84-80\n164 (+20).\n\nThe Amateurs (6)\n\nNational Amateur championships were counted as majors at the time. Jones' actual major total using the standard in place in his lifetime was 13.\n\nResults timeline\n\nThe majors of Jones' time (those for which as an amateur he was eligible) were the U.S. and British Opens and Amateurs.\n\nJones retired after his Grand Slam in 1930, playing only his own tournament, The Masters. As an amateur golfer, he was not eligible to compete in the PGA Championship.\n\nM \n Medalist\nLA \n Low amateur\nNT = No tournament\nDNP = Did not play\nWD = Withdrew\nR32, R16, QF, SF = Round in which Jones lost in amateur match play\n\"T\" indicates a tie for a place\nGreen background for wins. Yellow background for top-10.\n\nSources for U.S. Open and U.S. Amateur, British Open, 1921 British Amateur, 1926 British Amateur, 1930 British Amateur, and The Masters. \n\nOther records\n\nJones's four titles in the U.S. Open remain tied for the most ever in that championship, along with Willie Anderson, Ben Hogan, and Jack Nicklaus. His four second-place finishes in the U.S. Open place him second all-time with Sam Snead and Nicklaus. Phil Mickelson holds the dubious record with six (1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2009, 2013) second-place finishes. His five titles in the U.S. Amateur are a record. Jones was ranked as the fourth greatest golfer of all time by Golf Digest magazine in 2000. Nicklaus was first, Hogan second, and Snead third. Jones was ranked as the third greatest golfer of all time in a major survey published by Golf Magazine, September 2009. Nicklaus was ranked first, with Tiger Woods second, Hogan fourth, and Snead fifth. \n\nFilms\n\nJones appeared in a series of short instructional films produced by Warner Brothers in 1931 titled How I Play Golf, by Bobby Jones (12 films) and in 1933 titled How to Break 90 (six films). The shorts were designed to be shown in theaters alongside feature films, whereby \"would-be golfers of the country can have the Jones' instruction for the price of a theater ticket.\"[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/4129799/bobby_jones_in_picture_land/ \"Bobby Jones in Picture Land,\"] Albany [OR] Democrat-Herald, March 2, 1931, pg. 6. Jones indicated at the time of the making of the 1931 series that the films would be \"designed as instructive\" but not \"so complicated that a non-golfer can't understand them.\"\n\nActors and actresses, mostly under contract with Warner Brothers, but also from other studios, volunteered to appear in these 18 episodes. Some of the more well known actors to appear in the instructional plots included James Cagney, Joe E. Brown, Edward G. Robinson, W.C. Fields, Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., Richard Barthelmess, Richard Arlen, Guy Kibbee, Warner Oland and Loretta Young. Various scenarios involving the actors were used to provide an opportunity for Jones to convey a lesson about a particular part of the game. The shorts were directed by the prolific George Marshall.\n\nTitle list of the shorts: \nHow I Play Golf\n*The Putter (April 26, 1931, Film Daily review)\n*Chip Shots (April 26)\n*The Niblick (May 31)\n*The Mashie Niblick (June 5)\n*Medium Irons (July 5)\n*The Big Irons (July 12)\n*The Spoon (July 19)\n*The Brassie (August 1)\n*The Driver (August 30)\n*Trouble Shots (September 13)\n* Practice Shots (September 27)\n*A Round of Golf (September 4)\n\nHow To Break 90\n*The Grip (April 17, 1933)\n*Position and Backswing (May 15)\n*Hip Action (May 20)\n*Down Swing (The Downswing) (May 29)\n*Impact (July 15)\n*Fine Points (August 5)\n\nJones was the subject of the quasi-biographical 2004 feature film Bobby Jones: A Stroke of Genius in which he was portrayed by Jim Caviezel. The Jones legend was also used to create a supporting character in The Legend of Bagger Vance in 2000, portrayed by Joel Gretsch, and the event where he called his own penalty is used for the fictional protagonist, Rannulph Junuh.\n\nBooks\n\nJones authored several books on golf including Down the Fairway with Oscar Bane \"O.B.\" Keeler (1927), The Rights and Wrongs of Golf (1933), Golf Is My Game (1959), Bobby Jones on Golf (1966), and Bobby Jones on the Basic Golf Swing (1968) with illustrator Anthony Ravielli. The 300-copy limited edition of Down the Fairway is considered one of the rarest and most sought after golf books by collectors. To keep this book readily available to golfers, Herbert Warren Wind included a reproduction of Down the Fairway in his Classics of Golf Library. \n\nJones has been the subject of several books, most notably The Bobby Jones Story and A Boy's Life of Bobby Jones, both by O.B. Keeler. Other notable texts are The Life and Times of Bobby Jones: Portrait of a Gentleman by Sidney L. Matthew, The Greatest Player Who Never Lived by J. Michael Veron, and Triumphant Journey: The Saga of Bobby Jones and the Grand Slam of Golf by Richard Miller. Published in 2006, The Grand Slam by Mark Frost has received much note as being evocative of Jones's life and times.\n\nA special room is dedicated to Jones's life and accomplishments at the United States Golf Association Museum and Arnold Palmer Center for Golf History in Far Hills, New Jersey.\n\nHonors\n\nIn 1981, the U.S. Postal Service issued an 18 cent stamp commemorating Jones. \n\nBobby Jones Golf Company\n\nFounded in 2003, the Bobby Jones Golf Company designs, develops, and sells metal-woods, wedges and hybrid golf clubs. The company has an exclusive, worldwide license agreement with the family of Bobby Jones (known as Jonesheirs, Inc.) and Authentic Brands Group for the use of the Bobby Jones name for golf equipment and golf accessories. The craftsman is Jesse Ortiz.\n\nU.S. national team appearances\n\nAmateur\n*Walker Cup: 1922 (winners), 1924 (winners), 1926 (winners), 1928 (winners, playing captain), 1930 (winners, playing captain)"
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"Bobby Jones (1902-1971) | New Georgia Encyclopedia\nStephen R. Lowe , Olivet Nazarene University, Bourbonnais, Illinois,\n06/18/2002\nLast edited by Chris Dobbs on 09/23/2016\nThe greatest amateur golfer ever, Bobby Jones dominated his sport in the 1920s. In the eight seasons from 1923 to 1930, Jones won thirteen major championships, including five U.S. Amateurs, four U.S. Opens, three British Opens, and one British Amateur. On September 27, 1930, he became the only man to win all four major titles in one season, completing the \"Grand Slam\" of golf. Then, while still in his athletic prime at the age of twenty-eight, he retired from competition to devote more time to his family and his law practice .\nRobert\nBobby Jones\n Tyre \"Bobby\" Jones II was born to Clara Thomas and Robert Purmedus Jones on March 17, 1902, in Atlanta . He was named after his paternal grandfather, a prominent businessman from Canton (Jones later adopted \"Jr.\" out of respect for his father). In 1907 his father, a successful attorney, joined the Atlanta Athletic Club, which owned the East Lake Country Club in DeKalb County , where the family spent every summer thereafter. It was at East Lake that Bobby Jones learned to play golf, mostly by mimicking the swing of the club's professional, Stewart Maiden.\nJones dramatically improved his skill with each passing summer. After winning many regional events, in the fall of 1916 he entered his first national competition, the U.S. Amateur, held at the Merion Cricket Club near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although he was eliminated in the third round, the fourteen-year-old exceeded the expectations of most observers and was quickly dubbed the nation's top golf prodigy.\nUnfortunately, Jones did not continue to meet either his own or others' expectations. Throughout the next seven seasons, he failed to win anything bigger than a regional event. To make matters worse, Jones developed a reputation as a spoiled, club-throwing hothead. A perfectionist by nature, he was easily angered and too immature to handle his mistakes on the links. Jones's most egregious example of unsportsmanlike behavior occurred at the 1921 British Open. After struggling through the front side of the third round, he simply picked up his ball on the eleventh hole, figuratively \"tore up his scorecard,\" and quit.\nIn the winter of 1922-23 Jones experienced a metamorphosis; he evolved from a temperamental youth into a disciplined young gentleman on and off the course. He won his first major title, the U.S. Open, later that year to begin his eight-season domination of the sport. Aside from the Grand Slam in 1930, Jones's most impressive achievement is his record in the U.S. Open. In the 1920s Jones won the event four times and also had four runner-up finishes.\nHis career is all the more remarkable considering that he competed as an amateur rather than as a professional. Always displaying a sense of modesty, Jones regularly reminded his fans that some things were more important than winning. He became famous, for example, for calling penalty strokes on himself, even when it cost him a championship. Moreover, Jones never accepted prize money, did not play as often as most professionals, and chose to focus on the national championships. Those choices allowed him time to pursue other priorities, including his education and family. In 1922 Jones graduated from the Georgia Institute of Technology with a degree in engineering. Two years later he added a second bachelor's degree, this one in English literature from Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Then in the fall of 1926, Jones enrolled in Emory University 's law program. After just three semesters, he passed the Georgia bar exam and began practicing law at his father's firm early in 1928.\nJones's most important priority, though, was his family. In the summer of 1924 he married Mary Malone. Over the next seven years, the couple had three children, Clara Malone, Robert Tyre III, and Mary Ellen.\nAlthough Jones retired from competition in 1930, he did not retire from the golf world or from public life. Freed from the financial restraints of formal amateurism, Jones quickly capitalized on his golf success. In 1931 and 1933 he filmed two series of golf instructional shorts that brought him an estimated $250,000. \nBobby Jones\nHe also signed with A. G. Spalding & Brothers to design and endorse a line of golf clubs. Throughout his life, he wrote hundreds of articles and several books on golf, including the autobiographical works Down the Fairway (with O. B. Keeler, 1927) and Golf Is My Game (1960). His most outstanding project in retirement was the creation of the Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta and the annual invitational tournament it spawned, the Masters . First played in 1934, the Masters became recognized as one of the four major tournaments in golf.\nJones made an appearance each spring at the Masters, even playing in the event until 1948, when his life took a tragic turn. Afflicted that year with a rare spinal disease called syringomyelia, Jones had to give up golf and was soon forced into a wheelchair. He took his final trip to the Masters in 1968. Finally succumbing to his illness, Jones died on December 18, 1971, at the age of sixty-nine. Through it all, he refused to complain about his fate, always presenting a model of perseverance and character.\nHis handling of his illness, the memory of his competitive career, and his Masters Tournament established Jones as one of sports' most outstanding and admirable heroes. In 1963 he was one of the first three professional athletes inducted into the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame . The Atlanta Gas Light Company awarded its Shining Light Award to Jones in 1978. A permanent exhibition entitled Down the Fairway with Bobby Jones is on display at the Atlanta History Center , and Bobby Jones: Stroke of Genius (2004), a feature film chronicling the Jones's life and career, was partially filmed in Georgia.\nYou Might Also Like",
"Bobby Jones, Golf Master, Dies; Only Player to Win Grand Slam\nBobby Jones, Golf Master, Dies; Only Player to Win Grand Slam\nBy FRANK LITSKY\nIn the decade following World War I, America luxuriated in the Golden Era of Sports and its greatest collection of super-athletes: Babe Ruth and Ty Cobb in baseball, Jack Dempsey and Gene Tunney in boxing, Bill Tilden in tennis, Red Grange in football and Bobby Jones in golf.\nMany of their records have been broken now, and others are destined to be broken. But one, sports experts agree, may outlast them--Bobby Jones's grand slam of 1930.\nJones, an intense, unspoiled young man, started early on the road to success. At the age of 10, he shot a 90 for 18 holes. At 11 he was down to 80, and at 12 he shot a 70. At 9 he played against men, at 14 he won a major men's tournament and at 21 he was United States Open champion.\nAt 28 he achieved the grand slam--victories in one year in the United States Open, British Open, United States Amateur and British Amateur championships. At that point, he retired from tournament golf.\nA nation that idolized him for his success grew to respect him even more for his decision to treat golf as a game rather than a way of life. This respect grew with the years.\n\"First come my wife and children,\" he once explained. \"Next comes my profession--the law. Finally, and never as a life in itself, comes golf.\"\nHis record, aside from the grand slam, was magnificent. He won the United States Open championship four times (1923, 1926, 1929 and 1930), the British Open three times (1926, 1927 and 1930) and the United States Amateur five times (1924, 1925, 1927, 1928 and 1930).\n\"Jones is as truly the supreme artist of golf as Paderewski is the supreme artist of the piano,\" George H. Greenfield wrote in The New York Times in 1930.\nFelt the Tension\nSuccess did not come easily. Though Jones was cool and calculating outwardly, he seethed inside. He could never eat properly during a major tournament. The best his stomach would hold was dry toast and tea.\nThe pressure of tournament competition manifested itself in other ways too. Everyone expected Jones to win every time he played, including Atlanta friends who often bet heavily on him. He escaped the unending pressure by retiring from competition.\n\"Why should I punish myself like this over a golf tournament?\" he once asked. \"Sometimes I'd pass my mother and dad on the course, look at them and not even see them because I was so concentrated on the game. Afterward, it made a fellow feel a little silly.\"\nThe quality of the man projected itself, too. He was worshiped as a national hero in Scotland, the birthplace of golf. Scots would come for miles around to watch him play.\nIn 1936, on a visit, he made an unannounced trip to the Royal and Ancient Golf Club at St. Andrews for a quiet morning round with friends. There were 5,000 spectators at the first tee and 7,000 at the 18th. Businesses closed as word spread that \"Our Bobby is back.\"\nIn 1927, when he tapped in his final putt to win the British Open there, an old Scot stood by the green and muttered:\n\"The man canna be human.\"\nOff the course, Jones was convivial in a quiet way. He was a good friend and always the gentleman, though he had full command of strong language when desired. He had a fine sense of humor, and he laughed easily. He smoked cigarettes and drank bourbon.\nHe was besieged by people who wanted to play a social round of golf with him. When they talked with him, it was always golf. He managed to tolerate their one-sided approach to life. He also learned to put up with the name of Bobby, which he hated (he preferred Bob).\nHe was not always so serene. As a youngster, he had a reputation for throwing clubs when everything was not going right. When Jim Barnes, the 1921 United States Open champion, watched him let off steam, he said:\n\"Never mind that club-throwing and the beatings he's taking. Defeat will make him great. He's not satisfied now with a pretty good shot. He has to be perfect. That's the way a good artist must feel.\"\nThe defeats Barnes spoke of were frequent in the early years. For young Jones, though he had the game of a man, had the emotions of a growing boy. He never won the big tournaments until he got his temper under control.\nAt 18, he learned that his greatest opponent was himself. He was playing at Toledo one day with Harry Vardon, the great English professional, and was his usual brash self. They were about even when Jones dribbled a shot into a bunker. Hoping to ease his embarrassment, he turned to Vardon and asked:\n\"Did you ever see a worse shot?\"\n\"No,\" replied the crusty Vardon. It as the only word he spoke to Jones all day.\nJones matured, so much so that O. B. Keeler, an Atlanta sports writer and his long-time Boswell, once wrote:\n\"He has more character than any champion in our history.\"\nHe also had the dream of every golfer--a picture swing. No one taught it to him, for he never took a golf lesson in his life. He learned the swing by watching Stewart Maiden, a Scottish professional at the Atlanta Athletic Club course. He would follow Maiden for a few holes, then run home and mimic the swing.\nHis putting was famous. So was his putter, a rusty, goosenecked club known as Calamity Jane. His strength was driving, putting and an ability to get out of trouble. He was an imaginative player, and he never hesitated to take a chance. In fact, he seldom hesitated on any shot, and he earned an unfair reputation as a mechanical golfer. The game often baffled him. \"There are times,\" he once said, \"when I feel that I know less about what I'm doing on a golf course than anyone else in the world.\"\nWhen he was an infant, doctors were not sure that he would survive, let alone play golf. He had a serious digestive ailment until he was 5, and he stayed home while other children played. In his later years, he was crippled by syringomyelia, a chronic disease of the spinal cord, and he had circulation and heart trouble.\nRobert Tyre Jones Jr. (named for his grandfather) was born on St. Patrick's Day, 1902, in Atlanta. His father was a star outfielder at the University of Georgia, and the youngster's first love was baseball. He also tried tennis. At the age of 9 he settled down to golf.\nHis parents had taken up the game after moving to a cottage near the East Lake course of the Atlanta Athletic Club. Young Bobby would walk around the course, watch the older folk play and learn by example. He was only 6 years old, a scrubby youngster with skinny arms and legs, when he won a six-hole tournament. At 9 he was the club's junior champion.\nIn Philadelphia Tourney\nHe was 14 when he journeyed to the Merion Cricket Club near Philadelphia for his first United States Amateur championship. He was a chunky lad of 5 feet 4 inches and 165 pounds and somewhat knock-kneed. He was wearing his first pair of long trousers.\nAfter qualifying for match play, he defeated Eben M. Byers, a former champion, in the first round. He beat Frank Dyer, a noted player at the time, in the second round, after losing five of the first six holes. Then he lost to Robert A. Gardner, the defending champion, 5 and 3.\nIn 1922 he reached the semifinals of the United States Amateur before losing. That ended what he called his seven lean years. Next came what Keeler called \"the eight fat years\" as Jones finally achieved the heights.\nAll this time, golf was a sidelight to education. Jones wanted to be an engineer, and he earned bachelor's and master's degrees in engineering at Georgia Tech. Then he decided to become a lawyer. He went to Harvard and earned another bachelor's degree, then to Emory University in Atlanta for a Bachelor of Laws degree. In 1928, he joined his father's law firm in Atlanta.\nIn 1924, Jones decided that he was worrying too much about his opponent in match-play (man against man) competition. He vowed to play for pars and forget about his opponent.\nThis was a turning point in his career. He started to win match-play competition. That year, at Merion, Pa., he won the United States Amateur for the first time. In the final, he defeated George Von Elm by the overwhelming score of 9 and 8.\nAlso in 1924, he married Mary Malone, his high school sweetheart.\nIn 1929 Jones had a close call in the United States Open at the Winged Foot Golf Club, Mamaroneck, N.Y. He sank a 12-foot sloping, sidehill putt on the last green to tie Al Espinosa. The next day, Jones won their 36-hole title playoff by 23 strokes.\nThen came 1930 and the grand slam. Lloyds of London quoted odds of 50 to 1 that Jones wouldn't win the world's four major tournaments that year. He won them.\nFirst came the British Amateur. He started his opening match by shooting 3, 4, 3 and 2. In the final he beat Roger Wethered, 7 and 6. Next was the British Open at Hoylake, England, and his 72-hole score of 291 won that championship.\nBack home, Jones got his sternest test of the year in the United States Open at Interlachen near Minneapolis. There were 15,000 spectators in the gallery as he played the par-4 18th hole. He got a birdie 3 by sinking a 40-foot undulating putt, and his 287 won by two strokes.\nHe had become the first man to win three of the four major titles in one year. The last of the grand-slam tournaments, the United States Amateur at Merion, was almost anticlimactic.\nNo one doubted for the moment that Jones would win. He captured the qualifying medal. He routed Jess Sweetser, 9 and 8, in the semifinal round, and in the final he defeated Gene Homans, 8 and 7. The crowd surged around him so wildly that it took a detachment of United States Marines to get him out safely.\nSoon after, he retired from tournament play and made a series of golf motion pictures, the only time he ever made money from the game. Later, he became a vice president of A. G. Spalding & Bros., the sporting goods manufacturer. He became a wealthy lawyer and soft-drink bottler and a business and social leader in Atlanta.\nHe never played serious tournament golf again. He didn't seem to mind.\n\"Golf is like eating peanuts,\" he said. \"You can play too much or too little. I've become reconciled to the fact that I'll never play as well as I used to.\"\nA few years later, Jones and the late architect, Alister Mackensie, designed the Augusta National Golf Course in Georgia. In 1934 the Masters tournament was started there, and in Jones's lifetime many golf people considered it the most important tournament of all.\nJones played in the first Masters and in several thereafter, but he was never among the leaders. He always wore his green jacket, signifying club membership, at victory ceremonies, and he served as club president.\nHe became strong enough to rip a pack of playing cards across the middle, but his health deteriorated. He underwent spinal surgery in 1948 and 1950. He was forced to use one cane, then two canes and then a wheelchair, and his weight dropped to less than 100 pounds. He last saw the Masters in 1967.\nHe was a close friend of Dwight D. Eisenhower, and the President often used his cottage adjacent to the Augusta National course for golfing vacations. During his first term in office, the President painted a 40-by-32-inch oil portrait of Jones at the peak of his game. On the back was printed by hand:\n\"Bob--from his friend D.D.E. 1953.\"\nIn January of 1953, three months after a heart attack, Jones was honored at Golf House, the United States Golf Association headquarters in Manhattan. Augusta National members, including General Eisenhower, had donated another oil portrait to be hung at Golf House. A highlight of the ceremony was the reading of a letter from the President.\n\"Those who have been fortunate enough to know him,\" the letter said, \"realize that his fame as a golfer is transcended by his inestimable qualities as a human being. . .His gift to his friends is the warmth that comes from unselfishness, superb judgement, nobility of character, unwavering loyalty to principle.\"\nBobby Jones listened and cried.",
"ESPN.com: Bobby Jones was golf's fast study\nBobby Jones was golf's fast study\nBy Larry Schwartz\nSpecial to ESPN.com\nBobby Jones was a child prodigy who became The Man.\nA short-tempered, club-throwing youth, Jones turned into an even-dispositioned and unruffled champion. In the Golden Age of Sport, Jones took his place alongside such giants as Babe Ruth, Jack Dempsey, Red Grange and Bill Tilden. From 1923 to 1929, the Georgia gentleman dominated golf, birdieing his way into this country's heart by winning nine major championships.\n \nBobby Jones found success immediately on the golf course, struggled to find himself as a teen and then had seven phenomenal seasons before retiring from the game at age 28 in 1930.\nThen in 1930, he won the Grand Slam, which one writer picturesquely called \"the impregnable quadrilateral.\" He was so popular that he was accorded a ticker-tape parade in New York -- before he won the final two legs of the Slam.\nFirst, Jones conquered England, winning the British Amateur and Open. Then he conquered this country, winning the U.S. Open and Amateur. No one else has ever won a Slam (for years, the two major amateur tournaments have been replaced by the PGA Championship and the Masters, which Jones helped design).\nAdding to the Jones myth was his retirement from competitive golf less than two months after completing the Slam. He was 28.\nStarting at the age of 14, Jones spent seven lean years conquering himself. Starting at the age of 21, he spent eight fat years conquering everybody else.\nAt 14, when he first entered a major tournament, he was considered a sure shot for greatness. When he hadn't achieved it by the ripe old age of 20, many were considering him a failure.\nOf this period, Jones said, \"I was full of pie, ice cream and inexperience. To me, golf was just a game to beat someone. I didn't know that someone was me.\"\nRobert Tyre Jones Jr. (he was named after his grandfather) was born on March 17, 1902 in Atlanta to well-to-do parents. A sickly child, he was 5 before he could eat solid food. In an effort to add some robustness to his frail frame, the family bought a summer house next to the fairways of Atlanta's East Lake Country Club.\nAt 6, Jones was swinging sawed-off golf clubs. At 7, he was mimicking the swing of Stewart Maiden, the country club pro. \"He was never lonesome with a golf club in his hands,\" Maiden said. \"He must have been born with a deep love for the game. He was certainly born with the soul of a perfectionist.\"\nAt 11, he shot an 80 on the old course at East Lake. His father looked at the card, then his son, and with wet eyes hugged him. At 14, with high hopes and lots of national press, he played in his first U.S. Amateur, winning two matches before being eliminated in the third round.\nZONE POLL\n \n\"Bobby was a short, rotund kid, with the face of an angel and the temper of a timber wolf,\" Grantland Rice wrote in The Saturday Evening Post in 1940. \"At a missed shot, his sunny smile could turn more suddenly into a black storm cloud than the Nazis can grab a country. Even at the age of 14 Bobby could not understand how anyone ever could miss any kind of golf shot.\"\nBut for the next seven years, Jones missed many shots and struggled with his temper. His low point came during the third round of the 1921 British Open, when, at the 11th green, he committed the unpardonable sin of picking up. He had already taken 50-some shots.\n\"It was the most inglorious failure of my golfing life,\" he said some 40 years later.\nFinally, at the 1923 U.S. Open at Inwood Country Club in New York, Jones conquered his demons and broke through. But it didn't come easy. He looked like a champion with three holes left, but went bogey-bogey-double bogey, opening the door for Bobby Cruickshank to tie him. \"I didn't finish like a champion,\" Jones said. \"I finished like a yellow dog.\"\nIn the 18-hole playoff, the two were tied going into the par-4 18th. Neither drive was in the fairway. After Cruickshank laid up, Jones had a decision to make. His ball was 190 yards from the green, resting in loose dirt at the edge of the rough, and water on his next shot was a possibility if he went for the green. Jones liked to describe a dangerous shot that only a golfer with real guts could pull off as a shot that required \"sheer delicatessen.\" Perhaps no shot in his distinguished career was more \"sheer delicatessen.\"\nWith his 2-iron, he drilled the ball over the water and to within eight feet of the pin. Two putts later, Jones had won his first major. That 2-iron started Jones on his magnificent eight-year run against the best golfers in the world.\nWhile many of his championships were won easily, he almost gave away the 1929 U.S. Open. With six holes to go, Jones led by six strokes. While Al Espinosa played the final six holes in 2-under par, Jones bogeyed the 12th and triple-bogeyed the 15th. He missed the green on 18 and needed to make a 12-foot putt for a tie. He stroked Calamity Jane, his famous putter, and the ball slowly worked its way toward the hole. It hesitated at the cup, and dropped in.\nThe next day, Jones won the 36-hole playoff by a whopping 23 strokes, shooting 3-under 141 to Espinosa's 164.\nWhile Jones' driver and putter were his two best clubs, his best weapon was his will to win. He performed at his best when the pressure was at its peak.\nThe first stop for the Grand Slam in 1930 was St. Andrews, site of the British Amateur. Of his eight winning matches in the tournament, he won three of them by the slim margin of 1-up. That's how close his Slam hopes came to being slammed in his face at the start.\nTwo weeks later, he teed off in the British Open on the links of Royal Liverpool at Hoylake. He won his third British Open in five years, winning by two strokes.\nAt the U.S. Open at the Interlachen Country Club in a Minneapolis suburb, Jones appeared to have the tournament won with two holes left. But a double-bogey on the 71st hole cut his lead to one. On the final hole, looking to two putt from 40 feet, he stroked the ball home for birdie and his fourth U.S. Open championship.\nHe won his fifth U.S. Amateur, which was played outside Philadelphia, in a breeze. Several Marine bodyguards protected Jones from idolatrous fans after he completed the Slam.\n\"In the clubhouse, after a talk with his father, he began to digest the reality that the Grand Slam was factually behind him and with it the ever-accumulating strain he had carried for months,\" Herbert Warren Wind wrote. \"When he appeared for the presentation ceremonies he looked years younger.\"\nJones retired with 13 majors, a record that would stand for more than 40 years. \"There were no worlds left for him to conquer,\" Wind wrote.\nJones, who had graduated from Georgia Tech and Harvard and was a lawyer in Atlanta, played lots of friendly golf, but he emerged from his retirement only once a year to play The Masters.\nIn his last years, Jones was confined to a wheelchair because of syringomyelia, a fluid-filled cavity in the spinal cord that caused him first pain, then loss of feeling and muscle atrophy. The illness became a slow death for Jones, who weighed somewhere between 60 and 90 pounds when he died on Dec. 18, 1971 in Atlanta.\n\"As a young man, he was able to stand up to just about the best that life can offer, which is not easy,\" Wind wrote, \"and later he stood up with equal grace to just about the worst.\"",
"Bobby Jones Facts & Biography | Famous Golfers\nFamous For: Being the most successful amateur golfer in history\nAwards: AAU Sullivan Award\nGolfing legend Bobby Jones was born to Robert Purmedus Jones and Clara Thomas in Atlanta, Georgia, on March 17th, 1903. Bobby Jones was named after his grandfather, a popular businessman from Canton. In 1907, his father joined Atlanta Athletic Club, which also owned the East Lake Country Club, where the family spent each summer. It was at East Lake Country Club that Jones learned how to play golf, mainly by imitating the swing of the club’s professional Stewart Maiden.\nAchievements\nBobby played against adults at age 9 and won his very first major men’s tournament. He became the only golfer to win the United States Open champion at 21. Bobby Jones’ crowning glory was The Grand Slam of the year 1930, at age 28, in which he became the first golfer to win the US Open, United States Amateur, British Amateur championships as well as British Open in a single year. At that point, Jones retired from tournament golf.\nJones in Retirement\nWhile Bobby Jones retired from tournament golf in 1930, he did not leave the public spotlight or the golf world. Freed from monetary restraints of the formal amateurism, he quickly capitalized on his golf achievements. In 1931 and 1933, Jones filmed golf instructional videos. Throughout his life, Jones wrote several books on golf, including the autobiographical works Golf Is My Game and Down the Fairway. His exceptional project was the establishment of Augusta National Golf Club as well as the annual Masters tournament which is held at the club. It became one of the most popular tournaments in the game.\nSocial Life\nJones was said to be a good friend and gentleman. He had a sense of humor. He drank bourbon and smoked cigarettes. Jones was overwhelmed by the people who wanted to play golf with him.\nJones appeared every spring at the Masters tournament, playing in the event until 1948, when he suffered a spinal injury. He had to give up the game of golf and was forced into a wheelchair. Jones continued to run his business interests from his Atlanta home. He took his last tour to the Masters in the year 1968. Ultimately succumbing to his sickness, Bobby Jones died in 1971, at the age 69. More than any golfer in history, Jones is a model of the complete golfer. Extremely gifted, he was also an intelligent man, and he merged all these forces to become not just a singular champion, but also a hero to many.\nFamous Golfers",
"Bobby Jones is born - Mar 17, 1902 - HISTORY.com\nBobby Jones is born\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nOn March 17, 1902, Robert Tyre Jones, Jr. is born in Atlanta, Georgia. Jones, the first great American golfer, was a hero of the so-called “Golden Age of Sports” in America along with baseball player Babe Ruth, boxer Jack Dempsey, tennis player Bill Tilden and football player Red Grange.\nBobby Jones had the picture-perfect swing of every golfer’s dreams, despite never having taken a lesson. He modeled his swing after that of Stewart Maiden, a Scottish golfer who was the golf professional at the Atlanta Club. Jones would watch Maiden play, then run home and copy his swing to the best of his ability. It worked: Jones was said to have shot a 70 for 18 holes by the age of 12. At 14, he won his first of five U.S. Amateur Championships at the Merion Cricket Club in Ardmore, Pennsylvania, where, 14 years later, he would win the Grand Slam, his greatest triumph.\nJones’ 1930 Grand Slam–winning the U.S. Open, British Open, U.S. Amateur and British Amateur in the same year–was the first in golf history. The four events took place over a five-month period, with the U.S. Amateur coming last. In the U.S. Amateur final, Jones defeated Gene Homans in head-to-head matchplay format. On the final hole, Jones landed a long putt at the edge of the cup with his famous rusty putter, Calamity Jane. Homans rushed his final putt and walked toward Jones to shake his hand, acknowledging defeat. Understanding the significance of the historic moment, the crowd of 18,000 that was surrounding the green and standing in the fairway rushed toward Jones–it took a squadron of Marines to lead Jones and Homas to safety.\nJones retired from golf at the age of 29, shortly after winning the Grand Slam. In 1934, he founded the Augusta National Golf Club, and that same year was among the founders of a new tournament called The Masters. As amateur play became less common, the Masters replaced the U.S. Amateur in the Grand Slam. Today, a Grand Slam consists of winning the Masters, the U.S. Open, the British Open and the PGA Championship. Unlike the wealthy golf superstars of today, Jones never turned professional. In fact, he did not earn any money from golf until he began making golf films after his retirement.\nOver the course of his career, Bobby Jones won four U.S. Opens, five U.S. Amateurs, three British Opens and one British Amateur. His total of 15 major tournaments wasn’t surpassed until Jack Nicklaus won his 16th major in 1980.\nMore on This Topic",
"The Life of Bobby Jones | GolfLink.com\nThe Life of Bobby Jones\nThe Life of Bobby Jones\nSHARES\nBy Bill Herrfeldt\nRobert Tyre Jones, Jr., better known as Bobby Jones, was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on March 17, 1902. By the time he was 6 years old, he had already won his first tournament and was thought of as a golf prodigy. By the time he was 20 years old, he had already won his three Southern Open titles and was well on his way to becoming the most famous golfer who ever lived. Most interesting about him was that he remained an amateur throughout his career, which lasted until he was 28 years old and he chose to retire from the game.\nSchooling\nBobby Jones graduated from Georgia Tech in 1922 with a B.S. in Mechanical Engineering. He then attended Harvard and received a second degree, this one in English Literature. Then he returned to Georgia to receive his law degree from Emory University after only one year. He practiced law until his death in 1971.\nGolf Career\nWhen he was 14 years old, he won the Georgia State Amateur Championship and also made it to the third round of the U.S. Amateur Championship. In 1917 and 1918, he was invited to play a number of exhibition matches to raise money for the U.S. war effort. He qualified for the U.S. Open Championship for the first time when he was 18 years old in 1920. Between 1923--when he won his first U.S. Open Championship--and 1930, he won a total of 13 major championships in 20 attempts. At the time, the major tournaments were the Open and Amateur of both the United States and Great Britain, and he was the first player in history to win both the U.S. and British Opens and is still the only golfer in history to win all four majors in a single calendar year. He was the first person to win the coveted Sullivan Award from the AAU as the athlete of the year, and was the only individual athlete honored with a New York ticker-tape parade.\nPersonal History\nBobby Jones had three children with his wife, Mary Rice Malone, whom he married in 1924. Following his retirement in 1930, he made almost 20 instructional golf films and developed the first set of matched clubs for A.G. Spalding & Co. He also collaborated with Alister MacKensie to build the famous Augusta National Golf Club and founded the Masters Golf Championship.He also joined forces with Robert Trent Jones to design the Peachtree Golf Club in Atlanta.\nAdmirable Trait\nBobby Jones not only was one of the best golfers who ever lived, he also helped establish the standard of sportsmanship that sets golf apart from many other sports. At the U.S. Open in 1925, he called a two-stroke penalty on himself for moving the ball with his club. The officials asked the crowd if they saw the ball move, which they didn't. Leaving it up to Jones to make the call, he assessed himself the penalty. He would lose the tournament by a single shot. During an interview following the tournament, he was asked if he would do that again. He simply said, \"I would.\"\nDeath and Final Glory\nBobby Jones died on December 18, 1971, after having been diagnosed with syringomyelia, a painful condition that restricted him to a wheelchair. Three years following his death he was posthumously inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame, now in St. Augustine, Florida.\nAbout The Author\nBill Herrfeldt specializes in finance, sports and the needs of retiring people, and has been published in the national edition of \"Erickson Tribune,\" the \"Washington Post\" and the \"Arizona Republic.\" He graduated from the University of Louisville.\nVideo of the Day",
"Jones, Bobby\nDec 18, 1971\nBobby Jones\nMore than any player in history, Bobby Jones is the model of the complete golfer. Supremely gifted, Jones was also a man of vast intelligence and profound character, and he merged all three forces to become not only a singular champion, but a genuine hero. Wrote Herbert Warren Wind, “In the opinion of many people, of all the great athletes, Jones came the closest to being what we called a great man.”\nAs a golfer, Jones was a giant. In the 1920s, he was “an ultra-athlete,” according to writer and historian Charles Price, “recognized at being better at his game than any other athlete was at his.” While there is no doubt Jones is the finest amateur golfer the game has ever produced, there’s a strong argument that he was the greatest golfer, period. Beginning with his victory in the 1923 U.S. Open at Inwood and ending with his U.S. Amateur victory at Merion in 1930, Jones won 13 championships in 20 tries, the most imposing run of major titles the game has ever seen.\n\"I think this is what I learned to do best of all.\"\nHis crowning glory was The Grand Slam of 1930, in which he became the only golfer ever to win the U.S. Amateur, British Amateur, British Open and U.S. Open in the same year, indeed, the only golfer to win all four in a career. When he retired at the end of that year at the age of 28, The New York Times noted the occasion in an editorial that read, “With dignity, he quit the scene on which he nothing common did, or mean.” Jones was born March 17, 1902, in Atlanta. He was clearly a prodigy, and his first championship was the 1916 U.S. Amateur, where as a 14-year-old he went to the third round.\nFrom the beginning, Jones’ swing possessed “a drowsy beauty,” in the words of Bernard Darwin. Yet Jones was a passionate man who had to overcome his own frailties of temperament. The strain of competition would cause him to lose as much as 18 pounds in a week. After winning the 1926 U.S. Open, he suddenly broke into tears in his Columbus, Ohio, hotel room, the strain catching up to him. He had to dominate a fiery temper that hindered him as a youth. As talented as he was, he did not win his first championship until 1923, prompting the early part of his career to be labeled “The Seven Lean Years.” But Jones had a revelation when he discovered that the key to winning was learning to score well when playing badly. “I think this is what I learned to do best of all,” wrote Jones, and “The Seven Fat Years” ensued.\nFACT\nBobby Jones played in 12 Masters Tournaments following his retirement from “competitive” golf in 1930.\nJones accomplished all this while playing competitive golf no more than three months in a year at any point in his life. The rest of the time was dedicated to academics, and later, the workaday world of the law. He studied mechanical engineering at Georgia Tech, graduating in three years, received a degree in English Literature from Harvard and attended law school at Emory University, withdrawing in his third semester to pass the bar. He would go on to become one of the game’s most lucid and enlightening writers. Besides his record and character, Jones’ greatest legacy is Augusta National Golf Club and the Masters Tournament, which he founded in 1934. He played in the tournament several times, never finishing better than 13th. In 1948, he developed syringomyelia, a fluid-filled cavity in his spinal cord causing first pain, then paralysis. Jones never played golf again and was eventually restricted to a wheelchair until his death Dec. 18, 1971. As Wind wrote, “As a young man he was able to stand up to just about the best that life can offer, which isn’t easy, and later he stood up with equal grace to just about the worst.”\nThe USGA’s award for distinguished sportsmanship is the Bob Jones Award. “What Jones did was create a model that everyone, consciously or unconsciously, followed,” said William Campbell. “It is why we have so many fine people in golf. He showed the world how to do it.”",
"Robert Tyre \"Bobby\" Jones, Jr (1902 - 1971) - Genealogy\nRobert Tyre \"Bobby\" Jones, Jr\nBirthdate:\nin Atlanta, Fulton, GA, USA\nImmediate Family:\nFather of Robert Tyre Jones, III ; <private> Jones and <private> Jones\nManaged by:\nRobert Permedus \"Col\" Jones, Clara Merrick Jones (born Thomas)\nWife:\nmother\nAbout Bobby Jones\nRobert Tyre \"Bobby\" Jones Jr. (March 17, 1902 – December 18, 1971) was an American amateur golfer, and a lawyer by profession. Jones was the most successful amateur golfer ever to compete on a national and international level. During his peak as a golfer from 1923 to 1930, he dominated top-level amateur competition, and competed very successfully against the world's best professional golfers. Jones often beat stars such as Walter Hagen and Gene Sarazen, the era's top pros. Jones earned his living mainly as a lawyer, and competed in golf only as an amateur, primarily on a part-time basis, and chose to retire from competition at age 28, though he earned significant money from golf after that, as an instructor and equipment designer.\nExplaining his decision to retire, Jones said, \"It (championship golf) is something like a cage. First you are expected to get into it and then you are expected to stay there. But of course, nobody can stay there.\"[2] Jones is most famous for his unique \"Grand Slam,\" consisting of his victory in all four major golf tournaments of his era (the open and amateur championships in both the U.S. & the U.K.) in a single calendar year (1930).\nAfter retiring from competitive golf in 1930, Jones started and helped to design the Augusta National Golf Club soon afterwards in 1933, and also co-founded the Masters Tournament, which has been annually staged by the club since 1934 (except for 1943–45, when it was cancelled due to World War II). The Masters evolved into one of golf's four major championships. Jones did come out of retirement in 1934, to play in the Masters, on an exhibition basis until 1948, when he quit golf permanently, due to ill health. Wikipedia\nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Jones_(golfer )\nRobert Tyre \"Bobby\" Jones Jr. (March 17, 1902 – December 18, 1971) was an American amateur golfer, and a lawyer by profession. Jones was the most successful amateur golfer ever to compete on a national and international level. During his peak as a golfer from 1923 to 1930, he dominated top-level amateur competition, and competed very successfully against the world's best professional golfers. Jones often beat stars such as Walter Hagen and Gene Sarazen, the era's top pros. Jones earned his living mainly as a lawyer, and competed in golf only as an amateur, primarily on a part-time basis, and chose to retire from competition at age 28, though he earned significant money from golf after that, as an instructor and equipment designer.\nExplaining his decision to retire, Jones said, \"It (championship golf) is something like a cage. First you are expected to get into it and then you are expected to stay there. But of course, nobody can stay there.\" Jones is most famous for his unique \"Grand Slam,\" consisting of his victory in all four major golf tournaments of his era (the open and amateur championships in both the U.S. & the U.K.) in a single calendar year (1930).\nAfter retiring from competitive golf in 1930, Jones started and helped to design the Augusta National Golf Club soon afterwards in 1933, and also co-founded the Masters Tournament, which has been annually staged by the club since 1934 (except for 1943–45, when it was cancelled due to World War II). The Masters evolved into one of golf's four major championships. Jones did come out of retirement in 1934, to play in the Masters, on an exhibition basis until 1948, when he quit golf permanently, due to ill health.\nEarly years\nJones was born in Atlanta, Georgia. He attended the Georgia Institute of Technology where he was a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity.\nJones battled health issues as a young boy, and golf was prescribed to strengthen him. Encouraged by his father, Jones loved golf from the start. He developed quickly into a child prodigy, who won his first children's tournament at the age of six, and made the third round of the U.S. Amateur Championship at 14. That same year, 1916, he won the Georgia State Amateur Championship for his first important title, at the Capital City Club, in Brookhaven, where he became an active member later in life.\nHe was trained and coached by club professional Stewart Maiden, a native of Carnoustie, Scotland. Maiden was the professional at the Atlanta Athletic Club's East Lake Golf Club, who also trained the somewhat older Alexa Stirling, also a prodigy, at East Lake around the same time.[4] Jones played frequently with his father, Col. Robert P. Jones, a skilled player himself. The younger Jones sometimes battled his own temper on the course, but later cured this problem as he became more experienced. Jones toured the U.S. during World War I from 1917–18, playing exhibition matches before large crowds, often with Alexa Stirling, to generate income for war relief. Playing in front of such crowds in these matches helped him, as he moved into national competition a bit later on.\nJones successfully represented the United States for the first time, in two winning international amateur team matches against Canada, in 1919 and 1920, earning three of a possible four points in foursomes and singles play. In 1919 he travelled to Hamilton Golf and Country Club, for his first serious competitive action outside the U.S., while in 1920, Engineers' G.C., in Roslyn, Long Island hosted the matches. Still a teenager, he was by far the youngest player in the series. Jones also played in the 1919 Canadian Open while in Hamilton, Ontario, performing very well to place tied for second, but 16 shots behind winner J. Douglas Edgar. Edgar had immigrated from England in 1919 to take a club professional's job in Atlanta at Druid Hills Golf Club; Edgar mentored and played frequently with Jones from 1919 to 1921. Edgar was credited by Jones with helping develop his game significantly.\nJones qualified for his first U.S. Open at age 18 in 1920, and was paired with the legendary Harry Vardon for the first two rounds. He won the Southern Amateur three times: 1917, 1920, and 1922.\nFirst majors\nAs an adult, he hit his stride in 1923, when he won his first U.S. Open. From that win at New York's Inwood Country Club, through his 1930 victory in the U.S. Amateur, he won 13 major championships (as they were counted at the time) in 20 attempts. Jones was the first player to win The Double, both the U.S. Open and The Open Championship in the same year (1926).\n1930: Grand Slam\nJones is still the only player ever to have won the Grand Slam, or all four major championships, in the same year (1930). Jones made a bet on himself achieving this extraordinary feat with British bookmakers early in 1930, before the first tournament of the Slam, at odds of 50–1, and collected over $60,000 when he did it.\nJones represented the United States in the Walker Cup five times, winning nine of his 10 matches, and the U.S. won the trophy all five times. He served as playing captain of the U.S. team in 1928 and 1930. He also won two other tournaments against professionals: the 1927 Southern Open and the 1930 Southeastern Open. Jones was a life-long member of the Atlanta Athletic Club (at the club's original site, now the East Lake Golf Club), and the Capital City Club in Atlanta.\nJones is considered one of the five giants of the 1920s American sports scene, along with baseball's Babe Ruth, boxing's Jack Dempsey, football's Red Grange, and tennis player Bill Tilden. He was the first recipient of the AAU's Sullivan Award as the top amateur athlete in the United States. He is the only sports figure to receive two ticker-tape parades in New York City, the first in 1926 and the second in 1930. Jones is memorialized in Augusta, Georgia at the Golf Gardens and has the Bobby Jones Expressway, also known as Interstate 520, named for him.\nSportsmanship\nJones was not only a consummately skilled golfer but exemplified the principles of sportsmanship and fair play. Early in his amateur career, he was in the final playoff of the 1925 U.S. Open at the Worcester Country Club. During the match, his ball ended up in the rough just off the fairway, and as he was setting up to play his shot, his iron caused a slight movement of the ball. He immediately got angry with himself, turned to the marshals, and called a penalty on himself. The marshals discussed among themselves and questioned some of the gallery whether they had seen Jones's ball move. Their decision was that neither they nor anyone else had witnessed any incident, so the decision was left to Jones. Bobby Jones called the two-stroke penalty on himself, not knowing that he would lose the tournament by one stroke. When he was praised for his gesture, Jones replied, \"You may as well praise a man for not robbing a bank.\" The USGA's sportsmanship award is named the Bob Jones Award in his honor.\nSt Andrews, Scotland\nJones had a unique relationship with the town of St Andrews, Scotland. On his first appearance on the Old Course in The Open Championship of 1921, he withdrew after 11 holes in the third round, when he failed to complete the hole (in effect disqualifying himself), and tore up his scorecard, although he finished the round and indeed played the fourth round as well. He firmly stated his dislike for The Old Course and the town reciprocated, saying in the press, \"Master Bobby is just a boy, and an ordinary boy at that.\" Later, he came to love the Old Course and the town like few others. When he won the Open at the Old Course in 1927, he wowed the crowd by asking that the trophy remain with his friends at the Royal and Ancient Golf Club rather than return with him to Atlanta. He won The Amateur Championship (British Amateur Championship) over The Old Course in 1930, and scored a double eagle 2 on the fourth hole (then a par-5, now a par-4), by holing a very long shot from a fairway bunker. In 1958, he was named a Freeman of the City of St Andrews, becoming only the second American to be so honored, the other being Benjamin Franklin in 1759. Today, a scholarship exchange bearing the Jones name exists between the University of St Andrews and both Emory University and the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta. At Emory, four students are sent to St Andrews for an all-expenses-paid year of study and travel. In return, Emory accepts four students from St Andrews each year. The program, the Robert T. Jones Scholarship, is among the most prestigious scholarships offered by any university.\nUniversity, family, career\nJones was highly successful outside of golf as well. He earned his B.S. in Mechanical Engineering from Georgia Tech in 1922, where he was a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity, and played for the golf team. He then earned a B.A. in English Literature from Harvard College in 1924, where he was a member of the Owl Club. After only one year in law school at Emory University, he passed the Georgia bar exam. While attending Emory University, Jones became a member of Phi Delta Phi. After passing the Georgia bar exam, Jones joined his father's law firm in Atlanta.\nJones was married in 1924 to the former Mary Rice Malone. They had three children — Clara, Robert Tyre III, and Mary Ellen. When he retired from golf at age 28, he concentrated on his Atlanta law practice. That same year, 1930, he was honored with the first James E. Sullivan Award, awarded annually by the Amateur Athletic Union to the most outstanding amateur athlete in the United States.\nGolf films, golf club design\nIn addition, Jones made 18 instructional golf films in Hollywood in the early 1930s, where he coached well-known stars with golf pointers. The films were very popular, and Jones gave up his amateur status while earning lucrative contract money for this venture. These films were put into storage and were unavailable for decades, but were later resurrected by Ely Callaway, who was a distant relative of Jones's, and were made available in digital format for purchase, some 60 years after their original release.\nJones worked with A.G. Spalding & Co. to develop the first set of matched clubs in the early 1930s; the clubs sold very well and are still considered among the best-designed sets ever made.\nAugusta National\nFollowing his retirement from competitive golf in 1930, and even in the years leading up to that, Jones had become one of the most famous athletes in the world, and was recognized virtually everywhere he went in public. While certainly appreciative of the enormous adulation and media coverage, this massive attention caused Jones to lose personal privacy in golf circles, and he wished to create a private golf club where he and his friends could play golf in peace and quiet. For several years, he searched for a property near Atlanta where he could develop his own golf club. His friend Clifford Roberts, a New York City investment dealer, knew of Jones's desire, became aware of a promising property for sale in Augusta, Georgia, where Jones's wife had grown up, and informed Jones about it. Jones first visited Fruitlands, an Augusta arboretum and indigo plantation since the Civil War era, in the spring of 1930, and he purchased it for $70,000 in 1931, with the plan to design a golf course on the site.\nJones co-designed the Augusta National course with Alister MacKenzie; the new club opened in early 1933. He founded the Masters Tournament, first played at Augusta in March 1934. The new tournament, originally known as the Augusta National Invitational, was an immediate success, and attracted most of the world's top players right from its start. Jones came out of retirement to play, essentially on an exhibition basis, and his presence guaranteed enormous media attention, boosting the new tournament's fame.\nWorld War II\nDuring World War II, Jones served as an officer in the U.S. Army Air Forces. His superiors wanted to him to play exhibition golf in the United States, but Jones was insistent on serving overseas. In 1943 he was promoted to major and trained as an intelligence officer, serving in England with the Ninth Air Force, where he made the acquaintance of General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Landing in Normandy on June 7, 1944, Jones spent two months with a front line division as a prisoner of war interrogator, reaching the rank of lieutenant colonel. During the war, Jones permitted the U.S. Army to graze cattle on the grounds at Augusta National. Later, in 1947, he founded Peachtree Golf Club in Atlanta and co-designed the course with Robert Trent Jones.\nMasters Tournament, health worries\nJones did play in the Masters every year it was held until 1948, when he was 46 years old. By then, his health had declined to the stage where this was no longer possible. But with his health difficulties, and being past his prime and not competing elsewhere to stay in tournament form, he never truly contended to win the Masters, although his scores were usually respectable. These were largely ceremonial performances, since his main duty was as host of the event. His extraordinary popularity, efforts with the course design, and tournament organization boosted the profile of the Masters significantly. The tournament, jointly run by Jones and Clifford Roberts, made many important innovations which became the norm elsewhere, such as gallery ropes to control the flow of the large crowds, many scoreboards around the course, the use of red / green numbers on those scoreboards to denote under / over par scores, an international field of top players, high-caliber television coverage, and week-long admission passes for patrons, which became extremely hard to obtain. The tournament also sought and welcomed feedback from players, fans, and writers, leading to continual improvement over the years. The Masters gradually evolved to being one of the most respected tournaments in the world, one of the four major championships.\nIncapacity and death\nIn 1948, Jones was diagnosed with syringomyelia, a fluid-filled cavity in his spinal cord which caused first pain, then paralysis. He was eventually restricted to a wheelchair. He died in Atlanta, Georgia, on December 18, 1971, about a week after converting to Catholicism. Jones was baptized on his death bed by Monsignor John D. Stapleton, pastor of the Cathedral of Christ the King in Atlanta, the church attended by the Jones family and was buried in Atlanta's historic Oakland Cemetery. He was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974.\nMajor championships\nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Jones_(golfer)#Major_championships\nOther records\nJones's four titles in the U.S. Open remain tied for the most ever in that championship, along with Willie Anderson, Ben Hogan, and Jack Nicklaus. His four second-place finishes in the U.S. Open also set a record, since tied by Sam Snead, Jack Nicklaus, and Phil Mickelson, until 2009 when Mickelson recorded his fifth second-place finish. His five titles in the U.S. Amateur are a record. Jones was ranked as the fourth greatest golfer of all time by Golf Digest magazine in 2000. Jack Nicklaus was first, Ben Hogan second, and Sam Snead third. Jones was ranked as the third greatest golfer of all time in a major survey published by Golf Magazine, September 2009. Jack Nicklaus was ranked first, and Tiger Woods was ranked second, with Ben Hogan fourth and Sam Snead fifth.\nFilms\nJones appeared in a series of short instructional films produced by Warner Brothers in 1931 titled How I Play Golf, by Bobby Jones (12 films) and in 1933 titled How to Break 90 (6 films). Actors and actresses, mostly under contract with Warner Brothers, but also from other studios, volunteered to appear in these 18 episodes. Some of the more well known actors to appear in the instructional plots included James Cagney, Joe E. Brown, Edward G. Robinson, W.C. Fields, Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., Richard Barthelmess, Richard Arlen, Guy Kibbee, Warner Oland and Loretta Young. Various scenarios involving the actors were used to provide an opportunity for Jones to convey a lesson about a particular part of the game. The shorts were directed by the prolific George Marshall.\nJones was the subject of the quasi-biographical 2004 feature film Bobby Jones: A Stroke of Genius in which he was portrayed by James Caviezel. The film was a major box office flop, grossing only $1.2 million the first weekend and $2.7 million overall, against a production cost of over $17 million. The film was also littered with historical inaccuracies. The Jones legend was also used to create a supporting character in The Legend of Bagger Vance in 2000, portrayed by Joel Gretsch, and the event where he called his own penalty is used for the main character, Rannulph Junuh.\nBooks\nJones authored several books on golf including Down the Fairway with O.B. Keeler (1927), The Rights and Wrongs of Golf (1933), Golf Is My Game (1959), Bobby Jones on Golf (1966), and Bobby Jones on the Basic Golf Swing (1968) with illustrator Anthony Ravielli. The 300-copy limited edition of \"Down The Fairway\" is considered one of the rarest and most sought after golf books by collectors. To keep this book readily available to golfers, Herbert Warren Wind included a reproduction of \"Down the Fairway\" in his Classics of Golf Library.\nJones has been the subject of several books, most notably The Bobby Jones Story and A Boy's Life of Bobby Jones, both by O.B. Keeler. Other notable texts are The Life and Times of Bobby Jones: Portrait of a Gentleman by Sidney L. Matthew, The Greatest Player Who Never Lived by J. Michael Veron, and Triumphant Journey: The Saga of Bobby Jones and The Grand Slam of Golf by Richard Miller. Published in 2006, \"The Grand Slam\" by Mark Frost has received much note as being evocative of Jones's life and times.\nA special room is dedicated to Jones's life and accomplishments at the United States Golf Association Museum and Arnold Palmer Center for Golf History in Far Hills, New Jersey.\nBobby Jones Golf Company\nFounded in 2003, the Bobby Jones Golf Company designs, develops, and sells metal-woods, wedges and hybrid golf clubs. The company has an exclusive, worldwide license agreement with the family of Bobby Jones (known as Jonesheirs, Inc.) and the Hartmarx Corporation for the use of the Bobby Jones name for golf equipment and golf accessories. The craftsman is Jesse Ortiz.",
"Bobby Jones - Biography - IMDb\nBobby Jones\nJump to: Overview (3) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (1) | Trivia (7)\nOverview (3)\nRobert Tyre Jones Jr.\nMini Bio (1)\nGolfing legend Bobby Jones was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on March 17, 1903. He began playing golf as a young child, and won his first tournament when he was nine years old. In 1916, at age 14, he made it to the third round of the US National Amateur tournament. Golf was not just a passion with him but almost an obsession, and while he was attending the Georgia School of Technology--from which he graduated in 1922--he continued playing golf, and his astonishing skill at the game resulted in his becoming one of the most admired sports stars of the 1920s and widely credited with making golf one of the most popular sports in the country. He won the US Open in 1923--his first major tournament win--and again in 1924, 1925, 1927, 1928 and 1930. He took the US Amateur title in 1924, 1925, 1927 and 1928 and the British Open championship in 1926, 1927 and 1930. In 1930 he took the US Open and US Amateur titles and British Open and British Amateur titles, a feat that has never been duplicated. He won a total of 13 major championships. He was a member of the US Walker Cup teams in 1922, 1924, 1926, 1928 and 1930.\nIn 1931 he began making a series of short instructional films, titled \"How I Play Golf\", for Warner Brothers Pictures, which were tremendously successful. Directed by veteran filmmaker--and duffer-- George Marshall , these shorts featured many Hollywood golfing enthusiasts such as Leon Errol , Joe E. Brown and W.C. Fields , who appeared in them for the opportunity to be instructed by a man many believed to be the finest golfer in the history of the game. Jones retired from golf shortly after starting these films--since he was being paid for them he could no longer claim amateur status--and, since he was admitted to the Georgia bar in 1928 after obtaining his law degree from Emory University in 1927, he opened a law practice in Atlanta.\nJones helped to establish the Augusta National Golf Club, and in 1934 he founded the annual Masters Tournament, held at the club; it eventually became one of the most prestigious tournaments in the game.\nIn 1948 he suffered a spinal injury that resulted in his being confined to a wheelchair, but he continued to run his diverse business interests from his home in Atlanta. In 1958 he was accorded the singular honor of being allowed \"freedom of the burgh\" at St. Andrews, Scotland--the last American to receive that honor was American Revolution figure Benjamin Franklin.\nBobby Jones died in Atlanta, Georgia, on December 18, 1971.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: [email protected]\nSpouse (1)"
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"Bobby Jones (1902-1971) | New Georgia Encyclopedia",
"Bobby Jones, Golf Master, Dies ; Only Player to Win Grand Slam",
"ESPN.com: Bobby Jones was golf's fast study",
"Bobby Jones Facts & Biography | Famous Golfers",
"Bobby Jones is born - Mar 17, 1902 - HISTORY.com",
"The Life of Bobby Jones | GolfLink.com",
"Bobby Jones - World Golf",
"Robert Tyre \"Bobby\" Jones, Jr (1902 - 1971) - Genealogy",
"Bobby Jones - Biography - IMDb"
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"http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0317.html",
"https://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00014123.html",
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What was the world's first atomic-powered ship called?
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tc_828
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"filename": [
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"For other ships with this name, see Savannah (disambiguation)#Ships.\n\nNS Savannah was the first nuclear-powered merchant ship. Built in the late 1950s at a cost of $46.9 million, including a $28.3 million nuclear reactor and fuel core, funded by United States government agencies, Savannah was a demonstration project for the potential use of nuclear energy. Launched on 21 July 1959 and named for , the first steamship to cross the Atlantic ocean, she was in service between 1962 and 1972 as one of only four nuclear-powered cargo ships ever built. (Soviet ice-breaker Lenin launched on 5 December 1957, was the first nuclear-powered civil ship.) Savannah has been moored at Pier 13 of the Canton Marine Terminal in Baltimore, Maryland since 2008. \n\nCreation \n\nIn 1955, President Dwight Eisenhower proposed building a nuclear-powered merchant ship as a showcase for his \"Atoms for Peace\" initiative. The next year, Congress authorized Savannah as a joint project of the Atomic Energy Commission, the Maritime Administration (MARAD), and the Department of Commerce.\n\nShe was designed by George G. Sharp, Incorporated, of New York City. Her keel was laid down by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation at Camden, New Jersey. Her nuclear reactor was manufactured by Babcock & Wilcox. She was christened by US First Lady Mamie Eisenhower at the ship's launching on 21 July 1959.\n\nIn 1969, Savannah became the first nuclear-powered ship to dock in New York City. She was a centerpiece for a city-wide information festival called Nuclear Week In New York. Thousands of persons toured Savannah and the other special events of Nuclear Week In New York. These events included demonstrations of advancements in peaceful uses of atomic energy—such as food products purified by radiation, new applications for technology and many information and education programs. The Johnny Carson \"Tonight\" TV show featured Nuclear Week In New York on two programs. Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman of the US Atomic Energy Commission was the featured speaker and President Eisenhower was honored for his introduction of the global Atoms for Peace program. The appearance of Savannah and the Nuclear Week In New York program was designed and implemented by Charles Yulish Associates and supported by contributions from leading energy companies.\n\nConcept\n\nEisenhower desired a \"peace ship\" that would serve as an ambassador for the peaceful use of atomic power. According to an Eisenhower administration statement to Congress \"The President seeks no return on this vessel except the goodwill of men everywhere ... Neither will the vessel be burdened by proving itself commercially feasible by carrying goods exclusively.\" and Although initial proposals used a copy of 's power plant, a conscious decision was made to design a propulsion system with no connection to military programs, to commercial design standards.\n\nGeorge G. Sharp, Inc. is a prominent naval architecture firm in New York City, founded in 1920. George G. Sharp was responsible for Savannahs design in all respects apart from the nuclear reactor, designed by Babcock & Wilcox. Savannah was the sixth large ship to have fin stabilizers, intended to enhance the safety of the reactor and to improve passenger comfort. Since the reactor occupied the center of the ship, and because the reactor required clear overhead access for a crane during refueling, the superstructure was set far back on the hull. The raked, teardrop-shaped structure was specifically designed by George G. Sharp's ship design consultant Jack Heaney and Associates of Wilton, Connecticut for a futuristic appearance, decorated with stylized atom graphics on either side. Heaney was responsible for the interiors, which featured sleek modern styling appropriate to the atomic age.\n\nDescription\n\nSavannah measures in length and 78 ft in beam, with a loaded draft of , and a loaded displacement of 21,800 tons. Savannah was built with seven cargo holds, a reactor compartment and a machinery compartment, making nine water-tight compartments. There are three full decks. The reactor compartment is located near the center of the ship, with the superstructure just aft of the reactor top to allow the reactor to be refuelled. Holds 1 through 4 are forward of the superstructure, with cargo handling gear between 1 and 2 and between 3 and 4. Cargo hold 5 is served by side ports, as it is located beneath the swimming pool. Holds 6 and 7 are aft of the superstructure.\n\nThe topmost deck of the superstructure comprises the pilothouse, radio room, chart room, a battery room and an emergency diesel generator. The next lower deck comprises the officers' accommodations, with an officers' lounge at the tapering rear portion of the superstructure. Below this level is the promenade deck comprising, from forward aft, the elliptical main lounge, the main stair and elevator, and the Veranda Lounge. The bar was provided with enclosed walkways outboard, and a glass wall overlooking the swimming pool and promenade deck aft. A dance floor was provided in the center of the lounge, surrounded by tables with illuminated glass tops. The back bar features a glass and metal sculptural interpretation of the periodic table of the elements.\n\n\"A\" Deck is the first full deck level, with cargo handling facilities fore and aft. Deck surfaces have been retrofitted with cargo container anchors. The interior of \"A\" Deck contains the main lobby and purser's office, the infirmary, barber, beautician and steward's facilities, as well as the health physics laboratory intended to monitor the effects of the nuclear reactor. All thirty passenger cabins are located on \"A\" Deck, each with a private bath and accommodations for one to three passengers.\n\n\"B\" Deck contains the ship's kitchen and the dining room. The 75-seat dining room features a curved wall sculpture entitled \"Fission\" by Pierre Bourdelle. At the opposite end of the dining room a metal model of the SS Savannah is set in a glass panel. The overhead light fixtures are screened with brass bands representing stylized atoms. The kitchen features an early water-cooled Raytheon Radarange microwave oven. \"B\" Deck also includes crew quarters and the crew mess and lounge.\n\n\"C\" Deck comprises more crew quarters, the laundry and a butcher's shop. A glassed-in central gallery provides a view of the main engine room. A pressure door provides access to the upper levels of the reactor compartment.\n\n\"D\" Deck houses the machinery spaces, cargo holds and the nuclear reactor.\n\nReactor\n\nSavannahs reactor was designed to civilian standards using low-enriched uranium with less emphasis on shock resistance and compactness of design than that seen in comparable military propulsion reactors, but with considerable emphasis on safety and reliability.\n\nThe reactor was placed to allow for access from above for refueling. The 74-MW reactor is a tall, narrow cylinder, housed in a cylindrical containment vessel with rounded ends and a 14 ft diameter vertical cylindrical projection housing the control rods and refueling equipment. The 50 ft long containment vessel houses the pressurized-water reactor, the primary coolant loop and the steam generator. The steel vessel has a wall thickness varying from to 4 in, designed to accommodate the 186 psi (gauge) pressure generated by a ruptured primary coolant pipe. There are two 42 in diameter manholes in the top of the containment vessel. Two 24 in by 18 in manholes in the bottom of the containment vessel are designed to admit water to the containment vessel if the ship sinks in more than 100 ft of water to prevent the pressure vessel's collapse. The containment vessel was not occupied under operational conditions, but could be accessed within 30 minutes of reactor shut-down. The lower half of the containment vessel is shielded by a 4 ft concrete barrier. The upper half is shielded by 6 in of lead and 6 in of polyethylene. A collision mat shields the sides of the vessel with alternating layers of 1 in steel and 3 in of redwood in a 24 in assembly.\n\nThe reactor was de-fueled in 1975, but the reactor remains in place. The reactor is 17 ft high with a core 62 in in diameter and 66 in high, with 32 fuel elements. Each fuel element was in diameter and housed 164 uranium oxide pellets enriched to an average of 4.4% U-235. The 16 center elements were enriched to 4.2%, and the outer 16 elements to 4.6%. The pellets were in diameter, with pressurized helium gas in the annular space between the pellets and the element walls. Twenty-one control rods were provided, 66 in long, 8 in across and thick. The rods could be fully inserted in 1.6 seconds by electric drive.\n\nMachinery\n\nThe main machinery room measures 55 ft long by 78 ft wide and 32 ft high. The main control room is immediately aft of the machinery room, from which engineers controlled both the reactor and the steam propulsion plant. A window separates the control room from the machinery room. The control room is visible from the viewing gallery on \"C\" Deck above. The steam plant is a relatively standard steam plant in its general characteristics, with a nine-stage high-pressure turbine and a 7-stage low-pressure turbine driving a single propeller shaft. The turbines were specially adapted to use the saturated steam typically provided by a nuclear power source. It was also unusual in having a 750 hp electric motor geared to the high-pressure turbine for use in an emergency. The motor was driven by either the ship's steam turbogenerators or the 750 KW emergency diesel generators located in the rear of the pilothouse. These generators could provide basic propulsion to the motor while running the reactor coolant pumps. The motor was upgraded to provide greater torque and reversibility to allow it to move the ship away from a pier in the event of a reactor accident.\n\nThe propulsion plant's designed capacity was 20000 hp for a design speed of 20 kn. Actual performance yielded about 22000 hp and a maximum speed of 24 kn.\n\nEconomics of nuclear propulsion \n\nSavannah was a demonstration of the technical feasibility of nuclear propulsion for merchant ships and was not expected to be commercially competitive. She was designed to be visually impressive, looking more like a luxury yacht than a bulk cargo vessel, and was equipped with thirty air-conditioned staterooms (each with an individual bathroom), a dining facility for 100passengers, a lounge that could double as a movie theater, a veranda, a swimming pool and a library. Even her cargo handling equipment was designed to look good. By many measures, the ship was a success. She performed well at sea, her safety record was impressive, and her gleaming white paint was never smudged by exhaust smoke (except when running the generator). From 1965 to 1971, the Maritime Administration leased Savannah to American Export-Isbrandtsen Lines for revenue cargo service.\n\nHowever, Savannahs cargo space was limited to 8,500tons of freight in 652000 cuft. Many of her competitors could accommodate several times as much. Her streamlined hull made loading the forward holds laborious, which became a significant disadvantage as ports became more and more automated. Her crew was a third larger than comparable oil-fired ships and received special training in addition to that required for conventional maritime licenses. Additionally, a labor dispute erupted over a disparity in pay scales between deck officers and nuclear engineering officers. The pay issue continued to be a problem, so the Maritime Administration canceled its contract with States Marine Lines and selected American Export Isbrandtsen Lines as the new ship operator. A new crew was trained, delaying further use for almost a year.\n\nAs a result of her design handicaps, training requirements, and additional crew members, Savannah cost approximately US$2 million a year more in operating subsidies than a similarly sized Mariner-class ship with a conventional oil-fired steam plant. The Maritime Administration placed her out of service in 1971 to save costs, a decision that made sense when fuel oil cost US$20 per ton. In 1974, however, when fuel oil cost $80 per ton, Savannah's operating costs would have been no greater than a conventional cargo ship. (Maintenance and eventual disposal of its nuclear power plant are other issues, of course.) In a note of historical parallel, the ship's namesake, SS Savannah, which in 1819 became the first steam powered ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean, was also a commercial failure despite the innovation in marine propulsion technology.\n\nNuclear fuel and waste \n\nDuring her initial year of operation, Savannah released over 115,000 gallons of very low-level radioactive waste at sea, having substantially exceeded her storage capacity of 10000 gal. The Nuclear Servicing Vessel Atomic Servant was built to receive waste from Savannah. The unpowered barge featured a fuel storage pit for a replacement fuel and control rod assembly, lined by 12 in of lead. Atomic Servant was made available to service Savannah anywhere in the world.\n\nThe radioactive primary coolant loop water was removed at the time of shut-down, as were some of the more radioactive components within the reactor system. The secondary loop water was removed at the same time. Residual radioactivity in 1976 was variously estimated as between 168,000 and 60,000 curies, mostly iron 55 (2.4 year half life) and cobalt 60 (5.2 year half life). By 2005, the residual radioactivity had declined to 4,800 curies. Residual radiation in 2011 was stated to be very low. The reactor and the ship will be regulated until 2031.\n\nService history\n\nAfter christening on 21 July 1959, it took another years to complete the reactor installation and initial trials before the ship was moved to Yorktown, Virginia under temporary oil-fired power, where the reactor was started and tested. Full reactor power was achieved in April 1962. Savannah was delivered on 1 May 1962 to the Maritime Administration and turned over to her operators, the States Marine Lines. From August 1962, Savannah undertook demonstrations, first sailing to Savannah, her home port. During this trip a faulty instrument initiated a reactor shutdown, which was misreported as a major accident in the press. From there she passed through the Panama Canal and visited Hawaii and ports on the west coast of the United States, becoming a popular exhibit for three weeks at the Century 21 Exposition in Seattle. By early 1963, she arrived in Galveston, Texas for repair and system checks. There, a dispute over the compensation of nuclear-qualified engineering officers led to a reactor shutdown and strike by the nuclear engineering crew. The contract with States Marine Lines was canceled and a new operator, American Export Isbrandtsen, was selected, requiring a new crew to be trained. This involved a switch to non-union crew, which became a lingering issue in the staffing of proposed future nuclear ships.\n\nBy 1964, Savannah started a tour of the US Gulf and east coast ports. During the summer she crossed the Atlantic for the first time, visiting Bremerhaven, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Dublin and Southampton. 150,000 people toured the ship during this tour.\n\nSavannah served as a passenger-cargo liner until 1965, when passenger service was discontinued. By this time a total of 848 passengers had been carried along with 4,800 tons of cargo. The ship was converted to all-cargo use, with the removal of 1,800 tons of ballast. Passenger spaces were closed. Savannah operated for three years and traveled 350000 mi before returning to Galveston for refueling. Four of the 32 fuel assemblies were replaced and the remaining units rearranged to even out fuel usage. She resumed service until the end of 1971, when she was deactivated.\n\nDuring her active career, Savannah traveled 450000 mi, visiting 45 foreign and 32 domestic ports and was visited by 1.4 million people in her function as an Atoms for Peace project. Savannahs presence also eased access for nuclear-powered naval ships in foreign ports, though the ship was excluded from ports in Australia, New Zealand and Japan.\n\nFollowing her removal from active service, Savannah was first obtained by the City of Savannah and was docked at the end of River Street (near the Talmadge Memorial Bridge), with plans for eventually making her a floating hotel. However, investors could not be found. For a short period of time during the late 1970s she was stored in Galveston, Texas, and was a familiar sight to many travelers on State Highway 87 as they crossed Bolivar Roads on the free ferry service operated by the Texas Department of Highways.\n\nMuseum ship \n\nIn 1981, Savannah was obtained via bareboat charter for display at the Patriots Point Naval and Maritime Museum near Mount Pleasant, South Carolina. Although the museum had use of the vessel, ownership of Savannah remained with the Maritime Administration, and the Patriots Point Development Authority had to be designated a \"co-licensee\" for the ship's reactor. Periodic radiological inspections were also necessary to ensure the continued safety of the ship. Once Savannah was open for display, visitors could tour the ship's cargo holds, view the engine room from an observation area, look into staterooms and passenger areas, and walk the ship's decks.\n\nThe museum had hoped to recondition and improve the ship's public spaces for visitors, but these plans never materialized. Savannah never drew the visitors that the museum's other ships, notably the aircraft carrier , did. When a periodic MARAD inspection in 1993 indicated a need to dry dock Savannah, Patriots Point and the Maritime Administration agreed to terminate the ship's charter in 1994. The ship was moved from the museum and dry docked in Baltimore, Maryland in 1994 for repairs, after which she was moved to the James River Merchant Marine Reserve Fleet near Newport News, Virginia.\n\nThe Maritime Administration has not funded decommissioning and removal of the ship's nuclear systems. Savannah had undergone work at Colonna's Shipyard of Norfolk, Virginia, beginning 15 August 2006. That $995,000 job included exterior structural and lighting repairs, removing shipboard cranes and wiring, refurbishing water-damaged interior spaces, and removing mold, mildew, and painting some of the interior. On 30 January 2007, she was towed to Pier 23, which is owned by the City of Newport News. On 8 May 2008, Savannah arrived in Baltimore under tow. Savannah may remain in Baltimore through 2016 under a US Maritime Administration contract with the Vane Brothers' Co. at the Canton Marine Terminal in the Canton section of Baltimore.\n\nSince Savannah is historically significant and has been designated a National Historic Landmark, MARAD has expressed interest in offering the ship for preservation once Savannahs decommissioning, decontamination and radiological work is completed. A MARAD spokesman told The Baltimore Sun in May 2008 that the maritime agency envisions the ship's eventual conversion into a museum, but that no investors have yet offered to undertake the project.\n\nHistoric designation\n\nSavannah was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 14 November 1982. She was designated a National Historic Landmark on 17 July 1991. Savannah is notable as one of the most visible and intact examples of the Atoms for Peace program, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in advance of the customary fifty-year age requirement because of her exceptional national significance."
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"Nuclear-Powered Ships | Nuclear Submarines - World Nuclear Association\nNuclear-Powered Ships\n(Updated June 2016)\nNuclear power is particularly suitable for vessels which need to be at sea for long periods without refuelling, or for powerful submarine propulsion.\nOver 140 ships are powered by more than 180 small nuclear reactors and more than 12,000 reactor years of marine operation has been accumulated.\nMost are submarines, but they range from icebreakers to aircraft carriers.\nIn future, constraints on fossil fuel use in transport may bring marine nuclear propulsion into more widespread use. So far, exaggerated fears about safety have caused political restriction on port access.\nWork on nuclear marine propulsion started in the 1940s, and the first test reactor started up in USA in 1953. The first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus, put to sea in 1955.\nThis marked the transition of submarines from slow underwater vessels to warships capable of sustaining 20-25 knots submerged for weeks on end. The submarine had come into its own.\nNautilus led to the parallel development of further (Skate-class) submarines, powered by single pressurised water reactors, and an aircraft carrier, USS Enterprise, powered by eight Westinghouse reactor units in 1960. A cruiser, USS Long Beach, followed in 1961 and was powered by two of these early units. Remarkably, the Enterprise remained in service to the end of 2012.\nBy 1962 the US Navy had 26 nuclear submarines operational and 30 under construction. Nuclear power had revolutionised the Navy.\nThe technology was shared with Britain, while French, Russian and Chinese developments proceeded separately.\nAfter the Skate-class vessels, reactor development proceeded and in the USA a single series of standardised designs was built by both Westinghouse and GE, one reactor powering each vessel. Rolls Royce built similar units for Royal Navy submarines and then developed the design further to the PWR-2.\nRussia developed both PWR and lead-bismuth cooled reactor designs, the latter not persisting. Eventually four generations* of submarine PWRs were utilised, the last entering service in 1995 in the Severodvinsk class.\n* 1955-66, 1963-92, 1976-2003, 1995 on, according to Bellona.\nThe largest submarines are the 26,500 tonne (34,000 t submerged) Russian Typhoon-class, powered by twin 190 MWt PWR reactors, though these were superseded by the 24,000 t Oscar-II class (eg Kursk) with the same power plant.\nThe safety record of the US nuclear navy is excellent, this being attributed to a high level of standardisation in naval power plants and their maintenance, and the high quality of the Navy's training program. However, early Soviet endeavours resulted in a number of serious accidents – five where the reactor was irreparably damaged, and more resulting in radiation leaks. There were more than 20 radiation fatalities.* Nevertheless, by Russia’s third generation of marine PWRs in the late 1970s safety and reliability had become a high priority. (Apart from reactor accidents, fires and accidents have resulted in the loss of two US and about 4 Soviet submarines, another four of which had fires resulting in loss of life.)\n* The K-19 accident at sea in 1961 due to cooling failure in an early PWR resulted in 8 deaths from acute radiation syndrome (ARS) in repairing it (doses 7.5 to 54 Sv) and possibly more later as well as many high doses. The K-27 accident at sea in 1968 also involved coolant failure, this time in an experimental lead-bismuth cooled reactor, and 9 deaths from ARS as well as high exposure by other crew. In 1985 the K-431 was being refuelled in Vladivostok when a criticality occurred causing a major steam explosion which killed 10 workers. Over 200 PBq of fission products was released causing high radiation exposure of about 50 others, including ten with ARS.\nLloyd's Register shows about 200 nuclear reactors at sea, and that some 700 have been used at sea since the 1950s.\nNuclear Naval Fleets\nRussia built 248 nuclear submarines and five naval surface vessels (plus 9 icebreakers) powered by 468 reactors between 1950 and 2003, and was then operating about 60 nuclear naval vessels. (Bellona gives 247 subs with 456 reactors 1958-95.) For operational vessels in 1997, Bellona lists 109 Russian submarines (plus 4 naval surface ships) and 108 attack submarines (SSN) and 25 ballistic missile ones apart from Russia.\nAt the end of the Cold War, in 1989, there were over 400 nuclear-powered submarines operational or being built. At least 300 of these submarines have now been scrapped and some on order cancelled, due to weapons reduction programmes*. Russia and the USA had over 100 each in service, with the UK and France less than 20 each and China six. The total today is understood to be about 120, including new ones commissioned. Most or all are fuelled by high-enriched uranium (HEU).\n* In 2007 Russia had about 40 retired subs from its Pacific fleet alone awaiting scrapping. In November 2008 it was reported that Russia intended to scrap all decommissioned nuclear submarines by 2012, the total being more than 200 of the 250 built to date. Most Northern Fleet submarines had been dismantled at Severodvinsk, and most remaining to be scrapped were with the Pacific Fleet.\nIndia launched its first nuclear submarine in 2009, the 6000 dwt Arihant SSBN, with a single 85 MW PWR fuelled by HEU (critical in August 2013) driving a 70 MW steam turbine. It is reported to have cost US$ 2.9 billion and is expected to be commissioned in 2016. The INS Aridaman SSBN is under construction at the Ship Building Centre in Visakhapatnam, and was due to be launched in 2015. Another six SSBN twice the size of Arihant class and six nuclear SSNs powered by a new reactor being developed by BARC are planned, the latter being approved by government in February 2015. They will be similar size to Arihant class SSBN. India is also leasing an almost-new 7900 dwt (12,770 tonne submerged) Russian Akula-II class nuclear attack submarine for ten years from 2010, at a cost of US$ 650 million: the INS Chakra, formerly Nerpa. It has a single 190 MWt VM-5/ OK-659B PWR driving a 32 MW steam turbine and two 2 MWe turbogenerators.\nThe USA has the main navy with nuclear-powered aircraft carriers, while both it and Russia have had nuclear-powered cruisers (USA: 9, Russia 4). The USA had built 219 nuclear-powered vessels to mid 2010, and then had five submarines and an aircraft carrier under construction. All US aircraft carriers and submarines are nuclear-powered. (The UK’s new large aircraft carriers are powered by two 36 MW gas turbines driving electric motors.)\nThe US Navy has accumulated over 6200 reactor-years of accident-free experience involving 526 nuclear reactor cores over the course of 240 million kilometres, without a single radiological incident, over a period of more than 50 years. It operated 82 nuclear-powered ships (11 aircraft carriers, 71 submarines – 18 SSBN/SSGN, 53 SSN) with 103 reactors as of March 2010. In 2013 it had 10 Nimitz-class carriers in service (CVN 68-77), each designed for 50-year service life with one mid-life refuelling and complex overhaul of their two A4W Westinghouse reactors. The forthcoming Gerald Ford-class (CVN 78 on) will have some 800 fewer crew and two more powerful Bechtel A1B reactors driving four shafts. Late in 2014 the US Navy had 86 nuclear-powered vessels including 75 submarines.\nThe Russian Navy has logged over 6000 nautical reactor-years. It appears to have eight strategic submarines (SSBN/SSGN) in operation and 13 nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSN), plus some diesel subs. Russia has announced that it will build eight new nuclear SSBN submarines in its plan to 2015. Its only nuclear-powered carrier project was cancelled in 1992. It has one nuclear-powered cruiser in operation and three others being overhauled. In 2012 it announced that its third-generation strategic subs would have extended service lives, from 25 to 35 years.\nIn 2012 construction of a nuclear-powered deep-sea submersible was announced. This is based on the Oscar-class naval submarine and is apparently designed for research and rescue missions. It will be built by the Sevmash shipyard at Severodvinsk, which builds Russian naval submarines.\nChina has about 12 nuclear-powered submarines (6-8 SSN type-93 Shang-class and type-95, 4-5 SSBN type-94 Jin-class and type-96), and in February 2013 China Shipbuilding Industry Corp received state approval and funding to begin research on core technologies and safety for nuclear-powered ships, with polar vessels being mentioned but aircraft carriers being considered a more likely purpose for the new development. Its first nuclear powered submarine was decommissioned in 2013 after almost 40 years of service.\nFrance has a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier and ten nuclear submarines (4 SSBN, 6 Rubis class SSN), with six Barracuda class SSN coming on line from 2017. The UK has 12 submarines, all nuclear powered (4 SSBN, 8 SSN).\nThe occupational radiation doses to crew of nuclear vessels in very small. US Naval Reactors’ average annual occupational exposure was 0.06 mSv per person in 2013, and no personnel have exceeded 20 mSv in any year in the 34 years to then. The average occupational exposure of each person monitored at US Naval Reactors' facilities since 1958 is 1.03 mSv per year.\nCivil Vessels\nNuclear propulsion has proven technically and economically essential in the Russian Arctic where operating conditions are beyond the capability of conventional icebreakers. The power levels required for breaking ice up to 3 metres thick, coupled with refuelling difficulties for other types of vessels, are significant factors. The nuclear fleet, with six nuclear icebreakers and a nuclear freighter, has increased Arctic navigation from 2 to 10 months per year, and in the Western Arctic, to year-round.\nThe icebreaker Lenin was the world's first nuclear-powered surface vessel (20,000 dwt), commissioned in 1959. It remained in service for 30 years to 1989, and was retired due to the hull being worn thin from ice abrasion. It initially had three 90 MWt OK-150 reactors, but these were badly damaged during refueling in 1965 and 1967. In 1970 they were replaced by two 171 MWt OK-900 reactors providing steam for turbines which generated electricity to deliver 34 MW at the propellers. Lenin is now a museum.\nIt led to a series of larger icebreakers, the six 23,500 dwt Arktika class, launched from 1975. These powerful vessels have two 171 MWt OK-900A reactors delivering 54 MW at the propellers and are used in deep Arctic waters. The Arktika was the first surface vessel to reach the North Pole, in 1977. Sovetskiy Soyuz and Yamal are in service (launched 1990, 1992 respectively), with Sibir and Arktika decommissioned in 1992 and 2008, and Rossija subsequently. Soyuz has been in reserve but is being restored for service from 2017. Nominal service life is 25 years, but Atomflot commissioned a study on Yamal, and confirmed 30-year life for it. Atomflot has a service life extension program to take them up to 175,000 - 200,000 hours. The original Arktika class are 148 m long and 30 m wide, and designed to break 2 metres of ice.\nThe seventh and largest Arktika class icebreaker – 50 Years of Victory (50 Let Pobedy) – was built by the Baltic shipyard at St Petersburg and after delays during construction it entered service in 2007 (twelve years later than the 50-year anniversary of 1945 it was to commemorate). It is 25,800 dwt, 160 m long and 20m wide, and is designed to break through ice up to 2.8 metres thick. Its propulsive power is about 54 MW. Its performance in service has been impressive.\nFor use in shallow waters such as estuaries and rivers, two shallow-draft Taymyr-class icebreakers of 18,260 dwt with one 171 MWt KLT-40M reactor delivering 35 MW propulsive were built in Finland and then fitted with their nuclear steam supply system in Russia. They – Taymyr and Vaygach – are built to conform with international safety standards for nuclear vessels and were launched in 1989 and 1990 respectively. They are 152 m long and 19 m wide, will break 1.77 metres of ice, and are expected to operate for about 30 years or 175,000 hours. OKBM Afrikantov has been contracted to extend the operational life of Vaygach to 200,000 hours.\nTenders were called for building the first of a new LK-60 series series of Russian icebreakers in mid-2012, and the contract was awarded to Baltijsky Zavod Shipbuilding in St Petersburg. The keel of the new Arktika was laid in November 2013, it was launched in June 2016 and it is due to be delivered to Atomflot by the end of 2017 at a cost of RUR 37 billion. A RUR 84.4 billion contract for the second and third vessels, Sibir and Ural, was let in May 2014 to the same shipyard, for delivery in 2019 and 2020. The project cost was quoted in mid-2016 at RUR 122 billion. In May 2015 construction of the second vessel, Sibir, had started.\nThe LK-60 (project 22220) vessels are 'universal' dual-draught (10.5m with full ballast tanks, minimum 8.55m at 25,540 t), displacing up to 33,530 t, 173 m long, 34 m wide, and designed to break through 2.8 metre thick ice at up to 2 knots. The wider 33 m beam at the waterline is to match the 70,000 tonne ships they are designed to clear a path for, though a few ships with reinforced hulls are already using the Northern Sea Route. There is scope for more use: in 2011, 19,000 ships used the Suez Canal and only about 40 traversed the northern route. This increased in 2013 – see below.\nThe LK-60 will be powered by two RITM-200 reactors of 175 MWt each using low-enriched fuel (<20%), which together deliver 60 MW at the three propellers via twin turbine-generators and three motors. At 65% capacity factor refuelling is every 7-10 years, overhaul at 20 years, service life 40 years. ZIO-Podolsk was assembling the first reactor vessel early in 2015, and TVEL started making the fuel in 2016.\nThe LK-60 is designed to operate in the Western Arctic – in the Barents, Pechora and Kara Seas, as well as in shallow water of the Yenissei River and Ob Bay, for year-round pilotage (also as tug) of tankers, dry-cargo ships and vessels with special equipment to mineral resource development sites on the Arctic shelf. The Yamal LNG project is expected to need 200 shipping movements per year from Sabetta at the mouth of the Ob River. The vessel will have a smaller crew than its predecessors – only 75.\nA more powerful Russian LK-110 icebreaker of 110 MW net at the three propellers is planned, capable of breaking through 3.5 metre thick ice. It will be 194 m long, 38 m wide and with 13 m draft, of 55,600 dwt. It will have a crew of 127.\nDevelopment of nuclear merchant ships began in the 1950s but on the whole has not been commercially successful. The 22,000 tonne US-built NS Savannah, was commissioned in 1962 and decommissioned eight years later. The reactor used 4.2% and 4.6% enriched uranium. It was a technical success, but not economically viable. It had a 74 MWt reactor delivering 16.4 MW to the propeller, but the reactor was uprated to 80 MWt in 1964. The German-built 15,000 tonne Otto Hahn cargo ship and research facility sailed some 650,000 nautical miles on 126 voyages in 10 years without any technical problems. It had a 36 MWt reactor delivering 8 MW to the propeller. However, it proved too expensive to operate and in 1982 it was converted to diesel.\nThe 8000 tonne Japanese Mutsu was the third civil vessel, put into service in 1970. It had a 36 MWt reactor delivering 8 MW to the propeller. It was dogged by technical and political problems and was an embarrassing failure. These three vessels used reactors with low-enriched uranium fuel (3.7-4.4% U-235).\nIn 1988 the NS Sevmorput was commissioned in Russia, mainly to serve northern Siberian ports. It is a 61,900 tonne 260 m long LASH-carrier (taking lighters to ports with shallow water) and container ship with ice-breaking bow capable of breaking 1.5 metres of ice. It is powered by a KLT-40 reactor similar to the OK-900As used in larger icebreakers, but with only 135 MWt power delivering 32.5 propeller MW. It needed refuelling only once to 2003. The reactor was to be decommissioned about 2014, but Rosatom has approved overhauling it so that the ship is returned to service in 2016.\nRussian experience with nuclear powered Arctic ships totals about 300 reactor-years in 2009. In 2008 the Arctic fleet was transferred from the Murmansk Shipping Company under the Ministry of Transport to Atomflot, under Rosatom. This is progressively becoming a commercial enterprise, with the 40% state subsidy of RUR 1262 million in 2011 due to phase out in 2014.\nIn August 2010 two Arktika-class icebreakers escorted the 100,000 dwt tanker Baltika, carrying 70,000 tonnes of gas condensate, from Murmansk to China via the Arctic Northern Sea Route (NSR), saving some 8000 km compared with the Suez Canal route. In November 2012 the Ob River LNG tanker with 150,000 cubic metres of gas as LNG, chartered by Russia's Gazprom, traversed the northern sea route from Norway to Japan accompanied by nuclear-powered icebreakers, the route cutting 20 days off the normal journey and resulting in less loss of cargo. It has a strengthened hull to cope with the Arctic ice. There are plans to ship iron ore and base metals on the northern sea route also.\nIn 2013 the Atomflot icebreakers supported freight transportation and emergency rescue operations along the Northern Sea Route (NSR), and freezing northern seas and estuaries of rivers. In the framework of the regulated activity paid for as per rates established by the Federal Tariff Service of Russia (FST), 151 steering operations were carried out for ships with cargo and in ballast to and from ports in the aquatic area of the NSR, including steering of ships with cargo for building Sabetta Port of JSC Yamal SPG to Okskaya Bay and steering of a convoy of Navy ships under a contract with the Ministry of Defence. Over the 2013 summer-autumn navigation season, 71 transit steering operations were carried out, including 25 foreign-flag ships. A total of 1,356,000 tonnes of various cargoes was shipped east and west through the aquatic area of the NSR.\nNuclear propulsion systems\nNaval reactors (with the exception of the ill-fated Russian Alfa class described below) have been pressurised water types, which differ from commercial reactors producing electricity in that:\nThey deliver a lot of power from a very small volume and therefore run on highly-enriched uranium (>20% U-235, originally c 97% but apparently now 93% in latest US submarines, c 20-25% in some western vessels, 20% in the first and second generation Russian reactors (1957-81)*, then 21% to 45% in 3rd generation Russian units (40% in India's Arihant).\nThe fuel is not UO2 but a uranium-zirconium or uranium-aluminium alloy (c15%U with 93% enrichment, or more U with less – eg 20% – U-235) or a metal-ceramic (Kursk: U-Al zoned 20-45% enriched, clad in zircaloy, with c 200kg U-235 in each 200 MW core).\nThey have long core lives, so that refuelling is needed only after 10 or more years, and new cores are designed to last 50 years in carriers and 30-40 years (over 1.5 million kilometres) in most submarines, albeit with much lower capacity factors than a nuclear power plant (<30%),\nThe design enables a compact pressure vessel while maintaining safety. The Sevmorput pressure vessel for a relatively large marine reactor is 4.6 m high and 1.8 m diameter, enclosing a core 1 m high and 1.2 m diameter.\nThermal efficiency is less than in civil nuclear power plants due to the need for flexible power output, and space constraints for the steam system.\nThere is no soluble boron used in naval reactors (at least US ones).\n* An IAEA Tecdoc reports discharge assay of early submarine used fuel reprocessed at Mayak being 17% U-235.\nThe long core life is enabled by the relatively high enrichment of the uranium and by incorporating a 'burnable poison' such as gadolinium – which is progressively depleted as fission products and actinides accumulate and fissile material is used up. These accumulating poisons and fissile reduction would normally cause reduced fuel efficiency, but the two effects cancel one another out.\nHowever, the enrichment level for newer French naval fuel has been dropped to 7.5% U-235, the fuel being known as 'caramel', which needs to be changed every ten years or so. This avoids the need for a specific military enrichment line, and some reactors will be smaller versions of those on the Charles de Gaulle. In 2006 the Defence Ministry announced that Barracuda class subs would use fuel with \"civilian enrichment, identical to that of EdF power plants,\" which may be an exaggeration but certainly marks a major change there.\nLong-term integrity of the compact reactor pressure vessel is maintained by providing an internal neutron shield. (This is in contrast to early Soviet civil PWR designs where embrittlement occurs due to neutron bombardment of a very narrow pressure vessel.)\nThe Russian, US, and British navies rely on steam turbine propulsion, the French and Chinese in submarines use the turbine to generate electricity for propulsion.\nRussian ballistic missile submarines as well as all surface ships since the Enterprise are powered by two reactors. Other submarines (except some Russian attack subs) are powered by one. A new Russian test-bed submarine is diesel-powered but has a very small nuclear reactor for auxiliary power.\nThe Russian Alfa-class submarines had a single liquid metal cooled reactor (LMR) of 155 MWt and using very highly enriched uranium – 90% enriched U-Be fuel. These were very fast, but had operational problems in ensuring that the lead-bismuth coolant did not freeze when the reactor was shut down. Reactors had to be kept running, even in harbour, since the external heating provision did not work. The design was unsuccessful and used in only eight trouble-plagued vessels, which were retired early.\nThe US Navy's second nuclear submarine had a sodium-cooled power plant (S2G). The USS Seawolf, SSN-575, operated for nearly two years 1957-58 with this. The intermediate-spectrum reactor raised its incoming coolant temperature over ten times as much as the Nautilus' water-cooled plant, providing superheated steam, and it offered an outlet temperature of 454°C, compared with the Nautilus’ 305°C. It was highly efficient, but offsetting this, the plant had serious operational disadvantages. Large electric heaters were required to keep the plant warm when the reactor was down to avoid the sodium freezing. The biggest problem was that the sodium became highly radioactive, with a half-life of 15 hours, so that the whole reactor system had to be more heavily shielded than a water-cooled plant, and the reactor compartment couldn’t be entered for many days after shutdown. The reactor was replaced with a PWR type (S2Wa) similar to Nautilus.\nFor many years the Los Angeles class submarines formed the backbone of the US SSN (attack) fleet, and 62 were built. They are 6900 dwt submerged, and have a 165 MW GE S6G reactor driving two 26 MW steam turbines. Refuelling interval is 30 years. The US Virginia class SSN submarine has 30 MW pump-jet propulsion system built by BAE Systems (originally for the Royal Navy) which is powered by a PWR reactor (GE S9G) that does not need refuelling for 33 years. They are about 7900 dwt, and 12 were in operation as of mid-2015, with 16 more on order, and eventual total likely to be 48.\nUnlike PWRs, boiling water reactors (BWRs) circulate water which is radioactive* outside the reactor compartment, and are also considered too noisy for submarine use.\n*\nRadioactivity in the cooling water flowing through the core is mainly the activation product nitrogen-16, formed by neutron capture from oxygen. N-16 has a half-life on only 7 seconds but produces high-energy gamma radiation during decay.\nReactor power ranges from 10 MWt (in a prototype) up to 200 MWt in the larger submarines and 300 MWt in surface ships such as the Kirov-class battle cruisers. A figure of 550 MWt each is quoted for two A4W units in Nimitz-class carriers, and these supply 104 shaft MW each (USS Enterprise had eight A2W units of 26 shaft MW and was refuelled three times). The Gerald Ford-class carriers have more powerful and simpler A1B reactors reported to be 25% more powerful than A4W, hence about 700 MWt, but running a ship which is entirely electrical, including an electromagnetic aircraft launch system or catapault. Accordingly, the ship has 2.5 times the electrical capacity of Nimitz class. Ford-class are designed to be refuelled in mid-operational life of 50 years.\nThe smallest nuclear submarines are the French Rubis-class attack subs (2600 dwt) in service since 1983, and these have a 48 MW integrated PWR reactor from Technicatome which is variously reported as needing no refuelling for 30 years, or requiring refuelling every seven years. The French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (38,000 dwt), commissioned in 2000, has two K15 integrated PWR units driving 61 MW Alstom turbines and the system can provide 5 years running at 25 knots before refuelling. The Le Triomphant class of ballistic missile submarines (14,335 dwt submerged – the last launched in 2008) uses these K15 naval PWRs of 150 MWt and 32 shaft MW with pump-jet propulsion. The Barracuda class (4765 dwt) attack submarines, will have hybrid propulsion: electric for normal use and pump-jet for higher speeds. Areva TA (formerly Technicatome) will provide six reactors apparently of only 50 MWt and based on the K15 for the Barracuda submarines, the first to be commissioned in 2017. As noted above, they will use low-enriched fuel.\nFrench integrated PWR system for submarine\n(steam generator within reactor pressure vessel)\nBritish Vanguard class ballistic missile submarines (SSBN) of 15,900 dwt submerged have a single PWR2 reactor with two steam turbines driving a single pump jet of 20.5 MW. New versions of this with \"Core H\" will require no refuelling over the life of the vessel*. UK Astute class attack subs of 7400 dwt submerged have a modified (smaller) PWR2 reactor driving two steam turbines and a single pump jet reported as 11.5 MW, and are being commissioned from 2010 – the third of seven in March 2016. In March 2011 a safety assessment of the PWR2 design was released showing the need for safety improvement, though they have capacity for passive cooling to effect decay heat removal. The PWR3 for the Vanguard replacement will be largely a US design.\n* Rolls-Royce claims that the Core H PWR2 has six times the (undisclosed) power of its original PWR1 and runs four times as long. The Core H is Rolls-Royce's sixth-generation submarine reactor core.\nSince 1959 Russia has used five types of PWRs in its civil; fleet: OK-150 in the Lenin until 1966 (3x90 MW), OK-900 subsequently in the Lenin (2x159 MW), OK-900A in the main Arktika class icebreaker fleet (2x171 MW), KLT-40M in two Tamyr class icebreakers (1x171 MW), and KLT-40 in the Sevmorput (1x135 MW).\nRussia's main submarine power plant is the OK-650 PWR. It uses 20-45% enriched fuel to produce 190 MW. The 19,400 tonne Oscar II-class and 34,000 tonne Typhoon-class (NATO name, Akula-class in Russia) ballistic missile subs (SSBN) have two of these reactors with steam turbines together delivering 74 MW, and its new 24,000 t Borei-class ballistic missile sub along with Akula-(Russia: Shchuka-class), Mike- and Sierra-class attack subs (SSN) have a single OK-650 unit powering a 32 MW steam turbine. The Borei-class is the first Russian design to use pump-jet propulsion. (displacements: submerged). A 5th generation naval reactor is reported to be a super-critical type (SCWR) with single steam circuit and expected to run 30 years without refuelling. A full-scale prototype was being tested early in 2013.\nRussia's large Arktika class icebreakers launched 1975-2007 use two OK-900A (essentially KLT-40M) nuclear reactors of 171 MW each with 241 or 274 fuel assemblies of 45-75% enriched fuel as U-Zr alloy and 3-4 year refuelling interval. They drive steam turbines and each produces up to 33 MW at the propellers, though overall propulsive power is about 54 MW. The two Tamyr class icebreakers have a single 171 MW KLT-40 reactor giving 35 MW propulsive power. Sevmorput uses one 135 MW KLT-40 unit producing 32.5 MW propulsive, and all those use 90% enriched fuel. (The now-retired Lenin's first OK-150 reactors used 5% enriched fuel but were replaced by OK-900 units with 45-75% enriched fuel.) Most of the Arktika-class vessels have had operating life extensions based on engineering knowledge built up from experience with Arktika itself. It was originally designed for 100,000 hours of reactor life, but this was extended first to 150,000 hours, then to 175,000 hours. In practice this equated to a lifespan of eight extra years of operation on top of the design period of 25. In that time, Arktika covered more than 1 million nautical miles.\nFor the next LK-60 generation of Russian icebreakers, OKBM Afrikantov is developing a new reactor – RITM-200 – to replace the current KLT design. Under Project 22220 this is an integral 175 MWt PWR with inherent safety features and using low-enriched uranium fuel. Refuelling is every seven years, over a 40-year lifespan. Two reactors drive two turbine generators and then three electric motors powering the propellers, producing 60 MW propulsive power. The first two icebreakers to be equipped with these are under construction. For floating nuclear power plants (FNPP, see below) a single RITM-200 would replace twin KLT-40S (but yield less power).\nThe KLT-40S is a four-loop version of the icebreaker reactor for floating nuclear power plants which runs on low-enriched uranium (<20%) and has a bigger core (1.3 m high instead of 1.0 m) and shorter refueling interval: 3 to 4.5 years. A variant of this is the KLT-20, specifically designed for FNPP. It is a two-loop version with same enrichment but 10-year refueling interval.\nOKBM has supplied 460 nuclear reactors for the Russian navy, and these have operated more than 6500 reactor-years.\nChina developed its first submarine nuclear power plant in the 1970s, with some Russian help. The two-loop 300 MWe Qinshan reactor commissioned in 1994 is said to be based on early submarine reactors. Little is known of the power plants in today’s Chinese nuclear submarines, but those in the older type-93 and type-94 are said to be very noisy due to coolant pumps, and this is being rectified in type-95 SSNs and type-96 SSBNs, possibly with reverse-engineering from US civil equipment.\nIndia's Arihant (6000 dwt) has an 85 MWe PWR using 40% enriched uranium driving one or two 35 MW steam turbines. It has 13 fuel assemblies each with 348 fuel rods, and was built indigenously. The reactor went critical in August 2013. A 20 MW prototype unit had operated for several years from 2003.\nBrazil's navy is proposing to build an 11 MW prototype reactor by 2014 to operate for about eight years, with a view to a full-sized version using low-enriched uranium being in its 6000 tonne, 100 m long SNBR submarine to be launched by 2025.\nUK nuclear submarine layout\nDismantling decommissioned nuclear-powered submarines has become a major task for US and Russian navies. After defuelling, normal practice is to cut the reactor section from the vessel for disposal in shallow land burial as low-level waste (the rest being recycled normally). In Russia the whole vessels, or the sealed reactor sections, sometimes remain stored afloat indefinitely, though western-funded programs are addressing this and all decommissioned submarines are due to be dismantled by 2012. In 2009 Rosatom said that by late 2010, 191 out of 198 decommissioned Russian submarines would be dismantled.\nFor the USS Enterprise, after defueling (under way in 2015) the eight reactor compartments and associated piping will be removed and shipped to Hanford for burial with the submarine reactor compartments.\nMarine reactors used for power supply, Floating Nuclear Power Plants\nA marine reactor was used to supply power (1.5 MWe) to a US Antarctic base for ten years to 1972, testing the feasibility of such air-portable units for remote locations.\nBetween 1967 and 1976 an ex-army US Liberty ship of about 12,000 tonnes built in 1945, the Sturgis (originally Charles H. Cugle) functioned as a floating nuclear power plant (FNPP), designation MH-1A, moored on Gatun Lake, Panama Canal Zone. It had a 45 MWt/10 MWe (net) single-loop PWR which provided power to the Canal Zone for nine years at a capacity factor of 54%. The propulsion unit of the original ship was removed and the entire midsection replaced with a 350 t steel containment vessel and concrete collision barriers, making it about 2.5 m wider than the rest of the ship, now essentially a barge. The containment vessel contained not only the reactor unit itself but the primary and secondary coolant circuits and electrical systems for the reactor.\nIn the 1970s Westinghouse in alliance with Newport News shipyard developed an Offshore Power Systems (OPS) concept, with series production envisaged at Jacksonville, Florida. In 1972 two 1210 MWe units were ordered by utility PSEG for offshore Atlantic City or Brigantine, New Jersey, but the order was cancelled in 1978. By the time NRC approval was granted in 1982 for building up to eight plants, there were no customers and Westinghouse closed down its OPS division. Two blogs here and here on the NRC website describe the saga. Westinghouse and Babcock & Wilcox are reported to be revisiting the concept.\nRussia has under construction at St Petersburg the first of a series of floating power plants for their northern and far eastern territories. Two OKBM KLT-40S reactors derived from those in icebreakers, but with low-enriched fuel (less than 20% U-235), are mounted on a 21,500 tonne, 144 m long barge. Refuelling interval is 3-4 years on site, and at the end of a 12-year operating cycle the whole plant is returned to a shipyard for a two-year overhaul and storage of used fuel, before being returned to service. See also information paper on Nuclear Power in Russia .\nChina has two projects for FNPPs. In October 2015 the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC), a China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) subsidiary, signed an agreement with UK-based Lloyd's Register to support the development of a floating nuclear power plant using CNNC’s ACP100S reactor, a marine version of the multi-purpose ACP100. Its 310 MWt produces about 100 MWe, and it has 57 fuel assemblies 2.15 m tall and integral steam generators (287°C), so that the whole steam supply system is produced and shipped as a single reactor module. It has passive cooling for decay heat removal. It has been subject to the IAEA Generic Reactor Safety Review process. Following approval by the NDRC as part of the 13th Five-Year Plan for innovative energy technologies, CNNC is planning to start building its ACP100S demonstration floating nuclear plant in 2016, for 2019 operation. Lloyd's Register will develop safety guidelines and regulations as well as nuclear standards consistent with offshore and international marine regulations.\nChina General Nuclear Power Group (CGN) announced in January 2016 that development of its ACPR50S reactor design has been approved by the NDRC as part of the 13th Five-Year Plan for innovative energy technologies. Construction of the first demonstration FNPP is expected to start in 2017, with electricity generation to begin in 2020. CGN then signed an agreement with China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) apparently to provide power for offshore oil and gas exploration and production, and to “push forward the organic integration of the offshore oil industry and the nuclear power industry,” according to CNOOC. The ACPR50S is 200 MWt, 60 MWe with 37 fuel assemblies and two loops feeding four external steam generators. Reactor pressure vessel is 7.4m high and 2.5 m inside diameter, operating at 310°C.\nEarlier, SNERDI in Shanghai was designing a CAP-FNPP reactor. This was to be 200 MWt and relatively low-temperature (250°C), so only about 40 MWe with two external steam generators and five-year refuelling. This project has probably given way to the CNNC/NPIC one, though the reactor is similar to CGN’s ACPR50S.\nFuture prospects\nWith increasing attention being given to greenhouse gas emissions arising from burning fossil fuels for international air and marine transport, particularly dirty bunker fuel for the latter, and the excellent safety record of nuclear powered ships, it is quite conceivable that renewed attention will be given to marine nuclear powered ships, it is likely that there will be renewed interest in marine nuclear propulsion. The world's merchant shipping is reported to have a total power capacity of 410 GWt, about one third that of world nuclear power plants.\nThe head of the large Chinese shipping company Cosco suggested in December 2009 that container ships should be powered by nuclear reactors in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from shipping. He said that Cosco was in talks with China's nuclear authority to develop nuclear powered freight vessels. However, in 2011 Cosco aborted the study after three years, following the Fukushima accident.\nIn 2010 Babcock International's marine division completed a study on developing a nuclear-powered LNG tanker (which requires considerable auxiliary power as well as propulsion). The study indicated that particular routes and cargoes lent themselves well to the nuclear propulsion option, and that technological advances in reactor design and manufacture had made the option more appealing.\nIn November 2010 the British maritime classification society Lloyd's Register embarked upon a two-year study with US-based Hyperion Power Generation (now Gen4 Energy), British vessel designer BMT Group, and Greek ship operator Enterprises Shipping and Trading SA \"to investigate the practical maritime applications for small modular reactors.\" The research was to produce a concept tanker-ship design, based on a 70 MWt reactor such as Hyperion's. Hyperion (Gen4 Energy) had a three-year contract with the other parties in the consortium, which planned to have the tanker design certified in as many countries as possible. The project included research on a comprehensive regulatory framework led by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), and supported by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and regulators in countries involved.\nIn response to its members' interest in nuclear propulsion, Lloyd's Register has rewritten its 'rules' for nuclear ships, which concern the integration of a reactor certified by a land-based regulator with the rest of the ship. The overall rationale of the rule-making process assumes that in contrast to the current marine industry practice where the designer/builder typically demonstrates compliance with regulatory requirements, in the future the nuclear regulators will wish to ensure that it is the operator of the nuclear plant that demonstrates safety in operation, in addition to the safety through design and construction. Nuclear ships are currently the responsibility of their own countries, but none are involved in international trade. Lloyd's Register said it expected to \"see nuclear ships on specific trade routes sooner than many people currently anticipate.\"\nIn 2014 two papers on commercial nuclear marine propulsion were published* arising from this international industry project led by Lloyd's Register. They review past and recent work in the area of marine nuclear propulsion and describe a preliminary concept design study for a 155,000 dwt Suezmax tanker that is based on a conventional hull form with alternative arrangements for accommodating a 70 MWt nuclear propulsion plant delivering up to 23.5 MW shaft power at maximum continuous rating (average: 9.75 MW). The Gen4Energy power module is considered. This is a small fast-neutron reactor using lead-bismuth eutectic cooling and able to operate for ten full-power years before refueling, and in service last for a 25-year operational life of the vessel. They conclude that the concept is feasible, but further maturity of nuclear technology and the development and harmonisation of the regulatory framework would be necessary before the concept would be viable.\n* Hirdaris et al, 2014.\nThe UN's IMO adopted a code of safety for nuclear merchant ships, Resolution A.491(XII), in 1981, which is still extant and could be updated. Also Lloyd's Register has maintained a set of provisional rules for nuclear-propelled merchant ships, which it has recently revised.\nApart from naval use, where frequency of refueling is a major consideration, nuclear power seems most immediately promising for the following:\nLarge bulk carriers that go back and forth constantly on few routes between dedicated ports – eg China to South America and NW Australia. They could be powered by a reactor delivering 100 MW thrust.\nCruise liners, which have demand curves like a small town. A 70 MWe unit could give base-load and charge batteries, with a smaller diesel unit supplying the peaks. (The largest afloat today – Oasis class, with 100,000 t displacement – has about 60 MW shaft power derived from almost 100 MW total power plant.)\nNuclear tugs, to take conventional ships across oceans\nSome kinds of bulk shipping, where speed is essential.\nSources:\nJane's Fighting Ships, 1999-2000 edition\nJ Simpson 1995, Nuclear Power from Underseas to Outer Space, American Nuclear Society\nThe Safety of Nuclear Powered Ships, 1992 Report of NZ Special Committee on Nuclear Propulsion\nBellona : Russian nuclear icebreakers fleet webpage , http://bellona.org/topic/arctic/russian-nuclear-icebreakers-fleet; Russian Navy webpage , http://bellona.org/topic/nuclear-issues/russian-navy; Thomas Nilsen, Igor Kudrik and Alexandr Nikitin, Bellona Report nr. 2:96, The Russian Northern Fleet: Nuclear-powered vessels , http://spb.org.ru/bellona/ehome/russia/nfl/nfl2-1.htm; Thomas Nilsen, Igor Kudrik and Alexandr Nikitin, Bellona Report nr. 2:96, The Russian Northern Fleet: Appendix , http://spb.org.ru/bellona/ehome/russia/nfl/nfla.htm\nRawool-Sullivan et al 2002, Technical and proliferation-related aspects of the dismantlement of Russian Alfa-class submarines, Nonproliferation Review, Spring 2002\nHonerlah, H.B. & Hearty, B.P., 2002, Characterisation of the nuclear barge Sturgis, WM’02 conf, Tucson\nThompson, C 2003, Recovering the Kursk, Nuclear Engineering Int'l, Dec 2003\nMitenkov F.M. et al 2003, Prospects for using nuclear power systems in commercial ships in Northern Russia, Atomic Energy 94, 4\nHirdaris S.E et al, 2014, Considerations on the potential use of Nuclear Small Modular Reactor (SMR) technology for merchant marine propulsion, Ocean Engineering 79, 101-130\nHirdaris S.E et al, 2014, Concept design for a Suezmax tanker powered by a 70 MW small modular reactor, Trans RINA 156, A1, Intl J Maritime Eng, Jan-Mar 2014\nOffice of Naval Reactors, US Navy, Occupational radiation exposure from Naval Reactors’ DOE facilities, Report NT-14-3, May 2014\nRosatom 2013 Annual Report"
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Which soap boasted a cafe called the Hot Biscuit?
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tc_830
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Food Timeline history notes--state foods. ... were \"invented\" in a tiny restaurant called Louis Lunch ... and piping hot biscuits melt-in-your- mouth hot ..."
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"The Food Timeline history notes--state foods\n3/4 cup white sugar\n3/4 cup boiling water\nMix flour, 1/2 cup sugar, baking powder, salt. Stir in milk, vanilla, butter. Spread batter in buttered 8 X 8 pan. Scatter blueberries over batter. Sprinkle sugar over berries. Pour boiling water over all. Bake at 375 degree oven for 45 min. or unitl brown and done in center. Berries sink to bottom and form juice. Serve hot with light cream; or cold, topped with ice cream.\"\n---Juneau Centennial Cookbook, Jane Stewart, Phyllice F. Bradner, Betty Harris (p. 43)\nAbout Alaska's blueberries: I & II .\n\"Rhubarb Crisp\nMix and place in greased baking pan: 3 C diced rhubarb, 1/4 C sugar\nBlend until crumbly and spread on top: 2/3 C butter, 2/3 C brown sugar, 2/3 C white sugar, 1 C flour, dash of salt.\nBake in 350 degree oven for 40 minutes. Serve with whipped cream or ice cream.\"\n---ibid (p. 49)\n\"Governor George Parks' Sourdough\nCook 3 large potatoes and mash well. To mashed potatoes, add 1 pint of potato water. When lukewarm, add 1/2 cake yeast and 2 C flour. Cover and put in warm place 48 hours.\nTo use: take out 2 C and add 1/2 tsp soda, pinch salt, 2 T sugar and enough flour to make a hot cake batter. Add a little oil.\nTo start add 2 C flour and 2 C water. Cook on griddle.\"\n---ibid (p. 54)\nedible symbols include milk & pink tomato. The state cooking vessel is the Dutch Oven .\nHistoric Arkansas foodways:\n\"Most of the early pioneers who moved west bypassed what is now Arkansas and its Ozark Mountains because of the rocky landscape and poor soil. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, however, hard-working farmers from Kentucky, Illinois, and Tennessee, who were used to farming under difficult conditions, settled in Arkansas. They brought their recipes for curing hams, roasting pork ribs over open fires, and baking soda biscuits and molasses cakes...Since Arkansas borders the South, the Southwest, and the Midwest, it has a mixture of cuisines. Plantation cookery of the Mississippi Valley, the hill cooking of the Ozarks, and the Mexican influcences of Texas and Oklahoma all combine to make a unique style of food...There is a great emphasis of real \"down-home\" flavors. Fried pork chops with a light-brown cream gravy to which bits of sausage have been added have remained a favorite dish. Sausage is also used in poultry stuffings, along with cooked rice. Arkansas-style chicken is prepared by first simmering the chicken pieces in a skillet and then baking them in the oven with a Creole sauce. Each region of Arkansas has its own unique food. In the southern bayou country, roast duck, candied yams, fried chicken, fluffy biscuits and peach cobblers are often served. Around Texarkana, pinto beans and barbecued beef of the Southwest are typical fare. Along the Mississippi River, catfish are popular in stews and fried...In the hill coutnry of the Ozarks, dishes such as bacon with cracklin's corn bread, baked beans, wilted lettuce with bacon and vinegar, bread and apple jelly, and ginger bread for dessert are traditional everyday fare...Roasted raccoon, roasted beaver-tail, and baked opossum are Arkansas soul food...Arkansans prefer hot bread with their meals...They like steaming-hot corn breads, hot biscuits, or fresh-out-of-the-oven rolls. Strawberry shortcake is a favorite dessert of Arkansans...The Arkansas version of the shortcake usese a crisp, buttery biscuit, which is split in half, soaked in strawberry juice, and then topped with a mound of whipped cream and fresh strawberries...Over the past 50 years, Arkansas has become an important poulty-producing state, as well as a major producer of fruits, vegetables, rice, and soybeans. In the 1840s Arkansas farmers began experimenting with orchards. Their apples soon won first prizes...Peaches also became an important Arkansas fruit crop.\"\n---Tastes of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 106-9)\n\"The folks in Arkansas have so many good things to eat, and such different foods at different seasons of the year and in different sections of the state, that I am sending you several different menus; a game dinner to be served to hunters, a plantation dinner, an early summer dinner and a duck dinner. You can take your choice or use all of them. Arkansas has fine fruits; strawberries, youngberries, Boysenberries, raspberries, grapes, peaches, figs and watermelons. The most common meats are poultry, kid, lamb, mutton and fresh pork. There is also an abundance of game and fish. The favorite breads are biscuit and variations of corn bread, from pan bread to corn dodgers. The Mexican influence has extended this far east and north. One finds tomatoes, onions, garlic and pepper, and hotter foods than further north. Also the Mexican chopped hot vegetable and all forms of field peas, such as Crowder peas, lady peas, Black-eyed peas, etc. There are many wild greens and fruits which are much used and relished by the people: Muscadine grapes, possum persimmon, wild plum, watercress, hickory nuts, hazelnuts, chestnuts, walnuts and chinquapins. The wild fruits are eaten fresh and also made into many delicious products for the winter...\"\nArkansas Game Dinner\nWatermelon pickle, Cucumber pickle\nRaspberry jelly\nPie, Cake, Coffee.\" ---New York World's Fair Cook Book: The American Kitchen, Crosby Gaige [Doubleday, Doran:New York] 1939(p. 180-2)\nDid you know there is a large Greek Community in Arkansas? Greek Festival recipes here .\nHistoric recipes\n[1906] Rogers Cookbook (a church cookbook)\nNeed to make something for class?\nThe recipes below are offered in our books as examples of traditional Arkansas fare. If you have access to a Dutch Oven, you can use that as your historic foodways example. Soups, stews, biscuits and cobbler/pot pies are easily rendered in this pot.\n\"Old-Fashioned Corn Bread\nOver the years corn bread has had many variations. Butts of bacon, or crackling, corn kernels, chili peppers, cheese, or onions have all been added to corn bread batter at one time or another. This corn bread can be baked either in an iron skillet, similar to the Dutch ovens the early settlers used, or in a n 8-inch square baking pan. The sugar used in this recipe is traditional in southern corn bread.\nServes 6 to 8\nIf you need to identify and/or cook a food representative of California you have dozens of wonderful choices. You can pick something:\n1. That grows there (raisins, dates, oranges, grapes)\n2. From history (17th century California mission foods , the Gold Rush era )\n3. Representing foreign immigrants and settlers (Chinese, Italian, etc.)\n5. From a famous restaurant (The Brown Derby, Trader Vics, Chez Panisse)... 20th century restaurant menus\n6. From a famous food company (Del Monte, Chicken-of-the-Sea, Sees Candies)\nYou will find an excellent summary of the foods of California in the Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America/Andrew F. Smith, Volume 1 (p. 165-172). Your librarian can help you find a copy. Helen Brown's West Coast Cook Book (c. 1952) offers a delightful collection of California recipes, many with historic notes. Erica Peter's San Francisco: A Food Biography is well written and sourced (no recipes).\nA few menu items to get you started\n\"The early Spanish explorers were impressed by the Chumash craftsmanship...The finest objects made by the Chumash were of steatite. Its resistance to heat made it ideal for cooking receptacles. The pre- Spanish Chumash made no potter and all cooking was done in heavy steatite ollas and on comals (flat cooking stones, like skillets)... The most important single food source was the acorn, mainly from the California live oak...It was gathered in the fall and stored for year-round use. The shelled nuts were ground into meal and cooked as mush or in some form of cake. Pine nuts, especially of the pinon pine...were a favorite food. Islay, the wild cherry...was bruised in a morter and boiled. The cattail Typhia gave seeds and flour from the roots for making pinole, a gruel or paste. Berries, mushrooms, and cress were gathered in season to vary the diet. The Chumash prized the amole, or soap plant...The bulb was roasted and eaten, the green bulb furnished lather for washing...Berries of the California laurel...were roasted. The chia sage...produced a tiny oily seed that was made into flour or a very nutritious form of pinole...For hunting, the basic weapon was the bow and arrow...and with it the Chumash killed animpals such as the California mule deer, coyote, and fox. Smaller animals were usually take with snares and deadfalls. Flat, curved thowing sticks were used to kill rabbits...All game birds were regulalry harvested, particularly migratory ducks and geese on the lagoons. From canoes, the hunter pursued large marine mammals--seals, sea otters, and porpoises--and killed them with harpoons...Mollusks were an important food souce.\" ---\"Chumash,\" Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8: California, Rovert F. Heiser editor [Smithsonian Institution: Washington DC] 1978 (p. 514-517)\n\"Not only did the [native] people of the Monterey Bay live together, but they seem to have prospered. Although there may have been some shortages of a particularly desirable food, there is little evidence in the mythology, the archaeological record, the reports of early visitors...that hunger was a problem before the coming of the Spaniards. On the contrary, the most common description of the Indians during the pre-conquest years shows them bringing gifts of deer, antelope, elk, and rabbit meat, plus fish, seed and nut cakes, and other foodstuffs to the Spaniards from their obviously abundant stores. Virtually all early visitors were extravagant in their praise of the rich wildlife and resources of the Monterey Bay area. Each fall and winter steelhead trout and silver (coho) salmon splashed up the larger streams...Immense schools of smelt dashed themselves onto the beaches...Clams, mussels, abalone, and other shellfish were abundant...Great flocks of migrating geese and ducks...settled each fall into the marshlands...Deer were plentiful, as were elk, and herds of pronghorn antelope...Seals and...sea otters...could often be caught. There were also nuts--especially acorns and pine nuts...plus wild roots and bulbs, grasses, and flowers, berries, and greens. In addition, the tastes of the Indians ran to foods generally avoided by Europeans--grasshoppers, groundsquirrels, mice, and small birds...\"\n---Life in a California Mission (p. 23-24) �\nAnglo-American perspective\n\"An appreciation of the complexities of Indian culture is difficult, even for those studying it today. Many people still characterize traditional Indian life as 'primitive,' those emotionally sympathetic to it often extolling its supposed 'simplicity.' The reasons for thinking this way are obvious. To raise a crop of wheat a European farmer has to plow, sow, weed, irrigate, control pests, and harvest, all with specialized tools. The Indian...is seen gathering acorns from a oak tree...without apparent effort or advanced skill. Yet the use of acorn is anything but simple. It involves many hard-to-master and often elaborate technologies...In fact, if the entire process is measured carefully, it may take less work and certainly far less skill to create a loaf of wheat bread than a loaf of acorn bread.\"\n---Life in a California Mission (p. 24-25)\nThe California Mission Studies Association is dedicated to study and preservation of the history of Spanish missions. Information on several Mission web sites confirms foods of these Missions generally consisted of simple local fare, much of it grown on site.\n\"The neophytes were given morning and evening meals of atole and a mid day meal of pozole. They were allowed to gather wild foods, as was their custom before the Spanish came. On Sundays and special feast days everyone received almost a half peck of wheat...Mission life was routine; order was brought out of a wilderness. In general, seven hours of the day were allotted to labor, with two hours of prayer daily and four or five on Sundays and on days of festivals. In the morning their food consisted of atole or a gruel of barley, wheat, or corn. At noon, they got pozole, which consisted of the same grains, only boiled. In the evening, it was the same food as in the morning, but in addition, every few days cattle were slaughtered to provide beef. \"\n--- San Diego History , Richard Pourade\nAccording to the Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America, the Spanish introduced many foods to California via Mexico. These included: almonds, apples, apricots, bananas, barley, beans, cherries, chickpeas, chilies, citrons, dates, figs, grapes, lemons, lentils, limes, maize, olives, nectarines, oranges, peaches, pears, plums, pomegranates, quinces, tomatoes, walnuts, wheat, chickens, cows, donkeys, goats, horses, sheep and domesticated turkey. \"The colonists supplemented their fare with most of the same types of game hunted by the Native Americans. The colonists made corn tortillas, as the wheat varieties that they brought with them were not easily cultivated in California. When wheat became more abundant, it was used to make tortillas on special occasions. The Spanish established the first flour mill in 1786. The role of the missions was to Christianize the California Indians. Many Indians did convert to Christianity and relocated around the Spanish settlements, which resulted in a shift in their diet. They had been accustomed to eating vegetables, fish, and game, but mission agricultures and husbandry brought them a monotonous diet of atole, a gruel made from ground, leached acorns or other nutlike seeds, and pinole, a flour made by grinding seeds.\"\n---Oxford Encylopedia of Food and Drink in America, Andrew F. Smith [Oxford University Press:New York] Volume 1, 2004 (p. 166)\n\"Another Spanish holding, California, had no European inhabitants until 1769 when Franciscan priests established their first mission at San Diego. A first concern of the missionaries was to obtain wine and wheat for holy communion and beeswax for altar candles. The bees they brought from Spain and, with the help of their Indian converts, they planted vinyards and wheat fields. Citrus fruit trees were also brought from Spain, as were dates and figs. Two other foods that grew well in these places were brought from Mexico: sweet potatoes and avocados...The Spanish colonists brought with them favorite foods--among them, saffron, olive oil, and anise and combined these foods with foods of the local Indians and the Mexican Indians to make a New Mexican cuisine that still flourishes today.\"\n---Heritage Cookbook, Better Homes and Gardens [Meredith Corporation:Des Moines IA] 1975 (p. 39)\n[NOTE: Recipes included in this book are: Red Chili Sauce, Posole, Chili Meat Sauce, Stacked Enchiladas, Corn Tortillas, Spicy Hot Chocolate, Chilies Rellenos, Early Spanish Rice, Spanish String Beans, Spanish Vegetables (corn, onion, zucchini, tomatoes). You librarian will be happy to help you obtain a copy.]\nWant to cook some traditional mission dishes?\nTo make about 5 cups\n3 cups (about 12 ounces) coarsley chopped dried apples\n1 cup canned pureed pumpkin\n1/2 cup dark brown sugar\n1/2 cup roasted sunflower seeds\n1/2 cup seedless raisins\n1 teaspoon salt\n1 quart water\nCombine the [ingredients] and water in a heavy 3 to 4 quart casserole and mix well. Bring to a boil over high heat, reduce the heat to low, cover tightly and simmer for about 1 1/2 hours, or until the apples are tender. Check the pan occasionally and, if the fruit seems dry, add more water 1/4 cup at a time. Transfer the fruit to a bowl and cool to room temperature before serving. Trappers' fruit, so called because it was easy for Colorado fur trappers on the mid-19th Century to prepare, is served as an accompaniment to roasted and broiled meats.\"\n---American Cooking: The Great West , Jonathan Norton Leonard [Time-Life Books:New York] 1971 (p. 84)\n\"Muffin Cakes (Colorado)\nPeople living in colonial/early America Connecticut ate foods similar to those throughout New England . These colonies were greatly influenced by English cooking traditions.\n\"In the early 1630s both the English of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the Dutch of New Amersterdam Colony eyed the wide, fertile Connecticut Valley as a possibility for settlement, agriculture, and fur trading. In June 1633 the Hollanders built a fort at what was to become Hartford. In the fall of 1634, JOhn Oldham and ten others left Watertown in the Massachusetts Colony to establish a permanent settlement at Wethersfield, south of Hartford. Memebers of the John Oldham group became the first Europeans to plant seeds in the soil of Connecticut. They sowed rye in a fallow Indian field. The next year several more groups came from Massachusetts and brought cattle and hogs. The harsh winters, however, drove most of these early settlers back to their Massachusetts homes. By the end of the 1630s, those who remained had created productive farms, started the mercantile town of New Haven, and established an independent government. The early Dutch settlers in the Hartford area did likewise. They planted apple orchards, appointed a committee to select superior calves for breeding stock, and developed a dairy industry. By the 1640s the efforts of both the English and the Dutch settlers had made the new territory of Connecticut virtually self-sufficient...As the population of Connecticut increased, so did the farming. The variety of crops expanded to include many vegetables, as well as berries and fruit trees...the farmers..raised radishes, lettuce, cucumbers, and melons...The early Connecticut farmers also dug underground pits where they stored cabbages, squash, potatoes, and other root vegetables...Fishing has always been an important part of the Connecticut economy. Shad fishing along the Connecticut River...has been a tradition since colonial times...When the English first settled in the Connecticut River Valley, the numerous shad were despised as food. Eating shad meant that a person was almost destitute or had exhausted his supply of salt pork.\"\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Publications:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 12)\nEarly Connecticut recipes\nAmelia Simmon's American Cookery (originally published in Hartford, 1796)is generally considered to be the first American cookbook. Why? Because it contained recipes using \"Indian\" maize. About the book & its author . Popular period foods included pies, cakes, soups (chowder, especially), baked beans, roasted meats, breads, and pork (salt pork, bacon, ham).\n1 egg\n2 cups cranberries\nSift dry ingredients into bowl; add shortening, milk and egg. Beat for 2 minutes. Stir in cranberries. Bake in a buttered 9-inch square pan in a 350 degress F. oven for about 40 minutes. Serve with Hot Butter sauce (below. Makes 9 three-inch squares.\nHot Butter Sauce\nMelt butter or margarine in the top part of a double boiler; add sugar and liquid; mix well. Cook over hot water for about 5 minutes, stirring occasionally. Serve hot over pudding.\"\n---Mystic Seaport Cookbook, Lillian Langseth-Christensen [Funk & Wagnall's:New York] 1970 (p. 214)\nOfficial state foods\nNutmeg: One of Connecticut's nicknames is is called \"The Nutmeg State.\" Nutmegs are spices which are NOT indigenous to Connecticut. This makes for an interesting report. What is nutmeg ?\nEastern oyster: This official state symbol was selected because many people in the early days (Native Americans and European settlers) ate them regularly.\nDid you know???!\nHamburgers (as we know them today): Some food historians claim these were \"invented\" in a tiny restaurant called Louis Lunch in New Haven, CT. Notes here (scroll down about half way).\nHawaii offers perhaps the most unique blend of culinary history and flavors of all the 50 states. Geography, people, history and evolving local tastes combine to create a cuisine that merits detailed study. Luaus are Hawaiian feasts.\n\"The food of Hawaii is a diverse blend of all the island and mainland cuisines, especially those of Polynesia, Japan, China, and Korea, wed to Portuguese and American tastes. Hawaii was settled by Polynesians who themselves derived form the Indomalayan region. Except for the bat...which was inedible, Hawaii had no indigenous animals, and all present animals on the islands were at one time or another brought to Hawaii. These included the dog... which was bred for food, the pig...domesticated fowl...and other animals. Fish, which is a mainstay of the Hawaiian diet, was plentiful in the island waters, and every species was eaten, for no poisonous fish existed in the region.\"\n---Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, John Mariani [Lebhar-Friedman:New York] 1999 (p. 152)\n\"Hawaii's food today is a confusing mixture, a palimpsest of the foods of a dozen different ethnic groups. But one can make sense of it by taking note of two salient facts: fist, that before the arrival of the first humas, probably around the 3rd century AD, Hawaii, one of the most isolated sets of islands in the world, contained essentially nothing edible on land. Very few species had managed to cross those staggering distances; those that did had speciated to provide a fine natural laboratory for evolutionary biologists. But apar from a few birds and a few ferns, there was nothing to eat; most important, there were no edible carbohydrates. Second, since the arrival of the first humans, Hawaii has been the terminal point of three diasporas: the great marine diaspora of the Pacific Islanders; the great voyages of discovery of the Europeans and the Americans; and the end of the road for Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, and lately, SE Asians. From these diverse influences, a creole food is now being created, known in the islands as Local Food.\n\"When the Hawaiians arrived in the islands, they brought with them some 27 or so edible plants, as well as pigs, dogs...The most important plants were taro and sweet potato. The terrain and climate in Hawaii proved particularly suitable for growing wetland taro...Also important were breadfruit, various yams, sugar cane, and coconut...The staple of the diet was poi. This was usually made with taro, but sweet potato or other starches were used when necessary...The major protein was fish. Both pigs and dogs were eaten but they were largely reserved for the nobility...For the bulk of the population protein was provided by wild fish and shellfish from the streams, the reef, and the ocean. The fish was eaten both raw...and cooked...\n\"In 1778, Captain James Cook sighted the Hawaiian Islands. Within a matter of years they had become a part of world trade...From the start, new animals and plants were introduced; cows, horses, and goats, and a bewildering variety of plants...Hawaiian food and haole food (the latter being the food of the white incomers) continued side by side with occasional input from the Chinese who also ended up on the islands...On ceremonial occasions, there would be luaus at which largely Hawaaian foods was served: poi, of course, and dried fish and shrimp, luau pig baked in the imu, seaweed, and taro leaves, and a dessert made of coconut milk thickened with Polynesian arrowroot...\n\"The food landscape of Hawaii began changing dramatically once the sugar plantations began to flourish following the signing of the Reciprocity Treaty with the United States in 1876...In order, substantial number of Chinese, Japanese, Okinawans, Koreans, Puerto Ricans, Portuguese from the Atlantic Islands, and Filipinos arrived in the islands between the 1880s and the 1930s...Each of these groups demanded their own food on the plantations and the plantation stores went quite some way to accomodate them...\n\"Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, certain forces began to produce a creole food, Local Food...One was the arrival of home economists at the university...Trained largely at the Columbia Teachers College in New York, these women recorded the diet of the Japanese, established the food values of Hawaiian foods and a range of tropical fruits, trained large numbers of home economics teachers and school cafeteria managers. Surprisingly sympathetic to different ethnic foods on the islands, they urged brown rice...milk...and ensured that the food in the public school system was an all-American diet of hamburger, meat loaf, Salisbury steak, and mashed potatoes. This exposure to American food was reinforced for the many who joined up following the bombing of Pearl Harbor in the second World War...Now, at least in public, most of the population of Hawaii eats Local Food much of the time...The centerpiece of Local Food is the Plate Lunch available from lunch wagons and from numerous small restaurants...It consists of 'two scoop'...sticky rice...a large portion of meat, usually cooked in Asian style, a portion of macaroni salad or potato salads, and perhaps a lettuce leaf of dab of kimch'i on the side.\"\n---Oxford Companion to Food, Alan Davidson [Oxford University Press:Oxford] 1999 (p. 373-4)\n[NOTE: Home Economic specialists published several books to help newly relocated mainland homemakers:\n\"Food of Hawaii can be separated into two categories; Hawaiian food, the food of the native islanders, and local food, the eclectic blend of the cuisines of later settlers. Before explorers, missionaries, and immigrants arrived, Hawaiian food consisted of fresh ingredients that were prepared raw or cooked simply, using broiling, boiling, and roasting techniques. Protein sources included poultry, pig, and dog. Fish and other seafood, such as turtles, sea urchins, limpets, and shellfish, were also consumed but in modest quantities.\"\n---Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America, Andrew F. Smith [Oxford University Press:New York] 2004, Volume 1 (p. 591)\n[NOTE: This book contains far more information than can be paraphrased here. Ask your librarian to help you find a copy.]\n\"Much earlier, the Japanese had had a tremendous effect on the food in the Hawaiian Islands, but it did not take Hawaii's statehood to make mainland American practitioners of island cookery. Bananas and pineapples had become important in the kitchens of New England women whose seafaring men had brought the tropical fruits back from various ports of call...The fiftieth state acquired a cuisine as international as any of its sisters. Hawaii was characteristically Polynesian until the nineteenth century, and its diet of fish and fruit remained unmodified until the coming of the missionaries and clipper ships from New England. Dried meat and salted fish had fed American sailors, and these foods became a part of Hawaiian tradition--as pipikuala, the jerked beef that is broiled in tiny pieces and served with a sweet-sour cause, and as lomi lomi, thin fillets of salted salmon that some New Yorkers have described as better in its indigenous way than lox (smoked salmon) from their own favorite delicatessens. Mixed with chopped onions and tomatoes, lomi lomi is habitually served as a salad. Salmon, to the early Hawaiians, was common enough to be known as \"the pig in the sea.\" Other fish were used after the coming of the missionaries to produce such things as fish chowder in basic Yankee fashion, and Scots who come to the islands as technicians and platnation overseers added their native scones and shortbreads to the daily fare of thousands of Hawaiians who generations before had adopted the Portuguese wheat bread of the first European immigrants. Cornmeal and red bean soup, also brought by the Portuguese, have been accepted as Hawaiian by islanders of all ethnic roots, and rather than submitting to a single style, island cooks have incorporated many European dishes, along with those from Chinese, Japanese, and Korean sources, developing a culinary tradition that may be among the most festive if the world. The traditional Hawaiian feast called the luau is the ultimate of American picnics, cookouts, and barbecues, and it has added much to the variety of outdoor feasting on the American mainland, especially in California.\"\n---American Food: The Gastronomic Story, Evan Jones, 2nd edition [Vintage Books:New York] 1981] (p. 167-8)\nLuau-type feasts are known in many cultures and cuisines. In spirit, they are not so very different from New England clambakes, upstate New York pit dinners, Texas chili cookoffs, Iowa covered-dish suppers, Arkansas barbeques, and NASCAR tailgate parties. Food historians tell us large community food gatherings originated as religious celebrations. Menus and dishes varied according to culture and cuisine. Though time, these feasts evolved. Today's community food events serve as a contemporary reminder of historic proportion.\n\"Because they figure so predominantly in Pacific life, feasts have received a great deal of ethnographic attention. They were often dictated by political motives and defined by structured social relationships and religious considerations. They were also important mechanism for exchange and have considerable economic significance. Feasts, surrounded with rules and rituals, usually involved large numbers of individuals and a great amount and variety of food. In some societies, all food was prepared and eaten at one location where the feast took place; in others, cooked or uncooked food was given to guests for later consumption...In Melansesia, feast preprations might have inlcuded the slaughter of hundreds of pigs.\"\n---The Cambridge World History of Food, Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee Ornelas [Cambridge University Press:Cambridge] 2000, Volume Two (p. 1359)\n\"Ancient Hawaiian feasts and celebrations were mainly religious in nature. A feast followed sacred cemeromies such as the birth of a child, marriage, or death. When a piece of work was completed, such as the building of a canoe or a new home, a feast followed. The feast was to thank the god (akua) or gruardian spririt (aumakua) that helped make the work a success. Aumakua were present for anything a person did. They were honored at any feast with food placed on an altar. Hawaiians believed that the aumakua ate the food and enjoyed the feast. Today in Hawai'i, not only Hawaiians, but many other ethnic groups have a lu'au, or feast, to celebrate occasions such as marriage, birthdays, graduation, or the completion of a new home.\"\n---Ethnic Foods of Hawai'i, Ann Kondon Corum, revised edition [Bess Press:Honolulu] 2000 (p. 14-15)\n\"Hawaiians are farmers and fishermen by tradition. Fish and seafood provide protein, while poi from the taro or kalo plant, grown in flooded fields, provides starch. Early inhabitants of the islands often ate meals that combined such delights as taro, sweet potatoes, fish, pig, bananas, and greens from the taro top. Food was either salted, dried, boiled, or cooked in an underground oven, or imu. Even then, the imu was reserved for special occasions, for great effort goes into preparing these underground ovens. First, a large pit is dug in the earlth and filled with wood. Next, specially selected porous rocks are heaped on the wood and the fire is lit. When these rocks turn white-hot, a pig is placed on the hot rocks,--its cavity filled with several more hot rocks and its outside wrapped in a basket of ti and banana leaves. The pit is then covered with dirt and left to cook for yours. When the pit is opened, the pig meat literally falls off the bones. Today, imu cooking is reserved for marriage feasts, first-year birthdays, graduations, and anniversary celebrations...When it comes to food, perhaps most visitors to Hawaii think of the luau, a celebratory feast whose origins blend native and foreign cultures, including that of early traders, missionaries from New England, and the islands' many imigrants. A typical luau inclues a kalua pig, poi, lomi salmon, chicken, long rice, phihi (raw limpet), raw fish, haupia (coconut pudding dessert), and a salad made of potatoes and macaroni. Sometimes the pig is replaced by lualua, a bundle of salted pork or beef wrapped in taro leaves and steamed in a package of ti leaves.\"\"\n---\"Hawaii,\" Linda Paik Moriarty, Smithsonian Folklife Cookbook, Katherine S. Kirlin and Thomas S. Kirlin [Smithsonian Institution Press:Washington DC] 1992 (p. 262)\n\"Take a birthday party with all its little goodies, add an elaborate wedding feast with singing and dancing, throw in a traditional Thanksgiving dinner with the trimmings, then top it off with an old-fashioned country supper; serve them all at the same time and in the same gaily decorated room and you've got something like an authentic Hawaiian luau. Actually, there's nothing that really compares to a genuine Hawaiian luau. At best, we can only imitate it. For, of all the festive events that Hawaiians are famous for, nothing is more symbolic to their culture and character than the traditional luau. Love, marriage, family, friendship, religions and prosperity are all celebrated in a joyous ritual that goes back to the very origins of tribal structure. The ancient Hawaiian word for this glorious event was Ahaaina, or \"gathering of friends to partake foood\". As time passed, the commonly used word luau, meaning \"leaf of the taro\" (the taro plant was and still is an important food source) became the accepted name for this happy occasion...Though the luau is essentially a happy event, it is also richly endowed with ancient tabus and religious ritual. It is these sacred laws and tribal customs that dictate not only the type of food that can be eaten but also how and when it can be eaten. But the prevailing mood and atmosphere is always one of relaxed contentment and contagious convivality. A \"must\" for any traditional luau is the decoratively displayed roast suckling pig...assorted fruits, fishes, fowl, vegetables and sweets are featured too.\"\n---Hawaiian Cookbook, Roana and Gene Schindler [Dover Publications:New York] 1970 (p. 240-141)\n[NOTE: This book contains several luau recipes and menus.]\n\"'Even in Hawaii it is not always possible to cook a pig.' Such was the laconic remark in Trader Vic's Pacific Island Cookbook, one of the books that introduced Hawaiian food to the rest of the world after World War II. Too true. If visitors have heard of anything about Hawaii they have heard about luaus: those feasts of tender roast pig pulled from a pit dug in the ground accompanied by purple poi and coconut pudding. Busses take hundreds out to beaches to drink watery rum punch and watch the hip-twirling Tahitian hula. But in truth, cooking a pig in the traditional earth oven (the imu) is quite impossible for most people in Hawaii. Luaus still go on, planned well in advance and involving huge amounts of preparation. Buying a whole pig (assuming you guy it and don't raise and slaughter it yourself), keeping it refrigerated, finding a place to dig an imu, preparing lauluas, and collecting the varieties of raw seafood if a formidable task...Many Hawaii residents...settle for alternatives: a church luau--Kawaiahao Church has a particularly popular one--or catered baby luau...\"\n---The Food of Paradise: Exploring Hawaii's Culinary Heritage, Rachel Laudan [University of Hawaii Press:Honolulu] 1996 (p. 238)\nIdaho's edible state symbols are wild huckleberries and cutthroat trout. Potatoes are the top producing crop but they are not \"official\" state foods.\nIdaho potatoes are world famous!\n\"The first potato grower in Idaho was Henry Harmon Spalding, a Presbyterian missionary, who planted potatoes in 1836 to teach the Nez Perce Indians how to provide food for themselves other than by hunting. Homesteaders grew potatoes to sell to the miners who came throughout the state. The Mormons, however, were the first to grow potatoes commercially. By the time Idaho was admitted to the Union in 1890, its potatoes were famous for their superior quality. Luther Burbank...developed the Russet Burbank potato that is today called the Idaho Potato. In 1872 he perfected a long white potato with a rough russet skin. Adapted to the Northwest, the Russet Burbank has made Idaho the leading potato producer in the nation.\"\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 223)\n\"Several huckleberry species are native to Idaho, all belonging to genus Vaccinium section Myrtillus. The most common and popular is the black or thin-leaved huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum). Plants grow slowly, taking up to 15 years to reach full maturity. Black huckleberries produce single plump, dark purple berries in the axils of leaves on new shoots. They depend on an insulating cover of snow for survival during winter and have not been successfully grown commercially. Black huckleberries grow at elevations between 2,000 and 11,000 feet with many productive colonies between 4,000 and 6,000 feet. Black huckleberries usually grow from 1 to 6 feet tall and produce berries up to 1/2 inch in diameter. Huckleberries are a favorite food of bears.\"\nAbout Idaho's culinary heritage\n\"Fur trapping and trading with the Indians provided the first source of wealth in Idaho in the early part of the 1800s. By the 1840s...settlers began to arrive to farm the land. Gold was discovered in 1860, and with the opening of the transcontinental railroad, the population of Idaho increased rapidly as mining became the quickest way to get rich. Along with the miners came Chinese immigrants, who took up the claims of Caucasian miners after they had moved on to more productive claims...As mining declined for the hardworking Chinese, they moved into trades and vegetable farming. Idahoans began to rely on their local Chinese vegetable farmer to deliver fresh vegetables door-to-door. The Chinese raised vegetables on terraced mountain terrain, becuase the land was cheaper...Some of the first European settlers in Idaho were Finns, Welsh, and Basques, who came to work in the mines and to raise sheep.. The Finns brought with them a love for Lobinmuhennos, a salmon chowder, and the Welsh brought Bara Brith, a raisin and currant bread. The Basque preferred lamb stew and split pea soup. Chorizo, a spicy sausage, attributed by some to Basque origin, is still being produced in Idaho. In the early days Basque sheepherders made a sourdough bread on which they slashed the sign of a cross before baking. This act reflected their devout religious feelings. The first piece of the baked bread was always given to their sheepdog. The primary food of the early settlers was bread and beans...Most small settlements had a mom-and-pop general store in which the smell of kerosene and coffee permeated the air...Northern Idaho is mostly dry farmed, and wheat, dry peas, and lentils are the predominant crops...Barley and hops for making beer are grown in northern Idaho...Herbs and spices, broccoli, and small amount of asparagus constitute the remainder of the crops in Idaho...Treasure Valley in Canyon County is knowns for its mint and spearmint cultivation...in Idaho's Magic Valley more trout is raised per square mile than anywhere else in the world...Many homegrown apples are combined with ham in a casserole. The apples are also used to make jelly, which is mixed with mayonnaise for a salad dressing. Prunes, another home-grown orchard product, are often used for prune butter, prune-whip pies, and spicy prune puddings...Huckleberry pie is an Idaho specialty.\"\n---Taste of the States, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 222-5)\n[NOTE: This book contains recipes for Country Potatoes (p. 224) and Lentils with Red Pepper Sauce (p. 225).]\nRecommended reading: Bacon, Beans and Galantines: Food and Foodways on the Western Mining Frontier/Joseph R. Conlin\n[1871] Mrs. Owen's Illinois Cook Book/Mrs. T.J.V. Owen\nFeeding Our Families: Memories of Hoosier Homemakers/Eleanor Arnold, editor\nCracker Jack and modern hot dogs were introduced to the American public. Both were manufactured in Chicago.[NOTE: If you have to bring a \"show and tell\" food for your report this is perfect!]\n[1906]\nInglenook Coobook , published in Elgin IL (full-text)\n[1928]\nHorseshoe sandwiches debut in Springfield\n[1930s]\nThe Great Depression. Al Capone sponsored soup kitchens in Chicago:\n\"Three meals are served each day, including Sundays. Breakfast consists of coffee and a sweet roll, and dinner and supper of soup, bread and coffee, with a second or third helping permitted.\"\n---Capone Feeds 3,000 a Day in Soup Kitchen, New York Times, November 15, 1930 (p. 4)\n[1930s & 1940s] Viva Italian food!\n[1960s] Salad bars\nNeed Illinois recipes? The Legendary Illinous Cookbook: Historic and Culinary Lore from the Prairie State, John L. Leckel offers comtemporary favorites. The \"legends\" in this book are not food-related; they offer tidbits of history about selected towns. We also have a copy of the Chicago Daily News Cookbook [1930]. This gem offers suggested daily menus, ten-minute meals, and holiday fare. Perfect for recreating Depression-era middle-class fare. Happy to send selected pages from either book (just let us know which type of food (cake? salad?) or menu (New Year's Dinner? Saturday fall breakfast?) you need. NOTE: As true with most state/city/community cookbooks, the recipes are popular with the local people. They were not necessarily \"invented\" there.\nhere .\nPrehistoric & native American subsistence\n\"The first major cultural stage that has been roughly dated by archaeologists falls in the period of 8000 to 1000 B.C. Indians of that time were still hunters, fishers, and gatherers of mussels, berries, roots, and nuts. They used fire and made spears, stone axes, knives, and scrapers, along with bone fishhooks and drills. Probably they lived in caves temporarily, but they cultivated no gardens, made no pottery, and had no bows and arrows. Through the millennia, they adapted more efficiently to their environments. Hundred of sites in the late Archaic tradition are found in Indiana, indicating an increased population. Mussel shells left after the meat was extracted created mounds, sometimes fifteen feet high and covering more than an acre...\"\n---Indiana: A History, Howard H. Peckham [W.W. Norton:New York] 1978(p. 14-15)\nNative Americans\n\"The last and most complex culture is called Mississippian and is dated A.D. 900 to A.D. 1500. It is marked by intensive cultivation of corn, beans, squash, melons, and other foods, which in turn required and permitted community settlements...Not until after the middle of the seventeenth century did new Indians enter Indiana. The Miami drifted down from Wisconsin around the heard of Lake Michigan, and were followed by the Potawatomi. The Kickapoo and Wea came across northern Illinois and pushed the Miami farther east...In the northern and extreme western parts of the future state, the tribes formed villages, where the women cultivated gardens...prepared the meals, while the braves hunted, fished...The gradual appearance of the French traders gratified them, because the white newcomers raised the Indians' standard of living. The Indians could barter furs for metal pots and pans, wool blankets, ruffled cotton shirts, iron tools, steel knives, and traps, jews' harps, paint, and muskets that made their hunting more effective. They also gained access to French brandy.\"\n---Indiana: A History (p. 17-18)\nShawnee\n\"Shawnee economy, combining hunting with agriculture and some food gathering, had been strongly oriented toward the fur trade since the early eighteenth century...The most important game animals were deer buffalo, bears, mountain lions, and turkeys...During the summer women tended crops and gathered wild plant foods while men fished in the vicinity or set out on deer hunts. After the final maize harvest in August the community...prepared to move to its winter quarters. Although fields were owned by individual households they were grouped together into a single area...Women seem to have planted collectively...\"\n---Handbook of North American Indians, William C. Sturtevant general editor [Smithsonian Institution:Washington DC] 1978, Volume 15: Northeast (p. 624)\n\"In the spring and summer the Shawnee women would farm fields adjoining their villages. Corn (maize) was the staple crop. It was eaten as a vegetable or pounded in a mortar to produce hominy or bread flour...Other tended crops included beans, squash, and pumpkins. Gathered wild edibles included maple syrup, persimmons, wild grapes, nuts, berries, roots, and honey. Men hunted year-round...for deer, elk, bear, turkeys, pheasants, and smaller fur-bearing animals.\"\n---Gale Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes, Sharon Malinowski and Anna Sheets editors [Gale:Detroit] 1998, Volume 1: Northeast, Southeast, Caribbean (p. 91)\nKickapoo\n\"Traditional Kickapoo subsistence followed the usual pattern of agricultures combined with hunting and food gathering.\"\n---Handbook of North American Indians (p. 658)\n\"In their aboriginal territory, the Kickapoo relied on farming, hunting, fishing, and collecting wild rice, roots, berries, and nuts to sustain themselves. They raise corn, beans, and squash and store the surplus in underground pits lined with bark. The men hunted deer, elk, bear, beaver, squirrel, skunk, otter, and lynx with bow and flint-tipped arrows or with snares and fished with bone hooks or nets, and with snares of woven fibers. Each fall, all able-bodied persons went on a three- to four-month hunting expedition for buffalo. The meat was smoked and sun-dried...After the European contact, the Kickapoo added watermelon, melon, apples, and peaches to their diets. They also replaced their stone tools, clay pottery, and hide clothing with French articles.\"\n---Gale Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes (p. 91)\nMiami\n\"The Miami practiced the mixed hunting-farming economy typical of their region...The buffalo, formerly an important game animal, disappeared long before 1800...Wild tubers and roots were extensively used...Extensive maize fields surrounded Miami villages.\"\n---Handbook of North American Indians (p. 682)\n\"Through cross-breeding, Miami women developed the delectable white or \"Silver Queen\" maize...The Miami were a more prairie than forest group, and their principal game was the buffalo; hunts were communal...\"\n---Gale Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes (p. 132)\nPotawatomi\n\"Potawatomi economic and social life was tied closely to the rhythms of nature...The Potawatomi fished with trap, weir, net, hook, and harpoon. They used long cylindrical \"hoop\" nets in combination with dams across streams to trap fish and harpoons with deer horn or stone points for taking fish from lakes or streams. They also gathered a wide variety of natural foods: maple sugar, choke cherries, raspberries, blackberries, cranberries, roots of several kinds, plums, and grapes. The animals they hunted for food included bear, deer, elk, buffalo, squirrel, muskrat, raccoon, porcupine, wolf (a ceremonial delicacy for certain chiefs), turtles, ducks, and geese. Dogs were the only domestic animal eaten, and then mainly for ritual purposes. The food collected or grown was prepared and stored against the winter's need. Many foods were dried and stored in bark containers and pottery jars. Squash was sliced in rings and smoked or sun-dried, then stored. After parboiling, corn was scraped from the cob, then dried and made into preserves, or when fully ripe dried or parched. Cranberries were strung on strings and smoked inside the house. Most meat not consumed immediately was sliced, dried, and smoked. Ducks, geese, and turkeys, however, were pickled in brine, then smoked and stored, while fish were dried and smoked. Maple sugar was used as a condiment more often than salt.\"\n---Handbook of North American Indians (p. 734-5)\n\"Like so much of their lives, Potawatomi subsistence patterns revolved around the changing seasons. They fished nearby lakes and streams with hooks and lines... Though their principal crop was corn they also raised peas, beans, pumpkins, squash, and melon...They also gathered berries nuts, roots, maple sugar and wild rice.\"\n---Gale Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes (p. 260)\nEuropean settlers\nConner Prarie Living History Museum has plenty of information about 19th century foods. Check \"hearthside receipts\" for plenty of interesting (modernized) choices. Biscuits are easy!\n\"The first winter in Indiana was hard for the pioneers who had come from North Carolina, Virginia, and Kentucky around 1800. They were forced to exist on such food as bear-meat bacon, ash cakes made from acorns, and coffee made from seeds...Abraham Lincoln's first home in Indiana was a lean-to, which was later converted into a one-room cabin with a loft. The winter of 1816 was a harsh one, and the Lincolns lived on water from melted snow, wild game, and some borrowed corn and wheat. This primitive food was typical among the early settlers of Indiana...The 1850s are considered Indiana's Golden Age of Agriculture, when the state ranked high in the raising of hogs, corn, sheep, and wheat...Improved transportation...brought European immigrants to Indiana. Each nationality brought with them their culinary traditions...The favorite Hoosier delicacy of onion pie can be traced to the Polish, Lithuanian, and Hungarian immigrants...Wild American persimmons grew in Indiana and were used in puddings each fall...Fried biscuits also became an Indiana specialty. They are made with a yeast dough, cut into rounds, and deep fried. While still hot the biscuits are split, spread with soft butter, and eaten immediately...Pork cookery is another well-developed culinary art in Indiana...Indiana has been growing corn for popping since the time of the early settlers, who learned of it from the Indians.\"\n---Taste of the States, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 145-6)\n[NOTE: This book contains recipes for Persimmon Pudding and Ducking with Wild Rice Stuffing.]\nRecommended reading: Feeding Our Families: First in the series memories of Hoosier homemakers/Eleanor Arnold editor\nTraditional recipes\nCrosby Gaige's New York World's Fair Cook Book [c. 1939] lists these recipes for Indiana: Hamburger Vegetable Soup, Indiana Spaghetti (with diced round steak and bacon), Succotash, Red Chocolate Cake and this intriguing little recipe (without commenting on the name):\nLove and Tangle\n3 tablespoons milk\nflour\nMix the eggs and sugar and add flour to make it thick enough to roll. Roll in thin strips about six inches long and three inches wide, fold double by bringing one end up to the other. Beginning an inch or half inch from the folded end, cut several slits down the open end. Drop in hot fat and fry until light brown. Drain and sprinkle with powdered sugar.\" (p. 110)\nSheila Hibben's National Cookbook: A Kitchen Americana [c. 1932] offers these Indiana recipes: Beefsteak smothered in onions, Crumble tart, Gingerbread, Strawberry shortcake and White Fruit Cake. If you want any of these let us know.\nManufactured foods\nVan Camp's beans was established in Indianapolis in 1861\nClabber Girl (baking powder) has been in business since 1899.\n\"Indianapolis is not a city known for specific foods, but shares in the strong Midwestern food that has grown from the farming communities. If you were to join family/friends at an Indianapolis home to watch the Super Bowl, very likely you were be eating chili (made with ground beef and beans), chicken wings, potato salad, and brownies; pretty standard fare. If you were eating out, an oversized pork tenderloin sandwich would be a Hoosier standard.\"\nWhat is a Pork Tenderloin Sandwich?\nPork Tenderloin (aka Breaded Pork Tenderloin) is one of Indiana's traditional foods. Presumably descending from German weiner schnitzel , this item first surfaces in the early 20th century. Local folks credit Nicholas Frienstein, of Huntington, for the creation.\n\"In the pork-producing states of Indiana, Iowa, and Illinois, the traditional sandwich of choice is known as \"the tenderloin\" or, in some areas, \"the breaded tenderloin.\" The sandwich is made from king-size boneless pork tenderloin that has been pounded to about a quarter-inch thick, breaded, and then fried, deep fried, or sometimes grilled. These...are generally served on toasted hamburger buns or Kaiser rolls, and condiments of choice consist of mustard, pickle, and onion...According to road-food experts Jane and Michael Stern, Nicholas Freinstein of Huntington, Indiana, created the pork tenderloin sandwich. Freinstein peddled sandwiches from a basket before building a street cart that included a small grill, enabling him to cook tenderloins and burgers. Eventually, in 1908, Freinstein openend Nick's Kitchen in downtown Huntington. According to legend, his brother Jake, having suffered severe frostbite and the loss of his fingers, used his stumps to tenderize the slices of pork loin. Nick's competitors quickly adapted the tendering process by using wooden hammers or mechanical tenderizing devices, thereafter making it an integral part of the preparation of the tenderloin sandwich.\"\n---American Sandwich: Great Eats From All 50 States, Becky Mercuri [Gibbs Smith:Layton UT] 2004 (p. 43)\n[NOTE: This book contains a recipe.]\n\"What clam chowder is to New England or grits are to the South, the breaded pork tenderloin is to the Hoosier state. It's so indigenous to Indiana, we dispense with the reference to pork all together, as in \"I'll have the breaded tenderloin sandwich.\" But venture much outside the Midwest, and folks will probably look at you like lobsters were coming out of your ears if you were to order such a thing. \"Indianans are fanatical about them; in many town cafes, they are more popular than hamburgers,\" write syndicated food columnists Jane and Michael Stern in this month's issue of Gourmet magazine. To appreciate this unique Hoosier tradition, it's important to understand the culture that made the tenderloin possible. Steve Jones, a food historian and former columnist with the Marion Chronicle-Tribune, believes \"without a shadow of a doubt\" that the tenderloin originated in the days of home butchering. Back then, the meat would be flattened with the broad side of an ax, rolled in flour and dropped in a kettle of hot grease. According to Jones' research, the first place serving tenderloins to the public was Nick's Kitchen in downtown Huntington. Legend has it that Nick Freinstein started selling the breaded pork cutlets out of a pushcart before he opened his restaurant in 1908. His bother, Jake, who had lost his fingers to frostbite after passing out drunk in the snow, was employed to pound and tenderize the loins. As the years went by, the tenderloin grew in popularity and is now on the menu at more than half the restaurants in the state. Usually, it's the degree of thickness, or a secret recipe or style of breading that separates one breaded pork tenderloin sandwich from another. \"Everyone who sells them thinks theirs is the best,\" Jones says. \"They are very loyal to the tenderloin that they prefer.\" Nick's is now run by Jean Anne Bailey, who took over from her father, who bought the place in 1969.\"\n---\"THE DISH: Indiana is one big breaded pork tenderloin state,\" John Silcox, The Journal Gazette, 1 January 2003 (p. 1D)\nedible state symbols : Honeybee (not the bee! the honey is delicious), American Buffalo, and Native Sunflower (seeds).\nTop crops\nKansas Agricultural Statistics (what are the major crops?). About Kansas wheat . Wheat history notes here .\nPioneer Kansas foodways\n\"Early pioneer settlers of the Kansas territory found life and any type of agriculture to be primative...Cornmeal, the staple of the early settlers' food, was baked into various types of bread and was the basis of puddings. If the settlers grew some wheat, they also baked wheat bread. Pork was the popular meat, and in season green vegetables were available from the garden. Root vegetables were stored in a dugout cellar for winter use. There was no fruit, since there were no fruit trees. Men struggled to break fields out of the stubborn prairie sod and to cut any available wood for building and fuel. The women worked equally hard. They did all the cooking... and preparing of food for winter storage...When the German Mennonites from Russia arrived in Kansas in the 1870s, they found parched land. Local farmers who were depending upon spring wheat were almost starving. Being frugal people, each Mennonite family had brought with them seeds of a special wheat they had been growing on the steppes of Russia. These new wheat seeds flourished and made wheat growing in Kansas viable...The early Mennonites shared many of their recipes with the Kansas settlers, such as Piroshki, a Russian dish which the Germans grew to like. It is a flaky pastry filled with ground meat and eaten with sour cream. Buttermilk pie, cinnamon-flavored apple pie, and Bubbat (hot rolls with smoked sausage fillings) also became part of Kansas cuisine. Another Mennonite dish was a meat roll filled with onions, bacon, and sweet pickle and then baked with sour cream. It si similar to the German Roulanden. In the summer cold plum soup with raisins and milk was a refreshing repast. Many early pioneers, however, did not have the food variety of the Mennonites. Pancakes were the typical staple of early Kansans. Served with sorghum and gravy, they were dinner for many of the pioneer who very rarely had meat. When they ate meat, it was usually dried buffalo. Later, when beef was available, barbecues and chuck-wagon stews became a part of Kansas cuisine, especially in cattle country...Like those in other Midwestern states, Kansas immigrants retained some of their food traditions--Swedish almond cakes, Bohemian beer and sausages, English pancakes, and Scottish scones.\"\n---Taste of the States, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 179-181)\nKansas dining advice, 1886:\n\"Table Etiquette. This book being pre-eminently a Kansas production, the publishes may be justified in suggesting that directions in regard to table etiquette which are suited to the customs and habits of a community of wealth and leisure, are not adapted to the needs of an eager, busy, working people. While many have brought with them from older homes the knowldege and appreciation of elaborate tables, they find here neither the time, occasion, nor conveniences for such display. Attempts to ape the habits if foreighn families, who have numerous trained servants and extensive establishments, are but foolish and ruinous. It is to these efforts that we owe the almost total loss of social life, and the ruined health of American housewifes. When our homes can be opened to the reception of an evening company, and refreshments confined to the passing of a cup of tea or coffee and a biscuit, we shall then have taken the first step toward a social life without care or worry. Food served gracefully, and without confusion, renders the plainest meal a season of enjoyment. The manner in which the table is laid, and the mode in which food is prepared and served, influence not only the eye, but the appetite...The great purpose of rules of etiquette is, to inculcate good manners, and thus render us mutually agreeable...Chief among the rules for table manners is to eat slowly, as if it were a pleasure you desired to prolong, rather than a duty to be over with as quickly as possibe. Do not bring prejudices, dislikes, or annoyances to the table; they would spoil the best dinner. Respect the hour of meals; you have no right to destroy the comfort of the famly bu your want of punctuality. Find little fault at the time of eating, and praise wherever you can. Have as much variety in your food as possible, but not many dishes. Always have your table served neatly, and you will never have cause to be ashamed. Be hosptitable; if it is only a crust and a cup of cold water, and is clean, and good of its kind, there is no reason to blush for it; and with sincere friends the hearty welcome will make amends for the absence of rich viands.\"\n---The Kansas Home Cook-Book: consisting of recipes contributed by the Ladies of Leavenworth and other Cities and Towns/Mrs. C. H. Cushing and Mrs. B. Gray, facsimile 1886 reprint, [Creative Cookbooks:Monterey, CA] 2001(p. 296)\n[NOTE: your local public librarian will be happy to help you obtain a copy of this book.]\nNeed to make something for class? Anything with wheat is perfect.\nWhole-Wheat Muffins\nPopular traditional foods: Kentucky Burgoo , Kentucky Hot Brown (sandwich), Kentucky Fried Chicken & Derby Pie . Duncan Hines , famous for restaurant reviews & box cake mix, lived in Bowling Green.\nIf you want an easy, modern dessert to make for class? The following recipes are included in the Kentucky Derby Museum Cookbook includes recipes for Apple nut cake, Cadiz fudge cake, French Coconut-Carrot Cake, German Chocolate Cake with Orange Marmelade, Hummingbird cake, Macerated oranges, Pound cake, Mrs. Pollard's Sour Cream Cake, Fresh Blueberry tart, Mildred's Chess Pie, Lemon Chess pie, Ginger snaps, Pecan Poofs, Lemon Crispies, and Praline cookies.\nOf these? We recommend the chess pie. This delicious confection is a perennial southern favorite .Kentucky-based recipes here:\n\"Mildred's Chess Pie (serves 6-8)\n1 whole egg, room temperature\n2 egg yolks, room temperature\n1 ts. Vinegar\nTalk about a true American holiday! Since 1874 Lexington's annual horse racing event has been the hallmark of grand hospitality and culinary expression. This tradition has not waivered in times of war or depression. Food-wise, that means a full weekend of deliciousness from sumptuous brunches to late night after parties. Local fare is celebrates this event. Sumptuous hams, crispy fried chicken and piping hot biscuits melt-in-your- mouth hot biscuits slathered with gravy. Top that off with a generous slice of Derby pie. The \"official\" beverage? Mint Julep , of course!\n[1950]\n\"When the Kentucky Derby is run at the end of next week, many of the spectators will have been fortified to accept the disappointments it inevitably brings by having eaten a Derby Day breakfast. A charming Louisville hostess...came in heasterday to talk about the menu for this party, traditionally held in many households in her city about 10:30 on the morning of that great racing event. Far from being a matter of coffee, eggs and bacon, it festively starts off with a mint julep or Kentucky toddy and proceeds to ham, chicken or steaks, salads and elaborate dessert...The menu and recipes...serve as an interesting and practical introduction to the cookery of the Blue Grass State...For Derby Day breakfasting...Churchill Downs Mint Juleps, Baked ham (preferably Kentucky country-cured), Beaten biscuits, Batter bread, Grape jelly, Pickles, Loose-leaved lettuce salad, Transparent pie, Coffee.\"\n---\"News of Food: Delicacies of the Old South,\" Jane Nickerson, New York Times,, April 27, 1950 (p. 36)\n[NOTE: this article includes recipes for Mint Julep, Batter Bread and Transparent Pie. The cookbook referenced is Out of Kentucky Kitchens/Mrs. Morris Flexner.]\n[1974]\n\"One of America's most captivating cities, Louisville, Ky., has long been noted for warm hospitality. Thousands of people from around the world flock there for the unending round of parties on Derby weekend, the social highlight of the year. The gaiety of the breakfasts, luncheons, dinners and banquets is an important part of the exciting \"run for the roses.\"...Fried ham and red-eye gravy is one of the state's great treats. Thick slices of ham are first soaked in milk and then fried in fat, cut from the edges. The gravy is made simply by adding a small amount of water and black pepper to the drippings. When boiled, stirred and scraped to the desired consistency, the gravy is poured over the ham or sometimes over grits or beaten biscuits. Another local specialty is Bibb lettuce, developed and named after a native colonel who grew it in the limestone soil...On the morning of the race, Derby breakfasts are fashionable. Tables set with elegant appointments offer such traditional fare as Kentucky ham and bacon, scrambled eggs, spoon bread grits, hot biscuits, Kentucky scramble, fried apples, and fresh whole strawberries or peach desserts, as well as copious libations. After the race, guests go to buffets or dinners where the fare might be thinly sliced ham and beaten biscuits, fried chicken, sliced turkey, candied sweet potatoes, Bibb lettuce salad, pickled peaches or watermelon pickle, hickory nut cake, strawberry shortcake, or bourbon chocolate pie. The Sunday morning breakfast may offer chicken or turkey hash, sausages, thin batter or pancakes, pickles, and fresh fruit with small cakes or cookies. Featured at the annual gathering of the Kentucky Colonels during Derby Week is the traditional dish, Burgoo...originally a French stew... cooking up the famous dish at festive occasions...800 pounds of meat, one dozen squirrels, 24 gallons corn, 240 pounds fat hens and five bushels of tomatoes--and it usually served hundreds.\"\n---\"Racing Horses, Eating Well,\" Kay Shaw Nelson, Washington Post, May 2, 1974 (p. F1)\nDerby Day Breakfasts , Gourmet, May 1974 (p. 16, 54 & 56)\n[1978]\n\"So far as horse racing-fans are concerned, the main event that will take place in Louisville this coming Saturday at 5 p.m. is the 104th running of the Kentucky Derby. But to serious eaters and drinkers, that two-and-a-half-minute event represents merely a brief interlude in what is really a two-and-a-half-day continuous feast. Derby time...is party time...given over to a series of buffet cocktail parties and dinners, brunches, lunches and suppers, and lots of nibbling in between. Dining tables of polished mahogany or Kentucky cherry set with heavily ornate family silver, the finest linens; the thickest frosted silver julep mugs sporting sprigs of fresh mint, and centerpieces of roses with tulips virtually groan under the weight of the richest, most elegant specialties this elegant part of the South has to offer...some of the parties are rustic. Burgoo...which is really a sort of soup-stew with chicken and vegetables, is made outdoor and simmers for hours in big iron cauldrons. People get their juleps in silver mugs or tin cups and when they finish drinking, the burgoo is ladled into the empty mugs. For breakfasts, they serve scrambled eggs, grits with melted butter, fried apples, fried tomatoes, country ham made with red eye gravy, beaten biscuits or spoon bread or crisp corn cakes. For dinners and suppers they do...baked country ham that may be glazed but most traditionally not, burgoo, a salad of Kentucky limestone lettuce, which Northerners call bibb, biscuits, corn pudding and then all the desserts--the pecan bourbon cake, the Derbytown pie with its melting chocolate and crunchy nuts, bourbon balls, strawberries, apricot sherbet and all kinds of other things.\"\n---\"Derby Day: A Winner for Food Lovers,\" Mimi Sheraton, New York Times, May 3, 1978 (p. C1)\n[1982]\n\"Welcome to the Kentucky Derby party. From Florida to Alaska, people will gather this Saturday to drink juleps, eat country ham and and beaten biscuits, and watch at least two minutes of horse racing.\"\n---\"On Derby Day, the Juleps Bloom From Florida to the Philippines,\" Heywood Klein, Wall Street Journal, April 29, 1982 (p. 31)\nChurchill Downs Web site offers a wealth of historical and cultural information regarding the Kentucky Derby--excellent for background. Given the fact that extravagant Derby-Eve parties, elaborate brunches, major festivals and special treats are an integral part of the Derby tradition is seems odd that there are no links to food on this site. Taste of Derby celebrates this event with elite chefs. The Kentucky Derby Museum Cook Book [1986] offers a party checklist & many recipes (but no suggested menus). Happy to send/share pages. Let us know what you want!\nTabasco sauce (spicy flavoring)\nState foods\n\"Official\" state foods are designated by law. Louisiana's edible state symbols are: \"The honeybee is a social, honey-producing bee, recognized as the most economically valuable of all insects. This reputation commonly rests on its production of honey and beeswax. The honeybee's greatest usefulness, however, is actually in the pollination of crops, including fruits, nuts, vegetables, and forage crops, and many uncultivated plants that prevent erosion by keeping topsoil from being carried into the ocean. The honeybee was made our official insect in 1977.\"\n\"Milk was adopted as the official drink of Louisiana in 1983.\"\n\"South Louisiana is the crawfish capital of the world, supporting a multimillion dollar a year industry. The crawfish in appearance greatly resembles the lobster, but is very much smaller. Its color varies with the water in which it lives and its variety. Although it is found in swamps and marshes throughout the state, the best wild populations occur in the overflow basins of the Atchafalaya, Red, and Pearl Rivers. Crawfish farms have also been established where the crustaceans are cultivated for local use and for export to other states. The crawfish was adopted as State Crustacean in 1983.\"\n\"The alligator was adopted as Louisiana's state reptile in 1983. It lives in waters and low lands of the state and other locations of the southeast United States. Resembling a lizard in shape, grown males (which are larger than females) reach a length of 11 to 12 feet and weigh 450 to 500 pounds. When grown, its color is dull gray and dark olive. Alligators provide better care for their young than most reptiles do, protecting the young for a year or more. Once common, their numbers were reduced enough to be classified as endangered. Regulated hunting is allowed since the designation was changed to threatened in 1977.\"\n\"The official state freshwater fish is the white perch (pomoxis annularis) also known as sac-au-lait and white crappie. It was adopted in 1993.\"\nBeanhole beans (Native American)\nMaine's culinary heritage\n\"European fishermen discovered the fishing grounds off the coast of Maine almost 50 years before permanent settlers arrived in New England. These fishermen came from France, Spain, Portugal, and later, England...These fishermen stayed only long enough to cure their fish and repair their oft-battered boats before the long voyage back to Europe...Permanent English settlers began to arrive in Maine in the mid-1620s...By 1630 the settlers had established their own permanent fishing stations allong the coast of Maine, and til the mid-1700s cod fishing was their principal industry...As the popularity of cod declined in the mid-1800s, mackerel became more important...Preserving fish by smoking was an Old World method, and herring lent itself particularly well to the process...The development of the canning industry in 1873 expanded the market for Maine fish...Great schools of solvery sardines...were first harvested by the American Indians...Lobster was a favorite food of the coastal Indians...Commerical lobster fishing began in the late 1800s...Potatoes became an important crop in the 1800s, and Maine led the nation in potato production into the 1950s...The young tender unfurled fronds of the fiddlehead fern are a specialty of Maine. The Indians taught the early settlers how to gather them in the forests and cook them...Their flavor is a combination of asparagus, broccoli, and artichokes.\"\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992\nDiner menus reflect favorite foods of local folks. Moody's Diner has been serving hungry Mainers since 1930. Selected recipes from What's Cooking at Moody's Diner, Nancy Moody Genthner [Dancing Bear Books:West Rockport ME] 1989.\n\"Apple Crisp\n--- SOURCE .\nWhy did this cake become a state symbol?\n\"Maryland has an official cat, insect and even an official dinosaur. Now one state delegate wants to add a hallmark 10-layer cake form the Eastern Shore to the list of state symbols. Del. Page Elmore, E.-Somerset, plans to propose naming the many-layered Smith Island cake the state's official dessert. To boost the bill, Elmore cooked up a sweet bribe--450 slices of the cake were delivered Tuesday to state lawmakers and their aides. 'I make a pretty mean sweet potato pie, but oh, this is good,' said Del. Melony Griffith, D.-Prince Georges, who tucked into a thin slice of the most common flavor of Smith Island cake: yellow cake in 10 centimeter-thick layers with chocolate frosting. Elmore hopes his bill will give a boost to Smith Island, which has only about 250 year-round residents. Islanders historically mae their living pulling crabs and oysters from the Chesapeake Bay, but pollution has hurt the seafood industry and better jobs on the mainland have sapped Smith Island's working population. 'It's economic development for Smith Isalnd and lower Eastern Shore bakeries,' Elmore said, wathcing volunteers unload more than a dozen boxes of cake slices. Florida named Key Lime Pie its official pie in 2006, while Massachusetts picked its official dessert in 1996. Smith Island cakes dome in dozens fo flavors, including pineapple, banana and coconut. Islanders trace the cake's origin to the British colonists who settled on the island, auing the cake resembles an English torte. Smith Island cakes were traditionally packed in a waterman's lunch pail when he plied the Chesapeake, but now most are sold to tourists...about 10 women on the island make a living selling Smith Island cakes. Most of the sell for $20 to $30 , with a towering 16-layer cake goinf for $49.99.\"\n---\"Marylanyd's Eastern Shore Touts Its Cake,\" Associated Press, Daily News-Record [Harrisonbburg VSA], January 23, 2008 (p. A6)\nWhat is the history?\nThin, rich, multi-layered iced confections generally descend from 19th century Viennese Torten. Think: Dobos torte & Sacher torte . The closest English multi-layer culinary contribution is Trifle (cake, cream & fruit).\nSmith Island Cake recipe and history notes , courtesy of Smith Island, MD\n[NOTE: Why does this recipe call for Condensed Milk? Most likely because the Island was isolated and had a relatively warm climate. Condensed milk was introduced in the mid-1850s and was readily embraced by folks who had a hard time keeping dairy products cold. Florida's famous Key Lime Pie was originally made with condensed milk for this reason.]\nRecommended cookbooks\n1. The Chesapeake Bay Cookbook/Shields\n2. Eat, Drink and Be Merry in Maryland/Steiff\n3. Maryland's Way: The Hammond-Harwood House Cook Book/Andrews & Kelly\nOfficial state foods\nMassachusetts has more edible state symbols than any other state in the nation. If you need to bring a food representing this state you are in luck: cranberry juice, cod, corn muffin, wild turkey, navy bean, cranberry, Boston Cream Pie, chocolate chip cookie, and the Boston creme doughnut.\nBoston baked beans\nBoston Baked Beans, as we know it today, descends from ancient pottage featuring protein-rich, slow-cooked, economical legumes. Recipes were introduced to America by early colonists. The American city most popularly associated with baked beans is Boston. Food historians connect similar Native American recipes featuring sweeteners (maple sugar) with the introduction of molasses as a required ingredient. Boston brown bread is traditionally paired with this dish.\n\"According to one recent writer, \"baked beans and succotash may be the closest to signature dishes for [New England]--one based on Old World traditions and the other on those of the New World.\"...As for the Old World origins of baked beans, peas or beans and bacon have been claimed to be among the oldest of English dishes. Despite the generally low position of beans in English food-status hierarchies, one version of beans and bacon is said to have been enjoyed by the medieval gentry. The specifically baked form of bean potage was prevalent among Staffordshire yeomen, who soaked their dried beans overnight, then baked them along with honey-and-mustard-cured ham and onions or leeks in a narrow-necked earthenware pot especially reserved for the purpose. This \"dark, sweet cassoulet\" has been identified as the immediate progenitor of New England baked beans....There is a tradition, that, like succotash, baked beans was of native origin. \"Beans were abundant, and were baked by the Indians in earthen pots just as we bake them today,\" wrote Alice Morse Earle in 1898. Three-quarters of a century later, Sally Smith Booth was not the first to include the use of underground beanholes among the native methods of baking beans: \"Indians probably originated this dish, for many tribes baked bean stews in earthen pots placed into pit and covered with hot ashes.\" However, as Howard S. Russell has acknowledged, there is no direct evidence of natives' baking beans, either in earthenware pots or in beanholes in the ground. On the other hand, baked beans \"prepared by the bean-hole method were by far the most important single food\" in late-nineteenth-century Maine lumbering camps. A vogue for outdoor and wilderness experience, including culinary experience, that was supposed to approximate the lifeways of the North American Indians, had emerged at this time and gave encoruagement to the idea that another form of popular underground New England cookery, the clambake, had originated with the Indians. Similar notions about the native sources of beanhole baked beans may also have germinated in this cultural soil, so to speak. Skepticism regarding romaticized conception of native and settler culinary practices should not, however, lead us to dismiss altogether the possibility of a relationship between the bean cookery of the two groups...So although the English clearly brought with them a well-established tradition of bean-and-bacon pottage that, in at least one of its variants, was baked in a beanpot in an oven, it is also possible that the natives they encountered upon arrival had a similar tradition of preparing legume pottage by baking. Morever, the immigrants did not scruple to integrate New World beans into the Old World pottage, just as they incorporated New World grain into their their bread.\"\n---America's Founding Food: The Story of New England Cooking, Keith Stavely & Kathleen Fitzgerald [University of North Carolina Press:Chapel Hill NC] 2004 (p. 51-52)\n\"Boston baked beans. A dish of navy beans made with molasses and salt pork or bacon. Some argue that baked beans were introduced to the colonists by the Indians, but novelist Kenneth Roberts, in an essay on \"The Forgotton Marrowbones,\" printed in Marjorie Mosser's Foods of Old New England (1957), argues that baked beans had long been a traditional Sabbath dish among North African and Spanish Jews, who called the dish \"skanah.\"...Nevertheless, the dish clearly became associated with Boston, whose Puritan settlers baked beans on Saturday, served them that night for dinner, for Sunday breakfast with codfish cakes and Boston Brown Bread, and again for Sunday lunch, because no other cooking was allowed during the Sabbath, which extended to Sunday evening. Sometimes the housewives would hand over their pots of uncooked beans to a community oven, often located within a tavern, to be baked. Because of the association between Bostonians and beans, the city became to be called \"Bean Town.\" A recipe for baked beans of this type was printed in Lydia Maria Child's \"The American Frugal Housewife in 1832, though the term \"Boston baked beans\" dates to the 1850s.\"\n---Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, John F. Mariani [Lebhar-Friedman:New York] 1999 (p. 36)\nMrs. Child's recipe , circa 1832.\n\"Every Saturday since the pilgrims came, true New Englanders have baked beans made with brown bread. In the old days it was thought sinful to cook on Sunday, and Sunday began at 6 o'clock on Saturday. Before that the house was swept and dusted and preparations made for a quiet, reverential Sabbath. Sundays are not as reverential now as they used to be, but the Saturday cooking tradition still persists. Beans are a salvation because the could be prepared on Saturday. On Sunday the family had them with brown bread for breakfast. After breakfast, the pot was popped back in the oven and the family set out for church. And all the time the beans were in the oven, the whole house smelled of simmering pork and sweet molasses, which is a lovely odor and guaranteed to whet the most persnickety appetite. When services were over and the family came home from church, it was mid-afternoon and time for dinner. Then the pot was taken out again--and everybody had some more beans. We prepare them just as our ancestors did, but now we begin the ritual on Friday night.\n\"Boston Baked Beans\n1 qt. dried pea beans\n1 medium-sized onion, peeled\n1/2 cup brown sugar, firmly packed\n1/3 cup molasses\n1 tbsp. salt\n1 tsp. dry mustard\n1. On Friday night put the beans to soak in a kettle full of cold water. In the morning pour the water off, cover with fresh water and bring slowly to a boil. Simmer until you can blow the skins off. To do this, take a spoonful of beans from the pot. If you should put your face down into the steam, you might get badly burned.\n2. When the skins blow off (it will take an hour or more of simmering), drain the beans and place about one cup in bean pot. Add onion. Add remaining beans until the pot is almost filled.\n3. Score the salt pork to the rind and force down among the beans until it just shows at the top of the pot. Combine remaining ingredients and mix with beans. Add enough hot water to fill pot. The pork should protrude a little above the water line so that it can brown nicely.\n4. Bake in 300 degree oven for at least 8 hours. The juice should bubble at the top of the pot all day. Add more water if necessary during baking time.\nOne of the comforting things about baked beans is that you can leave them in the oven as long as you choose, if you remember to add water. Open the door and take a peak every hour or two. Do not touch the pot if there is still juice on top, and close the door as quickly as you can. Serve in a pot, as the Pilgrims did. Fragrant and steaming, brown and mealy--and hot as hot can be. With them your should have brown bread on Saturday night, with piccalilli on the side. And on Sunday morning, you should have fish cakes and the beans warmed up with a chunk of salt pork, crusty on top and brown as old mahogany.\"\n---New England Cookbook, Eleanor Early [Random House:New York] 1954 (p. 56-57)\nVernor's Ginger Ale ---since the Civil War\nSome notes on Michigan's culinary heritage\n\"The earliest Europeans in the Michigan area were French explorers, traders, and missionaries in the late 1600s and early 1700s...By 1859... farm families were firmly established in Michigan's southern counties, where prairie grassland was plentiful for grazing dairy cows. Farmers grew wheat and produced milk, butter, and cheese. They raised hogs for meat, since cows were too precious to be eaten. Most farmers also had chickens and geese and they grew their own produce. Many nineteenth-century Michigan farmers hunted wild game, and their wives tended the family vegetable gardens... Mining developed on the Upper Peninsula around 1850. The mine workers came mainly from Cornwall, Ireland, Canada, Finland, and eastern Europe. The mining families from Cornwall brought their Cornish pasties with them. This meat-and-vegetable combination encased in a pastry could easily be reheated in very cold weather on a \"Cornish stove\"--a shovel held over a candle down the mine. Many of the Cornish pasties gave the miners a complete lunch...In 1847 religious refugees from the Netherlands settled in Michigan in a town they named Holland...Long famous for their smoked and salted fish, roast goose, and other fowl, the Dutch were delighted with the fish and game birds of their new homeland...The Czechs and Moravians were important elements in Michigan's pioneer culture in the nineteenth century...Baked goods and pastries such as Vdolky, Kolache, Milosti, Baleshsky, and Strudel were served for dessert...Battle Creek was settled by the Seventh Day Adventists...In 1867 Dr. Kellogg...introduced the idea of cold cereals for breakfast. In order to promote better nutrition, Dr. Kellogg invented toasted cornflakes and many other grain and nut products.\"\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 148-151)\nHistoric Michigan cookbooks , online free & fulltext, courtesy of Michigan State University.\nWhat to make for class? We suggest German, Dutch Heritage, or Cornish culinary heritage. The cities of were settled by these immigrants. Sample Frankenmuth-style Bavarian recipes courtesy of Zendher's . If you prefer something from the colonial era, this book is perfect: History from the Hearth: A Colonial Michilimackinac Cookbook, Sally Eustice. Seventh Day Adventist recipes from Ella Eaton Kellogg's Science in the Kitchen , circa 1892.\nstate muffin (blueberry). Other edible state symbols include milk, walleye (fish), wild rice, and morrel mushrooms.\n2. Native ingredients\n3. Agricultural statistics ( top crops )\n4. Manufactured products\nMinnesota is the \"birthplace\" of SPAM (Hormel) and \"> Betty Crocker, Green Giant, Bisquick & Wheaties (General Mills)\n5. Historic recipes\nFood on the Frontier:Minnesota Cooking from 1850 to 1900 with selected recipes/Marjorie Kriedberg---your local public librarian will be happy to help you get a copy of this book.\nMinnesota's ethnic food heritage\n\"The people of Minnesota are from a very diverse ethnic heritage--British, Germans, Scandinavians, Finns, Italians, Slavs, and more recently, refugees from Southeast Asia. The Scots, Welsh, and Canadians were some of the earliest settlers of Minnesota, while the greatest number of British arrived in 1890 to work in the mines on the Vermillon and Mesabi Iron Ranges...The Germans are Minnesota's largest ethnic group, having immigrated to the area from the 1830s to the present day. Nineteeth-century German immigrants found the land suitable for raising the type of food they enjoyed. Many of the early German settlers baked rye bread every Saturday...The Scandinavian immigrant--Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, and Finnish--found Minnesota to be similar to Scandinavia...Housewives were delighted with the new white flour that yielded cakes and bread much lighter than those of their native land. Meatballs of beef and pork, American-style bacon, corn, and a strange fruit called watermelon became a part of the immigrants' diet. The Danish immigrants found many of their traditional cooking ingredients in Minnesota. Their kitchen gardens had large patches of parsley, carrots, peas, and kale...The pioneer Swedes...depended upon staples for their diet. Homemade soups, potatoes, fish, and various grains were the mainstay of their early cuisine...Minnesota posed a culinary challenge for most Italians, since much of their native ingredients were not available and could not be grown in the short growing season. The early Italian immigrants relied heavily on what they called peasant food--polenta, rice dishes such as risotto, and pasta...Southern Slavs, mostly Croatians, Slovenians, and Serbs, settled in Minnesota between 1900 and 1920...Being accustomed to fresh fruit, they planted apple, cherry, apricot, and olive trees. Because of the harsh climate, the apricots and olives did not survive. Slavic cooking is primarly based on soups, stews, and other combination dishes...At the clsoe of the Vietnam War, some of the Hmong people of northern Laos...came to Minnesota...These people brought yeat another dimension to the varied cuisines of Minnesota.\"\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 157-8)\nRecommended reading: The Minnesota Ethnic Food Book, Anne R. Kaplan et al (includes recipes). Want to make something ethnic for class? We suggest Swedish meatballs !\n2. Major crops: What is most often grown in the state ?\nEarly Mississippi foodways\n\"The first explorers of what is now northern Mississippi were French fur traders who set up trading posts in Indian villages. They learned to eat the same food as the Indians, primarly a mush concocted from ground brier root, fish, and wild game. When the first permanent settlement was established... around 1700, the settlers found they could obtain chickens from the Indians in addition to fish...The French brides who came to Biloxi, like those who came to New Orleans, soon learned to use native ingredients in their cooking. Redfish, green peppers, and assorted wild herbs became the basis of their fish stews. From the earliest days, Missisppi cooks usually had available the basic ingredients for a soup or a stew--carrots, celery, onions, okra, and a sprig or two of parsley. Tomatoes were not included until well after the Revolutionary War...The cuisine of Mississppi varied with aspects of its history. Although New Orleans remains the bastion of French-cooking influence in America, French influence was also dominant in the cuisine of the plantation mansions along the Mississippi River. Rich sauces and spectacular desserts abounded on manor-house dinner tables.. Food was presented in great splendor in ante-bellum Mississippi. The luxurous day began with hot, strong, black coffee...Food for the plantation workers was much simpler. Freshly caught catfish...often constituted dinner. It was accompanied by turnip greens flavored with salt pork; corn bread; hot, spicy red beans; and rice. Baked ribs and beans baked with bell peppers accompanied by corn bread was a typical winter meal. Chicken bread was a particular favorite among plantation workers. It consists of a batter made with flour, cornmeal, shortening, salt, and milk, which was baked in a frying pan after the chicken had finished frying...For many years the slaves ate corn pone (eggless corn bread which is fried or baked in small batches) and pot liquor, the juice that remains after vegetables, particularly greens, are cooked.\"\n---Taste of the States, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 128-130)\nNeed to make something for class?\nAgricultural products top crops!\nNative American foods\n\"Missouri's earliest farmers were the people of the Hopwell culture...The Hopewells grew corn and beans and hunted small animals...The Mississippi people knew how to farm well and grew large quantities of food. They were also hunters and traders. Since they lived close to the Missippi River, fishing was an important activity...The Oneonta culture, from which the Missouri tribe developed, produced excellent hunters of deer, elk, turkey, and bison, or buffalo. Fishing, gardening, and gathering were essential to the tribe's existence...The woods contained berries, roots, and nuts. Acorns...are plentiful in Missouri, and Native Americans used them in stews or ground them into meal. They age sunflower seeds, both raw and raosted, and they learned to make oil from the seeds for cooking and for hair dressing. Cattails were a valuable food source because all parts of the plant could be eaten...When the weather and the hunting were good, native Americans had plenty of food. But there were times when food was scarce. To preserve meat for the winter months, Native Americans fried and smoked game over a wooden frame set over a low fire. They made a food called pemmican, which was dried and pounded meat mixed with animal fat and crushed berries. The pemmican prevented starvation during a long winter and provided vitamins and protein. It was also taken on long hunting trips. Another kind of preserved meat was jerky, from the Spanish word charqui. During a hunt, some of the fresh-killed meat was sliced thin, rubbed with salt, and rolled up in an animal skin to absorb the salt and release its juices. The meat was then dried in the sun. Jerky was hard, chewy, and long lasting. The jerky found ins tores today originated with Native American hunters. Corn and beans were also dried for the winter months. Succotash is a stew of corn and beans and sometimes fihs and game. The name succotash is a variation of an Indian word. The ingredients of this stew varied from region to region, but all contained corn and beans...Native Americans used Missouri's wild plants and berries not only for food but also for soaps, dyes, and medicines. They used elderberries for tonics. They mashed the root of the curly dock plant to make a salve for sores and they mashed the leaves, mixed them with salt, and put this \"medicine\" on their foreheads to treat headaches...The main crops for the Osage were corn, squash, and beans. Corn was eaten boiled or roasted on the cob, or dried after cooking for storage. Parched corn, made from roasted mature grains, was like popcorn that didn't pop. Hominy was made by removing the corn kernal and soaking it in lye made from wood ashes. It was then boiled or dried. The women preservred squash and pumpkings by cutting the pulp into strips and hanging them on racks to dry... Meat preparation was women's work. Although men were the hunters, the women cut, dried, and smoked meats.\"\n---Food in Missouri: A Cultural Stew, Madeline Matson [University Of Missouri Press:Columbia MO] 1994 (p. 4-6)\nPioneer Missouri foodways\n\"Many of the early settlers of Missouri came in covered wagons from Kentucky, Virginia, and other regions of the Upper South...The women used their Southern recipes to make buttermilk biscuits, fried chicken with cream gravy, cooked greens with bacon, and baked apple dumplings topped with cinnamon, brown sugar, and thick cream. French traders and eventaully French families from Canada came down the Mississippi into Missouri. They, too, brought their favorite recipes for thin French crepes and cookies of sweet and bitter almonds called croquignoles. The French women made a special soup of dried peas, turnips, celery, and onions that was flavored with mint and thyme...German immigrants also settled in Missouri, bringing their food traditions with them...raw potato pancakes, crispy fried in lard and cheesecakes...abounded in every German community... Germans also brought the brewing industry to St. Louis. Angel food cake, named for its fluffy whiteness and delicate texture, is said to have been \"invented\" in St. Louis...The Germans and Central Europeans brought their sausage-making ability to the Midwest. One of their sausages, wienerwurst (aka hot dog or frankfurter), became the most American of all.\"\n---Taste of the States, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 182)\n[NOTE: About Angel food cake .]\n\"Misssouri is the largest producer of black walnuts in the world. Nearly 50 percent of the world's black-walnut crop...is harvested during October and November each year. There is also a sizeable crop of pecans and hickory nuts in Missouri. Famous for their rich, tangy flavor...They are popular baking ingredients and have a much stronger flavor than the milder English walnuts...Pecan trees grew wild in Missouri and were a source of food for the Missouri Indians long before the white man came...Honey has been a part of Missouri history. Before Missouri became a state, there was a battle, called the Honey War, to determine the territory's northern boundary. Missouri and Iowa officials disagreed over the boundary for years. In 1839 when a Missouri man cut down three hollow trees containing bee hives in the disputed area, Iowa tolerance reached its limit, and the Honey War began. Missouri won...Missouri...has become famous for a product made from Missouri-grown wheat--Aunt Jemima Pancake Mix. Self-rising pancake flour...was created in St. Joseph, Missouri. It was first packaged in 1889...\" ---Taste of the States, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 182-183)\n19th century Missouri recipes\nThe earliest print references we find for Gooey Butter Cake/Gooey Butter Coffee Cake are from the late 1950s. They were bakery items, sold in other states to: California, New York & Illinois. This may, or may not, be the same item. Recipes proliferate in the 1970s.\n\"Say St. Louis, and you're talking Gooey Butter Cake...What starts off innocently enough as a plain yeast-raised coffee cake erupts into a volcanic mass of chewey bright yellow lava with snow banks of powdered sugar. The crusty edges glue to the teeth. You con't just swallow Gooey Butter Cake, you work it down. As for the origin of Gooey Butter Cake, most admit it was a mistake, although no one knows exactly whose. Certainly, it would have originated in South St. Louis, wehre most of the german bakers--the backbone of the St. Louis bakery industry--lived. Fred Heimbeurger, a retired St. Louis baker with a long memory, contends it was some baker in the 1930's who, in making an ordinary yellow cake, put in too much sugar, butter or shortening, or all three. What he ended up was the a sticky mess. But since this was the Depression, he couldn't let it go to waste, so he tried to sell it anyway. St. Louisans, Depression or not, wanted more, and the sloppier the better. Today, most of the independent bakeries in St. Louis, as well as the supermarket bakeries, carry a version of Gooey Butter Cake...'There are as many legends surrounding the invention of Gooey Butter Cake as there are about Remus and the founding of Rome. One thing there can be no doubt: it's a St. Louis original and an acquired taste not shared by those in other parts of the country.'...Recipes for Gooey Butter Cake all have subtle variations...Brown sugar may be used instead of white, whole eggs plus whites or just whole eggs, evaporated milk instead of water, and so on. Yet, St. Louisans don't harangue over this...Any cake that goes by the name Gooey Butter is fine by them.\"\n---\"A Butter Cake That Sticks to the Gums,\" Ann Barry [St. Louis]. New York Times, April 19, 1989 (p. C4)\n[1959]\n7-inch Made with Coffee Cake Dough and Deep Layer of Butter, 49 cents.\"\n---dispay ad, Beck's Bakery, The Bakserfiedl Californian [CA], December 2, 1959 (p. 27)\n[1974]\n2 cups flour plus 1/4 cup to flour board\n1/2 cup lard, plus a little to grease baking sheet\n1 scant teaspoon salt\n1/2 teaspoon baking soda\n3/4 cup buttermilk.\nEquipment: Pastry blender or large fork... wooden board, rolling pin, biscuit cutter or large clean empty tunafish can with both ends removed, baking sheet.\n1. Mix dry ingredients in a bowl.\n2. Cut in the lard with a pastry blender or large fork (or your fingers) until the flour mixture is in fine granules.\n3. \"Sprinkle buttermilk over the mixture.\" Mix to make a solid, soft dough. \"If all the dry ingredients do not work in, gradulaly add a little more buttermilk.\"\n4. Flour the board and rolling pin.\n5. Work dough \"lightly into a ball with the tips of fingers and roll out to approximately one-inch thick.\"\n6. Lightly grease baking sheet (optional).\n7. Preheat oven to 450 degrees.\n8. Cut biscuits with cutter or tuna tin, arrange on baking sheet.\n9. Bake \"15 or 20 minutes or until they are a deep golden brown.\"\n\"Serve hot biscuits with butter and/or jelly, honey, or chokecherry syrup.\" Leftover biscuits were eaten split and filled with butter and sugar, or reheated in a paper sack in a 325-degree oven, or crumbled into hot stewed tomatoes.\" Serves 4.\"\n---The American History Cookbook, Mark H. Zanger [Greenwood Press:Westport CT] 2004 (p. 269-70)\nNative American foodways\nFoods of the Desert Culture --State of Nevada. Lots of interesting information about Native American cuisine in Nevada, includes a list of indigenious ingredients and simple recipes. Excellent if you need to explain to your class the history behind the recipe.\nEarly European Nevada trekkers (1820s-1840s) dined on standard portable provisions (coffee, tea, flour, jerky/pemmican, dried fruits, dried beans/peas, sugar, brandy) supplemented by local items (animals, fruits & vegetables). Exact recipes depended upon traditional preference (French, English, Mexican/Spanish), economics (how much money the group had), and season/weather. According to the writings in many early Nevada explorer's journals, many places in this state were harsh and inhospitable. Many times there was nothing to eat.\nWant to explore Nevada's culinary diversity? The Great Nevada Cookbook, compiled by the editors of Nevada Magazine, is and excellent source. This booklet groups representative historic recipes by ethnic/immigrant groups (Native American, Basque, Greek, Mexican), historic period (miners, cowboys) and cooking style (Dutch oven). All recipes are adapted for modern kitchens. Your librarian will be happy to help you find a copy.\n1880s Nevada silver miners survived on coffee, beans, tinned items, and other foods capable of withstanding extreme climates and challenging situations. Provisions were supplemented by fresh game and local (seasonal) fruits/berries.\n\"The discovery of the Comstock Lode at what became Virginia City in 1859 brought a huge migration of prospectors to Nevada...[these men] survived on sourdough biscuits and sourdough bread, which descendants of pioneer families still bake. When women arrived in the mining camps, they started trading recipes, which eventually became the basis of Nevada cuisine. Meat-stuffed Cornish pasties and tripe stewed with onion, celery, and parsnips and flavored with mustard and Worcestershire sauce became favorites. Saffron Cake and Potato-Caramel Cake topped the list of desserts...During the gold and siver rush of the 1860s, prospectors who had struck it rich liked any type of food, as long as it \"cost a lot.\" Black-tie dinners in Virginia City sparkled with French Champagne that had crossed the ocean, rounded the Horn, and come over the Sierras from California. They ate from imported china and drank from glasses that twinkled under huge crystal chandeliers. Virginia City boasted fine restaurants, clubs, and hotels, many of which had imported internationally known chefs. West Coast oysters became a delicacy for the newly rich; oyster loaf and oyster stuffing for quail became the showpieces of dinner parties.\"\n---Taste of the States, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 230-1)\nCurrently? Nevada (at least in Las Vegas) is known for ultimate buffets. A little bit of everything served with a theme. Who launched modern American \"all you can eat\" buffet? Mr. Herb McDonald, Las Vegas NV, 1946.\n\"The man who inspired the all-you-can-eat buffet and brought the Beatles to Las Vegas died Saturday, better known by his deeds than his name. A visionary who helped mold Las Vegas for more than a half century, Herb McDonald, 83, was one of the first publicists on the Strip, founder of the group that brought the National Finals Rodeo to Las Vegas and an innovator in professional golf tournaments. \"He was the godfather to all of us in publicity and marketing -- he made the footprints that we follow today,\" said Jim Seagrave, vice president of marketing and advertising for the Stardust...McDonald inspired the buffet in 1946 more out of hunger than genius, he recalled. One night while working late at the El Rancho Vegas, the first hotel on what would become the Strip, McDonald brought some cheese and cold cuts from the kitchen and laid them out on the bar to make a sandwich. Gamblers walking by said they were hungry, and the buffet was born. The original midnight \"chuckwagon\" buffet cost $1.25.\"\n---\"Strip Visionary McDonald Dies,\" Gambling Magazine, July 10, 2002\n\"Herb McDonald, a business pioneer whose ideas helped make Las Vegas a hub of international tourism, died Saturday. He was 83. A publicist for nearly 50 years, McDonald has been credited for the development of Las Vegas-area signatures such as the Strip's first all-you-can-eat buffet and the city's status as a popular convention site...In the early 1950s, McDonald launched an inexpensive buffet at the El Rancho, a tactic that has since been used to attract patrons at virtually every hotel-casino in Southern Nevada.\"\n---\"Veteran publicist who helped promote LV as destination dies at 83,\" Chris Jones, Las Vegas Review-Journal, July 10, 2002, D; Pg. 2D\nNew Hampshire has four official state foods . Official state symbols (including food) must be approved by the legislature. They become law.\nEarly New Hampshire foodways\n\"The first colonists bulit homes, started fisheries, and traded the Indians for furs. These settlers had no agricultural experience and found it hard to adapt to their new surroundings. Although familiar with saltwater fishing, they still depended upon England for msot of their food supplies. Wild game and turkey were plentiful, but the early settlers did not know how to catch them and ammunition was in short supply...Duyring the summer the settlers learned to gather wild black currants, raspberries, and strawberries. Theys tarted importing seedlings and cutting of fruit trees from England, and soon almost every farm...had an orchard. Vegetable gardens could not be relied upon as a steady supply of food, however, due to the short growing season and sudden changes in the weather...In 1719 shiploads of Scotch-Irish families arrived and settled near the Merrimack Valley in New Hampshire...These settlers bought potatoes with them...Within two decades potatoes became an important crop in New England. The English, who also settled in New Hampshire, introduced another root vegetable, the turnip, to New England...By 1840 more than half of the land in New Hampshire was farmed...In addition to the English and Scotch-Irish, there was also a large influx of French-Canadian settlers in New Hampshire. They brought with them recipes for roast pork, pea soup, pickled beets, and salmon pie made with mashed potatoes, onions, milk, and seasonings... Apple butter has been made in New Hampshire since colonial times...\"\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 25-7)\nThe NH Dept. of Agriculture provides this summary of major food crops . Note: apples and milk are referenced here, along with maple syrup.\n\"Bishop's Bread\n1 1/2 teaspoons baking powder\n1/2 teaspoon salt\n1 teaspoon vanilla\npowdered sugar\nCream the yolks and sugar together; add vanilla, salt, and then the flour sifted with the baking-powder. Add seeded raisins and nuts, cut in two, and, lastly, fold in the beaten whites. Spread in thin sheet on a buttered tin, and bake 20 minutes in moderate oven. Cut in sqares while still hot, and roll in powdered sugar.\"\n---The National Cookbook, Sheila Hibben [Harper & Brothers:New York] 1932 (p. 417)\nMore historical New Hampshire recipes\nRecipes from America's Restored Villages/Jean Anderson. Offers recipes from Strawbery Banke [Portsmouth NH] p. 48-54 include oyster stew, cod fish hash, gooseberry fool and blueberry cake.\nLong before European settlement, the Lenni Lenape lived in the area we now know as New Jersey. Foodways notes here:\n\"A great variety of birds and mammals were hunted by the Indians of Lenapehoking; some of these are now extinct or no longer indigenous. In 1612, for example, Captain Samuel Argall and his Indian guides killed bison along the Pembrook River...The most abundant animal remains present in the Indian refuse pits, however, are those of deer, elk, black bear, racoons, turkeys, geese, turtles, fish and mussels...Upon reaching his dwelling, the hunter's traditional behavior was to leave the deer or other kill before the door and enter the house without speaking a word...Sharing meat and other supplies promoted good will and ensured the survival of the group--so long as one person had food, all had food. Indeed, one's prestige was measured not by the amount of goods accumulated, but by the generosity with which one shared with other members of the community, especially the aged and infirm...Indian hunters always provided for the elderly and those no longer able to shoot a bow...Autumn was the usual time for deer hunting, after the harvest had been dried and stored for winter use...More than likely, the returning families also brought fresh venison, skins, nuts, firewood and, and bone grease...In autumn and early winter, nuts of many kinds were available in abundance, and most-fattened, thick-pelted deer, elk, bear, raccoons, and turkeys provided good meat and skins...(p. 261-3) In spring, summer, and early fall, most Indians fished along the river banks and shores...Men, women, and children gathered shellfish which were an important food supplement ...It appears that Indians gathered...freshwater mussels quite regularly from a fairly large area. Some were eaten immediately...It is also probably that quantities of freshwater mussels were gathered throughout the year and deposited in streams near the camp until an especially hot day in July or August, when these shellfish were brought to the campsite in baskets. Spread out on a patio-like bed of rocks, with sun-heated stones beneath, and the strong solar rays from above, the mussels opened, dried, and dehydrated in their shells...People apparently scraped the dried clams out of their shells and stored them in clay pots, leather bags, or baskets, or string the meat together for later use in soups or sapan.(p. 276-7)...The best evidence for prehistoric gardening practices in Lenapehoking derives from archaeological excavations in the upper Delaware River Valley...Corn, several varieties of podded beans, and different kinds of curcurbits or squashes, the Indians' primary cultigens, were planted together. Although anciently cultivated in Mexico and Peru...these plants probably made their first appearance in Lenapehoking in the early part of the Late Woodland period...but may not have become a major source of food until considerably afer A.D. 1300. In time, the Indians grew both soft and hard varieties of maize in coors including white, red, blue, brown, yellow, flesh-colored, and spotted...The most common variety of corn appears to have been maiz de Ocho or eight-row Northern Flint corn...Corn cobs recovered in archaeological excavations from sites in the upper Delaware River Valley indicated that ears were quite small, generally about 3 to 4 inches in length...Beans including common pole beans...and runners, were planted in the same place as corn, but some weeks later so that the growing corn stalk might provide a support for the vines...Curcurbits, including several varieties of summer squashes...and certain winter squashes...including pumpkins, were planted in or about the corn and bean hills...Many garden vegetables were eaten day by day as they ripened, but others were stored for use in the fall and winter...Indian women preserved some corn by simply peeling back the husks, braiding the ears, and hanging the clusters from house poles and roof supports. Most of the remaining corn was boiled, dried, removed from the cob, and stored in skin bags or bark containers. Beans were boiled for a few minutes and then dried for preservation. Pumpkins and squash were sliced into thin rings after after which a stick was inserted through them and they were hung up to dry in the sun...\"\n---The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage: 10,000 BC to AD2000, Herbert C. Kraft [Lenape Books:NJ] 2001\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 48)\n\"...Notions of Americans...writing of experiences...in 1824, had this to say about Bispham's Tavern in Trenton: 'We were shown into a neat well-furnished little parlour, where our supper made its appearance in about twenty minutes. The table contained many little delicacies, such as game, oysters, and choice fish, and several things were named to us at hand if needed. The tea was excellent, the coffee, as usual, indifferent enough...Black bread and a bowl of porridge was the standard breakfast served at some Jersey taverns through most of the 1700s. Others went for more elaborate fare from nearby vegetable garden, barnyard, or river.\"\n---Early Taverns and Stagecoach Days in New Jersey, Walter H. Van Hoesen [Fairleigh Dickinson University Press:Rutherford NJ] 1976 (p. 149-150)\n\"Newark Cider. Concerning Newark's famous old-time cider, the following specific information on the ingredients thereof will be new and of interest to many readers. Our information was the late John Oakes of Bloomfield. He said some time ago: 'Quite a large portion of the land in Bloomfield in the last century (the eighteenth), and the first third of this (the nineteenth), was in farms. They were small, comparatively, few of more than fifty acres. The farmers raised on the land rye, oats, Indian corn, potatoes and buckwheat--very little wheat, and hay. They had large orchards of apples for making cider, which, under the name of 'Newark cider,' was known over a large extent of the country, shipped to the South, as well as to points in these parts. It was celebrated as the best. It was made (the best) from two kinds of apples mixed, two thirds being Harrison apples, which were small and alight yellow color, a little tart and very juicy; and one-third being the Canfield apple, large, red and sweet, both seedlings having originated here.' Thus Newark cider was a product of Newark fruit and Newark invention.---J.F.F.\"\n---\"Newark Cider,\" Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society, New Series 1918, Volume III, No. 1 (p. 25)\nWhat kinds of foods were produced in Morris County, NJ in 1768?\nThis advertisement from The New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, No. 855, March 21, 1768, describes orchards and food-related buildings for let (rent):\n\"To be Let, by William Kelly, A very valuable Tract, of about 2000 Acres of Land, in the County of Morris, in East New-Jersey, as health a Counry as any in the World, about 15 Miles from Newark...and about 23 Miles from New-York. This Tract is so fine a Body of Land...for Fertility and Richness; about 1500 Acres of which is rich low Ground...The Soil is as fine as any in the World for Grass, and will grow any Kind of Grain...with a fine young Orchard, the largest in the Province, containing about 1400 Trees, of the best grafter Fruit, at 50 Feet Distances, which bore this (for the first) Year, and from which, when it comes to Maturity, there may be from 500 to 1000 Barrels of Cyder made yearly. There is on the Estate fine Black Heart, May Duke, White Heart, Coronation, and Bleeding Heart Cherries; Bergamott, and other Pears; Holland, Green Gage, and Orchea Plumbs; a fine Nursury of several Thousand Apple Trees, some of which are fit to set out. A good Farm House, Kitchen, and a very fine Dairy, and Cyder-House built this Year, a Barn, with nine Barracks for Hay and Corn; a very fine Corn-House, and a large Grannery...a Smoak-House, a large Fowl-House...a large Cow-House...two Green Houses to preserve Cabbage and Roots in the Winter; a Pidgeon-House, well stock'd...there may...be upwards of 150 Tuns of fine English Hay, Clover and Speer Grass, and upwards of 500 Tuns of coarse hay cut...Through the Tract runs a fine Brook, on which stands (within less than half a Mile of the Dwelling-House) a Grist-Mill...and also a River on which the Tract bounds, are plenty of Trout and other Fish: There is also some Deer, Turkeys and plenty of wild Geese, Ducks, Partridges, Quails, &c. on it in the proper Season, and at the Foot of the Garden is a very fine Spring, never dry, and an extreme good Place for a Fish-Pond...This Estate lies in the Heart of a Country, where any Quantity of Cattle may be bought, at all Seasons of the Year, at a very moderate Price...There is on it now, the largest and finest Breed of Cattle in America, imported from Holland.\"\n---Documents Relating to the Revolutionary History of the State of New Jersey, Series 2, Volume VII Newspaper Abstracts [New Jersey Archives:Trenton NJ] (p. 89-90)\nTable fare\n\"Isabella Ashfield's Receipt Book...In the Guide to the [NJ Historical] Society's manuscripts collection compiled by Fred Shelley...in 1957, there is listed a cookbook. This book is enclosed in parchment covers, and must be one of the earliest of its kid in the country. On the tile page is the inscription 'Isabella Ashfield, Her Book, April 1st, 172--', and lower down on the page is written 'Elizabeth Ashfield, Her Book, January, 1750-1.' Isabella Morris Ashfield was the eighth daughter of Lewis Morris and Isabella Graham Morris...In Mrs. Ashfield's book we star off with 'Soupes--crawfish, onion, pease among them. Crawfish soup was made with a gallon of water a brace of male carps (in those days people had ponds for fresh water fish), lobsters and no less than 200 crawfish! In the porridge section we note that what then went by the name of porridge was not made of cereals; a cereal porridge was usually called a 'Gruel' or a 'Bouilli'. A receipt for 'Brown Duck Porridge' stars off in no small way by stewing a leg of beef overnight, then adding turnips, then toasted French 'roales', which were toasted in front of the fire and were often used th thicken sauces along with 'flower' and butter; finally, after almost twenty-four hours of preparing for it, the duck enters the scene and gets into the pot. What we would call stew today was called by different names, and 'Herrico' is a mutton stew with turnips. There are several 'Ragues,' of hog's ears for one (this name is spelt in may ways, 'ragoo' being one of the nicest). Here we find 'Frigasea's of Chickens,' rabbits and, of all things, mussels! One is advised to beat cutlets and Scotch collops--which seem to be thin slices of veal or beef in both cases--with a rolling pin and with the back of the knife to tenderize them. Beef 'Stakes' got the same treatment, beef being tough in those days, not corn-fed as we know it today. In Mrs. Ashfield's book meats were usually stewed or broiled on a spit. The only way that they were baked seems to have been in pies, of which there was an infinite variety, of meats, green geese, and all kinds of fish. Preservation of foods for the winter months was of vital importance. Pickling, drying, salting, and converting to marmalades and jellies were all methods used. Among the pickles there are radishes, tongue, french beans, artichokes, pigs, eels, and one of particular interest: 'To pickle cucumbers, mango way.' This receipt shows the influence of the budding British empire, since mangoes were grown in India, where the East India Company had been founded under Queen Elizabeth. In the cake and sweet section, among the orange and lemon creams and cheesecakes, we find that the puddings predominate as is only right. One receipt in particular is intriguing, having the odd title of 'To Make Rice Pudding in Gutts'! After the first feeling of recoil one finds that it is only the container (belonging to a bullock) that is odd; otherwise it is our familiar nice rice pudding made with milk, cream, raisins and nutmeg. There are many homemade fruit wines listed, mead, the syllabubs, flummeries, sack possets, and other delicious-sounding drinks of the day. The only drinks here with spirits in them are the 'Plague Water' and Aqua Miabilis, and these were portioned out like medicine, by the spoonful. The ingredients in these medicines were as many as thirty different herbs, spices, and the Gascon wine or claret from Bordeaux. It looks as if the people of the time put just about everything that they could think of into these cure-alls, on the principle that something might work. Of course these were the days of herb lore, of which every woman knew the importance.\"\n---\"Of Books and Things: From the Library,\" Elizabeth Lyman Frelinghuysen, Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society, Volume LXXVII, No. 4, October 1959 (p. 279-281)\nAsk someone from New Jersey how they like their Taylor Pork Roll and they will spare no details! This beloved local product enjoys a cult-like following of the first degree. As with most food elevated to this extreme, the \"real\" history is a savory convergence of fact and fiction.\nJohn Taylor's biographers confirm his entry into the retail grocery business as a teenager. When he was 20 [1856], Taylor established a retail grocery store with his name on it. This accounts for the product origination date often cited by the press. Mr. Taylor quickly expanded his retail market into a wholesale concern. Pork products proliferated in the greater Philadelphia region (think scrapple!). While it is quite likely Mr. Taylor sold pork products with his name on them from this date forwards, biographers confirm he did not enter the slaughtering business until the 1870s. The Taylor Provisions Company (manufacturers of Taylor Ham and Pork Roll) was established in 1907. The business flourished, but did not expand beyond the local markets of New Jersey and the Greater Philadelphia area. We find no print evidence supporting modern claims this Taylor's Pork Roll was a family recipe handed down from Colonial times.\nRecords of the US Patent & Trademark Office confirm Taylor brand pork products were introduced to the American public in 1856:\n\"Word Mark TAYLOR Goods and Services IC 029. US 046. G & S: PORK PRODUCTS-NAMELY, PORK SAUSAGE. FIRST USE: 18560000. FIRST USE IN COMMERCE: 18560000 Mark Drawing Code (5) WORDS, LETTERS, AND/OR NUMBERS IN STYLIZED FORM Serial Number 71561536 Filing Date July 15, 1948 Current Filing Basis 1A Original Filing Basis 1A Registration Number 0533600 Registration Date November 21, 1950 Owner (REGISTRANT) TAYLOR PROVISIONS COMPANY, THE CORPORATION NEW JERSEY 63 PERRINE AVENUE TRENTON NEW JERSEY 08650 Attorney of Record JOHN J. KANE Prior Registrations 0061356;0073183;0113172 Type of Mark TRADEMARK Register PRINCIPAL-2(F) Affidavit Text SECTION 8(10-YR) 20001229. Renewal 1ST RENEWAL 20001229 Live/Dead Indicator LIVE\"\nTaylor Pork Roll was introduced to the American public October 10, 1906:\n\"Word Mark JOHN TAYLOR'S PORK ROLL SUGAR CURED THE TAYLOR PROVISION CO. TRENTON N.J. BROIL OR FRY QUICK OVER A HOT FIRE JUST BEFORE SERVING FINEST SELECTED LEAN PORK DELICATELY CURED & SMOKED \"NO SALTY TASTE\" Goods and Services IC 029. US 046. G & S: PORK ROLL. FIRST USE: 19061016. FIRST USE IN COMMERCE: 19061016...Serial Number 71022841 Filing Date October 22, 1906 Current Filing Basis 1A Original Filing Basis 1A Change In Registration CHANGE IN REGISTRATION HAS OCCURRED Registration Number 0061356 Registration Date March 19, 1907 Owner (REGISTRANT) TAYLOR PROVISIONS COMPANY, THE CORPORATION NEW JERSEY 63 PERRINE AVENUE TRENTON NEW JERSEY 08638 Attorney of Record FREDERICK A. ZODA Description of Mark THE WREATH BEING GOLD AND THE BACKGROUND RED. Type of Mark TRADEMARK Register PRINCIPAL Affidavit Text SECT 12C. SECT 15. SECTION 8(10-YR) 20060913. Renewal 5TH RENEWAL 20060913 Live/Dead Indicator LIVE\"\nThe oldest print reference we find for this item dates to 1908:\n\"LOOK OUT For Imitators SEE SEE That You Get the Genuine TAYLOR Pork Roll ABSOLUTELY Clean Government Inspected NAME ON EVERY BAG.\"\n---display ad (no reference to price or manufacturer), Trenton Evening Times, January 25, 1908 (p. 2) [NOTE: this ad no doubt caught attention; it ran down the entire middle column of the page.]\nHow much did it cost?\n\"Taylor Pork Roll, 10 1/2 c[ents] lb. By the bag.\"\n---Trenton Evening Times, April 2, 1908 (p. 6)\nTaylor pork roll legend & lore\n\"It's as Jersey as sitting on the stoop or grabbing a late bite at the diner. It s meat that goes with eggs, but it isn't ham or bacon or even sausage. In fact, if you ask anyone outside of the state what it is, they ve probably never heard of it. But call it by name around these parts, and you almost can smell it sizzling. Pork roll. Uncover the canvas wrapping, slice it thin, make three small cuts at the edges so it doesn't curl up and grill away. Mmm mm. Nothing tastes or smells quite like it, even though many of us may not exactly know what the heck it really is. Pork roll commonly is known as Taylor ham whether Taylor Provisions in Trenton makes it or not it's just one of those Jersey things. In fact, it's so Jersey, you can't buy it anyplace else in the country or in the world, except in the tri-state area.\"\n---\"Pork Roll: A Jersey Kind of Thing,\" Brooke Tarabour, Star Ledger [Newark NJ], May 2, 2001 (p. 67)\n\"Taylor Pork Roll, which originated in Trenton, was invented by John Taylor in 1856. A sign describes pork roll as 'select, strictly fresh pork tenderly cured without the aid of brine or pickle, delicately aged and slowly smoked with hickory.' Taylor Pork roll stands used to be plentiful on the Jersey Shore, in the first half of the century, they existed in Asbury Park, Atlantic City, Cape May, Ocean City and Wildwood...\"\n---\"Jersey Shore Beach Food: Just a Summer Love?\" New York Times, August 11, 1993 (p. C3)\n\"Wow! Did we ever found out about pork roll sandwiches in New Jersey...Good news for desperate Jerseyites...The proper name is Taylor's Pork Roll..The sandwiches can be constructed with toasted hamburger buns. The meat is sliced thin--better three thin than one fat--and broiled, fried, or --best--grilled over charcoal. There was an early-pre-Revolution John Taylor, who may or may not have made the first ham--it was originally Taylor's Ham--but it was first 'ground and bagged' for the market by a John Taylor in 1856. It was, I am told, the only thing for Sunday breakfast along with two poached eggs for 'anyone who amounted to anything' in Trenton.\"\n---\"All's Fare,\" Lois Dwan, Los Angeles Times, May 26, 1981 (p. I9)\n\"The pork roll dates back to Colonial days, the recipe handed down within the Taylor family. It is fresh pork, chopped then sugar cured and not available in Arizona...\"\n---\"Pork Roll Dates Back to Colonial Times,\" Arizona Republic, May 28, 1969 (p. 64)\n---Genealogical and Personal Memorial of Mercer County, New Jesrsey, Francis Bazley Lee [Lee Publishing:New York] 1907, volume 1 (p. 238-239)\n\"Taylor, John, Packer, etc., of Trenton...When he arrived at the age of ten years his father died, leaving the family without any means of support. John sought and obtained work in a brickyard, and from that time assumed the care of his mother and three younger brothers and sisters, and was their chief dependence. At the age of fifteen he entered as a clerk a retail grocery store in the city of Trenton, and remained in that capacity for five years. During the last year of his service he was intrusted with the purchase of stock in Philadelphia and New York, and thus acquired a knowledge of business and formed an acquaintance with business men which largely aided him in his subsequent operations. At the age of twenty years he started a retail grocery store under his own name, with a cash capital of fifteen dollars. In this he continued for three years, and then tore out counters and shelves and boldly launched out into the wholesale trade. It was the first venture ever made in the city of Trenton of a distinctively wholesale business of any kind. Many careful and sagacious business men doubted the expediency of the undertaking and predicted its failure. The first year he sold $250,000 worth of goods, and the annual sales thenceforthward steadily increased until 1870, when they reached over a million of dollars. The wholesale trade which grew out of this successful pioneer experiment has now become the most important element of mercantile life in the city. During the year 1870 he sold his interest in the grocery business, and built a packing-house and slaughtering establishment, which he is now successfully operating. He has served two terms in the Trenton Common Council, and in that capacity secured the passae of an ordinance submitting to a vote of the people the question of removing the public markets from Greene street, and the abandonment by the city of the market business. By his zealous labors for two years he procured the success of these projects. This question was one of the most interesting and exciting local contest that had agitated the community for several years. He contributed liberally to the stock in private market associatons, and several new and handsome markets have been erected, one of which, in honor to him, bears the name of Taylor. In 1866 he conceived the project of erecting an opera house, and by taking half the stock himself and energetically canvassing for the remainder he secured the success of the enterprise. The building was begun the same year and opened to the public in 1867. It cost $125,000, and it is the finest structure of the kind in New Jersey. Many sagacious people also predicted that this enterprise would be a disastrous failure, but there is now nothing in the city in which the citizens take a greater pride than in the Taylor Opera House. He was also chiefly instrumental in organizing Company 'A,' of the National Guard, one of the finest military organizations in the State. In the directions indicated and in various other ways he has successfully labored to foster a spirit of public improvement in Trenton.\"\n---Biographical Encyclopaedia of New Jersey of the Nineteenth Century [Galaxy Publishing:Philadelphia] 1877 (p. 476-477)\nThe earliest reference we find to Taylor Provision Company in a NJ manufacturer's directory is circa 1931:\n\"Taylor Provision Co., pork products, Perrine Av, Trenton. Pres. Wm. T. Taylor; sec Nelson L. Petty; treas H.C.T. Seitz. Emp[loyees] 24 m[ale] 2 f[emale].\"\n---Industrial Directory of New Jersey, George S. Burgess editor [NJ State Chamber of Commerce:Newark NJ] 1931 (p. 171) [NOTE: state manufacturers directories 1909-1918 do not list this particular company.]\n---Commerical Canning in New Jersey: History and Early Development, Mary B. Sim [New Jersey Agricultural Society: Trenton NJ] 1951 (p. 168-172)\n\"Thomas Welch was a life-long Prohibitionist with a creative talent. He is credited with inventing successful dental alloys, a stomach smoother, and a spelling system. When his Methodist church asked him to distribute Communion bread and wine during religious services, he began to focus on creating a non-alcoholic grape beverage...Living in Vineland, New Jersey, as a practicing dentist, Welch often received grapes in exchange for dental services. In addition, he had his own supply of grapes grown at home. Welch applied Pasteur's technique of heating to kill the yeast microorganism. By boiling bottled filtered grape juice, Welch was successful in preventing the natural fermentation process and producing a nonalcoholic grape juice. Thomas Welch attempted to sell the first bottles of 'Dr. Welch's Unfermented Wine' to church officials, whom he had expected would purchase the bulk of the 'wine' he produced. Church official balked, however, at substituting the sacramental wine with grape juice. Four years after producing the first batches of grape juice, Welch disappointedly abandoned the project completely and concentrated his efforts on supporting the growing Prohibition movement...Charles Welch [Thomas' son] believed he had the solution to selling his father's grape juice--advertising. In 1875 he placed the first print ad for Dr. Welch's Unfermented Wine...by 1897 Wech's sales necessitated the processing of four tons of grapes...Charles...changed the name of the juice in 1980 to Dr. Welch's Grape Juice, and in 1893 to Welch's Grape Juice...exhibited at the Chicago World's Fair in 1893...Volume growth between 1889 and 1899 was immense, increasing from 10 tons to 660 tons of grapes...By the time the Eighteenth Amendment passed in 1919, sales of Welch's Grape Juice, the only nonalcoholic fruit drink in the country [USA], reached close to $3 million. One year later the sales doubled....Welch's expanded its product lines over the years, adding grape jelly in 1923 and frozen grape juice concentrate in 1949.\"\n---Encyclopedia of Consumer Brands, Volume 1: Consumable Products, Janice Jorgenson editor [St. James Press:Detroit MI] 1994 (p. 629-630)\nNew York is geographically and culturally diverse state presenting a spectacular buffet of interesting foods. The following list represents a generic sampler of \"popular\" foods associated with the state. If you are researching the foods connected with a specific period/people ( New Netherlands/Hudson River Valley , Colonial era/NYC, War of 1812/Watertown, 1880s/Chatauqua, 1900s/Rochester, 1920s/Brooklyn, 1950s/Levittown etc.) please let us know.\nOfficial state foods\nNew York State has several \"official\" state foods . These are voted on/approved by the state's lawmakers in Albany.\nState fruit: apple\nState beverage: milk\nState muffin: apple muffin (no recipe included in the law)\n---No \"official\" recipe in state law books; this one provided by the New York Apple Association\nState fish: speckled trout\nState shell: bay scallops\nState tree: sugar maple\nNew York also has several popular foods associated with the state. Some of the most famous national favorites and regional treasures are:\nPeople cook what they know. This was especially true when colonial-era settlers moved to the New World. They brought recipes, cooking implements, food processing methods, familiar animals (sheep, cows, pigs, goats) and seeds (grains, fruit, nuts). In order to understand what/why they ate certain dishes, it's important to learn about their original cuisine. When necessity demanded \"native\" substitutions, the resulting dishes remained essentially \"Old World.\" In order to understand what food was like in New Netherlands, we need to examine 17th century Dutch/Netherlands foodways & meals.\nCommon foods & dishes\n\"To find out about seventeenth-century Dutch foodways we turn to Lambertus Burema. In his definitive study on the Dutch diet from the Middle Ages until the twentieth century, he cites a 1631 plan of a week's menus with seasonal variations. These menus were served to students attending the College of Theology in Leiden, and he considers them typical of the daily fare of the masses in the Netherlands at that time. Although we need to take regional differences into account, the menus give us an insight into the type of meals eaten by the less affluent. The students ate well: on Sunday afternoon they would be given white bread soup, salted meat, and mutton hutspot (a one-pot meal)with lemons. During the week such dishes as white bread soup with milk or mutton broth, salted meat, ground beef with currants, and cabbage made hearty meals. For variety the week's menu also included another kind of hutspot, this one with mutton and carrots or prunes, dried peas with butter or vinegar, and fresh sea or river fish. In the winter the bill of fare might feature codfish, beans, and peas, with a third course of butter, bread, and cumin cheese. Burema also cites an equally specific document of 1634, in which the mayors and city council of the city of Groningen outline the menu for a student dormitory. Meal after meal is clearly prescribed: each table for eight was to receive two pounds of stewed meat and three pounds of fried meat, which had to be good veal, beef, or mutton, according to the time of year. Rye bread and cheese were always on the table, and pancakes as well as barley porridge were common dishes.\"---The Sensible Cook: Dutch Foodways in the Old and the New World, translated and edited by Peter G. Rose [Syracuse University Press:Syracuse NY] 1989 (p. 5-6)\nBread\n\"Bread was the mainstay of the diet in the Netherlands until the latter part of the eighteenth century, when the potato started to take its place. The poor people ate rye bread; the more affluent ate bread made from wheat...bread was also used as an ingredient in many dishes. In addition, flour was the main component of the pancakes, waffles, wafers, olie-koecken, and various porridges of which the Dutch are fond. If the bread dough was prepared at home, then the bread was baked in the baker's oven; but generally bread was prepared and baked by the baker...The everyday breads has many different shapes. Some were round or oblong flat loaves baked on the floor of the oven...Rusks and white rolls were favorites as well...For holidays and celebrations, special breads would be baked, as for instance the duivekater, a diamond-shaped bread, baked from early December through New Year...\"---ibid (p. 6-7,9)\nMeals & mealtimes\n\"The common meal pattern was comprised of breakfast, midday, afternoon, and evening meals. Breakfast consisted mainly of bread with butter or cheese. Beer was the usual drink not only for breakfast but also for the other meals. On the farms buttermilk was a favorite drink as well. Tea and coffee did not become popular until the end the [17th] century. The midday meal was the main meal and it seems to be the one for which the menus mentioned above were given. It generally consisted of no more than two or three dishes. The first one was often a hutspot of meat and vegetables; the second dish might be fish of one sort of another, or a meat stewed with prunes and currants; the third dish might be fruit, as well as cooked vegetables and koeken (cookies/small cakes)or pateyen (pastry/pies) or both. On the farm this midday meal often consisted simply of a porridge, bread, and meat. A few hours after the midday meal, between two and three o'clock, some bread with butter or cheese was eaten. Just before going to bed, the evening meal was served. Again, it could consist of bread with butter or cheese, but leftovers from midday might also be served, or a porridge made from wheat flour and sweet milk might be offered.\"---ibid (p. 6)\nDaily meals & customary beverages\n\"The seventeenth century brought the great prosperity, known as the 'Golden Age.' Both the East and West India Companies were founded in its first quarter...With more food available, consumption increased and the common eating pattern grew to four meals a day. Breakfast consisted of bread with butter or cheese; the noon meal, of a stew of meat and vegetables, or of fish, with fruit, cooked vegetables, honey cake, or raised pie. The afternoon meal of bread with butter or cheese was eaten a few hours later. Just before bedtime, leftovers from noon, or bread with butter or cheese or porridge were served. The Dutch were known for their love of sweets, sweet breads like honey cake or gingerbread, and confections like marzipan, candied almonds, or cinnamon bark, which were consumed in addition to the daily fare. Like their cheeses, the Dutch koek (honey cake), akin to ginger bread, was named for its city of origin...eastern Netherlands was already famous throughout the land. Waffles, wafers, olie-koecken (deep-fried balls of dough with raisins, apples, and almonds that became the forerunner of the donut), and pancakes were some of the celebratory foods both prepared at home and sold on the streets...Beer continued to be the common drink...In the latter half of the seventeenth century tea and coffee made a significant impact on meal patterns and social customs.\"\n---Matters of Taste: Food and Drink in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Art and Life, Donna R. Barnes & Peter G. Rose [Albany Institute of History and Art/Syracuse University Press] 2002 (p. 20-21)\nDiet of the poor and working class\n\"The poor had a much more limited diet. In some parts of the country daily meals consisted of not much more than whole kernel rye (black) bread, amounting to some five pounds a day for a family of four. The remarkably complete account books of the Amsterdam Municipal Orphanage provide...insight into the diet of the poor...and the working or lower middle class...Milk, fish, rice groats (hulled grain of barley, oats, or buckwheat), peas, beans, rye, wheat, pork, butter, cheese, beer, and miscellaneous items such as treacle, salt, dried fruits, and spices were purchased for their daily meals...orphans were fed two meals a day. The noon meal consisted of different varieties of beans and peas and a second dish of salted or smoked meat, or sausage with groats and raisins, bacon with carrots or cabbage, salt cod, herring or dried cod. All of the meals were served with bread. The evening repast...consisted of a kind of porridge--rice porridge or groats cooked with buttermilk and wheat bread cooked together, or buttermilk cooked with barley. The main difference between the diets of the orphans and the staff was quantity.\"---ibid (p. 21)\nDiet of the wealthy middle & upper classes\n\"The country houses had gardens where fruits an vegetables were grown for home consumption. Plants from far away lands were also cultivated...De Verstanige Kock [17th century Dutch cookbook] begins with salads and continues with recipes for vegetables, meat, game, and poultry, salted, smoked, and dried fish, saltwater and freshwater fish, and baked goods such as raised pies and tarts.\"--- ibid (p. 22)\nNew Netherlands: stocking the land with old world foods\n\"Early on it was decided to outfit the [New Netherlands] colony so that it could be self-sufficient...in addition to people to work the farms, it was necessary to supply the colony with animals, farming tools, and other implements...The animals that were sent to New Netherland were well taken care of on their long trip across the ocean...The rapid progress of agriculture in New Netherland is shown to us in the only record of the original purchase of Manhattan...samples of summer grain such as wheat, rye, barley oats, buckwheat, canary seed, small beans and flax...the New Netherland colony produced is own grain...'The Netherlands settlers, who are lovers of fruit, on observing the climate was suitable to the production of fruit trees, have brought over and planted various kinds of apple and pear trees, which thrive well'...peaches, plums, apricots, almonds, persimmons, cherries, figs, several sorts of currants, and gooseberries all give abundant fruit...every...fruit which grows in the Netherlands is plenty already in New Netherlands...the waters...are rich with fishes.' ...the most important fowl in the new country is the wild turkey, which is similar to the tame turkeys of the Netherlands...In the new colony, bread was not only used for the consumption of the colonists themselves but was also used for trading with the Indians.\"\n---The Sensible Cook (p. 24-26)\n\"It was hard to recruit Dutch settlers for the New World since there was prosperity and relgious tolerance in Holland. Those Dutch settlers who did come to the New World preferred fur trading to farming. As the number of settlers who brought livestock and farm implements increased, farming became a full-time livelihood...Probably the most important contribution the Dutch made to the New World was the introduction of grain. Their principal crop was wheat, although they also raised barley, rye, and buckwheat...The Dutch loved cakes, pastries, and breads. Dumplings, pancakes, and waffles, which the Dutch introduced to American cuisine, figured prominently in their daily menus. Settlers brought long-handled waffle irons from Holland an used them in the fireplaces of their colonial homes. The Dutch quickly adotped Indian corn, which they called \"Turkey wheat,\" and made it into a porridge...The Dutch...started the first public bakeries in America in 1656. Laws were passed by the Dutch that cookies and other sweet cakes could not be sold by the bakery unless they also sold bread... Since the Dutch settlers were used to dairy products, they brought dairy cattle with them from Holland and produced milk, butter, and cheese...A favorite dish was a derivation of the Dutch Hutspot (meaning hodgepodge), which consisted of cornmeal porridge cooked with chunks of corned beef and root vegetables. This dish was often cooked for three days until it formed a thick crust on top...Roast duck with dumplings, pork with cabbage, or roast goose were served on holidays... For dessert, Oliekocken were often served. These pastries, amde with a raised yeast dough, shaped into small balls, and fried in hot lard until golden brown, were named \"doughnuts\"...Tea, sugar, spices, chocolate, wines and brandies were all readily available in the Dutch colony.\"\n--Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 51-53)\nWhat foods were grown in New Netherlands kitchen gardens? , notes from A Description of the New Netherlands, Adriaen Van Der Donck, 1655. [NOTE: This source offers detailed descriptions of wild plants, indigenous game/fish, foods introduced from Holland and soil/weather.]\nNative American influence\nThe Dutch learned how to cook some Indian dishes and fit them into their daily fare. For lovers of porridge it was not hard to get used to sappaen, a cornmeal mush; and the pumpkin easily fitted into a common Dutch meal as pumpkin pancakes...\"\n---Sensible Cook (p. 27)\n18th century meals & mealtimes\n\"In 1749, eighty-five years after the English took over the Dutch colony, [Peter Kalm] describes the descendants of the Dutch settlers in Albany as follows: 'Their food and its preparation is very different from that of the English. Their breakfast is tea, commonly without milk. About thirty or forty years ago, tea was unknown to them, and they breakfasted either upon bread and butter, or bread an milk. They never put sugar into the cup, but take a bit of it into their mouths while they drink. Along with the tea they eat bread and butter, with slices of dried beef. The host himself generally says grace out loud. Coffee is not usual there. They breakfast generally around seven. Their dinner is buttermilk and bread, to which they add sugar on special occasions, when it is a delicious dish for them, or fresh milk and bread, with boiled or roasted meat. They sometimes make use of buttermilk instead of fresh milk, in which to boil a thin kind of porridge that tastes very sour but not disagreeable in hot weather. With each dinner they have a large salad, prepared with an abundance of vinegar, and very little or no oil...Their supper consists generally of bread and butter, and milk with small pieces of bread in it. The butter is very salt. Sometimes too they have chocolate. They occasionally eat cheese at breakfast and at dinner; it is not in slices, but scraped or rasped, so as to resemble coarse flour, which they pretend [claim] adds to the good taste of the cheese. They commonly drink very weak beer, or pure water.\"---ibid (p. 27-28)\n\"In contrast to the frugal daily fare were veritable feasts for the holidays, special occasions, or guests:...'Tea here was a perfect regale; accompanied by various sorts of cakes...cold pastry, and great quantities of sweetmeats and preserved fruits of various kinds, and plates of hickory and other nuts ready cracked. In all manner of confectionery and pastry these people excelled; and having fruit in great abundance, which costs them nothing, and getting sugar home at an easy rate...the quantity of these articles used in families, otherwise plain and frugal, was astonishing.'\"---ibid (p. 28)\n\"In their new colony, the settlers continued to prepare familiar foods...As diaries and inventories note, the settlers themselves brought the implements used for cooking these familiar foods, duplicating life in the Netherlands as best as they could. Cookbooks of their descendants show that they continued their own foodways but also incorporated native foods into their daily diet, albeit in ways that were familiar to them. For instance, they made pumpkin cornmeal pancakes, pumpkin sweetmeat, or added cranberries instead of the usual raisins and apples to their favorite olie-coecken. Lovers of porridge found it easy to get used to sapaen (Indian cornmeal mush), but they added milk to it...Cookies, pancakes, waffles, wafers, oli-koecken, pretzels, and coleslaw are some of the dishes that were brought to America by the Dutch colonists.\"---Matters (p. 23-24)\nColonial era foods & Civil War fare (overviews).\nHistory-wise, NC is probably most well known for its Moravian food heritage. The Moravians , a pious Germanic people, founded the Winston-Salem area of North Carolina in 1766. Known for their Lovefeasts and sweets, these traditions thrive today. Original/historic recipes are published in Preserving the Past: Salem Moravians' Receipts and Rituals [Carolina Avenue Press].\nSweet Moravian traditions\n\"Nazareth's Whitefield House will see its 265th Christmas this year. While the once home and school for Moravian settlers is now a museum telling the region's history; it's not hard to imagine the gracious stone building once filled with the celebration and sweet smells of traditional Moravian holiday recipes. As Susan Dreydoppel shares the history of some of the uniquely famous baked goods still enjoyed by Moravians and non-Moravians alike, she gently places samples of the treats on an appropriately holiday-themed plate and the irresistible fragrance of cinnamon and ginger again fills the 1740s Whitefield House. Dreydoppel, a Moravian minister and an area bakery share the reasons Moravian baking traditions have become such a cherished part of the holidays in our area. \"Our traditions stem from German baking traditions we brought here with us,\" explains the Rev. Christine Johnson, co-pastor at East Hills Moravian Church in Bethlehem. Dreydoppel, executive director of the Moravian Historical Society, and a Moravian, continues to make the recipes passed down to her by her Bethlehem grandmother. Dreydoppel prefers to bake traditional cookie recipes: scotch cakes (a rich, buttery shortbread with icing), chocolate drops and spice cookies. She says her research into ethnic Christmas customs found that in some cultures -- including the Swedish, German and Pennsylvania Dutch-- cookies are an important part of the holidays. \"In the German culture they used to do cookies and place them on the Christmas tree. The dark dough, spice dough, was for animal shapes; the white dough, for geometric shapes,\" she says. One way baking is tied to Moravian religious traditions is the lovefeast, Johnson says. Most area churches, including East Hills Moravian, celebrate a lovefeast on Christmas Eve. \"Lovefeast is a very simple meal shared during a worship service and helps us remember we are family,\" the pastor says. The lovefeast is based in early Christianity when the faithful didn't have churches and met in homes. \"What do you do in your home? Share food together,\" she says. Later in history the lovefeast premise became part of German tradition, too. \"People were wanting to linger after worship services where they were connected to God. They'd call out for leftovers and Germans had a lot of sugary cake and sweet buns in their homes,\" Johnson says. The well-known Moravian sugar cake is a simple cake topped with butter, brown sugar and cinnamon. \"Sugar cake is something people assume has been this Moravian delicacy for centuries. However, there is no hard-and-fast history for sugar cake and other classic Moravian recipes,\" Dreydoppel says. The first written recipe for the cake can be traced back to the Moravian Magazine published in Bethlehem, in 1863. \"My guess is if they were publishing something in this magazine, it wasn't popular before that,\" she says. Talk of sugar cake in her family goes back to a story she heard her grandfather tell of his mother sending butter and brown sugar to Bethlehem's Central Moravian Church to make the cakes. \"It's a yeast dough. People don't take time to make things with yeast (anymore),\" Dreydoppel says. But there have been recipes adapted to make the cake with quick yeast and breadmakers. \"Purists would say that's a travesty,\" she adds lightheartedly. Plus, \"There is no small recipe for sugar cake. You're going to get a lot -- enough to feed a family or congregation.\" \"I've made sugar cake. It's hard,\" Johnson says with a laugh. Her congregation also includes many young professionals and busy families who also don't have time to bake the traditional items. So, who makes the sugar cake for East Hills holiday lovefeast? Schubert's Bakery in Nazareth. The bakery, in its 35th year on North Broad Street, serves up the sweet tradition for many local churches, Moravian and non-Moravian. Before then, the business, owned by Ernie Schubert, was on South Main Street in Phillipsburg. Store manager Barbara Willett of Easton says the dough for the store's famed sugar cake is made and patted by hand. Schubert's offers sugar cake year-round and, at the holidays, also makes the traditional Moravian lovefeast bun a large bun topped with butter and sugar, she says. Whether store-bought or homemade, Moravian treats just seem to make the holidays a little sweeter. Want to get baking? Bear with this non-traditional recipe style, which appeared in The Moravian magazine more than a century ago:\n1863 Moravian Sugar Cake\nTo gratify one of our lady subscribers, and in compliance with other repeated solicitations, we furnish herewith a recipe for making the genuine home-made sugar cake which we have taken down from the lips of several experienced housekeepers. Recipe -- of well-risen wheaten bread dough, take about two pounds. Work into it a teacup full of brown sugar, quarter pound of butter and a beaten egg. Knead well and put into a square pan dredged with flour. Cover it and set it near the fire for half an hour to rise. When risen, wash with melted butter; make holes in the dough to half its depth, two inches apart, fill them with brown sugar and a little butter. Then spread ground cinnamon and a thick layer of brown sugar over the whole surface. Sprinkle with a little essence of lemon. Put into the oven and bake it fifteen minutes. Susan Dreydoppel offers this recipe which translates more easily to modern cooking methods:\nMoravian Sugar Cake\n2 pints potato water or milk\n1 or 2 packages dry yeast, dissolved in 1/2 cup very warm water\n1 cup sugar\n8 to 10 cups flour (more if needed)\nTopping:\nBrown sugar\nCinnamon (the more the better)\nHeat potato water or milk to lukewarm, or scald and then cool milk. In large mixing bowl, combine liquid, yeast (use 2 packages if you want faster rising, 1 for slower), sugar, salt, eggs, some flour, shortening, rest of flour. Work with hand until dough blisters (dough will be very soft and sticky, so leave it in the bowl and just squeeze for about 10 minutes). Let rise about one hour in a warm place. Punch down. May be put in pans now, or let rise a second time (about 45 minutes to an hour). Spread in well-greased pans, spreading as thin as possible (it won't go smoothly to edges, but after it's risen a bit, it will spread out a little more). Let rise 30 to 45 minutes. Punch holes with finger. Spoon melted butter over. Cover with soft brown sugar, sprinkle with cinnamon. Bake at 425 degrees for 20 to 25 minutes, until top is golden brown. Note: The full recipe will make a lot of sugar cake, probably two cookie sheets full plus a 9- by-13 inch pan. I usually only make half the recipe, using 1 full package yeast. This makes 1 cookie sheet plus two, small, 8- by-8 inch pans. If you really want to keep it simple, and have a bread machine, try this version courtesy Ann Weisel, Moravian Historical Society administrative assistant...\nChocolate Drops\n1/2 pound lard (can substitute 1 cup plus a little more shortening)\n1 1/2 pounds flour (6 cups)\n3 teaspoons baking powder\n4 eggs (reserve whites for frosting)\n1/2 pound baking chocolate (unsweetened)\n1 cup milk\n5 ounces chopped almonds or pecans\n1 teaspoon cinnamon\n2 teaspoons vanilla\n1 teaspoon salt\nMelt chocolate (can be done in microwave). Cream sugar, salt, lard, egg yolks. Stir in chocolate. Sift dry ingredients and add alternately with milk. Stir in nuts and vanilla. Roll in small balls (about 1 inch in diameter) and bake at 375 to 400 degrees on greased cookie sheet. When cool, frost with:\n1 pound powdered sugar\n2 egg whites\n1 teaspoon vanilla\nBeat egg whites, add sugar and vanilla. Add a little hot water if icing gets too thick. Source: Susan Dreydoppel\nScotch Cakes\nNC Barbecue\nDid you know NC is the number one sweet potato growing state in our country?\nNC blueberries are a very popular commodity today. They were first planted in this state in 1935. 1 & 2 .\nNorth Dakota has many popular foods. Wheat is the most popular crop (site includes recipes). Milk is the \"Official\" state beverage.\nMany northern Europeans settled in North Dakota. They introduced the dishes of their homelands, which are still enjoyed today. North Dakota/German recipes & cookbooks . The Scandinavians also settled in North Dakota. Every year the Norsk Hostfest is a popular destination for family fun & food .\nWhat did Nebraska pioneers eat?\n\"The buffalo herds of the plains played a key role in the frontier life and food supply of early North Dakota. Both the Indians and the settlers were dependent on these animals...The Indians of the northern Great Plains obtained such necessities as food, clothing, shelter, and fuel from the buffalo. As a food source the buttalo provided fresh meat, tallow, bone marrow, pemmican, and dried or jerked meat. The Indians considered tongues, dried and smoked as a delicacy...North Dakota has has an agricultural economy since the time the territory became a state. It is probably the most rural state in the country, with about 90 percent of the land in farms. The cultivation of spring and durum wheat and barley, along with the raising of cattle and hogs and dairy operations, constitutes the state's agriculture...The pioneers who came to Dakota in wagons brought potatoes, squash, rice, preserves, pickles, and eggs. The fragile items such as eggs were packed in cornmeal for the rough journey. However, the supply of both eggs and cornmeal was usually exhausted at journey's end. In 1812 a small group of Scottish Highlanders established a settlement in the Red River Valley and ignored the eating habits of the area, which were primarily based on the food of the Indians. The Highlanders had brought with them salt pork and beef from England, as well as oatmeal for porridge, salt fish, and shortbread...The largest group of Icelandic settlements in this country is in North Dakota. Skyr, a version of yogurt, was made by many of the Icelandic housewives and was served with blueberries...The Norwegians still bake many of their native cookies and pastries.\"\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 188-191)\nIn all times and places, people cook what they know. Folks setting forth into the great Ohio wilderness brought recipes and cooking apparatus from home. Wagon trains en route required \"camp\" cookery reminiscent of soldiers and explorers (think: Lewis & Clark, Daniel Boone). Most of the folks relocating from the original 13 states were already familiar with \"New World\" ingredients and substitutions. \"Old World\" heritage still played a big role in food choices and combination. Germans, English, Pennsylvania Dutch, French modified America's bounty to satisfy homeland tastes.\n\"Ohio was settled by veterans of the Revolutionary War who were given land grants...The pioneers in Ohio experienced many of the same lifestyles as their forefathers when they settled the East Coast. Cooking was done in iron pots in the open hearth. Food was raised of hunted. The pioneer women baked once a week in the hearth oven. Cookies and bread were baked first, followed by cakes and pies...Almost every farm home had a bean separator, since beans were a major ingredient in the farm diet. This hand-made machine, which threshed...beans, could be operated by dog power...Other items of the early Ohio kitchens were sausage stuffers and a lard press...Many settlers brought their native customs and cuisines to Ohio. The transplanted New Englanders brought with them their recipes for baked beans and salt pork and molasses. Dumplings makde with sour milk, chicken potpie...Some of these early settlers used bread stuffings for pork and beef, mainly to stretch a meal...The Germans brought their love for sausages, sauerkraut, and hearty meat and potato meals. Czech immigrants brougth one of their favorite dishes--fish boiled with spices andserved with a black sauce of prunes, raisins, and almonds... No fruit was more imporant to pioneer life than the apple...John Chapman, better known as Johnny Appleseed, left a trail of apple orchards throughout Ohio...Many of the first permanent settlers of Ohio were Germans from Pennsylvania...Cincinnati was established after the War of 1812 and became an elegant metropolis. Oysters were the luxury food...In the mid-nineteenth century Cincinnati was the world's greatest pork-packing center, turning hogs from Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky into hams and sausages.\"\n---Taste of the States, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 159-161)\nTraditional Ohio recipes\nBuckeye candy\nOfficial state foods & popular commodities\nThe official state beverage of Ohio (adopted by law) is tomato juice . Paragon tomatoes were \"invented\" in Reynoldsburg . If you need more details about tomatoes in Ohio & authentic Ohio tomato recipes? Ask your librarian to help you find a copy of Livingston and the Tomato, A.W. Livingston (inventor of the Paragon). This book has recently been reissued by Ohio State University Press with a forward by culinary historian Andrew F. Smith. The only other edible state symbol is the white tailed deer. Ohio's lush valleys grow several fruits and vegetables .\nLooking for historic recipes?\nHere is a cookbook published by the Ladies' Aid Society of the First Presbyterian Church, Marion, Ohio [1894]. Need more historic recipes? We have a copy of The Presbyterian Cook Book, Compiled by the Ladies of the First Presbyterian Church, Dayton Ohio c. 1911. We can send selected recipes if you wish. Mark Zanger's The American History Cookbook lists several recipes culled from historic cookbooks published in Ohio. Among these are: Apple brown betty, Boy's coffee, Coconut Macaroons, Delightful cakes, Hayes cake, Sheridan cake, Wheat bread with Potato Yeast, and Kumbish. If you would like to see these recipes, ask your librarian to help you find a copy. Hilde Gabriel Lee's Taste of the States offers Upside-Down Apple Tart (p. 160) and Chicken & Chestnuts (p. 162). Mary Anna Du Sablon's Cincinnati Recipe Treasury is perfect for examining ethnic (German, Greek) culinary contributions. Recipes included.\n\"official\" state meal : fried okra, squash, cornbread, barbecue pork, biscuits, sausage and gravy, grits, corn, strawberries, chicken fried steak, pecan pie, and black-eyed peas. This is based on popular local foods, past and present. Sorry, no \"official\" recipes.\nNeed to make something for class?\nIf you need to prepare something easy for class...fresh strawberries or watermelon (parts of the official state meal) are your easiest options. Cornbread and/or baking soda biscuits are likewise doable. Pecan Pie is tasty, but very rich and takes time. Maybe not the best choice for kids. Oklahoma cooks offers ethnic recipes. Wheat recipes .\nSheila Hibben's National Cookbook (excellent source!) c. 1932 contains two recipes for Oklahoma. They are:\n\"Chicken and corn pudding\nsalt and pepper\n3 eggs\nClean, wash, and cut up a young chicken as for frying. Let it simmer until tender with just enough water to cover, onion, parsley, salt, and pepper. Cut the grains from the raw roasting-ears, beginning with a thin outer slice. Add to the corn, the melted butter, well-beaten eggs, 1 teaspoon of salt, and entough of the broth in which the chicken has been cooking to make a batter. Pour into a buttered baking-dish; place the pieces of chicken in the middle, and bake until brown on top and the pudding is firm throughout.\" ---(p. 167-8)\n\"Pepper butter\n1/4 teaspoon salt\n4 drops tabasco\nCream the butter until light; add the other ingredients and beat well. Serve with broiled beefsteak.\" ---(p. 274)\nNeed something really quick, very, interesting, totally noisy, & way cool??! POPCORN!!!\n...here's the connection:\n\"The Oklahoma house of representatives, which meets at Guthrie, will continue to eat popcorn, this, too, despite the heroic efforts recently made by Representative T. F. Vandeventer of Bartlesville, former speaker of the Arkansas house and the man who gave Jeff Davis the closest race he ever had for the Democratic nomination for governor. 'This contiunal eating of popcorn and the practice of the members in exploding the empty bags during speechmaking detract from the dignity of the house and should be stopped,' he asserted. Speaker Murray was Vandeventer's principal opponent. 'If that be so,' yelled Harvey Utterback, Republican, of Kingfisher, 'then the practice of eating it should be discontinued at once!'...Vandeventer demanded a roll call, but a rising vote was taken instead, and popcorn was kept on the house bill of fare by a vote of 46 to 29. Members of both houses of the legislature eat popcorn all the time during sessions. Even the press tables are covered with it at times, and all the legislative clerks eat abundantly of it. It is figured by local popcorn venders that it takes from a half bushel to three pecks of corn on the ear daily to supply the legislature's demands for the popped product.\"\n---\"Popcorn Legislators' Diet,\" Daily Record, [Morris County, NJ newspaper] August 27,1908 (p. 6)\nOregon's table presents a unique reflection of the state's geography, people, and history. Nature's gifts abound from the Pacific Ocean (crab), Columbia River (salmon) and rich Willamette Valley (fruit, wine) regions. Central/Western Oregon harbors a harsher climate, requiring more work when it comes to setting the table.\nEdible state symbols (officially enacted by law) are: milk, Chinook salmon, Oregon grapes, pears, chanterelle mushrooms and hazelnuts. top commodities . Popular foods traditionally connected with Oregon include hazelnuts , berries , modern maraschino cherries & Dungeness crab . Oregon also has a thriving wine industry.\nA few notes on Oregon's fruit & nut heritage\n\"Agriculture...Two young Iowans, Henderson Luelling and William Meek, can be considered the \"Johnny Appleseeds\" of the Pacific Northwest. Both Meek and Luelling came to Oregon with nursery stock in soil-filled boxes in their wagons...Transporting plants was not an easy task, since they had to be watered frequently. The two men settled In the Willamatte Valley, teaming up to form partnership and start a nursery. Their trees were forerunners of today's Rogue River pears, Willamette Valley plums and prunes, Hood River apples, and Dalles cherries. In those early days fruit was so scarce that settlers came from all over the region to see the first apple trees...The coming of the railroads made it possible to transport Oregon fruit to eastern markets...Bartlett pears, which are hardy and keep well, became Oregon's major crop...Ninety-eight percent fo the hazelnuts used in this country are grown in Oregon. The first hazelnut trees were planted in 1858 in Schottsburg, Oregon, by David Gernot, a Frenchman.\"\n---\"Oregon,\" Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlotte VA] 1992 (p. 242-3)\n[NOTE: This book contains far more information than can be paraphrased here. Ask your librarian to help you obtain a copy.]\nHistoric foodways: Lewis & Clark & Oregon Trail cookery . Historic cookbooks from Portland Oregon: The Portland Woman's Exchange Cook Book (1913) & All Western Conservation Cook Book /Inie Gage Chapel (1917). James Beard as born and raised in Portland.\nWhat to make for class?\nWe suggest a recipe featuring one or more of Oregon's fine fruits. Fresh Oregon fruit is healthiest choice. Fruit salad (including maraschino cherries) are delicious.\nMaraschino Cherry Cake\n1/2 cup maraschino cherry juice\n1/4 cup chopped maraschino cherries\n1/4 teaspoon salt\n3 1/2 cups cake flour\n3 teaspoons baking powder\n6 whites of eggs\nCream butter and sugar well. Sift dry ingredients together and add to creamed mixture alternately with the milk and cherry juice. Add vanilla and chopped cherries and mix well. Fold in stiffly beaten egg whites. Pour into three medium-sized greased layer-cake pans and bake in a 350 degree F. oven for about forty minutes or until center of the cake is springy to the touch.\"\n---\"Oregon,\" New York World's Fair Cook Book: The American Kitchen, Crosby Gaige [Doubleday, Doran & Company:New York] 1939 (p. 247-248)\nPennsylvania's state table presents an interesting array of ecclectic foods. Significant markers include English, German, French, West Indian, Italian, Polish, and Pennsylvania Dutch foodways. Our forefathers sustained themsleves with some of the finest foods Philadelphia had to offer during the late 18th century.\n\"Pennsylvania developed many culinary specialties, one of the earliest being peach pies and tarts baked by the first Quaker housewives in Philadelphia. Apparently the peach trees left by the Spanish in Florida in the 1500s had been carried north by the Indians, as the Quakers found peach trees in Pennsylvania when they arrived. Soups and stews provided hearty meals for the early colonists. One of the most famous was Philadelphia Snapper Soup, made from the snapping turtle found in the Delaware River...Philadelphia consideres itself the birthplace of ice cream in the United States...Sticky buns are another Philadelphia specialty. They were probably descendants of German Schnecken, which are similar to cinnamon rolls. The recipe for Schnecken (\"snails\") was brought by the Germans who settled Germantown...in the early 1680s...Scrapple can be traced to German immigrants... Pennsylvania Dutch cooking was remained almost unaltered for 200 years.\"\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 60-1)\n\"Official\" state foods are introduced by legistators and enacted by law. Pennsylvania's edible state symbols are: milk, brook trout, white tailed deer and ruffled grouse. You'll find pictures and descriptions here . The 1876 Centennial Exposition was held in Philadelphia.\nPennsylvania famous for many different foods. Although these are not official \"state foods,\" they represent the history and people living in the state. If you need to make a food for your state report all you have to do is select a place and period. Some popular examples here:\nAccording to William Woys Weaver (foremost expert in Philadelphia's culinary history) colonial Philadephia was a melting pot of tastes and cuisines. English, French and West Indian influences prevailed. The art of confectionery (including ice cream) was considered the best in America. Taverns abounded, as did local markets and imported supplies. If you want to learn more about Philadelphia's culinary contributions we heartily recommend The Larder Invaded: Reflections on Three Centuries of Philadelphia Food and Drink, Mary Anne Hines, Gordon Marshall and William Woys Weaver (1986 exhibition catalog and recipes), Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Your librarian can help you obtain a copies.\nNeed to create a colonial Philadelphia tavern or coffee house meal?\nOur research confirms coffee houses (both European and American) were not particularly known for their food. Like publik houses and taverns, they were considered destination for exchanging ideas, sharing news and conducting business. Coffee houses drew a crowd that considered themselves more intellectually elite than the average tavern goer. The planners of the American Revolution were among these coffee house customers. Because these customers were generally of the wealthier classes, it is reasonable to assume they would have expected the best foods available at that time. About Colonial American coffee houses & taverns . [NOTE: neither of these establishments furnished menus to customers. Food was often served on a sideboard (like buffet) all at once. If your son needs create a \"bill of fare\" his best bet is to hand write it on parchment-like paper with a fountain pen. Post on the wall. No prices. Foods came with the drinks.\nWhat to serve? (easy, cheap, appealing to elementary students or middle schoolers)\nMeat pies (chicken, pork), stew or soup (vegetable perfectly okay, esp. if some classmates are vegetarian), baked ham, warm potato salad, stews, bread (corn muffins, white/wheat rolls, ), butter, fruit pies, sugar cookies, gingerbread, Sally Lunn (like pound cake), cheese cake, ice cream, cider, cocoa, milk, tea, alcohol-free fruit punch. Coffee?? of course was served but some parents may object because of caffeine. Discuss with the teacher. Very weak coffee with milk & sugar is perfectly period and may interest the students. Popular period commodities you will likely omit (based on price, availability & taste): oysters, terrapin and tripe. Kudos to you if you attempt traditional/popular Philadelphia PepperPot Soup.\nRecommended cookbooks with modernized recipes(your local public librarian will help you get these)\nFoods from the Founding Fathers/Burke\nPhiladelphia's City Tavern was a favorite place for eating & drinking. Modernized menus are inspired by colonial era traditions. While this food is more upscale/ gourmet (& expensive) than your project requires, it may be useful for additional ideas & table settings. City Tavern's chef Walter Staib has published cookbooks. Your local public librarian can help you get them.\nQuaker traditions are best captured by Penn Family Recipes: Cooking Recipes of Willian Penn's Wife Gulielma/edited by Evelyn Abraham Benson [George Shumway:York PA] 1966 and Domestic Cookery, Elizabeth Ellicott Lea.\nThis popular Pittsburgh tradition also has \"Old World\" roots. There are many (possible/plausible) theories regarding its origin and history. The Pittsburg-Post Gazette surveyed readers in 1996 to determine the \"true origin.\" The results? Fascinating!\n\"A wedding without cookies is like a wedding without drink,'' declares Terry Stefl, executive director of the Slovenian Heritage Association. And most of Western Pennsylvania resoundingly agrees. But where did The Cookie Table tradition at regional weddings originate? And is it exclusively regional? (To the second question we can answer no, but because of the Pittsburgh area's celebrated ethnicity, it is a definite stronghold.) We wanted to find out where the custom started, whether it was transported from the Old Country by a particular ethnic group, or whether it was a sweet symbol of the melding of families through intermarriage as mothers, aunts, grandmothers, friends and relatives from both sides of the aisle brought their baked tributes, plain and fancy, to weddings large and small, ethnic and assimilated. Our informal survey yielded no definitive historical scholarship, but rather an interesting spectrum of theories supported by memory and oral history. Several ethnic groups trace cookie or ''sweets'' tables to their countries of origin. Others embrace it as a delicious byproduct of America's melting pot. One theory holds that as immigrants strove to assimilate to their new Americanized culture, they also wanted to retain some of the flavor of their traditions. The introduction of cherished recipes for handmade sweets gave both families the opportunity to commingle their cultures with a distinctly personal touch. Another theory: As ethnic costumes as wedding garb became less and less common, and as store-bought wedding gowns became more popular as a sign of affluence or assimilation, the women of the family were left itching to do something for the couple. So it was out of the sewing room and into the kitchen...Florence Bonadero, a retired home economist and former Pittsburgher now living in San Antonio, Texas, says the Cookie Table is decidedly a southern Italian custom. She writes: ''In the Abruzzi region of Italy, no wedding goes without each guest receiving a special sweet treat. . . . It is usually a colored almond candy made up in a very special arrangement (much like a favor). In the town of Sulmona (east of Rome) there is a 'candy designer' on every corner with his/her small shop. In the windows will be all examples of 'sweet favors' to be given away to guests at weddings.'' In all regions of Poland, it was customary for the bride, on her way to be married, to distribute a pine cone-like cookie, symbolizing good luck, to the townsfolk, according to Donald Mushalko, Ph.D. and chairman of the Polish Room of the University of Pittsburgh Nationality Rooms. The traditional Old World Polish wedding included not a cake but a wedding bread of herbs decorated with live flowers. Tables of cookies were also common, featuring chrusciki, Polish tea cookies and assorted rolled cookies filled with nuts, poppyseeds, apricots, apples, plums and gooseberries, Mushalko reports. Joseph Bielecki, an attorney and chairman of the Czech/Slovak Room at Pitt, has lectured on Slovak wedding customs, and says The Cookie Table did not originate in those countries, but evolved in America. ''From 1880 to 1920, younger men and women came to this country to find work. They met, they married,'' he says. But because they were poor and their families and church halls were back in the Old Country, they devised small home receptions, with a room for dancing and a room for foods and pastries donated by their friends. For verification, Bielecki referred us to his mother, Josephine Bielecki of Mount Pleasant. A professional baker who has seen many a cookie table in her day, Josephine Bielecki agrees that in the olden days, there were no cookies at Slovak weddings. Her parents hailed from Papin, a small town in Slovakia. But it wasn't until she was separated from her Polish husband, also named Joseph, one Christmas during the war that Josephine Bielecki learned the joys of cookies from his sisters and became a cookie recipe fiend (more than 500 and counting). Every group's introduction to the Cookie Table differed. But its appeal is infectious. Once encountered, the custom begs to be copied. And copied and copied. So does it matter where the custom originated as long as we can appreciate the warm, hearth-and-heart-inspired sense of community and ethnic pride it brings to any gathering, whether a wedding, a shower, a bar or bat mitzvah or a christening? It's nice to know that our immigrant forebears, while buying into the American dream and its ubiquitous tiered wedding cake, clung to that home-baked expression of love, the humble cookie.\"\n---Cookie table origins hazy,\" Betsy Kline, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 19, 1996 (p. C4)\n[NOTE: this article sums up the reader responses printed in \"The Cookie Table: In Western Pennsylvania, we say \"I do and pass the cookies', Suzanne Martinson, Pittsburg Post-Gazette, September 12, 1996 (p.C1). This article is long and very interesting. Your librarian can help you find a copy.]\n\"The Pittsburgh Cookie Table seemed strange to my husband, Ace, and me when we arrived a dozen years ago. Then I wrote the first cover story for our Thursday Food section on the mysterious origins of this Pittsburgh tradition -- it's found few other places, though great ideas do spread as recipe boxes move from place to place. I've come to love The Cookie Table with the blind intensity of a convert. In Bob and Anita's eclectic wedding weekend, in which the reception preceded the ceremony (in Hindu tradition, it's \"inauspicious\" to wed on a Saturday), the couple put The Cookie Table high on their list for making the event memorable. Cookies, hundreds of homemade cookies...The more I thought about it, a Cookie Table is kind of a marriage in miniature. You need variety (chocolate chips for the kids, something lighter for calorie counters), sustenance (gingersnaps from the PG's newest mother), and stick-to-the-ribs sweetness (no table has too many Mexican Wedding Cakes or heart-shaped butter cookies). Something old (Pittsburgh classics -- beautiful ladylocks and nut rolls) would be balanced with something new.\"\n---COOKIE TABLE IS LIKE MARRIAGE IN MINIATURE, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (Pennsylvania), May 6, 2001 (p. G13)\n\"Then, 10 years ago, my husband, daughter and I moved to Pittsburgh, the kingpin of cookies. In this city, cookies are not just a sometime holiday thing but high art. This, after all, is the home of The Cookie Table, which graces every event of any merit -from bar mitzvah to wedding. As a symbol of the pervasiveness of the area's cookie culture, when our daughter was to be graduated from high school, she had but one request: \"I want a Pittsburgh Cookie Table.\" She got it. Just as The Cookie Table reflects the different ethnic groups and family customs that make this city so culturally rich, the holiday cookie tray is the touchstone of memories for many families.\"\n---\"Cookies,\" Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 13, 1998 (p. G13)\nThe two most notable primary sources for this place and time are Harriott Pinckney Horry's Receipt Book [c. 1770] and Sarah Rutledge's Carolina Housewife [c. 1847]. Both books have been reprinted recently by the University of South Carolina Press. Need to make something for class?\n\"From her plantation or in her Charleston home, Harriott would not have lacked for good food and drinks. At Hampton she had gardens, poultry, and livestock together with game and seafood from nearby fields and rivers. In Charleston there were certainly a kitchen garden, a poultry yard, very likely a cow or two, the daily market, and a wealth of imported delicacies from the West Indies and Europe...Milk and cheese were generally lacking except to the well-to-do. The pork and barnyard fowls, fed on corn and rice, were rated good, but the beef, veal and mutton were but 'middling' or inferior because...the cattle and sheep were not fattened but rather slaughtered direct from the thin pastures. From nearby fields and waters.,...there was a plentiful supply of venison, wild turkeys, geese, ducks, and other wild fowl. Terrapin were found in all ponds, and at times ships arrived from the West Indies with huge sea turtles. Fish were often scarce and expensive, but oysters, crabs, and shrimp could be bought cheaply. Vegetables were available and were preserved for winter months. Travelers noticed that the 'long' (sweet) potatoes were a great favorite and there were also white potatoes, pumpkins, various peas and beans, squashes, cucumbers, radishes, turnips, carrots, and parsnips among other vegetables. Rice was the colony's great staple and it was served with meats and shellfish and used to make breads, biscuits, flour, puddings, and cakes...Corn served all classes to make Journey cakes and the great and small hominy. Wheat was grown by some of the Germans in the interior, but better grades were imported from Pennsylvania and New York. Lowcountry dwellers grew and enjoyed a profusion of fruits: oranges, peaches, citrons, pomegranates, lemons, pears, apples, figs, melons, nectarines, and apricots, as well as a variety of berries...Wealthy planters and merchants were not limited to locally produced foods. From northern colonies came apples, white potatoes, and wheat...as well as butter, cheeses, cabbages, onions, and corned beef. The West Indies, the Spanish and Portuguese islands, and Europe sent cheeses, salad oils, almonds, chocolate, olives, pimentos, raisins, sugar, limes, lemons, currants, spices, anchovies and salt. Boats arrived in Charles Town frequently from the West Indies with many kinds of tropical fruits.As for beverages, only the slaves, the poorest whites, and hard-pressed frontiersmen drank water. The average South Carolinian more likely drank a mixture of rum and water, spruce beer, or cider, and in the frontier areas peach brandy and...whiskey...\"\n---A Colonial Plantation Cookbook: The Receipt Book of Harriott Pinckney Horry 1770, edited with an Introduction by Richard J. Hooker [University of South Carolina Press:Columbia SC] 1984 (p. 14-17)\nAbout Rice in Georgetown, SC .\nLow Country\nSouth Carolina's low country cuisine is a creole mix of English, French, Caribbean and West African flavors. The Gullah/Geechee people were of West African descent. There does not seem to be much information about Geechee foodways on the Internet. But! According to the Library of Congress (http://catalog.loc.gov) there are two books on the topic:\n1. Bittle en' t'ing' : Gullah cooking with Maum Chrish' / Virginia Mixson Geraty.\n2. Gullah cooking : creative recipes from an historic past from the low country of South Carolina / by Oscar Vick.\nUpcountry cuisine\nPopular traditional examples are Pine Bark Stew & Carolina Muddle. What are these dishes?\n\"Pine-bark stew. A fish stew. [1872 Atlantic Mth. 29, 748. In these packages were strips of white pine bark, which in its dried state gives out the flavor of nutmegs--slightly bitter and fragrant.] 1940. Brown Amer. Cooks 49 SC, From Up Country comes the famous Pine Bark Stew that has as many variations as has the Brunswick Stew and the Kentucky Burgoo. 1941 Writers' Program Guide SC 369 neSC, Bream and mollies are made into 'pine bark stew,' and tall tales recounted around the bonfire. 1951 Brown Southern Cook Book 159, Pine Bark Stew, a fish stew with a dark brown color and pungent flavor, is a South Carolina Pee Dee River dish...Some sources state that the stew derives its name from the chocolate-like color similar to pine bark; others, from the pine park used to kindle the open fire over which the stew is cooked. From The Pee Dee Pepper Pot, Darlington, South Carolina, is a third explanation, \"Since seasonings were unobtainable during the Revolutionary War Days, the tender small roots of the Pine Tree...were used for flavoring (the stew). With homemade ketchup as a base, the only other seasoning was red pepper.\"\n---Dictionary of American Regional English, Joan Houston Hall chief editor, Volume IV P-Sk [Belknap Press:Cambridge MA] 2002 (p. 160)\n\"Carolina Muddle\n\"WHAT? Carolina bouillabaisse. A thick, satisfying fish stew, Carolina muddle can be found in eastern Virginia and North Carolina, particularly on the Outer Banks. \"Muddle is the traditional feast of the region,\" Bill Neal wrote in Bill Neal's Southern Cooking. \"The simple vegetables potatoes, onions, tomatoes in perfect proportion with the freshest fish achieve the satisfaction sought in all good peasant cooking.\" The soup also contains bacon, tomatoes, and eggs, which poach on the surface of the simmering liquid; the name \"muddle\" refers to the fact that many ingredients are jumbled together. Cook a muddle in an iron pot over a pine-bark fire and what have you got? Pine bark stew, of course.\"\n--- Source . [NOTE: page does not connect 11 April 2009]\nColonial-era recipes from South Carolina [modernized for today's kitchens]\n\"Okra Pilau\nThe Oxford Dictionary says that a pilau is an Orienta dish of rice with meat and spices. Yet few foods seem to be so home in South Carolina as pilaus. Doubtless the early traders brought the idea of pilaus from India in the days when Charleston was a great seaport, before the Revolutionary War. And southern cooks shifted the emphasis from the secxond to the first syllable, and the ingredient from oil to tomatoes. In Charleston, they pronounce it pelos, and they cook it so that the dish comes out dry and greaseless.\n4 slices bacon\n1 tablespoon green pepper, minced\n2 sups stewed tomatoes\n2 cups okra, sliced thin\nSalt and black pepper\n2 cups rice\n1 teaspoon salt\nDice the bacon and cook in a deep frying pan until golden brown. Lift out the bacon and fry the onion and green pepper in the bacon fat until brown. Then add the tomatoes and okra and let them cook down, stirring occasionally to prevent burning. Season well with salt and pepper. Meanwhile, cook the rice in the water, to which the salt has been added. After the rice has boiled for 12 minutes, drain, mix with tomato mixture, and turn into the top of a double boiler. Let it steam for 15-20 minutes, at the end of which time the rice should be tender and thorougly flavored with the tomato. Add the bacon just before serving: if it is added too far ahead of time, it will lose its crispness. Makes 6 servings.\"\n---Foods from the Founding Fathers: Recipes from Five Colonial Seaports, Helen Newbury Burke [Exposition Press:New York] 1978 (p. 231-232)\n[NOTES: (1) Use regular (not quick or minute) rice; Carolina brand perfect (2) Okra history notes .]\nCharleston Sweet Potato Pie\n1/2 cup strong black coffee\n1/2 cup sugar\nCream the butter until light and add it to the sugar; beat well and add jam. Dissolve the spices in coffee and add to butter; then add well-beaten egg yolks, and alternately the flour and sour cream, in which the soda has been dissolved. Finally fold in whites of eggs stiffly beaten, and bake in cake pan from 45 to 55 minutes in moderate oven. Ice with Baker's Icing while still warm.\"\n---National Cookbook: A Kitchen Americana, Shelia Hibben [Harper & Brothers:New York] 1932 (p. 389)\n\"Baker's Icing\nAdd 3 tablespoons of cream and 1 teaspoon of vanilla to a cup of powdered sugar. Beat until well blended, and spread while the cake is still hot. Instead of cream, orange juice may be used.\"\n---ibid (p. 406-7)\nlarge tablespoon melted lard\ncold water\nMix the meal and salt and add melted lard and enough cold water to form with the hand into small cakes about the size of a biscuit. Drop into the boiling pot licker, on the top of the greens, and cook for twenty minutes with cover on the pot. Serve around the greens. In middle Tenneessee these corn dodgers, or dumplings, are called poorsouls.\"\n---ibid (p. 236)\nRecommended reading\nSmokehouse Ham, Spoon Bread, & Scuppernong Wine: The Folklore and Art of Southern Appalachian Cooking/Joseph E. Dabney\n...excellent source for regional recipes with historic notes\nYou can locate state-specific cookbooks with the Library of Congress catalog . Subject search: cookery, tennessee ...your local public librarian can help you obtain these books.\nLooking for something unusual? Ramps!\n\"Ramps: (\"Tennessee Truffles\")...Ramps reign royally in Cosby, Tennessee, every April. The Cook County community, nested, in the shadow of the Great Smoky Mountains, goes wild over the odoriferous mountain leek, stagin a Ramp Festival...But Cosby isn't alone. Ramps are celebrated across the lofty, fertile, and shady coves in Southern Appalachia...The Appalachian \"ramp country\" ranges from West Virginia to north Georgia. Wild ramps, a member of the lily family, and called \"Tennessee Truffles\" by some, flourish in buckeye flats...old-time mountain people love the wild leek. Take Gary Davis, a retired conservation ranger from Fannin County, Georgia. \"If I don't get some ramps to eat in the spring, I may not make it to the fall. It slicks you off [as a tonic], makes you feel good and do good all summer...\"\n---Smokehouse Ham, Spoon Bread, & Scuppernong Wine: The Folklore and Art of Southern Appalachian Cooking, Joseph E. Dabney [Cumberland House:Nashville TN] 1998 (p. 273-4)\nEdible state symbols feature cherries, spanish onions and sugar beets. Which foods are grown in Utah?\nMormon fare\nIn 1847 Mormons settled in Utah. Their journey was long and hard. Mormon recipes/cooking methods/journals, from the Utah Education Network\nModernized recipes\nIf you need to make something for class? This book is perfect: The Essenial Mormon Cookbook: Green Jell-O , Funeral Potatoes, and Other Secret Combinations, Julie Badger Jensen ...your local public librarian will be happy to help you obtain a copy.\n\"Mormon Scones,\" Salt Lake Tribune (Utah), Nancy Hobbs, June 9, 1999, Pg. B1\n\"Outsiders may scoff, but Utah's deep-fried version is a hit with the folks at home Regular diners at Johanna's Kitchen in Sandy, or Sill's Cafe in Layton, know what to expect when they order a scone: a hot, deep-fried disc of bread the size of the plate or bigger, with a huge scoop of honey butter slowly melting and pooling on top. Just the way folks like it, says Stan Stevens, general manager at Johanna's, where scones sell by the \"thousands\" -- more than 1,500 orders weekly, with two to an order. But to people outside the Beehive State, these scones are an aberration. In Utah, scones originating in the British Isles -- those bumpy-looking biscuit-type things sold in European-style bakeries, coffee shops and upscale mountain resorts -- are the oddity. Native Utahns are the ones at those spots who say, \"You call those scones?\" Letty Flatt, pastry chef at Deer Valley Resort, has been on both sides of the \"debate.\" To her, scones are the fruit-filled, baked delicacies that people from outside Utah recognize instantly. When she has made deep-fried bread dough, she called them sopaipillas and served them with a huevos rancheros breakfast. Even so, Flatt said, she felt herself turning bright red in Phoenix during a recent conference of culinary professionals from around the world, when Wall Street Journal editor and columnist Raymond Sokolov targeted the \"Utah scone\" as something stranger than strange. \"He went off on a good, 3-minute discussion of Utah scones, and how they are deep-fried. ... It almost seemed like [Sokolov] put it in for a touch of comedy.\" Sokolov has a similar take on Utah scones and the Four Corners area as the \"fried bread capital of the world\" in his book Fading Feast: A Compendium of Disappearing American Regional Foods. The book, originally published in 1981, was reprinted by a new publisher last year with the addition of several new essays, including \"Everyman's Muffins.\" He writes that as he prepared for a trip to Salt Lake City, he was excited to read in another author's book about Utah's unique scones, since the city \"is not a rich area for gastronomic research.\" He tried scones at Johanna's Kitchen \"in Jordan, Utah\" and at one of Vickie and Gerald Warner's 13 statewide Sconecutter shops, where scones are served with everything from honey butter to meat, as sandwiches. \"We've been doing business in Utah -- just Utah -- for 23 years, and our specialty is scones. All kinds of scones,\" said Vickie Warner. \"I've never really heard of them being anywhere else. We have a lot of people who say they look forward to coming [to Utah] for our scones.\" In trying to research the origins of the Utah scone, Sokolov naturally compares it to Navajo fry bread and Mexican sopaipillas, suggesting that Utah's early Mormon pioneers liked the fried bread when they tried it and adapted it to their tastes with a sweeter dough. He points out that recipes for scones from the Lion House -- \"the Mormon world's closest approximation to an official restaurant\" -- and in Donna Lou Morgan's What's Cooking in Utah Kitchens? (published by The Salt Lake Tribune) use eggs, buttermilk and sugar. Utah's scone makers seem to have come to the same conclusion about the fried bread's origin, as Gerald Warner from the Sconecutter and Stan Stevens from Johanna's described their products, without any prompting, as similar to Navajo fry bread. \"But we have a special recipe that's been in Johanna's family for eons,\" and has been used at the restaurant for all of its 28 years, Stevens added. Deer Valley's Flatt gives a sneak preview of her upcoming cookbook, Chocolate Snowball and Other Fabulous Pastries from Deer Valley Bakery (to be published in October by Falcon Publishing), with her recipe for Dried Cherry Scones. She suggests serving them with butter and fruit preserves for breakfast or, as the British do, for afternoon tea. \"This is a very adaptable recipe,\" she writes. \"I often add nuts to the dough or use another dried fruit, such as apricots.\"\nUtah Scones\n2 packages (2 tablespoons) active dry yeast\n1/4 cup warm water\n1/2 teaspoon baking soda\n10 to 11 cups flour\nHeat buttermilk; pour into a large mixing bowl. Dissolve yeast in warm water. Add to the buttermilk: sugar, eggs, oil, salt, baking powder, baking soda, dissolved yeast and 6 cups flour. Beat until smooth. Add remaining flour to make a moderately stiff dough. Place in a greased bowl; turn. Cover and allow to rise until doubled in bulk; punch down. Cover and place in refrigerator overnight. Roll out 1/2-inch thick and cut into squares just before frying in hot, deep vegetable oil. Serves 15 to 18; recipe can be halved. Serve with Honey Butter, made by beating 1 cup softened butter with 1 cups honey for 10 minutes, or until fluffy. Adapted from Three Decades of Cooking With Donna Lou Morgan\n**EXTRA**\n1 cup (sticks) butter, softened\n1 1/4 cups honey\nBeat together butter and honey for 10 minutes, until fluffly.\nFrom Three Decades of Cooking With Donna Lou Morgan.\nHere is the article by Mr. Sokolov from Natural History magazine:\n\"I would have liked to include a few scone recipes in this chapter, but once you start on scones where do you stop? Like me, most of you probably grew up thinking of scones as rich muffins. My mother used to bake small circular ones when I was growing up in Detroit. Later, when I lived in England, I ran into similar buns a teahouses. That was twenty years ago, and I hadn't given scones a second though until I was recently preparing for a visit to Salt Lake City and noticed in Michael and Jane Stern's Good Food that scones were a specialty of the city. This seemed odd, and when I read the Sterns' description of Utah scones, I was sure they were not the scones I had known elsewhere. Michael Stern was as puzzled as I was. Salt Lake scones were most unsconelike, he told me on the phone before I left: they were fried, puffy, and sometimes split and used as buns for sloppy Joes. This was confusing but exciting news. Salt Lake is not a rich area for gastronomic research. The Mormons, who settled the city and whose culture is surely still the dominant local strain, were (and are) a religious group drawn from many traditional cultures, not an ethnically coherent population with a settled food tradition. Mormons are zealous missionaries who proselytize among nearby heathen, notably American Indians, and all over the world. This international outlook led them to develop their own script and lingua franca, Deseret. But on the culinary level, they seem to have been content to continue the diet the first Mormons brought with them in the second half of the nineteenth century. Since the early settlers departed from the Midwest, it isn't surprising that today's typical Mormon food should closely resemble midwestern farmhouse food. In Salt Lake, I was able to verify this assumption at the Mormon world's closest approximation to an official restaurant, a cafeteria called the Pantry, situated in the Lion House, a former home of Mormon patriarch Brigham Young. The building is not open to the public but serves the Mormon community as a sort of banquet hall and dining club. No fewer than five wedding parties were celebrating the day I was taken there. From years of such prominence in Mormon feasting, the Lion House kitchen has taken on a special luster among the faithful. Reservations for the banquet rooms are said to be made years in advance. It seems reasonable to say, then, that the kitchen of the Lion House represents Mormon traditional cooking at its best. And judging by what I ate at the Pantry and by the recipes collected in 1980 for Lion House Recipes, Mormon cooking is an unreconstructed expression of mainstream middle American food: jello salads, pies, meat and potatoes. Lion House Recipes does contain some relatively exotic dishes, such as Greek salad and Mexican taco salad. What it lacks almost completely is purely local food ideas not imported from somewhere else. It would be unfair, however, to blame the lack of purely Utah recipes only on the Mormons. You will find almost no bona fide regional recipes in the secular counterpart to Lion House Recipes, a compilation entitled What's Cooking in Utah Kitchens, edited by Donna Lou Morgan, food editor of the Salt Lake Tribune. There are, to be sure, original dishes, such as Chicken Porter Rockwell (a chicken pie), and various other concoctions culled from family recipe files, but the only dish in either of these books that seems to have developed in Utah and taken root in the regional culture is the anomalous fried bread called scone. In Utah, by the evidence of both local cookbooks and three local restaurants, the scone starts out as a yeast-raised, sweet dough that is cut into 2-by-2-inch squares (or other shapes of similar surface area) and deep-fried. The most popular method of service is with butter and honey. That is how I ate a midmorning scone at Johanna's Kitchen in a mall at Jordan, Utah. They didn't bother to bring honey at the Pepper Tree in Salt Lake, but they did advertise a free scone with each breakfast \"entree\" on the sign out front. Clearly, the Utah scone is not a vanishing bread. Certainly not at the two-restaurant chain in Salt Lake City called Sconecutter. At these twenty-four-hour drive-ins, the Utah scone rises to challenge the doughnut and the hamburger bun as a fast-food commodity. Cooked on the spot from yeast dough, the scones come out crisp, puffy, and rectangular. The dough inside is airy and pleasantly chewy. But are they scones in the normal sense? And if not, where do they come from? How did they start? Traditional English scones are too diverse to classify with much certainty, as Elizabeth David warns us. But they do generally qualify as muffinish quick breads, and mostly they are baked. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, scones (derived from the Middle Low German schonbrot, or fine bread) are baked, cooked on a griddle stone, or even fried (but not deep-fried). Yeast does crop up sometimes, for example, in Jane Grigson's recipe for Northumbrian wholemeal scones in English Food. But no traditional British scone I have ever eaten or read about comes close to resembling the Utah scone. So it seems improbable that early Mormons of British extraction imported the deep-fried scone to their New World Zion. When I asked her about it, donna Lou Morgan guessed that pioneer Utah cooks, who were inveterate bread bakers, had taken to frying some of the yeast dough they often had on hand. She remembered her own mother pinching off pieces of bread dough and frying them, but Morgan's own recipe for scones, which is very much like the Lion Houses's, is not based on a conventional bread dough. It is richer and sweeter and has chemical raising agents in it, undoubtedly to boost the puffing of the scone as it fries. The first time I ate a Utah scone, I was certainly not reminded of bread or of traditional muffin scones. I thought instantly of two other puffy fried breads popular in the West: Navajo fry bread and New Mexican sopaipillas (see recipes). The taste of both these regional \"breads\" is very close to the taste of Utah scones. Yes, the shapes and textures vary a little. But with the sopaipilla, there is an extra link. Like Utah scones, sopaipillas are served with honey. Until some researcher makes a lucky strike in a Mormon woman's diary or a pioneer cookbook, we are never going to know for sure how it is that Navajos, Chicanos, and Mormons ended up eating similar fried breads. It could all be coincidence, but in the absence of hard facts, it is tempting to construct an explanatory scenario that will connect all the fried breads so popular in the mountain time zone, from Bountiful, Utah, to Hatch, New Mexico. Here is one. Let us suppose that both the Navajo fry bread and the sopaipilla predate the Utah scone. They are simpler and history is on their side Both Navajos and Hispanicized New Mexicans were in their present regions long before the Mormons. Their fry breads are almost identical, and so it makes sense to look for an archetypal southwestern fry bread from which both descend. Now since most culinary ideas in the U.S. Southwest moved there from the south, when Mexico controlled the area, there ought to be a Mexican ancestor for the sopaipilla and for the Navajo fry bread. In fact, there is one. Diana Kennedy located sopaipillas in the Mexican state of Chihuahua, which shares some of its northern border with New Mexico. Sopaipillas are uncommon there, but they are called sopaipillas and are similar to those eaten in New Mexico, except that in Chihuahua they aren't made with a chemical rising agent (or with yeast). This greater simplicity argues in favor of Chihuahua as the birthplace of American fry bread. Still, it may be that the Chihuahuan sopaipilla is a later simplification of a New Mexican original. But I doubt that. Common sense tells me that the baking soda now used by Navajos and Chicanos came to them at a late date from the intruding Anglo world. The primitive fry bread now preserved in Chihuahua was probably once indigenous to the entire region we are talking about and now survives only in Chihuahua because of its remoteness from outside influences. Most probably, then, when Mormons first came into contact with southwestern Indians, they found them eating an unleavened fried bread that puffed up in hot oil. Inevitably, they tasted it and liked it. Mormon women then tried to duplicate the recipe and added a whole battery of raising agents they knew about from English baking. They put in buttermilk because its mild acidity was necessary to activate baking soda and make it give off carbon dioxide. They added eggs and sugar and ended up with a delicous and original bread, related in kind to the beignet family, but a thing unto itself. And lacking a name for the thing, they remembered scones, quick sweet breads from back home that were also cut into individual serving pieces before cooking. This is only a hypothesis, not a substitute for real evidence. At any rate, the Utah scone flourishes on its native ground, hard by its Indian cousins. And no matter how Navajo bread, sopaipillas, and Utah scones actually came about, it is the case that the Four Corners, where Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado meet, is the fried bread capital of the world.\"\n---\"Everyman's muffins; Includes recipes,\" Sokolov, Raymond, Natural History, June, 1985, Vol. 94 ; Pg. 82\n---Jell-O: A Biography, Carolyn Wyman [Harcourt:San Diego] 2001 (p. 121-2)\n\"That probably strengthens the campaign to hold all Olympics in New Orleans, for purely gastronomical reasons. But the Utah food pins don't stop with the image of gloppy pink fry sauce. Some collectors fancy the pin featuring green Jello. It so happens Utahans eat more gelatin per capita than consumers in any other state. Who knew?\"\n---\"SALT LAKE 2002,\" Cathy Harasta, The Dallas Morning News, October 28, 2001, Pg. 4B\n\"Utah's Famous Green Jell-O\nThis salad inspired an Olympic pin\n1 cup water\n1 (6-oz) package lime Jell-O\n1/2 cup sugar\n2 tablspoons fresh lime juice (optional)\n1 cup crushed pineapple, undrained\n2 cups whipping cream\nBring water to boil. Put Jell-O and sugar in a medium-sized bowl; add boiling water, stirring until gelatin is dissolved. Add lemon juice, if desired. Stir in crushed pineapple. Refrigerate until syrupy. Whip cream until stiff. Fold into Jell-O mixture. Place in a 9 X 13-inch pan. Refrigerate for serveral hours until firm. Makes 12 servings.\n---The Essential Mormon Cookbook, Julie Badger Jensen [Deseret Book:Salt Lake City UT] 2004 (p. 20)\nNeed to make something for class? (besides green Jell-O, that is?)\nThe following passage describes food typical of a middle class land owning family living in early 19th century Fauquier County, VA. The words were penned by the Food Timeline editor's great-grandfather, who recorded his family stories from memory. They are transcribed as originaly set forth. Complete with phonetic spellings and creative grammar. What better way to taste the past?\n\"France Martin 4th (1768-1824)...[lived in a] territory abound in games, Elk-, deer, wild turkey, quail, bears, beavers mink, muskrat and otta, of course skunk coon and O,possum was renown as a meat cook with sweet-potatoes. With Foods, white gravy was the empire builder, made with lard from fried meat-season with flower, and condiments, Polk was the main meat-Salted hams, was the food of the elite, sholders and fat back, went to the servants, it is said that Francis Martin and his ninth Son Robert Lewis Martin, never permitted a ham to come on the table the 2nd time, after first carven by slicing in the middle-it from the early days at Jamestown-the eastern rivers of Virginia offered sponding grownds for shad and the Herrin, Potomac Herrin was known all over virginis, salted it could be kept through the summer, and besides it was cheap, a dollar per thousand was a good price with Shads throw in-later shads sold for 10 cents each, which to the old timers was a prohibit price, There was much fown consumed, Geese, turkers and chicken-though Salty fish-and molasses (when they had it) along with corn meal mixed with water and cook in the ashes of the hearth was the chief food for slaves,\n\"All of the old plantation had their orchards, and much dried fruit was made in to stews, pies and dumplings- Cabbage was the main vegetable, with turnips next-Tomatoes, Lettuce, celery was slow to be adapted-Squash they inhearted from the Indians, and it was often used, Winter vegetables, was those that would stand burying and cabbage was a great favorite.\n\"Cooking was done by servants, some cooks, was raises and wore out their natural lives-preparing meals for one after the other generation of their masters, No recipes, or written discription was used-in Fact there were no news papers, or could many folks write, and practical the art of writing was unknown among the negro servants.\n\"Our Grand Folks, came about-with out Matches to light their fires-of Baken powders to puff up their biscuits, Candle light, shorten evenings to long deleys in feather beds, some used them the year found-The kitchen was an out house, with open fire place some had built in warming closets for those that delayed their meals, some had ice, from the previous winter freeze to keep their mutton, which was mostly eaten cold. hugh stacks of wood was used both winter and summer, from the ashes came lye-that went in to soap making... Grain and stock had no immediate sale, for there was no money for exchange-Cotton and slaves was their redy money gains, to buy things from Europe, came mostly from these two products, there was no food imported-or caned hames from Progue or sardeand from Portugal-or corned beef from the Argintines, Spade and the hillin hoe- was the impliment to raise things, the sod plow was wooden and the mold board never peel off the sod like the Oliver Chill Mold boards-and John Kemper 1st, the German emigrant of Germantown invented the double shovel. Corn was planted by hand- and worked 4 to 6 times- cut by hand and some times ground by hand- the meal was consumes muxed with water and baked with out shortening or baken powders, in the hot ashes of the hearth.\n\"Kitchen utilsils, was the hand me down, from one generation to a nother-all bult for open fire place, there was no skill amoung the cooks, living was hard, sanitary condition had not been put on the map by Microbe discovery by Pasturer.\"\n---Francis Martin 4th our Grand-Father, R. Brawdus Martin, November 20, 1960 (p. 6-7) [typed family history manuscript]\nSpace Needle recipes [World's Fair, Seattle, 1962]\nContemporary cuisine\nTom Douglas , Seattle's renowned chef is known for Northwest or \"Pacific Rim Cuisine.\"\nBite of Seattle (annual festival, check dining & contact organizers for ideas/suggestions)\nPike Place Market (what's fresh, featured items)\nOfficial state foods\nTwo of Washington's state symbols (these are enacted by law) are edible: Steelhead trout and apples. Washington's popular commodities (with recipes!). If you need to make something (easy, delicious!) for class? Make it with Washington apples !\nWest Virginia has a rich and diverse ethnic history which translates into dozens of interesting recipes. Golden Delicious Apples are the official state fruit (Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 7, 2.20.95)--\"A variety of the yellow apple, the Golden Delicious, originated in Clay County. The original Grimes Golden Apple Tree was discovered in 1775 new Wellsburg. (From official West Virginia Web page). More apple information here . About apple butter , a WV traditional treat. Ramps , an early spring green are also celebrated. As are Pepperoni Rolls . The other edible state symbol is the Brook Trout. About WV's history & state symbols .\nWest Virginia's culinary heritage\n\"Buckwheat, peaches, and apples are the most important agricultural food products of the state. The Golden Delicious apple, which was developed form a stray seedling by A.H. Mullins in Clay County, West Virginia, in 1890, is now grown throughout the country and is known for its mellow flavor and lovely pale-yellow skin...One of the main meals of the early frontier familis was stewed squirrel cooked with onions, garlic, thyme and bacon. Bear meat was also prized. Wild greens were the early vegetables of the settlers until they planted corn, beans, and potatoes. Most pioneer families maintained a few pigs to supplement their diet of wild game meat.\"\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 96-97)\n[NOTE: The West Virginia recipes offered in this book include Sally Lunn, Fluffy Spoon Bread, and Pumpkin Pie.]\nNeed to make something for class? How about spoon bread!\nFluffy Spoon Bread\nSpoon bread, so named because of its light, fluffy, custard-like texture, is served with a spoon. The addition of cream in this recipe gives the spoon bread a richer consistency. Serves 6 to 8\n1 2/3 cups milk\n4 extra-large eggs, separated\n2 teaspoons baking powder\nCombine the milk, cream, cornmeal, water, butter, sugar, and salt in a medium-size saucepan. Bring to a slow boil over medium-low heat and then simmer for 2 minutes, stirring vigorously. Eemove from heat and turn the mixture into a large bowl. Let it cool slightly. Beat the egg whites until they hold stiff peaks. Beat the egg yolks with the baking powder until the yolks are light and lemon-colored. Stir the egg yolks into the cornmeal mixture quickly. Fold in a quarter of the egg whites and then fold in the remaining egg whites. Gently pour the batter into a greased 3-quart souffle dish and bake in a preheated 375 degree F. oven for 35 minutes, or until the top is lightly browned and a knife inserted in the center comes out clean. The center should still be creamy and soft. Spoon out individual servings at once and top with butter.\"\n---Taste of the States: A Food History of America, Hilde Gabriel Lee [Howell Press:Charlottesville VA] 1992 (p. 98)\nThe West Virginia recipes included in Shelia Hibben's National Cookbook [c. 1932] are Pigeons in cornmeal, Spanish cream and Turned out custard. If you need more recipes we recommend Smokehouse Ham, Spoon Bread, & Scuppernong Wine, Joseph E. Dabney.\nWisconsin's\nedible state symbols are: sugar maple (tree), muskellunge [aka muskie] (fish), white tailed deer (state wildlife animal), dairy cow (state domesticated animal), honeybee (state insect), milk (state beverage)and maize [corn] (state grain).\nMilwaukee, Wisconsin's unique ethnic heritage is responsible for creating an interesting blend of local culinary traditions. Who settled here? This list is provided by the Milwaukee County Historical Society. Traditional foods are enjoyed at GermanFest (annual, late July).\nThe Settlement Cook Book , Mrs. Simon Kander, was published in Milwaukee in 1901. It contains many recipes popular with immigrant households. The 1906 Capital City Cook Book /Grace Church Guild [Madison WI] offers additional recipes. We can send you recipes.\nRecommended reading (with recipes!)\nThe Flavor of Wisconsin, Harva Hachten (we have a copy of this book...if you need a recipe let us know (which historic period, ethnic group & menu course)\nHistoric Recipes , courtesy of Milwaukee Public Library (newspaper clippings, 1960s-1980s; online, full text & searchable).\nNeed easy Wisconsin-based recipes your classmates will enjoy?\nFlat bread (Norwegian)\n1/2 cup sugar 2 teaspoons baking soda\n1/2 cup butter, melted\nWhole Wheat flour.\nCombine buttermilk, sugar, baking soda, and melted butter. Mix well. Add enough wheat flour to make a stiff dough. Roll out on a board dusted with white flour; roll as thinly as possible. Cut into squares and bake on baking sheets at 300 degrees. Watch closely, as it browns quickly.\"\n---The Flavor of Wisconsin, Harva Hachten [State Historical Society of Wisconsin:Madison WI] 1981 (p. 154)\nApple Sauce Cake\ncutthroat trout . If you need to make something for class that your friends will actually eat? You have many historic options...all you have to do is explain how the recipe you select fits into the history of the state:\n1. Beans\nTrue, this state is best known for bean production. Beans played an important role in the diet of Wyoming's Native Americans, early explorers, and settlers. They provided a staple base of protein, were easy to grow, store and cook. If you want to make something people will like? How about chilli! If this option appeals, ask your teacher about how best to serve this. Can you bring it in a crockpot?\n2. Jerky\nNative Americans, trappers, and early settlers in Wyoming territory ate dried meats (buffalo, elk, moose, deer, beef). Sometimes it is called pemmican. If you are not required to cook something, jerky works well. Most grocery stores carry this product and it requires no special serving gear. Or? You can make your own .\n3. Sheep\nThe Shoshone who were the first inhabitants of the Yellowstone area were known as sheep-eaters . (page through for more information). What about lamb kabobs (small pieces of lamb served on wooden skewers...grilled outdoors if possible)? Serve hot or cold, make sure they are properly stored (not left in a locker until the end of the day).\n4. Bread\nThe staple of the U.S. Army and homesteaders. Easy (and inexpensive) to make, transport to school and serve. About the bakery in Ft. Laramie .\n5. Contemporary fare\nEverything from 5 star cuisine to mountain gourmet to 50s chic to family meals to fast food to home cooked dinners to.... Nice places to eat (yes, we have been there!) Mangy Moose & Cadillac Grille , both in Jackson Hole.\nLooking for doable, tasty recipes?\nCooking in Wyoming /Woman's Suffrage Centennial edition [Prairie Publishing: Casper, WY] 1965 offers these:\n\"Wyoming Pudding"
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Which architect designed the Seagram Building, New York City?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"The Seagram Building is a skyscraper, located at 375 Park Avenue, between 52nd Street and 53rd Street in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. The integral plaza, building, stone faced lobby and distinctive glass and bronze exterior were designed by German-American architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Philip Johnson designed the interior of The Four Seasons and Brasserie restaurants. Severud Associates were the structural engineering consultants.\n\nThe building stands 515 feet (157 m) tall with 38 stories, and was completed in 1958. It stands as one of the finest examples of the functionalist aesthetic and a masterpiece of corporate modernism. It was designed as the headquarters for the Canadian distillers Joseph E. Seagram's & Sons with the active interest of Phyllis Lambert, the daughter of Samuel Bronfman, Seagram's CEO. It has the worst Energy Star rating of any building in New York, at 3 out of 100. \n\nThe building is owned by Aby Rosen's RFR Holdings. \n\nArchitecture\n\nThis structure, and the International style in which it was built had enormous influences on American architecture. One of the style's characteristic traits was to express or articulate the structure of buildings externally. It was a style that argued that the functional utility of the building’s structural elements when made visible, could supplant a formal decorative articulation; and more honestly converse with the public than any system of applied ornamentation.\nA building's structural elements should be visible, Mies thought. The Seagram Building, like virtually all large buildings of the time, was built of a steel frame, from which non-structural glass walls were hung. Mies would have preferred the steel frame to be visible to all; however, American building codes required that all structural steel be covered in a fireproof material, usually concrete, because improperly protected steel columns or beams may soften and fail in confined fires. Concrete hid the structure of the building — something Mies wanted to avoid at all costs — so Mies used non-structural bronze-toned I-beams to suggest structure instead. These are visible from the outside of the building, and run vertically, like mullions, surrounding the large glass windows. This method of construction using an interior reinforced concrete shell to support a larger non-structural edifice has since become commonplace. As designed, the building used 1,500 tons of bronze in its construction. \n\nOn completion, the construction costs of Seagram made it the world's most expensive skyscraper at the time, due to the use of expensive, high-quality materials and lavish interior decoration including bronze, travertine, and marble. The interior was designed to assure cohesion with the external features, repeated in the glass and bronze furnishings and decorative scheme.\n\nAnother interesting feature of the Seagram Building is the window blinds. As was common with International style architects, Mies wanted the building to have a uniform appearance. One aspect of a façade which Mies disliked was the disordered irregularity when window blinds are drawn. Inevitably, people using different windows will draw blinds to different heights, making the building appear disorganized. To reduce this disproportionate appearance, Mies specified window blinds which only operated in three positions – fully open, halfway open/closed, or fully closed.\n\nStructure\n\nThe 38-story structure combines a steel moment frame and a steel and reinforced concrete core for lateral stiffness. The concrete core shear walls extend up to the 17th floor, and diagonal core bracing (shear trusses) extends to the 29th floor. \n\nAccording to Severud Associates, the structural engineering consultants, it was the first tall building to use high strength bolted connections, the first tall building to combine a braced frame with a moment frame, one of the first tall buildings to use a vertical truss bracing system and the first tall building to employ a composite steel and concrete lateral frame. \n\nPlaza\n\nThe Seagram Building and Lever House, which sits just across Park Avenue, set the architectural style for skyscrapers in New York for several decades. It appears as a simple bronze box, set back from Park Avenue by a large, open granite plaza. Mies intended to create an urban open space in front of the building, despite the luxuriousness of the idea, and it became a very popular gathering area. In 1961, when New York City enacted a major revision to its 1916 Zoning Resolution, the nation's first comprehensive Zoning Resolution, it offered incentives for developers to install \"privately owned public spaces\" which were meant to emulate that of the Seagram's Building.\n\nThe Seagram Building's plaza was also the site of a landmark planning study by William H. Whyte, the American sociologist. The film, Social Life of Small Urban Spaces, produced in conjunction with the Municipal Art Society of New York, records the daily patterns of people socializing around the plaza. It shows how people actually use space, varying from the supposed intent of the architects.\n\nBrasserie\n\nThe building is the location of Brasserie, designed by Diller + Scofidio.\n\nSteinway & Sons factory\n\nIn 1859 a large 5-story piano factory was built on this same location by Steinway & Sons. The property was sold in 1906.\n\nTenants\n\n*Centerbridge Partners\n*Clayton, Dubilier & Rice \n*Quadrangle Group\n*Wells Fargo\n*Medley Capital\n*Trilantic Capital Partners\n*Servcorp\n*Winton Capital Management\n\nIn popular culture\n\nIn the song \"Side by Side by Side\", from Stephen Sondheim's musical Company, one of the characters (David) says \"You know what comes to my mind every time I see him? The Seagram's Building!\"\n\nIn the Richard Donner film Scrooged, Bill Murray's office is in the building. \n\nIn the credits of season one of That Girl, the fountains are featured prominently as Marlo Thomas walks past. \n\nIn Ira Levin's book \"Rosemary's Baby\", Hutch asks Rosemary to meet him in front of the Seagram Building, apparently to warn her of the Castevet's nefarious nature.\n\nIn the first scene of the 1959 film, \"The Best of Everything\", the character, Caroline (Hope Lange) is reading a \"Help Wanted - Female\" ad in the paper which shows the real-life address of the Seagram's building in front of which she is standing and later goes to work.\n\nThe building is seen in Showtime's \"House of Lies\"\n\nThe building is seen in the movie \"Hitch\""
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"Courtesy of 375parkavenue.com From the architect. Located in the heart of New York City, the Seagram Building designed by Mies van der Rohe epitomizes elegance and ...",
"... glowing bronze Seagram Building is a landmark of New York City, ... New York City Architecture ... To achieve the purity of the design, Seagram president ...",
"Phyllis Lambert, who persuaded her ... has written a new book, “Building Seagram. ... The building became a New York City landmark in 1989. Advertisement.",
"New York Architecture Images-Upper East Side. THE SEAGRAM BUILDING: architect. ... (designed by Philip Johnson) and the Seagram Gallery on the Fourth Floor. ...",
"High-rise office building in New York City (1958). Designed by ... The Seagram Building, New York City, ... 2005 New Canaan, Connecticut American architect and ...",
"... Mies van der Rohe’s “home for ideas and ... The Seagram Building. New York, ... The architect worked around New York City's zoning codes mandating that ..."
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"Seagram Building New York - e-architect\nHome > New York > Seagram Building New York\nSeagram Building New York\nPublished by Adrian Welch updated on July 6, 2016\nSeagram Building, New York Tower, Architect, Date, Address, Wells Fargo Manhattan Skyscraper, Design\nSeagram Building New York\nWells Fargo Manhattan Tower, USA : Key 20th Century Skyscraper in the United States\n6 + 5 Jul 2016\nSeagram Building New York City\nSeagram Building in New York City\nWells Fargo office building on Park Avenue images from 24 Jun – 2 Jul 2016 © Adrian Welch:\nSeagram building at night:\nLocation: 375 Park Avenue, New York, NY, USA\nDate: 1954-58\nDesign: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Architect; Philip Johnson\nClassic International Style design – this building exhibits clean Modernist lines.\nThe Seagram Building faces the podium and tower of Lever House by architects Skidmore Owings & Merrill across Park Avenue. Both buildings feature in most histories of 20th Century architecture.\nThis well-respected skyscraper located between 52nd Street and 53rd Street in Midtown Manhattan. It was the world’s most expensive skyscraper upon completion.\nThe tower is 515 feet (157 m) high. It has 38 stories.\nThe building is made from a steel structure with non-structural glass walls hung off it. Cladding and interior materials include bronze, marble and travertine. To preserve a semblance of order externally the window blinds were designed to operate in only three positions: open, halfway open, or closed.\nPhilip Johnson became an associate for architect Mies van der Rohe on the Seagram Building in 1955: he worked on interiors such as the Four Seasons Restaurant.",
"Seagram Building, New York City\nNew York City\n5\n34 votes\nBuilt as the corporate headquarters for Canadian distillers Joseph E. Seagram and Sons, the innovative Seagram Building set the stage for the design of New York skyscrapers for many years to come.\nSituated on New York's famed Park Avenue between 52nd and 53rd Street, the Seagram\nBuilding was a pioneer in its time. Designed by well-known German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in collaboration with American Philip Johnson, this building was to become a model for the next forty years of NYC skyscrapers.\nArchitecture\nMost skyscrapers in the 1950s and prior had a decorated facade built around a structural frame. However, van der Rohe was hoping for a different look. He wanted the building's structural elements to be visible. Unfortunately, building codes forbid that, demanding that all structural steel be covered with some sort of fireproofing material, usually concrete.\nSo, instead, the architect used non-structural, bronze-toned I-beams to suggest structure to those viewing the 38-story, 516-foot (157m) skyscraper from the outside. These beams are visible from the outside of the building, and run vertically like mullions in the large glass windows.\nMies van der Rohe was also quite concerned that the building look uniform to those viewing it from the outside. Because of that, he only installed window\nblinds that sat at three levels: fully open, half open, and fully closed - allowing for a more consistent look.\nMasterpiece\nThe Seagram building fulfilled Mies van der Rohe's functional architecture philosophy of 'less is more'. It is considered by many, including van der Rohe himself, as his masterpiece.\nAn Expensive Building\nSeagram spared no expense in the building of this particular skyscraper. It is said that 3.2 million pounds of bronze was used in its construction and the liberal use of materials like marble and travertine also caused building costs to escalate. It was the most expensive skyscraper of its time, costing a total of $41 million including the $5 million cost of the building parcel.\nThe Plaza\nOne of the innovations of the Seagram building was the addition of its open granite plaza in front of the skyscraper which was a different way of tackling the zoning regulations of 1916. The plaza became a popular gathering place during the Seagram Building's early years. Because of that, New York City passed a zoning resolution in 1961 in an attempt to entice builders to install \"privately owned public spaces\" like the one at the Seagram's Building.",
"AD Classics: Seagram Building / Mies van der Rohe | ArchDaily\nAD Classics: Seagram Building / Mies van der Rohe\nAD Classics: Seagram Building / Mies van der Rohe\n01:00 - 10 May, 2010\nSave this picture!\nCourtesy of 375parkavenue.com\nFrom the architect. Located in the heart of New York City, the Seagram Building designed by Mies van der Rohe epitomizes elegance and the principles of modernism. The 38-story building on Park Avenue was Mies' first attempt at tall office building construction. \nSave this picture!\nMies' response to the city with the Seagram Building was the grand gesture of setting back the building 100 feet from the street edge, which created a highly active open plaza. The plaza attracts users with its two large fountains surrounded by generous outdoor seating. By making this move, Mies distanced himself from New York urban morphology, lot line development, and the conventional economics of skyscraper construction. \nSave this picture!\nLobby floor plan\nThe plaza also created a procession to the entry of the building, providing the threshold that linked the city with the skyscraper. This threshold continues into the building as a horizontal plane in the plaza that cuts into the lobby. The lobby also has a white ceiling that stretches out over the entry doors further eroding the defined line between interior and exterior.\nSave this picture!\nThe office spaces above the lobby, furnished by Philip Johnson, have flexible floor plans lit with luminous ceiling panels. These floors also get maximum natural lighting with the exterior being glass panes of gray topaz that provide floor-to-ceiling windows for the office spaces. The gray topaz glass was used for sun and heat protection, and although there are Venetian blinds for window coverings they could only be fixed in a limited number of positions so as to provide visual consistency from the outside.\nSave this picture!\nCourtesy of 375parkavenue.com\nThe detailing of the exterior surface was carefully determined by the desired exterior expression Mies wanted to achieve. The metal bronze skin that is seen in the facade is nonstructural but is used to express the idea of the structural frame that is underneath.",
"New York Architecture Photos: Seagram Building\nManhattan 1958 , 375 Park Avenue , commercial , International Style , Kahn & Jacobs , landmark , Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , Manhattan , midtown , New York City , Philip Johnson .\nAfter half a century, the elegant, glowing bronze Seagram Building on Park Avenue remains a landmark in several realms: New York City, structural engineering, architectural style, corporate identity, personal achievement and more.\nNew York City’s Landmark Preservation Commission bestowed landmark status on October 3, 1989, recognizing the structure as an architectural treasure. In terms of structural engineering, the steel-and-concrete dual framing system was the first of its kind for a tall building, and the first tall building to use high-strength bolts (instead of rivets). The architectural style – International Style – had become the mode for new office buildings. (Though New York’s first curtain wall structure following Mies van der Rohe’s principles – Lever House – stood across the street.) To achieve the purity of the design, Seagram president Samuel Bronfman purchased enough land to create a large plaza (avoiding the typical wedding cake setbacks of other tall buildings) and budgeted for a lavish bronze and glass curtain wall. The 38-story tower is Mies van der Rohe’s only New York project – but it is considered his finest.\nThe Seagram Building’s bronze glow is achieved through tinted glass, backed by ceiling light panels all around. Mies even dictated three-position (fully open, half open, fully closed) window blinds with slats fixed at 45 degrees, to ensure a uniform appearance. As Mies would say, “God is in the details.”\nThe building’s owners change the plaza sculptures periodically, and provide occasional concerts.\nSeagram Building Vital Statistics\nLocation: 375 Park Avenue between E 52nd and E 53rd Streets\nYear completed: 1958\nArchitect: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson, design architects with Kahn & Jacobs, associate architects\nFloors: 38",
"‘Building Seagram,’ Phyllis Lambert’s New Architecture Book - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nArt & Design |A Personal Stamp on the Skyline\nSearch\nA Personal Stamp on the Skyline\nBy MARK LAMSTER\nContinue reading the main story\n“It is beautiful, isn’t it?” Tapping a shaft of white marble in the lobby of the Seagram Building, the bespoke modern tower she willed into being more than 50 years ago, Phyllis Lambert was as close to wistful as her rather unsentimental constitution would allow. “I consider I was born when I built this building,” she said.\nDesigned by the architects Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson, the Seagram Building was an instant classic upon its 1959 dedication and was once described by the critic Herbert Muschamp in The New York Times as “the millennium’s most important building.”\nMs. Lambert’s book, “ Building Seagram ,” being released next week by the Yale University Press, is something of a joint biography: a history of this stately Park Avenue landmark that many consider the pinnacle of postwar architecture in New York, rendered through the lens of her vivid memories of its invention and of her privileged early years as the daughter of the liquor baron Samuel Bronfman, who founded the Seagram distilling empire. The book reveals many new details about a building that remains among the most studied of the modern era.\nThough it now seems an implacable and timeless monument, a bronzed monolith standing resolutely behind its well-proportioned plaza, the tower’s existence was by no means ordained. In June 1953 Ms. Lambert was a 26-year-old recently divorced sculptor living in Paris, a self-imposed exile from her native Montreal and from her domineering father.\nPhoto\nThe New York landmark, on Park Avenue at 52nd Street, in 1958, not long before its dedication. Credit Ezra Stoller/Esto, Canadian Center For Architecture\nIt was then that she reeled off a missive to her father, a response to his own letter outlining plans for a New York skyscraper. She was not impressed with the undistinguished modern box his architects proposed and let him know: “This letter starts with one word repeated very emphatically,” she wrote, “NO NO NO NO NO.”\nContinue reading the main story\nSeven more pages followed, in which Ms. Lambert alternately scolded, cajoled and lectured her father on architectural history and civic responsibility. There was “nothing whatsoever commendable” in the proposed design, she wrote. “You must put up a building which expresses the best of the society in which you live, and at the same time your hopes for the betterment of this society.”\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nSitting at a corner table in the Grill Room of the Four Seasons, the Seagram Building restaurant that inspired the phrase “power lunch,” Ms. Lambert, still unyielding at 86, laughed with unguarded pleasure at the nerve she demonstrated 60 years ago. “When I read it now I think, ‘Wow, it’s amazing,’ ” she said of her letter. “I was thinking the whole thing through as I wrote.”\nHer father was impressed enough by her passion to invite her back from Paris, thinking she could, as she writes, “choose the marble for the ground floor,” a task he thought would assuage her. But Ms. Lambert was not content to play a subservient role. “When I come to the U.S. it will be to do a job and not to sit around the St. Regis making sweet talk,” she wrote to her mother, Saidye.\nShe got her chance and eventually won the title director of planning for the project, along with a $20,000 salary. Determined to choose an architect who would “make the greatest contribution to architecture,” she recalled, she was referred to Philip Johnson, who was leaving his post as director of the architecture department at the Museum of Modern Art to devote himself fully to his fledgling architectural practice.\nPhoto\nPhyllis Lambert persuaded her father to make his Seagram Building a paragon of modern architecture in the 1950s. Credit Marcus Yam for The New York Times\nTogether they made a shortlist of candidates. In one memorable afternoon they sorted the contenders with Eero Saarinen in the living room of Johnson’s Glass House, in New Canaan, Conn., now a landmark but then still new. Saarinen later tossed himself into the mix, proposing a tower similar to the one he would deliver to CBS for a site just a few blocks away. He was rejected, as were Marcel Breuer, Pietro Belluschi, Walter Gropius, Louis Kahn, Paul Rudolph, I. M. Pei and Minoru Yamasaki. One prominent architect Ms. Lambert did not have to worry about was Frank Lloyd Wright. He had already put himself forward for the job (among his proposals was a 100-story tower) only to be dismissed by Seagram executives as ungovernable.\nThat left two options: Le Corbusier, the Swiss-French modernist, and Mies, who had moved to Chicago from Germany in 1938. Ms. Lambert chose Mies, whose career Johnson had championed for decades. Mies, in turn, made Johnson a partner, and put him in charge of much of the interior work. “Mies forces you in,” Ms. Lambert wrote in October 1954. “You might think this austere strength, this ugly beauty, is terribly severe. It is, and yet all the more beauty in it.”\nThat severity represented an aesthetic about-face for the Seagram company, then with headquarters in the flamboyant Art Deco Chrysler Building. One of Ms. Lambert’s more amusing revelations in the book is that Seagram’s offices there were designed by a young Morris Lapidus, future maestro of Miami kitsch.\nMies and Johnson were in some respects unlikely architects for the Jewish Bronfman family, in that both had checkered histories during the 1930s. While Mies had been apolitically opportunistic in Germany, Johnson was a fascist and anti-Semite. The Bronfman family had its own past to contend with. “The fortune was started or hugely advanced by the sale of liquor into the United States during Prohibition,” said Daniel Okrent, author of “Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition.”\nMs. Lambert is somewhat evasive on that subject, but she writes that the “stigma” of that past was on the minds of Seagram executives, who were concerned that they might have trouble finding renters for a building owned and occupied by a liquor company.\nPhoto\nMies van der Rohe, center, touring the Seagram Building with its building committee in 1956. Phyllis Lambert, whose father founded the Seagram’s empire, has written a new book about the creation of this monument to modernism, in which she played a pivotal role. Credit Frank Scherschel/Getty Images\nBut first they had to build it, a task that required all the backbone Ms. Lambert revealed in her initial letter to her father. That meant, in May 1955, staring down a conference room packed with some 30 builders, all men, who questioned the feasibility of Mies’s plans. “I only had one thing in mind, and that was making sure Mies built the building he wanted to,” she said. “When you’re young, you’re very clear about what’s right and what’s wrong.”\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nShe was uncompromising in her defense of Mies’s vision, even after he returned to Chicago when New York State authorities claimed that he lacked the proper qualifications to practice architecture. When a contractor tried to dissuade her from using an expensive brick bonding technique because it would be hidden from view, she channeled the aphoristic Mies, countering, “God would know.” (The building’s structural integrity, in any case, was assured by its chief engineer, Fred Severud, who was later an author of a cold-war primer on safety titled “The Bomb, Survival, and You.”)\nCarol Willis, the founding director of the Skyscraper Museum in New York, said the Seagram Building gave “a modernist corporate identity to a city that was changing from stone to glass.”\nThat transformation did not come cheaply. While Mies averred “Less is more,” that was not a philosophy he applied to the budget. The highly customized building cost about $36 million, an astronomical sum at the time, and then incurred what was effectively a luxury tax from the state, an imposition that became the subject of a protracted legal fight. In a 1964 editorial, The Times described this “tax on architectural excellence” as nothing less than a “catastrophe.”\nThere were other frustrations. In 1958 Ms. Lambert commissioned Mark Rothko to create a series of murals for the Four Seasons. He began work but backed out and then vented to a reporter that he had only accepted the job with “malicious intent,” so he could make paintings so disagreeable as to spoil the appetites of the restaurant’s fat-cat patrons. (The episode became the subject of the Broadway play “Red.”) Ms. Lambert puts little stock in Rothko’s rant. “He had this religious feeling about his work,” she said, and simply didn’t want it hanging where it would serve merely as decoration. “I kind of understood his point.”\nPhoto\nMs. Lambert with Philip Johnson, left, and Mies van der Rohe in 1955. Credit United Press International/Canadian Center For Architecture\nOther artists Ms. Lambert tried to enlist were Brancusi and Picasso. Brancusi treated her to Champagne in his Paris studio, where he kept a gong over his bed. Nothing came of the visit. She recruited Picasso to create a suite of sculptures for the Four Seasons. She met him for lunch at his studio in Cannes, and he charmed her by forming animal shapes from pieces of bread. But the meeting came to nothing, a failure Ms. Lambert, who had sharp features and bright eyes, attributed to the jealousy of Picasso’s lover Jacqueline Roque. “That was what we all assumed,” she said. “I was a very pretty young lady.”\nShe did get her Picasso, however. “Le Tricorne,” a stage curtain he created in 1919 for Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes, has been a Four Seasons signature since the restaurant opened in 1959. Ms. Lambert purchased it from an independent dealer for $50,000.\nEven as ownership has passed from the Bronfman family’s control, Ms. Lambert has watched over the building. A set of design standards established in 1979 as part of a complex lease-back agreement stipulated everything from the positioning of venetian blinds to the continued “policy of genial permissiveness” regulating its landmark plaza. “It has to be maintained properly, and that’s a lesson I hope people have learned,” she said. The building became a New York City landmark in 1989.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nMs. Lambert later became an architect herself, studying under Mies at the Illinois Institute of Technology. In 1979 she founded the Canadian Center for Architecture in Montreal, where she lives in a historic building with two bouviers des Flandres. Her singular devotion to architecture inspired a 2007 documentary, “ Citizen Lambert: Joan of Architecture .”\n“When she got the Seagram Building built, it was the first time you really realized that architecture brought something to the city that didn’t exist,” said the architect Ricardo Scofidio, a partner in the firm Diller Scofidio & Renfro, which redesigned the Brasserie, the Seagram’s less rarefied restaurant, in 2000. “It really turned the city around, and for architects it suddenly raised their status in the eyes of clients.”\nMusing on her accomplishments between bites of tuna tartare Ms. Lambert betrayed a clear sense of satisfaction. “You come down the street and you see this building and it’s just fantastic,” she said. “I was just so passionate about what had to be done.”\nA version of this article appears in print on April 7, 2013, on Page AR23 of the New York edition with the headline: A Personal Stamp on the Skyline. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe",
"International Style II \nconstruction\nThe plan of the building is based on a 8.50 m grid, pursued to unprecedented Miesian accuracy. The elevator core is placed to the back of the building, forming the protruding, windowless back wall of the tower. \nSet on bronze-clad pillars, the 38-storey facade consists of alternating bands of bronze plating and \"whisky brown\"-tinted glass (the material and colour choices were a result of Bronfman's insistance of having a warmer-toned facade than in the Lake Shore Drive Apts). The building was, notably, the first with floor-to-ceiling windows, making the wall a true curtain of glass, as foreseen by the visionaries of Modern Movement, like Mies himself. Between the windows, there are vertical decorative bronze I-profiled beams attached to the mullions to emphasize the vertical rise of the facade. Van der Rohe personally stated that this was his only building in the United States which met exactly his European standards. \ntype\n \n \nThe fame of the Lever House in the 1950s was matched by the Seagram Building in the 1960s. This steel skeleton framed skyscraper, headquarters of the Seagram Liquor Company, established the basic form of the corporate tower for years to come. Like Lever House, the curtain wall tower is not built to the edge of the site. It occupies only 40 percent of the allowable zoning envelope, freeing up space for a granite-paved public plaza enhanced by two reflecting pools and marble benches that is widely regarded as one of the most successful in the city. The plaza is an expensive aesthetic and symbolic gesture, especially significant in the dense urban environment which surrounds it.\nDesigned by a famous European architect who immigrated to the United States at the beginning of World War II, this building epitomizes the importation of modernist ideals from Europe to the United States. In its monumental simplicity, expressed structural frame and rational use of repeated building elements, the building embodies Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's oft-repeated aphorisms that \"structure is spiritual\" and \"less is more.\" He believed that the more a building was pared to its essential structural and functional elements, and the less superfluous imagery is used, the more a building expresses its structure and form.\nFollowing these premises, the Seagram Building is meant to confirm Mies' assertion that when modern industrialized building technology is truthfully expressed, architecture becomes transcendent. Ironically, the luxurious materials used (marble for the plaza benches, travertine for the lobby walls and floor, tinted glass and bronze for the curtain wall) and the carefully controlled customized details that pervade the building remind the viewer that this building is far from being the simple result of rationalized industrial production and construction techniques. Additionally, Mies' selective exposure of the function or non-function of various architectural elements is based on illusionism. The building is, in a sense, a structural fiction rather then an honest expression.\nMuch copied but not matched, the Seagram Building is generally recognized as the finest example of skyscrapers in the International Style.\nMuch of the building's success comes from its elegant proportions, and its relation to the overall site: the building is set back from the street by ninety feet, and in from the side by thirty. The forecourt so created uses reflecting pools and a low boundary wall in green marble to set off the building, borrowing heavily from Mies' earlier Pavilion in Barcelona (1929).\nThe building's external faces are given their character by the quality of the materials used - the tinted glass and the bronze 'I-beams' applied all the way up the building. The Seagram Building is the first bronze-colored skyscraper.\nMies had first used similar applied I-beams (but in steel) at his 1951 apartment towers at Lake Shore Drive in Chicago, welded to the outside of the structural columns.\n'His purported aim was the stiffening of the frame of each bay, but more important was the creation of a surface texture that relieved the potential monotony of a smooth facade, while emphasizing the verticality of the overall form. The architect later explained that he had used the device primarily because, without it, the building simply \"did not look right.\"\nCarter Wiseman in Shaping a Nation, 1998 \nIn this Mies was, in the most subtle way, adding ornament to his building, for which he was criticized by the Modernist purists.\n--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\nHow to visit\nThe building is on the east side of Park Avenue between 52nd and 53rd Streets. It is open to the public, with public spaces inside including the Four Seasons Restaurant (designed by Philip Johnson) and the Seagram Gallery on the Fourth Floor.\nTours are conducted weekly, at 3 p.m. on Tuesdays. For further information and opening times call +1 212 572 7000.\nSubway: 6 to 51st Street; E or F to Lexington Avenue.\nBus: M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, M101, M102 to 52nd Street.\nParking: On-site lot",
"Seagram Building | building, New York City, New York, United States | Britannica.com\nbuilding, New York City, New York, United States\nWritten By:\nStatue of Liberty\nSeagram Building, high-rise office building in New York City (1958). Designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson , this sleek Park Avenue skyscraper is a pure example of a rectilinear prism sheathed in glass and bronze . It took the International Style to its zenith. Despite its austere and forthright use of the most modern materials, it demonstrates Mies’s exceptional sense of proportion and concern for detail.\nThe Seagram Building, New York City, by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson, 1956–58.\nPhoto Media, Ltd.\nInternational Style (architecture)\narchitectural style that developed in Europe and the United States in the 1920s and ’30s and became the dominant tendency in Western architecture during the middle decades of the 20th century. The most common characteristics of International Style buildings are rectilinear forms; light, taut...\n4 References found in Britannica Articles\nAssorted References\nCorrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback.\nMEDIA FOR:\nYou have successfully emailed this.\nError when sending the email. Try again later.\nEdit Mode\nBuilding, New York City, New York, United States\nTips for Editing\nSubmit\nTips For Editing\nWe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind.\nEncyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience.\nYou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered.\nAny text you add should be original, not copied from other sources.\nAt the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.)\nYour contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions.\nSubmit\nThank You for Your Contribution!\nOur editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article.\nPlease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed.\nUh Oh\nThere was a problem with your submission. Please try again later.\nClose\nDate Published: September 27, 2013\nURL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Seagram-Building\nAccess Date: January 20, 2017\nShare",
"Mies van der Rohe Society | Projects\nMies van der Rohe Society\nMinerals and Metals Building\nIllinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA\nFormerly the Armour Research Foundation (ARF) Metals Building, the opening of what is now called the Minerals and Metals Building marked the first step toward the realization of Mies' master plan for the Illinois Institute of Technology's Main Campus. Not only was it the first building Mies designed for IIT, ... › View Project\n1956\nIllinois Institute of Technology,\nChicago, IL, USA\nS.R. Crown Hall is, by all accounts, a masterpiece. Since its completion over 50 years ago, Mies van der Rohe’s “home for ideas and adventures” has inspired students, architects, and admirers. The project to build a new home for the School of Architecture and Institute of Design came about more ... › View Project\n1952\nRobert F. Carr Memorial Chapel of St. Savior\nIllinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA\n“Too often we think about architecture in terms of the spectacular. There is nothing spectacular about this chapel; it was not meant to be spectacular. It was meant to be simple; and, in fact, it is simple. But in its simplicity it is not primitive, but noble, and in its ... › View Project\n1951\n860-880 Lake Shore Apartments\n860 - 880 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL, USA\nAbout the buildings. The materials are common: steel, aluminum, glass. Yet these buildings are renowned for their structural clarity and composition. Using steel straight from the mill, Mies built with the eye and intent of an artist, striking the perfect balance between rational structure and irrational spirit. The vertical windows ... › View Project\n1946\nWishnick Hall\nIllinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA\n“We’ve got to expand our idea of what constitutes beauty from a technical point of view.” —Peter Land, IIT Professor of Architecture, in regard to the importance of restoring Wishnick Hall Wishnick Hall, originally called Chemistry Building, was Mies' fifth structure on the IIT campus. According to Franz Schulze, Mies' ... › View Project\n1958\nIllinois Institute of Technology Master Plan\nIllinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA\nMies arrived in Chicago in 1938 to become the Director of Architecture at the Armour Institute (now Illinois Institute of Technology) with the understanding that he would redevelop the curriculum. Soon after, he was awarded the commission to redesign the campus and its buildings, an unexpected opportunity to shape a ... › View Project\n1970\nOne IBM Plaza\n330 North Wabash Street , Chicago, IL, USA\nIt’s hard to resist the sublime and symbolic liaison between the iconic 20th-century American corporation and the iconic modern architect. The resulting building—the structure formerly known as One IBM Plaza—has became synonymous with corporate power. In September 2013, the building will reflect the changing face of capitalism with a new ... › View Project\n1951\nFarnsworth House\nPlano, IL, USA\nIt—two parallel planes held in suspension between the earth and sky by only eight steel columns—seems simple, but Mies worked through 167 drawings to come to his final, fearless design. Like Einstein’s equation, its simplicity exudes an elegance through a thorough attention to detail. However, Mies did not create the ... › View Project\n1965\nSchool of Social Service Administration\n969 East 60th St , University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA\nThis low-rise, wholly symmetrical building sits on a raised plinth of travertine similar to Crown Hall. Built a decade after the completion of Crown, the Social Services Administration building merges many of the architectural solutions accomplished in both Crown and the Commons. However, the SSA is appreciably heavier, almost seeming ... › View Project\n1946\nAlumni Hall\nIllinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA\nAlumni Hall was Mies’ first academic building on the IIT campus. As such, it framed the architectural language that guided the majority of other academic buildings. To align with the campus grid, Mies established a modular bay 24’ long, 24’ wide, and 12’ tall, which proved ideal for flexibility and ... › View Project\n1927\nWeissenhofsiedlung\nStuttgart, Germany\nSet on a hill overlooking Stuttgart, Germany, these twenty-one houses and apartment buildings comprise one of the most celebrated communal endeavors in the history of modern architecture. The ultimate success of the Weissenhofsiedlung owes much to the artistic director, Mies van der Rohe, whose strategy was to invite a group ... › View Project\n1907\nRiehl House\nPotsdam, Germany\nThe Riehl House was Mies' first building. He was twenty-one at the time and was working for Bruno Paul. Here, Mies reiterates much of Paul's classical German style with an austere stucco exterior and a pronounced roof that emphasizes the idea of shelter and home. The interior space pulled inspiration ... › View Project\n1931\nMR Chair\nMarcel Breuer, Mies' peer at the Bauhaus, constructed the first tubular chair in 1925. It became known as the \"Wassily,\" for another Bauhaus member, Wassily Kandinsky, and marked a shift in modern furniture design. Soon after, Mies created the MR Chair. By reducing the chair to its main parts and ... › View Project\n1929\nBarcelona Chair\nPerhaps the most iconic work from Mies' oeuvre, the Barcelona Chair at once gives life to and is born from its materials. Like the MR and Brno Chairs, it is composed of steel and leather. The steel bar legs ease up and over to support the seat and back of ... › View Project\n1930\nTugendhat House\nBrno, Czech Republic\nThe Tugendhat House occupies a graded site overlooking a broad valley, with a magnificent view of the city of Brno and the old Spielberg Castle. The house was designed as a large and luxurious villa for Grete and Fritz Tugendhat. This was the last major home Mies built in Europe. ... › View Project\n1929\nThe Barcelona Pavilion\nBarcelona, Spain\nMies built the German (or Barcelona) Pavilion for the Barcelona International Exposition of 1929. It housed the ceremonial reception space for German industrial exhibits commissioned by the German government. Mies united sophisticated materials with a fluid open plan, which together endowed the space with an unprecedented modern elegance. The architecture's ... › View Project\n1968\nNeue Nationalgalerie\nBerlin, Germany\nThe National Gallery is located on a sloping site along the north bank of the Landwehr Canal in Berlin, Germany. The second and final museum of Mies' career (the first being Houston's Museum of Fine Arts), the Gallery was his only commission from the government of West Germany. This provided ... › View Project\n1932\nLemke House\nBerlin, Germany\nUnique to the Lemke House is its courtyard. No other house by Mies would feature this relation to green space. It's also the last house built by Mies in Germany, and he emigrated to the United States soon after. Like the Lange and Esters Houses, the Lemke House exists today ... › View Project\n1930\nMade of steel and leather, the Brno Chair expresses Mies' regard for simplicity. The chair is named after Brno, Czechoslovakia, where it debuted in the Tugendhat House. › View Project\n1930\nLange and Esters Houses\nKrefeld, Germany\nThese two houses sit side by side on the Wilhelmshofallee in the artistocratic quarter of Krefeld, Germany. They were commissioned at or about the same time by Josef Esters and Hermann Lange, two executives of the silk weaving mills, or the Vereingte Seidenweberein A-G, which make Krefeld famous. Mies worked ... › View Project\n1974\nMuseum of Fine Arts, Houston\nHouston, Texas\nThe Museum of Fine Arts in Houston is the first museum Mies ever built, and his only one in the U.S (his second and final being Berlin's Neue Nationalgalerie). He was hired to design two additions to the Caroline Weiss Law Building. This existing structure was built by William Ward ... › View Project\n1949\nThe Promontory Apartments\nChicago, Illinois\nThe Promontory Apartments mark Mies' foray into high-rise buildings. Notably, it was the first tall building to exhibit its construction materials. Concrete, beams, and columns were left in plain sight, winning the praise of critics. The design of the building gave the most units possible a view of Lake Michigan, ... › View Project\n1958\nThe Seagram Building\nNew York, New York\nThis 39-story, 516-foot tall office building was commissioned by Joseph E. Seagram & Sons Corporation, purveyors of Seagram liquors. Noted for it's amber toned windows and public plaza, the Seagram is Mies' largest work. The architect worked around New York City's zoning codes mandating that skyscrapers recess or \"set back\" ... › View Project\n1972\nMartin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library\nWashington, D.C.\nThe Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library evokes the solemnity of public institutions. This is the only library and the only building in Washington D.C. designed by Mies. Inside, stacks of books echo the rows of fluorescent lights. Outside, the sheer mass of the structure is felt as it stretches ... › View Project\n1965\nLafayette Park\nDetroit, Michigan\nLafayette Park, just northeast of downtown Detroit, is a 78-acre housing development designed and realized by Mies van der Rohe. The first urban renewal project in the United States, it was founded by developer Herb Greenwald to help keep the middle class in the city. Alfred Caldwell, Mies’ longtime collaborator, ... › View Project\n1969\nÎle-des-Soeurs\nNuns' Island, Canada\nLocated in Montreal, Quebec Île-des-Soeurs, or Nuns' Island, is home to three apartment buildings and an Esso gas station designed by Mies. › View Project\n1952\n50 x 50 House\nOne of Mies' most famous unbuilt projects, the 50 x 50 house was conceived as a solution to the problem of mass housing, a genre of architecture he had never paid serious attention to in the past. In 2009, the artist Iñigo Manglano-Ovallé constructed a half-scale version of the house ... › View Project\n1964\nChicago Federal Center\nChicago, Illinois\nThis 42-story office building is located on Dearborn Street in the Chicago Loop. The project was commissioned by the General Services Administration of the US government as part of a plan initiated in the 1950s to update federal administrative and judiciary facilities nationwide. Begun in 1959, it was designed in ... › View Project\n1969\nToronto-Dominion Center\nToronto, Canada\nThis urban planning project covers a 5.5 acre area in downtown Toronto, Ontario. Like the Chicago Federal Center, this complex is composed of two office towers along with a single one-story structure that houses the Toronto-Dominion Bank. › View Project\n1952\nMcCormick House\nElmhurst, Illinois\nThe McCormick House is one instance of Mies' \"Steel Frame Row Houses.\" It is reported that its steel-framed walls were brought from the factory to the site only under special allowance by the police for the transport vehicles. In 1994, the house was moved several blocks from its original location ... › View Project\n1956\nEsplanade Apartment Buildings\nChicago, Illinois\nFollowing the success of the 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments, Mies and Greenwald conceived five major project proposals for Chicago's North Side. Esplanade was one of them. The first buildings ever built with an uninterrupted aluminum and glass curtain wall, the Esplanade also features colonnades and a private sun deck. › View Project\n1935\nVerseidag Factory\nKrefeld, Germany\nCommissioned by Verseidag, the large silk-weaving company in Krefeld, Germany, this factory appears to set the precedent for Mies' work at IIT. › View Project\n1947\nPerlstein Hall\nChicago, Illinois\nIn many ways, Perlstein is a culmination and amalgamation of many ideas Mies was developing on the IIT campus—in particular the expression of structure, modular organization, construction detailing. This building conforms to the structural bay of 24’ square and 12’ high, which provides an easy measure of comparison for building ... › View Project\n1954\nThe Commons\nChicago, Illinois\nThe Commons was intended to be an \"amenities center\" for the IIT campus with a dining hall, grocery store, barbershop, and laundry. By that time, Mies was uninterested in designing a building for specific program needs, so he delegated the project to Gene Summers, a 23-year old architect who had ... › View Project\n1965\nMellon Hall of Science\nPittsburgh, Pennslyvania\nOne of many academic buildings designed by Mies, this low-rise structure is located at Duquesne University in Pittsburgh. › View Project\n1930\nUrbig House\nPotsdam, Germany\nImpressed by the work he did for the Riehls, the Urbig family commissioned a home from Mies in 1915. Mies' first design called for a modern flat roof, but this was rejected. The new plan offered a more traditional hipped roof with five dormer windows. Such revisions were common, and ... › View Project\n1956\nCommonwealth Promenade Apartments\nChicago, Illinois\nMies worked with developer Herbert Greenwald on these two mid-rise apartment buildings after the success of their collaboration on 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments the year before. The original design and development plan accounted for four, but this was eventually scaled back. The project bears many similarities to the Esplanade ... › View Project\n1927\nAfrikanischestrasse Apartments\nBerlin, Germany\nWith their highly geometric structure and restricted windows, the form of these apartments appears to affect their function. Such lenience to practicality would never be seen in Mies' work following this low-cost housing project. › View Project\n1931\nMR Lounge Chair\nLike the MR Chair, the MR Lounge Chair features tubular stainless steel and a cantilever frame. Mies began with the iron rocking chairs that were the standard in 19th century Europe. He then injected them with modern materials and a minimalist aesthetic. This was another instance in which the architect ... › View Project\n1963\n2400 Lakeview\nChicago, Illinois\nThe 2400 Lakeview Apartments consist of a single building made of reinforced concrete, aluminum, and grey-tinted glass. As with all Mies' work, this building derives beauty not from ornamentation, but instead from the essentials of architecture: materials and construction. In the ground floor lobby the elevator core appears as a ... › View Project\n1929\nTugendhat Chair\nSeeking to make a comfortable lounge chair that maintained the restraint of his minimalist aesthetic, Mies arrived at the Tugendhat. Here, the cushions of the Barcelona meet the cantilever frame of the MR, arriving at an elegant solution to the overstuffed club chair. › View Project\n1921\nFriedrichstrasse Office Building\nAlthough it was never built, Mies' design for the Friedrichstrasse Office Building remains one of the most important structures in 20th century architecture. For the Friedrichstrasse architecture competition, Mies ignored several rules dictated in the guidelines and presented a radical concept to the committee: a skyscraper made entirely of glass ... › View Project\n1962\nAmerican Federal Building\nDes Moines, Iowa\nThis two story steel and glass structure was built by Mies in 1962. The American Federal Building, along with Meredith Hall at Drake University, are the only works designed by the architect in Des Moines, Iowa. › View Project\n1929\nThe Barcelona Couch was first used in the New York apartment of Architect Phillip Johnson in 1930. Scholars cite Lilly Reich as a co-designer. Reich also designed the interiors for the Johnson project. › View Project\n1886\nOn March 27th, 1886 Ludwig Mies was born in Aachen, Germany. He would later incorporate his mother's maiden name (\"Rohe\") into his own as he rose to prominence in the architectural community.\n1905\nMies Moves to Berlin\nLeaving his home of Aachen, Germany on the advice of a fellow architect, 19 year old Mies moved to the city seeking great architecture and a place in a notable firm. His family remained forever in Aachen and ran their masonry business while Mies was making a name for himself in the cultural capital of the time.\n1908\nMies joins the staff at Peter Behrens' atelier\nBookbinder, visual artist, graphic designer and architect, Peter Behrens was as innovative as he was multi-talented. His first building - a home for himself, the contents of which he also designed- is a prime example of Gesamtkunstwerk. As a \"total work of art\" Haus Behrens utilized every artistic medium to create a complete aesthetic experience. Following success of his home he designed the AEG Turbine Factory, once again designing the structure as well as its contents. He was one of the first designers to embrace industrialization as a way to provide well designed, useful objects to the masses. In 1907 he founded his own architecture firm in Berlin which included three architects who would later write the history of modern architecture: Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe.\n1926\nMies and Le Corbusier meet in Stuttgart, Germany\nAt different points in time both Mies and Le Corbusier worked at Peter Behrens' atelier. Nearly two decades after their training with Behrens the two had their first meeting at the Weissenhofsiedlung, which featured houses by both architects and the artistic directorship of Mies.\n1930\nMies assumes directorship of the Bauhaus\nFollowing the resignation of Hannes Meyer who had taken over for Walter Gropius, Mies van der Rohe became the director of the Bauhaus. Though he had turned down the position when Gropius left he accepted it the second time around, sensing that the school needed a greater emphasis on form and function rather than politics. Such lenience to beauty won him the animosity of the radical members of the student body. Mies focused the curriculum on architecture and interior design with greater intensity such that all other subjects, like fine arts, fell by the wayside. When the Bauhaus closed in 1932 Mies promptly revived it, if only for a few months, as his own school.\n1938\nMies left Germany in 1938 to head the Armour Institute, which later became the Illinois Institute of Technology. Many members of the Bauhaus, including Joseph Albers, Walter Gropius and László Moholy-Nagy, also moved to the United States at this time.\n1932\nThe Bauhaus closes\nAfter 15 years of operation the Bauhaus is shut down by the Nazi regime. The modern aesthetic and \"un-German\" flavor of the school did not suit the nationalistic, neoclassical taste of German leaders. Many of the artists involved with the Bauhaus were exhibited in the Entartete Kunst exhibition, curated by Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels. The show hoped to ridicule the featured styles and artists, including Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy.\n1969\nMies dies in Chicago, Illinois\nIn the summer of 1969 Mies was rushed to Wesley Memorial Hospital where he was diagnosed with pneumonia. Two weeks later the combined force this pneumonia and cancer of the esophagus, which Mies had been living with for three years, overcame the architect. On August 19th, at the age of 83, Mies died.\n1932\nThe Modern Architecture-International Exhibition opens at the Museum of Modern Art\nIt was at this exhibition that the term \"International Style\" was born. Rather than emphasizing the social, art historical and technological aspects of architecture the curators, Philip Johnson (who later collaborated with Mies on the Seagram Building) and Henry-Russel Hitchcock, emphasized pure appearance. The exhibition was critiqued by architects and writers for clumping everyone from Frank Lloyd Wright to Walter Gropius under the same genre and overlooking crucial differences, and even crucial similarities, for the sake of categorization. The show ultimately proved to be an important moment in architecture's history, if only because of this controversy.\n1958\nMies retires from IIT\nAs his commissions increased Mies had less and less time to run the architecture program at Illinois Institute of Technology. At the age of 72, Mies left IIT and began focusing on his own projects. Skidmore, Owings and Merril took over the on-campus projects he did not complete.\n1937"
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"‘Building Seagram,’ Phyllis Lambert’s New Architecture ...",
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Which gossip columnist was born in the same day as Sir Alexander Fleming who discovered penicillin?
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"1881 Sir Alexander Fleming ... Scottish bacteriologist who discovered penicillin in 1928 at St. Mary ... Gossip columnist who competed in print and on ...",
"... Sir Alexander Fleming ... discovered penicillin; died Mar 11, ... (gossip columnist: competed in print and on radio with nemesis Hedda Hopper; ..."
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"Mysteries and More: This Day in History � August 6\nThis Day in History � August 6\nPosted by HoneyBee on 8/6/2016, 2:22 am\n205.200.150.144\nBorn this Day\n1809 Alfred Lord Tennyson � British poet laureate (The Charge of the Light Brigade, In Memoriam, The Lady of Shallot, Ulysses, Morte D'Arthur) Tennyson was born into a chaotic and disrupted home. His father, the eldest son of a wealthy landowner, was disinherited in favour of his younger brother. Forced to enter the Church to support himself, the Rev. Dr. George Tennyson became a bitter alcoholic. However, he educated his sons in the classics, and Alfred Tennyson, the fourth of 12 children, went to Trinity College at Cambridge in 1827. At Cambridge, Tennyson befriended a circle of intellectual undergraduates who strongly encouraged his poetry. In 1830, Tennyson published Poems, Chiefly Lyrical. The following year, his father died, and he was forced to leave Cambridge for financial reasons. Besieged by critical attacks and struggling with poverty, Tennyson remained dedicated to his work and published several more volumes. In 1850 Queen Victoria named him poet laureate. At long last, Tennyson achieved financial stability and finally married his fianc�e Emily Sellwood, whom he had loved since 1836. He continued writing and publishing poems until his death in 1892\n1881 Leo Carrillo - Actor (The Cisco Kid, Pancho Villa Returns, Phantom of the Opera)\n1881 Sir Alexander Fleming - Scottish bacteriologist who discovered penicillin in 1928 at St. Mary�s Hospital, Paddington, London, when green mould appeared on a culture dish. Scientists usually discarded these, but Fleming decided to make a close examination\n1881 Louella Parsons - Gossip columnist who competed in print and on radio with her nemesis, Hedda Hopper\n1892 Hoot (Edmund) Gibson - Actor (Death Valley Rangers, Frontier Justice, The Marshal's Daughter, The Prairie King)\n1910 Charles Crichton � British film director (The Lavender Hill Mob, A Fish Called Wanda)\n1911 Lucille Ball � Comedienne and actress (I Love Lucy, The Lucy Show, Yours Mine and Ours, Mame, Stage Door) She starred as a ditzy wife in the radio show My Favourite Husband. When CBS decided to launch the popular series on the relatively new medium of TV, Lucy insisted her husband Desi Arnaz be cast as her husband in the TV version. The network executives argued that no one would believe the couple were married, but Desi and Lucy performed before live audiences and filmed a pilot, which convinced network executives that audiences would respond well to their act\n1917 Robert Mitchum - Actor (The Sundowners, Cape Fear, Scrooged, The Winds of War, The Big Sleep, The Friends of Eddie Coyle)\n1922 Sir Freddie Laker � British entrepreneur who pioneered cheap air-flights. His Laker Airlines went bust in 1982\n1926 Frank Finlay � Scottish actor (Casanova, The Molly Mcguires, Longitude) He played Inspector Lestrade in the Sherlock Holmes movie, Murder by Decree, and he also played Professor Coram in the Sherlock Holmes episode The Golden Pince-Nez\n1928 Andy Warhol � US pop artist who became a cultural icon. He coined the phrase, \"In the future everyone will be famous for fifteen minutes\"\n1930 Abbey Lincoln - Actress (For Love of Ivy, Mo' Better Blues)\n1937 Barbara Windsor � British actress (EastEnders, Alice in Wonderland, Carry On films)\n1938 Peter Bonerz - Actor (The Bob Newhart Show, 9 to 5, Catch -22) He has also directed many TV episodes (ALF, Murphy Brown, Home Improvement, Friends, The Bob Newhart Show)\n1947 Oliver Tobias � Swiss-born British actor (The Brylcreem Boys, Sharpe's Waterloo, The Paper Man, The Wicked Lady, Smuggler) He played Captain Croker in the Sherlock Holmes episode, The Abbey Grange\n1950 Dorian Harewood � Actor (Full Metal Jacket, The Jesse Owens Story, Pacific Heights, Amerika, The Falcon and the Snowman, Glitter, Strike Force, Looker, Beulah Land, Roots: The Next Generations, Gray Lady Down, Panic in Echo Park)\n1951 Catherine Hicks - Actress (Marilyn, Peggy Sue Got Married, The Bad News Bears, Star Trek 4)\n1956 Stepfanie Kramer - Actress (Hunter)\n1958 Randy DeBarge � Musician and singer with the group DeBarge (Rhythm of the Night, I Like It, All this Love, Time Will Reveal)\n1962 Michelle Yeoh � Malaysian actress (Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon, Tomorrow Never Dies, Sunshine, Memoirs of a Geisha, The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor)\n1970 M. Night Shyamalan � India-born US director and screen writer (The Sixth Sense, Signs, The Village, The Lady in the Water) He has appeared in many of his movies\n1976 Josh Schwartz � Writer and producer (Chuck, The O.C., Gossip Girl, Rockville CA)\n1976 Soleil Moon Frye - Actress (Punky Brewster, The Liar's Club, The St. Tammany Miracle)\nDied this Day\n1623 Anne Hathaway � Shakespeare�s wife\n1890 William Kemmler � Convicted murderer, died at Auburn Prison in New York. His was the first execution by electrocution in history. He had been convicted of murdering his lover, Matilda Ziegler, with an axe. Electrocution as a humane means of execution was first suggested in 1881 by Dr. Albert Southwick, a dentist. Southwick had witnessed an elderly drunkard \"painlessly\" killed after touching the terminals of an electrical generator in Buffalo, New York. In 1889, New York's Electrical Execution Law, the first of its kind in the world, went into effect, and Edwin R. Davis, the Auburn Prison electrician, was commissioned to design an electric chair. Closely resembling the modern device, Davis' chair was fitted with two electrodes, which were composed of metal disks held together with rubber and covered with a damp sponge. The electrodes were to be applied to the criminal's head and back\n1964 Sir Cedric Hardwicke, age 71 � British actor (Suspicion, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Stanley and Livingstone, The Ten Commandments, Around the World in Eighty Days, Rope, I Remember Mama) He was the father of Edward Hardwicke\n1978 Pope Paul VI, age 81 � He died at Castel Gandolfo\n1991 Roland Michener, age 91 � Canadian politician and former Governor General. The Alberta native was a Rhodes Scholar, and set up the Order of Canada\nOn this Day\n1786 Scottish poet, Robert Burns, was released from a marriage to Jean Armour. Burns and Armour met in 1784, and by early 1786, Armour was pregnant. She produced a marriage contract signed by Robert Burns, but her father, enraged at Burns, had the contract mutilated and partially destroyed. Despite this, Burns was still anxious to officially certify himself as single. To free himself from the marriage, whose validity was questionable, he appeared before the local government three times, did public penance in a church, and was finally acknowledged a single man on this day in 1786. However, he continued to see Armour and eventually married her properly. The couple had nine children, the last of whom was born on the day of Burns' funeral. Burns also had three children with other women\n1787 In Philadelphia, delegates to the Constitutional Convention began debating the first complete draft of the proposed Constitution of the United States\n1806 The Holy Roman Empire went out of existence as Emperor Francis I abdicated\n1812 An armistice to end the War of 1812 was signed by Governor Prevost of British North America and General Dearborn of the United States. It was later revoked by the US Congress\n1825 Bolivia declared its independence from Peru\n1859 �Worth a guinea a box� appeared on Beecham Powders� packets and advertising material to promote the British patent medicine. It was the first known advertising slogan\n1866 An Imperial Statute established union between Vancouver Island and the mainland of British Columbia\n1889 London�s Savoy Hotel was opened\n1932 Ontario's Welland Canal was opened\n1939 Regular air mail service was inaugurated between Canada and Britain\n1945 At 8:16 a.m. Japanese time, a US B-29 bomber, the Enola Gay, dropped the world's first atom bomb, weighing nearly 9,000 pounds, over the city of Hiroshima. Approximately 80,000 people were killed as a direct result of the blast, and another 35,000 were injured. At least another 60,000 would be dead by the end of the year from the effects of the fallout. US President Harry S. Truman, discouraged by the Japanese response to the Potsdam Conference's demand for unconditional surrender, made the decision to use the atom bomb to end the war, and hopefully lessen the total loss of life. On August 5th, while a conventional bombing of Japan was underway, Little Boy, the nickname for one of two atom bombs available for use against Japan, was loaded onto Lt. Col. Paul W. Tibbets' plane on Tinian Island in the Marianas. The bomb had been delivered to the island just days before, by the ill-fated ship Indianapolis. Tibbets' B-29, named the Enola Gay after his mother, left the island at 2:45 a.m. on August 6th. Five and a half hours later, Little Boy was dropped, exploding 1,900 feet over a hospital and unleashing the equivalent of 12,500 tons of TNT. The bomb had several inscriptions scribbled on its shell, one of which read \"Greetings to the Emperor from the men of the Indianapolis.\" There were 90,000 buildings in Hiroshima before the bomb was dropped, and only 28,000 remained after the bombing. Of the city's 200 doctors before the explosion, just 20 were left alive or capable of working. There were 1,780 nurses before, and 150 after, who were able to tend to the sick and dying. There were so many spontaneous fires set as a result of the bomb that a crewman of the Enola Gay stopped trying to count them. Another crewman remarked, \"It's pretty terrific. What a relief it worked.\" Three days later, Nagasaki was also hit with an A-bomb\n1962 Jamaica became an independent dominion within the British Commonwealth\n1969 75 per cent of the windows in an eight-block area of downtown Kelowna, British Columbia were smashed when a US Navy jet broke the sound barrier. The US agreed to pay damages\n1991 Tim Berners-Lee released files describing his experimental World Wide Web project on the Internet. Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist on fellowship at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland, had been working on a hypertext system allowing documents to \"link\" to each other easily. By 1990, he had created the basic parameters of the World Wide Web, and a working version was posted on CERN's internal computers in May 1991. On August 6th, and again on the 16th, the 19th, and 22nd, Berners-Lee released Web files and requested input from other developers. By late 1991 and early 1992, the Web was widely discussed, and in early 1993, when Marc Andreesen and other graduate students at the University of Illinois released the Mosaic browser, Netscape's precursor, the Web rapidly became a popular communications medium. And aren�t we glad it did!\n18",
"Those Were the Days, Today in History - August 6\nAugust 6\nOrder Those Were the Days Deluxe\nEvents - August 6\n1890 - Denton ‘Cy’ Young pitched his first major-league baseball game on this day. He led the Cleveland Spiders past the Chicago White Sox. Young went on to enjoy a great baseball career, winning a total of 511 games (95 more than second place Walter Johnson) ... averaging more than 23 victories over 22 seasons, playing for Cleveland, St. Louis, and Boston (where he played in the first World Series, and won). The Cy Young Award was established in 1956, when the Baseball Writer's Association of America bestowed the honor on the best pitcher in major-league baseball for that year. The award has been presented every year since. In fact, from 1967 on, two Cy Young awards have been presented annually to the best pitcher in each major league.\n1926 - Nineteen-year-old Gertrude Ederle from New York became the first woman to swim the English Channel and she picked this day to do it. She accomplished the feat in 14 hours and 31 minutes, breaking the men’s record by two hours.\n1926 - You would have paid $10 a seat to see the first talking picture, \"Don Juan\", starring John Barrymore. The movie was shown at New York’s Warners’ Theatre in glorious black and white. Bear in mind that $10.00 in 1926 would have almost bought a small theatre.\n1928 - One of radio’s first serials was heard as \"Real Folks\" debuted on NBC.\n1930 - Joseph Crater, 41 years old and a New York Supreme Court Justice, mysteriously disappeared, never to be seen or heard from again. His wife, Estelle, declared Judge Crater to be legally dead in 1937.\n1939 - After becoming a success with Ben Bernie on network radio, Dinah Shore started her own show on the NBC Blue radio network. Dinah sang every Sunday evening. Dinah also had a successful TV career spanning over two decades.\n1945 - More than 200,000 civilians died from the explosion and/or radiation when an American B-29 bomber, the Enola Gay, dropped an atomic bomb over the center of Hiroshima, Japan. It was the first time an atomic bomb had been dropped over a populated place; and the first time a nuclear weapon had been used in warfare. The aftereffects of this WWII event are still felt today.\n1948 - Seventeen-year-old Bob Mathias won the decathlon competition at the Olympic Games being held in London, England.\n1949 - Chicago White Sox baseball star Luke Appling played in the 2,154th game of his 19-year, major-league career.\n1952 - Satchel Paige, at age 46, became the oldest pitcher to complete a major-league baseball game. Paige shutout the Detroit Tigers 1-0 in a 12-inning game.\n1967 - Dean Chance of the Minnesota Twins pitched five innings of perfect baseball, leading his team to victory over the Boston Red Sox. Chance was only the third player to pitch a shortened, perfect game.\n1969 - Willie ‘Pops’ Stargell of the Pittsburgh Pirates hit the first fair ball to sail completely out of Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles. Stargell’s blast measured 506 feet from home plate.\n1973 - After one of the biggest promotional blitzes in TV history, writer/reporter Sally Quinn joined Hughes Rudd as co-host of the \"CBS Morning News\". Not long after her TV debut, Quinn found that she wasn’t suited so much for TV and went back to writing for \"The Washington Post\".\n1973 - Stevie Wonder came close to losing his life, following a freak auto accident. Wonder, one of Motown’s most popular recording artists, was in a coma for 10 days. Miraculously, he recovered and was back in the recording studio in less than eight weeks.\n1981 - Stevie Nicks’ first solo album, \"Bella Donna\", was released. The lead singer for Fleetwood Mac scored a top-three hit with \"Stop Draggin’ My Heart Around\" (9/05/81) from the album. Tom Petty and The Heartbreakers were featured on the track. Nicks went on to record a total of 11 hits for the pop-rock charts through 1988.\n1981 - Golfing legend Lee Trevino was disqualified from the PGA Championship in Duluth, GA when the ‘Super Mex’ had his scorecard signed by Tom Weiskopf instead of himself. Ouch!\n1986 - Timothy Dalton became the fourth actor to be named “Bond ... James Bond.” Dalton, 38, and his studio, United Artists, ended months of speculation as to who would star as Agent 007 in the 15th James Bond film. The character of Bond was created by writer Ian Fleming. Other stars to play the role of the suave, debonair and deadly double agent include: Roger Moore, Sean Connery and George Lazenby, with Pierce Brosnan as the James Bond for the 1990s.\n1996 - NASA Administrator Daniel S. Goldin announced the possibility that a primitive form of microscopic life may have existed on Mars more than three billion years ago. The evidence came from a fossil found on a meteorite in Antarctica believed to have come from Mars billions of years ago.\n1997 - A Korean Air Boeing 747, Flight 801, plowed into a hillside short of the Guam International Airport, killing 226 of the 254 aboard. “There was a big ball of fire just before the crash,” said Rudy Delos-Santos, a reporter at radio station KOKU who lives near the crash site. The South Korean plane “plowed through the jungle for a minute or so before it came to a rest.” The impact broke the fuselage into six pieces. The tail, with its distinctive Korean Air logo, was the only part of the plane still recognizable.\n1999 - Two memorable movies opened in U.S. theatres. \"The Sixth Sense\", with Bruce Willis starring as a child psychologist and Haley Joel Osment, who plays an 8-year-old who is visited by ghosts. As of July 24, 2001, it had rung up $293,501,675 at the box office. Not nearly so successful, but great fun just the same, was \"The Thomas Crown Affair\". Pierce Brosnan and Rene Russo starred in this redo of the 1968 Steve McQueen/Faye Dunaway flick. As of June 30, 2001, it had grossed $69,304,264.\nBirthdays - August 6\n1809 - Alfred Tennyson (England’s Poet Laureate [1850]: The Charge of the Light Brigade, In Memoriam, The Lady of Shalott, The Lotuseaters, The Idylls of the King, Maud, Enoch Arden, Locksley Hall Sixty Years After; died Oct 6, 1892)\n1881 - Leo Carrillo (actor: The Cisco Kid, Pancho Villa Returns, One Night in the Tropics, Phantom of the Opera [1943]; died Sep 10, 1961)\n1881 - Sir Alexander Fleming (Nobel Prize-winning bacteriologist [1945]: discovered penicillin; died Mar 11, 1955)\n1881 - Louella Parsons (Oettinger) (gossip columnist: competed in print and on radio with nemesis Hedda Hopper; died Dec 9, 1972)\n1883 - Scott Nearing (sociologist and natural-food advocate, author [w/wife]: Living the Good Life; Nearing lived to 100 years; died Aug 24, 1983)\n1892 - Hoot (Edmund Richard) Gibson (actor: Death Valley Rangers, Frontier Justice, The Marshal’s Daughter, The Prairie King, Sonora Stagecoach, Wild Horse, Roaring Ranch, Fighting Parson; died Aug 23, 1962)\n1908 - Helen Hull Jacobs (tennis champion: Wimbledon [1936], U.S. Open [1932, 1933, 1934, 1935]; died June 2, 1997)\n1911 - Lucille Ball (Emmy Award-winning comedienne, actress: I Love Lucy [1952, 1953], The Lucy Show [1966-67, 1967-68], 12th Annual Atlas Governor’s Award [1988-89]; The Lucille Ball Comedy Hour, Yours, Mine and Ours, Mame; died April 26, 1989)\n1917 - Robert Mitchum (actor: The Winds of War, War and Remembrance, Cape Fear, A Family for Joe, African Skies, Night of the Hunter, The Story of G.I. Joe; commercials: “Beef. It’s what’s for dinner.”; died July 1, 1997)\n1921 - Buddy (William) Collette (musician: reeds, piano, composer: LPs: Now and Then, Blockbuster; died Sep 19, 2010)\n1922 - Doug Ford (golf champion: Masters [1957], PGA [1955])\n1928 - Andy Warhol (Warhola) (filmmaker, pop artist: Campbell Soup; “In the future everyone will be world famous for 15 minutes.”; died Feb 22, 1987)\n1930 - Abbey Lincoln (Wooldridge) (actress: For Love of Ivy, Mo’ Better Blues; died Aug 14, 2010)\n1938 - Paul Bartel (writer, director, actor: Eating Raoul; writer, director: Not for Publication, Cannonball; director, actor: Scenes from the Class Struggle in Beverly Hills; director: The Longshot, Lust in the Dust, The Secret Cinema, Death Race 2000, Private Parts; actor: The Usual Suspects, The Jerky Boys, Number One Fan, Gremlins 2: The New Batch, Rock ’n’ Roll High School, Hollywood Boulevard; died May 13, 2000)\n1938 - Peter Bonerz (actor: The Bob Newhart Show, 9 to 5; director: Murphy Brown)\n1938 - Bert Yancey (golf: Charlie Bartlett Award: 1978; died Aug 26, 1994)\n1941 - Ray (Raymond Leonard) Culp (baseball: pitcher: Philadelphia Phillies [all-star: 1963], Chicago Cubs, Boston Red Sox [all-star: 1969])\n1943 - Ray Buktenica (actor: Rhoda, House Calls, Life Goes On)\n1944 - Ed Sneed (golf: PGA champ: 1973 Kaiser International [1973], 1974 Greater Milwaukee Open [1974], 1977 Tallahassee Open [1977], Michelob-Houston Open [1982]; TV golf analyst)\n1945 - Andy (John Alexander) Messersmith (baseball: pitcher: California Angels [all-star: 1971], LA Dodgers [World Series: 1974/all-star: 1974, 1975], Atlanta Braves [all-star: 1976], NY Yankees)\n1947 - Ken Riley (football: Cincinnati Bengals cornerback: Super Bowl XVI)\n1950 - Dorian Harewood (actor: Sudden Death, Pacific Heights, Full Metal Jacket, Against All Odds, An American Christmas Carol, Sparkle, Viper, The Trials of Rosie O’Neill, Trauma Center, Strike Force, Roots: The Next Generation, Glitter, Capitol Critters [voice of Moze])\n1951 - Catherine Hicks (actress: 7th Heaven, Marilyn, Peggy Sue Got Married, The Bad News Bears, Ryan’s Hope, Tucker’s Witch, Star Trek 4)\n1952 - Pat MacDonald (musician: groups: Essentials, Barbara K, Cat’s Away, Timbuk 3: The Future’s So Bright I Gotta Wear Shades, All I Want for Christmas)\n1958 - Randy DeBarge (musician: bass, vocals: group: DeBarge: Rhythm of the Night, I Like It, All this Love, Time Will Reveal)\n1962 - Michelle Yeoh (actress: Tomorrow Never Dies, Jackie Chan: My Story, Moonlight Express)\n1965 - David Robinson (Olympic Gold Medalist: 1992 basketball Dream Team; San Antonio Spurs center: NBA Rookie of the Year [1990])\n1972 - Geri Halliwell (Ginger Spice) (singer: group: Spice Girls: LPs: Forever, Spice, Goodbye, Spiceworld; solo: LP: Schizophonic)\n1976 - Melissa George (actress: Home and Away, Dark City, Hollyweird, Sugar & Spice, Mulholland Drive, Thieves)\n1976 - Soleil Moon Frye (actress: Punky Brewster, The Liar’s Club, The St. Tammany Miracle)\nChart Toppers - August 6"
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In what year was the first performance of Copland's ballet Rodeo?
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"Aaron Copland (; November 14, 1900 - December 2, 1990) was an American composer, composition teacher, writer, and later in his career a conductor of his own and other American music. Instrumental in forging a distinctly American style of composition, in his later years he was often referred to as \"the Dean of American Composers\" and is best known to the public for the works he wrote in the 1930s and 1940s in a deliberately accessible style often referred to as \"populist\" and which the composer labeled his \"vernacular\" style. \n\nWorks in this vein include the ballets Appalachian Spring, Billy the Kid and Rodeo, his Fanfare for the Common Man and Third Symphony. The open, slowly changing harmonies of many of his works are typical of what many people consider to be the sound of American music, evoking the vast American landscape and pioneer spirit. In addition to his ballets and orchestral works, he produced music in many other genres including chamber music, vocal works, opera and film scores.\n\nAfter some initial studies with composer Rubin Goldmark, Copland traveled to Paris, where he studied at first with Isidor Philipp and Paul Vidal, then with noted pedagogue Nadia Boulanger. He studied three years with Boulanger, whose eclectic approach to music inspired his own broad taste. Determined upon his return to the U.S. to make his way as a full-time composer, Copland gave lecture-recitals, wrote works on commission and did some teaching and writing. He found composing orchestral music in the modernist style he had adapted abroad a financially contradictory approach, particularly in light of the Great Depression. He shifted in the mid-1930s to a more accessible musical style which mirrored the German idea of Gebrauchsmusik (\"music for use\"), music that could serve utilitarian and artistic purposes. During the Depression years, he traveled extensively to Europe, Africa, and Mexico, formed an important friendship with Mexican composer Carlos Chávez and began composing his signature works.\n\nDuring the late 1940s, Copland felt a need to compose works of greater emotional substance than his utilitarian scores of the late 1930s and early 1940s. He was aware that Stravinsky, as well as many fellow composers, had begun to study Arnold Schoenberg's use of twelve-tone (serial) techniques. In his personal style, Copland began to make use of twelve-tone rows in several compositions. He incorporated serial techniques in some of his later works, including his Piano Quartet (1950), Piano Fantasy (1957), Connotations for orchestra (1961) and Inscape for orchestra (1967). From the 1960s onward, Copland's activities turned more from composing to conducting. He became a frequent guest conductor of orchestras in the U.S. and the UK and made a series of recordings of his music, primarily for Columbia Records.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life\n\nAaron Copland was born in Brooklyn into a Conservative Jewish family of Lithuanian origins, the last of five children, on November 14, 1900. While emigrating from Russia to the United States, Copland's father, Harris Morris Copland, Anglicized his surname \"Kaplan\" to \"Copland\" while living and working in Scotland for two to three years to pay for the boat fare to the US. Copland was however unaware until late in his life that the family name had been Kaplan, and his parents never told him this. Throughout his childhood, Copland and his family lived above his parents' Brooklyn shop, H.M. Copland's, at 628 Washington Avenue (which Aaron would later describe as \"a kind of neighborhood Macy's\"), on the corner of Dean Street and Washington Avenue, and most of the children helped out in the store. His father was a staunch Democrat. The family members were active in Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes, where Aaron celebrated his Bar Mitzvah. Not especially athletic, the sensitive young man became an avid reader and often read Horatio Alger stories on his front steps. \n\nCopland's father had no musical interest at all, but his mother, Sarah Mittenthal Copland, sang and played the piano, and arranged for music lessons for her children. Of his siblings, oldest brother Ralph was the most advanced musically, proficient on the violin, while his sister Laurine had the strongest connection with Aaron, giving him his first piano lessons, promoting his musical education, and supporting him in his musical career. She attended the Metropolitan Opera School and was a frequent opera goer. She often brought home libretti for Aaron to study. Copland attended Boys' High School and in the summer went to various camps. Most of his early exposure to music was at Jewish weddings and ceremonies, and occasional family musicales.\n\nAt the age of eleven, Copland devised an opera scenario he called Zenatello, which included seven bars of music, his first notated melody. From 1913 to 1917 he took music lessons with Leopold Wolfsohn, who taught him the standard classical fare. Copland's first public music performance was at a Wanamaker's recital. \n\nBy the age of 15, after attending a concert by composer-pianist Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Copland decided to become a composer. After attempts to further his music study from a correspondence course, Copland took formal lessons in harmony, theory, and composition from Rubin Goldmark, a noted teacher and composer of American music (who had given George Gershwin three lessons). Goldmark gave the young Copland a solid foundation, especially in the Germanic tradition, as he stated later: \"This was a stroke of luck for me. I was spared the floundering that so many musicians have suffered through incompetent teaching.\" But Copland also commented that the maestro had \"little sympathy for the advanced musical idioms of the day\" and his \"approved\" composers ended with Richard Strauss. \n\nCopland's graduation piece from his studies with Goldmark was a three-movement piano sonata in a Romantic style. But he had also composed more original and daring pieces which he did not share with his teacher. In addition to regularly attending the Metropolitan Opera and the New York Symphony, where he heard the standard classical repertory, Copland continued his musical development through an expanding circle of musical friends. After graduating from high school, Copland played in dance bands. Continuing his musical education, he received further piano lessons from Victor Wittgenstein, who found his student to be \"quiet, shy, well-mannered, and gracious in accepting criticism.\" Copland's fascination with the Russian Revolution and its promise for freeing the lower classes drew a rebuke from his father and uncles. In spite of that, in his early adult life Copland would develop friendships with people with socialist and communist leanings. \n\nStudying in Paris\n\nFrom 1917 to 1921, Copland composed juvenile works of short piano pieces and art songs. Copland's passion for the latest European music, plus glowing letters from his friend Aaron Schaffer, inspired him to go to Paris for further study. His father wanted him to go to college, but his mother's vote in the family conference allowed him to give Paris a try. On arriving in France, he studied at the Fontainebleau School of Music with noted pianist and pedagogue Isidor Philipp and with Paul Vidal. But finding Vidal too much like Goldmark, Copland switched to famed teacher Nadia Boulanger, then aged thirty-four. He had initial reservations: \"No one to my knowledge had ever before thought of studying with a woman.\" She interviewed him, and recalled later: \"One could tell his talent immediately.\" \n\nBoulanger had as many as forty students at once and employed a formal regimen that Copland had to follow, too. Copland found her incisive mind much to his liking and stated: \"This intellectual Amazon is not only professor at the Conservatoire, is not only familiar with all music from Bach to Stravinsky, but is prepared for anything worse in the way of dissonance. But make no mistake ... A more charming womanly woman never lived.\" Though he planned on only one year abroad, he studied with her for three years, finding her eclectic approach inspired his own broad musical taste.\n\nAdding to the heady cultural atmosphere of the early 1920s in Paris was the presence of expatriate American writers Paul Bowles, Ernest Hemingway, Sinclair Lewis, Gertrude Stein, and Ezra Pound, as well as artists like Picasso, Chagall, and Modigliani. Also influential on the new music were the French intellectuals Marcel Proust, Paul Valéry, Sartre, and André Gide, the latter cited by Copland as being his personal favorite and most read. Travels to Italy, Austria, and Germany rounded out Copland's musical education. During his stay in Paris, Copland began writing musical critiques, the first on Gabriel Fauré, which helped spread his fame and stature in the music community. Instead of wallowing in self-pity and self-destruction like many of the expatriate members of the Lost Generation, Copland returned to America optimistic and enthusiastic about the future. \n\n1925 to 1950\n\nUpon returning to the U.S., Copland was determined to make his way as a full-time composer. He rented a studio apartment on New York City's Upper West Side in the Empire Hotel, which kept him close to Carnegie Hall and other musical venues and publishers. He remained in that area for the next thirty years, later moving to Westchester County, New York. Copland lived frugally and survived financially with help from two $2,500 Guggenheim Fellowships—one in 1925 and one in 1926. Lecture-recitals, awards, appointments, and small commissions, plus some teaching, writing, and personal loans kept him afloat in the subsequent years through World War II. Also important were wealthy patrons who supported the arts community during the Depression, underwriting performances, publication, and promotion of musical events and composers.\n\nCopland's compositions in the early 1920s reflected the prevailing modernist attitude among intellectuals: that they were a small vanguard leading the way for the masses, who would only come to appreciate their efforts over time. In this view, music and the other arts need be accessible to only a select cadre of the enlightened. Toward this end, Copland formed the Young Composer's Group, modeled after France's \"Six\", gathering together promising young composers, acting as their guiding spirit. \n\nSoon after his return, Copland was introduced to the artistic circle of Alfred Stieglitz and met many of the leading artists of that time. Stieglitz's conviction that the American artist should reflect \"the ideas of American Democracy\" influenced Copland and a whole generation of artists and photographers, including Paul Strand, Edward Weston, Ansel Adams, Georgia O'Keeffe, and Walker Evans. Evans' photographs inspired portions of Copland's opera The Tender Land. \n\nIn his quest to take up Stieglitz's challenge, Copland had few established American contemporaries to emulate apart from Carl Ruggles and the reclusive Charles Ives, although the 1920s were Golden Years for American popular music and jazz, with George Gershwin, Bessie Smith, and Louis Armstrong leading the way. Later, however, Copland joined up with his younger contemporaries and formed a group termed the \"commando unit,\" which included Roger Sessions, Roy Harris, Virgil Thomson, and Walter Piston. They collaborated in joint concerts showcasing their work to new audiences.\n\nCopland's relationship with the \"commando unit\" was one of both support and rivalry, and he played a key role in keeping them together. The five young American composers helped promote each other and their works but also had testy exchanges, inflamed by the assertion of the press that Copland was the \"truly American\" composer. Going beyond the five, Copland was generous with his time with nearly every American young composer he met during his life, later earning the title the \"Dean of American Music.\" \n\nMounting troubles with the Symphonic Ode (1929) and Short Symphony (1933) caused him to rethink the paradigm of composing orchestral music for a select group, as it was a financially contradictory approach, particularly in the Depression. In many ways, this shift mirrored the German idea of Gebrauchsmusik (\"music for use\"), as composers sought to create music that could serve a utilitarian as well as artistic purpose. This approach encompassed two trends: first, music that students could easily learn, and second, music which would have wider appeal, such as incidental music for plays, movies, radio, etc. Copland undertook both goals, starting in the mid-1930s.\n\nPerhaps motivated by the plight of children during the Depression, around 1935 Copland began to compose musical pieces for young audiences, in accordance with the first goal of American Gebrauchsmusik. These works included piano pieces (The Young Pioneers) and an opera (The Second Hurricane). \n\nDuring the Depression years, Copland traveled extensively to Europe, Africa, and Mexico. He formed an important friendship with Mexican composer Carlos Chávez and would return often to Mexico for working vacations conducting engagements. During his initial visit to Mexico, Copland began composing the first of his signature works, El Salón México, which he completed four years later in 1936. This and other incidental commissions fulfilled the second goal of American Gebrauchsmusik, creating music of wide appeal.\n\nDuring this time, he composed (for radio broadcast) \"Prairie Journal,\" one of his first pieces to convey the landscape of the American West. Branching out into theater, Copland also played an important role providing musical advice and inspiration to The Group Theater—Stella Adler's and Lee Strasberg's \"method\" acting school. The Group Theater followed Copland's musical agenda and focused on plays that illuminated the American experience. After Hitler and Mussolini's attacks on Spain in 1936, leftist parties had united in a Popular Front against Fascism. Many Group Theater members were influenced by Marxism and other progressive philosophies, and several had joined the Communist Party, including Elia Kazan and Clifford Odets. Copland also had contact later with other major American playwrights, including Thornton Wilder, William Inge, Arthur Miller, and Edward Albee, and considered projects with all of them. During the 1930s, Copland wrote incidental music for several plays, including Irwin Shaw's Quiet City (1939), considered one of his most personal and poignant scores. \n\nIn 1939, Copland completed his first two Hollywood film scores, for Of Mice and Men and Our Town, and received sizable commissions. In the same year, he composed the radio score \"John Henry\", based on the folk ballad. But it wasn't until the worldwide market for classical recordings boomed after World War II that he achieved economic security. Even after securing a comfortable income, he continued to write, teach, lecture, and, eventually, conduct. \n\nDemonstrating his broad range, Copland in the 1930s began composing music for ballet, including his highly successful Billy the Kid (1939), the second of four ballets he scored (after Hear Ye! Hear Ye! (1934)). In an interview with Vivian Perlis, Eugene Loring said of the ballet, \"In our western states, there were still a few old-timers who remembered Billy. One came backstage in San Francisco to tell us that it was all fine, except that Billy really shot left-handed!\"Interview, Eugene Loring with Perlis, by telephone, 14 December 1981. Loring died 30 August 1982. Copland's ballet music established him as an authentic composer of American music much as Stravinsky's ballet scores connected the composer with Russian music. Copland's timing was excellent; he helped fill a vacuum for the American choreographers who needed suitable music to score their own nationalistic dance repertory. \n\nIn keeping with the wartime period, Copland's Piano Sonata (1941) was a piece characterized as \"grim, nervous, elegiac, with pervasive bell-like tolling of alarm and mourning.\" It was later adapted to \"Day on Earth,\" a landmark American dance by Doris Humphrey. \n\nCopland started to publish some of his lectures in the 1930s, \"What to Listen for in Music\" being one of the most notable of his writings. He also took a leading role in the American Composers Alliance, whose mission was \"to regularize and collect all fees pertaining to performance of their copyrighted music\" and \"to stimulate interest in the performance of American music.\" Copland eventually moved over to rival ASCAP. Through royalties and with his great success from 1940 on, Copland amassed a multimillion-dollar fortune by the time of his death. \n\nThe decade of the 1940s was arguably Copland's most productive, and it firmly established his worldwide fame. His two ballet scores for Rodeo (1942) and Appalachian Spring (1944) were huge successes. His pieces Lincoln Portrait and Fanfare for the Common Man have become patriotic standards (See Popular works, below). Also important was the Third Symphony. Composed in a two-year period from 1944 to 1946, it became Copland's best-known symphony. \n\nIn 1945, Copland contributed to Jubilee Variation, a work commissioned by the Cincinnati Symphony in which ten American composers collaborated, but the piece is seldom heard in the concert hall. Copland's In the Beginning (1947) is a choral work using the first chapter and the first seven verses of the second chapter of Genesis from the King James Version of the Bible and is a masterpiece of the choral repertory. \n\nCopland's Clarinet Concerto (1948), scored for solo clarinet, strings, harp, and piano, was a commission piece for bandleader and clarinetist Benny Goodman and a complement to Copland's earlier jazz-influenced work, the Piano Concerto (1926). His \"Four Piano Blues\" is an introspective composition with a jazz influence. \n\nCopland finished the 1940s with two film scores, one for William Wyler's 1949 film The Heiress and one for the film adaptation of John Steinbeck's novel The Red Pony. \n\nIn 1949, he returned to Europe to find Pierre Boulez dominating the group of post-war avant-garde composers. He also met with proponents of twelve-tone technique, based on the works of Arnold Schoenberg, and found himself interested in adapting serial methods to his own musical voice.\n\n1950s and 1960s\n\nIn 1950, Copland received a U.S.-Italy Fulbright Commission scholarship to study in Rome, which he did the following year. Around this time, he also composed his Piano Quartet, adopting Schoenberg's twelve-tone method of composition, and Old American Songs (1950), the first set of which was premiered by Peter Pears and Benjamin Britten, the second by William Warfield. \n\nBecause of the political climate of that era, A Lincoln Portrait was withdrawn from the 1953 inaugural concert for President Eisenhower. That same year, Copland was called before Congress, where he testified that he was never a communist. \n\nDespite the difficulties that his suspected Communist sympathies posed, Copland nonetheless traveled extensively during the 1950s and early 1960s, observing the avant-garde styles of Europe while experiencing the new school of Soviet music. In addition, he was rather taken with the work of Toru Takemitsu while in Japan and began a correspondence with him that would last over the next decade. Copland wrote of the Japanese composer: \"He has the 'pure gold' touch, he chooses his notes carefully and meaningfully.\" Copland also gained exposure to the latest musical trends in Poland and Scandinavia. In observing these new musical forms, Copland revised his text \"The New Music\" with comments on the styles that he encountered. In particular, while Copland explained the importance of the work of John Cage and others (in his chapter titled \"The Music of Chance\"), he found that these radical trends in music which appealed to those \"who enjoy teetering on the edge of chaos\" were less likely to gain the appreciation of a wider audience \"who envisage art as a bulwark against the irrationality of man's nature.\" As he summarized: \"I've spent most of my life trying to get the right note in the right place. Just throwing it open to chance seems to go against my natural instincts.\" \n\nIn 1954, Copland received a commission from Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein to create music for the opera The Tender Land, based on James Agee's Let Us Now Praise Famous Men. Copland had been wary of writing an opera, being especially aware of the pitfalls of that form, including weak libretti and demanding production values. Nevertheless, Copland decided to try his hand at \"la forme fatale,\" especially as the 1950s were boom times for American playwrights, with Arthur Miller, Clifford Odets and Thornton Wilder doing some of their best work. Originally two acts, The Tender Land was later expanded to three. As Copland feared, critics found the libretto to be the opera's weakness, and he later stated: \"I admit that if I have one regret it is that I never did write a 'grand opera'.\" In spite of its flaws, the opera has established itself as one of the few American operas in the standard repertory.\n\nIn 1957, 1958, and 1976, Copland was the Music Director of the Ojai Music Festival, a classical and contemporary music festival in Ojai, California. \n\nCopland exerted a major influence on the compositional style of an entire generation of American composers, including his friend and protégé Leonard Bernstein. Bernstein was considered the finest conductor of Copland's works and cites Copland's \"aesthetic, simplicity with originality\" as being his strongest and most influential traits. \n\nFor the occasion of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Centennial, Copland composed Ceremonial Fanfare For Brass Ensemble to accompany the exhibition \"Masterpieces Of Fifty Centuries.\" Leonard Bernstein, Walter Piston, William Schuman, and Virgil Thomson also composed pieces for the Museum's Centennial exhibitions. \n\nLater life\n\nFrom the 1960s onward, Copland's activities turned more from composing to conducting. Though not enamored with the prospect, he found himself without new ideas for composition, saying: \"It was exactly as if someone had simply turned off a faucet.\" Copland was a frequent guest conductor of orchestras in the U.S. and the UK. He made a series of recordings of his music, primarily for Columbia Records. In 1960, RCA Victor released Copland's recordings with the Boston Symphony Orchestra of the orchestral suites from Appalachian Spring and The Tender Land; these recordings were later reissued on CD, as were most of Copland's Columbia recordings (by Sony).\n\nFrom 1960 to his death, he resided at Cortlandt Manor, New York. His home, known as Rock Hill, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003. It was further designated a National Historic Landmark in 2008. Copland's health deteriorated through the 1980s, and he died of Alzheimer's disease and respiratory failure on December 2, 1990, in North Tarrytown, New York (now Sleepy Hollow). Much of his large estate was bequeathed to the creation of the Aaron Copland Fund for Composers, which bestows over $600,000 per year to performing groups. \n\nPersonal life\n\nIn politics Copland did not to follow the example of his father, a solid Democrat, in that he never enrolled as a member of any political party. However, he did espouse a general progressive view and had strong ties with numerous colleagues and friends in the Popular Front, including Odets. Copland supported the Communist Party USA ticket during the 1936 presidential election, at the height of his involvement with The Group Theater, and remained a committed opponent of militarism and the Cold War, which he regarded as having been instigated by the United States. He condemned it as \"almost worse for art than the real thing\". Throw the artist \"into a mood of suspicion, ill-will, and dread that typifies the cold war attitude and he'll create nothing\". In keeping with these attitudes, Copland was a strong supporter of the Presidential candidacy of Henry A. Wallace on the Progressive Party ticket. As a result, he was later investigated by the FBI during the Red scare of the 1950s and found himself blacklisted.\n\nCopland was included on an FBI list of 151 artists thought to have Communist associations. Joseph McCarthy and Roy Cohn questioned Copland about his lecturing abroad and his affiliations with various organizations and events, neglecting completely Copland's works which made a virtue of American values. Copland made several denials on record of any serious involvement with a list of political/cultural organizations identified as subversive by the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Copland has also been on record saying he does not think music has political importance despite having composed some of the most iconic American art music of the 20th century. \n\nGiven the nature of the hearings, Copland was asked to prepare explanations for his seemingly large involvement in explicitly communist and communist leaning organizations. The danger Copland potentially presented was not in belonging to communist organizations, but in the possibility of spreading those ideas in the Latin American countries he was paid by the state to lecture in. \n\nOutraged by the accusations, many members of the musical community held up Copland's music as a banner of his patriotism. The investigations ceased in 1955 and were closed in 1975. Though taxing of his time, energy, and emotional state, the McCarthy probes did not seriously affect Copland's career and international artistic reputation. In any case, beginning in 1950, Copland, who had been appalled at Stalin's persecution of Shostakovich and other artists, began resigning from participation in leftist groups. He decried the lack of artistic freedom in the Soviet Union, and in his 1954 Norton lecture he asserted that loss of freedom under Soviet Communism deprived artists of \"the immemorial right of the artist to be wrong.\" He began to vote Democratic, first for Stevenson and then for Kennedy.\n\nCopland was an agnostic. However, Copland had various encounters with organized religious thought, which influenced some of his early compositions. Copland was once close with the Zionist movement during the Popular Front movement, when it was endorsed by the left. In relation to his compositions one of his earliest musical interests was with klezmer music. The music of his childhood synagogue would be one of the early influences of his fresh musical aesthetic. \n\nCopland is documented as gay in author Howard Pollack's biography, Aaron Copland: The Life and Work of an Uncommon Man. Like many of his contemporaries he guarded his privacy, especially in regard to his homosexuality, providing very few written details about his private life. However, he was one of the few composers of his stature to live openly and travel with his intimates, most of whom were talented, much younger men. Among Copland's love affairs, most of which lasted for only a few years yet became enduring friendships, were ones with photographer Victor Kraft, artist Alvin Ross, pianist Paul Moor, dancer Erik Johns, composer John Brodbin Kennedy, and painter Prentiss Taylor. \n\nVictor Kraft would prove to be the one constant romantic relationship in Copland's life. Originally a student of music under Copland, Kraft gave up music in pursuit of a career in photography on Copland's urging. Kraft would leave and re-enter Copland's life, often bringing much stress with him: their relationship would fluctuate from contentedness to erratically confrontational on Kraft's part. Kraft fathered a child to whom Copland later provided financial security, through a bequest from his estate.\n\nComposer\n\nInfluences\n\nCopland's earliest musical inclinations as a teenager ran toward Chopin, Debussy, Verdi and the Russian composers. Some of his preferences might also have been formed by the anti-German feelings during World War I, as later he studied German music. Copland's curiosity about the latest music from Debussy and Scriabin was frustrated by the fact that the scores of \"avant-garde\" works were expensive at that time and hard to come by. So he borrowed these works from a music library and studied them intensely. Some of his earliest compositions were songs and piano pieces inspired by these European influences.\n\nCopland's teacher and mentor Nadia Boulanger became his most important influence. In gratitude for the immense support and promotion on his behalf, he told her in 1950, \"I shall count our meeting the most important of my musical life ... Whatever I have accomplished is intimately associated in my mind with those early years, and with what you have since been as inspiration and example.\" Of all her students, she listed Copland first. Copland especially admired Boulanger's total grasp of all classical music, and he was encouraged to experiment and develop a \"clarity of conception and elegance in proportion.\" Following her model, he studied all periods of classical music and all forms—from madrigals to symphonies. This breadth of vision led Copland to compose music for numerous settings—orchestra, opera, solo piano, small ensemble, art song, ballet, theater and film. Boulanger particularly emphasized \"la grande ligne\" (the long line), \"a sense of forward motion ... the feeling for inevitability, for the creating of an entire piece that could be thought of as a functioning entity.\"\n\nIn discovering Johann Sebastian Bach, Copland pointed out: \"[Bach has an] inexhaustible wealth of musical riches, which no music lover can afford to ignore ... What strikes me most markedly about Bach's work is the marvelous rightness of it. It is the rightness not merely of a single individual, but a whole musical epoch.\" Copland stated that an ideal music might combine Mozart's \"spontaneity and refinement\" with Palestrina's \"purity\" and Bach's \"profundity\". \n\nCopland was excited to be so close to the new post-Impressionistic French music of Ravel, Roussel, and Satie, as well as Les six, a group that included Milhaud, Poulenc, and Honegger. Webern, Berg, and Bartók also impressed him. Copland was \"insatiable\" in seeking out the newest European music, whether in concerts, score reading or heated debate. These \"moderns\" were discarding the old laws of composition and experimenting with new forms, harmonies and rhythms, and including the use of jazz and quarter-tone music. Serge Koussevitzky had just arrived in Paris and was adding to the ferment by conducting and promoting the new music of Russia and France. Later he would conduct many Copland premieres in New York. Among the first performances that Copland attended was Milhaud's La création du monde, which caused riots in Paris. Milhaud was Copland's inspiration for some of his earlier \"jazzy\" works. He was also exposed to Schoenberg and admired his earlier atonal pieces, thinking Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire a landmark work comparable to Stravinsky's \"The Rite of Spring.\" Copland even tried out Schoenberg's innovative twelve-tone system and adapted it to his style. \n\nAbove all others, Copland named Igor Stravinsky as his \"hero\" and his favorite 20th-century composer. Stravinsky was in many ways his premiere model. Stravinsky's rhythm and vitality is apparent in many of his works.According to Charles Hazlewood in [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3/discoveringmusic/ram/cdm0408appalach.ram Discovering Music] from 32:20 to 33:45 Copland especially admired Stravinsky's \"jagged and uncouth rhythmic effects,\" \"bold use of dissonance,\" and \"hard, dry, crackling sonority.\" In a 1950 radio interview, Copland is quoted saying that there is a \"freshness of atmosphere; a freshness of personality—which looks very attractive to American composers. Europeans are not seeking freshness of music as much as American composers. The reason being that through their long tradition in music—they already know in advance what they are supposed to write.\" As a publicly identified composer of iconic American music, Copland's claim that American composers are still in search for a certain freshness to composition—found in Stravinsky—show they continuing uncertainty of the American art music scene in the 1950s. Despite using folk themes as a tool for signifying Americanness, Copland continued to find \"freshness\" in Stravinsky's work—especially in his usage of rhythm. Copland was similarly but not quite as strongly impressed by Sergei Prokofiev's \"fresh, clean-cut, articulate style.\" \n\nAnother inspiration for much of Copland's music was jazz. Although familiar with jazz back in America—having listened to it and also played it in bands—he fully realized its potential while traveling in Austria: \"The impression of jazz one receives in a foreign country is totally unlike the impression of such music heard in one's own country ... when I heard jazz played in Vienna, it was like hearing it for the first time.\" He also found that the distance from his native country helped him see the United States more clearly. Beginning in 1923, he employed \"jazzy elements\" in his classical music, but by the late 1930s, he moved on to Latin and American folk tunes in his more successful pieces. His earlier works especially demonstrate the influence of jazz rhythmic, timbral and harmonic practices. That influence is apparent in a few later works, such as the Clarinet Concerto commissioned by Benny Goodman. During the late 1920s and 1930s, Copland sought out jazz at the Cotton Club and heard Duke Ellington, Benny Carter and Bix Beiderbecke, among others. Of Duke Ellington among other jazz composers, Copland said he was \"the master of them all.\" \n\nAlthough Copland was intrigued by the idea of a \"jazz concerto\" and \"symphonic jazz,\" his Concerto for Piano and Orchestra did not succeed in that form as had those of Maurice Ravel and George Gershwin, who was praised by such eminent musical exiles as Schoenberg, Bartók, and Stravinsky (Gershwin had recently died at 38 and so was no longer a potential rival). Copland would go on to write extensively and deliver the Norton lectures about jazz in America, especially the big band sound (1930s) and cool West Coast jazz (1950s). Yet, enthusiastic as he was about jazz throughout his life, Copland also recognized its limitations: With the [Piano] Concerto I felt I had done all I could with the idiom, considering its limited emotional scope. True, it was an easy way to be American in musical terms, but all American music could not possibly be confined to two dominant jazz moods – the blues and the snappy number. \n\nAlthough his early focus of jazz gave way to other influences, Copland continued to make use of jazz in more subtle ways in later works. But it was the synthesizing of all his influences and inclinations which create the \"Americanism\" of his music. Copland pointed out in summarizing the American character of his music, \"the optimistic tone\", \"his love of rather large canvases\", \"a certain directness in expression of sentiment\", and \"a certain songfulness\". As he advanced in his career (by 1941), he said of himself and advised other composers: I no longer feel the need of seeking out conscious Americanisms [folksongs and folk rhythms]. Because we live here and work here, we can be certain that when our music is mature it will also be American in quality. In contradiction to this statement, however, he continued to look for and employ folk material for several more years. \n\nCopland's work from the late 1940s onward included experimentation with Schönberg's twelve-tone system, resulting in two major works, the Piano Quartet (1950) and the Piano Fantasy (1957). \n\nEarly work\n\nCopland's earliest compositions before leaving for Paris were short works for piano and some art songs, inspired mostly by Liszt and Debussy. He experimented with ambiguous beginnings and endings, rapid key changes, and the frequent use of tritones. His first published work was The Cat and the Mouse (1920), a piano solo piece based on a fable by Jean de la Fontaine. In Three Moods (1921), Copland's final movement is entitled \"Jazzy\", which he noted \"is based on two jazz melodies and ought to make the old professors sit up and take notice\". \n\nOne of Copland's first significant works upon returning from his studies in Paris was the necromantic ballet Grohg. This ballet, suggested to Copland by the film Nosferatu, a free adaptation of the Dracula tale, provided the source material for his later Dance Symphony. Originally intended as an orchestral exercise while he was studying in Paris, Copland completed it as a full orchestral score after returning to New York in 1925. It too had \"jazz elements\" as did many of Copland's works in the 1920s.\n\nCopland's Symphony for Organ and Orchestra (1924) brought him into contact with Serge Koussevitzky, a conductor known as a champion of \"new music\", and another figure who would prove to be influential in Copland's life, perhaps the second most important after Boulanger. Koussevitzky performed twelve Copland works during his tenure as conductor of the Boston Symphony. Copland's relationship with Koussevitzky was apparently unique, as his interpretations of Copland's works reflected the particular admiration that the latter had for the young composer. Copland's Music for the Theatre (1925) and the Piano Concerto (1926) were both composed for Koussevitzky. \n\nVisits to Europe in 1926 and 1927 brought him into contact with the most recent developments there, including Webern's Five Pieces for Orchestra, which greatly impressed him. In August 1927, while staying in Königstein, Copland wrote Poet's Song, a setting of a text by E. E. Cummings and his first composition using Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique. This was followed by the Symphonic Ode (1929) and the Piano Variations (1930), both of which rely on the exhaustive development of a single short motive. This procedure, which provided Copland with more formal flexibility and a greater emotional range than in his earlier music, is similar to Schoenberg's idea of \"continuous variation\" and, according to Copland's own admission, was influenced by the twelve-tone method, though neither work actually uses a twelve-tone row. \n\nOther major works of his first period include the Piano Variations (1930), and the Short Symphony (1933). However, this jazz-inspired period was relatively brief, as his style evolved toward the goal of writing more accessible works using folk sources.\n\nPopular works\n\nImpressed with the success of Virgil Thomson's Four Saints in Three Acts, Copland wrote El Salón México between 1932 and 1936, which met with a popular acclaim that contrasted the relative obscurity of most of his previous works. It appears he intended it to be a popular favorite, as he wrote in 1955: \"It seems a long long time since anyone has written an España or Bolero—the kind of brilliant orchestral piece that everyone loves.\" Inspiration for this work came from Copland's vivid recollection of visiting the \"Salon Mexico\" dancehall where he witnessed a more intimate view of Mexico's nightlife. For Copland, the biggest impact came, not from the music of the people dancing, but from the spirit of the environment. Copland said that he could literally feel the essence of the Mexican people in the dance hall. This prompted him to write a piece celebrating the spirit of Mexico using Mexican Themes. Copland derived freely from two collections of Mexican folk tunes, changing pitches and varying rhythms. The use of a folk tune with variations set in a symphonic context started a pattern he repeated in many of his most successful works right on through the 1940s. This work also marked the return of jazz patterns to Copland's compositional style, though they appeared in a more subdued form than before and were no longer the centerpiece. Chávez conducted the premiere, and El Salón México became an international hit, gaining Copland wide recognition. \n\nCopland achieved his first major success in ballet music with his groundbreaking score Billy the Kid , based on a Walter Noble Burns novel, with choreography by Eugene Loring. The ballet was among the first to display an American music and dance vocabulary, adapting the \"strong technique and intense charm of Astaire\" and other American dancers. It was distinctive in its use of polyrhythm and polyharmony, particularly in the cowboy songs. The ballet premiered in New York in 1939, with Copland recalling \"I cannot remember another work of mine that was so unanimously received.\" John Martin wrote, \"Aaron Copland has furnished an admirable score, warm and human, and with not a wasted note about it anywhere.\" It became a staple work of the American Ballet Theatre, and Copland's twenty-minute suite from the ballet became part of the standard orchestral repertoire. When asked how a Jewish New Yorker managed so well to capture the Old West, Copland answered \"It was just a feat of imagination.\" \n\nIn the early 1940s, Copland produced two important works intended as national morale boosters. Fanfare for the Common Man, scored for brass and percussion, was written in 1942 at the request of the conductor Eugene Goossens, conductor of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. It would later be used to open many Democratic National Conventions, and to add dignity to a wide range of other events. Even musical groups from Woody Herman's jazz band to the Rolling Stones adapted the opening theme. Emerson, Lake & Palmer recorded a \"progressive rock\" version of the composition in 1977. The fanfare was also used as the main theme of the fourth movement of Copland's Third Symphony, where it first appears in a quiet, pastoral manner, then in the brassier form of the original. In the same year, Copland wrote A Lincoln Portrait, a commission from conductor André Kostelanetz, leading to a further strengthening of his association with American patriotic music. The work is famous for the spoken recitation of Lincoln's words, though the idea had been previously employed by John Alden Carpenter's \"Song of Faith\" based on George Washington's quotations. \"Lincoln Portrait\" is often performed at national holiday celebrations. Many Americans have performed the recitation, including politicians, actors, and musicians and Copland himself, with Henry Fonda doing the most notable recording.\n\nContinuing his string of successes, in 1942 Copland composed the ballet Rodeo, a tale of a ranch wedding, written around the same time as Lincoln Portrait. Rodeo is another enduring composition for Copland and contains many recognizable folk tunes, well-blended with Copland's original music. Notable in the final movement, is the striking \"Hoedown\". This was a recreation of Appalachian fiddler W. H. Stepp's version of the square-dance tune \"Bonypart\" (\"Bonaparte's Retreat\"), which had been transcribed for piano by Ruth Crawford Seeger and published in Alan Lomax and Seeger's book, Our Singing Country (1941). For the \"Hoedown\" in Rodeo Copland borrowed note for note from Seeger's piano transcription of Stepp's tune. This fragment (lifted from Ruth Crawford Seeger) is now one of the best-known compositions by any American composer, having been used numerous times in movies and on television, including commercials for the American beef industry. \"Hoedown\" was given a rock arrangement by Emerson, Lake & Palmer in 1972. The ballet, originally titled \"The Courting at Burnt Ranch\", was choreographed by Agnes de Mille, niece of film giant Cecil B. DeMille. It premiered at the Metropolitan Opera on October 16, 1942, with de Mille dancing the principal \"cowgirl\" role and the performance received a standing ovation. A reduced score is still popular as an orchestral piece, especially at \"Pops\" concerts.\n\nCopland was commissioned to write another ballet, Appalachian Spring, originally written using thirteen instruments, which he ultimately arranged as a popular orchestral suite. The commission for Appalachian Spring came from Martha Graham, who had requested of Copland merely \"music for an American ballet\". Copland titled the piece \"Ballet for Martha\", having no idea of how she would use it on stage but he had her in mind. \"When I wrote 'Appalachian Spring' I was thinking primarily about Martha and her unique choreographic style, which I knew well ... And she's unquestionably very American: there's something prim and restrained, simple yet strong, about her which one tends to think of as American.\" Copland borrowed the flavor of Shaker songs and dances, and directly used the dance song Simple Gifts. Graham took the score and created a ballet she called Appalachian Spring (from a poem by Hart Crane which had no connection with Shakers). It was an instant success, and the music later acquired the same name. Copland was amused and delighted later in life when people would come up to him and say: \"Mr. Copland, when I see that ballet and when I hear your music I can see the Appalachians and just feel spring.\" Copland had no particular setting in mind while writing the music, he just tried to give it an American flavor, and had no knowledge of the borrowed title, in which \"spring\" refers to a spring of water, not the season Spring. \n\nSymphonic works\n\nCopland composed three numbered symphonies, but applied the word \"symphony\" to more than just symphonies of typical structure. He re-orchestrated his early three-movement Organ Symphony omitting the organ, calling the result his First Symphony. His fifteen-minute Short Symphony was the Second Symphony, though it also exists as the Sextet. His Dance Symphony was hurriedly extracted from the earlier unproduced ballet Grohg to meet an RCA Records commission deadline.\n\nThe Third Symphony is in the more traditional format (four movements; second movement, scherzo; third movement, adagio) and is his most famous symphony. At forty minutes, it is his longest orchestral composition. He composed it with Koussevitzky's unique character in mind, \"I knew exactly the kind of music he enjoyed conducting and the sentiments he brought with it, and I knew the sound of his orchestra, so I had every reason to do my darnedest to write a symphony in the grand manner.\" Among the details of interest in the work is Copland's use of palindromic structure—whole movements as well as melodies end as they began. Completing the work after World War II was won by the Allies, he stated that the symphony was \"intended to reflect the euphoric spirit of the country at the time.\" The work received generally strong acclaim. Koussevitzky \"declared it simply the greatest American symphony ever written.\" Arthur Berger stated that it achieved \"a kind of panorama of all the musical resources that have through the years formed his musical language,\" while Leonard Bernstein \"deemed it the epitome of a decades-long search by many composers for a distinctly American music.\" It is the best known, most performed, and most recorded American symphony of the 20th Century. \n\nLater work\n\nCopland's work in the late 1940s and 1950s included use of Schönberg's twelve-tone system, a development that he recognized as important, but which he did not fully embrace. His first result was his \"Piano Quartet\" (1950). However, he found the atonality of serialized music to run counter to his desire to reach a wide audience. So, in contrast to the Second Viennese School, Copland's use of the system emphasized the importance of the \"classicalizing principles\", in order to prevent the material from falling into \"near-chaos\". He began his first serial work, the \"Piano Fantasy,\" in 1951 to fulfill a commission from the young virtuoso pianist William Kapell. The piece became one of his most challenging works, over which he labored until 1957. During the work's development, in 1953, Kapell died in an aircraft crash. Critics lauded the \"Fantasy\" when it was finally premiered, calling the piece \"an outstanding addition to his own oeuvre and to contemporary piano literature\" and \"a tremendous achievement\". Jay Rosenfield stated, \"This is a new Copland to us, an artist advancing with strength and not building on the past alone.\" \n\nCopland had approached dodecaphony with some initial skepticism. Although he had been \"well aware that serial composition was the dominant method of composition\" after World War II, he expressed doubts about it to Panamanian composer Roque Cordero at Tanglewood in 1946 and added in 1948, \"Now they have come up with the Schoenberg twelve-tone system, 'discovering' it as if it were something quite new.\" While in Europe in 1949, he heard a number of serial works but did not admire much of it because \"so often it seemed that individuality was sacrificed to the method.\" However, the music of French composer Pierre Boulez showed him that the technique could be separated from the \"old Wagnerian\" aesthetic with which he had associated it previously. The late music of Austrian composer Anton Webern and twelve-tone pieces by Swiss composer Frank Martin and Italian composer Luigi Dallapiccola only strengthened this opinion.\n\nEventually, Copland came to the conclusion that composing along serial lines was \"like looking at a picture from a different point of view.\" He explained in 1957, \"As I see it, twelve-tonism is nothing more than an angle of vision. Like fugal treatment, it is a stimulus that enlivens musical thinking, especially when applied to a series of tones that lend themselves to that treatment. It is a method, not a style; and therefore it solves no problems of musical expressivity.\" He began using dodecaphonism \"with the hope that it would freshen and enrich my [compositional] technique.\"\n\nOne attraction of serial composition, Copland said, \"was that I began to hear chords that I wouldn't have heard otherwise. Heretofore, I had been thinking tonally, but this was a new way of moving tones about. It freshened up one's technique and one's approach.\" He liked the fact that the practice forced him to \"unconventionalize his thinking with respect to chordal structure\" and freshened \"his melodic and figurational imagination.\" It fulfilled Copland's need for \"more chords,\" as he phrased it to Bernstein and what Taruskin calls a renewal of his \"technical or stylistic resources.\" As he later maintained in an interview, Copland attempted \"to do my own thing using an extended language.\" Throughout his career, he had been open to incorporating different musical styles into his music, such as jazz and folk music. Serialism was one more style to adapt and use in his own way.\n\nSerialism also allowed Copland a synthesis of serial and non-serial practices, a dichotomy that according to musicologist Joseph Straus had long concerned Copland and had been considered irreconcilable. Copland wrote that, to him, serialism pointed in two opposite directions, one \"toward the extreme of total organization with electronic applications\" and the other \"a gradual absorption into what had become a very freely interpreted tonalism [italics Copland].\" The path he said he chose was the latter one, which he said, when he described his Piano Fantasy, allowed him to incorporate \"elements able to be associated with the twelve-tone method and also with music tonally conceived.\"\n\nCopland maintained that he used the technique in much the same manner as Schoenberg, in that he thought first of a musical theme rather than picking the theme from a series of notes. Nevertheless, his actual use of the tone row did not follow standard practice. Schoenberg generally structured his twelve-tone music around complete statements of the row in one of its four shapes—prime or original (forward), retrograde (reversed), inverted or retrograde and inverted. Copland rarely states a complete row. He includes the prime and reversed forms of the row at moments of structural importance comparable to the exposition of the two themes in sonata form. Otherwise, he used parts of the row of between two and six notes to form melodies and harmonies, a practice not far removed from how he composed his tonal works. By doing so, Copland took advantage of the potential for richly-dense harmonies, built on seconds and their inversions, that dodecaphony made available. In the Piano Quartet, this allowed him, according to Pollack, to combine \"familiarly Coplandesque gestures and moods ... with fresh ideas and feelings.\"\n\nEven after Copland started using 12-tone techniques, he did not stick to them exclusively but went back and forth between tonal and non-tonal compositions. Other late works include: \"Dance Panels\" (1959, ballet music), \"Something Wild\" (1961, his last film score, much of which would be later incorporated into his \"Music for a Great City\"), \"Connotations\" (1962, for the new Lincoln Center Philharmonic hall), \"Emblems\" (1964, for wind band), \"Night Thoughts\" (1972, for the Van Cliburn International Piano Competition), and \"Proclamation'\" (1982, his last work, started in 1973). \n\nFilm composer\n\nBy the 1930s, Hollywood began to beckon \"serious\" composers with promises of better films and higher pay. The reality, however, was that few found good projects. Copland sought to enter that arena, as both a challenge for his abilities as a composer and an opportunity to expand his reputation and audience for his more serious works. Unlike the total attention he would hope to get from a concert-goer, Copland wrote that film music had to achieve a balance. It should be \"secondary in importance to the story being told on the screen\" while notably adding to the dramatic and emotional content of the film—but without diverting the viewer's attention from the action. \n\nUpon arriving in Hollywood in 1937, he had high hopes: \"It is just a matter of finding a feature film that needs my kind of music.\" What he found, however, was the ongoing tendency of studios to edit and cut movie scores, which often subverted a composer's intentions. No projects seemed suitable at first. But his patience paid off two years later when Copland found a kindred spirit in director Lewis Milestone, who allowed Copland to supervise his own orchestration and who refrained from interfering with his work. Copland composed three of his five film scores for Milestone. \n\nThis collaboration resulted in the notable film Of Mice and Men (1939), from the novel by John Steinbeck, that earned Copland his first nomination for an Academy Award ( he actually received two nominations, one for \"best score\" and another for \"original score\"). He considered himself lucky with his first film score: \"Here was an American theme, by a great American writer, demanding appropriate music.\" Having accepted small sums for other projects in the past, especially to help out cash-strapped productions involving friends, this time Copland would capitalize on his efforts: \"I thought if I was to sell myself to the movies, I ought to sell myself good.\" From then on, he became one of Hollywood's highest paid film composers, earning as much as $15,000 per film.\n\nIn a departure from other film scores of the time, Copland's work largely reflected his own style, instead of the usual borrowing from the late-Romantic period. Many silent and early talking films used classical music themes directly, both in the credit sequences and during the action. But with Copland, the film score's purpose was more comprehensive and subtle, setting the atmosphere of time and place, illustrating the thoughts of the actors, providing continuity and filler, and shaping the emotion and drama. He often avoided the full orchestra, and he rejected the common practice of using a leitmotiv to identify characters with their own personal themes. He instead matched a theme to the action, while avoiding the underlining of every action with exaggerated emphasis.\n\nAnother technique Copland employed was to keep silent during intimate screen moments and only begin the music as a confirming motive toward the end of a scene. Virgil Thompson wrote that the score for Of Mice and Men established \"the most distinguished populist musical style yet created in America.\" Many composers who scored for western movies, particularly between 1940 and 1960, were influenced by Copland's style, though some also followed the \"Max Steiner\" approach, which was more bombastic and obvious. As a commentator on film scores, Copland singled out Bernard Herrmann, Miklós Rózsa, Alex North and Erich Wolfgang Korngold as innovative leaders in the field. \n\nCopland's score for The North Star (1943) was nominated for an Academy Award, and his score for William Wyler's 1949 film, The Heiress won the award. Several themes from his scores are incorporated in the suite Music for Movies. His score for the film adaptation of John Steinbeck's novel The Red Pony was arranged by commission of the Houston Symphony Orchestra as a suite for their performance in October 1948 and became widely popular. His score for the 1961 independent film Something Wild was released in 1964 as Music For a Great City. Copland also composed scores for two documentary films, The City (1939) and The Cummington Story (1945). \n\nWhen commenting on the effectiveness of film scores, Copland said: \"I'd love to be able to have audiences see a film with the music, then see it a second time with the music turned off, and then see it a third time with the music turned on. Then, I think they'd get a much more specific idea of what the music does for a film.\". \n\nCritic, writer, and teacher\n\nCopland had a large following of pupils—often mixing his personal life with them. Of notable students, Leonard Bernstein and Victor Kraft were two with whom he continued having intimately personal relationships. Bernstein would go on to champion Copland as one of the greatest American composers of all time while being one of the few people Copland opened up to.\n\nCopland also wrote prolifically on the subject of music. Across decades, Copland has published pieces on music criticism analysis on musical trends, and on his own compositions. Starting with his first critiques in 1924, Copland began a long career as music critic, teacher, and observer, mostly of contemporary classical music. He was an avid lecturer and lecturer-performer. He wrote reviews of specific works, trends, composers, festivals, books about music, and recordings. He took on a wide range of issues from the most general (\"Creativity\") to the most practical (\"Composer Economics\"). Copland also wrote three books, \"What to Listen for in Music (1939)\", \"Our New Music (1941)\", and \"Music and Imagination\" (1952). He had a long list of notable students (see below). Copland put a good deal of time and energy into supporting young musicians, especially through his association with the Berkshire Music Center at Tanglewood, both as a guest conductor and teacher. In working with young composers, Copland thought it more important to focus on expressive content than on technical points. \n\nConductor\n\nCopland studied conducting in Paris in 1921, but not until his involvement conducting his own Hollywood scores, did he undertake it except out of necessity. On his international travels in the 1940s, however, he began to make appearances as a guest conductor, performing his own works. By the 1950s, he was conducting the works of other composers as well. From the 1960s on, he conducted far more than he composed. \n\nA self-taught conductor, Copland developed a very personal style. He occasionally asked friend Leonard Bernstein for advice. Copland took an understated and unpretentious approach to conducting and modeled his style after other composer/conductors such as Stravinsky and Hindemith. Observers of Copland noted that he had \"none of the typical conductorial vanities\". Though his friendly and modest persona, and his great enthusiasm, were appreciated by professional orchestra musicians, some criticized his beat as \"unsteady\" and his interpretations as \"unexciting\". Some of his peers, like Koussevitzky, went even further, advising him to \"stay home and compose\". Copland thoroughly enjoyed conducting but admitted that he did it in part because in the last seventeen years of his life he felt little inspiration to compose. He was offered \"permanent\" conducting posts but preferred to operate as a guest conductor. Nearly all of Copland's conducting appearances included his own works, which added to the intoxication of conducting. As he stated, \"Conducting puts one in a very powerful position ... Best of all, it is a use of power for a good purpose.\" It also allowed him the freedom to travel which he always enjoyed. \n\nCopland was a strong advocate for newer music and composers, and his programs always included heavy representation of 20th-century music and lesser-known composers. Performers and audiences generally greeted his conducting appearances as positive opportunities to hear his music as the composer intended, but sometimes found his efforts with other composers to be lacking. From Copland's point of view, he found both the New York Philharmonic and the Boston Symphony Orchestra to be \"tough\" groups, resistant to newer music. Newton Mansfield, violinist with the New York Philharmonic, stated, \"The orchestra didn't take him too seriously. It was like going out to a nice lunch.\" Copland also found resistance from European orchestras; however, he was warmly received and respected in England. Copland recorded nearly all his orchestral works with himself conducting.\n\nAwards\n\n* On September 14, 1964, Aaron Copland was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Lyndon Johnson.\n* In honor of Copland's vast influence on American music, on December 15, 1970 he was awarded the prestigious University of Pennsylvania Glee Club Award of Merit. Beginning in 1964, this award \"established to bring a declaration of appreciation to an individual each year that has made a significant contribution to the world of music and helped to create a climate in which our talents may find valid expression.\"\n* Copland was awarded the New York Music Critics' Circle Award and the Pulitzer Prize in composition for Appalachian Spring. His scores for Of Mice and Men (1939), Our Town (1940), and The North Star (1943) all received Academy Award nominations, while The Heiress won Best Music in 1950.\n* He was a recipient of Yale University's Sanford Medal. \n* In 1986, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts.\n* He was awarded a special Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress in 1987.\n* He was made an honorary member of the Alpha Upsilon chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia in 1961 and was awarded the fraternity's Charles E. Lutton Man of Music Award in 1970. \n\nNotable students\n\nSelected works\n\n* Scherzo Humoristique: The Cat and the Mouse (1920)\n* Four Motets (1921)\n* Three Moods (piano solo) (1921)\n* Passacaglia (piano solo) (1922)\n* Symphony for Organ and Orchestra (1924)\n* Music for the Theater (1925)\n* Dance Symphony (1925)\n* Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1926)\n* Symphonic Ode (1927–1929)\n* Piano Variations (1930)\n* Grohg (ballet) (1925/32)\n* Short Symphony (Symphony No. 2) (1931–33)\n* Statements for Orchestra (1932–35)\n* The Second Hurricane, play-opera for high school performance (1936)\n* El Salón México (1936)\n* Billy the Kid (ballet) (1938)\n* Quiet City (1940)\n* Our Town (1940)\n* Piano Sonata (1939–41)\n* An Outdoor Overture, written for high school orchestras (1938) and transcribed for wind band (1941)\n* Fanfare for the Common Man (1942)\n* Lincoln Portrait (1942)\n* Rodeo (ballet) (1942)\n* Danzon Cubano (1942)\n\n* Music for the Movies (1942)\n* Sonata for violin and piano (1943)\n* Appalachian Spring (ballet) (1944)\n* Third Symphony (1944–1946)\n* In the Beginning (1947)\n* The Red Pony (1948)\n* Clarinet Concerto (commissioned by Benny Goodman) (1947–1948)\n* Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson (1950)\n* Piano Quartet (1950)\n* Old American Songs (1952)\n* The Tender Land (opera) (1954)\n* Canticle of Freedom (1955)\n* Orchestral Variations (orchestration of Piano Variations) (1957)\n* Piano Fantasy (1957)\n* Dance Panels (ballet) (1959; revised 1962)\n* Connotations (1962)\n* Down A Country Lane (1962)\n* Music for a Great City (1964) (based on his score of the 1961 film Something Wild)\n* Emblems, for wind band (1964); orchestral transcription by D. Wilson Ochoa (2006)\n* Inscape (1967)\n* Duo for flute and piano (1971)\n* Three Latin American Sketches (1972)\n\nFilm\n\n* Aaron Copland: A Self-Portrait (1985). Directed by Allan Miller. Biographies in Music series. Princeton, New Jersey: The Humanities.\n* Appalachian Spring (1996). Directed by Graham Strong, Scottish Television Enterprises. Princeton, New Jersey: Films for the Humanities.\n* Copland Portrait (1975). Directed by Terry Sanders, United States Information Agency. Santa Monica, California: American Film Foundation.\n* Fanfare for America: The Composer Aaron Copland (2001). Directed by Andreas Skipis. Produced by Hessischer Rundfunk in association with Reiner Moritz Associates. Princeton, New Jersey: Films for the Humanities & Sciences.\n\nWritten works\n\n* Copland, Aaron (1939; Revised 1957), What to Listen For in Music, New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, reprinted many times.\n* Copland, Aaron (2006). Music and Imagination, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-58915-5\n\nNotes",
"Rodeo is a ballet scored by Aaron Copland and choreographed by Agnes de Mille, which premiered in 1942. Subtitled \"The Courting at Burnt Ranch\", the ballet consists of five sections: \"Buckaroo Holiday\", \"Ranch House Party\", \"Corral Nocturne\", \"Saturday Night Waltz\", and \"Hoe-Down\". The symphonic version omits \"Ranch House Party\", leaving the other sections relatively intact.\n\nGenesis\n\nThe original ballet was choreographed by Agnes de Mille for the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, a dance company that moved to the United States during World War II. In order to compete with the rival company Ballet Theatre, the Ballet Russe commissioned de Mille out of a career of relative obscurity. The choreographer was given considerable creative control, choosing Aaron Copland as the composer after being impressed by his previous ballet, Billy the Kid. Though Copland was initially reluctant to compose \"another Cowboy ballet,\" De Mille persuaded him that this show would mark a significant departure from his previous work. As de Mille found herself occupied with instructing a highly international cast in the mannerisms of American cowboys, Copland recommended that Oliver Smith design the sets,Pollack, Howard (1999). Aaron Copland: The Life and Work of an Uncommon Man. New York: Henry Holt, ISBN 0-252-06900-5. in what would prove to be a prescient action.\n\nDe Mille herself played the lead, and the premiere at the Metropolitan Opera House on 16 October 1942 received 22 curtain calls. The other principal dancers in the cast included Frederic Franklin and Casimir Kokitch. Though de Mille herself was not entirely pleased with the premiere, it was attended by Rodgers and Hammerstein, who approached de Mille afterward to request that she choreograph their upcoming production of Oklahoma!.\n\nThe ballet makes use of riding movements that Agnes de Mille devised with the assistance of Peggy van Praagh, for a recital in London by Peggy van Praagh and Hugh Laing in 1938. De Mille also made use of such vernacular forms as a square dance and a cadenza for a tap dancer.\n\nNoted among many reviews was de Mille’s highly evocative choreography, described as \"film sensibility\" and renowned for its realism. The original production went on to lead a successful tour, though producers were hard pressed to replicate the skill with which de Mille had portrayed the lead. De Mille retained veto power over any casting of the ballet, which often sent companies to extremes in order to find a worthy Cowgirl. Meanwhile, Copland arranged the music as a symphonic suite for orchestra titled Four Dance Episodes from Rodeo, which consisted chiefly of removing \"Ranch House Party\" and minor adjustments to the final two sections. With the middle section removed, the composition resembled the symphonic form with an ambitious opening movement, slow movement, minuet and finale. In this form, Rodeo found even greater success, premiering at the Boston Pops in 1943.\n\nStructure and analysis\n\nThe circumstances surrounding the composition of Rodeo led to its having a number of features that set it apart from other Copland compositions. Though many of Copland's works incorporate traditional American folk tunes, Rodeo is unique in that it leaves them quite intact in the score, with very little alteration on the part of the composer. This is likely attributable in part to De Mille's control over the work. Indeed, she had already blocked the entire show before Copland had written a single note and also transcribed several folk tunes, including \"Old Paint\", for Copland in addition to her blocking notes.\n\nThe well-known main theme of \"Hoe-Down\" is based on a unique version of the American folk song \"Bonyparte\" or \"Bonaparte's Retreat,\" played by Salyersville, Kentucky fiddler William Hamilton Stepp, which was recorded in 1937 by Alan Lomax for the Library of Congress. A meticulous transcription by Ruth Crawford Seeger of that performance appeared in Lomax's 1941 book, \"Our Singing Country\".\n\nMany of the themes were autobiographical for De Mille. An extremely skilled dancer, the choreographer nonetheless felt awkward in the offstage world, and the Cowgirl's unwillingness to subscribe to traditional gender roles mirrors De Mille's experience.\n\nBuckaroo Holiday\n\nRodeo opens with a grand fanfare, vamping until R5-6, where the woodwinds introduce the Cowgirl's theme. This quiet theme continues until the Rodeo theme begins presenting a highly rhythmic motif that evokes the trotting of horses. The lone Cowgirl seeks the affections of the Head Wrangler, who is rather taken with the more feminine Rancher's Daughter. The cowboys enter to the railroad tune of \"Sis Joe\", envisioned by de Mille as an event \"like thunder,\" which Copland obliges with heavy drums and brass. As the cowgirl seeks the attention of her quarry, she mimics the surrounding cowboys, reflected in the heavy use of the tune \"If He’d Be a Buckaroo\" in this section. The theme is repeated by various solo instruments before being realized in triple canon by the full orchestra. After a brief return to the quiet Cowgirl theme, the fanfare returns at . \"Sis Joe\" reappears again, before the entire orchestra triumphantly plays \"If He'd be a Buckaroo\".\n\nCorral Nocturne\n\nThe \"Corral Nocturne\" invokes the lovesick musings of the Cowgirl, portrayed rather lyrically by Copland's heavy use of oboe and bassoon. In writing this scene, de Mille noted that \"She run[s] through the empty corrals intoxicated with space, her feet thudding in the stillness.\" The Head Wrangler discovers her in the darkness, but she does not come toward him as the Rancher's Daughter would. Confused, he exits with the Rancher's Daughter.\n\nRanch House Party\n\nThe subsequent \"Ranch House Party\" (a ballet only) was envisioned by de Mille as \"Dance music inside. Night music outside.\" Indeed, the section opens with a honky-tonk theme played on a piano, accompanied by a more thoughtful clarinet. The Cowgirl finds herself between the Champion Roper and the Wrangler, who are attracted to the Rancher's Daughter. \"Corral Nocturne\" is recalled at the end of this section, as the Cowgirl finds herself quite alone.Crist, Elizabeth B. (2005). Music for the Common Man. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-515157-7.\n\nSaturday Night Waltz\n\nWhile the \"Texas minuet\" of the \"Saturday Night Waltz\" plays de Mille’s transcribed version of \"I Ride an Old Paint\" (also known as \"Houlihan\") the cowboys and their girls pair off. Expectant of a partner and finding none, the Cowgirl is alone until the Champion Roper approaches her, having failed to best the Wrangler in winning the affections of the Rancher's Daughter. Both this section and the \"Corral Nocturne\" feature Copland's characteristic economy of sound, where he uses solo instruments in lieu of entire sections.\n\nHoe-Down\n\nFinally, the \"Hoe-Down\" opens by vamping the first bar of William H. Stepp's interpretation of the folk tune \"Bonaparte’s Retreat\", which will become a major theme of the section. After a reprisal of the Rodeo theme, the theme proper begins in the strings, as the horns play a simple counterpoint. Instead of building to a climax, this section segues into \"Miss McLeod's Reel\", performed by various solo instruments. Copland briefly introduces the Irish theme \"Gilderoy\" in the clarinet and oboe.\n\nBuilding toward the end, Copland reintroduces \"Bonaparte's Retreat\" in canon, before returning to the Rodeo theme, which slows into the climactic kiss between the Cowgirl and the Roper. \"Bonaparte's Retreat\" is then resumed by the full orchestra, which ends the piece with a grand fanfare.\n\nBallet and its place in the repertoire\n\nIn what is considered one of the earliest examples of a truly American ballet, Rodeo combines the exuberance of a Broadway musical with the disciplines of classical ballet. Of particular note, the first scene requires men to pantomime riding and roping while dancing solo and dancing in groups (not very common for male ballet dancers), and while interacting with an awkward Cowgirl, who seeks their acceptance. The cast dresses in stylized western garb, which makes it all the more difficult to execute many of the moves.\n\nClassical ballet storylines typically involve some boy-meets-girl relationship, or at most a love triangle. But Rodeo forces an American Cowgirl to compete against an army of local girls in a quest to win the attention of the Champion Roper. The pairing and mutual attraction of the men and women in the cast appears fluid, and at times confusing to the rejected Cowgirl. Against this backdrop, the Cowgirl emotes strength, awkwardness, confidence, femininity and vulnerability, while executing rapid-fire footwork and pantomime, which mimics the bronco-busting of the men. Any comic dancer who plays the Cowgirl must succeed at being a failure, only to emerge triumphant in the end when she finally dons a dress for dance night.\n\nRegarding this nuanced role, DeMille said: \"She acts like a boy, not to be a boy, but to be liked by the boys.\"\n\nThe American Ballet Notes for its 1950 premiere performance (Hessisches Staatstheater Wiesbaden, Germany) state: Rodeo ... is a love story of the American Southwest. The problem it deals with is perennial: how an American girl, with the odds seemingly all against her, sets out to get herself a man. The girl in this case is a cowgirl, a tomboy whose desperate efforts to become one of the ranch's cowhands create a problem for the cowboys and make her the laughingstock of womankind.\n\nAs noted above, finding suitable Cowgirls to play this role was a challenge. Lucia Chase recalls that when the Ballet Theater Company had exclusive rights to stage Rodeo, Agnes DeMille urged the employment of \"charming and talented comediennes from the Broadway musical stage\" for the role. In the ballet world, DeMille's favorites for the role were: Dorothy Etheridge (Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo), Jenny Workman (The Ballet Theater Company), Carole Valleskey (Joffrey Ballet), Bonnie Wyckoff (Boston Ballet) and Christine Sarry (American Ballet Theatre).\n\nIn the 1970s, Christine Sarry emerged as DeMille's preferred interpreter of this complex role, DeMille even preferring Sarry's version to her own. Agnes DeMille stated in her will that only Sarry was authorized to approve of dancers who could take up the role of the Cowgirl. Since Agnes DeMille's death, Sarry has coached and approved numerous dancers in the part. In the 21st century, the list includes: Tina LeBlanc (San Francisco Ballet (2006), Kristin Long (San Francisco Ballet, 2007); Xiomara Reyes (American Ballet Theater, 2006); Marian Butler (American Ballet Theater, 2006); and Erica Cornejo (American Ballet Theater, 2005). Of Ms. Cornejo, critic Jerry Hochman wrote, \"Cornejo owns the role now\".\n\nUp to 1979, Rodeo was staged mainly by deMille and Vernon Lusby, for many years one of her most trusted assistants on numerous projects. When illness precluded his ability to continue setting Rodeo in 1981, deMille asked Paul Sutherland, a former principal dancer with American Ballet Theatre, Joffrey Ballet, and Harkness Ballet who had danced leading roles in several of her ballets, to begin staging Rodeo. With the passing of Agnes deMille in 1993, ownership and all rights to Rodeo passed to her son, Jonathan Prude. For the next several years, several people staged the ballet. In 1999, Prude set up the deMille Committee to oversee her numerous works and assigned sole responsibility for staging Rodeo to Sutherland, including the selection of dancers, rehearsals and stage production. With the exception of a few companies to whom Agnes deMille had, years before, given the ballet in perpetuity, Sutherland has staged Rodeo over fifty times for dozens of companies and universities throughout the United States and Canada as well as in Antwerp, Belgium, and continues to do so.\n\nFor a point of comparison, it has been nearly 120 years since the premiere of The Nutcracker, and more than 70 years since the premiere of Rodeo. This increasing longevity, plus the anchoring of Copland’s score in American culture, suggests near-certain permanence for the ballet.\n\nPopular culture\n\nA version of the \"Hoe-Down\" section was recorded by 1970s progressive rock band Emerson, Lake & Palmer and folk rock and jazz group Béla Fleck and the Flecktones.\n\nAt Bob Dylan's performances during his \"Never-Ending Tour\", he is introduced by his stage manager reading a short biography with \"Hoe-Down\" playing in the background.\n\nThe music was also famously used as the background theme for the \"Beef. It's What's For Dinner\" advertising campaign in the 1990s, and also in the The Simpsons episode \"The Seemingly Never-Ending Story\". A close parody of it, titled \"In Training\" and adapted with the film's leitmotifs, was composed by James Horner for An American Tail: Fievel Goes West. \n\n\"Hoe-Down\" accompanied one of the choreographed opening ceremony performances of the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah."
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"Aaron Copland / Timeline // Copland House …where America's musical past and future meet\nAaron Copland: Timeline of a Musical Life\nAaron Copland at the Piano\n(compiled by Michael Boriskin)\n1900—Born on November 14 in Brooklyn to Sarah Mittenthal and Harris Copland, the youngest of five children (Ralph, Leon, Laurine, and Josephine)\n1906—Attends Public School 111 in Brooklyn\n1909—Begins to make up songs at the piano\n1910-13—Attends summer camp (Camp Carey at Wilkes-Barre, PA)\n1911—Earliest existing piece of music; begins piano lessons with sister Laurine\n1914—Begins studies with first professional piano teacher, Ludwig Wolfsohn in Brooklyn\n1916—Hears first symphony concert in Brooklyn\n1917—First public performance as a pianist\n1918—Graduated from Boys’ High School, Brooklyn\n1917-21—Studies harmony and counterpoint with Rubin Goldmark\n1919-21—Studies piano with Clarence Adler\nAaron Copland\n1921—Enrolls at newly-established American Conservatory at Fontainebleau in May; attends harmony class of Nadia Boulanger and begins composition studies with her in October\n1922—First work published (by Durand): Le chat et la Souris (composed 1920); writes the Passacaglia for piano and first large-scale work, the ballet Grohg (revised 1932)\n1924—First important article published, Gabriel Fauré, A Neglected Master (The Musical Quarterly)\n1925—First major performances of an orchestral work, Symphony for Organ and Orchestra at Aeolian Hall (Nadia Boulanger, organist, with Walter Damrosch conducting the New York Symphony) and in Boston (with Serge Koussevitzky conducting the Boston Symphony Orchestra); first visit to MacDowell Colony to work on Music for the Theatre; receives the first-ever Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship (renewed in 1926); writes first of many articles for Modern Music\n1927—First major performance of Copland as pianist, World Premiere of his Piano Concerto (composed 1926) with Koussevitzky and the Boston Symphony; begins lectures at New School for Social Research, New York (continuing for ten years, eventually developing some of these into his book What to Listen for in Music)\n1928—Initiates Copland-Sessions Concerts with composer Roger Sessions, an important series mostly in New York devoted exclusively to contemporary music (continuing to 1932, averaging two concerts per season); joined the League of Composers (remaining a member until 1954); helps to establish Cos Cob Press, devoted to publishing works by young American composers; completes first important chamber work, Vitebsk\n1929—Wins the RCA Victor Composers’ Competition with Dance Symphony (along with Ernest Bloch, Robert Russell Bennett, and Louis Gruenberg); completes Symphonic Ode\n1930—First visit to Yaddo, Saratoga Springs, NY; composes first major work for solo piano, Piano Variations; Organizes Festival of Contemporary Music at Yaddo (and a second one in 1932)\n1932—First visit to Mexico, arranged by Carlos Chavez, which includes first all-Copland program (organized by Chavez at the Conservatorio Nacional de Music on September 2nd: Two Pieces for String Quartet, Piano Variations, Two Pieces for Chorus, and Music for the Theatre); joins the Board of Directors of the League of Composers; joins a social and professional collective called Young Composers’ Group (including Arthur Berger, Henry Brant, Lehman Engel, Vivian Fine, Bernard Herrmann, Elie Siegmeister, and others)\n1934—First performance of a staged work, the ballet Hear Ye! Hear Ye! by Ruth Page Ballets (in Chicago)\nAaron Copland at his Desk\n1935—Teaches for the first time at Harvard, replacing Walter Piston on leave in spring semester; organizes five concerts at the New School, each devoted to the music of one composer (Harris, Thomson, Sessions, Piston, and Copland)\n1936—Writes regular column (“Scores and Records” for Modern Music, which continues until 1939); completes El Salon Mexico\n1937—Composes The Second Hurricane, a \"play-opera\" for the Henry Street Settlement Music School in New York City, directed by Orson Welles, to be performed by children and adults\n1938—Publisher becomes Boosey & Hawkes, to which he was recommended by Benjamin Britten; helps to establish American Composers’ Alliance (serving as President between 1939 and 1945); helps to found Arrow Music Press (incorporating Cos Cos Press) with Engel, Blitzstein, and Thomson\n1939—Writes first film score to The City, a documentary by Ralph Steiner and first score for a feature film, Of Mice and Men; helps to found American Music Center; publishes first book, What to Listen for in Music\n1940—Invited by Koussevitzky to teach at the first summer of the Berkshire Music Center at Tanglewood (continuing until 1965, and including various administrative positions)\n1941—Second book, Our New Music, published; four-month South American tour for the Committee for Inter-American Artistic and Intellectual Relations\n1942—Completes A Lincoln Portrait, commissioned by conductor Andre Kostelanetz, and Fanfare for the Common Man, and composes the ballet Rodeo, commissioned by Agnes de Mille; elected to the Music Department of the National Institute of Arts and Letters\n1944—Receives Academy Award nomination for his film score to The North Star; returns to Harvard in the spring for five talks as Horace Appleton Lamb Lecturer\n1945—Wins Pulitzer Prize in Music and the New York Music Critics Circle Award for Appalachian Spring, a ballet by Martha Graham composed in 1944\n1946—Completes one of his largest works, Symphony No. 3 (begun 1944), which wins the New York Music Critics Circle Award; elected a member of ASCAP\n1947—Four-month tour of Latin America for the U.S. Department of State; gives up New York City apartment and loft studio, and moves to Sneden’s Landing, Rockland County, NY; begins Clarinet Concerto for Benny Goodman\n1948—Becomes Director of the League of Composers (remaining until 1951)\n1949—European tour\n1950—Wins Academy Award for Best Original Musical Score for the film The Heiress; sixth visit to the MacDowell Colony, during which he begins work on the Piano Quartet, his first 12-tone work; completes Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson\n1951—Receives Fulbright Fellowship for six-month stay abroad, including a short residency at the American Academy of Rome and first trip to Israel; conducts work by another composer for the first time (Diamond’s Rounds, in Italy); gives Charles Eliot Norton Lectures at Harvard (first native-born American to hold Poetry Chair), published in 1952 as Music and Imagination\n1952—Begins work on The Tender Land; buys his first house, Shady Lane Farm in Ossining, where he lives for eight years\n1953—Becomes embroiled in Washington’s anti-Communist hysteria, and is subpoenaed to testify at McCarthy Congressional hearings, as a result of which several of his engagements are canceled; first book about Copland published, written by composer-critic Arthur Berger\n1954—World Premiere on April 1 of The Tender Land at the New York City Opera; elected to membership in the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters\n1955—Six months in Europe; Julia Smith’s biography of Copland published\n1956—Awarded Gold Medal of the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters; receives first Honorary Doctorate (from Princeton, U.); six months in Europe\n1957—Composes Orchestral Variations (a symphonic transcription of his Piano Variations); completes monumental Piano Fantasy (begun in 1955)\n1958—New York Philharmonic conducting debut\n1960—Buys Rock Hill in the Town of Cortlandt, which was to be his home for the remaining 30 years of his life; fourth book published, Copland On Music\n1961—Receives MacDowell Colony Medal of Honor, for distinguished service in the field of music; becomes President of MacDowell Colony (serving until 1968)\n1962—Writes Connotations for Lincoln Center Inaugural Concert by the New York Philharmonic; composes Down A Country Lane, is published in Life magazine on June 29\n1964—Awarded Presidential Medal of Freedom, America’s highest civilian honor\n1965–66— Wrote, hosted, and performed on a 12-part public television series, Music in the Twenties\n1967—Writes Inscape, last major orchestral work, for the New York Philharmonic’s 125th Anniversary\n1968—The New Music, 1900-1960 is published (a revision of his Our New Music)\n1970—Receives Commander’s Cross of the Order of Merit from West Germany and the Howland Memorial Medal from Yale University; awarded membership in Institut de France and Britain’s Royal Philharmonic Society\n1971—Composes the Duo for Flute and Piano, his last important work\n1975-76—Gives interviews to Vivian Perlis for her Oral History Project in American Music at Yale University, which develop into their collaboration on Copland’s autobiography\n1977—Copland’s complete piano music performed in concert for the first time (by Leo Smit)\n1979—Receives Kennedy Center Honors; first recording of Copland’s complete piano music (by Leo Smit)\n1980—“Wall-to-Wall Copland,” a day-long marathon concert, at Symphony Space, New York City\n1981—Department of Music at Queens College of the City University of New York renamed Aaron Copland School of Music\n1984—First volume of memoirs appears (Copland: 1900 Through 1942, written with Vivian Perlis)\n1986—Awarded both the Congressional Gold Medal (by “act of Congress,” one of America’s highest civilian honors) and the National Medal of Arts (bestowed by President Ronald Reagan)\n1989—Second volume of memoirs published (Copland: Since 1943, with Vivian Perlis)\n1990—Dies on December 2 at Phelps Memorial Hospital Center, North Tarrytown, NY; ashes are scattered at Tanglewood",
"Copland - Appalachian Spring - A Good-Music-Guide Review\nAppalachian Spring\n[an error occurred while processing this directive]\nBuy Amazon International\n[an error occurred while processing this directive]\nAaron Copland\nAaron Copland's life spanned most of the twentieth century, yet he is best-known for music that he wrote during a very short period, from 1938 to 1944. It was during this six years that he wrote his three ballets Billy the Kid (1938), Rodeo (1942) and Appalacian Spring (1943-44) as well as Fanfare for the Common Man and A Lincoln Portrait.\nThis time and style has become known as Copland's populist period.\nIt was not always like this. Copland was one of the first Americans to travel to Paris and absorb the modern rhythms and harmonies of Europe. He brought them back to America, laced it with his own jazzy style and wrote music that was difficult, dissonant and jarring.\nAt the 1925 premier of his first major work, the Symphony for Organ and Orchestra by the conductor Walter Damrosch commented\nLadies and gentlemen, I am sure you will agree that if a gifted young man can write a symphony like this at 23, within five years he will be ready to commit murder!\nA joke that was clearly tongue-in-cheek. Copland went on to write some of the most recognisable and best-loved music of the United States. His style mellowed. His orchestrations became smoother and easier on the ear. And most importantly his inspiration came not from the traditions of Europe, but from the streets of his fellow countryman. Copland made a conscious decision to write music for the people.\nThe most quintessential of his works is Appalacian Spring. This is the music that is most associated with Copland - open and expansive like the landscape he depicts, yet personal and intimate. With folk tunes as his inspiration, Copland defined post-Jazz American music.\nThe story of the birth of Appalachian Spring and how it got its name is a convoluted one. The Library of Congress commissioned Copland to write the score for a new ballet, and Martha Graham to do the choreography.\nMartha Graham, Erich Hawkins and a rather spartan\nset for the first performance of Appalachian Spring\nin 1944 at the Library of Congress\nCoolidge Auditorium, Washington DC.\nMartha Graham gave Copland a simple scenario: a new frontier town in Pennsylvania, a young couple's wedding and house-raising. Due to the size of the auditorium in which it was first performed, Copland scored it for a chamber ensemble of 13 string and wind instruments and titled it simply Ballet for Martha.\nIt remained with this name until the day before its premier. Martha Graham gave it its present day title Appalcahian Spring after a poem by Hart Crane:\nO Appalachian Spring! I gained the ledge;\nSteep, inaccessible smile that eastward bends\nAnd northward reaches in that violet wedge\nOf Adirondacks!\nAt its final rehearsal Copland approached Graham and asked Martha, what have you named the ballet?. Graham told him Appalachian Spring. Copland said That's nice, but does it have anything to do with the ballet? She replied No, I just like the title.\nCopland has often said that since then people have come up to him and told him they could see the Appalachians and feel the spring when they hear his music. Especially ironic when you realise that the Hart Crane poem is descibing a wellspring, not a season.\nJoseph Brackett\nAnd yet the name is appropriate. Both Copland and Graham were working to the same scenario which did include the Appalachians and spring, the trials and rewards of a new life.\nCopland's music is almost all original, except for the final melody, taken from a Shaker hymn Simple Gifts written by Shaker Elder Joseph Brackett. Copland weaves an intricate set of variations around this beautiful melody.\n'Tis the gift to be simple,\n'tis the gift to be free,\n'tis the gift to come down\nwhere we ought to be,\nand when we find ourselves in the place just right,\n'twill be in the valley of love and delight.\nWhen true simplicity is gained\nto bow and to bend we shan't be ashamed,\nto turn, turn, will be our delight\ntill by turning, turning we come round right.\nAaron Copland and Leonard Bernstein\nLeonard Bernstein, almost 20 years Copland's junior was his lifelong friend and advocate. Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic became known for their performances of Copland's works. Bernstein even wrote a short piano section in Copland's Rodeo.\nThis recording presents both Copland and Bernstein at their best. It includes the classic recording of Bernstein conducting Copland's music, regarded as better than Copland's own recording from the 1970's. And performed by the New York Philharmonic, who know this music better than anybody else. Hey, they virtually own it! They certainly relish playing it.\nThis CD represents Copland at his most accessable. Simple, folksy, fun. The music reminds us of a more simple time in history. Perhaps it is because of the world's troubles today that people are reaching back to these more basic values that this CD is top of the classical charts again. Or maybe its just because it is great music and a wonderful performance.\nPlease support Good-Music-Guide.com",
"San Francisco Symphony - COPLAND: Appalachian Spring\nSan Francisco Symphony\nCopland: Appalachian Spring\nAppalachian Spring, Ballet for Martha\nAaron Copland was born in Brooklyn, New York, on November 14, 1900, and died in Peekskill, New York, on December 2, 1990. He composed Appalachian Spring between spring 1943 and early August 1944, and it was premiered as a staged ballet on October 30, 1944, at the Library of Congress in Washington DC, with Louis Horst conducting. The score carries a dedication to Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge. In its original form, the score called for only thirteen instruments, but soon after the premiere Copland made a concert suite for full orchestra that was introduced by Artur Rodzinski and the New York Philharmonic-Symphony on October 4, 1945. The San Francisco Symphony first played the Suite from Appalachian Spring in December 1945 with Pierre Monteux conducting. The most recent subscription performances of the concert suite for full orchestra were in March 1993 under the direction of Herbert Blomstedt. The score calls for two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, two horns, two trumpets, two trombones, timpani, xylophone, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, tabor (long drum), wood block, claves, glockenspiel, triangle, piano, harp, and strings. Performance time: about twenty-four minutes.\nFew nights in the history of the arts in America can rival October 30, 1944, when the ballet Appalachian Spring received its first performance, at the Library of Congress in Washington DC. That the music was by Aaron Copland and the choreography was by Martha Graham speaks for the consummate level of creativity that was put before the audience. By the time Appalachian Spring appeared, Copland had already won his place in the hearts of balletomanes through his scores for Billy the Kid (1938) and Rodeo (1942), and Graham’s name had become synonymous with the new direction of modern dance. But others who were involved in the project were as eminent in their own ways. Erick Hawkins and Merce Cunningham, both of whom would go on to lead their own dance companies to renown, shared the stage with Graham in the performance, and the acclaimed artist Isamu Noguchi designed the set.\nElizabeth Sprague Coolidge, doyenne of Washington's cultural patrons, demurred when initially approached to finance a collaboration. She wanted her money to support composers who were not yet well known. But Harold Spivacke, head of the Music Division of the Library of Congress, convinced her to make an exception in this case. On July 23, 1942, Mrs. Coolidge wrote to Copland, “allowing myself the pleasure of asking you if you would accept a commission of $500, to be applied to the writing of a music score for a new dance program for Martha Graham.” She expressed the wish that the new work would be ready to be unveiled in September 1943, at the Pittsfield Festival in Massachusetts. In fact, Copland and Graham had flirted with the idea of collaborating as early as 1941, when Graham was envisioning a ballet provisionally titled Daughter of Colchis that might be described as Medea set in New England. When Copland didn’t evince much enthusiasm, Graham turned her thoughts instead to something that would reflect the sort of gentle spirit that had made such an impact in Thornton Wilder’s 1938 play Our Town. This would be the emotional heart of Appalachian Spring.\nA round-robin of correspondence ensued between Graham, Copland, Mrs. Coolidge, and Spivacke, with Graham developing her conception through a series of greatly evolving scripts with various titles and far greater emphasis on general mood-setting and details of character than on what could be called a clear-cut plot. According to Copland, the first script he received from Graham began: “This is a legend of American living. It is like the bone structure, the inner frame that holds together a people.” Such an approach was not atypical of Graham’s method, and, although it understandably vexed many of the composers with whom she worked, it appears not to have rattled Copland, who diplomatically called his score-in-progress simply Ballet for Martha and wisely allowed the project to develop considerably in Graham’s imagination before he invested much time in actually committing music to the page.\nAs it developed, Graham’s scenario seemed a conflation of many strands of American social history, all intersecting around the time of the Civil War in some generalized place in the American heartland. In the end, several of these strands, as encapsulated in specific characters, were deleted from the action, including a fugitive slave and a Pocahontas-like Indian girl. Others were added to take their places, but the new characters seemed more connected to what was emerging from the encyclopedic mish-mash to become the work’s focus. The setting itself also grew more precise. It was to be rural western Pennsylvania, a region well known to Graham, who spent her childhood in the town of Allegheny, not far from Pittsburgh. The 1943 deadline Mrs. Coolidge had hoped for became impractical. The fact that Copland’s Hollywood obligations would bring him twenty times the fee he would get for the new ballet helped him clarify his priorities. The ballet’s premiere was accordingly pushed back and the venue changed to the Library of Congress.\nSince the action of the ballet takes place in the springtime, nearly everybody assumes, not unreasonably, that the “spring” of Appalachian Spring refers to the season. In fact, the title was attached to the piece only a few weeks before the premiere, when Graham stumbled across those words in a poem by Hart Crane. In the poem the Appalachian spring is unquestionably a stream of water trickling through the hills, rather than a season. Graham seems to have been taken with the words in a relatively abstract sense, and since no babbling brook appears in the setting of her ballet, it seems likely that she herself meant the title to refer to the season rather than to the stream. That’s certainly the implication in the brief scenario she supplied for the ballet’s premiere:\nPart and parcel of our lives is that moment of Pennsylvania spring when there was “a garden eastward of Eden.”\nSpring was celebrated by a man and woman building a house with joy and love and prayer; by a revivalist and his followers in their shouts of exaltation; by a pioneering woman with her dreams of the Promised Land.\nIn the end, the ballet’s plot was straightforward. A bride and bridegroom get to know one another, somewhat shyly and nervously, and members of their community, including a revivalist preacher, express their own sentiments. The couple grows more comfortable with the ritual of daily life that lies ahead, their humility underscored by Copland’s use of the Shaker tune “Simple Gifts,” and they greet the future with a sense of serenity. The “Simple Gifts” section of Appalachian Spring is the part that has lodged most insistently in the popular memory, and Copland’s variations on that melody are indeed remarkable. Nonetheless, it is a curious inclusion in the context of the final scenario. Copland later remarked, “My research evidently was not very thorough, since I did not realize that there have never been Shaker settlements in rural Pennsylvania!”\nAlthough the general sound of Appalachian Spring can be found elsewhere in Copland’s works of this period, this is the music that established its vocabulary as representing the quintessential “American sound.” Rich in wide-open, disjunct intervals, it’s a sound that became much imitated by American composers in ensuing years—including very often by Copland himself. The fact that it seemed to evoke something inherently American made it irresistible to composers of strictly commercial music, and in a sentimentalized form it thrives to this day as the inspiration for countless movie and television soundtracks. Copland himself was aware of the pitfalls of empty nostalgia that might torpedo his score, and some years later, after he had conducted it frequently, he would write, “I have often admonished orchestras, professional and otherwise, not to get too sweet or too sentimental with it.”\nSo immense was the popularity of this piece that Copland ended up molding his original score into five distinct arrangements plus two stand-alone settings of the “Simple Gifts” segment. Mrs. Coolidge’s commission had stipulated that Copland’s score should not require more than twelve instruments, which was already more than Graham would have preferred, since her company was normally able to take along only nine musicians when they toured. In deference to Graham’s practicalities, Copland initially intended to employ only a double string quartet (four violins, two violas, and two cellos) plus piano. Yet when Copland learned that another work on the Library of Congress program, by the Mexican composer Carlos Chávez, was scored for these instruments plus a woodwind quartet, he felt no compunction to limit himself to his original instrumentation. Mrs. Coolidge consented to the expansion, and though the Chávez piece dropped from the program, Copland’s somewhat expanded scoring remained.\nIn 1945, Copland extracted eight sections of the ballet score (played without any interruption) and expanded the instrumentation for full orchestra. Copland provided the following outline to help the audience imagine the action the music was meant to portray:\n1. Very slowly. Introduction of the characters, one by one, in a suffused light.\n2. Fast. Sudden burst of unison strings in A-major arpeggios starts the action. A sentiment both elated and religious gives the keynote to this scene. . . .\n3. Moderate. Duo for the Bride and her Intended—scene of tenderness and passion.\n4. Quite fast. The Revivalist and his flock. Folksy feelings—suggestions of square dances and country fiddlers.\n5. Still faster. Solo dance of the Bride—presentiment of motherhood. Extremes of joy and fear and wonder.\n6. Very slow (as at first). Transition scenes reminiscent of the introduction.\n7. Calm and flowing. Scenes of daily activity for the Bride and her Farmer-husband. There are five variations on a Shaker theme. The theme, sung by a solo clarinet, was taken from a collection of Shaker melodies compiled by Edward D. Andrews, and published under the title The Gift to Be Simple. The melody I borrowed and used almost literally is called “Simple Gifts.”\n8. Moderato. Coda. The Bride takes her place among her neighbors. At the end the couple are left “quiet and strong in their new house.” Muted strings intone a hushed, prayer-like passage. We hear a last echo of the principal theme sung by a flute and solo violin. The close is reminiscent of the opening music.\nThis orchestral setting became the “standard version” for most listeners, and of course its texture is considerably more lush than the original ensemble of thirteen players provided. But not everyone agreed that bigger was necessarily better in this case, where spareness of style seemed frankly elemental to the conception of the work. Although several colleagues urged Copland to create a version of Appalachian Spring crafted for concert performance but using the original orchestration, he resisted for a perfectly practical reason. As he explained to Vivian Perlis, “I thought that once the listening public had become used to the large version, the thirteen-instrument one would sound ‘skinny,’ so I was hesitant about making it available.” But in the end he acquiesced, and in the late 1960s he prepared arrangements of both the full ballet score (with some alterations for concert presentation) and of the full-orchestra suite of 1945 retrofitted for the original scoring of thirteen instruments. Copland himself was pleased with the results, telling Perlis: “Often people (particularly the English) tell me they like the thirteen-instrument version better than the full orchestra because it seems more intimate and more touching. I, myself, am glad to have both arrangements available. In time, I have come to think that the original instrumentation has a clarity and is closer to my original conception than the more opulent orchestrated version.”\n—James M. Keller\nMore About the Music\nRecordings: Michael Tilson Thomas and the San Francisco Symphony (RCA Red Seal) | Aaron Copland leading the London Symphony Orchestra (CBS)\nReading: Copland on Music, by Aaron Copland (Norton) | Aaron Copland: A Reader: Selected Writings, 1923-1972, edited by Richard Kostelanetz (Routledge)\nDVD: Michael Tilson Thomas and the San Francisco Symphony explore Copland and the American Sound in an episode of Keeping Score, available from SFS Media, and online at keepingscore.org.\nSan Francisco Symphony",
"Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Leonard Slatkin - Copland Rodeo, Dance Panels, El salón México, Danzón c by HIGHRESAUDIO - issuu\nRODEO • DANCE PANELS • EL SALÓN MÉXICO • DANZÓN CUBANO\n–4–\norchestra be a small one, and Copland obliged by utilizing what is essentially a chamber ensemble with only six woodwinds and five brass. Then, a curious thing happened. Copland played the score on the piano for Robbins who went into rehearsal right away, but when he began working with the company he could not remember the music – only the rhythmic counts – and became captivated by what the dancers were doing without the music. So it was that he continued in this vein and did not use Copland’s score at all. As Robbins later recalled, “I was sorry I wasn’t able to do Dance Panels, but in a very real way, Aaron’s music was the accidental genesis of my ballet without music, Moves.” Nothing more happened until 1962, when the Bavarian State Opera in Munich asked Copland if they could mount the work as part of the celebrations surrounding the opening of their new house that November.\nAARON COPLAND:\nRODEO • DANCE PANELS • EL SALÓN MÉXICO • DANZÓN CUBANO\nCopland was asked to conduct the performance, and although he and the Opera’s management tried to get Robbins to do the choreography, he declined to do so. Two other choreographers were approached, including Eugene Loring (who had done the original production of Billy the Kid), but nothing worked out. Finally, Heinz Rosen, the music director of the Opera, decided to stage it himself, and brought in two principals outside the company, one from the New York City Ballet and the other from the Paris Opera. Unfortunately, a whole string of problems ensued which undermined the performance, which was not a success, and as Copland sadly wrote in his diary, “Somebody, some day will make a good ballet out of the piece – it’s so very danceable, but I’m afraid it’s a lost cause here.” In 1965 the New York City Ballet mounted a version of the ballet with a bizarre story line under the title Shadow’d Ground, but it found no favor with audience or critics. Because of the fact there was no plot to the original, and because it is marvelously wellconstructed, Dance Panels works beautifully as a concert work, and with the original title was given its first performance in this way as part of the Ojai Festival in California in –5–\nMay of 1966 conducted by Ingolf Dahl. The work consists of seven contrasting sections, each one of which has its own individual character, and the first and last sections which mirror each other are slow, quiet waltzes.\nEl Salón México (1932, rev. 1936) During a visit to Germany in 1927, Copland wrote to a friend, “It seems a long time since anyone has written an España or a Boléro – the kind of brilliant piece that everyone loves.” It was almost 10 years before he produced El Salón México, but it quickly became one of the most popular and frequently-played short orchestral works by any American composer. It was first performed in a two-piano version in New York in October of 1935, with Copland and John Kirkpatrick at the keyboards. Then, its orchestral première came in August of 1937 in Mexico City with Carlos Chávez conducting the Orquesta Sinfónica de México. The first U.S. performance was part of an NBC radio broadcast in May of 1938 with the famous NBC Symphony Orchestra conducted by – of all people – Sir Adrian Boult. The first actual U.S. concert performance was given by Serge Koussevitsky and the Boston Symphony Orchestra in October of that year.\nAARON COPLAND:\nRODEO • DANCE PANELS • EL SALÓN MÉXICO • DANZÓN CUBANO\nAbout this brilliantly-scored and dynamic work, Copland wrote: “During my first visit to Mexico in the fall of 1932 I conceived the idea of writing a piece based on Mexican themes... From the very beginning, the idea of writing a work based on popular Mexican melodies was connected in my mind with a popular dance hall in Mexico City called Salón México... All that I could hope to do was to reflect the Mexico of the tourists, and that is why I thought of Salón México, because in that ‘hot spot’ one felt, in a very natural and unaffected way, a close contact with the Mexican people... Something of [their] spirit is what I hope to have put into my music.” When Copland first visited the dance hall he was quite taken aback when he was frisked by a guard before entering, but greatly amused by a sign on the wall which read: “Please don’t throw\n–6–\nlighted cigarette butts on the floor so the ladies don’t burn their feet.” As he was writing the work he became concerned that as an “outsider” he might not be able to do what he intended: “I felt nervous about what the Mexicans might think of a ‘gringo’ meddling with their native melodies.” These fears were quickly put to rest when, “at the first of the final rehearsals I attended... as I entered the hall the orchestral players, who were in the middle of a Beethoven symphony, suddenly stopped what they were doing and began to applaud vigorously.” That première performance on August 27, 1937 was a great critical and popular success, one local critic writing that “Copland has composed Mexican music... embodying the very elements of our folk song in the purest and most perfect form.” The work is based on several authentic Mexican folk tunes from two major collections he was given (not from any of the tunes he heard in the dance hall), but “based on” is the operative phrase, as Copland had no qualms about changing and adapting the originals as he saw fit. As he mentioned to Vivian Perlis for her remarkable two-volume biography of the composer, “My purpose was not to quote literally, but to heighten without in any way falsifying the natural simplicity of the Mexican tunes.”\nAARON COPLAND:\nRODEO • DANCE PANELS • EL SALÓN MÉXICO • DANZÓN CUBANO\nDanzón Cubano (1942, rev. 1945) In 1941, when it seemed likely that the U.S. might become directly involved in the armed conflicts in Europe and Asia, our government embarked on a scheme to strengthen the ties which already existed with our neighbors to the south. As part of this effort, Copland was dispatched as a kind of cultural ambassador on a friendship tour of nine Latin-American countries. In 1937 he had happily visited Cuba on the way home from the première of El Salón Mexico in Mexico City, and the fond memories he had of that country made him eager to return to Havana. While there in 1941, he went to a large dance hall (rather like a Cuban version of Salón Mexico) in which there were two orchestras playing at both ends of the hall. Copland decided to sit right in the middle so he could hear both ensembles at the same time, an arrangement which Charles Ives\n–7–\nwould have loved! During this visit Copland made quite a number of sketches of popular Cuban dance music. What eventually became the Danzón Cubano resulted from a commission from the League of American Composers for a concert in 1942 marking that organization’s 20th birthday. The original, two-piano version of the piece was given its première by the composer and Leonard Bernstein in December of that year in New York’s famous Town Hall. Copland came up with several titles for the work before settling on Danzón Cubano for the première of the orchestral version given by Reginald Stewart and the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra in February of 1946. Just as he had done with El Salón Mexico, Copland wanted to utilize authentic native forms, rather than the commercialized Cuban ballroom dances of the day. Again, to quote Copland from the Vivian Perlis biography, “[the work] is based on Cuban dance rhythms, particularly the Danzón, a stately dance quite different from the rhumba, conga and tango, and one that fulfills a function rather similar to that of the waltz in our own music, providing contrast to some of the more animated dances. The special charm of the Danzón is a certain naïve sophistication. Its mood alternates between passages of rhythmic precision and a kind of non-sentimental sweetness under a nonchalant guise. Its success depends on being executed with precise rhythmic articulation.” Because of the demands of the orchestral version, Copland asked for a slower tempo than that of the two-piano original, and in so doing brought into sharper focus many of the intricacies and rhythmic complexities which make the work so fascinating. As to the overall concept of the piece, Copland has written, “I did not attempt to reproduce an authentic Cuban sound, but felt free to add my own touches of displaced accents and unexpected silent beats. In fact, I arranged one of the tunes in the traditional ‘blues rhythm,’ giving the final product something of an inter-American flavor.”\nAARON COPLAND:\nRODEO • DANCE PANELS • EL SALÓN MÉXICO • DANZÓN CUBANO\nCharles Greenwell All of the quotations reproduced in these notes are taken from Copland: 1900 Through 1942, Aaron Copland and Vivian Perlis (St. Martin’s/Marek, New York, 1984). Used with permission.\n–8–\nDetroit Symphony Orchestra The internationally acclaimed Detroit Symphony Orchestra, which celebrated its 125th anniversary in December 2012, is known for trailblazing performances, visionary maestros, collaborations with the world’s foremost musical artists, and an unwavering commitment to Detroit. Esteemed conductor Leonard Slatkin, called “America’s Music Director” by the Los Angeles Times, became the twelfth Music Director of the DSO during the 2008-09 season and acclaimed conductor, arranger, and trumpeter Jeff Tyzik was appointed Principal Pops Conductor in November 2012. The DSO’s performance schedule includes Classical, Pops, Jazz, Young People’s, Neighborhood concerts, and collaborations with chart-topping musicians from Smokey Robinson to Kid Rock. A commitment to broadcast innovation began in 1922 when the DSO became the first orchestra in the world to present a radio broadcast and continues today with the free Live from Orchestra Hall webcast series. Making its home at historic Orchestra Hall at the Max M. Fisher Music Center, one of America’s most acoustically perfect concert halls, the DSO actively pursues a mission to impact and serve the community through music.\nAARON COPLAND:\nRODEO • DANCE PANELS • EL SALÓN MÉXICO • DANZÓN CUBANO\nFor more information: visit dso.org or download the free DSO to Go mobile app.\n–9–\nLeonard Slatkin Internationally renowned conductor Leonard Slatkin is currently Music Director of the Detroit Symphony Orchestra and of the Orchestre National de Lyon and Principal Guest Conductor of the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra. He is also the author of a new book entitled Conducting Business. His previous positions have included a seventeenyear tenure with the Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra, a twelve-year tenure with the National Symphony as well as titled positions with the BBC Symphony Orchestra, Cleveland Orchestra, Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl, Philharmonia Orchestra of London, Nashville Symphony Orchestra and the New Orleans Philharmonic. Always committed to young people, Leonard Slatkin founded the National Conducting Institute and the Saint Louis Symphony Youth Orchestra and continues to work with student orchestras around the world. Born in Los Angeles, where his parents, conductor-violinist Felix Slatkin and cellist Eleanor Aller, were founding members of the Hollywood String Quartet, he began his musical studies on the violin and studied conducting with his father, followed by training with Walter Susskind at Aspen and Jean Morel at The Juilliard School. His more than 100 recordings have brought seven GRAMMY® Awards and 64 GRAMMY® Award nominations. He has received many other honours, including the 2003 National Medal of Arts, France’s Chevalier of the Legion of Honour and the League of American Orchestras’ Gold Baton for service to American music.\nAARON COPLAND:\nRODEO • DANCE PANELS • EL SALÓN MÉXICO • DANZÓN CUBANO\n–10–\nTHE 2xHD MASTERING PROCESS This album was mastered using our 2xHD proprietary system. In order to achieve the most accurate reproduction of the original recording we tailor our process specifically for each project, using a selection from our pool of state-of-the-art audiophile components and connectors. The process begins with a transfer to analog from the original 24bits/96kHz resolution master, using cutting edge D/A converters. The analog signal is then sent through a hi-end tube pre-amplifier before being recorded directly in DXD using the dCS905 A/D and the dCS Vivaldi Clock. All connections used in the process are made of OCC silver cable. DSD and 192kHz/24Bit versions are separately generated, directly from the analog signal. 2xHD was created by producer/studio owner AndrĂŠ Perry and audiophile sound engineer RenĂŠ Laflamme.\nFeel the warmth www.2xHD.com\nAARON COPLAND: RODEO • DANCE PANELS • EL SALÓN MÉXICO • DANZÓN CUBANO\n2xHD Mastering: René Laflamme 2xHD Executive Producer: André Perry\nwww.2xhd.com www.naxos.com",
"Aaron Copland's <i>Rodeo</i> at American Ballet Theatre\nAaron Copland's Rodeo at American Ballet Theatre\nNow Playing: High Quality 16:9 (480x270, 820Kbps)\nPlay Medium Quality 16:9 (320x180, 400kbps)\nViews: 4353\nOn October 16, 1942, the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo premiered Agnes de Mille's Rodeo at the Metropolitan Opera House. Frederic Franklin was cast as the Champion Roper in the original production opposite Agnes de Mille as the Cowgirl.\nThis Fall, American Ballet Theatre celebrates the 70th Anniversary of de Mille's famous Western love story with a special anniversary performance of Rodeo on October 16 at New York City Center - 70 years to the day of Rodeo's World Premiere. Here, Frederic Franklin recounts that first performance and discusses a notable turning point in Rodeo's creation.\nRodeo will be performed on October 16, 18 and 20 as part of ABT's 2012 Fall Season at New York City Center.\nFeatured Clips",
"BALLET - JOFFREY'S 'RODEO' - NYTimes.com\nBy ANNA KISSELGOFF\nPublished: October 27, 1983\nDEBUTS have studded the Joffrey Ballet's current and lively run at the City Center, and one of the happiest was in the season's first performance of Agnes de Mille's ''Rodeo'' Tuesday night.\nMiss de Mille's 1942 Americana classic remains spankingly fresh in the Joffrey production. The visual impact is unusually striking. Oliver Smith's backdrop of a ranch corral glows against a red-orange sky that Thomas Skelton's lighting sets seemingly ablaze. Unlike American Ballet Theater's production, the Joffrey version uses the original Kermit Love costume designs, and they make a difference in brightness and contrast.\nStill supervised by Miss de Mille, the Joffrey ''Rodeo'' has demonstrated the ballet's enduring worth. Rather than resembling a period piece from a more innocent time, it charms and reaches into emotions that have no period. The beauty of Aaron Copland's famous score, conducted spiritedly by Jonathan McPhee, is responsible in part for this timelessness. But perhaps it is also that the Joffrey casts have consistently located the truth of Miss de Mille's every gesture.\nOn this occasion it was Carole Valleskey who made a triumphant debut as the cowgirl who learns how to get a man. No one should miss her performance. When she first comes tumbling out on her imaginary bucking bronco, an object of consternation to the cowboys and of giggling derision to some visiting lady folk, her outcast situation is defined. She etches every movement in extraordinary detail with dramatic pulse. We see her every muscle react to the invisible horse. She makes us believe she is out of control - a metaphor for the emotions she cannot control as well.\nMiss Valleskey, pretty and childlike, and the entire cast turn ''Rodeo'' into the happy ballet it should be. Luis Perez is charming as the Champion Roper who wins her, and Jerel Hilding is stalwart as the Head Wrangler. Charlene Gehm minces correctly as the Ranch Owner's daughter. Kim Sagami and Carl Corry make a comic courting vignette believable. Miss de Mille's use of a real square dance, a ''running set,'' went over like wildfire with the audience. Is there still room for a ballet like ''Rodeo?'' The answer is obvious.\nThere were also debuts in the three major roles of Michel Fokine's ''Petrouchka.'' Cameron Basden's Ballerina Doll was superb in an unusual daintiness mixed with superciliousness. Philip Jerry's blackamoor was rightly dominating, turning the pas de deux with the doll into the parody of classical ballet that Fokine intended.\nGlenn Edgerton's Petrouchka was a welcome surprise, if still at arm's length from tragedy. His forte was to capture the helplessness and rag-doll softness of the puppet character. The scene in his room was perfect, addressed to the audience, clear in gestures that explained the puppet's plight.\nJiri Kylian's ''Return to the Strange Land'' received its first performance this season with Mr. Perez and Leslie Carothers making debuts, joined by Beatriz Rodriguez, Mr. Edgerton, Tom Mossbrucker and Mr. Hilding. As well as the Joffrey dances it on pure dance terms, this elegiac tribute to the late John Cranko was meant to be more than an enigmatic series of shapes formed by the dancers' bodies. It should not recall an essay on architecture.\nOther debuts to mention are James Canfield's filled-out portrayal as the painter in Antony Tudor's ''Offenbach in the Underworld'' Friday and Mr. Corry's polished solo in the Kylian ''Dream Dances'' Sunday afternoon. On that program, Mr. Jerry was notable for his electric personification of Death in Kurt Jooss's ''Green Table.'' This 1932 antiwar ballet never loses its power, and Mr. Jerry's brilliance is to make the allegorical figure of Death all the more dangerous by imbuing it with youthful crackling energy. Miss Rodriguez's resistance fighter is outstanding for the same kinetic reasons. No one should miss ''The Green Table.''\nphoto of Luis Perez",
"Milestones of the Millennium: Appalachian Spring\n\"Appalachian Spring\" by Aaron Copland\nwith Robert Kapilow and John Adams\nAaron Copland�s \"Appalachian Spring� captures the essence of an ideal America, one of open fields and endless possibilities. But when Copland began his Pulitzer Prize-winning ballet score in 1942, he couldn�t have foreseen that it would become one of the most inspiring and symbolic works of the century. In fact, he wasn�t even sure what the title would be. On this edition of Milestones of the Millennium, we examine the story behind this American masterpiece and hear commentator and composer Robert Kapilow dissect its deceptively simple harmonies.\nIn an interview with NPR music commentator Fred Calland, Copland said, �The fate of pieces is really rather curious�you can�t always figure out in advance exactly what�s going to happen to them.� While Copland was aware that the ballet would deal with pioneering American themes, his working title was simply, �Ballet for Martha.�\nDancer Martha Graham had been commissioned to choreograph the ballet and danced the leading role. Copland readily admitted that the pastoral beauty of Appalachia wasn�t on his mind when he wrote the score: �I gave voice to that region without knowing I was giving voice to it.� Graham chose the title after Copland had written much of the score, though he said that her dance style must have evoked Appalachia. The music and dance were perfect complements; together they reflect youthful aspiration in the American heartland.\nCopland was no stranger to Americana and adventure. His 1942 score for the ballet �Rodeo� captivated audiences and critics alike with vivid images of life in the American west. We hear �Saturday Night Waltz� and the rambunctious �Hoedown� from �Rodeo,� with the composer conducting the London Symphony Orchestra.\nComposer Robert Kapilow deconstructs �Appalachian Spring� at the piano in NPR's studio. He says you can hear the essence of the whole ballet in the opening chords. By improvising on simple tonal elements from these chords, Copland creates repeating patterns which Kapilow describes as being �centered in the earth.� Then after adding slight chord variations, Copland introduces a simple melody, descending like sunlight upon a pastoral scene. The effect is like a flowering at dawn, as Copland creates the perfect setting for the ballet�s primary characters, two young newlyweds on the western Pennsylvania frontier.\nAn emotional highpoint of the score is a melody based on a traditional Shaker song, �Simple Gifts.� We hear a chorus sing the original hymn that provided Copland his inspiration, then listen to Copland�s beautiful solo vocal and instrumental adaptations. Throughout the work, Copland brilliantly weaves melodies that evoke simplicity and the �earnest but good-natured piety� of Shaker culture. Composer John Adams discusses the Shaker influence on American culture and how Copland allowed that to shape the piece.\nMusic critics were in awe of Copland�s ability to capture a vast emotional world within the limits of the 13-piece orchestration prescribed by the original score (which, in turn, was dictated by the size of the Coolidge Auditorium orchestra pit at the Library of Congress, site of the ballet's premiere). With some strings, a few woodwinds and piano he achieves remarkable effects.\nIn letters to friends, the prolific 40-year-old composer expressed great satisfaction with the �sonorities� of his score. As Kapilow demonstrates, Copland concludes the entire work with an ingenious return to the primal chords with which he starts. Prophetically, Copland's completion of �Appalachian Spring� was itself a new beginning.\nListen as PT host Lisa Simeone explores Copland's \"Appalachian Spring\" with commentary by Robert Kapilow and John Adams, and interviews with the composer himself. It's another online feature from Milestones of the Millenium . (This audio segment requires the free RealPlayer 5.0 or higher. Portions of the music have been edited from this online version. You can also listen with a 14.4 connection)"
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"title": [
"Aaron Copland / Timeline // Copland House …where America's ...",
"Copland - Appalachian Spring - A Good-Music-Guide Review",
"San Francisco Symphony - COPLAND: Appalachian Spring",
"Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Leonard Slatkin - Copland ...",
"Aaron Copland's <i>Rodeo</i> at American Ballet Theatre",
"BALLET - JOFFREY'S 'RODEO' - NYTimes.com - The New York Times",
"Appalachian Spring by Aaron Copland - National Public Radio"
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"http://www.coplandhouse.org/aaron-copland/timeline/",
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"https://issuu.com/highresaudio/docs/detroit_symphony_orchestra__leonard_88ee28b99f63cf",
"http://www.boosey.com/podcast/Aaron-Copland-s-Rodeo-at-American-Ball/100110",
"http://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/27/arts/ballet-joffrey-s-rodeo.html",
"http://www.npr.org/programs/specials/milestones/991027.motm.apspring.html"
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Ferihegy international airport is in which country?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport () , formerly known as Budapest Ferihegy International Airport and still commonly called just Ferihegy, is the international airport serving the Hungarian capital city of Budapest, and by far the largest of the country's four commercial airports. The airport is located 16 km east-southeast of the centre of Budapest and was renamed in honor of the most famous Hungarian composer Franz Liszt (Hungarian Liszt Ferenc) on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of his birth.\n\nIt offers international connections primarily within Europe, but also to Africa, the Middle East, the Far East. From June 2015, the transatlantic flights were restored with two carriers flying to Toronto and Montreal. In 2012, the airport handled 8.5 million passengers and experienced a significant drop in aircraft movements and handled cargo, primarily due to the collapse of Malév Hungarian Airlines earlier in the year, hence losing a large portion of connecting passengers. It was the hub for Malév until the airline's bankruptcy on 3 February 2012, when at 6 am Malév ceased its operations after almost 66 years of service. Before its closure, the airline had more than one third of the air traffic at the airport, and about 40% of the revenues at Budapest airport originated from Malév operations. The airport serves as a base for Ryanair and Wizz Air, and served 9,155,961 passengers in 2014, a 7.5% increase over 2013. \n\nName\n\nOriginally called Budapest Ferihegy International Airport (Budapest Ferihegy Nemzetközi Repülőtér), on 25 March 2011 it was officially renamed Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport, in honor of the Hungarian pianist and composer Franz Liszt (Modern Hungarian: Liszt Ferenc.) Popularly, the airport is still called Ferihegy as before.\n\nFerihegy is the name of the neighbourhood around the airport. The name is derived from that of Ferenc Xavér Mayerffy (1776–1845), the former owner of an estate who established vineyards and contributed to the development of viticulture in Pest-Buda. \"Feri\" is a diminutive form of Ferenc while \"hegy\" means hill. In fact the area is almost totally flat but originally there was a 147 m high sandy hillock which was levelled in the 1940s during the constructions works of the airport.\n\nHistory \n\nDesigning and construction (1939–1944)\n\nIn 1938 the idea of building a new airport in Budapest was born. The area in the boundary of three settlements (Pestszentlőrinc, Rákoshegy and Vecsés) was assigned as the area of the new airport. The airport was intended as jointly for civil-military-sporting purposes. Civil facilities were to be built up in the north-western and military ones in the south-western section. Just as for each building, a public tender was invited for the designing and construction of the traffic building.\n\nIn December 1939, upon announcement of the results of the tender invited in September that year, the designs of Károly Dávid Jr. (1903–1973) were chosen. The designer, who was one of the originators of modern Hungarian architectural art, dreamt of a building which resembled an aircraft from the top-side view. The work commenced in 1942. To approach the airport from the city, a 16 km high-speed road was constructed between 1940 and 1943, which, after improvements, remains in use today.\n\nThe military buildings were constructed parallel to the civil construction from 1940 but, due to the war situation, faster. Aviation started at the airport in 1943. In wartime, the civil construction slowed down and then stopped at the beginning of 1944. Towards the end of World War II, many of the airport buildings were damaged. By the end 1944, Budapest and its airport were under Soviet occupation.\n\nReconstruction (1947–1950)\n\nIn 1947 it was decided that the airport would be reconstructed for civil aviation. Under the three-year plan 40 million forints were voted for those works. The opening ceremony was held in May 1950 and the sections finished allowed Magyar-Szovjet Polgári Légiforgalmi Rt. (Hungarian-Soviet Civil Aviation Co. Ltd. – MASZOVLET), established in 1946, to operate here.\nAt that time the airlines operated only a few foreign flights, in particular those to Prague, Bucharest, Warsaw and Sofia.\n\nMagyar Légiforgalmi Vállalat (Hungarian Airlines – Malév) was established on 25 November 1954. The first regular flight taking off from the airport to the West was the Malév's flight into Vienna in summer 1956. The first Western airline which launched a flight to Budapest was KLM Royal Dutch Airlines in 1957. The traffic building was finished in this period and the lengthening works of the 2500 m runway were started. At the end of 1958 the runway was lengthened to 3010 m and taxiway D was finished.\n\nContinued growth (1960–1980)\n\nBetween its opening and 1960, the number of landings at the Airport increased from 4,786 to 17,133, with passenger traffic increasing from 49,955 to 359,338 by 1960.\n\nIn 1965, a study was made on the development of the airport, which was implemented with more than a 10-year delay from the end of the 1970s. Aviation, airport, and flight control all called for more capacity and infrastructure. The Aviation and Airport Directorate (LRI) was established on 1 January 1973 and performed as an airline company, a trade company, and an authority, as well as investment, operator, and air navigation tasks.\n\nIn 1974, passenger traffic reached one million. In 1977, a new control tower was built, as well as a second runway parallel to the old one and a technical base for maintaining MALÉV aircraft. Use of the new 3707 m runway was started in September 1983.\n\nNew infrastructure (1980–2000)\n\nIn 1980, the number of landing aircraft and passengers served reached 32,642 and 1,780,000, respectively. The growing number of passengers called for more capacity. A new terminal was decided upon. The foundation-stone of the new passenger traffic building to be built was laid down on 16 November 1983. Since 1 November 1985, passengers have been received in Terminal 2, a 24,000-square-meter facility funded with Austrian loans under general contracting. It was used first by Malév aircraft and passengers, and then by those of Lufthansa, Air France, and Swissair. The old terminal continued to receive residual airline traffic under a new name, Terminal 1.\n\nIn 1990, more than 40,000 take-offs and landings were registered and 2.5 million passengers were served.\n\nThere was an IED bus attack against Russian Jewish emigrants on the road leading to Ferihegy in the early 1990s. The perpetrators were members of the German Communist organisation Red Army Faction. There have been no terrorist incidents since then.\n\nIn 1993, Malév launched the airport's first Hungarian overseas flight, to New York. According to the traffic figures forecast for the millennium, the two terminals serving 4 million passengers a year promised to be insufficient. The construction of Terminal 2B was started in 1997. The new building, with more than 30,000 square meters of space, together with a new apron, was opened in 1998, with all foreign airlines moving there. Terminal 2B can receive 3.5 million passengers a year, with its seven gates and five remote stands.\n\nAll of the airports runways are equipped with an ILS CAT II. Runway 31R is certified for CAT III A, enabling aircraft operations in low ceiling and visibility conditions.\n\nPublic to public-private ownership (2000–2012)\n\nIn January 2002, in lieu of the liquidated Aviation and Airport Directorate, two new organisations were established. HungaroControl became responsible for air navigation and Budapest Airport Zrt. for operation of the airport. Between 1998 and 2005, passenger figures at Budapest Airport doubled – from 3.9 million to 7.9 million and major investments were called for.\n\nThis time, the Hungarian State, sole owner of the airport, opted for a partial privatisation with the integration of a private strategic partner with international experience. In June 2005, the State's privatisation agency initiated a tender for a concession. Seventy five percent minus one vote of Budapest Airport Zrt.'s shares were to be given to new private owners. The tender was finalised by the end of the year and the British company BAA, owner and operator of the major British airports, took over the management of the airport company.\n\nOn 8 December 2005, a 75% stake in Ferihegy Airport was bought by BAA plc for 464.5 billion HUF (approx. 2.1 billion USD), including the right of operation for 75 years.[1]\nOn 20 October 2006, BAA announced intentions to sell its stake in Budapest Airport to a consortium led by the German airports group, HOCHTIEF AirPort GmbH, subject to the consent of the Hungarian State.\n\nOn 18 April 2007, the renovation of Terminal 1 at Ferihegy was awarded Europe's most prestigious heritage preservation prize, the Europa Nostra award. The designers, contractors, builders and investors (the latter being BA) received the joint award of the European Commission and of the pan-European heritage preservation organisation Europa Nostra for the renovation of the protected monument spaces, the central hall, the gallery and the furniture at T1.\n\nOne and half years later, in June 2007, there was a change in the management when the new owner of BAA decided to dispose of its shares and sell them to the German company HOCHTIEF AirPort and three financial partners.\n\nOn 6 June 2007, BAA and a consortium led by HOCHTIEF AirPort (HTA) formally closed and completed the transaction of the sale of BAA's shares in Budapest Airport (BA) to the HOCHTIEF AirPort Consortium. The ownership of the HOCHTIEF AirPort Consortium was as follows: HOCHTIEF AirPort (49.666%) and three financial investors: Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec, Montreal (23.167%), GIC Special Investments, Singapore (23.167%) and KfW IPEX-Bank, Frankfurt (4.0%). \n\nOn 26 July 2010, after completing a security oversight investigation in May, the EU authorities revoked Budapest Airport's official \"Schengen Clear\" certification, due to serious lapses observed in personal security check procedures and unauthorised passing of banned objects. This meant passenger connecting via another airport in the Schengen Zone would have to be rescreened through security, just as foreign non-Schengen connecting passenges, causing delays and inconvieniance. The airport argued that it had not yet had time to fully implement new security measures introduced on 29 April 2010, and inspired by the Delta Air Lines' Amsterdam \"underwear bomb scare\" incident. The airports layout was also cited as an excuse for the failure. Budapest Airport was the first airport to be checked through a stringent undercover evaluation for compliance with the new regulation. (Hungarian state news agency MTI reports: [http://hirek.mti.hu/english/article/491952/]) In response additional security measures were immediately implemented at Budapest Airport causing flight delays at both terminals. Unusually long passenger waiting queues were observed at the more busy 2A-B terminal complex's departures area. These problems were solved over time, especially through the opening of the SkyCourt terminal including a central security zone.\n\nOn 15 November 2010, Budapest Airport regained the \"Schengen Clear\"-status, after implementing the necessary security actions and after that the airport underwent the strict re-inspection. \n\nOn 16 March 2011, the name of Budapest Ferihegy International Airport was changed to Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport.[2]\n\nSky Court, the new expansion project including shops, restaurants and lounges, also connecting Terminals 2A and 2B was opened on 27 March 2011. In summer that year, the refurbishing of the old terminal parts in T2 began and was completed in 2012. \n\nCollapse of Malév and aftermath (2012–)\n\nIn the wake of the collapse of Malév, Ryanair announced that it would expand its flights to Liszt airport. Ryanair began selling the flight tickets to the public, but Budapest airport said that the company had not secured all of the necessary slots (which was later negotiated successfully). By 9 February 2012, only six days after the collapse of the Hungarian national carrier, Liszt Ferenc Airport had recovered over 60% of its point to point traffic. Airlines that announced that new services would begin included Wizz Air, Aegean Airlines, Air Berlin, Lufthansa, and Ryanair.\n\nHowever the airport had lost Malév's transfer passengers, which, prior to the airline's collapse, had amounted to 1.5 million passengers per year. A second effect of the Malév collapse was that the areas used to service the Malév fleet would no longer generate revenue even once point to point traffic had been restored. These factors created significant financial shortfalls in the airport's revenues. \n\nIn February 2012 Hainan Airlines announced that they would cease services to Beijing from Budapest. Prior to the collapse of Malév, Hainan had a partnership with Malév, which included a codeshare. \n\nIn May 2013 Hochtief Group announced the sale of its Airports unit HOCHTIEF AirPort which held a stake in the Budapest Airport and other airports to the Canadian Pension fund Public Sector Pension Investment Board (PSP Investments). Following the sale HOCHTIEF AirPort was renamed to AviAlliance. \n\nAs of July 2015, the ownership of the Budapest Airport is as follows: AviAlliance (52.666%) owned by PSP Investments, Canada, Malton Investment (22.167%) owned by GIC Special Investments, Singapore, Caisse de depôt et placemen de Québec, Canada (20.167%) and KfW IPEX-Bank, Germany (5%). \n\nFuture developments \n\nAn expenditure of 261 million euros was spent in order to expanding and modernising the airports infrastructure until December 2012. Several of these future projects involve about further 300 million euros, and depends on regulatory decisions as well as third-party investors. Among the finished and the further planned projects are:\n\n;Finished projects\n* Internal and external refurbishment of Terminal 2A and 2B (done as of 27 March 2011)\n* Construction of the SkyCourt (done as of summer 2012)\n* Apron development (done as of 27 March 2011)\n* Development of a business area (first building for DHL opened on 13 August 2013) \n\n;Planned projects \n* Car park extension (late 2016)\n* New cross docking facility for DHL (late 2016)\n* New Airport Hotel (spring 2017)\n* New pier for Terminal 2B (2018)\n* New Terminal 2C (2020)\n\nTerminals\n\nFerihegy airport has three main terminals: 1, 2A and 2B, and a smaller one for general aviation flights. A new air cargo base is to be built. Transfer between terminals 2A and 2B can be made on foot. The older Terminal 1, however, is located further away (i.e. closer to the city of Budapest) and must be reached by bus. From the city center, Terminal 1 can be reached by MÁV train directly and Terminal 2 is served by BKK bus.\n\nOn 30 March 2008, all Hungarian airports joined the Schengen Agreement and all Schengen flights moved to Terminal 2A, while non-Schengen flights moved to 2B. Terminal 1's low cost carriers were also separated by a glass wall into Schengen and non-Schengen traffic.\n\nTerminal 1 (closed) \n\nFrom 1 September 2005, re-opened Terminal 1 served low-cost carriers. Terminal 1 is divided into Schengen and Non-Schengen boarding gates. \n\nThe terminal was totally renovated in full compliance with the requirements of historical monument protection, since the building is one of the finest examples of architectural modernism, built from 1939 (and interrupted by the war, then finished in 1950). The Terminal 1 is unusual in that it resembles the shape of an aircraft, when viewed from above, and is unique in style across Europe. For these reasons, the reconstruction received the Medal of the Europa Nostra Award. \n\nTerminal 1 is unusual among low-cost airline destinations, being located within the premises of Budapest and offering faster public transport time to the city center, compared to the Terminal 2 about 7 kilometers farther. (Terminal 1 offers an about 20 minutes direct train journey to Budapest city centre, while Terminal 2 requires an 8-minute bus ride to the train station). \n\nBuilding 18/A of the Terminal 1 compound houses the head office of the Transportation Safety Bureau of Hungary (TSB). The Directorate for Air Transport of the National Transport Authority (NKH), which governs commercial aviation in Hungary, has its head office inside Building 13 at the Terminal 1 compound. The head office of the predecessor agency of the TSB, the Civil Aviation Safety Bureau, was in Building 13. In addition Civil Aviation Authority, the predecessor of the NKH, also had its head office in Building 13. The terminal compound formerly housed the head office of ABC Air Hungary. \n\nOn 14 March 2012, Budapest Airport announced that due to the traffic levels being too low in Terminal 1, extra capacity in Terminal 2, and cost saving, Terminal 1 will be closed temporarily.\n\nOn 30 May 2012 all airlines were moved to Terminal 2, the low cost airlines using now the check-in desks at hall 2B.\n\nSky Court between Terminal 2A and 2B \n\nThe newest, state-of-the-art building between the 2A and 2B terminals with 5 levels. Passenger safety checks were moved here along with new baggage classifiers and the new Malév and SkyTeam (opening soon) business lounges, as well as the first MasterCard lounge in Europe. \n\nNew shops, restaurants and cafés were placed in the new building's transit hall, for example a Duty Free Shop, Hungarian wine and food shop, Herend porcelain shop, Frey Wille, Desigual, Tommy Hilfiger, Hugo Boss, Victoria's Secret, Costa Café, Burger King, KFC, Hard Rock Cafe affiliate of the famous Hungarian haute-cuisine restaurant in the city center. With the opening of Skycourt the Terminal 2 has become capable of receiving about 11 million passengers a year, instead of the former joint capacity of about 7 million.\n\nTerminal 2A \n\nThe Schengen terminal, it was originally the \"only\" Terminal 2. It was inaugurated on 1 November 1985 for the exclusive use of the homeland carrier Malév Hungarian Airlines, and later renamed in 1998 to Terminal 2A. Its check in hall serves all Skyteam and Star Alliance member airlines currently. Within its boarding area (Gates A1-A19) and arrivals level, it serves all flights to and from the Schengen-zone destinations of any airline.\n\nAfter the security check at departures, passengers are going to the hall of SkyCourt. To proceed to Gates \"A\" there's no further control.\n\nTerminal 2B \n\nThe non-Schengen terminal, it is referred to as a separate object, and opened in December 1998. Its check-in hall serves all flights of the OneWorld-alliance (intra- and extra-Schengen as well), as well as many other non-aligned airlines. But its boarding area (Gates B1-B19) and arrivals level are serving the non-Schengen destinations of any airline.\n\nAfter the security check, passengers can spend their time in SkyCourt's hall, and then proceed to the boarding area (Gates B1-B19) through the passport control. Within the boarding area there are further shops and a money exchange box as well.\n\nServices\n\nFacilities include ATMs (except within the international transit area, where the passenger must exchange currency), bureaux de change, left luggage, first aid, duty-free shops, child care, post office, a chapel, restaurants, tourist information and hotel reservations. There are facilities for disabled passengers and wheelchairs are available from the airport help desks. A short walk away from Terminal 2 there is an open-air aircraft museum. Short and long-term car parks are situated close to the terminal buildings.\n\nThe airport has GSM phone coverage. Free Wi-Fi is available in the departure and arrival halls of Terminal 2A and 2B, Skycourt and also at the Visitor Terrace. 230V power outlets and USB chargers are available at some places.\n\nAn open-air viewing platform for relatives and spotters is located at Terminal 2A, you can enter from the third level of the terminal.\n\nPassengers travelling with frequent flyer cards, business class tickets or small children, as well as elderly and disabled passengers can use priority during security screening at Terminal 2. Stickers providing entitlement to priority during security screening are attached to boarding passes at the check-in counters. Upon presentation of the sticker, the security screening checkpoint may be accessed directly via a separate priority lane. With priority during security screening the travellers can save time.\n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nPassenger\n\nNotes:\nAir China's flight from Beijing to Budapest stops in Minsk, but the flight from Budapest to Beijing is nonstop. Air China does not have local traffic rights on Minsk – Budapest sector. \n\nCharter\n\nCargo\n\nDestinations maps\n\nStatistics\n\nTop destinations\n\nAnnual traffic\n\nOther facilities\n\n* Wizz Air has its head office in Building 221. Wizz Air signed the lease agreement in October 2010 and moved there in June 2011 with 150 employees. The airline occupies over 2000 sqm of space in an office building refurbished after the airline's arrival. The facility, with open plan offices, houses about 150 employees. In addition, Farnair Hungary has its head office on the airport property. \n* Malév Hungarian Airlines signed a lease agreement with the airport in the spring of 2011, agreeing to relocate its headquarters to the airport grounds by the summer of 2012. Due to the collapse of the airline, in February 2012 the plans to move to Ferenc Liszt were cancelled.\n\nGround transportation\n\nCar\n\nThe airport is accessible by the Üllői road. Taxis are available from the taxi stand, however only one taxi company (Főtaxi) is authorised to use the airport cab stands. Additionally nearly all major rental companies operate at Ferihegy. \n\nRail\n\nHungarian State Railways runs suburban and long-distance services between (the now closed) Terminal 1 and Nyugati Railway Station in Budapest city centre through Kőbánya-Kispest. The trip takes approximately 25 minutes. From Terminal 2 passengers need to take bus 200E to Ferihegy vasútállomás (Ferihegy railway station).\n\nPublic transport\n\nDuring daytime (04:00 to 23:00) the 200E Bus departs Terminal 2 every 10 minutes, providing connectivity with railway and the Metro Line 3 terminus at Kőbánya-Kispest. Journey time from Terminal 2 to the city centre (Deák Ferenc tér) is 50 minutes using the 200E bus and Metro 3.\nDuring nighttime (23:00 to 04:00) the 900 Nightbus departs Terminal 2 every 30 to 60 minutes, providing connectivity with the 950 Nightbus stop at Bajcsy-Zsilinszky út. The 950 bus travels to Rákospalota via the City Center (Deák Ferenc tér) and Nyugati railway station.\n\nMini buses and shuttles\n\nSeveral companies operate airport shuttles taking passengers to any destination in the city. Other shuttles and coach services exist to outlying towns in Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and Serbia."
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"Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport Guide (BUD)\nBudapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport Guide (BUD)\nBook and Go\nBudapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport Guide (BUD)\nAirport info\nNemzetközi Repülőtér, 1185 Budapest, Hungary\nLocation:\nBudapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport is located 16km (10 miles) southeast of Budapest.\nNo. of terminals: 2 Dialling code: +36\nTelephone:\n+36 1 296 7000\nTimezone: GMT ++01:00\nPreviously known as Budapest Ferihegy International Airport, the Hungarian capital’s main airport is the largest in the country. Our Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport guide includes airport contact details, as well as information on transportation and nearby hotels.\nAirport news : \nTerminal 1 remains closed, all flights currently depart from Terminal 2A and Terminal 2B. There are plans for a car park extension, new airport hotel and new terminal 2C at Budapest Ferenc Lizst International Airport, with completion expected by 2020.\nInformation : \nHelp desks are situated in Terminals 2A and 2B. Tourist information desks are located immediately after customs in the terminals.\nWebsite : \nThe SkyCourt building links Terminals 2A and 2B.\nDriving directions : \nFrom the city centre, the dedicated Ferihegy High Speed Road (Route 4) facilitates access to Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport. The airport is also just off Route M5/E60, which connects Budapest to Szeged. The journey time is approximately 30 minutes.\nPublic Transport\nPublic transport rail : \nRail: Regular trains, operated by Hungarian State Railways (tel: +36 1 349 4949; www.mav.hu ), run from Budapest Nyugati Railway Station to central Budapest (journey time: under 30 minutes; fare: Ft320). The 200E bus links the station to Terminals 2A and 2B during the day, while bus 900 links the airport and the station at night.\nMetro: The 200E bus also links to Kőbánya-Kispest Metro Station for the Metro network (tel: +36 1 461 6500; www.bkv.hu ). This station is on Metro line M3.\nPublic transport road : \nBus: The pre-pay local express bus 200E runs between the underground Metro terminus, Köbánya-Kispest, and the airport terminals. Passengers may wish to alight at Deák tér where the three underground lines converge; bus 93 also connects this destination to Terminal 1. The fare into central Budapest is Ft350. For more information contact BKV (tel: +36 1 461 6500; www.bkv.hu ).\nShuttle: There is a minibus service to any address in Budapest operated by miniBUD (tel: +36 1 550 0000; www.minibud.hu ), which has a desk in the arrivals hall.\nTaxi: Taxis are available from the taxi stand outside the arrivals areas, with Főtaxi (tel: +36 1 222 2222; www.fotaxi.hu ) the main supplier. A ride to the city centre should typically cost around Ft6,500, depending on traffic conditions.\nTerminal facilities\nMoney : \nBanking facilities, ATMs and bureaux de change are available in the terminals and the SkyCourt link building.\nCommunication : \nFree Wi-Fi internet access is available at Budapest Ferenc Lizst International Airport. There is a post office in Terminal 2A.\nFood : \nThere are various restaurants and snack bars throughout Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport. These include a pub, bar and restaurants serving Hungarian, Greek, Italian and Asian specialities.\nShopping : \nA good selection of shops can be found at Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport; including fashion boutiques, a shop selling Hungarian food and wine, souvenir shops and newsagents. Duty-free shopping for passengers leaving the EU is available in the SkyCourt and in Terminal 2A and 2B.\nLuggage : \nA lost property service is on hand for enquiries about items lost at the airport (tel: +36 70 332 4006). A 24-hour left-luggage service is located in the arrivals area of Terminal 2B. Lockers are available on the ground floor of the SkyCourt.\nOther : \nOther services available at Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport include a chapel, in Terminal 2B, childcare facilities and a first aid service. Additionally, there is a chapel in Terminal 2B and an observation deck is open for visitors in Terminal 2A.\nAirport facilities\nConference and business : \nBusiness-class passengers in Terminal 2 have access to the SkyCourt Lounge (tel: +36 1 296 7370), which is located in the SkyCourt shopping area. Facilities here include computers, printers, fax and telephones. Further basic facilities are available at the Celebi Platinum Lounge (tel: +36 1 296 5933), located in the transit area of Terminal 2.\nThere are also business centres with telephone, fax, photocopying and interpreter services within the terminals.\nTwo meeting rooms are available for hire in The SkyCourt Conference Center (tel: +36 1 296 6213), while meeting rooms are also available at the nearby Hotel Stáció (tel: +36 29 353 053; www.hotelstacio.hu ).\nDisabled facilities : \nDisabled toilets and Call Point helpline kiosks are available throughout the terminals. Wheelchairs can be hired at the airport help desks, on request. Services are also available to help passengers who need assistance boarding or disembarking the aircraft and for passengers with impaired vision. Passengers should contact their airline in advance if they require any special assistance.\nCar parking : \nThe main short-term car park is opposite Terminals 2A and 2B. Long-term parking is located a little further from the terminals, while premium rate parking is directly adjacent to the terminals. There is also a long-term car park with security surveillance. Parking information is available (tel: +36 1 296 5553).\nCar rental : \nCar hire companies Avis, Europcar, Hertz and Sixt all have desks located immediately after customs, on the arrivals level in Terminal 2A and Terminal 2B.\nHotels\nThere are no on-site hotels at Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport, although plans are in progress to open one soon. There are however a number of good quality hotels within a short distance from the airport.\nWhere would you like to go?:\nCheck-in:",
"Inside Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport (BUD) - Budapest Airport - Ferihegy Airport - YouTube\nInside Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport (BUD) - Budapest Airport - Ferihegy Airport\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nPublished on Oct 19, 2014\nBudapest Airport international departures. We are at Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport (BUD) or formerly called Budapest Ferihegy International Airport or just Ferihegy, located in Budapest Hungary. We are on our way home back to Copenhagen after a long weekend stay in Budapest the capital of Hungary.\nOur video footage begins at the main international departures terminal where we have just arrived from the city by taxi. Inside the terminal we arrive at a \"smallish\" check in area where there are both human Check-In personal and Check-In machines. Our flight to Copenhagen was with SAS (Scandinavian Airlines) and there was unfortunately not an option for Self Check-In of SAS flights on the Self Service Check In Machine. We therefore had to wait for a check-in counter to open for SAS which was in one hour after our arrival. We therefore opted to move to a coffee shop in the Check-In area and have a coffee whilst we waited for the Scandinavian Airlines Check In Desk to open. It was very noteworthy and nostalgic to see that Budapest Airport is still using the very old Flight information boards, which took you back to the nostalgic 70´s and 80´s airport atmosphere. Following our Check-In we passed through customs and immediately found ourselves walking in the Tax Free Shopping area. The products available for sale included the normal perfumes, alcohol, chocolates & candies normally available at Tax Free shops in airports and also included a large section of Hungarian specialties! After the tax free area you walk into the huge main international terminal full of light thanks to it´s huge windows offering a view of the sky and the aircraft gate area and runways! This area is two levels, the bottom area is the waiting area with shops and the second level is where the airports Food Court lies! It is in this main international departures area passengers wait until information is given on which gate their flight will be departing from. From this area we walked to our gate. The Gate areas still offer a limited selection of shopping opportunities (before your flight) and also a limited selection of cafe´s/restaurants or fast food store!\nWiki writes about Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport , \" Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport (Hungarian: Budapest Liszt Ferenc Nemzetközi Repülőtér) (IATA: BUD, ICAO: LHBP), formerly known as Budapest Ferihegy International Airport and still commonly called just Ferihegy, is the international airport serving the Hungarian capital city of Budapest, and by far the largest of the country's four commercial airports. The airport is located 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) east-southeast of the centre of Budapest and was renamed in honor of Ferenc Liszt on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of his birth...\"\nThis airport was officially renamed Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport, in honour of the Hungarian pianist and composer Franz Liszt (Modern Hungarian: Liszt Ferenc.)-\nWiki writes about Franz Liszt, \"Franz Liszt, was a 19th-century Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist, conductor, teacher and Franciscan tertiary... Liszt gained renown in Europe during the early nineteenth century for his virtuosic skill as a pianist. He was said by his contemporaries to have been the most technically advanced pianist of his age, and in the 1840s he was considered to be the greatest pianist of all time. Liszt was also a well-known and influential composer, piano teacher and conductor. He was a benefactor to other composers, including Richard Wagner, Hector Berlioz, Camille Saint-Saëns, Edvard Grieg and Alexander Borodin...\"\nWiki writes about Budapest, \"Budapest /ˈbuːdəpɛst/ (Hungarian: [ˈbudɒpɛʃt] ( listen); names in other languages) is the capital and the largest city of Hungary, and one of the largest cities in the European Union. It is the country's principal political, cultural, commercial, industrial, and transportation centre, sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary...Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the river Danube with its unification on 17 November 1873 of Buda and Óbuda, on the west bank, with Pest, on the east bank.[\nThis airport footage is filmed at Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport (BUD) or formerly called Budapest Ferihegy International Airport or just Ferihegy, located in Budapest Hungary.",
"Budapest Airport (BUD)\nBudapest Airport\nFacilities\nBudapest Airport (BUD)\nUse this website to quickly find the most important information about Budapest Airport - Ferenc Liszt: Flights (Departures, Arrivals), Parking, Car Rentals, Hotels near the airport and other information about Budapest airport. Plan your travel to BUD Airport with the information provided in this site.\n \nBudapest Ferenc Liszt Airport (IATA: BUD, ICAO: LHBP) also commonly known as Ferihegy, is the international airport that serves Budapest, the capital of Hungary. The airport is located 16 km southeast of Budapest city centre. The airport serves as a base for Ryanair and Wizzair.\nThe airport was renamed in 2011 as Budapest Ferenc Liszt Airport as a tribute of the Hungarian pianist and composer Franz Liszt.\nBudapest Airport\n(IATA: BUD) is the busiest airport in Hungary\nThe airport is located 16 kilometres southeast of Budapest\nBudapest Airport served 10 Million passengers in 2015\nThere is only one active terminal (Terminal 2), divided in T2A and T2B\nThe quickest way to arrive to Budapest city center is by Taxi\nMore than 40 airlines currently operates flying from/to Budapest Airport. The traffic in the airport is very seasonal, being the months of July, August and September the busiest ones.\nIn 2015, 10,298,963 passengers used the airport, representing a 12.5%% growth and a new record on passenger traffic. The first five busiest destinations from the airport are London, Paris, Frankfurt, Amsterdam and Munich.\nTerminals\nBudapest Airport has currently one operating terminal: Terminal 2.\n \nThe terminal is divided into T2A, the SkyCourt building in the center, and T2B. The transfer between T2A and T2B can be made on foot across the SkyCourt building. Older terminal 1 was closed on 2012 due the low traffic levels and the extra capacity in Terminal 2.\n \nTerminal 2A: It is the terminal that operates all Schengen flights.\n \nTerminal 2B: The terminal operates the non-Schengen flights.\n \nThe airport was designed and build in 1939-1944 and used for military purposes during the war, and reconstructed in 1947-1950 for civil aviation. Since then, several new infrastructures has been built.\nSkyCourt and Facilities\nThe SkyCourt was opened in 2011 and is a modern new passenger hall connecting T2A and T2B on the Departures level. It is a new experience for the passengers at Budapest airport, with modern architectural solutions, a gallery with restaurants and lounges, retail establishments.\n \nFacilities and Services\nThe facilites and Servicies at Budapest Airport include: free WiFi access, secure luggage, currency exchange, ATM, post office, business center and tourist information.\n \nCheck here the best options to book online your car\nTransport\n- Taxi: It is the quickest way to reach the city centre. Főtaxi is the company that operates in the airport (Taxi rank is located in the arrivals level of Terminal 2). A ride to the city center should cost around 6500 HUF (22 EUR).\n- Buses: The bus 200E, connects terminal 2 with the metro terminal called Kőbánya-Kispest Metro Station (This station corresponds to line M3-blue line). Service available from 4AM to 11PM.\n- Train: The closest train station is Ferihegy. To arrive to Ferihegy train station you should use buses 200E during day and bus 900 during night\n \nTo get more details of Transport Information, please, click the Transport page.\nAirport in Numbers\n- 2 runways (13L/31R and 13R/31L)\n- 10,3 million passengers in 2015 and 86,047 aircraft movements.\n- Capacity Terminal 2: 11 million passenger.\n- More than 40 airlines operating at the airport.\n- Busiest international routes: London, Paris, Brussels, Istanbul, Frankfurt.\n \nAddress: Budapest Airport, Budapest, 1185 Hungary\nTelephone: +36 1 296 7000\n \nItems lost at security control:\ne-mail: [email protected]",
"Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport - Wikidata\nBudapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport\nairport in Budapest, Hungary\nBudapest Liszt Ferenc International Airport\n0 references\nCite this page\nThis page was last modified on 8 December 2016, at 13:30.\nAll structured data from the main and property namespace is available under the Creative Commons CC0 License ; text in the other namespaces is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy."
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Who was the defending champion when Virginia Wade won the Wimbledon singles?
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tc_838
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Sarah Virginia Wade, OBE (born 10 July 1945) is a British former professional tennis player. She won three Grand Slam singles championships and four Grand Slam doubles championships, and is the only British woman in history to have won titles at all four Grand Slam tournaments. She was ranked as high as No. 2 in the world in singles, and No. 1 in the world in doubles. She won the women's singles championship at Wimbledon on 1 July 1977, in that tournament's centenary year, and was the last British tennis player to have won a Grand Slam singles tournament until Andy Murray won the US Open in 2012. She remains the last British female to have won a Grand Slam singles title. After retiring from competitive tennis, she coached for four years and has also worked as a tennis commentator and game analyst for the BBC and Eurosport.\n\nEarly life\n\nBorn in Bournemouth in England, Virginia Wade learned to play tennis in South Africa, where her parents moved when she was one year old. Her father was the Archdeacon of Durban. When Wade was 15, the family moved back to England and she went to Tunbridge Wells Girls' Grammar School and Talbot Heath School, Bournemouth. In 1961 Wade was in the tennis team of Wimbledon County Girls' Grammar School. She went on to study mathematics and physics at the University of Sussex, graduating in 1966. \n\nTennis career\n\nWade's tennis career spanned the end of the amateur era and the start of the open era. In 1968, she scored two notable firsts. As an amateur, she won the inaugural open tennis competition — the British Hard Court Open at Bournemouth. She turned down the US$720 first prize. Five months later, she had turned professional and won the women's singles championship at the first US Open (and prize-money of $6,000)($ today), defeating Billie Jean King in the final.\n\nWade's second Grand Slam singles championship came in 1972 at the Australian Open. There, she defeated the Australian Evonne Goolagong Cawley in the final 6–4, 6–4.\n\nWade won at Wimbledon, in 1977. It was the sixteenth year in which Wade had played at Wimbledon, and she made her first appearance in the final by beating the defending champion Chris Evert in a semifinal 6–2, 4–6, 6–1. In the final, she faced Betty Stöve. Not only was 1977 the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Wimbledon Championships, but it was also the 25th year of the reign (the Silver Jubilee) of Queen Elizabeth II. The Queen attended the Wimbledon championships for the first time in a quarter-century to watch the final. Wade beat Stöve in three sets to claim the championship, nine days before her 32nd birthday. Wade received the trophy from Queen Elizabeth, and the audience at Centre Court burst out into a chorus of \"For She's a Jolly Good Fellow!\" to celebrate her triumph.\n\nShe was the subject of This Is Your Life in December 1977 when she was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at the National Sports Stadium at London's Crystal Palace.\n\nWade also won four Grand Slam women's doubles championships with Margaret Smith Court – two of them at the U.S. Open Tennis Tournament, one at the Australian Open, and one at the French Open.\n\nOver her career, Wade won 55 professional singles championships and amassed $1,542,278 dollars in career prize money. She was ranked in the world's top 10 continuously from 1967 to 1979. Her career spanned a total of 26 years. She retired from singles competition at the end of the 1985 tennis season, and then from doubles at the end of 1986.\n\nIn 1983, at the age of 37, she won the Italian Open women's doubles championship, along with her teammate Virginia Ruzici of Romania.\n\nThe 26 times that Wade played at Wimbledon is an all-time record, 24 of those times being in the women's singles.\n\nAfter tennis\n\nSince 1981, while she was still playing, Wade has been a reporter on tennis events for the BBC. In 1982, Wade became the first woman to be elected to the Wimbledon Committee. \n\nIn 1986, Wade was honoured with the distinction of Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE).\n\nIn 1989, Wade was also inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island. \n\nMajor finals\n\nGrand Slam finals\n\nSingles: 3 finals (3 titles)\n\nWomen's doubles: 10 finals (4 titles, 6 runners-up)\n\nYear-End Championships finals\n\nDoubles: 2 finals (1 title, 1 runner–up)\n\nSingles championships (55) \n\n(Source: )\nBold type indicates a Grand Slam championship\n*1968 – US Open, Bloemfontein, Bournemouth, East London, Dewar Cup-Crystal Palace\n*1969 – Cape Town, Hoylake, Dewar-Perth, Dewar-Stalybridge, Dewar-Aberavon, Dewar-Crystal Palace, East London\n*1970 – German Indoors, West Berlin Open, Irish Open, Stalybridge, Aberavon\n*1971 – Cape Town, Catania Open, Rome, Newport-Wales, Cincinnati, Dewar-Billingham, Dewar-Aberavon, Dewar Cup Final-London, Clean Air Classic\n*1972 – Australian Open, VS Indoors-Mass., Merion, Buenos Aires\n*1973 – Dallas, Bournemouth, Dewar-Aberavon, Dewar-Edinburgh, Dewar-Billingham, Dewar Cup Final-Albert Hall\n*1974 – VS Chicago, Bournemouth, VS Phoenix, Dewar-Edinburgh, Dewar Cup-London\n*1975 – VS Dallas, VS Philadelphia, Paris Indoors, Eastbourne, Dewar Cup, Stockholm\n*1976 – U.S. Indoor Championships, Dewar Cup\n*1977 – Wimbledon, World Invitational Hilton Head, Tokyo Sillook\n*1978 – Mahwah, Tokyo Sillook, Florida Open\n\nGrand Slam singles tournament timeline \n\nSR = the ratio of the number of singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played.\n\nNote: The Australian Open was held twice in 1977, in January and December.",
"The Championships, Wimbledon, commonly known simply as Wimbledon, is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and is widely considered the most prestigious. It has been held at the All England Club in Wimbledon, London since 1877. \n\nWimbledon is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, the others being the Australian Open, the French Open and the US Open. Since the Australian Open shifted to hardcourt in 1988, Wimbledon is the only major still played on grass.\n\nThe tournament takes place over two weeks in late June and early July, culminating with the Ladies' and Gentlemen's Singles Final, scheduled always for the second Saturday and Sunday of July respectively. Five major, junior, and invitational events are held each year. Wimbledon traditions include a strict dress code for competitors and Royal patronage. The tournament is also notable for the absence of sponsor advertising around the courts. In 2009, Wimbledon's Centre Court was fitted with a retractable roof to lessen the loss of playing time due to rain.\n\nHistory\n\nBeginning\n\nThe All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club is a private club founded on 23 July 1868, originally as \"The All England Croquet Club\". Its first ground was off Worple Road, Wimbledon. \n\nIn 1876, lawn tennis, a game devised by Major Walter Clopton Wingfield a year or so earlier and originally given the name Sphairistikè, was added to the activities of the club. In spring 1877, the club was renamed \"The All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club\" and signalled its change of name by instituting the first Lawn Tennis Championship. A new code of laws, replacing the code administered by the Marylebone Cricket Club, was drawn up for the event. Today's rules are similar except for details such as the height of the net and posts and the distance of the service line from the net.\n\nThe inaugural 1877 Wimbledon Championship opened on 9 July 1877. The Gentlemen's Singles was the only event held and was won by Spencer Gore, an old Harrovian rackets player, from a field of 22. About 200 spectators paid one shilling each to watch the final. \n\nThe lawns at the ground were arranged so that the principal court was in the middle with the others arranged around it, hence the title \"Centre Court\". The name was retained when the Club moved in 1922 to the present site in Church Road, although no longer a true description of its location. However, in 1980 four new courts were brought into commission on the north side of the ground, which meant the Centre Court was once more correctly defined. The opening of the new No. 1 Court in 1997 emphasised the description.\n\nBy 1882, activity at the club was almost exclusively confined to lawn tennis and that year the word \"croquet\" was dropped from the title. However, for sentimental reasons it was restored in 1899.\n\nIn 1884, the club added Ladies' Singles and Gentlemen's Doubles competitions. Ladies' Doubles and Mixed Doubles events were added in 1913. Until 1922, the reigning champion had to play only in the final, against whomever had won through to challenge him/her. As with the other three Major or Grand Slam events, Wimbledon was contested by top-ranked amateur players, professional players were prohibited from participating. This changed with the advent of the open era in 1968. No British man won the singles event at Wimbledon between Fred Perry in 1936 and Andy Murray in 2013, while no British woman has won since Virginia Wade in 1977, although Annabel Croft and Laura Robson won the Girls' Championship in 1984 and 2008 respectively. The Championship was first televised in 1937.\n\nThough properly called \"The Championships, Wimbledon\", depending on sources the event is also known as \"The All England Lawn Tennis Championships\", \"The Wimbledon Championships\" or simply \"Wimbledon\". From 1912 to 1924, the tournament was recognized by the International Lawn Tennis Federation as the \"World Grass Court Championships\".\n\n21st century\n\nWimbledon is considered the world's premier tennis tournament and the priority of the Club is to maintain its leadership. To that end a long-term plan was unveiled in 1993, intended to improve the quality of the event for spectators, players, officials and neighbours. Stage one (1994–1997) of the plan was completed for the 1997 championships and involved building the new No. 1 Court in Aorangi Park, a broadcast centre, two extra grass courts and a tunnel under the hill linking Church Road and Somerset Road. Stage two (1997–2009) involved the removal of the old No. 1 Court complex to make way for the new Millennium Building, providing extensive facilities for players, press, officials and members, and the extension of the West Stand of the Centre Court with 728 extra seats. Stage three (2000–2011) has been completed with the construction of an entrance building, club staff housing, museum, bank and ticket office. \n\nA new retractable roof was built in time for the 2009 championships, marking the first time that rain did not stop play for a lengthy time on Centre Court. The Club tested the new roof at an event called A Centre Court Celebration on Sunday, 17 May 2009, which featured exhibition matches involving Andre Agassi, Steffi Graf, Kim Clijsters and Tim Henman. The first Championship match to take place under the roof was the completion of the fourth round women's singles match between Dinara Safina and Amélie Mauresmo. The first match to be played in its entirety under the new roof took place between Andy Murray and Stanislas Wawrinka on 29 June 2009, which Murray won. Murray was also involved in the match completed latest in the day at Wimbledon, which ended at 11:02 pm in a victory over Marcos Baghdatis at Centre Court in the third round of the 2012 Championships. The 2012 Men's Singles Final on 8 July 2012, between Roger Federer and Murray, was the first final to be played under the roof, which was activated during the third set.\n\nA new 4000-seat No. 2 Court was built on the site of the old No. 13 Court in time for the 2009 Championships. A new 2000-seat No. 3 Court was built on the site of the old No. 2 and No. 3 Courts. \n\nOn 17 January 2016, it was reported The Championships at Wimbledon were among several high-level tennis tournaments being investigated for instances of alleged match-fixing. \n\nEvents\n\nWimbledon consists of five main events, five junior events and five invitation events. \n\nMain events\n\nThe five main events, and the number of players (or teams, in the case of doubles) are:\n* Gentlemen's Singles (128)\n* Ladies' Singles (128)\n* Gentlemen's Doubles (64)\n* Ladies' Doubles (64)\n* Mixed Doubles (48)\n\nJunior events\n\nThe five junior events and the number of players or teams are:\n* Boys' Singles (64)\n* Girls' Singles (64)\n* Boys' Doubles (32)\n* Girls' Doubles (32)\n* Disabled Doubles (12)\nNo mixed doubles event is held at this level.\n\nInvitation events\n\nThe five invitational events and the number of pairs are:\n* Gentlemen's Invitation Doubles (8 pairs Round Robin)\n* Senior Gentlemen's Invitation Doubles (8 pairs Round Robin) \n* Ladies' Invitation Doubles (8 pairs Round Robin)\n* Gentlemen's Wheelchair Doubles (4 pairs) \n* Ladies' Wheelchair Doubles (4 pairs)\nFrom 2016 singles draws for the existing wheelchair events were added. \n\nMatch formats\n\nMatches in the Gentlemen's Singles and Gentlemen's Doubles are best-of-five sets; all other events are best-of-three sets. A tiebreak game is played if the score reaches 6–6 in any set except the fifth (in a five-set match) or the third (in a three-set match), in which case a two-game lead must be reached.\n\nAll events are single-elimination tournaments, except for the Gentlemen's, Senior Gentlemen's and the Ladies' Invitation Doubles, which are round-robin tournaments.\n\nUntil 1922, the winners of the previous year's competition (except in the Ladies' Doubles and Mixed Doubles) were automatically granted byes into the final round (then known as the challenge round). This led to many winners retaining their titles in successive years, as they were able to rest while their opponent competed from the start of the competition. From 1922, the prior year's champions were required to play all the rounds, like other tournament competitors.\n\nSchedule\n\nEach year the tournament begins on the last Monday in June, two weeks after the Queen's Club Championships, which is one of the men's major warm-up tournaments, together with the Gerry Weber Open, which is held in Halle, Germany, during the same week. Other grass-court tournaments before Wimbledon are Eastbourne, England, and Rosmalen in the Netherlands, both combining mixed events. The other women's warm-up tournament for Wimbledon is Birmingham, also in England. The only grass-court tournament scheduled after the Championships is the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships at Newport, Rhode Island, USA, which takes place the week after Wimbledon.\n\nWimbledon is scheduled for 14 days, beginning on a Monday and ending on a Sunday. The five main events span both weeks, but the junior and invitational events are held mainly during the second week. Traditionally, there is no play on the \"Middle Sunday\", which is considered a rest day. However, rain has forced play on the Middle Sunday four times, in 1991, 1997, 2004 and 2016. On each of these occasions, Wimbledon staged a \"People's Sunday\", with unreserved seating and readily available, inexpensive tickets, allowing those with more limited means to sit on the show courts.\n\nSince 2015, the championships have begun one week later than in previous years, extending the gap between the tournament and the French Open from two to three weeks. Additionally the Stuttgart Open men's tournament converted to a grass surface and was rescheduled from July to June, extending the grass court season.\n\nPlayers and seeding\n\nBoth the men's and ladies' singles consist of 128 players. Players and doubles pairs are admitted to the main events on the basis of their international rankings, with 104 direct entries into the men's and 108 into the ladies' competitions. Both tournaments have 8 wild card entrants, with the remainder in each made up of qualifiers. Since the 2001 tournament 32 players have been given seedings in the Gentlemen's and Ladies' singles, 16 teams in the doubles events. The system of seeding was introduced during the 1924 Wimbledon Championships. This was a simplified version allowing countries to nominate four players who were placed in different quarters of the draw. This system was replaced for the 1927 Wimbledon Championships and from then on players were seeded on merit. The first players to be seeded as no. 1 were René Lacoste and Helen Wills.\n\nThe Committee of Management decide which players receive wildcards. Usually, wild cards are players who have performed well during previous tournaments, or would stimulate public interest in Wimbledon by participating. The only wild card to win the Gentlemen's Singles Championship was Goran Ivanišević in 2001. Players and pairs who neither have high enough rankings nor receive wild cards may participate in a qualifying tournament held one week before Wimbledon at the Bank of England Sports Ground in Roehampton. The singles qualifying competitions are three-round events; the same-sex doubles competitions last for only one round. There is no qualifying tournament for Mixed Doubles. The furthest that any qualifier has progressed in a Singles tournament is the semi-final round: John McEnroe in 1977 (Gentlemen's Singles), Vladimir Voltchkov in 2000 (Gentlemen's Singles), and Alexandra Stevenson in 1999 (Ladies' Singles).\n\nPlayers are admitted to the junior tournaments upon the recommendations of their national tennis associations, on their International Tennis Federation world rankings and, in the case of the singles events, on the basis of a qualifying competition. The Committee of Management determines which players may enter the four invitational events.\n\nThe Committee seeds the top players and pairs on the basis of their rankings, but it can change the seedings based on a player's previous grass court performance. Since 2002 a seeding committee has not been required for the Gentlemen's Singles following an agreement with the ATP. While the seeds are still the top 32 players according to rankings, the seeding order is determined using the formula: ATP Entry System Position points + 100% points earned for all grass court tournaments in the past 12 months + 75% points earned for the best grass court tournament in the 12 months before that. A majority of the entrants are unseeded. Only two unseeded players have won the Gentlemen's Singles: Boris Becker in 1985 and Goran Ivanišević in 2001. In 1985 there were only 16 seeds and Becker was ranked 20th; Ivanišević was ranked 125th when he won as a Wild Card entrant, although he had previously been a finalist three times, and been ranked no. 2 in the world; his low ranking was due to having been hampered by a persistent shoulder injury for three years, which had only just cleared up. In 1996, the title was won by Richard Krajicek, who was originally unseeded (ranked 17th, and only 16 players were seeded) but was promoted to a seeded position (still with the number 17) when Thomas Muster withdrew before the tournament. No unseeded player has captured the Ladies' Singles title; the lowest seeded female champion was Venus Williams, who won in 2007 as the 23rd seed; Williams was returning from an injury that had prevented her playing in previous tournaments, giving her a lower ranking than she would normally have had. Unseeded pairs have won the doubles titles on numerous occasions; the 2005 Gentlemen's Doubles champions were not only unseeded, but also (for the first time ever) qualifiers.\n\nGrounds\n\nSince 2001, the courts used for Wimbledon have been sown with 100% perennial ryegrass. Prior to 2001 a combination of 70% ryegrass and 30% Creeping Red Fescue was used. The change was made to improve durability and strengthen the sward to better withstand the increasing wear of the modern game. \n\nThe main show courts, Centre Court and No. 1 Court, are normally used for only two weeks a year, during the Championships, but play can extend into a third week in exceptional circumstances. The remaining 17 courts are regularly used for other events hosted by the Club. The show courts were in action for the second time in three months in 2012 as Wimbledon hosted the tennis events of the 2012 Olympic Games. One of the show courts is also used for home ties of the GB teams in the Davis Cup on occasions.\n\nWimbledon is the only Grand Slam event played on grass courts. At one time, all the Majors, except the French Open, were played on grass. The US Open abandoned grass in 1975 and the Australian Open in 1988.\n\nThe principal court, Centre Court, was opened in 1922 when the Club moved from Worple Road to Church Road. The Church Road venue was larger and was needed to meet the ever-growing public demand.\n\nDue to the possibility of rain during Wimbledon, a retractable roof was installed prior to the 2009 Championship. It is designed to close/open in about 20 minutes and will be closed primarily to protect play from inclement (and, if necessary, extremely hot) weather during The Championships. When the roof is being opened or closed, play is suspended. The first time the roof was closed during a Wimbledon Championship match was on Monday 29 June 2009, involving Amélie Mauresmo and Dinara Safina.\n\nBecause of the summer climate in southern England, Wimbledon employs 'Court Attendants' each year, who work to maintain court conditions. Their principal responsibility is to ensure that the courts are quickly covered when it begins to rain, so that play can resume as quickly as possible once the referees decide to uncover the courts. The court attendants are mainly university students working to make summer money. Centre Court is covered by full-time groundstaff, however.\n\nThe court has a capacity of 15,000. At its south end is the Royal Box, from which members of the Royal Family and other dignitaries watch matches. Centre Court usually hosts the finals and semifinals of the main events, as well as many matches in the earlier rounds involving top-seeded players or local favourites.\n\nThe second most important court is No. 1 Court. The court was constructed in 1997 to replace the old No.1 Court, which was adjacent to Centre Court. The old No.1 Court was demolished because its capacity for spectators was too low. The court was said to have had a unique, more intimate atmosphere and was a favourite of many players. The new No.1 Court has a capacity of approximately 11,000.\n\nFrom 2009, a new No. 2 Court is being used at Wimbledon with a capacity for 4,000 people. To obtain planning permission, the playing surface is around 3.5m below ground level, ensuring that the single-storey structure is only about 3.5m above ground level, and thus not affecting local views. Plans to build on the current site of Court 13 were dismissed due to the high capacity of games played at the 2012 Olympic Games. The old No.2 Court has been renamed as No.3 Court. The old No.2 Court was known as the \"Graveyard of Champions\" because many highly seeded players were eliminated there during early rounds over the years, including Ilie Năstase, John McEnroe, Boris Becker, Andre Agassi, Pete Sampras, Martina Hingis, Venus Williams, Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova. The court has a capacity of 2,192 + 770 standing. In 2011 a new No.3 Court and a new Court 4 were unveiled on the sites of the old No.2 and 3 courts. \n\nAt the northern end of the grounds is a giant television screen on which important matches are broadcast. Fans watch from an area of grass officially known as the Aorangi Terrace. When British players do well at Wimbledon, the hill attracts fans for them, and is often renamed by the press for them: Greg Rusedski's followers convened at \"Rusedski Ridge\", and Tim Henman has had the hill nicknamed Henman Hill. As both of them have now retired and Andy Murray is the number 1 British player, the hill is occasionally referred to as \"Murray Mound\" or \"Murrayfield\", as a reference to his Scottish heritage and the Scottish ground of the same name, but this has largely failed to catch on – the area is still usually referred to as Henman Hill. None of these nicknames are official.\n\n;Grounds schedule\n\nThe grounds open at 10:30 am on each day. On the Centre Court, play starts at 1 pm, with exception of the final two days of the competition (Ladies' and Gentlemen's Finals), when play begins at 2 pm. On courts 2–19, play begins at noon for at least the first eight days of the competition. It then starts at 11 am for the Junior matches on the middle Saturday and during the second week.\n\nTraditions\n\nSocial commentator Ellis Cashmore describes Wimbledon as having \"a David Niven-ish propriety\", conforming to the standards of behaviour common in the 1950s. Writer Peter York sees the event as representing a particular white and affluent type of Britishness, describing the area of Wimbledon as \"a southern, well off, late Victorian suburb with a particular social character\". Cashmore has criticised the event for being \"remote and insulated\" from the changing multicultural character of modern Britain, describing it as \"nobody's idea of all-things-British\". \n\nBall boys and ball girls\n\nIn the championship games, ball boys and girls, known as BBGs, play a crucial role in the smooth running of the tournament, with a brief that a good BBG \"should not be seen. They should blend into the background and get on with their jobs quietly.\" \n\nFrom 1947 ball boys were supplied by Goldings, the only Barnardos school to provide them. Prior to this, from the 1920s onwards, the ball boys had been provided by The Shaftesbury Children's Home.\n\nSince 1969, BBGs have been provided by local schools. As of 2008 they are drawn from schools in the London boroughs of Merton, Sutton, Kingston, and Wandsworth, as well as from Surrey. Traditionally, Wandsworth Boys Grammar School in Sutherland Grove, Southfields and Mayfield Girls School on West Hill in Wandsworth, both now defunct, were the schools of choice for selection of BBGs. This was possibly owing to their proximity to the club. BBGs have an average age of 15, being drawn from the school years nine and ten. BBGs will serve for one, or if re-selected, up to five tournaments, from Year Nine to Year Thirteen. \n\nStarting in 2005, BBGs work in teams of six, two at the net, four at the corners, and teams rotate one hour on court, one hour off, (two hours depending on the court) for the day's play. Teams are not told which court they will be working on the day, to ensure the same standards across all courts. With the expansion of the number of courts, and lengthening the tennis day, as of 2008, the number of BBGs required is around 250. From the second Wednesday, BBGs are told to leave the Championships, leaving around 80 on the final Sunday. Each BBG receives a certificate, a can of used balls, a group photograph and a programme when leaving. BBG service is paid, with a total of £120-£180 being paid to each ball boy\nor girl after the 13-day period depending on the number of days served. Every BBG keeps all of their kit, typically consisting of three or four shirts, two or three shorts or skorts, track suit bottoms and top, twelve pairs of socks, three pairs of wristbands, a hat, water bottle holder, bag and trainers. Along with this it is seen as a privilege, and seen as a valuable addition to a school leaver's curriculum vitae, showing discipline. BBG places are split 50:50 between boys and girls, with girls having been used since 1977, appearing on centre court since 1985. \n\nProspective BBGs are first nominated by their school headteacher, to be considered for selection. To be selected, a candidate must pass written tests on the rules of tennis, and pass fitness, mobility and other suitability tests, against initial preliminary instruction material. Successful candidates then commence a training phase, starting in February, in which the final BBGs are chosen through continual assessment. As of 2008, this training intake was 600. The training includes weekly sessions of physical, procedural and theoretical instruction, to ensure that the BBGs are fast, alert, self-confident and adaptable to situations. As of 2011, early training occurs at the Wimbledon All England Lawn Tennis Club Covered Courts, to the side of the Grounds, and then moves to outside courts (8, 9, 10) the week before the Championships for a feel of the grass court.\n\nColours and uniforms\n\nDark green and purple are the traditional Wimbledon colours. However, all tennis players participating in the tournament are required to wear all-white or at least almost all-white clothing, a long-time tradition at Wimbledon. Wearing white clothing with some colour accents is also acceptable, provided the colour scheme is not that of an identifiable commercial brand logo (the outfitter's brand logo being the sole exception). Controversy followed Martina Navratilova's wearing branding for \"Kim\" cigarettes in 1982. Green clothing was worn by the chair umpire, linesmen, ball boys and ball girls until the 2005 Championships; however, beginning with the 2006 Championships, officials, ball boys and ball girls were dressed in new navy blue- and cream-coloured uniforms from American designer Ralph Lauren. This marked the first time in the history of the Championships that an outside company was used to design Wimbledon clothing; the contract with Polo Ralph Lauren is set to end in 2015.\n\nReferring to players\n\nBy tradition, the \"Men's\" and \"Women's\" competitions are referred to as \"Gentlemen's\" and \"Ladies'\" competitions at Wimbledon. The junior competitions are referred to as the \"Boys'\" and \"Girls'\" competitions.\n\nPrior to 2009 female players were referred to by the title \"Miss\" or \"Mrs\" on scoreboards. As dictated by strict rule of etiquette, married female players are referred to by their husbands' names: for example, Chris Evert-Lloyd appeared on scoreboards as \"Mrs. J. M. Lloyd\" during her marriage to John Lloyd, since \"Mrs. X\" essentially designates the wife of X. This tradition has continued at least to some extent. For the first time during the 2009 tournament, players were referred to on scoreboards by both their first and last names. \n\nThe title \"Mr\" is not used for male players who are professionals on scoreboards but the prefix is retained for amateurs, although chair umpires refer to players as \"Mr\" when they use the replay challenge. The chair umpire will say \"Mr is challenging the call...\" and \"Mr has X challenges remaining.\" However, the umpires still say Miss when announcing the score of the Ladies' matches.\n\nIf a match is being played with two competitors of the same surname (e.g. Venus and Serena Williams, Bob and Mike Bryan), the chair umpire will specify to whom they are referring by stating the player's first name and surname during announcements (e.g. \"Game, Miss Serena Williams\", \"Advantage, Mike Bryan\").\n\nRoyal Family\n\nPreviously, players bowed or curtsied to members of the Royal Family seated in the Royal Box upon entering or leaving Centre Court. In 2003, however, the President of the All England Club, His Royal Highness the Duke of Kent, decided to discontinue the tradition. Now, players are required to bow or curtsy only if HRH The Prince of Wales, or Her Majesty The Queen is present, as was in practice during the 2010 Championships when the Queen was in attendance at Wimbledon on 24 June. \nOn 27 June 2012, Roger Federer said in his post-match interview that he and his opponent had been asked to bow towards the Royal Box as Prince Charles and his wife were present, saying that that was no problem for him. \n\nServices Stewards\n\nPrior to the Second World War, members the Brigade of Guards and retired members of the Royal Artillery performed the role of stewards. In 1946 the AELTC offered employment to wartime servicemen returning to civilian life during their demobilization leave. Initially this scheme extended only to the Royal Navy, followed by the Army in 1947 and the Royal Air Force in 1949. In 1965 London Fire Brigade members joined the ranks of stewards. The service stewards, wearing uniform, are present in Centre Court and No.'s 1 and 2 courts. In 2015, 595 Service and London Fire Brigade stewards attended. Only enlisted members of the Armed Forces may apply for the role, which must be taken as leave, and half of each year's recruits must have stewarded at Wimbledon before. The AELTC pays a subsistence allowance to servicemen and women working as stewards to defray their accommodation costs for the period of the Championships. The Service Stewards are not to be confused with the 185 Honorary Stewards.\n\nTickets\n\nThe majority of centre and show court tickets sold to the general public have since 1924 been made available by a public ballot that the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club holds at the start of the year. The ballot has always been substantially oversubscribed. Successful applicants are selected at random by a computer. The most recent figures from 2011 suggested there were four applicants to every ballot ticket. Applications must be posted to the AELTC by mid December, the year prior to the tournament. Seats and days are allocated randomly and ballot tickets are not transferrable.\n\nThe All England Club, through its subsidiary The All England Lawn Tennis Ground plc, issues Debentures to tennis fans every five years to raise funds for capital expenditure. Fans who invest thus in the club receive a pair of tickets for every day of the Wimbledon Championships for the five years the investment lasts. Only debenture holders are permitted to sell on their tickets to third parties and demand for debentures has increased in recent years, to such an extent that they are even traded on the London Stock Exchange.\n\nWimbledon and the French Open are the only Grand Slam tournaments where fans without tickets for play can queue up and still get seats on the three show courts on the day of the match. Sequentially numbered queue cards were introduced in 2003. From 2008, there is a single queue, allotted about 500 seats for each court. When they join the queue, fans are handed queue cards. Anyone who then wishes to leave the queue temporarily, even if in possession of a queue card, must agree their position with the others nearby in the queue and/or a steward.\n\nTo get access to the show courts, fans will normally have to queue overnight. This is done by fans from all over the world and, although considered vagrancy, is part of the Wimbledon experience in itself. The All-England Club allows overnight queuing and provides toilet and water facilities for campers. Early in the morning when the line moves towards the Grounds, stewards walk along the line and hand out wristbands that are colour-coded to the specific court. The wrist band (and payment) is exchanged at the ticket office for the ticket when the grounds open. General admission to the grounds gives access to the outer courts and is possible without queuing overnight. Tickets returned by people leaving early go on sale at 2:30 pm and the money goes to charity. Queuing for the show courts ends after the quarter finals have been completed.\n\nAt 2.40pm on Day Seven (Monday 28 June) of the 2010 Championships, the one-millionth numbered Wimbledon queue card was handed out to Rose Stanley from South Africa. \n\nSponsorship\n\nWimbledon is notable for the longest running sponsorship in sports history due to its association with Slazenger who have supplied all tennis balls during the tournament since 1902. Since 1935 Wimbledon has a sponsorship association with the Robinsons fruit drink brand. \n\nMedia\n\nRadio Wimbledon\n\nFriday before the start of the tournament. Radio Wimbledon can be heard within a five-mile radius on 87.7 FM, and also online. It operates under a Restricted Service Licence and is arguably the most sophisticated RSL annually in the UK. The main presenters are Sam Lloyd and Ali Barton. Typically they work alternate four-hour shifts until the end of the last match of the day. Reporters and commentators include Gigi Salmon, Nick Lestor, Rupert Bell, Nigel Bidmead, Guy Swindells, Lucie Ahl, Nadine Towell and Helen Whitaker. Often they report from the \"Crow's Nest\", an elevated building housing the Court 3 and 4 scoreboards which affords views of most of the outside courts. Regular guests include Sue Mappin. In recent years Radio Wimbledon acquired a second low-power FM frequency (within the grounds only) of 96.3 FM for uninterrupted Centre Court commentary, and, from 2006, a third for coverage from No. 1 Court on 97.8 FM. Hourly news bulletins and travel (using RDS) are also broadcast.\n\nTelevision coverage\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nSince 1937 the BBC has broadcast the tournament on television in the UK. The matches covered are split between its two main terrestrial channels, BBC One and BBC Two. The BBC holds the broadcast rights for Wimbledon until 2017 and it distributes its commercial-free feed to outlets worldwide. During the days of British Satellite Broadcasting, its sports channel carried extra coverage of Wimbledon for subscribers. One of the most notable British commentators was Dan Maskell, who was known as the BBC's \"voice of tennis\" until his retirement in 1991. John Barrett succeeded him in that role until he retired in 2006. Current commentators working for the BBC at Wimbledon include British ex-players Andrew Castle, John Lloyd, Tim Henman, Greg Rusedski, Samantha Smith and Mark Petchey; tennis legends such as John McEnroe, Tracy Austin, Boris Becker and Lindsay Davenport; and general sports commentators including David Mercer, Barry Davies, Andrew Cotter and Nick Mullins. The coverage is presented by Sue Barker and highlights with Claire Balding. Previous BBC presenters include Des Lynam, David Vine, John Inverdale and Harry Carpenter.\n\nThe Wimbledon Finals are obliged to be shown live and in full on terrestrial television (BBC Television Service, ITV, Channel 4, or Channel 5) by government mandate. Highlights of the rest of the tournament must be provided by terrestrial stations; live coverage (excepting the finals) may be sought by satellite or cable TV. \n\nThe BBC was forced to apologise after many viewers complained about \"over-talking\" by its commentary team during the TV coverage of the event in 2011. It said in a statement that views on commentary were subjective but that they \"do appreciate that over-talking can irritate our audience\". The BBC added that it hoped it had achieved \"the right balance\" across its coverage and was \"of course sorry if on occasion you have not been satisfied\". Tim Henman and John McEnroe were among the ex-players commentating. \n\nWimbledon was also involved in a piece of television history, when on 1 July 1967 the first official colour television broadcast took place in the UK. Four hours live coverage of the 1967 Championships was shown on BBC Two, which was the first television channel in Europe to regularly broadcast in colour. Footage of that historic match no longer survives, however the Gentlemen's Final of that year is still held in the BBC archives because it was the first Gentlemen's Final transmitted in colour.\n\nSince 2007, Wimbledon matches have been transmitted in high-definition, originally on the BBC's free-to-air channel BBC HD, with continual live coverage during the tournament of Centre Court and Court No. 1 as well as an evening highlights show Today at Wimbledon. Since the closure of BBC HD, coverage is now shown on BBC One HD and BBC Two HD.\n\nThe BBC's opening theme music for Wimbledon was composed by Keith Mansfield and is titled \"Light and Tuneful\". A piece titled \"A Sporting Occasion\" is the traditional closing theme, though nowadays coverage typically ends either with a montage set to a popular song or with no music at all. Mansfield also composed the piece \"World Champion\", used by NBC during intervals (change-overs, set breaks, etc.) and at the close of broadcasts throughout the tournament.\n\nOther countries\n\nABC began showing taped highlights of the Wimbledon Gentlemen's Singles Final in the 1960s on its Wide World of Sports series. NBC began covering Wimbledon in 1969, with same-day taped (and often edited) coverage of the Gentlemen's Singles Final. In 1979, the network began carrying the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Singles Finals live. For the next few decades, Americans made a tradition of NBC's \"Breakfast at Wimbledon\" specials at weekends. Live coverage started early in the morning (the US being a minimum of 5 hours behind the UK) and continued well into the afternoon, interspersed with commentary and interviews from Bud Collins, whose tennis acumen and (in)famous patterned trousers were well-known to tennis fans in the USA. Collins was sacked by NBC in 2007, but was promptly hired by ESPN, the cable home for The Championships in the States. For many years NBC's primary Wimbledon host was veteran broadcaster Dick Enberg.\n\nFrom 1975 to 1999, premium channel HBO carried weekday coverage of Wimbledon. Hosts included Jim Lampley, Billie Jean King, Martina Navratilova, John Lloyd and Barry MacKay among others. \n\nPreviously, weekday coverage in the United States was exclusively handled by ESPN2 during the tournament's first week. During the tournament's second week it was split between ESPN2 and NBC. ESPN's online service ESPN3 provides full coverage of courts not televised using BBC graphics and commentary. Since the 2012 tournament, all live coverage, including the Finals, has been exclusively on ESPN and ESPN2, marking the second major tennis championship (after the Australian Open) available in the United States exclusively on pay television (although taped highlights from the tournament were presented at weekend afternoons on sister network ABC) through 2015. Taped coverage using the BBC world feed is aired in primetime and overnights on Tennis Channel and is branded Wimbledon Primetime.\n\nIn Ireland, RTÉ broadcast the tournament during the 1980s and 1990s on their second channel RTÉ Two, they also provided highlights of the games in the evening. The commentary provided was given by Matt Doyle a former Irish-American professional tennis player and Jim Sherwin a former RTÉ newsreader. Caroline Murphy was the presenter of the programme. RTÉ made the decision in 1998 to discontinue broadcasting the tournament due to falling viewing figures and the large number of viewers watching on the BBC. From 2005 until 2014 TG4 Ireland's Irish-language broadcaster provided coverage of the tournament. Live coverage was provided in the Irish language while they broadcast highlights in English at night. In 2015 Wimbledon moved to Pay TV broadcaster Setanta Sports under a 3-year agreement. \n\nIn Australia, the free-to-air Nine Network covered Wimbledon for almost 40 years but decided to drop their broadcast following the 2010 tournament, citing declining ratings and desire to use money saved to bid on other sports coverage. In April 2011, it was announced that the Seven Network, the host broadcaster of the Australian Open, along with its sister channel 7Two would broadcast the event from 2011.\n\nIn India and its Subcontinental region, it is broadcast on Star Sports.\n\nIn Canada, coverage of Wimbledon is exclusively carried by TSN (which is partially owned by ESPN).\n\nIn Mexico, the Televisa family of networks has aired Wimbledon since the early 1960s. Presently, most weekend matches are broadcast through Canal 5 with the weekday matches broadcast on the Televisa Deportes Network. As Mexico is six hours behind the U.K., some Canal 5 affiliates air the weekend matches as the first program of the day after sign-on. Although Mexico had begun broadcasting in colour in 1962, Wimbledon continued to air in black and white in Mexico until colour television came to the United Kingdom in 1967.\n\nIn most of Latin America, Wimbledon airs on ESPN, as the other Grand Slam tournaments. In Brazil, SporTV has exclusive rights to the broadcast.\n\nTrophies and prize money\n\nTrophies\n\nThe Gentlemen's Singles champion is presented with a silver gilt cup 18.5 inches (about 47 cm) in height and 7.5 inches (about 19 cm) in diameter. The trophy has been awarded since 1887 and bears the inscription: \"All England Lawn Tennis Club Single Handed Championship of the World.\" The actual trophy remains the property of the All England Club in their museum, so the champion receives a three-quarter size replica of the Cup bearing the names of all past Champions (height 13.5 inches). \n\nThe Ladies' Singles champion is presented with a sterling silver salver commonly known as the \"Venus Rosewater Dish\", or simply the \"Rosewater Dish\". The salver, which is 18.75 inches (about 48 cm) in diameter, is decorated with figures from mythology. The actual dish remains the property of the All England Club in their museum, so the champion receives a miniature replica bearing the names of all past Champions. From 1949 to 2006 the replica was 8 inches in diameter, and since 2007 it has been a three-quarter size replica with a diameter of 13.5 inches.\n\nThe winner of the Gentlemen's Doubles, Ladies' Doubles, and Mixed Doubles events receive silver cups. A trophy is awarded to each player in the Doubles pair, unlike the other Grand Slam tournaments where the winning Doubles duo shares a single trophy. The Gentlemen's Doubles silver challenge cup was originally from the Oxford University Lawn Tennis Club and donated to the All England Club in 1884. The Ladies' Doubles Trophy, a silver cup and cover known as The Duchess of Kent Challenge Cup, was presented to the All England Club in 1949 by HRH The Princess Marina. The Mixed Doubles Trophy is a silver challenge cup and cover presented to the All England Club by the family of two-time Wimbledon doubles winner S.H. Smith. \n\nThe runner-up in each event receives an inscribed silver plate. The trophies are usually presented by the President of the All England Club, The Duke of Kent.\n\nPrize money\n\nPrize money was first awarded in 1968, the year that professional players were allowed to compete in the Championships for the first time. Total prize money was £26,150; the winner of the men's title earned £2,000 while the women's singles champion earned £750. \n\nBefore 2007, among grand slam tournaments, Wimbledon and the French Open awarded more prize money in men's events than in women's events. In 2007, Wimbledon changed this policy, awarding the same amounts per event category to both men and women. The decision has been controversial because women generally spend considerably less time playing on court than men (except in mixed doubles) owing to their wins being based upon best of three sets, whereas men's are based upon best of five sets. \n\nIn 2009, a total of £12,500,000 in prize money was awarded with the singles champions receiving £850,000 each, an increase of 13.3 percent on 2008. \n\nFor the 2010 Championships, the total prize money increased to £13,725,000, and the singles champions received £1,000,000 each.\n\nFor the 2011 Wimbledon Championships it was announced that the total prize money would be £14,600,000, an increase of 6.4% from 2010. Both male and female singles champions prize money also increased to £1,100,000, a rise of 10% since the previous year. \n\nOn 24 April 2012, it was announced that the total prize money offered at the 2012 Wimbledon Championships would be £16,060,000, an increase of 10.0% from 2011. The bulk of the increases were given to players losing in earlier rounds. This move was in response to the growing angst among lower-ranked players concerning the inadequacy of their pay. Sergiy Stakhovsky, a member of the ATP Player Council and who was at the time ranked 68th, was among the most vocal in the push for higher pay for players who bow out in the earlier rounds. In an interview Stakhovsky intimated that it is not uncommon for lower-ranked players to be in the negative, for certain tour events, if their results weren't stellar. This issue gained the attention of the men's \"big four\"—Novak Djokovic, Roger Federer, Andy Murray, and Rafael Nadal—as well as the Championships.\n\nOn 23 April 2013, The All England Club announced the total prize money had been increased by about 40% from 2012 to £22,560,000. The losers in the earlier singles rounds of the tournament saw a highest 62% increase in their pay while the total prize money of the doubles increased by 22%. The prize money for participants of the qualifying matches saw an increase of 41%. Sergiy Stakhovsky, a member of the ATP Player Council, was the loudest voice for this increase. \n\nThe 2015 prize money is £1,880,000 each for the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Singles winners, £340,000 each pair for the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Doubles winners, and £100,000 per pair for the Mixed Doubles winners. The total prize money awarded is £26,750,000 up 7% from the £25,000,000 in 2014.\n\nThe 2016 Wimbledon Championships saw prize money for the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Singles winners reach £2,000,000 for the first time. The winning pair of the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Doubles will receive £350,000, a £10,000 increase from 2015. £100,000 will be awarded to the winning pair of the Mixed Doubles competition. The total prize money of £28,100,000 is a 5% increase on the 2015 prize money.\n\nRanking points\n\nRanking points for the ATP and WTA have varied at Wimbledon through the years but at present singles players receive the following points:\n\nChampions\n\nPast champions\n\n* Gentlemen's Singles\n* Ladies' Singles\n* Gentlemen's Doubles\n* Ladies' Doubles\n* Mixed Doubles\n\nSix of the 18 female winners in the Open Era have not reached world no. 1 ranking. These are, in chronological order: Ann Haydon-Jones, Virginia Wade, Conchita Martínez, Jana Novotná, Petra Kvitová, and Marion Bartoli. Although the men ranked world no. 1 have been dominant in Wimbledon (11 of the 20 Open Era winners), four champions reached a career high of world no. 2, Arthur Ashe, Michael Stich, Goran Ivanišević, and Andy Murray. Richard Krajicek, Pat Cash, and Jan Kodeš, who reached career highs of only no. 4, have also won the singles championship.\n\nCurrent champions\n\nFile:2015_Australian_Open_-_Andy_Murray_12_(cropped).jpg|Andy Murray was the winner of the Gentlemen's Singles in 2016. It was his third Grand Slam Men's Singles title and his second Wimbledon title, following his victory in 2013.\nFile:Serena Williams Dish Venus Rosewater 2015.jpg|Serena Williams was the winner of the Ladies' Singles in 2016. It was her twenty-second Grand Slam Women's Singles title and her seventh title at Wimbledon in singles, and fourteenth title at Wimbledon.\nFile:Pierre-Hugues Herbert (19047575640).jpg|Pierre-Hugues Herbert was part of the winning Men's Doubles team in 2016. It was his second Grand Slam Men's Doubles title and his first title at Wimbledon.\nFile:Nicolas Mahut (27656705272).jpg|Nicolas Mahut was part of the winning Men's Doubles team in 2016. It was his second Grand Slam Men's Doubles title and his first title at Wimbledon.\nFile:VWilliams WIM2010.jpg|Venus Williams, along with sister Serena won the Women's Doubles title in 2016. This was her sixth Wimbledon Women's Doubles title and eleventh title overall at Wimbledon. \nFile:Serena Williams (19479794256).jpg|Serena Williams won her 14th Grand Slam Doubles title along with older sister Venus. This win makes them the second most successful female doubles pairing in the Open Era.\nFile:Watson WM15 (8) (20442762998).jpg|Heather Watson won the Mixed Doubles event with Henri Kontinen in 2016. It was her first senior Grand Slam title and she was the first British woman since Jo Durie in 1987 to win the Wimbledon Mixed Doubles title.\n\n \t\t \t\n \t\n\nRecords"
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"... Virginia Wade, Jimmy ... Championships had the defending men’s champion had lost in ... since Annabel Croft in 1985 to win the Wimbledon girls’ singles ...",
"Virginia Wade (71 years old) is a ... She won three Grand Slam singles championships and four Grand Slam doubles championships, ... A Wimbledon Champion For Britain.",
"Virginia Wade . Residence: n/a; Date ... goal by winning Wimbledon...Won 1977 Wimbledon on 17th ... the Wimbledon Centenary; defeated defending champion Chris Evert ...",
"... won the singles event at Wimbledon since Fred Perry in 1936, and no British woman since Virginia Wade in 1977. Events . There ... Singles champion: Virginia Wade ...",
"As the All England Club prepares to host this year's lawn tennis championships, we look back at 25 of the most memorable moments at SW19 down the years"
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"History - 2000s - The Championships, Wimbledon 2017 - Official Site by IBM\n READ MORE\n2000: Venus Williams v Lindsay Davenport\nA decade of Williams dominance began on 8 July 2000, when elder sister Venus defeated defending champion Lindsay Davenport 6-3, 7-6(3). The win came two days after 20-year-old Venus had defeated her then 18-year-old sister Serena in the semis, and 10 months after Serena had won the US Open. The Williamses thus became the first sisters in the Open era to win Grand Slam titles.\nThough many suspected that the American siblings would be a force to be reckoned with over the coming years, few could have predicted just how the first 10 years of the new millennium would belong to the Williamses, with SW19 proving to be a particularly happy hunting ground. Venus’s win over Davenport, which came thanks to a combination of powerful services and groundstrokes, crisp volleys and tireless running, which made her opponent look decidedly flat-footed, was the first of five titles on Wimbledon’s lawns to go with the US Open titles which she won in 2000 and 2001. \nOnly Maria Sharapova in 2004 and Amelie Mauresmo in 2006 managed to break the Williams hegemony during that magical decade.\n2000: Pat Rafter v Andre Agassi\nAndre Agassi versus Pat Rafter was always a good one for the fans to watch. The American was one of the best returners in the game and wore out a path along the baseline, while the Aussie was an attacker who felt most at home at the net.\nIn the space of 12 months they played three Grand Slam five-setters between June 2000 and June 2001, two of them at Wimbledon (where they had already met twice, Agassi winning in 1993 and 1999). All of them were classics, none more so than at The Championships 2000. Rafter parlayed his serve-and-volley to a one-set lead, but Agassi found his range on his passing shots to level at one-all. Errors in the American’s game again handed Rafter the advantage but Agassi could never be counted out over the Grand Slam distance and duly fought back to take it to a fifth set.\nThe match went down in the annals as a classic, primarily due to the number of rallies it contained. Though the Australian tried to keep the points short on his own service, he managed to disrupt Agassi with his returning game full of heavy slice from the baseline. The American cracked first, and Rafter found himself in his first Wimbledon final.\n2000: Pete Sampras wins seventh title \nWimbledon was where Pete Sampras felt most at home and none but the most foolish were prepared to write him off. Having battled tendonitis in his right knee on his way to the final, the American was left to face Australia’s Pat Rafter for his seventh Wimbledon title and his record-breaking 13th Grand Slam trophy.\nSampras stumbled through the first set tiebreak, offering it up with a double fault but then sniffed the scent of blood as Rafter blew a 4-1 lead in the second. At a set apiece, Sampras, at last, began to settle and as the night drew in, he closed out his emotional 6-7, 7-6, 6-4, 6-2 victory. He burst into tears and then ran for the back of the stands to find his parents, Sam and Georgia, who had flown in overnight to see their son make history.\nIt was Sampras's last great moment at the All England Club. Two lean and title-free years later, he was rewriting the record books again, winning his 14th grand slam title at the US Open by beating Agassi. That, he thought, was enough and with nothing left to achieve and no prospect of bettering those last two grand slam triumphs, he called it a day. History could take care of itself from now on.\n2001: Tim Henman v Goran Ivanisevic \nFriday 6 July\nCroat Goran Ivanisevic had started The Championships as a wild card, but the tennis he went on to produce defied his world ranking of No.125. The day’s first semi-final was a marathon and when rain brought a halt to the Henman-Ivanisevic clash after just three sets at 6.18pm, it was the Briton who was in charge. Although Ivanisevic had clinched a tight opening set 7-5, Henman hit back to nick the second on a tie-break before racing through the third by ‘bageling’ Ivanisevic in just 15 minutes. With Henman up 2-1 in the fourth when play was abandoned for the day, the Oxfordshire star was within touching distance of a place in the final.\nSaturday 7 July\nA full night’s sleep had given Ivanisevic the chance to gather his thoughts and he quickly put the disastrous third set behind him. Ultimately, a fourth-set tiebreak was required and when Tiger Tim opened up a 3-1 lead, once more, things were looking good for the Henmaniacs. Croatia’s finest had other ideas however, and despite standing two points from defeat, Ivanisevic fought his way out of the breaker to force a deciding set. The two men played another five games and with the wild card up 3-2 in the fifth rain brought another premature end to the day’s drama at 6.29 pm. The match would go into a third day.\nSunday 8 July \nBoth men knew it would be decided by one thing – guts – and so it proved. Henman had a brief window of opportunity when Ivanisevic trailed 0-30 on serve at 3-3, but the outsider blasted his way out of trouble, broke in the very next game and served out the match to complete a memorable 7-5, 6-7(6), 0-6, 7-6, 6-3 victory exactly 45 hours and nine minutes after it had begun on the Friday.\n2001: Goran Ivanisevic v Pat Rafter \nIn what was arguably the feel-good tennis final of all time, the charismatic Croat Goran Ivanisevic defeated the equally regarded Australian Pat Rafter in an epic five-set, three-hour-one-minute final, with Centre Court inhabited by an ecstatic corner of Bedlam.\nThe three-times beaten finalist had been given a wildcard as a gesture of goodwill for what he once did; he was 125 in the world and two months off his 30th birthday. A string of early exits and a lingering left shoulder problem provoked talk of imminent retirement and a career without a Grand Slam.\nThe crowd, on People's Monday, cried, cheered, roared and chanted as Ivanisevic, like a gentle giant, stood with his arms aloft on top of a television commentary box to cast his shadow over his kingdom; acknowledging the ovation, capturing the moment with his mind's eye.\nRafter, himself troubled by injury and losing a second successive final, was a gallant loser and recognised the Centre Court happening described by Ivanisevic as a time when \"everybody was going nuts\". The third seed said: \"I don't think Wimbledon has seen anything like it and I don't know whether it will again.\"\n2001: Pete Sampras v Roger Federer\nWe did not realise it at the time, but this was a changing of the guard. Pete Sampras – a seven-time champion unbeaten in 31 matches dating back to 1996 – was defeated by Roger Federer, who would go on to win six Wimbledon titles himself.\nSampras had already walked on egg shells earlier in the tournament, taking five sets to overcome British wildcard Barry Cowan in the second round. Federer meanwhile was only 19 but already one for the future, having won the Hopman Cup (alongside Martina Hingis) and Milan already in 2001 and reached the quarter-finals of the French Open a few weeks prior to Wimbledon. \nFederer’s serving, movement and attacking mentality were Sampras-esque throughout a match which ebbed and flowed for five sets and in an ironic twist, it would be the only time the two greats faced each other on tour.\nHe and Federer would meet again in SW19 however, when the latter sealed his 15th Grand Slam win on Centre Court in 2009, taking Sampras’ record in the process.\n2002: Pete Sampras v George Bastl\nThe graveyard of champions earned its sobriquet over the years, and never more so than in 2002. Previous Wimbledon winners to have lost on Court No.2 included John McEnroe, Virginia Wade, Jimmy Connors, Pat Cash, Andre Agassi, Richard Krajicek and Lleyton Hewitt, and then in 2002 came the biggest of them all. Pete Sampras was feeling out of sorts, hounded by the press who wanted to be the first to hear about his impending (according to them at least) retirement. \nHe took to the court to face George Bastl, a Swiss player for whom the word “journeyman” was invented. He was 145 in the world, only in the tournament as a lucky loser and had set up this second-round clash by defeating another lucky loser a few days earlier.\nTwo months later, Pistol Pete would go on to capture his 14th and final Grand Slam title at the US Open but in between times, Bastl recorded the greatest win of his career, downing Sampras 6-3, 6-2, 4-6, 3-6, 6-4 in what would be the American’s last ever match at Wimbledon. The Swiss then lost 6-2, 6-2, 6-2 to David Nalbandian in the next round, and like Sampras, he never won another match in SW19.\n2003: Lleyton Hewitt v Ivo Karlovic\nTo crow, along the lines of “how the mighty are fallen”, would be terribly unfair. Lleyton Hewitt was a mere 22 years old and he found himself up against a 6’10” Croat who would go on to carve himself a niche as one of the hardest servers in the game. But when the title-holder crashed out in the opening round of the 2003 Championships to an unknown qualifier ranked 203 in the world, there was more than enough Schadenfreude to go round.\nHewitt was unlucky enough to come up against a young Ivo Karlovic at a time when the grass was fast and aces rained down. He had, the previous year, been lucky enough to peak early in his career, during the \"interregnum\" between the Pete Sampras and the Roger Federer eras to secure his second Grand Slam title. He made the most of the period of grace accorded to him by the waning of Sampras’s star prior to Federer’s ascension to greatness, winning the US Open in 2001 and the ATP end-of-season world tour finals in 2001 and 2002.\nOnly once in the history of The Championships had the defending men’s champion had lost in the opening round. At least 1966 winner Manuel Santana (who lost to Charlie Pasarell in the first round the following year) had some company in the record books.\n2003: Martina Navratilova wins again\nIn 2003, 25 years after her first singles title (of nine), Martina Navratilova equalled the amazing Championships record of Billie Jean King with her 20th Wimbledon title, this one coming alongside Leander Paes in the mixed doubles. This historic moment came less than six months after she had achieved the \"boxed set\" of winning the singles, women’s doubles and mixed doubles at all four Grand Slams (something that eluded even Billie Jean), emulating Doris Hart and Margaret Court before her.\n\"All my titles here are special but the last one was eight years ago and I never thought I'd play again after that,\" said Navratilova after she and Paes defeated Andy Ram and Anastasia Rodionova 6-3, 6-3 in the final. The Czech-born American toyed with retirement but accepted a wildcard into the singles draw at The Championships the following year – a decision which attracted criticism both of Navratilova and the AELTC, which she summarily silenced with a 6-0, 6-1 win in the first round over Catalina Castano and by taking Gisela Dulko to three sets in the second round.\nThe win with Paes also took her overall Slam record to 58 wins, second only to Margaret Court’s 62, and she would go on to add another in 2006, when she partnered Bob Bryan to the US Open title a month before her 50th birthday.\n2004: Maria Sharapova\nIf we take out Lottie Dodd, who was still 15 when she won at the tail-end of the 19th century, then only Martina Hingis, who was 16 years and nine months when she won in 1997, was younger than the six-foot Siberian champion.\nSharapova was a tender 17 years and 2 months when she arrived in SW19 in 2004, but she opened a few eyes when she won at the Priory Club in Edgbaston earlier in the month and was seeded No.13 for The Championships. Not that she was expected to win even after she defeated Lindsay Davenport in the semis – a certain Miss S.J. Williams was lying in wait in the final. Serena had won The Championships in 2002 and 2003 and had taken over from her sister Venus, who took the Wimbledon title in 2000 and 2001. \nOnly 30 minutes into the match however and the sibling domination was all but over. Sharapova took the opening set in half an hour. Serena managed an early break in the second set but the tide was not for turning. Sharapova won 6-1, 6-4, and with her triumph book-ended by Anastasia Myskina’s surprise win at the French and Svetlana Kuznetsova’s success at the US Open, it seemed as if a new Russian era of tennis was being ushered in. Instead it served to spur on the rivalries between the Williams sisters, Justine Henin, Amelie Mauresmo, Kim Clijsters and Sharapova herself in a brief golden age in the women’s game.\n2004: Wimbledon the movie\nThere have been plenty of films about Wimbledon, but in 2004 there was one which is now filed not under sports documentaries but romantic comedies. “Wimbledon” is the story of a player ranked just outside the top 100 who gets a wildcard to The Championships and ends up winning the whole shebang (much a la Goran Ivanisevic in 2001). \nThe film features John McEnroe, Chris Evert, Mary Carillo and John Barrett in the commentary box, and while Kirsten Dunst cuts an unlikely figure on the baseline, Paul Bettany who plays the lead most certainly benefitted from the coaching of 1987 Wimbledon winner Pat Cash, who trained the actors in the art of swinging the catgut.\nPlenty of local landmarks are featured including Heathrow airport, the Dorchester Hotel and the London Eye, but the most unmistakable images came from the All England Club, predominantly on the old and sadly now departed No.3 court where the fans were so close to the action.\n2004: Todd Woodbridge\nAfter six titles with the other “Woodie”, Todd Woodbridge bagged another hat-trick – this time alongside Jonas Bjorkman – and broke the Wimbledon record for men’s doubles titles. His ninth success, achieved in 2004, outshone the previous best of eight, which dated back a century, when \"Big Do and Little Do\" – brothers Reggie and Laurie Doherty – were at their peak.\nSW19 was certainly a happy hunting ground for Woodbridge during his playing days. As a singles player, he defeated Sampras on the hallowed lawns in 1989 and even made the semis in 1997. Doubles was definitely his speciality however, and he secured every big trophy there was to win – all four Slams for a total of 16 Majors, the ATP World Tour Finals on two occasions and Olympic Gold in 1996.\nMost of his success came as one half of the Woodies, but when Mark Woodforde retired in 2000, Woodbridge went on to secure four more Slams alongside Bjorkman, the last one coming at Wimbledon in 2004. The following year, with a record 83 ATP doubles titles to his name, Woodbridge announced his retirement – at Wimbledon, of course.\n2005: Venus Williams and Lindsay Davenport \nThe longest women’s singles final in Wimbledon history saw Venus Williams win her third title, seeing off No.1 seed and 1999 champion Lindsay Davenport in two hours 45 minutes.\nDavenport had defeated Dinara Safina, Kim Clijsters, Svetlana Kuznetsova and Amelie Mauresmo en route to the final, while No.14 seed Venus had had to overcome Mary Pierce in the quarters and defending champion Maria Sharapova in the semis. Having taken such prominent scalps along the way, it was only fitting that the final was such a classic. Davenport edged the opener then broke Venus in the 11th game of the second set, giving the taller of the two lofty Americans the opportunity to serve for the title. Venus amazingly broke back to love to stay alive before dominating the tie-break to level the tie. \nDavenport broke to lead 4-2 in the decider and stood at 40-15 on her own service. Undaunted, Venus broke back then levelled. Davenport went for treatment on her back before returning to carve out a match point on her opponent’s serve. Venus saved it and the match went into overtime. At 7-7 the elder of the two tennis-playing Williams sisters broke, and despite double-faulting on her first match point she took the second to emerge victorious 4-6, 7-6(4), 9-7 after a tie which, for once, actually deserved to be called an \"epic\".\n2005: Stephen Huss and Wesley Moodie\nHaving played the grand total of one Challenger event together prior to the tournament, South African Wes Moodie and Australian Stephen Huss swept all before them at The Championships in 2005 and became the first ever qualifiers to win the men’s doubles.\nThe pairing formed just weeks before The Championships, but claimed plenty of notable scalps throughout the tournament. Todd Woodbridge, who had won his ninth Wimbledon men’s doubles title just 12 months earlier, was sent packing into retirement after he and Mahesh Bhupathi fell to the newcomers in the second round, then in the semis they defeated Jonas Bjorkman (who had partnered Woodbridge to victory in 2002, 2003 and 2004) and Max Mirnyi.\nTo cap things off in the final, they defeated the legendary Bryan brothers, perhaps the best doubles pairing of the decade, in four sets. For the two victors, this would prove to be the pinnacle of their careers. Huss did win in Beijing in 2008 alongside Ross Hutchins, while Moodie won at Queen’s in 2009 with Mikhail Youzhny. Grand Slam success however came along just this once.\n2006: Agassi’s last match \nWas it a changing of the guard? Not quite, but it was certainly symbolic. A balding, 36-year-old American was dispatched in straight sets by a Spaniard 16 years his junior, complete with flowing locks and a pirate’s bandana.\nIt was probably more ironic than symbolic. Back in the day, it was Andre Agassi who created a stir around his hair, his accessories and his return of service. And after 134 minutes of play followed by a far-from-traditional on-court interview, Agassi’s Wimbledon career was over, beaten by a young Rafael Nadal. As a 17-year-old prodigy from the Nick Bollettieri academy, he won a mere five games against Henri Leconte in his debut and vowed never to return. He finally came back in 1991 and the following year, despite a few warnings from umpires for some very un-Wimbledonesque language, he defeated Goran Ivanisevic in a five-set epic. His only disappointment that year was not being able to dance with ladies’ singles winner Steffi Graf at the Champions’ Ball, but that pleasure would come later. \nIndeed, he would return alongside Stefanie Graf-Agassi in 2009 for the Centre Court celebration. In the intervening years he had won the US, Australian and French Opens to become the first man to win all four Grand Slams on three different surfaces. He had earned that on-court interview in 2006, and the showman and contrarian in him revelled in the fact that he had engineered a break with tradition “in the place that first taught me to respect the sport”, as he himself put it as he bowed out.\n2007: Roger Federer v Rafael Nadal\nIt was not surprising that ‘The Ice Man’, Bjorn Borg, betrayed no emotion as he watched Roger Federer’s bid to equal his record of five successive Wimbledon titles.\nThe world No.1 was undefeated in 33 matches at the All England Club going into the final, but standing in his path was Rafael Nadal, who had beaten the Swiss in the French Open final just weeks before.\nHaving won the third set in a tie-breaker, the usually unflappable Federer became frustrated by his relentless opponent and a succession of Hawk-Eye’s calls that went against him. Nadal stormed into a 5-1 lead in the fourth but was then forced to call for the trainer to have his right knee taped. Inclement weather meant that the Majorcan had not had a day's rest since the start of the second week. Though Nadal won the fourth set 6-2, Federer could smell blood in the water. His mind was in total lock-down, focused on winning and winning alone, and he raced away to claim his fifth Wimbledon trophy 7-6(7), 4-6, 7-6(3), 2-6, 6-2 in 225 minutes.\n2007: Equal prize money \nAfter at least a year’s brouhaha during which Venus Williams, Billie Jean King and even then British Prime Minister Tony Blair added their two pennies’ worth on the subject, the All England Club decided in 2007 to award equal prize money to both men and women across the board, from the champions down to the first-round losers in all events.\nThe princely sum of £11,282,710 was split evenly, with winners Roger Federer and Venus Williams pocketing £700,000 each for their fortnight’s work. \"Tennis is one of the few sports in which women and men compete in the same event at the same time,\" said Tim Phillips, Chairman of the All England Club.\n\"We believe our decision to offer equal prize money provides a boost for the game as a whole and recognises the enormous contribution that women players make to the game and to Wimbledon. We hope it will also encourage girls who want a career in sport to choose tennis as their best option. In short, good for tennis, good for women players and good for Wimbledon.\" \n2007: Hawk-Eye\nThe 2007 Wimbledon Championships saw the All England Club deploy Hawk-Eye for the first time as electronic line-calling technology on Centre and No.1 courts.\nThe move followed successful testing to verify the accuracy of the system on grass as well as agreement of the protocol to be adopted when using the system – namely that Wimbledon would allow for three incorrect challenges in a set, an increase from the previous figure of two used at the US and Australian Opens.\nWhilst the name \"Hawk-Eye\" has obvious connotations of pin-point vision, it actually comes from the system’s inventor, Dr Paul Hawkins, whose innovation was first used in the 2001 Ashes cricket series. It was used as part of television coverage for the Davis Cup in 2002, and debuted at a Grand Slam in Australia in 2003.\nHawk-Eye replaced the previous \"Cyclops\" system, which involved infra-red beams used to determine whether services were in or out.\n2007: Jamie Murray \n\"Murray wins Wimbledon\" is a headline British journalists have been dying to write for years now, but they already had such an opportunity in 2007. This was the year that Jamie Murray, elder brother of Andy, partnered soon-to-be singles world No.1 Jelena Jankovic to victory in the mixed doubles.\nThe success had the two vital ingredients for the UK tabloid press: a home-grown hero and a \"leggy\" (their words) partner who was happy to fuel the speculation that this was no mere on-court marriage of convenience – this was indeed a \"love match\". \"When it was a breakpoint I was telling him if he got a good return he would get many kisses, but he kept putting it out,\" sighed Jelena in many a post-match press conference. When the pairing overcame Jonas Bjorkman and Alicia Molik in a three-set final, the fairytale was complete. They danced at the Champions’ Ball and there was even talk of Jelena being invited to spend Christmas up in Scotland with the Murrays.\nSince then, things have cooled. Jelena is concentrating on her singles career, Jamie has married a waitress from Dunblane and the journos are still waiting to dust off their \"Murray wins Wimbledon\" headlines.\n2008: Serena Williams v Venus Williams\nFrom 2000-2010, the Williams sisters made SW19 their own back yard. Venus won five singles titles, Serena four. Four times they faced each other in the final, and on three of those occasions they then returned to Centre Court to contest – and win – the women’s doubles. \nBeaten semi-finalist Elena Dementieva had fanned the flames of criticism over their seemingly dull previous finals, saying of the final: \"For sure it's going to be a family decision.\"\nIf it was, then they certainly did an admirable cover-up job. Serena started the quicker and was a hair’s breadth away from a 4-1 lead when a net cord intervened. Venus powered back to take the first set with a run of five games out of six then breaking her own Wimbledon service record in the second set with a 129mph offering en route to a 7-5, 6-4 win. \nThree hours later they were back on Centre Court, and this time neither sister would have to leave disappointed or metaphorically empty-handed. A 6-2, 6-2 win over Sam Stosur and Lisa Raymond gave the Williamses their third Wimbledon doubles title.\n2008: Rafael Nadal v Roger Federer\nIt has been hailed as the greatest tennis match ever played, watched, or attended. At 9.15pm, in the gloaming of Centre Court, Rafael Nadal proverbially snatched the glinting gold Wimbledon trophy from under Roger Federer's nose for his first Wimbledon victory.\nFlashbulbs exploded and reverberated around the court, Federer rooted to his chair in disbelief, Nadal, the happiest man on earth. He had conquered Wimbledon's grass, and one of its greatest champions. Spain's world No.2 won 6-4, 6-4, 6-7, 6-7, 9-7, to become the first man since Bjorn Borg in 1980 to do the French Open and Wimbledon double in the same summer. He was also the first Spaniard to win Wimbledon since Manuel Santana in 1966. \n\"It's impossible to explain what I felt in that moment but I'm very, very happy. It is a dream to play on this court, my favourite tournament, but to win I never imagined,\" Nadal said.\n\"I tried everything, got a little late, but look, Rafa is a deserving champion, he just played fantastic. The rain didn't make it easier but you have to expect the worst and he's the worst opponent on the best court,\" Federer said.\n2008: Andy Murray v Richard Gasquet\nWas this the moment when the British crowd finally decided that Andy Murray was \"one of us\"? The SW19 like nothing more than an epic fight-back from a local hero, and the Scotsman served one up at the end of \"Manic Monday\" – the mid-point of every Championships.\nIn 2008, it was former French prodigy Richard Gasquet, the No.8 seed, looking as if he would at last live up to the hype, taking the opening two sets 7-5, 6-3 against a man who had lost both of their previous encounters. These were the days when Murray, No.12 seed that year, lived and died by the drop-shot, and some of them were plain suicidal. He hung tough to take the third set to a tie-break and the tide had turned as just over half an hour later it was two sets all. The 22-year-old Gasquet seemed vanquished, but could Murray beat the clock?\nThe canny Frenchman took a comfort break to eat up an extra few minutes, but at 9.29pm in the SW19 twilight, Murray emerged victorious, 5-7, 3-6, 7-6(3), 6-2, 6-4. Alas, Rafael Nadal was lying in wait just over 36 hours later.\n2008: Laura Robson\nAt the tender age of 14, Laura Robson became the first British player since Annabel Croft in 1985 to win the Wimbledon girls’ singles title, defeating Noppawan Lertcheewakarn 6-3, 3-6, 6-1. No.1 Court was packed to the rafters with fans looking to watch someone other than the Williams sisters (busy contesting the women’s singles and winning the women’s doubles on Centre Court that day) and desperate for some home-grown success.\nRobson’s win over the no.3 seed (who would go on to capture the crown 12 months later) capped an amazing run. She defeated soon-to-be big names Melanie Oudin and Bojana Jovanovski in straight sets and then held her nerve despite the pressure of the expectant crowd to take glory in the final. Her win earned her a wildcard for the main draw the following year, which she made the most of, pushing one-time world No.5 Daniela Hantuchova before falling in three sets.\n2009: Serena Williams v Elena Dementieva\nAfter 10 days of watching Serena Williams sail majestically through the draw, her semi-final against Elena Dementieva was determined to throw a spanner in the works. Williams was forced to chase, scrap and battle for every point of her 6-7, 7-5, 8-6 win. It was the longest women’s semi-final in the Open era at Wimbledon.\nWilliams is used to this winning Grand Slam titles business – she had 10 of them already at the time and was about to go on and win her 11th.\nThe quality of the ball striking throughout the match was at times breath-taking from both women. Few can live with Williams from the baseline but Dementieva was giving as good as she got and moving her rival from corner to corner and then out into farthest reaches of Centre Court. The decider alone lasted more than an hour as first Dementieva held a match point and then, 23 minutes later, Williams got her racket on a match-winning opportunity.\nWhen Dementieva’s final backhand sailed wide of the line, the crowd rose as one to applaud. They had not expected a spectacle like this.\n2009: The 16-14 five-set final\nRoger Federer became tennis's greatest men's champion, watched by a legion of champions, as he beat Andy Roddick 5-7 7-6 (8-6) 7-6 (7-5) 3-6 16-14 in 4hrs 16mins to claim his sixth Wimbledon crown. It was also a record 15th Grand Slam title for the Swiss master, overhauling the total of Pete Sampras who was in the Royal Box along with fellow legends Bjorn Borg and Rod Laver. It was a truly momentous climax to the 2009 Championships as the 27-year-old Swiss became the most successful man in the sport.\nSampras, previous holder of that title, had been an unannounced surprise visitor to Wimbledon – where he has not been seen since 2002. The American arrived three games into the contest, but then sat as enraptured as the rest of the crowd as the two gladiators battled through 77 games, the most seen at any Wimbledon final.\nFederer's ace count passed the 50 mark and then, finally, it was Roddick who cracked in the 30th game of the set. Three mishits off the frame indicated he was fatigued and when Federer was offered the first Championship point he grabbed it eagerly, leaping into the air with joy as another Roddick mishit sailed long.\n2009: The unveiling of the Centre Court roof \nOver recent years, whenever play at The Championships was affected or even washed out entirely by rain it produced an inevitable outpouring of frustration. \nSo when, on the afternoon of 17 May 2009, Wimbledon finally unveiled its long-awaited Centre Court roof – three years in the assembly and nine long years in the planning - the timing proved to be perfect. As the 3,000-ton construction began its eight-minute closing procedure, the weather lent a helping hand by sprinkling on the proceedings.\nA set of mixed doubles was played out between the husband and wife team of Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf took on Tim Henman and Kim Clijsters. Despite only having one Slam between them at the time compared with the 30 that their opponents could muster, Henman and Clijsters won 7-6. Agassi then edged Henman 6-4 before Clijsters defeated Graf by the same score. So impressive was the Belgian, who had retired from tennis in favour of marriage and motherhood, that then-chairman of Wimbledon, Tim Phillips, promptly offered her a wild card for the upcoming Championships. \nThis was politely declined – \"hopefully, next year\", she said – but this glittering day proved to be a defining moment for Clijsters, who resumed her career brilliantly and won the US Open a mere four months later.\n2009: Dinara Safina v Amelie Mauresmo\nHistory was finally made at 5.19pm on Monday 29 June 2009, when Amelie Mauresmo struck the first service under the cover of \"5,200 square metres of a very strong, flexible, translucent waterproof material\".\nAs the Centre Court crowd sat and stared at the skies on Monday, suddenly the roof started to move. At 4.39pm, the two halves of the structure started to roll towards the middle of the court to gasps and cheers from below. And then it stopped. \"I hope someone’s kept the receipt,\" said one wag in the stands. Surely it cannot be broken? No, actually, the roof closes in the three stages with a slight pause between each phase. By 4.46pm the roof was finally shut and there was a huge round of applause. Outside, the drizzle had stopped.\nAt 5.11pm, the players returned to thunderous applause. Mauresmo, the first on court, could not take her eyes off the roof above her – and the floodlights that had now warmed up and were shining brightly – as she began her warm-up routine. Her opponent Dinara Safina meanwhile kept her eyes firmly fixed on the grass beneath her feet and tried not to let the moment of history distract her, on her way to victory and a place in the quarter-finals.\n2009: Andy Murray v Stan Wawrinka \nOn 29 June 2009, the last match scheduled for the day on Centre Court was a fourth-round men’s singles tie featuring Andy Murray and Stanislas Wawrinka. The pair would have the honour of contesting the first competitive match to be played in its entirety under the Centre Court roof.\nSome 50 feet below 3,000 tons of structural steel and Tenara architectural fibre, the lights illuminated the famous turf on an overcast evening and 15,000 spectators witnessed Dunblane-born Murray battle with high-calibre Swiss opponent Wawrinka.\nJust as it looked as if this unique evening’s entertainment was coming to an end Wawrinka pounced at 5-5 in the fourth set to break and then serve out the set 7-5 to force a decider, breaking another record at The Championships with the contest destined to go on later than any other Wimbledon match. \nBreaks were exchanged to open the fifth set but in the end it was Murray who emerged victorious, 2-6, 6-3, 6-3, 5-7, 6-3 ending it all on service at precisely 10.39 pm securing his place both in the quarter-finals and in a new chapter in Wimbledon Centre Court’s unrivalled history.",
"Virginia Wade (Tennis Player) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News\nVirginia Wade\nFemale\nBorn Jul 10, 1945\nSarah Virginia Wade, OBE is an English former tennis player. She won three Grand Slam singles championships and four Grand Slam doubles championships, and is the only British woman in history to have won titles at all four Grand Slam tournaments. She was ranked as high as No. 2 in the world in singles, and No. 1 in the world in doubles.… Read More\nrelated links\n'boring' Mind Control Puts Konta On Verge Of New Landmarks\nYahoo News - Sep 26, 2016\n' A \\\"boring\\\" mental technique which allows her to focus on match after match as if nothing else matters has left Johanna Konta knocking on the door of the world\\'s top 10 -- not that she lets herself worry about such things. Konta, 25, burst onto the scene at last year\\'s US Open and she has gone up another gear this season, winning her first WTA title and rising to 13th in the world. As well as her victory at Stanford, Konta also became the first British woman to reach a Grand Slam semi-fi...\nWhy I Am Watching The Sochi Olympics\nHuffington Post - Feb 06, 2014\n'When the Seattle Seahawks won the Super Bowl last Sunday, Fox News made a big deal about how it was the city\\'s first National Championship since the 1979 SuperSonics won the NBA finals. This didn\\'t sit well with members of the two-time (2003 and 2010) WNBA champs, the Seattle Storm. Lauren Jackson, three-time WNBA MVP and a member of both championship teams, called out the oversight on Twitter: \\nFor women in sports (and fans of women in sports) it\\'s a familiar story. Last summer, whe...\nRector Commits To Play Golf At Clemson\nBlue Ridge Now - Aug 21, 2013\n'\\r\\nHendersonville\\'s Jonathan Rector, who is now a junior at Christ School, already has his future set, collegiately, and it will be at an ACC school. \\r\\nRector, a former Times-News Boys Golfer of the Year, committed to Clemson on Monday night, according to his father, Jon Rector, who is the head golf pro at Biltmore Forest Country Club. \\r\\n\\\"This was his dream school and one that has produced many PGA Tour players,\\\" Jon Rector said. \\r\\nJonathan Rector has been on the links playing comp...\nDonât Dismiss The Efforts Of Students Taking Exams In 2013\nBurnley Express - Aug 20, 2013\n' It is that time of year that just about everyone in local newspapers really hates. Yes, our Thursday mornings are even more manic than usual and the following day you are able to read all the local GCSE and A Level results. We only hate them for purely logistical reasons. But other people hate them because they believe the exams are just too easy and the resulting certificates donât count for anything. That is not a theory I can ever agree with. The first reason I canât go along with th...\nLearn about the memorable moments in the evolution of Virginia Wade.\nCHILDHOOD\n1945 Birth Born on July 10, 1945.\nTEENAGE\n1961 15 Years Old In 1961 Wade was in the tennis team of Wimbledon County Girls' Grammar School.\nTWENTIES\n1966 20 Years Old She went on to study mathematics and physics at the University of Sussex, graduating in 1966.\n1968 22 Years Old Wade's tennis career spanned the end of the amateur era and the start of the open era. In 1968, she scored two notable firsts. … Read More\nAs an amateur, she won the inaugural open tennis competition â the British Hard Court Open at Bournemouth. She turned down the US$720 first prize. Read Less\n1972 26 Years Old Wade's second Grand Slam singles championship came in 1972 at the Australian Open. … Read More\nThere, she defeated the Australian Evonne Goolagong in the final 6â4, 6â4. Read Less\nTHIRTIES\nShow Less\n… \nSarah Virginia Wade, OBE (born 10 July 1945) is a former professional tennis player from Great Britain. She won three Grand Slam singles championships and four Grand Slam doubles championships, and is the only British woman in history to have won titles at all four Grand Slam tournaments. She was ranked as high as No. 2 in the world in singles, and No. 1 in the world in doubles. Read Less\nShe won the women's singles championship at Wimbledon on 1 July 1977, in that tournament's centenary year, and was the last British tennis player to have won a Grand Slam singles tournament until Andy Murray won the US Open in 2012. … Read More\nShe remains the last British female to have won a Grand Slam singles title. After retiring from competitive tennis, she coached for four years and has also worked as a tennis commentator and game analyst for the BBC and Eurosport.<br /><br /> Born in Bournemouth in England, Virginia Wade learned to play tennis in South Africa, where her parents moved when she was one year old. Her father was the Archdeacon of Durban. When Wade was 15, the family moved back to England and she went to Tunbridge Wells Girls' Grammar School and Talbot Heath School, Bournemouth. Read Less\nWade won at Wimbledon, in 1977. … Read More\nIt was the 16th year in which Wade had played at Wimbledon, and she made her first appearance in the final by beating the defending champion Chris Evert in a semifinal 6â2, 4â6, 6â1. In the final, she faced Betty Stöve. Read Less\nNot only was 1977 the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Wimbledon Championships, but it was also the 25th year of the reign (the Silver Jubilee) of Queen Elizabeth II. … Read More\nThe queen attended the Wimbledon championships for the first time in 25 years to watch the final. Wade beat Stöve in three sets to claim the championship, nine days before her 32nd birthday. Read Less\nShe was the subject of This Is Your Life in December 1977 when she was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at the National Sports Stadium at London's Crystal Palace. … Read More\nWade also won four Grand Slam women's doubles championships with Margaret Smith Court â two of them at the U.S. Open Tennis Tournament, one at the Australian Open, and one at the French Open.<br /><br /> Over her career, Wade won 55 professional singles championships and amassed $1,542,278 dollars in career prize money. She was ranked in the world's top 10 continuously from 1967 to 1979. Her career spanned a total of 26 years. She retired from singles competition at the end of the 1985 tennis season, and then from doubles at the end of 1986. Read Less\n1982 37 Years Old … \nThe 26 times that Wade played at Wimbledon is an all-time record, 24 of those times being in the women's singles. <br /><br />Since 1981, while she was still playing, Wade has been a reporter on tennis events for the BBC. Read Less\nIn 1982, Wade became the first woman to be elected to the Wimbledon Committee.\n1983 38 Years Old In 1983, at the age of 37, she won the Italian Open women's doubles championship, along with her teammate Virginia Ruzici of Romania.\nFORTIES\n1986 41 Years Old In 1986, Wade was honoured with the distinction of Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE).\n1989 44 Years Old In 1989, Wade was also inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island. … Read More\nSource:) <br /><br /> SR = the ratio of the number of singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played.<br /><br /> Note: The Australian Open was held twice in 1977, in January and December. Read Less\nOriginal Authors of this text are noted on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Wade .",
"Players | WTA Tennis English\nNo videos found\n0\nInducted into International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1989...Voted WTA Tour Player of the Year for 1977 after fulfilling lifetime goal by winning Wimbledon...Won 1977 Wimbledon on 17th try under the most dramatic of circumstances for a Briton, as she played before Queen Elizabeth II on the occasion of the QueenÆs Silver Jubilee marking 25 years of reign, and it was also the Wimbledon Centenary; defeated defending champion Chris Evert in semifinals and Betty Stove in finalàNo. 4 on Open Era match wins list with 839àRanked in Top 10 continuously from 1967-1979...In 1982, became first woman ever elected to Wimbledon Committee; remains very active...Won US Open in first year of Open Tennis in 1968; defeated Billie Jean King 64 64...As an amateur, won first Open Era tournament, held in Bournmouth, England, in 1968...Played Fed Cup 18 years for Great Britain and Wightman Cup 21 years...Recipient of 2002 Fed Cup Award of Excellence.\nSINGLES\nWinner (55): 1968 - US Open, Bloemfontein-RSA, Bournemouth, East London-RSA, Dewar Cup-Crystal Palace; 1969 - Cape Town-RSA, Hoylake, Dewar-Perth, Dewar-Stalybridge, Dewar-Aberavon, Dewar-Crystal Palace, East London-RSA; 1970 - German Indoors, West Berlin Open, Irish Open, Stalybridge, Aberavon; 1971 - (9) Cape Town, Catania Open, Rome, Newport-Wales, Cincinatti, Dewar-Billingham, Dewar-Aberavon, Dewar Cup Final-London, Clean Air Classic-NY; 1972 - Australian Open, VS Indoors-Mass., Merion, Buenos Aires; 1973 - Dallas, Bournemouth, Dewar-Aberavon, Dewar-Edinburgh, Dewar-Billingham, Dewar Cup Final-Albert Hall; 1974 - VS Chicago, Bournemouth, VS Phoenix, Dewar-Edinburgh, Dewar Cup-London; 1975 - VS Dallas, VS Philadelphia, Paris Indoors , Eastbourne, Dewar Cup, Stockholm; 1976 - US Indoors, Dewar Cup; 1977 - Wimbledon, World Invitational Hilton Head, Tokyo Sillook; 1978 - Mahwah, Tokyo Sillook, Florida Open.\nADDITIONAL",
"WIMBLEDON\nWIMBLEDON\n \n \nThe Championships, Wimbledon, commonly referred to as simply \"Wimbledon\", is the oldest and arguably most prestigious event in the sport of tennis . Held every June or July (starts 6 weeks before the first Monday in August), the tournament is the third Grand Slam event played each year, preceded by the Australian Open and the French Open, and followed by the U.S. Open. The tournament (which is the only one of the Grand Slam events played on grass) lasts for two weeks, subject to extensions for rain. Separate tournaments are simultaneously held for Gentlemen's Singles, Ladies' Singles, Gentlemen's Doubles, Ladies' Doubles and Mixed Doubles. Youth tournaments � Boys' Singles, Girls' Singles, Boys' Doubles and Girls' Doubles � are also held. Additionally, special invitational tournaments are held: the 35 and over Gentlemen's Doubles, 45 and over Gentlemen's Doubles, 35 and over Ladies' Doubles and wheelchair doubles.\n \nWimbledon Championships close of play 2004\n \nHistory\n \nThe Championships were first played under the control of the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club in 1877 at a ground near Worple Road, Wimbledon; the only event held was Gentlemen's Singles. In 1884, the All England Club added Ladies' Singles and Gentlemen's Doubles. Ladies' Doubles and Mixed Doubles were added in 1913. The Championships moved to their present location, at a ground near Church Road, in 1922. As with the other three Grand Slam events, Wimbledon was contested by top-ranked amateur players until the advent of the open era in tennis in 1968. Britons are very proud of the tournament but it is a source of national anguish and humour � no British man has won the singles event at Wimbledon since Fred Perry in 1936, and no British woman since Virginia Wade in 1977.\n \nEvents\n \nThere are five main events held at Wimbledon: Gentlemen's Singles, Ladies' Singles, Gentlemen's Doubles, Ladies' Doubles, and Mixed Doubles. In addition, four events are held for juniors: Boys' Singles, Girls' Singles, Boys' Doubles, and Girls' Doubles. (The Mixed Doubles event is not held at the junior level.) Finally, four invitational events are held: the 35 and over Gentlemen's Invitation Doubles, the 45 and over Gentlemen's Invitation Doubles, the 35 and over Ladies' Invitation Doubles, and the Wheelchair Gentlemen's Invitation Doubles.\n \nMatches in the Gentlemen's Singles and Gentlemen's Doubles competitions are best-of-five sets; matches in all other events are best-of-three sets. Most events are single-elimination tournaments; in other words, a player who loses a single match is immediately eliminated from the tournament. However, the 35 and over Gentlemen's Invitation Doubles and the 35 and over Ladies' Invitation Doubles are both round-robin tournaments.\n \nEach year, the tournament begins six weeks before the first Monday in August. It is held two weeks after the Queen's Club Championships, which is considered the major warm-up for Wimbledon for male players. Another important warm-up tournament for the men is the Gerry Weber Open, which is held in Halle, Germany at about the same time as the Queen's Club Championships. Wimbledon usually lasts for two weeks; the main events span both weeks, but the junior and invitational events are for the most part held during the second week. Traditionally, there is no play on the \"Middle Sunday,\" which is considered a rest day. However, rain has forced play on the Middle Sunday thrice in Championships history: in 1991, 1997, and 2004. On each of these occasions, Wimbledon has staged a \"People's Sunday\", with unreserved seating and readily available, inexpensive tickets.\n \nPlayers and seeding\n \nA total of 128 players feature in each singles event, 64 pairs in each single-sex doubles event, and 48 pairs in Mixed Doubles. Players and doubles pairs are admitted to the main events on the basis of their international rankings. The Committee of Management and the Referee evaluate all applications for entry, and determine which players may be admitted to the tournament directly. The committee may admit a player without a high enough ranking as a wild card. Usually, wild cards are players who have performed well during previous tournaments, or would stimulate public interest in Wimbledon by participating. The only wild card to win the Gentlemen's Singles Championship was Goran Ivanisevic (2001); no wild card has ever won the Ladies' Singles Title. Players and pairs who neither have high enough rankings nor receive wild cards may participate in a qualifying tournament held one week before Wimbledon at the Bank of England Sports Ground in Roehampton. The singles qualifying competitions are three-round events; the same-sex doubles competitions last for only one round. There is no qualifying tournament for Mixed Doubles. No qualifier has won either the Gentlemen's Singles or the Ladies' Singles tournaments; in 1977, John McEnroe went farther than any other qualifier in history by reaching the semifinals.\n \n \n \nPlayers are admitted to the junior tournaments upon the recommendations of their national tennis associations, and, in the case of the singles events, on the basis of a qualifying competition. The Committee of Management determines which players may enter the four invitational events.\n \nThe Committee seeds the top players and pairs (thirty-two players in each main singles events, and sixteen pairs in each main doubles event) on the basis of their rankings. The defending champion is normally, but not always, seeded first. A majority of the entrants are unseeded. Only two unseeded players have ever won the Gentlemen's Singles Championship: Boris Becker in 1985 and Goran Ivanisevic in 2001. No unseeded player has captured the Ladies' Singles title; the lowest seeded female champion was Venus Williams, who won in 2005 as the fourteenth seed. Unseeded pairs have won the doubles titles on numerous occasions; the 2005 Gentlemen's Doubles champions were not only unseeded, but also (for the first time ever) qualifiers.\n \nGrounds\n \nThe nineteen courts used for Wimbledon are all composed purely of rye grass. The speed and the low bounce of grass courts favours serve and volley players. Serve and volleyers such as Rod Laver, John McEnroe, Boris Becker, Stefan Edberg, and Pete Sampras have all won the Championships. However, baseliners such as Bj�rn Borg have also performed very well, as have all-court players like Roger Federer. Among women, the serve and volley strategy is less common; one of the few female serve and volleyers, Martina Navr�tilov�, won Wimbledon on a record nine occasions.\n \nThe main show courts, Centre Court and No. 1 Court, are used only for two weeks a year, during the Championships. The remaining seventeen courts, however, are regularly used for other events hosted by the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club. Wimbledon is the only Grand Slam event played on grass courts. At one time, all of the other Grand Slam events were played on grass. The French Open abandoned grass for its current red clay in 1928, while the U.S. and Australian Opens stayed with grass decades longer. The U.S. Open abandoned grass for a synthetic clay surface in 1975, and changed again to a hard surface with its 1978 move to its current venue. The Australian Open abandoned grass for a different type of hard surface in 1988.\n \nThe main court, Centre Court, was opened in 1922 when the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club moved from Worple Road to Church Road. Due to possibility of rain during Wimbledon, a retractable roof is planned for the court; it is expected to be completed in 2009. The court has a capacity of almost 14,000; at its south end is the Royal Box, from which members of the Royal Family and other dignitaries watch matches. Centre Court usually hosts the finals and semifinals of the main events, as well as many matches in the earlier rounds involving top-seeded players.\n \nThe second most important court is No. 1 Court. The court was constructed in 1997 to replace the old No. 1 Court, which was adjacent to Centre Court, but was demolished because its capacity for spectators was too low. The original No. 1 Court was said to have a unique, more intimate atmosphere, and was a favourite of many players. The new No. 1 Court has a capacity of approximately 11,000. The third-largest court, No. 2 Court, has been dubbed the \"Graveyard of Champions\" due to its reputation as the court on which many seeded players have been eliminated during the early rounds. Famous players who have lost on the Graveyard during early round play include John McEnroe, Pete Sampras, and Serena Williams. The court has a capacity of about 3,000.\n \nAt the northern end of the grounds is a giant television screen on which important matches are broadcast. Fans watch from an area of grass officially known as Aorangi Park, but more commonly called Henman Hill. The \"hill\" takes its name from local favourite Tim Henman, whom many fans hope will become the first British man to win the tournament since Fred Perry did so in 1936. Due to Tim Henman's early exit and British newcomer Andy Murray's relative success in the 2005 Championship, the hill may be renamed as Murray Mound, Mount Murray, or Murray Field (after the Scottish rugby stadium).\n \nThe order of play for all courts is displayed \non boards around the grounds\n \n \nDark green and purple (sometimes also referred as mauve) are the traditional Wimbledon colours. Green apparel is worn by the chair umpire, linesmen, ball boys, and ball girls. The All England Club requires players to wear \"predominantly white\" clothing during matches. No other Grand Slam tournament has such a strict dress code for players. During matches, female players are always referred to with the title \"Miss\" or \"Mrs\". (Formerly, married female players were referred to by their husband's names: for example, Chris Evert-Lloyd appeared on scoreboards as \"Mrs. J. M. Lloyd\" during her marriage to John M. Lloyd. However, this custom has been abandoned.) On the other hand, the title \"Mr\" is never used for male players.\n \nPreviously, players bowed or curtsied to members of the Royal Family seated in the Royal Box upon entering or leaving Centre Court. In 2003, however, the President of the All England Club, HRH The Duke of Kent, decided to discontinue the tradition. Now, players are required to bow or curtsy only if the Queen or the Prince of Wales is present.\n \nFor the spectators, strawberries and cream is the traditional snack at Wimbledon. Approximately 28,000 kilograms of strawberries and 7,000 litres of cream are sold each year during the Championships.\n \nSince 1992 Radio Wimbledon has broadcast commentary, speech and music from 7am to 10pm daily throughout the championship. It can be heard within a four-mile radius on 87.7 FM and also online\n \nTrophies and prize money\n \nThe Gentlemen's Singles champion receives a silver gilt cup 18.5 inches (about 47 cm) in height and 7.5 inches (about 19 cm) in diameter. The trophy has been awarded since 1887. It bears the inscription \"The All England Lawn Tennis Club Single Handed Champion of the World.\" The Ladies' Singles champion receives a sterling silver salver commonly known as the \"Venus Rosewater Dish,\" or simply the \"Rosewater Dish.\" The salver, which is 18.75 inches (about 48 cm) in diameter, is decorated with figures from mythology. The winners of the Gentlemen's Doubles, Ladies' Doubles, and Mixed Doubles events receive silver cups. The runner-up in each event receives an inscribed silver plate. The trophies are usually presented by the President of the All England Club, HRH The Duke of Kent, and by his wife, HRH The Duchess of Kent.\n \nAt Wimbledon, more prize money is awarded in the Gentlemen's events than in the Ladies' events. This is justified by the rules that men must win 3 out of 5 sets to win a match, whereas women only need to win 2 out of 3. The French Open also offered higher prize money for men until 2006, when it joined the Australian Open and the U.S. Open in offering equal prize money. In 2005 Wimbledon prize money exceeded �10 million (the exact amount was �10,085,510) in total for the first time. The sums awarded to the winners of each of the main events in 2005 are as follows (the amounts shown for the doubles events are per pair): 2005 Prize Money Summary:\n \nGentlemen's Singles: �650,000\nLadies' Singles: �625,000\nGentlemen's Doubles: �218,500\nLadies' Doubles: �203,250\nMixed Doubles: �90,000",
"Wimbledon 2012: the greatest 25 moments - in pictures | Sport | The Guardian\nWimbledon 2012: the greatest 25 moments - in pictures\nWimbledon 2012: the greatest 25 moments - in pictures\nShare on Messenger\nClose\nAs the All England Lawn Tennis Club prepares to host this year's championship, we look back at 25 of the most memorable moments at SW19 down the years\nMonday 11 June 2012 07.01 EDT\nFirst published on Monday 11 June 2012 07.01 EDT\n1936: Fred Perry wins his third consecutive title\nFollowing triumphs in 1934 and 1935, Perry signed off in by clinching the Wimbledon title for the third time in a row, and, as was the custom, being allowed to keep the original trophy. It was one of the most one-sided Wimbledon finals as Perry beat Baron Gottfried von Cramm 6-1, 6-1, 6-0 in a match that lasted only 45 minutes. Perry remains the last Briton to win the men’s championship.\nPhotograph: Topical Press Agency/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1968: Rod Laver wins first Open era title\nLaver, who had turned professional after completing the grand slam in 1962, was finally able to compete in a major event again as a professional when the Open era began in 1968. He beat Tony Roche in straight sets in the final 6–3, 6–4, 6–2.\nPhotograph: George Freston/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1969: Ann Jones upsets Billie Jean King\nKing dominated tennis during the 1960s and having won three Wimbledon titles in a row was expected to breeze past the Briton. But Jones managed a thrilling third set comeback with her support on Centre Court unsettling the American. Jones triumphed 3-6 6-3 6-2 in her last grand slam singles event.\nPhotograph: Central Press/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1975: Arthur Ashe’s unexpected win\nAshe was 32, a surprise finalist, and playing against Jimmy Connors, who was 10 years younger and the defending Wimbledon champion. No one anticipated that Ashe would outplay his brash opponent, forcing Connors outside his comfort zone with acute angles to win 6-1, 6-1, 5-7, 6-4. It was Ashe’s first Wimbledon title, his third slam, and, in a historic moment for the sport, he became the first black male to win the Wimbledon.\nPhotograph: Focus On Sport/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1977: Virginia Wade wins ladies singles\nWade triumphed in the centenary year of the competition in front of the Queen in her Silver Jubilee year. It was Wade’s 16th appearance at Wimbledon and her first singles final, courtesy of defeating, Chris Evert in the semi-finals. Wade beat Betty Stöve in three sets to claim the championship, nine days before her 32nd birthday with the crowd chorusing ‘For She’s a Jolly Good Fellow’ in celebration as she received the trophy from the Queen.\nPhotograph: Tony Duffy/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1980: Borg v McEnroe: the epic tie-break\nBorg was aiming to win a fifth successive Wimbledon title in the men’s singles final, McEnroe was in his first final at 21. The match was poised 1-6, 7-5, 6-3, 6–6 when the fourth set tie-break began. The epic 34-point tie-break took 22 minutes with Borg having match point five times but the set ended 18-16 in McEnroe’s favour. Borg, though, won the final set 8-6 to clinch the trophy\nPhotograph: Getty\nPinterest\n1981: John McEnroe’s rant - ‘You can not be serious’\nMcEnroe’s infamous words were spat towards umpire Ted James in the American’s first-round match against Tom Gullikson after a serve was ruled out. He later called the umpire the “pits of the world” and having demanded the referee, Fred Hoyles, come to the court, then insulted him as well. McEnroe was fined, not thrown out of SW19 to the horror of some, and went on to win the tournament, avenging his defeat by Bjorn Borg in the final the previous year.\nPhotograph: Bob Thomas/Bob Thomas/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1985: Boris Becker is youngest champion\nBecker actually set three new marks when he became the then youngest ever Wimbledon champion at the age of 17, simultaneously becoming the the first German to win the tournament and the first unseeded player to clinch the trophy\nPhotograph: Bob Thomas/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1987: Pat Cash climbs grandstand\nLittle did Cash know that he would be starting a tradition when he became the first player to celebrate his Wimbledon victory with his family by emotionally climbing the grandstand after defeating Ivan Lendl 7-6, 6-2, 7-5 to win the championship. It was the Australian’s only grand slam title\nPhotograph: Getty Images\nPinterest\n1988: Graf on way to golden slam\nStefi Graf had already won the Australian Open and French Open going into Wimbledon. Her opponent in the final was Martina Navratilova. Graf was trailing 7–5, 2–0 before coming through to win the final two sets 6–2, 6–1. She went on to defeat Gabriela Sabatini in the US Open to complete the golden slam\nPhotograph: Bob Thomas/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1990: Martina Navratilova wins her ninth singles title\nAt 33, Navratilova was the fourth oldest player in history to win Wimbledon when she passed won a record ninth singles title. Having lost the previous two finals to Steffi Graf, Navratilova described her emphatic 6-4, 6-1 victory over friend Zina Garrison, thus: ‘This tops it all, absolutely, because I’ve worked so hard and so long for it’.\nPhotograph: Getty Images\nPinterest\n1991: The first People’s Sunday\nSo badly was the 1991 tournament affected by the rain that for the first time, play was scheduled to take place on the middle Sunday, with low-cost tickets and unreserved seating on the show courts.\nPhotograph: Simon Bruty/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1992: Andre Agassi wins his first Grand Slam\nAgassi was not a fan of Wimbledon, having railed against the all-white dress code and missing three years as a result. He was also more assured on the courts at the French and US Opens. But his first slam success was to come on grass, defeating Goran Ivanisevic in five sets having beaten two former Wimbledon champions, Boris Becker and John McEnroe on his way to the final.\nPhotograph: Bob Thomas/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1993: Jana Novotna’s tears\nNovotna, the No8 seed, lost the first set against the top-seeded Steffi Graf on a tie-break, thrashed her 6-1 in the second and went 4-1 up in the third. Then, the suspected mental fragility of the Czech player came into play. She disintegrated and Graf came back to win the final set 6-4. But the most poignant moment came at the trophy ceremony where the Duchess of Kent did her best to console Novotna when she broke down and wept on the Duchess’s shoulder\nPhotograph: Chris Cole/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1995: Henman says sorry after hitting a ball girl\nHenman was constantly being called on to show more aggression. Which meant his show of temper in a doubles match with Jeremy Bates which saw him hit a tennis ball in a fit of pique was all the more surprising. Unfortunately, it struck ballgirl Caroline Hall on the head. Henman apologised with by presenting her with bunch of flowers and a peck on the cheek. Things didn’t turn out so well for Henman and Bates, who were disqualified following the incident, the first ever disqualification in the Open era.\nPhotograph: Gary M. Prior/Getty Images\nPinterest\n1996: Cliff Richard lifts the gloom during a rain break\nSome might say Sir Cliff’s sing-along finally spurred the All England Club into action to develop a roof for Centre Court roof that was unveiled 13 years later. Others seemed to love it as the middle-aged pop star roped in the likes of Virginia Wade and Martina Navratilova as backing singers to keep those on Centre Court entertained.\nPhotograph: Clive Brunskill/Getty Images\nPinterest\n2000: Venus wins the Williams’s sister first of nine titles\nVenus defeated her sibling, Serena, in the semi-finals at SW19 in 2000 before overpowering the defending champion Lindsay Davenport 6-3, 7-6 (7-3) to become the first black women’s champion at Wimbledon since Althea Gibson in 1958. Venus and Serena went on to win a total of nine Wimbledon singles titles in the next 11 years.\nPhotograph: Popperfoto/Getty Images\nPinterest\n2001: Goran Ivanisevic finally wins Wimbledon\nHaving taken advantage of the rain breaks to break the hearts of a nation and ruin Tim Henman’s best chance of a Wimbledon title by defeating the Brit in the semi-finals, the Croat at least managed to finish off the fairytale. Just shy of 30, with a dodgy shoulder and a lowly ranking, Ivanisevic became the first wildcard entry to win Wimbledon after he beat Pat Rafter 6–3, 3–6, 6–3, 2–6, 9–7, 9-7. ‘Winning Wimbledon is the most beautiful moment in my career. If I had lost that match, my fourth final, I would have had to move to the North Pole,\" he said.\nPhotograph: Gary M. Prior/Getty Images\nPinterest\n2002: Pete Sampras’s last Wimbledon Sampras had won his seventh Wimbledon championship in 2000 but defeat by a rising Roger Federer in 2001 indicated a star heading towards the end of his career. However, nobody expected Sampras’s last Wimbledon appearance to consist of a shock loss by the 145th-ranked George Bastl in the second round. Sampras, who read a letter from his wife on court in a vain attempt to inspire him, said after the 6-3, 6-2, 4-6, 3-6, 6-4 defeat: ‘I’m not going to let my time end like this. I’m not going to give into the critics – I’ll stop on my terms.' He went on to win the US Open that year but he never returned to Wimbledon\nPhotograph: Al Bello/Getty Images\nPinterest\n2008: ‘The greatest final’ Federer v Nadal\nMany finals are described shortly after they end as ‘the greatest’. These words, though, came from John McEnroe in the commentary box. Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal had pushed each other to the brink. With rain breaks adding to the tension and drama, Nadal finally came out on top as darkness fell ending Federer’s tilt at a sixth successive title with a 6-4, 6-4, 6-7 (5-7), 6-7 (8-10), 9-7 win. The victory meant Nadal became the first player since Bjorn Borg to win the French Open and Wimbledon titles in the same year.\nPhotograph: Tom Jenkins for The Guardian\nPinterest\n2010: The longest match in history\nOn court 18 on the second day of Wimbledon, John Isner stepped out to take on Nicolas Mahut in their first-round match. It became the longest match in tennis history, measured both by time and number of games. After two suspensions when darkness fell, on the third day, with the match resuming at 59-59 in the fifth set, Isner finally held his nerve to win 70-68, to end an 183-game match that broke all records. It lasted 11 hours and five minutes with the final score 6-4, 3-6, 6-7, 7-6, 70-68.\nPhotograph: Ben Stansall/AFP/Getty Images"
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Who is the youngest female tennis player to win the US Open?
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tc_839
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"The ten youngest tennis players in the WTA top 100 | STEVE G TENNIS\nThe ten youngest tennis players in the WTA top 100\nTweet\nNot so long ago, women’s tennis was chock-full of teenage champions. A 16-year-old Tracy Austin threatened the Evert-Navratilova duopoly in the late 1970s. Monica Seles won the French Open at the same age in 1990. Martina Hingis broke countless “youngest ever” records and won five Grand Slam titles before she turned 19.\nRecently, however, the average age on the WTA Tour has been creeping up. This has a lot to do with the age restrictions introduced after Jennifer Capriati – a top ten player at the age of 14 – suffered burnout and personal problems in the mid-nineties. But the demanding physical nature of the modern game also makes it harder for young players to challenge for the biggest prizes. In days gone by, teens lacking in muscle were able to finesse their way to the top; in the 21st century, they are simply blown off the court.\nSo which of today’s teenage cohort will prevail at tomorrow’s Grand Slams? Here is a look at where the ten youngest players in the WTA top 100 (as of April 20th, 2015).\nYoungest players in the WTA Top 100:\n1. Ana Konjuh – Age 17 (27 Dec 1997)\n2. Belinda Bencic – Age 18 (10 Mar 1997)\n3. Katerina Siniakova – Age 18 (10 May 1996)\n4. Carina Witthoeft – Age 20 (16 Feb 1995)\n5. Madison Keys – Age 20 (17 Feb 1995)\n6. Tereza Smitkova – Age 20 (10 Oct 1994)\n7. Anna Karolina Schmiedlova – Age 20 (13 Sep 1994)\n8. Elina Svitolina – Age 20 (12 Sep 1994)\n9. Alison van Uytvanck – Age 21 (26 Mar 1994)\n10. Daria Gavrilova – Age 21 (05 Mar 1994)\nOutside the top 100, there are a few more very gifted players who will sooner or later make their move up the rankings. One to watch out for is Catherine Bellis, who at the age of 16 ( 08 Apr 1999) has already shown some great talent and skills. She is our top contender for the future No.1 ranking spot.\n \nJoin the Stevegtennis.com tennis club for free. Just enter your email below for...\nTennis news updates once a week.\nSpecial offers on tennis gear.\nUnsubscribe at any time.\nWe will never share your email.\nEmail"
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How many 'victories' did The Red Baron claim in aerial dogfights?
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tc_842
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"Manfred Albrecht Freiherr von Richthofen (2 May 1892 – 21 April 1918), also widely known as the Red Baron, was a German fighter pilot with the Imperial German Army Air Service (Luftstreitkräfte) during the First World War. He is considered the ace-of-aces of the war, being officially credited with 80 air combat victories.\n\nOriginally a cavalryman, Richthofen transferred to the Air Service in 1915, becoming one of the first members of Jasta 2 in 1916. He quickly distinguished himself as a fighter pilot, and during 1917 became leader of Jasta 11 and then the larger unit Jagdgeschwader 1 (better known as the \"Flying Circus\"). By 1918, he was regarded as a national hero in Germany, and respected and admired even by his enemies.\n\nRichthofen was shot down and killed near Amiens on 21 April 1918. There has been considerable discussion and debate regarding aspects of his career, especially the circumstances of his death. He remains perhaps the most widely known fighter pilot of all time, and has been the subject of many books, films and other media.\n\nName and nicknames \n\nRichthofen was a Freiherr (literally \"Free Lord\"), a title of nobility often translated as \"baron\". This is not a given name nor strictly a hereditary title—since all male members of the family were entitled to it, even during the lifetime of their father. This title, combined with the fact that he had his aircraft painted red, led to Richthofen being called \"The Red Baron\" () both inside and outside Germany. During his lifetime he was more often described in German as Der Rote Kampfflieger (variously translated as \"The Red Battle Flyer\" or \"The Red Fighter Pilot\"). This name was used as the title of Richthofen's 1917 autobiography. \n\nEarly life \n\nManfred von Richthofen was born in Kleinburg, near Breslau, Lower Silesia (now part of the city of Wrocław, Poland), on May 2, 1892 into a prominent Prussian aristocratic family. His father was Major Albrecht Philipp Karl Julius Freiherr von Richthofen and his mother was Kunigunde von Schickfuss und Neudorff. He had an elder sister, Ilse, and two younger brothers.\n\nWhen he was four years old, Manfred moved with his family to nearby Schweidnitz (now Świdnica, Poland). He enjoyed riding horses and hunting as well as gymnastics at school. He excelled at parallel bars and won a number of awards at school. He and his brothers, Lothar and Bolko, hunted wild boar, elk, birds, and deer. \n\nAfter being educated at home he attended a school at Schweidnitz before beginning military training when he was 11. After completing cadet training in 1911, he joined an Uhlan cavalry unit, the Ulanen-Regiment Kaiser Alexander der III. von Russland (1. Westpreußisches) Nr. 1 (\"1st Emperor Alexander III of Russia Uhlan Regiment (1st West Prussian)\") and was assigned to the regiment's 3. Eskadron (\"No. 3 Squadron\"). \n\nEarly war service\n\nWhen World War I began, Richthofen served as a cavalry reconnaissance officer on both the Eastern and Western Fronts, seeing action in Russia, France, and Belgium; with the advent of trench warfare making traditional cavalry operations outdated and inefficient, Richthofen's regiment were dismounted, serving as dispatch runners and field telephone operators. Disappointed and bored at not being able to directly participate in combat, the last straw for Richthofen was an order to transfer to the army's supply branch. His interest in the Air Service had been aroused by his examination of a German military aircraft behind the lines, and he applied for a transfer to Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches (Imperial German Army Air Service), later to be known as the Luftstreitkräfte. He is supposed to have written in his application for transfer, \"I have not gone to war in order to collect cheese and eggs, but for another purpose.\" In spite of this unmilitary attitude, and to his own surprise, his request was granted, and he joined the flying service at the end of May 1915. \n\nPiloting career \n\nFrom June to August 1915, Richthofen was an observer on reconnaissance missions over the Eastern Front with Feldflieger Abteilung 69 (\"No. 69 Flying Squadron\"). On being transferred to the Champagne front, he is believed to have shot down an attacking French Farman aircraft with his observer's machine gun in a tense battle over French lines; he was not credited with the kill, since it fell behind Allied lines and therefore could not be confirmed.\n\nAfter a chance meeting with the German ace fighter pilot Oswald Boelcke, Richthofen entered training as a pilot in October 1915. In March 1916, he joined Kampfgeschwader 2 (\"No. 2 Bomber Squadron\") flying a two-seater Albatros C.III. Initially he appeared to be a below average pilot: he struggled to control his aircraft, and crashed during his first flight at the controls. Despite this poor start, he rapidly became attuned to his aircraft. Over Verdun on 26 April 1916, he fired on a French Nieuport, downing it over Fort Douaumont, although once again he received no official credit. A week later, he decided to ignore more experienced pilots' advice against flying through a thunderstorm. He later noted that he had been \"lucky to get through the weather\", and vowed never again to fly in such conditions unless ordered to do so. \n\nAfter another spell flying two-seaters on the Eastern Front, he met Oswald Boelcke again in August 1916. Boelcke, visiting the east in search of candidates for his newly formed fighter unit, selected Richthofen to join one of the first German fighter squadrons, Jagdstaffel 2. Richthofen won his first aerial combat with Jasta 2 over Cambrai, France on 17 September 1916. Boelcke was killed during a midair collision with a friendly aircraft on 28 October 1916; Richthofen witnessed the event.\n\nAfter his first confirmed victory, Richthofen contacted a jeweller in Berlin and ordered a silver cup engraved with the date and the type of enemy aircraft. He continued this until he had 60 cups, by which time the dwindling supply of silver in blockaded Germany meant that silver cups like this could no longer be supplied. Richthofen discontinued his orders at this stage, rather than accept cups made from base metal.\n\nInstead of using risky, aggressive tactics like his brother Lothar (40 victories), Manfred observed a set of maxims (known as the \"Dicta Boelcke\") to assure success for both the squadron and its pilots. He was not a spectacular or aerobatic pilot, like his brother or the renowned Werner Voss, however, he was a noted tactician and squadron leader and a fine marksman. Typically, he would dive from above to attack with the advantage of the sun behind him, with other pilots of his jasta covering his rear and flanks.\n\nOn 23 November 1916, Richthofen downed his most famous adversary, British ace Major Lanoe Hawker VC, described by Richthofen himself as \"the British Boelcke\". The victory came while Richthofen was flying an Albatros D.II and Hawker was flying the older DH.2. After a long dogfight, Hawker was shot in the back of the head as he attempted to escape back to his own lines. After this combat, Richthofen was convinced he needed a fighter aircraft with more agility, even with a loss of speed. He switched to the Albatros D.III in January 1917, scoring two victories before suffering an in-flight crack in the spar of the aircraft's lower wing on 24 January. Richthofen reverted to the Albatros D.II or Halberstadt D.II for the next five weeks. He was flying his Halberstadt when, on 6 March, in combat with F.E.8s of 40 Squadron RFC, his aircraft was shot through the fuel tank, probably by Edwin Benbow, who was credited with the victory. Richthofen was able on this occasion to force land without his aircraft catching fire. Richthofen then scored a victory in the Albatros D.II on 9 March, but since his Albatros D.III was grounded for the rest of the month, Richthofen switched again to a Halberstadt D.II. \n\nHe returned to his Albatros D.III on 2 April 1917 and scored 22 victories in it before switching to the Albatros D.V in late June. From late July, following his discharge from hospital, Richthofen flew the celebrated Fokker Dr.I triplane, the distinctive three-winged aircraft with which he is most commonly associated, although he did not use the type exclusively until after it was reissued with strengthened wings in November. Despite the popular link between Richthofen and the Fokker Dr. I, only 19 of his 80 kills were made in this type of aircraft. It was his Albatros D.III Serial No. 789/16 that was first painted bright red, in late January 1917, and in which he first earned his name and reputation. \n\nRichthofen championed the development of the Fokker D.VII with suggestions to overcome the deficiencies of the then current German fighter aircraft. He never had an opportunity to fly the new type in combat as he was killed before it entered service.\n\nFlying Circus \n\nIn January 1917, after his 16th confirmed kill, Richthofen received the Pour le Mérite (informally known as \"The Blue Max\" ), the highest military honour in Germany at the time. That same month, he assumed command of the fighter squadron Jasta 11, which ultimately included some of the elite German pilots, many of whom he trained himself. Several later became leaders of their own squadrons. Ernst Udet (later Colonel-General Udet) belonged to Richthofen's group.\n\nAt the time he became a squadron commander, Richthofen took the flamboyant step of having his Albatros painted red. Thereafter he usually flew in red-painted aircraft, although not all of them were entirely red, nor was the \"red\" necessarily the brilliant scarlet beloved of model- and replica-builders.\n\nOther members of Jasta 11 soon took to painting parts of their aircraft red—their \"official\" reason seems to have been to make their leader less conspicuous, and to avoid him being singled out in a fight. In practice, red colouration became a unit identification. Other units soon adopted their own \"squadron colours\", and decoration of fighters became general throughout the Luftstreitkräfte. In spite of obvious drawbacks from the point of view of intelligence, the German high command permitted this practice, and German propaganda made much of it—Richthofen being identified as Der Rote Kampfflieger—the \"Red Fighter Pilot\".\n\nRichthofen led his new unit to unparalleled success, peaking during \"Bloody April\" 1917. In that month alone he downed 22 British aircraft, including four in a single day, raising his official tally to 52. By June he had become the commander of the first of the new larger \"fighter wing\" formations: Jagdgeschwader 1, composed of Jagdstaffeln 4, 6, 10 and 11. These were highly mobile, combined tactical units that could move at short notice to different parts of the front as required. In this way, JG1 became \"The Flying Circus\" or \"Richthofen Circus\", its name coming both from the unit's mobility (including, where appropriate, the use of tents, trains and caravans) and its brightly coloured aircraft.\n\nRichthofen was a brilliant tactician, building on Boelcke's tactics. Unlike Boelcke, he led by example and force of will rather than by inspiration. He was often described as distant, unemotional, and rather humourless, though some colleagues contended otherwise. He circulated to his pilots the basic rule which he wanted them to fight by: \"Aim for the man and don't miss him. If you are fighting a two-seater, get the observer first; until you have silenced the gun, don't bother about the pilot\". \n\nAlthough he was now performing the duties of a lieutenant colonel (in modern RAF terms, a wing commander), he remained a captain. The system in the British army would have been for him to have held the rank appropriate to his level of command (if only on a temporary basis) even if he had not been formally promoted. In the German army, it was not unusual for a wartime officer to hold a lower rank than his duties implied, German officers being promoted according to a schedule and not by battlefield promotion. For instance, Erwin Rommel commanded an infantry battalion as a captain in 1917 and 1918. It was also the custom for a son not to hold a higher rank than his father, and Richthofen's father was a reserve major.\n\nWounded in combat \n\nOn 6 July 1917, during combat with a formation of F.E.2d two seat fighters of No. 20 Squadron RFC, near Wervicq, Richthofen sustained a serious head wound, causing instant disorientation and temporary partial blindness. He regained consciousness in time to ease the aircraft out of a spin and executed a forced landing in a field in friendly territory. The injury required multiple operations to remove bone splinters from the impact area. The air victory was credited to Captain Donald Cunnell of No. 20, who was himself shot down and killed a few days later (by anti-aircraft fire).\n\nThe Red Baron returned to active service (against doctor's orders) on 25 July, but went on convalescent leave from 5 September to 23 October. His wound is thought to have caused lasting damage (he later often suffered from post-flight nausea and headaches) as well as a change in temperament. There is even a theory linking this injury with his eventual death.\n\nAuthor \n\nDuring his convalescent leave, Richthofen completed an autobiographic sketch, Der rote Kampfflieger (1917). Written on the instructions of the \"Press and Intelligence\" (propaganda) section of the Luftstreitkräfte, it shows evidence of having been heavily censored and edited. An English translation by J. Ellis Barker was published in 1918 as The Red Battle Flyer. Although Richthofen died before a revised version could be prepared, he is on record as repudiating the book, stating that it was \"too insolent\" (or \"arrogant\") and that he was \"no longer that kind of person\". \n\nHero \n\nBy 1918, Richthofen had become such a legend that it was feared that his death would be a blow to the morale of the German people. He refused to accept a ground job after his wound, stating that \"every poor fellow in the trenches has to do his duty\" and that he would therefore continue to fly in combat. Certainly he had become part of a cult of hero-worship, assiduously encouraged by official propaganda. German propaganda circulated various false rumours, including that the British had raised squadrons specially to hunt down Richthofen and had offered large rewards and an automatic Victoria Cross to any Allied pilot who shot him down. Passages from his correspondence indicate he may have at least half-believed some of these stories himself. \n\nDeath \n\nRichthofen received a fatal wound just after 11:00 am on 21 April 1918, while flying over Morlancourt Ridge, near the Somme River. \n\nAt the time, the Baron had been pursuing (at very low altitude) a Sopwith Camel piloted by a novice Canadian pilot, Lieutenant Wilfrid \"Wop\" May of No. 209 Squadron, Royal Air Force. In turn, the Baron was spotted and briefly attacked by a Camel piloted by a school friend (and flight commander) of May's, Canadian Captain Arthur \"Roy\" Brown, who had to dive steeply at very high speed to intervene, and then had to climb steeply to avoid hitting the ground. Richthofen turned to avoid this attack, and then resumed his pursuit of May.\n\nIt was almost certainly during this final stage in his pursuit of May that a single .303 bullet hit Richthofen, damaging his heart and lungs so severely that it must have caused a quick death. In the last seconds of his life, he managed to retain sufficient control to make a rough landing ( ) in a field on a hill near the Bray-Corbie road, just north of the village of Vaux-sur-Somme, in a sector controlled by the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). Several witnesses, including Gunner Ernest W. Twycross, Gunner George Ridgway, and Sergeant Ted Smout of the Australian Medical Corps, all later claimed to have been the first man to reach the triplane and reported various versions of Richthofen's last words, generally including the word \"kaputt\". \n\nHis Fokker Dr.I, 425/17, was not badly damaged by the landing, but it was soon taken apart by souvenir hunters.\n\nNo. 3 Squadron, Australian Flying Corps, as the nearest Allied air unit, assumed responsibility for the Baron's remains.\n\nIn 2009, Richthofen's death certificate was found in the archives in Ostrów Wielkopolski, Poland. Richthofen had briefly been stationed in Ostrów—which was part of Germany until the end of World War I—before going to war. The document, which is a one-page, handwritten form in a 1918 registry book of deaths, misspells Richthofen's name as \"Richthoven\" and simply states that he had \"died 21 April 1918, from wounds sustained in combat.\" \n\nWho fired the shot that killed Richthofen? \n\nControversy and contradictory hypotheses continue to surround the identity of the person who fired the shot that actually killed Richthofen.\n\nThe RAF credited Brown with shooting down the Red Baron, but it is now generally agreed that the bullet that hit Richthofen was fired from the ground. Richthofen died following an extremely serious and inevitably fatal chest wound from a single bullet, penetrating from the right armpit and resurfacing next to the left nipple. Brown's attack was from behind and above, and from Richthofen's left. Even more conclusively, Richthofen could not have continued his pursuit of May for as long as he did (up to two minutes) had this wound come from Brown's guns. Brown himself never spoke much about what happened that day, claiming, \"[t]here is no point in me commenting, as the evidence is already out there.\"\n\nMany sources, including a 1998 article by Geoffrey Miller, a physician and historian of military medicine, and a 2002 British Channel 4 documentary, have suggested that Sergeant Cedric Popkin was the person most likely to have killed Richthofen. Popkin was an anti-aircraft (AA) machine gunner with the Australian 24th Machine Gun Company, and was using a Vickers gun. He fired at Richthofen's aircraft on two occasions: first as the Baron was heading straight at his position, and then at long range from the right. Given the nature of Richthofen's wounds, Popkin was in a position to fire the fatal shot, when the pilot passed him for a second time, on the right. Some confusion has been caused by a letter that Popkin wrote, in 1935, to an Australian official historian. It stated Popkin's belief that he had fired the fatal shot as Richthofen flew straight at his position. In the latter respect, Popkin was incorrect: the bullet that caused the Baron's death came from the side (see above).\n\nA 2002 Discovery Channel documentary suggests that Gunner W. J. \"Snowy\" Evans, a Lewis machine gunner with the 53rd Battery, 14th Field Artillery Brigade, Royal Australian Artillery is likely to have killed von Richthofen. Miller and the Channel 4 documentary dismiss this theory, because of the angle from which Evans fired at Richthofen.\n\nOther sources have suggested that Gunner Robert Buie (also of the 53rd Battery) may have fired the fatal shot. There is little support for this theory. In 2007, a municipality in Sydney recognised Buie as the man who shot down Richthofen, placing a plaque near Buie's former home. Buie, who died in 1964, has never been officially recognised in any other way.\n\nThe commanding officer of No. 3 Squadron AFC, Major David Blake, initially suggested that Richthofen had been killed by the crew of one of his squadron's R.E.8s, which had also fought members of Richthofen's unit that afternoon. This claim was quickly discounted (if only because of the time factor) and withdrawn. Following an autopsy that he witnessed, Blake became a strong proponent of the view that an AA machine gunner had killed Richthofen.\n\nTheories about last combat \n\nRichthofen was a highly experienced and skilled fighter pilot—fully aware of the risk from ground fire. Further, he concurred with the rules of air fighting created by his late mentor Boelcke, who specifically advised pilots not to take unnecessary risks. In this context, Richthofen's judgement during his last combat was clearly unsound in several respects. Several theories have been proposed to account for his behaviour.\n\nIn 1999, a German medical researcher, Henning Allmers, published an article in the British medical journal The Lancet, suggesting it was likely that brain damage from the head wound Richthofen suffered in July 1917 (see above) played a part in the Red Baron's death. This was supported by a 2004 paper by researchers at the University of Texas. Richthofen's behaviour after his injury was noted as consistent with brain-injured patients, and such an injury could account for his perceived lack of judgement on his final flight: flying too low over enemy territory and suffering target fixation. \n\nRichthofen may have been suffering from cumulative combat stress, which made him fail to observe some of his usual precautions. One of the leading British air aces, Major Edward \"Mick\" Mannock, was killed by ground fire on 26 July 1918 while crossing the lines at low level, an action he had always cautioned his younger pilots against. One of the most popular of the French air aces, Georges Guynemer, went missing on 11 September 1917, probably while attacking a two-seater without realizing several Fokkers were escorting it. \n\nThere is a suggestion that on the day of Richthofen's death, the prevailing wind was about 25 mph (40 km/h) easterly, rather than the usual 25 mi/h westerly. This meant that Richthofen, heading generally westward at an airspeed of about 100 mph (160 km/h), was travelling over the ground at up to 125 mph (200 km/h) rather than the more typical ground speed of 75 mph (120 km/h). This was considerably faster than normal and he could easily have strayed over enemy lines without realizing it.\n\nAt the time of Richthofen's death, the front was in a highly fluid state, following the initial success of the German offensive of March–April 1918. This was part of Germany's last opportunity to win the war. In the face of Allied air superiority, the German air service was having difficulty acquiring vital reconnaissance information, and could do little to prevent Allied squadrons from completing effective reconnaissance and close support of their armies.\n\nBurial\n\nIn common with most Allied air officers, Major Blake, who was responsible for Richthofen's body, regarded the Red Baron with great respect, and he organised a full military funeral, to be conducted by the personnel of No. 3 Squadron AFC.\n\nThe body was buried in the cemetery at the village of Bertangles, near Amiens, on 22 April 1918. Six of No. 3 Squadron's officers served as pallbearers, and a guard of honour from the squadron's other ranks fired a salute. Accounts that the guard of honour were Australian infantry are apparently based on the fact that in photographs and film of the event they are wearing AIF uniforms, complete with slouch hats – this is simply because members of the AFC, which was part of the Australian army, wore normal army uniforms.\n\nAllied squadrons stationed nearby presented memorial wreaths, one of which was inscribed with the words, \"To Our Gallant and Worthy Foe\".\n\nA speculation that his opponents organised a flypast at his funeral, giving rise to the missing man formation, is most unlikely and totally unsupported by any contemporary evidence.\n\nIn the early 1920s the French authorities created a military cemetery at Fricourt, in which a large number of German war dead, including Richthofen, were reinterred. In 1925 von Richthofen's youngest brother, Bolko, recovered the body from Fricourt and took it to Germany. The family's intention was for it to be buried in the Schweidnitz cemetery next to the graves of his father and his brother Lothar von Richthofen, who had been killed in a post-war air crash in 1922. The German Government requested that the body should instead be interred at the Invalidenfriedhof Cemetery in Berlin, where many German military heroes and past leaders were buried, and the family agreed. Richthofen's body received a state funeral. Later the Government of the III Reich held a further grandiose memorial ceremony at the site of the grave, erecting a massive new tombstone with the single word: Richthofen. During the Cold War, the Invalidenfriedhof was on the boundary of the Soviet zone in Berlin, and the tombstone became damaged by bullets fired at attempted escapees from East Germany. In 1975 the body was moved to a Richtofen family grave plot at the Südfriedhof in Wiesbaden. \n\nFile:Richthofen crash site sign near Vaux-sur-Somme.JPG|Richthofen crash site near Vaux-sur-Somme\nFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-2007-0330-500, Berlin, Grab Manfred v. Richthofen.jpg|Grave in Berlin (1931)\nFile:Fricourt Richthofen sign.JPG|Sign at German War Cemetery Fricourt referring to Richthofen's burial site\nFile:Fricourt Richthofen grave.JPG|Richthofen's former grave at Fricourt, later Sebastian Paustian, section 4, row 7, grave 1177\nFamiliengrab von Richthofen - geo.hlipp.de - 35630.jpg|Richthofen family grave at the Südfriedhof in Wiesbaden\n\nNumber of victories \n\nFor decades after World War I, some authors questioned whether Richthofen had achieved 80 victories, insisting that his record was exaggerated for propaganda purposes. Some claimed that he took credit for aircraft downed by his squadron or wing.\n\nIn fact, Richthofen's victories are unusually well documented. A full list of the aircraft the Red Baron was credited with shooting down was published as early as 1958 —with documented RFC/RAF squadron details, aircraft serial numbers, and the identities of Allied airmen killed or captured—73 of the 80 listed match recorded British losses. A study conducted by British historian Norman Franks with two colleagues, published in Under the Guns of the Red Baron in 1998, reached the same conclusion about the high degree of accuracy of Richthofen's claimed victories. There were also unconfirmed victories that would put his actual total as high as 100 or more. \n\nFor comparison, the highest-scoring Allied ace, the Frenchman René Fonck, achieved 75 confirmed victories and a further 52 unconfirmed behind enemy lines. The highest-scoring British Empire fighter pilots were Canadian Billy Bishop, who was officially credited with 72 victories, Mick Mannock, with 61 confirmed victories, Canadian Raymond Collishaw, with 60, and James McCudden, with 57 confirmed victories.\n\nRichthofen's early victories and the establishment of his reputation coincided with a period of German air superiority, but he achieved many of his successes against a numerically-superior enemy, who flew fighter aircraft that were, on the whole, better than his own.\n\nHonours, tributes and relics \n\nRelics\n\nCaptain Roy Brown, who was officially credited with shooting down Richthofen, donated the seat of the Fokker triplane in which the German flying ace made his final flight to the Royal Canadian Military Institute in 1920. The Royal Canadian Military Institute, in Toronto, apart from the Triplane's seat also holds a side panel signed by the pilots of Brown's squadron.\nThe engine of Richthofen's DR.I was donated to the Imperial War Museum in London, where it is still on display. The museum also holds the Baron's machine guns. The control column (joystick) of Richthofen's aircraft can be seen at the Australian War Memorial, in Canberra.\n\nDecorations and awards\n* Prussian Order Pour le Mérite: 12 January 1917 (in recognition of his 16th aerial victory).\n* Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 3rd Class with Crown and Swords: 6 April 1918 (in recognition of his 70th aerial victory).\n* Prussian House Order of Hohenzollern, Knight's Cross with Swords: 11 November 1916.\n* Prussian Iron Cross, 1st Class (1914): 23 September 1914\n* Prussian Iron Cross, 2nd Class (1914): 12 September 1914\n* Bavarian Military Merit Order, 4th Class with Swords: 29 April 1917. \n* Honour cup for victory in aerial combat\n* Duke Carl Eduard Medal with Swords clasp: 9 November 1916\n* War Merit Cross for heroic act (Lippe)\n* Brunswick War Merit Cross, 2nd Class\n* Wound Badge (1918) in Black\n* Saxon Military Order of St. Henry, Knight's Cross: 16 April 1917.\n* Württemberg Military Merit Order (Württemberg), Knight's Cross: 13 April 1917\n* Saxe-Ernestine House Order, Knight 1st Class with Swords (issued by the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha): 9 May 1917.\n* Hesse General Honour Decoration, \"for Bravery\"\n* Lippe War Honour Cross for Heroic Deeds, 2nd class: 13 October 1917.\n* Schaumburg-Lippe Cross for Faithful Service: 10 October 1917.\n* Bremen Hanseatic Cross: 25 September 1917.\n* Lübeck Hanseatic Cross: 22 September 1917.\n* Hamburg Hanseatic Cross\n* Austrian Order of the Iron Crown, 3rd Class with War Decoration: 8 August 1917.\n* Austrian Military Merit Cross, 3rd Class with War Decoration\n* Bulgarian Order of Bravery, 4th Class (1st Grade): 12 June 1917\n* Turkish Imtiaz Medal in Silver with Sabres\n* Turkish Liakat Medal in Silver with Sabres\n* Turkish War Medal (\"Iron Crescent\" or \"Gallipoli Star\"): 4 November 1917\n* German Army Pilot's Badge\n* German Army Observer's Badge\n* Austrian Field Pilot's Badge (Franz Joseph pattern)\n\nTributes\nAt various times, several different German military aviation Geschwader (literally \"squadrons\"; equivalent to Commonwealth air force \"groups\", French escadrons or USAF \"wings\") have been named after the Baron:\n* Jagdgeschwader 132 \"Richthofen\" (1 April 1936 – 1 November 1938)—Wehrmacht aviation unit\n* Jagdgeschwader 131 \"Richthofen\" (1 November 1938 – 1 May 1939)—Luftwaffe\n* Jagdgeschwader 2 \"Richthofen\" (1 May 1939 – 7 May 1945)—Luftwaffe\n* Jagdgeschwader 71 \"Richthofen\" (from 6 June 1959)—the first jet fighter unit established by the post-World War II German Bundeswehr (\"federal defence force\"); its founding commander was the most successful air ace in history, Erich Hartmann.\n\nIn 1941, a newly launched Kriegsmarine (navy) seaplane tender was also named Richthofen.\n\nPublished works\n\n* at Project Gutenberg",
"A dogfight, or dog fight, is an aerial battle between fighter aircraft, conducted at close range. Dogfighting first appeared during World War I, shortly after the invention of the airplane. Until at least 1992, it was a component in every major war, despite beliefs after World War II that increasingly greater speeds and longer range weapons would make dogfighting obsolete. Modern terminology for air-to-air combat is air combat maneuvering (ACM), which refers to tactical situations requiring the use of individual basic fighter maneuvers (BFM) to attack or evade one or more opponents. This differs from aerial warfare, which deals with the strategy involved in planning and executing various missions. \n\nEtymology\n\nThe term dogfight has been used for centuries to describe a melee; a fierce, fast-paced battle between two or more opponents. The term gained popularity during World War II although its origin in air combat can be traced to the latter years of World War I. The first written reference to the modern day usage of the word comes from Fly Papers, by A. E. Illingworth, in 1919, “The battle develops into a ‘dog-fight’, small groups of machines engaging each other in a fight to the death.” The term fighter ace generally applies to any pilot who eliminates five opponent craft in the air (or, in Germany during World War I, ten aircraft), although not necessarily in a dogfight.\n\nHistory\n\nMexican Revolution\n\nThe first instance of plane on plane combat and the first instance of one plane intercepting another during an aerial conflict occurred during the Mexican Revolution in November 30, 1913 between two American soldiers of fortune fighting for opposing sides Dean Ivan Lamb and Phil Rader. Both men had orders to kill but neither pilot wanted to harm the other so they exchanged multiple volleys of pistol fire, intentionally missing before exhausting their supply of ammunition. \n\nWorld War I\n\nDogfighting first emerged in World War I. Ever since \"heavier than air\" flights became a reality in 1903, people had been trying to figure out how to use this new technology for warfare. Aircraft were initially used as mobile observation vehicles, and early pilots gave little thought to aerial combat. The new airplanes proved their worth by spotting the hidden German advance on Paris in the second month of the war.\n\nEnemy pilots at first simply exchanged waves, or shook their fists at each other. Due to weight restrictions, only small weapons could be carried on board. Intrepid pilots decided to interfere with enemy reconnaissance by improvised means, including throwing bricks, grenades and sometimes rope, which they hoped would entangle the enemy plane's propeller. Pilots quickly began firing hand-held guns at enemy planes, such as pistols and carbines. The first aerial dogfight occurred during the Battle of Cer (15–24 August 1914), when Serbian aviator Miodrag Tomić encountered an Austro-Hungarian plane while performing a reconnaissance mission over Austro-Hungarian positions. The Austro-Hungarian pilot initially waved, and Tomić reciprocated. The Austro-Hungarian pilot then fired at Tomić with his revolver. Tomić managed to escape, and within several weeks, all Serbian and Austro-Hungarian planes were fitted with machine-guns. In August 1914, Staff-Captain Pyotr Nesterov, from Russia, became the first pilot to ram his plane into an enemy spotter aircraft. In October 1914, an airplane was shot down by a hand gun from another plane for the first time over Rheims, France. Once machine guns were mounted to the airplane, either on a flexible mounting or higher on the wings of early biplanes, the era of air combat began.\n\nThe biggest problem was mounting a machine gun onto an aircraft so that it could be fired forward, through the propeller, and aimed by pointing the nose of the aircraft directly at the enemy. Roland Garros solved this problem by mounting steel deflector wedges to the propeller of a Morane Saulnier monoplane. He achieved three kills, but was forced down due to engine failure down behind enemy lines, and captured before he could destroy his plane by burning it. The wreckage was brought to Anthony Fokker, a Dutch designer who built aircraft for the Germans. Fokker decided that the wedges were much too risky, and improved the design by connecting the trigger of an MG 08 Maxim machine gun to the timing of the engine. The Germans acquired an early air superiority due to the invention of the synchronization gear in 1915, transforming air combat with the Fokker E.I, the first synchronized, forward firing fighter plane. On the evening of July 1, 1915, the very first aerial engagement by a fighter plane armed with a synchronized, forward-firing machine gun occurred just to the east of Luneville, France. The German Fokker E.I was flown by Lieutenant Kurt Wintgens, earning the victory over a French two-seat observation monoplane. Later that same month, on July 25, 1915, British Royal Flying Corps (RFC) Major Lanoe Hawker, flying a very early production Bristol Scout C., attacked three separate aircraft during a single sortie, shooting down two with a non-synchronizable Lewis gun which was mounted next to his cockpit at an outwards angle to avoid hitting the propeller. He forced the third one down, and was awarded the Victoria Cross.\n\nBattles in the air increased as the technological advantage swung from the British to the Germans, then back again. The Feldflieger Abteilung observation units of the German air service, in 1914-15, consisted of six two-seat observation aircraft each, with each unit assigned to a particular German Army headquarters location. They had but a single Fokker Eindecker aircraft assigned to each \"FFA\" unit for general defensive duties, so pilots such as Max Immelmann and Oswald Boelcke began as lone hunters with each \"FFA\" unit, shooting unarmed spotter planes and enemy aircraft out of the sky. During the first part of the war, there was no established tactical doctrine for air-to-air combat. Oswald Boelcke was the first to analyze the tactics of aerial warfare, resulting in a set of rules known as the Dicta Boelcke. Many of Boelcke's concepts, conceived in 1916, are still applicable today, including use of sun and altitude, surprise attack, and turning to meet a threat.\n\nBritish Brigadier General Hugh Trenchard ordered that all reconnaissance aircraft had to be supported by at least three fighters, creating the first use of tactical formations in the air. The Germans responded by forming Jastas, large squadrons of fighters solely dedicated to destroying enemy aircraft, under the supervision of Boelcke. Pilots who shot down five or more fighters became known as aces. One of the most famous dogfights, resulting in the death of Major Hawker, is described by the Red Baron, Manfred von Richthofen,\n\nI WAS extremely proud when, one fine day, I was informed that the airman whom I had brought down on the twenty- third of November, 1916, was the English [equivalent of] Immelmann.... First we circled twenty times to the left, and then thirty times to the right. Each tried to get behind and above the other. Soon I discovered that I was not meeting a beginner. He had not the slightest intention of breaking off the fight. He was traveling in a machine which turned beautifully. However, my own was better at rising than his, and I succeeded at last in getting above and beyond my English waltzing partner.... The impertinent fellow was full of cheek and when we had got down to about 3,000 feet he merrily waved to me as if he would say, \"Well, how do you do?\" The circles which we made around one another were so narrow that their diameter was probably no more than 250 or 300 feet. I had time to take a good look at my opponent.... When he had come down to about three hundred feet he tried to escape by flying in a zig-zag course during which, as is well known, it is difficult for an observer to shoot. That was my most favorable moment. I followed him at an altitude of from two hundred and fifty feet to one hundred and fifty feet, firing all the time. The Englishman could not help falling. But the jamming of my gun nearly robbed me of my success. My opponent fell, shot through the head, one hundred and fifty feet behind our line. \n\nDespite the German's early lead in combat tactics and their 'Dicta Boelcke', the Allies were not slow to adapt and develop their own tactics. The Royal Flying Corps' Albert Ball was one of a band of pilots who liked to fly solo and he developed 'stalking' tactics for going after enemy two-seaters. He even used his Lewis gun in its top wing adjustable Foster mounting to fire upwards into the underside of unsuspecting enemy aircraft. Other RFC pilots such as James McCudden and Mick Mannock emphasised mutual support and the advantages of attacking from height. One RFC mantra was: \"never from below, seldom from the same height, always from above\".\n\n \nDuring 1916, aerial reconnaissance patrols had most often been unaccompanied as there had been little if any aerial disputes, between the belligerents. However, just as the Sinai and Palestine Campaign ground war on the Gaza to Beersheba line came to resemble trench warfare on the western front, so too did the air war over southern Palestine come to resemble that being fought over France. After the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917 and during the Stalemate in Southern Palestine which followed, the concentration of Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) and Ottoman Army forces holding established front lines grew, as associated supply dumps and lines of communications were developed. The need to know about these fuelled \"intense rivalry in the air.\" Aerial reconnaissance patrols were regularly attacked, so it was necessary for all photography and artillery observation patrols to be accompanied by escort aircraft. These special EEF patrols which grew into squadrons, accompanied and protected the reconnaissance aircraft, attacking hostile aircraft wherever they were found, either in the air, or on the ground. However the technically superior German aircraft shot down numbers of EEF aircraft during dog fights.\n\nBy the end of the war, the underpowered machines from just ten years prior had been transformed into fairly powerful, swift, and heavily armed fighter planes, and the basic tactics for dogfighting had been laid down.\n\nSpanish Civil War\n\nAirplane technology rapidly increased in sophistication after World War I. By 1936, dogfighting was thought to be a thing of the past, since aircraft were reaching top speeds of over 250 miles per hour (400 km/h). The experiences of the Spanish civil war proved this theory was wrong.\n\nAt the beginning of the war, new tactics were developed, most notably in the Luftwaffe Condor Legion. Lieutenant Werner Mölders advised abandoning the standard “V” formation used in combat, and pairing fighters in twos, starting the practice of having a wingman at one's side. He advised that pairs of aircraft approaching a fight should increase the distance between them instead of holding tight formations, a precursor to the combat spread maneuver. He also started the practice of training pilots to fly at night, and with instruments only. Using the new tactics, and flying the newest Bf 109 fighters, the Germans shot down 22 Spanish Republican fighters within a five-day period, suffering no losses of their own. \n\nWorld War II\n\nStrategies for fighter development\n\nDuring the 1930s two different streams of thought about air-to-air combat began to emerge, resulting in two different streams of monoplane fighter development. In Japan and Italy especially, there continued to be a strong belief that lightly armed, highly maneuverable single seat fighters would still play a primary role in air-to-air combat. Aircraft such as the Nakajima Ki-27 and Nakajima Ki-43 and the Mitsubishi A6M Zero in Japan, and the Fiat G.50 and Macchi C.200 in Italy epitomised a generation of monoplanes designed to this concept.\n\nThe other stream of thought, which emerged primarily in Britain, Germany, the Soviet Union and the United States was the belief the high speeds of modern combat aircraft and the g-forces imposed by aerial combat meant that dogfighting in the classic WW I sense would be impossible. Fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109, the Supermarine Spitfire, the Yakovlev Yak-1 and the Curtiss P-40 were all designed for high level speeds and a good rate of climb. Good maneuverability was not a primary objective.\n\nImmediately following the Spanish civil war came World War II, during which dogfighting was most prevalent. It was widely believed that strategic bombing alone was synonymous with air power; a fallacy that would not be fully understood until Vietnam. After the failings in Spain, a greater emphasis was placed on the accuracy of air-to-ground attacks. The need to stop bombers from reaching their targets, or to protect them on their missions, was the primary purpose for most dogfights of the era. \n\nDogfighting over Europe\n\nDogfighting was very prominent in the skies over Europe. The air force in France, while a major force during World War I, was inadequate and poorly organized, and quickly fell to the German onslaught. As the first battles between the Germans and the British began, the power of the German’s anti-aircraft artillery became readily apparent, with 88 millimeter shells capable of firing 40000 ft in the air. General Wolfram von Richthofen noted that these guns were equally destructive when used for ground fire. The German Bf 109 and the British Spitfire were some of the most common fighters used in the European theater. \n\nA typical dogfight is described by an unnamed pilot,\n\nPulling up into his blind spot I watched his plane grow larger and larger in my sight. But this German pilot was not content to fly straight and level. Before I could open fire his plane slewed to the right, and seeing me on his tail, he jerked back on the stick into the only defensive maneuver his plane could make. I banked my 47 over to the right and pulled back on the stick, striving to get him once more into my ring sight. The violent maneuver applied terrific G’s to my body, and I started to black out as the blood rushed from my head. Fighting every second to overcome this blackness about me, I pulled back on the stick, further and further, so that the enemy would just show at the bottom of my ring sight to allow for the correct deflection.\n\nWe were both flying in a tight circle. Just a little more and I’ll have him. Pressing the [trigger] I waited expectantly for the 109 to explode. I’ve hit his wing. A section two-feet long broke loose from the right wing as the machine gun cut like a machete through it. Too low, a little more rudder and the bullets will find his cockpit. I could see occasional strikes further up the wing, but it was too late. The 109, sensing that I was inside him on the turn, slunk into a nearby cloud. Straightening my plane, I climbed over the top of the bank, and poised on the other side, waiting for him to appear. But the 109 did not appear, and not wishing to tempt the gods of fate further, I pushed my stick forward, entered the protective cover of the clouds, and headed home. \n\nSoviet fighters\n\nDuring this time, three new Russian fighters, the LaGG-1, the Yak-1, and the MiG-3 were just coming off of the production line. The Soviet Air Defense Force had been fraught with problems since World War I. The German Barbarossa offensive on 22 June 1941, destroyed more than 2000 Soviet aircraft on the first day, and more than 5000 before October. With great desperation, the Soviets fought in dogfights over Leningrad, Moscow, and the Ukraine for more than a year.\n\nFireteam, a triple of aircraft (\"troika\"), has been the main tactical unit used in battles since the beginning of World War II. The analysis and synthesis of fighting experience resulted in a conclusion that group tactics should have been rejected and replaced by action pairs. However, ramming an opponent was still a common practice among the pilots of the Soviet Union. Another successful maneuver was a \"Sokolinnyi udar\" (falcon punch) when a pilot got an advantage of power by swooping down on an opponent and using the sunlight conditions. This maneuver and many other tactical principles were introduced by Alexander Pokryshkin, one of the greatest tactician of the Soviet Air Force who showed his worth during World War II. His famous motto sounded as \"Height, speed, maneuver, fire!\". It became popular in the air armies and was adopted by pilots. \n\nStruggling with morale problems, the Soviets slowly and methodically began to regain air supremacy after the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943. This theater is notable for including the only female fighter aces in history, Yekaterina Budanova and Lydia Litvyak.\n\nUSA and Japan\n\nAfter the bombing of Pearl Harbor, in the Hawaiian Islands, the United States entered the war. The Japanese used the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, an extremely lightweight fighter known for its exceptional range and maneuverability. The U.S. military tested out the Akutan Zero, a Mitsubishi A6M2 which was captured intact in 1942, advising — along the same lines that General Claire Chennault, commander of the Kunming-based Flying Tigers had already advised his pilots over a year before — \"Never attempt to dogfight a Zero.\" Even though its engine was rather low in power, the Zero had very low wing loading characteristics, a small turn radius, a top speed over 330 mph, and could climb better than any fighter used by the U.S. at that time, although it was poorly armored compared to U.S. aircraft.\n\nA pilot who realized that new tactics had to be devised was Lieutenant Commander John S. \"Jimmy\" Thach, commander of Fighting Three in San Diego. He read the early reports coming out of China and wrestled with the problem of his Grumman F4F Wildcats being relatively slower and much less maneuverable than the Japanese planes. He devised a defensive maneuver called the \"Thach Weave.\" Lieutenant Commander Thach reasoned that two planes, a leader and his wingman, could fly about 200 feet apart and adopt a weaving formation when under attack by Japanese fighters.\n\nThach later faced the A6M Zero during the Battle of Midway, in June 1942, for the test of his theory. Although outnumbered, he found that a Zero would lock onto the tail of one of the fighters. In response, the two planes would turn toward each other. When the Zero followed its original target through the turn it would come into a position to be fired on by the target's wingman, and the predator would become the prey. His tactic proved to be effective and was soon adopted by other squadrons. The Thach Weave helped make up for the inferiority of the US planes in maneuverability and numbers, until new aircraft could be brought into service. The usefulness of this strategy survives until today.\n\nAnother effective maneuver used by the U.S. pilots was a simple break, which consisted of turning sharply across an attacker's flight path, which worked well because the large nose of the Zero tended to obstruct the pilot's view. Still another good tactic was a high-side guns pass, which consisted of diving upon the Zero, shooting in one, high-speed pass, and using the speed to climb back above the fight to dive again. By 1943 the U.S. technology began to produce planes that were better matched against the Japanese planes, such as the\nGrumman F6F Hellcat, and the Vought F4U Corsair. \n\nTechnology\n\nTechnology advanced extremely fast during World War II in ways that would change dogfighting forever. Jet propulsion had been demonstrated long before the war, by German engineer Hans von Ohain in 1934, and by British engineer Frank Whittle in 1937. The Messerschmitt Me 262 was the first jet fighter to be used in battle, with a speed over 500 mph, and began taking a toll on Allied bombing missions in 1944. The British were testing a jet that same year, the Gloster Meteor, which would later see action in the Korean War. Although U.S. General Hap Arnold test flew the XP-59A in 1942, the plane was never used in combat. Other prime inventions of the era include radar and air-to-air missiles. \n\nPropaganda\n\nEnemy pilots were construed as weak and evil. For example, in World War II, describing the Soviet tactics, the Luftwaffe claimed that, \"The characteristic feature of the average Soviet fighter pilot were a tendency toward caution and reluctance instead of toughness and stamina, brute strength instead of genuine combat efficiency, abysmal hatred instead of fairness and chivalry....\"\n\nKorean War\n\nAfter World War II, the question began to rise about the future usefulness of fighter aircraft. This was especially true for the U.S., where the focus was placed on small, fast, long-range bombers capable of delivering atomic bombs. The Korean War began in June 1950, and the North Koreans were outmatched by the U.S. Air Force. The war was nearly over by October, with the occupation of North Korea when, on November 1, Chinese MiG-15s attacked. The Chinese began supplying North Korea with troops and provisions, and the war quickly resumed.\n\nAt 100 mph faster, the MiG-15 was more than a match for the U.S. P-80 Shooting Star, using the same dive and shoot tactic that the Americans found so useful against Japan. The U.S. jets had inferior weaponry, and suffered from problems with production and parts. The U.S. resorted to using mainly the more maneuverable propeller driven fighters during the war, such as the P-51 Mustang which was carried over from World War II. The P-47 Thunderbolt was not used in Korea. Used mainly in the close air support role, Mustangs were more vulnerable to being shot down (and many were lost due to anti-aircraft fire). Some former P-47 pilots suggested the more durable Thunderbolt should have been sent to Korea; however, the P-51D was available in greater numbers in the USAF and ANG inventories. (See footnote [27] under Wikipedia article on P-47 Thunderbolt.)\n\nTo combat the MiGs, the F-86 Sabre was put into production. The U.S. pilots had a number of major advantages over the Chinese, including the G-suit and the radar-ranging gunsight. Chinese fighters were often seen spinning off out of control during a hard turn because the pilot had lost consciousness. The Chinese were very competent in a dogfight, and large swirling battles were fought in the skies over Korea. However, it is highly suspected by many U.S. pilots that some of the opponents they faced over Korea were in fact well-trained Soviet pilots, who the Americans referred to as \"hanchos,\" (a Japanese word, meaning \"bosses\"). Major Robinson Risner recalls,\n\nSeeing one another about the same time, the MiG flight and my flight dropped [our extra fuel] tanks.. He was so low he was throwing up small rocks. I dropped down to get him, but to hit him I had to get down in his jet wash. He'd chop the throttle and throw out his speed brakes. I would coast up beside him, wingtip to wingtip. When it looked like I was going to overshoot him, I would roll over the top and come down on the other side of him. When I did, he'd go into a hard turn, pulling all the Gs he could. This guy was one fantastic pilot. \n\nThe war in the air, however, eventually came to a stalemate as fighting ceased between the two factions. Later after the fall of the Soviet Union, Soviet records showed that Russian pilots\nwere indeed in the air. Some at times in the fury of combat reverted to the Russian language over the radio.\n\nVietnam War\n\nThe Vietnam War \"was the first 'modern' air war\" in which air-to-air missiles were the primary weapons during aerial combat, and was the only confrontation between the latest aerial and ground defense technologies between the former Soviet Union and the United States. If U.S. air power could successfully conduct war against Soviet doctrine and equipment in the skies over North Vietnam, then it could expect to successfully operate against the Soviet Union during a massive war in Europe. Over the skies of North Vietnam, U.S. aircraft would be attacking the \"most formidable and most heavily defended targets in the history of aerial warfare.\" \n\nBy this time, dogfighting techniques had fallen out of favor in U.S. training doctrines, as missiles were considered to be all that was necessary to shoot down the big bombers expected to be deployed by the Soviet Union. As a result, air combat methods known by fighter pilots since World War I became all but lost as veterans from WWII and Korea retired and didn't pass them on to succeeding generations. American fighter pilots would meet in the skies in secret to engage in mock combat to try and maintain some level of proficiency. It wasn't until TOPGUN was established for the Navy in 1969 and Red Flag was started for the Air Force in 1975 that pilots were formally trained in dogfighting again.\n\nBoth U.S. and Soviet-built jet fighters were primarily designed for intercepting bombers, and then shooting them down with air-to-air missiles. With possibly a few exceptions, such as the U.S. Navy's F-8 Crusader and the U.S. Air Force's F-100 Super Sabre, which each mounted 4 20mm cannons, jets were not designed for dog fighting other jet aircraft. Soviet doctrine called for their interceptors to be strictly vectored towards their targets by Ground Control Intercept (GCI) operators. As a consequence, U.S. RF-101 Voodoo's conducting reconnaissance missions, or F-102 Delta Daggers, F-104 Starfighters performing MiGCAP duties, and the strike aircraft themselves, such as F-105 Thunderchiefs, A-4 Skyhawks, A-6 Intruders, F-4 Phantoms, and B-52's flying over North Vietnam were met by MiG-17s (or Chicom J-5s), MiG-19s (Chicom J-6s), and MiG-21s being vectored directly to them by GCI operators who worked in conjunction with surface-to-air missile (SAM) crews. U.S. aircraft which successfully made it through the NVAF MiGs were then confronted with the SAMs and AAA batteries.\n\nThis triad defense system of GCI-controlled MiGs, Missiles (SAMs), and AAA enabled the North Vietnamese MiGs to utilize their aircraft's design capabilities as their designers had intended, that of, in the vernacular of the time, making \"one pass, and then hauling ass\", which was, in practice, quickly firing at their targets and then speeding away. By 1967 the Soviets had supplied the NVAF with enough missile-firing MiG-21s to allow the North Vietnamese to routinely engage U.S. aircraft, and to rely less and less on their aged MiG-17s, although many North Vietnamese pilots still preferred the MiG-17s agility and easy maintenance. With the arrival of the additional MiG-21s, and by 1969 MiG-19s (J-6s) imported from Red China, engagements between U.S. and NVAF jets became generally divided into two arenas; MiG-21s engaged at higher altitudes, while MiG-17s and MiG-19s would try to give battle at lower altitudes where their cannons were more effective. \n\nAt the conclusion of the air war in 1973, U.S. airmen had downed 202 communist MiGs, including 2 downed by B-52 tailgunners from their quad .50 caliber machine guns; this at a cost of 90 U.S. aircraft to NVAF MiGs. The USAF claimed 137 MiGs while the USN/USMC brought down 65 in air-to-air combat. From these figures, the USAF had 40 gun kills, and the USN claimed 8 cannon victories. This number approached parity with the NVAF MiG's 37 gun kill figures. \n\nApproximately 612 radar-guided AIM-7 Sparrow missiles were fired during the war, scoring 56 MiG kills, while 454 heat-seeking AIM-9 Sidewinders were launched achieving 81 aerial victories. During Operation Rolling Thunder 54 AIM-4 Falcon missiles were fired, obtaining 5 kills. By contrast, NVAF MiG-21s obtained 53 air-to-air kills with their AA-2 \"Atoll\" missiles, from an unknown number of launchings. At least 3 MiG-21s, and all of the MiG-17s and MiG-19s (J-6s) made the remaining 37 kills, from their 90 total, with their 23mm, 30mm and 37mm cannons. \n\nAs part of the North Vietnamese triad system of defense, surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) had become an ever-increasing threat. U.S Air Force Brigadier General Robin Olds describes a typical encounter with surface-to-air missiles, which during a period of time in Vietnam was referred to as either a \"MiG day\" or a \"Sam day\", this was a Sam day. \n\nHere come the SAMs. The trick is seeing the launch. You can see the steam. It goes straight up, turns more level, then the booster drops off. If it maintains a relatively stable position, it's coming right for you and you're in trouble. You're eager to make a move but can't. If you dodge too fast it will turn and catch you; if you wait too late it will explode near enough to get you. What you do at the right moment is poke your nose down, go down as hard as you can, pull maybe three negative Gs at 550 knots and once it follows you down, you go up as hard as you can. It can't follow that and goes under. \n\nThis passage from a USAF booklet explained a MiG day:\n\n\"If you know a MiG-21 is in your area or you lose sight of one and want to find it again: Roll out wings level for 15 seconds, then look in your 6 o'clock about 1.5 miles. It will be there. Probably you'll see mach 2 Atoll (air-to-air missile) smoke trail first before you see the MiG. But remember that's where the MiG-21 is! Just ask one of the 20 aircrews shot down during Linebacker that never knew they were under attack.\" \n\nArab–Israeli conflicts\n\nThe Arab–Israeli conflicts were a series of wars between the country of Israel and its surrounding Arab neighbors. Those that involved dogfighting occurred between 1948 and 1985. The wars escalated on 14 May 1948, the day Israel declared its sovereignty from Britain. The War of Independence was followed by the Suez-Sinai War in 1956, the Six-Day War in 1967, the War of Attrition, the Yom Kippur War in 1973, and the First Lebanon War in the early 1980s.\n\nThe wars began with both sides using propeller planes, such as Spitfires, Avia S-199s, and P-51s, then progressed to older jets like MiG-15s, Dassault Mysteres and Dassault Mirages. In the latter wars dogfighting ensued between modern aircraft, like F-15s and F-16s against MiG-21s and MiG-25s. Although usually outnumbered, the Israelis managed to defeat the air forces of Egypt, Jordan and Syria in dogfights, often achieving kill ratios ranging from 10:1 to over 20:1, which is usually attributed to better training of the Israeli pilots and a technological advantage. \n\nIndo-Pakistani War of 1965\n\nThe Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 saw the Indian and Pakistani Air Forces engaged in large-scale aerial combat against each other for the first time since the independence of Pakistan in 1947. The war took place during the course of September 1965 and saw both air forces conduct defensive and offensive operations over Indian and Pakistani airspace. The aerial war saw both sides conducting thousands of sorties in a single month.Singh, Jasjit. [http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070506/spectrum/main1.htm \"The 1965 India-Pakistan War: IAF’s Ground Reality\".] The Sunday Tribune, 6 May 2007. Both sides claimed victory in the air war; Pakistan claimed to have destroyed 104 aircraft against its own losses of 19, while India claimed to have destroyed 73 enemy aircraft and lost 35 of its own. Despite the intense fighting, the conflict was effectively a stalemate. \n\nIndo-Pakistani War of 1971\n\nBy late 1971, the intensification of the independence movement in erstwhile East Pakistan lead to the Bangladesh Liberation War between India and Pakistan . On 22 November 1971, 10 days before the start of a full-scale war, four PAF F-86 Sabre jets attacked Indian and Mukti Bahini positions at Garibpur, near the international border. Two of the four PAF Sabres were shot down and one damaged by the IAF's Folland Gnats. On 3 December, India formally declared war against Pakistan following massive preemptive strikes by the PAF against Indian Air Force installations in Srinagar, Ambala, Sirsa, Halwara and Jodhpur. However, the IAF did not suffer significantly because the leadership had anticipated such a move and precautions were taken. The Indian Air Force was quick to respond to Pakistani air strikes, following which the PAF carried out mostly defensive sorties. \n\nWithin the first two weeks, the IAF had carried out almost 12,000 sorties over East Pakistan and also provided close air support to the advancing Indian Army. IAF also assisted the Indian Navy in its operations against the Pakistani Navy and Maritime Security Agency in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. On the western front, the IAF destroyed more than 20 Pakistani tanks, 4 APCs and a supply train during the Battle of Longewala. The IAF undertook strategic bombing of West Pakistan by carrying out raids on oil installations in Karachi, the Mangla Dam and a gas plant in Sindh. Similar strategy was also deployed in East Pakistan and as the IAF achieved complete air superiority on the eastern front, the ordnance factories, runways, and other vital areas of East Pakistan were severely damaged. By the time Pakistani forces surrendered, the IAF destroyed 94 PAF aircraft \nThe IAF was able to conduct a wide range of missions – troop support; air combat; deep penetration strikes; para-dropping behind enemy lines; feints to draw enemy fighters away from the actual target; bombing; and reconnaissance. In contrast, the Pakistan Air Force, which was solely focused on air combat, was blown out of the subcontinent’s skies within the first week of the war. Those PAF aircraft that survived took refuge at Iranian air bases or in concrete bunkers, refusing to offer a fight. Hostilities officially ended at 14:30 GMT on 17 December, after the fall of Dacca on 15 December. India claimed large gains of territory in West Pakistan (although pre-war boundaries were recognised after the war), and the independence of Pakistan's East wing as Bangladesh was confirmed. The IAF had flown over 16,000 sorties on both East and West fronts; including sorties by transport aircraft and helicopters. while the PAF flew about 30 and 2,840. More than 80 percent of the IAF's sorties were close-support and interdiction, and according to neutral assessments about 45 IAF aircraft were lost while, Pakistan lost 75 aircraft. Not including any F-6s, Mirage IIIs, or the six Jordanian F-104s which failed to return to their donors. But the imbalance in air losses was explained by the IAF's considerably higher sortie rate, and its emphasis on ground-attack missions. On the ground Pakistan suffered most, with 9,000 killed and 25,000 wounded while India lost 3,000 dead and 12,000 wounded. The loss of armoured vehicles was similarly imbalanced. This represented a major defeat for Pakistan. Towards the end of the war, IAF's transport planes dropped leaflets over Dhaka urging the Pakistani forces to surrender, demoralising Pakistani troops in East Pakistan. \n\nFalklands War\n\nThe Falklands War () began on 2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded the Falkland islands (), and then the island of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, which were small disputed British dependencies. Because Britain had no military bases nearby, and few aircraft carriers, the Argentinians did not expect a response from Britain, but on 5 April the British sent carriers sailing to the Falklands with Sea Harrier 'Jump-jets' on board. The Sea Harrier, being initially designed as a ground-attack fighter, was equipped not for dogfighting but for Soviet bomber interception; thus the aircraft had to undergo many modifications, and the pilots needed extra training.\n\nThe Argentinians had superior numbers, but their forces mainly consisted of older jets from the 1960s, such as Dassault Mirage IIIs and Israeli Daggers. The Argentinians were also handicapped by the long distance from mainland airfields and a lack of refuelling tankers. Neither side was ready for war, but both prepared all through April as diplomacy failed. The fighting started on May 1, and was to become the largest naval and air conflict since World War II. By the end of the war, Argentina lost 20 fighters in dogfights, while Britain only lost one Sea Harrier to ground fire. The Americans supplied late model Sidewinder missiles to the British; this and the analysis of French Mirage combat tactics made the difference. \n\nIran–Iraq War\n\nIn the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–1988 (also known as first Gulf War) many dogfights happened between Iranian Air Force and Saddam Hussein's Iraq Air Force. At early years of the war IRIAF had the superiority (see for example Operation Sultan 10 and Operation Morvarid); however, at the end of the war, Iranian Air Force lost its superiority due to the lack of their western made aircraft spare parts and outdated equipment, while Iraq was introducing new French and Soviet weapons in its air force.\n\nThe Iran–Iraq War also saw the only confirmed helicopter dogfights in history, with Iranian Army Aviation's AH-1J Internationals (usually the TOW-capable ones) entering combat against Iraqi Army Air Corps' Mil Mi-24 Hind gunships. Hinds are stronger and faster, while AH-1Js are more agile. The result of the skirmishes are disputed. There were even engagements between Iranian AH-1J and Iraqi fixed-wing aircraft. The AH-1Js scored three confirmed kills against MiG-21s, claimed a Su-20, and shared in the destruction of a MiG-23—all using their 20 mm calibre canon. \n\nPersian Gulf War\n\nIn the Gulf War of 1990–91, dogfighting once again proved its usefulness when the Coalition Air Force had to face off against the Iraqi Air Force, which at the time was the fifth largest in the world. By the second day of the war, the Coalition achieved air superiority. Many dogfights occurred during the short conflict, often involving many planes. By the end of January, 1991, the term \"furball\" became a popular word to describe the hectic situation of many dogfights, occurring at the same time within the same relatively small airspace. By the end of the war, the U.S. claimed 39 Iraqi aircraft in air-to-air victories to the loss of only one F/A-18 and one drone. Of the 39 victories, 36 were taken by F-15 Eagles.[http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Air_Power/gulf_war/AP44.htm Air Power:The Gulf War]\n\nBalkans conflict\n\nDuring the Balkans conflict, in 1999 (the Kosovo War), five MiG-29s of the Yugoslav Air Force were shot down in dogfights with NATO aircraft. The first was on the 24th of March by a Dutch F-16AM Falcon and two were downed on the same night by U.S. F-15s. A day later two more MiG 29's were shot down by an F-16 and F-15."
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"Manfred von Richthofen The Red Baron ... records of aerial victories were not kept ... as any fighter pilot's claim. See this detailed list of The Red Baron ...",
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"... also widely known as the Red Baron, ... Others claim that the Allies did not possess time ... very remotely related to Manfred von Richthofen.",
"However, it was the German pilot, Manfred von Richthofen, the 'Red Baron', ... Dogfights often involved large numbers of aircraft and ... This claim was quickly ...",
"Known as 'The Red Baron,' he won eighty aerial victories before he ... With 80 credited victories, Baron Manfred von Richthofen, the \"Red Baron,\" defied ..."
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"The Red Baron, Manfred von Richthofen - Top WW1 German Ace\nThe Red Baron - Top Ace of WWI, 80 victories\nBy Stephen Sherman , Aug. 2001. Updated Aug. 1, 2012.\nThe Red Baron was one of those heroes whose life seems almost scripted. Discipline, pride, hunting skills, and Teutonic patriotism all combined in this man, bringing him to the pinnacle of fame which long outlasted the man himself. \"Curse you, Red Baron,\" cried Snoopy, the Mitty-esque canine ace of Charles Schultz' Peanuts comic strip. But Richthofen was no caricature, methodically claiming 80 aerial victories, before falling himself, in a Wagnerian finale.\nYouth\nBorn on May 2, 1892 to a Prussian noble family, junker landholders, Manfred von Richthofen, learned to hunt at an early age.\nGrowing up in Silesia (now part of Poland) young Manfred learned from his father, a Uhlan career officer, and his maternal Schickfuss relatives. In the protected game forests, he and his brothers, Lothar and Bolko, hunted wild boar, elk, birds, and deer, collected and displayed their trophies in their castle. Later, the great ace would bring the same love of the hunt and love of victory to his aerial battles. He entered the Prussian cadet corps (military school) at age eleven, where he was an indifferent student. In 1911, he entered Uhlan Regiment Number 1, which he enjoyed, at least insofar as the opportunities it gave him to ride horses. He first fought on the Russian front, where the highlight of his cavalry exploits seemed to be capturing and locking up a Russian priest in his own bell tower. Transferred to the West, his Uhlan regiment spent several enjoyable, peaceful months in the rear areas. An assignment to the quartermaster corps didn't satisfy Richthofen. \"My dear Excellency,\" he wrote, \"I have not gone to war to collect cheese and eggs ...\" He asked to serve with a flying unit. In May, 1915, his request was granted.\nFlier\nSoon, he was back in the East, as a reconnaissance flier and then a bomber. During June, July and August, 1915, he remained with the 69th Flying Squadron which participated in Mackensen's advance from Gorlice to Brest-Litovsk. He had joined it as quite a junior observer and he had no special expertise. As a cavalryman his business had consisted in reconnoitering. So the Aviation Service as an observer was in his line and he enjoyed the long reconnoitering flights which they undertook nearly every day.\nStill dissatisfied, he complained again and was removed to Ostend on the Western front, as a back-seat observer in a reconnaissance plane. With pilot Lt. Zeumer, they patrolled over the North Sea, and once spotted a submarine beneath the water, but did not bomb it as they could not determine its nationality.\nHis first encounter with an English airplane, on September 15, 1915, ended without real damage to either plane; but gunner Richthofen and pilot Zeumer both thought that the other could have handled the combat better.\nTransferred to the Champagne front, he flew with pilot Osteroth. With his ring-mounted machine gun, he managed to shoot down a Farman aircraft, but could not get credit for the kill, as it fell behind Allied lines. His hunter's instinct had been awakened.\nStill determined to join the great hunt in the skies, he started pilot training in October, 1915, making his first solo on the 10th. He damaged the plane on landing and had to take more training at Doberitz.\nOn Christmas Day, 1915, he passed his examination. In connection with it, he flew to Schwerin, where the Fokker works are situated. From Schwerin flew to Breslau, to Schweidnitz, to Luben and then returned to Berlin. During his tour, he landed in many places in between, visiting relatives and friends. Being a trained observer, he did not find it difficult to find his way. In March, 1916, he joined KampfGeswchader 2 before Verdun and learned learned how to handle a fighting two-seater airplane.\nAssigned a two-seat Albatros BII reconnaissance plane (max speed 66 MPH, 100 HP engine, ceiling 9,840 feet), he rigged a machine gun on the upper wing, much like the Nieuport 11. Piloting this Albatros over Verdun on April 26, 1916, he sighted a French Nieuport and opened up at 60 yards. The stricken French fighter dived into Fort Douamont; Von Richthofen had his first kill, although he would gain no official credit. While in France, he had a few opportunities to fly a Fokker single-seat fighter, further whetting his appetite to fly fighters.\nAgain switched back to the Russian front, he continued to fly \"C\" class reconnaissance/light bombers. As the Russians had few planes, flying and bombing there was agreeable duty, relatively safe and with readily accomplished missions, like bombing the Manjewicze railway station, strafing Cossack cavalry, knocking out the Stokhod River bridge, etc..\nIn August, he met the great ace Oswald Boelcke (40 kills), who was in the East recruiting fliers for a new Jagdstaffel (Jasta 2). After a brief interview, Boelcke took Richthofen back with him, to the Somme.\nBoelcke's Pupil\nWhile the well-organized British air arm held command of the air over the bloody battlefield of the Somme, Boelcke's new group, Jasta 2, made an immediate impact. On Sept. 17, 1916, in Jasta 2's first mission, the baron shot down an FE-2 two-seater. (Built by the Royal Aircraft Factory, FE-2's frequently fell to von Richthofen. The FE-2 biplane featured a pusher propeller, mounted aft of the short pod containing the observer, the pilot, and the 160HP Beardmore engine. Used both as a fighter and a reconnaissance plane, both of its crew had a machine gun, giving it a certain strength in redundancy.)\nOn the morning of the 17th, Boelcke led his squadron up and spotted the English planes first. They were heading toward Cambrai, with Jasta 2 between them and their own lines. Richthofen approached one, maneuvering to get behind it, where he would have the advantage. The English pilot twisted and turned expertly, but briefly let Richthofen behind him. Richtofen described the action:.\nIn a fraction of a second I was at his back with my excellent machine. I gave a few bursts with my machine gun. I had gone so close that I was afraid I might dash into the Englishman. Suddenly, I nearly yelled with joy for his propeller had stopped turning. I had shot his engine to pieces; the enemy was compelled to land, for it was impossible for him to reach his own lines. The English machine was curiously swinging to and fro. Probably something had happened to the pilot. The observer was no longer visible. His machine gun was apparently deserted. Obviously I had hit the observer and he had fallen from his seat.\nThe Englishman landed close to one of our squadrons. I was so excited that I landed also and in my eagerness, I nearly smashed up my machine. The English airplane and my own stood close together. I had shot the engine to pieces and both the pilot and observer were severely wounded. The observer died at once and the pilot while being transported to the nearest dressing station. I honored the fallen enemy by placing a stone on his beautiful grave.\nFor the next month, Jasta 2 \"found a happy hunting ground over the Somme battlefield.\" Ironically, Boelcke did not live long to enjoy the success of his new elite Jasta. He was killed in early November, in a collision with another German flier; von Richthofen carried the great ace's decorations on a pillow in his funeral. By Nov. 9, von Richtofen had increased his score to ten.\nDeath of Major Hawker, V.C.\nLike any great hunter, Manfred von Richthofen reveled in bagging the largest game. On November 23, 1916, he encountered Major Lanoe George Hawker, V.C., \"the British Boelcke,\" in Richthofen's words, big game indeed. Hawker was one of the first fliers to take a pistol with him in the air and was also the first to arm an early Bristol scout with a Lewis gun. He downed a German two-seater over Ypres in July, 1915. Flying constantly, he downed one German plane after another. (In those early days, British records of aerial victories were not kept as carefully as later.) Hawker was decorated with the Victoria Cross and given command of Number 24 squadron.\nOn the morning of the 23rd, Hawker led three planes in an attack on some German two-seaters. But it was an ambush. The bait promptly fled, while Richthofen's fighters dived after the British fliers. Lieutenants Andrews and Saunders were hit, but managed to escape. Hawker stayed to fight; against him were Richthofen and the best pilots of Jasta 2.\nStarting at 6,000 feet, the airplanes tore at each other, twisting and turning in descending circles, down to 2,000 feet. Desperate to gain an advantage, Hawker looped and got off a burst. He missed and fled for home, now at tree-top level. But the German aircraft was faster and Richthofen was determined.\nIn Richthofen's own words:\nOur speed is terrific. [Hawker] starts back for his front. He knows my gun barrel is trained on him. He starts to zigzag, making sudden darts right and left, confusing my aim and making it difficult to train my gun on him. But the moment is coming. I am fifty yards behind him. My machine gun is firing incessantly. We are hardly fifty yards above the ground - just skimming it.\nNow I am within thirty yards of him. He must fall. The gun pours out its stream of lead. Then it jams. Then it reopens fire. That jam almost saved his life. One bullet goes home. He is struck through the back of the head. His plane jumps and crashes down. It strikes the ground just as I swoop over. His machine gun rammed itself into the earth, and now it decorates the entrance over my door [to the family castle at Schweidnitz]. He was a brave man, a sportsman, and a fighter.\nHawker was Richthofen's eleventh victim. Another order went to his Berlin silversmith, for a plain, silver cup, just two inches high, engraved briefly with the aircraft and date of his victory.\nThe Flying Circus\nAfter victory number 16, he was awarded the Pour le Mérite (the Blue Max). He then organized his own Jagdstaffel 11, dubbed by journalists \"The Flying Circus.\" His qualities showed. He was methodical; he figured the odds; with mathematical precision, he calculated position, angles, and fire control to kill his prey. He led his group with order and discipline, requiring his fliers to study and follow his tactics. About this time (late 1916), he painted his aircraft red, and began to be known as \"The Red Baron.\"\nBut even Richtofen, in his new all-red Albatros D III, didn't always have it his own way. On January 23, 1917, the Richthofen Circus pounced on some British camera planes of the 25th Squadron (FE-2 two-seater, pusher planes). Richthofen fired into an airplane piloted by Capt. Grieg, with 2nd. Lt. J. E. MacLenan as observer. His bullets tore into Grieg's leg, who struggled heroically to regain control of the aircraft. Oil splattered all over the wounded craft. MacLenan tossed the camera over and began firing his Lewis gun. He and the nearly blinded Grieg kept shooting back at the relentless Red Baron, and eventually their bullets crippled the Albatros, cracking its wing. Both aircraft crash-landed near Vimy. As German infantry approached, Grieg fired a flare pistol into his downed plane, setting it afire, thus denying it to the Germans.\nIn mid-March, he got it again, this time when his group of five planes attacked fifteen British machines over Lens. As the enemies had seen each other at a great distance, both groups flew right at each other for several nerve-tingling minutes. When one of the British scouts peeled off, Richthofen thought he had an easy kill. Closing to fifty meters on the straggler, he test-fired his guns, and calmly planned his enemy's destruction. He suddenly realized that he had been ambushed when his Albatros was hit by machine gun fire. His fuel tank was holed, so he switched off his engine promptly. Even one drop on the hot engine could have fatally ignited his plane. He managed to bring his aircraft down behind German lines, but had difficulty persuading an officer that he had, in fact, shot down twenty-four airplanes.\nBy March 26, 1917, the Baron had downed thirty-one Allied planes. He had become a cold, ruthless hunter and killer; machine guns helpless pilots of crashed aircraft and blasting his victims as they tried to escape the cockpits of doomed airplanes. He carried with him a gruesome photograph of a British flier he had horribly shot apart, the photograph given to him by an admiring German infantry colonel.\nBloody April\nThe British airmen were obsessed with the Red Baron and were determined to destroy him, one way or another. On April 5, they planned a massive bombing raid on his aerodrome at Douai. German intelligence alerted Richthofen, but he choose to stay put. A few hours before the raid was due, he and his senior pilots sat down to a splendid dinner. While they puffed their after-dinner cigars, the phone rang, \"English bombers on the way.\" In the dugout bomb shelter, he entertained his men with wine, ribald stories, jokes, and tales of aerial combat. Meanwhile, no British bombers came over. Finally, seventeen of the bombers found the Baron's field and loosed their destruction. The bombs found fuel and ammunition stores, setting huge explosions. The hangars were hit by the second wave. But Manfred von Richthofen and his crack pilots were unhurt.\nIn the month of April, Jasta 11 shot down 89 British airplanes. As winter weather had cleared, both sides were able to fly a lot. The Germans could employ their group fighting tactics. And their Albatros D.III scouts over-matched the British pusher biplanes and the French Nieuport 11's. Manfred von Richthofen alone claimed 20 in the month.\nWounded, July 1917\nThe German press, eager for any good news or for any hero from the mindless, muck and blood-filled horror of the stagnant trenches, showered the Red Baron with adulation. After a short leave in May, he hurried back to rejoin The Flying Circus. By the end of June, 1917, his collection of little silver cups totaled fifty-six.\nThen, on July 2, he encountered the British RFC 20th Squadron, and two of its pilots: Flt. Cdr. A. E. Woodbridge and Capt. Pilot D. C. Cunnell. Woodbridge described the action:\nCunnell handled the old FE for all she was worth, banking her from one side to the other, ducking dives from above and missing head-on collisions by bare margins of feet. The air was full of whizzing machines, and the noise from the full-out motors and the crackling machine guns was more than deafening ... Cunnell and I fired into four of the Albatroses from as close as thirty yards, and I saw my tracers go right into their bodies. Those four went down ... Some of them were on fire - just balls of smoke and flame - a nasty sight to see.\nTwo of them came at us head-on, and the first one was Richthofen. There wasn't a thing on that machine that wasn't red, and how he could fly! I opened fire with the front Lewis and so did Cunnell with the side gun. Cunnell held the FE on her course and so did the pilot of the all-red scout [Richthofen]. With our combined speeds, we approached each other at 250 miles per hour ... I kept a steady stream of lead pouring into the nose of that machine.\nThen ... The Albatros' pointed her nose down suddenly and passed under us. Cunnell banked and turned. We saw the all-red plane slip into a spin. It turned over and over, round and round, completely out of control. His motor was going full on, so I figured I had at least wounded him. As his head was the only part that wasn't protected by his motor, I thought that's where he was hit.\nIndeed, a British bullet had creased and partially splintered his skull. Despite the best treatment available for the national hero, the wound never properly healed; the scar tissue, bone splinters and even thorns continued to cause Richthofen maddeningly painful headaches. He went home on leave, but when he returned, his skills were off. He went two weeks without a kill.\nBy September, now flying the famous red Fokker Dr.I triplane, he had recovered enough to reach the 60 victory milestone, an unprecedented achievement.\nFokker Dr. 1, built 1917,\npowered by Thulin-built Le Rhône 9J 9-cylinder air-cooled rotary 110 HP engine,\nweighed 1,289 lbs., max. speed of 103 MPH, max. ceiling of 19,685 feet,\n2 synchronized Spandau machine guns\nWinter, 1917-18\nAfter a Christmas leave, hunting in the Bialowicka forest with Lothar, he resumed his pursuit of aerial quarry. When he downed 2nd Lt. H. J. Sparks, his 64th, he sent the hospitalized British flier a box of cigars. In March and April of 1918, he shot down 17 airplanes, while flying his trademark all-red Fokker Triplane.\nRichthofen's last victory was number 80; Lt. D. E. Lewis walked away from his wreck.\nLast Dogfight\nCanadian Capt. Roy Brown led a flight fifteen Sopwith Camels on the morning of April 21, 1918, flying cover for some photo planes. When some Fokkers and Albatroses jumped the camera planes, a huge dogfight ensued, over thirty planes twisting, shooting, and tearing at each other. A scarlet Albatros got behind a young Canadian, Lt. Wilford May. Seeing his plight, Capt. Brown went after the Baron, firing his Lewis gun.\nAnd then the aircraft of the Red Baron, Manfred von Richthofen, dived and crashed near Sailly-le-Sac, an area held by Australian infantry. The Aussies immediately recovered the plane and were astonished to discover inside Richtofen's body. Almost as quickly, the event became the subject of confusion. The low-key Captain Brown never officially claimed the kill; and some Australian gunners did. To this day, no one knows for sure who brought down the greatest ace of The Great War.\nFuneral\nThe British decided to hold a grand funeral for their late adversary. Laid out on a lorry, covered with flowers, escorted by RAF officers, his body was taken to a hangar, where it lay in state for a day. Hundreds of British soldiers filed past to view the Red Baron. The next day, the burial itself was another military pageant, with six RAF Captains as pallbearers, a fourteen-man firing party with rifles reversed, a flower-draped coffin, a service conducted by a robed chaplain, and a bugler blowing \"The Last Post.\"\nPhotographs were taken of the funeral, and British planes dropped them over his airdrome at Cappy with the message:\nTO THE GERMAN FLYING CORPS:\nRittmeister Baron Manfred von Richthofen was killed in aerial combat on April 21st, 1918. He was buried with full military honours.\nFrom the British Royal Air Force\nSummary of Victories\nVon Richthofen's eighty victories have been as well-researched as any fighter pilot's claim. See this detailed list of The Red Baron's Kills . A surprisingly large percentage of his 80 kills can be matched to specific British loss records.\nMost of his victories came in the spring. In March/April of 1917, he downed 31 planes. In the same two months of 1918, he downed 17 aircraft. During most other months of active flying (from Sept. 1916 through April 1918), he usually claimed 3 to 6 kills each month. In the three months Aug., Sept., and Nov. 1917, while recovering from his injury, he only shot down 6 planes altogether.\nHe brought down sixteen B.E.2's, thirteen F.E.2's, eight Sopwith Camels, seven R.E.8's, five Brisfit's, five Spad VII's, five Nieuports, and fewer numbers of nine other types.\nRichthofen Castle\nThe Red Baron's legacy lives on in popular culture, in the Peanuts cartoon, in a pop song of the 1960s, and even a castle in Denver. Modeled on the original family home in Germany, the Denver castle was built by Manfreds' uncle and godfather, Walter, in 1887. The local rumor that it is haunted, and it was recently up for sale, for only $3,000,000.\nAnother aspect of his legacy was the board game \"Richthofen's War,\" a strategy game made by Avalon Hill in the 1970s. As far as I know, \"Richthofen's War\" has not been released as a video/PC video.\nRichthofen's Grave\nAfter Richthofen's death in 1918, the British buried his remains in a village churchyard at Bertangles, France, with full military honours. Later the coffin was transferred to a War Graves Commission cemetery. In 1925, it was moved to the Invalidenfriedhof in Berlin (the Prussian national military cemetery), at the request of German veterans' organisations. German President von Hindenburg, the Chancellor, and the whole cabinet were among the dignitaries present. Von Richthofen's reburial was seen as a symbol of homecoming for many who had suffered loss in WWI.\nIn 1961 when the Berlin Wall was constructed, the Invalidenfriedhof was at the very edge of the demarcation zone in the Russian sector. It was only possible to visit the cemetery with special permission. For this reason von Richthofen's surviving brother, Bolko, got permission from the East German government to rebury the remains in the family burial plot in Wiesbaden. The reburial book place in 1975.\nSources:\nHeroes of the Sunlit Sky, by Arch Whitehouse, Doubleday, 1967\nThe Canvas Falcons, by Stephen Longstreet, Barnes & Noble, 1970\nRand McNally Encyclopedia of Military Aircraft: 1914-1980, by Enzio Angelucci, The Military Press, 1983\nThe Red Air Fighter, by Manfred Von Richthofen, Norman Franks\nManfred von Richthofen's 1917 book. The German title Der Rote Kampfflieger has also been variously translated as \"Red Fighter Pilot\" and \"Red Battle Pilot.\" This edition includes C.C. Grey's preface to the original, wartime English translation.\nIt's written in the first person, in a very immediate style, of course from von Richthofen's own perspective. It stops in mid-1917, just before his bad injury. It also includes a chapter on Manfred's brother, Lothar.",
"The Red Baron Scores Two Victories, 1917\nThe Red Baron Scores Two Victories, 1917\nPrinter Friendly Version >>>\nWith 80 confirmed kills, Baron Manfred von Richthofen was World War One's highest scoring combat pilot and its most famous flyer. He began his military career as a cavalryman but switched to the air corps in 1915 first as an observer and then as a fighter pilot. He scored his first combat kill in September of 1916.\nBaron Manfred von Richthofen,\n1917\nRichthofen became Germany's top-scoring living ace in January 1917 after shooting down his 16th victim. He was awarded the Orden Pour le Merite (the famous \"Blue Max\"), Germany's highest military honor and given command of his own unit populated with the cream of the crop of Germany's combat pilots. In order to distinguish himself to his fellow flyers and to ground troops, Richthofen painted his plane a blazing red, earning the name the \"Red Baron\" from his British opponents. Richthofen's comrades followed suit and painted their planes with unique colors prompting the British to refer to Richthofen's unit as the \"Flying Circus\".\nBy the spring of 1918 the Red Baron had shot down 80 victims. His luck was about to run out. On April 21 he chased what would have been kill number 81 far behind the British lines. The grim ballet between hunter and hunted brought both planes closer and closer to the ground. With his quarry firmly in his sights, the Red Baron was suddenly felled by a single bullet coming either from troops on the ground or from a Canadian pilot flying in hot pursuit and desperately trying to save his comrade.\nThe British buried their famous opponent the following day with full military honors. Richthofen was 25 years old.\n\"He paid for his stupidity with his life.\"\nThe early spring of 1917 brought dark days for the Royal Flying Corps fighting on the Western Front. Nine hundred twelve British flyers died that month which became known as \"Bloody April.\" Richthofen accounted for 21 of the British planes shot down - his highest scoring month. Richthofen's diary describes the events of one of those April days:\nADVERTISMENT\n\"The second of April, 1917, was a very warm day for my Squadron. From my quarters I could clearly hear the drum-fire of the guns which was again particularly violent.\nI was still in bed when my orderly rushed into the room and exclaimed: 'Sir, the English are here!' Sleepy as I was, I looked out of the window and, really, there were my dear friends circling over the flying ground. I jumped out of my bed and into my clothes in a jiffy. My Red Bird had been pulled out and was ready for starting. My mechanics knew that I should probably not allow such a favorable moment to go by un-utilized. Everything was ready. I snatched up my furs and then went off.\nI was the last to start. My comrades were much nearer to the enemy. I feared that my prey would escape me, that I should have to look on from a distance while the others were fighting. Suddenly one of the impertinent fellows tried to drop down upon me. I allowed him to come near and then we started a merry quadrille. Sometimes my opponent flew on his back and sometimes he did other tricks. He had a double-seated chaser. I was his master and very soon I recognized that he could not escape me.\nDuring an interval in the fighting I convinced myself that we were alone. It followed that the victory would accrue to him who was calmest, who shot best and who had the clearest brain in a moment of danger. After a short time I got him beneath me without seriously hurting him with my gun. We were at least two kilometers from the front. I thought he intended to land but there I had made a mistake. Suddenly, when he was only a few yards above the ground, he once more went off on a straight course. He tried to escape me. That was too bad. I attacked him again and I went so low that I feared I should touch the roofs of the houses of the village beneath me. The Englishman defended himself up to the last moment. At the very end I felt that my engine had been hit. Still I did not let go. He had to fall. He rushed at full speed right into a block of houses.\nThere was little left to be done. This was once more a case of splendid daring. He defended himself to the last. However, in my opinion he showed more foolhardiness than courage. This was one of the cases where one must differentiate between energy and idiocy. He had to come down in any case but he paid for his stupidity with his life.\nI was delighted with the performance of my red machine during its morning work and returned to our quarters. My comrades were still in the air and they were very surprised, when, as we met at breakfast, I told them that I had scored my thirty-second\nPilots of Richthofen's squadron surround\nhim as he sits in his all-red Albatros D.III.\nRichthofen's brother, Lothar, sits in the\nforeground. April 1917.\nmachine. A very young Lieutenant had 'bagged' his first aeroplane. We were all very merry and prepared everything for further battles. I then went and groomed myself. I had not had time to do it previously. I was visited by a dear friend, Lieutenant Voss of Boelcke's Squadron. We chatted. Voss had downed on the previous day his twenty-third machine. He was next to me on the list and is at present my most redoubtable competitor.\nWhen he started to fly home I offered to accompany him part of the way. We went on a roundabout way over the Fronts. The weather had turned so bad that we could not hope to find any more game.\nBeneath us there were dense clouds. Voss did not know the country and he began to feel uncomfortable. When we passed above Arras I met my brother who also is in my squadron and who had lost his way. He joined us. Of course he recognized me at once by the color of my machine.\nSuddenly we saw a squadron approaching from the other side. Immediately the thought occurred to me: 'Now comes number thirty-three.' Although there were nine Englishmen and although they were on their own territory they preferred to avoid battle. I thought that perhaps it would be better for me to re-paint my machine. Nevertheless we caught them up. The important thing in aeroplanes is that they are speedy.\nI was nearest to the enemy and attacked the man to the rear. To my greatest delight I noticed that he accepted battle and my pleasure was increased when I discovered that his comrades deserted him. So I had once more a single fight. It was a fight similar to the one which I had had in the morning. My opponent did not make matters easy for me. He knew the fighting business and it was particularly awkward for me that he was a good shot. To my great regret that was quite clear to me.\nA favorable wind came to my aid. It drove both of us into the German lines. My opponent discovered that the matter was not so simple as he had imagined. So he plunged and disappeared in a cloud. He had nearly saved himself.\nI plunged after him and dropped out of the cloud and, as luck would have it, found myself close behind him. I fired and he fired without any tangible result. At last I hit him. I noticed a ribbon of white benzine vapor. He had to land for his engine had come to a stop.\nHe was a stubborn fellow. He was bound to recognize that he had lost the game. If he continued shooting I could kill him, for meanwhile we had dropped to an altitude of about nine hundred feet. However, the Englishman defended himself exactly as did his countryman in the morning. He fought until he landed. When he had come to the ground I flew over him at an altitude of about thirty feet in order to ascertain whether I had killed him or not. What did the rascal do? He took his machine-gun and shot holes into my machine.\nAfterwards Voss told me if that had happened to him he would have shot the airman on the ground. As a matter of fact I ought to have done so for he had not surrendered. He was one of the few fortunate fellows who escaped with their lives.\nI felt very merry, flew home and celebrated my thirty-third aeroplane.\"\nReferences:\n Richthofen's account appears in: Richthofen, Manfred, The Red Battle Fighter (translated by T. Ellis Barker) (1917); Burrows, William E., Richthofen; a true history of the Red Baron (1969); Reynolds, Quentin, They Fought for the Sky (1957).\nHow To Cite This Article:\n\"The Red Baron Scores Two Victories, 1917,\" EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2005).",
"Manfred von Richthofen | Uncyclopedia | Fandom powered by Wikia\n[ show ]\nNicknames\nVon Richtofen earned many nicknames from his German companions, including \"The Red Devil\", \"The Red Battle Flyer\", and \"Little Red Riding Hood\". French , American , and British fighter pilots encountering the Red Baron in flight also developed nicknames for him, but none of these pilots lived long enough for any of these names to have survived. During his life, von Richthofen was rarely referred to as 'Baron', as the proper title for his level of nobility was 'Freiherr', despite von Richthofen's repeated requests to be called Baron because 'it sounds so much cooler '. Nicknames based on his kill count rarely stuck, as every time fellow pilots began to call him 'Ace' (5 kills), 'Super-Ace' (10 kills), 'Stroker Ace' (15 kills), or 'Ace Frehley' (20 kills), he would immediately earn the next title.\nEarly Life\nThe Red Baron showed a strong interest in a military career from a fairly young age\nThe Baron was born into a family of Prussian nobility in the small village of Breslau, Germany . By the time he was nine years old, he had used his Power WheelsTM biplane to single-handedly shoot down every species of bird native to his neighborhood, including the dangerous Porcupine Hawk (which, like the porcupine, is capable of firing its quills like projectiles). During his enrollment in military school, von Richtofen showed a wonderful talent for cooking. Despite his parent's objections, the Baron spent more time developing pizza recipes than training to be a pilot. Historians can only speculate as to how much von Richthofen would have revolutionized the food industry had World War I not broken out.\nMilitary Career\nVon Richthofen enlisted in the German Air Force, which was known as the Luftwaffle . He was initially a reconnaissance observer on the Eastern Front. However, he quickly earned his fighter pilot's wings when, on one of his first missions, he shot down a French farming plane. Over the next few years the legend of the Red Baron grew, as he caused Allied Air Force planes to fall from the sky by the dozens. After switching airplanes several times, von Richthofen settled on the Fokker Tri-plane, an aircraft that allowed for maximum killicity.\nSnoopy vs. the Red Baron I\nIn September of 1917, during a routine scenic flight over French countryside, von Richthofen encountered and shot down a British pilot known only as ' Snoopy '. The exact nature of this Allied ace, and the rivalry that followed, are shrouded in mystery. The only reliable account comes from historical musical artists The Royal Guardsmen, who witnessed and documented (through song) several of the more important battles of World War I. Many of these gruesome accounts of trench warfare and horrific injury have been lost, but the accounts of the aerial rivalry between Snoopy and the Baron remain more or less intact.\nSnoopy is described as a 'funny-looking dog with a big black nose'. Historians agree that this is some sort of military code, or possibly the paint scheme used on Snoopy 's planes to make them look more awesome. In any case, after initially being shot down, von Richtofen's adversary consulted with a military engineer known only as 'The Great Pumpkin'. Upon this genius' completion of a new warplane, Snoopy took to the skies in search of the Baron. They encountered each other in October of 1917, this time over Germany. While the Baron was laughing at his enemy's foolish attempt to even the score, the British ace looped him and thus had him dead in his sights. Despite von Richthofen's best efforts, Snoopy fired once, and he fired twice, and that Bloody Red Baron went spinnin' out of sight.\nAn artist's rendition of the British ace Snoopy.\nSnoopy vs. the Red Baron II (Christmas Version)\nAfter taking a month to recover from injures sustained during the crash, von Richthofen took to the skies again in December of 1917. When it became obvious to the British that the Baron was flying once more, the Allied command ignored all of its men and called upon Snoopy to do it again. On December 24th, the two met in an epic aerial battle near the French - German border.\nBoth of these pilots respected the ancient traditions of aerial warfare, especially the guidelines concerning one-on-one dogfights. It was for this reason that both pilots shot down dozens of other fighter planes, sometimes from their own side, to ensure a fair battle. Eventually, the forty-below temperature got to Snoopy , and the Baron got him dead in his sights. Why he didn't fire, we'll never know; or was it the bells from the village below? Von Richtofen forced Snoopy to land in Germany . The British ace was fearing the end, when the Baron cried out \"Merry Christmas, Mein Friend!\" After sharing a holiday drink, both pilots flew off to their respective countries, leaving the rivalry for another time.\nAnachronistic Missions\nSometime around March of 1918, when top German military officials concluded that the war was nearly won, it became apparent that von Richthofen's talents were no longer necessary. Not wanting to waste such an asset, the German government sent the ace back in time to observe other German military operations. One of the most interesting cases the government was eager to know more about was where (when) they sent the Baron first.\nWaterloo\nThe Red Baron is seen here strafing French positions at Waterloo .\nThe Battle of Waterloo , which took place in 1815, greatly interested German historians/quantum-physicists in 1918. They were concerned because all accounts of the battle point to German intervention in the nick of time, resulting in French defeat, yet the specific nature of the German force was unclear. They sent von Richthofen back to scout the area using his plane, and to determine what sort of German troops were responsible for the victory.\nUpon arriving in 1815, the Baron encircled the battlefield, watching as Napoleon 's troops simply ran over the British opposition. He grew extremely nervous as the time of the rescue approached, yet still there were no German forces visible. Finally, he could wait no longer, and the Baron turned into a steep dive. He mercilessly slaughtered French troops by the hundreds using his machine gun and killer instinct. Time and time again he strafed the Emperor's battle formations, until they scattered and ran like...well, like Frenchmen . Upon his return to 1918, German historians realized that the mysterious savior had been von Richthofen all along, and his decision to participate in the battle had averted yet another logical paradox .\nGreat Time Travel War of 1871\nDue to the great success of his mission to Waterloo , the German military decided to use von Richthofen during several other battles that were closely contested. In March and early April of 1918, von Richtofen flew missions during several periods of time, ensuring decisive German victories in each. Not much is known about these exploits, but it appears that during these forays into history the Baron became entangled in the Great Time Travel War of 1871 . After successfully escorting Billy The Kid back to the proper time and avoiding all logical impossibilities, the Baron turned back to German military concerns.\nBattle of Britain\nAfter assisting German military concerns in the past, the German government turned to the future. On April 21, 1918, von Richthofen was sent to 1940. The bombing of Britain had commenced, but German bombers were suffering heavy losses from British fighters. The Red Baron was tasked with escorting the bombers on their missions and destroying any enemy fighters. Despite flying in a World War I era triplane, von Richthofen easily shot down wave after wave of British fighters.\nHistorians dispute the final flight of Red Baron. After several grueling months of escorting bombers, some theorize that combat stress had caused him to become too reckless in his piloting. Others claim he was gunned down by unexpected ground fire. In any case, on October 29, the Red Baron was shot down and killed. Some of the craziest historians argue that the person responsible for finally ending the Baron's reign over the sky was none other than Snoopy , possibly after also being sent forward in time. Others claim that the Allies did not possess time travel technology until the 1950s, and thus Snoopy simply waited the 22 years between the wars for his revenge. This theory is not widely supported, as the time between the wars is actually 280 dog years.\nReferences\n↑ This death-count of 80 kills accounts strictly for pilots Richthofen killed via machine gun, and would doubtless be much higher if historians agreed on the number of his early kills as another pilot's wingman, the countless spineless enemy pilots who intentionally flew their planes into the ground upon sighting his terrifying tri-winged airplane ; the pilots who killed themselves with laudinum overdoses before taking to the air to avoid fight him, or the dozens of girls dredged from rivers or confined to mental asylums after Richthofen rejected their love.",
"MANFRED VON RICHTHOFEN THE RED BARON WORLD WAR 1 FLYING ACE AND THE BLUE MAX MEDAL HISTORY\n \n \nThe most successful fighter pilots who took part in aerial battles during the First World War were called flying aces. The term first appeared in 1915 when French newspapers described Adolphe Pegoud as a flying ace after he became the first pilot to shoot down five German aircraft. \n \nIn 1916 during the Battle of Verdun the French fighter units began publishing the scores of individual pilots. German Air Service followed the example of France but their pilots were only listed when they had achieved eight confirmed 'kills'. In 1916 Oswald Boelcke and Max Immelmann were Germany's two most successful flying aces. Both these men benefited from the introduction of the synchronized gear which made it easier for pilots to hit their targets.\n \nThe Royal Flying Corps also began publishing figures in 1916. It was also decided that British pilots who achieved eight victories would be awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. Pilots who won this award included Major Mick Mannock (73 victories), William Bishop (72), Raymond Collishaw (68) and James McCudden (58). \n \nFrance's most successful pilots included Rene Fonck (75), Georges Guynemer (53) and Charles Nungesser (43). However, it was the German pilot, Manfred von Richthofen, the 'Red Baron', with eighty victories, who achieved the highest figure during the First World War. The publication of these figures helped to build up morale during the war. They were also used to persuade young men to join the armed forces and to encourage experienced pilots to compete with their comrades.\n \nThe figures published in the newspapers were not always accurate. Dogfights often involved large numbers of aircraft and it was not always clear who was really responsible for the actual 'kill'. To obtain a 'confirmed' victory involved the inspection of the wreckage, and this was of course impossible when the aircraft had come down behind the enemy front-line.\n \nManfred Albrecht Freiherr von Richthofen (2 May 1892 � 21 April 1918), also widely known as the Red Baron, was a German fighter pilot with the Imperial German Army Air Service (Luftstreitkr�fte) during World War I. He is considered the top ace of that war, being officially credited with 80 air combat victories.\n \n \n \nBy 1918, he was regarded as a national hero in Germany, and was very well known by the other side. Manfred von Richthofen was born in Schweidnitz, Germany .\nRichthofen was shot down and killed near Amiens on 21 April 1918. There has been considerable discussion and debate regarding aspects of his career, especially the circumstances of his death. He remains perhaps the most widely known fighter pilot of all time, and has been the subject of many books, films and other media.\nHe was originally a cavalry officer in the German Army, but transferred to the German Army Air Service in May 1915. Initially an observer on reconnaissance flights over the Eastern Front, he became a fighter pilot on the Western Front in August 1916. He served under Oswald Boelcke and quickly became his star pupil.\nBy January 1917, Richthofen had shot down fifteen aircraft had been appointed commander of his own unit. He painted the fuselage of his Albatros D-III a bright red and was nicknamed the Red Baron. After the death of Oswald Boelcke and Max Immelmann, Richthofen became the most famous war ace in Germany. Richthofen was also well-known in Britain and became a hate-figure after Allied propaganda portrayed him as a man who enjoyed killing.\n \nFirst World War dogfight\n \nIn June 1917, Richthofen was appointed commander of the German Flying Circus. Made up of Germany's top fighter pilots, this new unit was highly mobile and could be quickly sent to any part of the Western Front where it was most needed. Richthofen and his pilots achieved immediate success during the air war over Ypres during August and September. He also held strong opinions on aircraft design and was involved with Anton Fokker in the production of the Fokker D-VII.\nManfred von Richthofen was killed when he was was brought down by ground fire on 21st April 1918. Richthofen had been responsible for shooting down 80 allied aircraft, the highest score of any fighter pilot during the First World War .\n \nNICKNAME - THE RED BARON\n \nRichthofen was a Freiherr (literally \"Free Lord\"), a title of nobility often translated as Baron. This is not a given name nor strictly a hereditary title�since all male members of the family were entitled to it, even during the lifetime of their father. This title, combined with the fact that he had his aircraft painted red, led to Richthofen being called \"The Red Baron\" \"der Rote Baron\" both inside and outside Germany. During his lifetime, however, he was more often described in German as Der Rote Kampfflieger (variously translated as The Red Battle Flyer or The Red Fighter Pilot). This name was used as the title of Richthofen's 1917 autobiography.\nRichthofen's other nicknames include \"Le Diable Rouge\" (\"Red Devil\") or \"Le petit Rouge\" (\"Little Red\") in French, and the \"Red Knight\" in English .\n \n \nEARLY LIFE\nVon Richthofen coat of arms.Von Richthofen was born in Kleinburg, near Breslau, Lower Silesia (now part of the city of Wrocław, Poland), into a prominent Prussian aristocratic family. His father was Major Albrecht Phillip Karl Julius Freiherr von Richthofen and his mother was Kunigunde von Schickfuss und Neudorff. He had an elder sister (Ilse) and two younger brothers.\nWhen he was four years old, Manfred moved with his family to nearby Schweidnitz (now Świdnica). He enjoyed riding horses and hunting as well as gymnastics at school. He excelled at parallel bars and won a number of awards at school. He and his brothers, Lothar and Bolko, hunted wild boar, elk, birds, and deer.\nAfter being educated at home he attended a school at Schweidnitz, before beginning military training when he was 11. After completing cadet training in 1911, he joined an Uhlan cavalry unit, the Ulanen-Regiment Kaiser Alexander der III. von Russland (1. Westpreu�isches) Nr. 1 (\"1st Uhlan Regiment 'Emperor Alexander III of Russia (1st West Prussia Regiment)' \"), and was assigned to the regiment's 3. Eskadron (\"Number 3 Squadron\").\nManfred von Richthofen, My First English Victim (17th September, 1915)\n \nWe were all at the butts trying our machine guns. On the previous day we had received our new aeroplanes and the next morning Boelcke was to fly with us. We were all beginners. None of us had had a success so far. Consequently everything that Boelcke told us was to us gospel truth. Every day, during the last few days, he had, as he said, shot one or two Englishmen for breakfast.\nThe next morning, the seventeenth of September, was a gloriously fine day. It was therefore only to be expected that the English would be very active. Before we started Boelcke repeated to us his instructions and for the first time we flew as a squadron commanded by the great man whom we followed blindly.\nWe had just arrived at the Front when we recognized a hostile flying squadron that was proceeding in the direction of Cambrai. Boelcke was of course the first to see it, for he saw a great deal more than ordinary mortals. Soon we understood the position and everyone of us strove to follow Boelcke closely. It was clear to all of us that we should pass our first examination under the eyes of our beloved leader.\nSlowly we approached the hostile squadron. It could not escape us. We had intercepted it, for we were between the Front and our opponents. If they wished to go back they had to pass us. We counted the hostile machines. They were seven in number. We were only five. All the Englishmen flew large bomb-carrying two-seaters. In a few seconds the dance would begin.\n \nFirst World War Air Flying Aces\n \nBoelcke had come very near the first English machine but he did not yet shoot. I followed. Close to me were my comrades. The Englishman nearest to me was traveling in a large boat painted with dark colors. I did not reflect very long but took my aim and shot. He also fired and so did I, and both of us missed our aim. A struggle began and the great point for me was to get to the rear of the fellow because I could only shoot forward with my gun. He was differently placed for his machine gun was movable. It could fire in all directions.\nApparently he was no beginner, for he knew exactly that his last hour had arrived at the moment when I got at the back of him. At that time I had not yet the conviction \"He must fall!\" which I have now on such occasions, but on the contrary, I was curious to see whether he would fall. There is a great difference between the two feelings. When one has shot down one's first, second or third opponent, then one begins to find out how the trick is done.\nMy Englishman twisted and turned, going criss-cross. I did not think for a moment that the hostile squadron contained other Englishmen who conceivably might come to the aid of their comrade. I was animated by a single thought: \"The man in front of me must come down, whatever happens.\" At last a favorable moment arrived. My opponent had apparently lost sight of me. Instead of twisting and turning he flew straight along. In a fraction of a second I was at his back with my excellent machine. I give a short series of shots with my machine gun. I had gone so close that I was afraid I might dash into the Englishman. Suddenly, I nearly yelled with joy for the propeller of the enemy machine had stopped turning. I had shot his engine to pieces; the enemy was compelled to land, for it was impossible for him to reach his own lines. The English machine was curiously swinging to and fro. Probably something had happened to the pilot. The observer was no longer visible. His machine gun was apparently deserted. Obviously I had hit the observer and he had fallen from his seat.\nThe Englishman landed close to the flying ground of one of our squadrons. I was so excited that I landed also and my eagerness was so great that I nearly smashed up my machine. The English flying machine and my own stood close together. I rushed to the English machine and saw that a lot of soldiers were running towards my enemy. When I arrived I discovered that my assumption had been correct. I had shot the engine to pieces and both the pilot and observer were severely wounded. The observer died at once and the pilot while being transported to the nearest dressing station. I honored the fallen enemy by placing a stone on his beautiful grave.\n \nBook of WW1 Air Aces\n \n \nManfred von Richthofen was with Oswald Boelcke when he was killed in October, 1916.\nOne day we were flying, once more guided by Oswald Boelcke against the enemy. We always had a wonderful feeling of security when he was with us. After all he was the one and only. The weather was very gusty and there were many clouds. There were no aeroplanes about except fighting ones.\nFrom a long distance we saw two impertinent Englishmen in the air who actually seemed to enjoy the terrible weather. We were six and they were two. If they had been twenty and if Boelcke had given us the signal to attack we should not have been at all surprised.\nThe struggle began in the usual way. Boelcke tackled the one and I the other. I had to let go because one of the German machines got in my way. I looked around and noticed Boelcke settling his victim about two hundred yards away from me. It was the usual thing. Boelcke would shoot down his opponent and I had to look on. Close to Boelcke flew a good friend of his. It was an interesting struggle. Both men were shooting. It was probable that the Englishman would fall at any moment. Suddenly I noticed an unnatural movement of the two German flying machines. Immediately I thought: Collision. I had not yet seen a collision in the air. I had imagined that it would look quite different. In reality, what happened was not a collision. The two machines merely touched one another. However, if two machines go at the tremendous pace of flying machines, the slightest contact has the effect of a violent concussion.\n \n \n</font>\nBoelcke drew away from his victim and descended in large curves. He did not seem to be falling, but when I saw him descending below me I noticed that part of his plane had broken off. I could not see what happened afterwards, but in the clouds he lost an entire plane. Now his machine was no longer steerable. It fell accompanied all the time by Boelcke's faithful friend.\nIt is a strange thing that everybody who met Boelcke imagined that he alone was his true friend. I have made the acquaintance of about forty men, each of whom imagined that he alone was Boelcke's intimate. Each imagined that he had the monopoly of Boelcke's affections. Men whose names were unknown to Boelcke believed that he was particularly fond of them. This is a curious phenomenon which I have never noticed in anyone else. Boelcke had not a personal enemy. He was equally polite to everybody, making no differences.\n \nManfred von Richthofen, Red Air Fighter (1918)\nThose who hear nowadays of the colossal bags made by certain aviators must feel convinced that it has become easier to shoot down a machine. I can assure those who hold that opinion that the flying business is becoming more difficult from month to month and even from week to week. Of course, with the increasing number of aeroplanes one gains increased opportunities for shooting down one's enemies, but at the same time, the possibility of being shot down one's self increases. The armament of our enemies is steadily improving and their number is increasing. When Max Immelmann shot down his first victim he had the good fortune to find an opponent who carried not even a machine gun. Such little innocents one finds nowadays only at the training ground for beginners.\n \nThe Red Baron by Peter Kilduff\n \n \nIn his book \"Red Air Fighter\" Manfred von Richthofen described killing Lanoe George Hawker.\nIn view of the character of our fight it was clear to me that I had been tackling a flying champion. One day I was blithely flying to give chase when I noticed three Englishmen who also had apparently gone a-hunting. I noticed that they were watching me and as I felt much inclination to have a fight I did not want to disappoint them.\nI was flying at a lower altitude. Consequently I had to wait until one of my English friends tried to drop on me. After a short while one of the three came sailing along and attempted to tackle me in the rear. After firing five shots he had to stop for I had swerved in a sharp curve. The Englishman tried to catch me up in the rear while I tried to get behind him. So we circled round and round like madmen after one another at an altitude of about 10,000 feet.\nFirst we circled twenty times to the left, and then thirty times to the right. Each tried to get behind and above the other. Soon I discovered that I was not meeting a beginner. He had not the slightest intention of breaking off the fight. He was traveling in a machine which turned beautifully. However, my own was better at rising than his, and I succeeded at last in getting above and beyond my English waltzing partner.\nWhen we had got down to about 6,000 feet without having achieved anything in particular, my opponent ought to have discovered that it was time for him to take his leave. The wind was favorable to me for it drove us more and more towards the German position. At last we were above Bapaume, about half a mile behind the German front. The impertinent fellow was full of cheek and when we had got down to about 3,000 feet he merrily waved to me as if he would say, \"Well, how do you do?\"\nThe circles which we made around one another were so narrow that their diameter was probably no more than 250 or 300 feet. I had time to take a good look at my opponent. I looked down into his carriage and could see every movement of his head. If he had not had his cap on I would have noticed what kind of a face he was making.\nMy Englishmen was a good sportsman, but by and by the thing became a little too hot for him. He had to decide whether he would land on German ground or whether he would fly back to the English lines. Of course he tried the latter, after having endeavored in vain to escape me by loopings and such like tricks. At that time his first bullets were flying around me, for hitherto neither of us had been able to do any shooting.\nWhen he had come down to about three hundred feet he tried to escape by flying in a zig-zag course during which, as is well known, it is difficult for an observer to shoot. That was my most favorable moment. I followed him at an altitude of from two hundred and fifty feet to one hundred and fifty feet, firing all the time. The Englishman could not help falling. But the jamming of my gun nearly robbed me of my success. My opponent fell, shot through the head, one hundred and fifty feet behind our line.\n \nDEATH OF AN ACE\n \nRichthofen was fatally wounded just after 11:00 am on 21 April 1918, while flying over Morlancourt Ridge, near the Somme River. 49�56′0.60″N 2�32′43.71″E / 49.9335�N 2.545475�E / 49.9335; 2.545475\nAt the time, the Baron had been pursuing (at very low altitude) a Sopwith Camel piloted by a novice Canadian pilot, Lieutenant Wilfrid \"Wop\" May of No. 209 Squadron, Royal Air Force. In turn, the Baron was spotted and briefly attacked by a Camel piloted by a school friend (and flight commander) of May's, Canadian Captain Arthur \"Roy\" Brown, who had to dive steeply at very high speed to intervene, and then had to climb steeply to avoid hitting the ground. Richthofen turned to avoid this attack, and then resumed his pursuit of May.\nIt was almost certainly during this final stage in his pursuit of May that Richthofen was hit by a single .303 bullet, which caused such severe damage to his heart and lungs that it must have produced a very speedy death. In the last seconds of his life, he managed to make a hasty but controlled landing (49�55′56″N 2�32′16″E / 49.9321076�N 2.5376701�E / 49.9321076; 2.5376701) in a field on a hill near the Bray-Corbie road, just north of the village of Vaux-sur-Somme, in a sector controlled by the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). One witness, Gunner George Ridgway, stated that when he and other Australian soldiers reached the aircraft, Richthofen was still alive but died moments later. Another eye witness, Sergeant Ted Smout of the Australian Medical Corps, reported that Richthofen's last word was \"kaputt\".\nHis Fokker Dr.I, 425/17, was not badly damaged by the landing, but it was soon taken apart by souvenir hunters.\nNo. 3 Squadron, Australian Flying Corps, as the nearest Allied air unit, assumed responsibility for the Baron's remains.\nIn 2009, Richthofen's death certificate was found in the archives in Ostr�w Wielkopolski, Poland. Richthofen had briefly been stationed in Ostr�w�which was part of Germany until the end of World War I�before going to war. The document, which is a one-page, handwritten form in a 1918 registry book of deaths, misspells Richthofen's name as \"Richthoven\" and simply states that he has \"died 21 April 1918, from wounds sustained in combat\".\n \nCONTROVERSY\n \nContradictory hypotheses continue to surround the identity of the person who fired the shot that actually killed Richthofen.\nThe RAF credited Brown with shooting down the Red Baron, but it is now generally agreed that the bullet that hit Richthofen was fired by someone on the ground. Richthofen died following an extremely serious and inevitably fatal chest wound from a single bullet, penetrating from the right armpit and resurfacing next to the left nipple. Brown's attack was from above and the left. Even more conclusively, Richthofen could not have continued his pursuit of May for as long as he did (up to two minutes) had this wound come from Brown's guns. Brown himself never spoke much about what happened that day, claiming, \"There is no point in me commenting, as the evidence is already out there\".\n \nMany sources, including a 1998 article by Geoffrey Miller, a physician and historian of military medicine, and a 2003 U.S. Public Broadcasting Service documentary, have suggested that Sergeant Cedric Popkin was the person most likely to have killed Richthofen. Popkin was an anti-aircraft (AA) machine gunner with the Australian 24th Machine Gun Company, and was using a Vickers gun. He fired at Richthofen's aircraft on two occasions: first as the Baron was heading straight at his position, and then at long range from the right. Given the nature of Richthofen's wounds, Popkin was in a position to fire the fatal shot, when the pilot passed him for a second time, on the right. Some confusion has been caused by a letter that Popkin wrote, in 1935, to an Australian official historian. It stated Popkin's belief that he had fired the fatal shot as Richthofen flew straight at his position. However, in the latter respect, Popkin was incorrect: the bullet that caused the Baron's death came from the side (see above).\nA 2002 Discovery Channel documentary suggests that Gunner W. J. \"Snowy\" Evans, a Lewis machine gunner with the 53rd Battery, 14th Field Artillery Brigade, Royal Australian Artillery is likely to have killed von Richthofen. However, Miller and the PBS documentary dismiss this theory, because of the angle from which Evans fired at Richthofen.\nOther sources have suggested that Gunner Robert Buie (also of the 53rd Battery) may have fired the fatal shot. There is little support for this theory. Nevertheless, in 2007, a municipality in Sydney recognised Buie as the man who shot down Richthofen, placing a plaque near Buie's former home. Buie, who died in 1964, has never been officially recognised in any other way.\nThe commanding officer of No. 3 Squadron AFC, Major David Blake, initially suggested that Richthofen had been killed by the crew of one of his squadron's R.E.8s, which had also fought members of Richthofen's unit that afternoon. This claim was quickly discounted (if only because of the time factor) and withdrawn. Following an autopsy that he witnessed, Blake became a strong proponent of the view that an AA machine gunner had killed Richthofen.",
"The Red Baron: Manfred von Richthofen Biography\nWars and Conflicts of the 20th Century\nStudio portrait of German aviator Baron Manfred Von Richthofen (1882 - 1918) holding a cigarette while wearing a military uniform. Known as 'The Red Baron,' he won eighty aerial victories before he was killed in action over France during WWI. (Photo by Nicola Perscheid/Hulton Archive/Getty Images)\nUpdated October 19, 2015.\nWorld War I was a bloody war, fought in muddy trenches and overwhelmed with slaughter. Yet a few soldiers escaped this anonymous end - fighter pilots. They volunteered to fly when just going up in an airplane seemed heroic. However, most fighter pilots achieved only a few victories before they too were shot down.\nYet, there was one man, Baron Manfred von Richthofen, who liked to fly in a blazing red airplane and shoot down plane after plane.\nHis achievements made him both a hero and a propaganda tool. With 80 credited victories , Baron Manfred von Richthofen, the \"Red Baron,\" defied the odds and became a legend in the air.\nThe Young Soldier\nManfred Albrecht von Richthofen's entry into the world on May 2, 1892 made his father, Major Albrecht Freiherr von Richthofen (Freiherr = Baron), extremely happy.\ncontinue reading below our video\nProfile of Manfred von Richthofen, The Red Baron\nThough Manfred was his second child, Manfred was his first son. Two more sons, Lothar and Karl Bolko, soon followed.\nThe Richthofens came from a long line that could be traced back to the sixteenth century. Many in the family raised merino sheep and farmed on their lands in Silesia. Manfred grew up in his family's villa in the town of Schweidnitz. There, his Uncle Alexander, who had hunted in Africa, Asia, and Europe, fired in Manfred a passion for hunting.\nEven before Manfred was born, Albrecht von Richthofen had decided that his first son would follow in his footsteps and join the military. Albrecht himself had become one of the first Richthofen's to become a career military officer. Unfortunately, a daring rescue to save several other soldiers who had fallen into the icy Oder River had left Albrecht deaf and with an early retirement.\nManfred did follow in his father's footsteps. At age eleven, Manfred entered the Wahlstatt cadet school in Berlin. Though he disliked the school's rigid discipline and received poor grades, Manfred excelled at athletics and gymnastics. After six years at Wahlstatt, Manfred graduated to the Senior Cadet Academy at Lichterfelde which he found more likeable.\nAfter completing a course at the Berlin War Academy, Manfred joined the cavalry.\nIn 1912, Manfred, after having been commissioned as Leutnant (lieutenant), was stationed in Militsch (now Milicz, Poland). In the summer of 1914, World War I began.\nTo the Air!\nWhen the war began, Manfred von Richthofen was 22 years old and stationed on Germany's eastern border, but was soon transferred to the west. During the charge into Belgium and France, Manfred's cavalry regiment was attached to the infantry for whom Manfred conducted reconnaissance patrols.\nHowever, when Germany's advance was halted outside of Paris and both sides dug in, the need for cavalry was eliminated. A man sitting on horseback had no place in the trenches. Manfred was transferred to the Signal Corps where he laid telephone wire and delivered dispatches.\nFrustrated with life near the trenches, Richthofen looked up. Though he didn't know which planes fought for Germany and which ones fought for their enemies, he knew that airplanes - and not the cavalry - now flew the reconnaissance missions. Yet becoming a pilot took months of training, probably longer than the war would last. So instead of flight school, Richthofen requested to be transferred to the Air Service to become an observer. In May 1915, Richthofen traveled to Cologne for the observer training program at the No. 7 Air Replacement Station.\nEven though Richthofen didn't have to fly the airplane, he still had to go up in one.\n \nAt seven o'clock the next morning I was to fly for the first time as an observer. Naturally, I was very excited, because I could not imagine what it would be like. Everyone I asked told me something different. The night before I had gone to bed earlier than usual to be fresh for the great moment next morning. We drove to the airfield and I sat in an airplane for the first time. The blast of wind from the propeller disturbed me greatly. It was impossible to make myself heard by the pilot. Everything flew away from me. If I took a piece of paper out, it disappeared. My flying helmet slipped off, my muffler loosened too much, and my jacket was not buttoned securely - in short, I was miserable. Before I knew what was happening, the pilot got the engine up to full speed and the machine began rolling, faster and faster. I hung on frantically. Then the shaking stopped and we were in the air. The ground slipped away beneath us.1\nDuring this first flight, Richthofen lost sense of his location and thus was unable to give the pilot directions. So they landed. Richthofen continued to study and learn. He was taught how to read a map, drop bombs, locate enemy troops, and draw pictures while still in the air.\nPrev"
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"title": [
"The Red Baron, Manfred von Richthofen - Top WW1 German Ace",
"The Red Baron Scores Two Victories, 1917",
"Manfred von Richthofen - Uncyclopedia - Wikia",
"MANFRED Von RICHTHOFEN - THE RED BARON - SPEEDACE.INFO",
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Which great guitarist had the first names Aaron Thibodaux?
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tc_843
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Singer Geri Hall first heard Slim playing electric guitar at top ... Her Call My Name\" (\"Closer to dentistry than to guitar ... a Guitar Slim Day in Thibodaux."
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"Perfect Sound Forever: Guitar Slim- The Things That He Used to Do!\nOne of the only known pictures of Guitar Slim live\nby Ted Barron\n(June 2009)\nOn February 7, 1959, Eddie \"Guitar Slim\" Jones died of complications from pneumonia in New York City. While he was on an East Coast tour of one-nighters, his breathing had become increasingly difficult. Ignoring doctors� orders, he continued drinking his daily ration of a pint of gin and a fifth of black port wine. Earlier that week, Slim went to his bandleader, Lloyd Lambert, claiming to be too sick to play. \"My time is up,\" he said. Slim knew he was done for. He started a gig in Rochester, but couldn't finish the first song. In Newark the following night, he collapsed after finishing the show. The band drove in to New York City and got him a doctor in Harlem. They drove around the corner, checked into the Cecil Hotel, and Slim checked out on the doctor�s table before they could return to retrieve him and get him to the hospital. He was 32 years old. Back home in Louisiana, Mardi Gras was in full swing. His death was barely noticed due to another tragedy earlier that week, when Buddy Holly's plane went down in a cold Iowa night. We all know that story. Here's Slim's, or at least what can be pieced together of it.\nFive years earlier, Slim had a number-one hit on the Billboard R&B charts for six weeks straight with \"The Things That I Used to Do,\" on Specialty Records. He claims the song came to him in a dream. In the dream, an angel fought a devil, each of them holding a set of lyrics to a song. Guess who won.\nLike another great bluesman keen on perpetuating his own myth while \"walking side by side\" with the Devil, and whose story is also shrouded in mystery, contradiction, and hearsay, Slim's life started in the richly fertile region of the Mississippi Delta. Eddie Lee Jones was born in Greenwood, Mississippi, in 1926. His mother died when he was 5, and he was sent to live with his grandfather at the L.C. Hayes Plantation, near Hollandale. He worked the fields, picking cotton and plowing behind a mule. His first instrument was the piano. He was allegedly fluent in boogie-woogie, and according to his first wife, he could hear any song once on a jukebox and sing it back immediately. He got his start as an entertainer, not as a musician but as a dancer. Eddie Jones, also known at the time as \"Limber-Legged Eddie,\" would regularly show up at juke joints and clear the floor with an acrobatic repertoire of splits, jumps, twirls, and gyrations with any woman who could keep up with him.\nHe married one of these women, 16-year-old Virginia Dumas, and was soon drafted into the army, where he served briefly in the Pacific at the end of World War II. Upon his return in 1946, he took a job working a cotton press. At the Harlem Club, in Hollandale, he befriended (and sometimes played piano behind) local and traveling musicians, including Robert Nighthawk, whose guitar prowess entranced the young Mr. Jones. In 1948, he left Dumas and Hollandale, surfacing in Arkansas, where he spent the next two years dancing in Delta juke joints with Willie Warren's band. It was Warren who showed Jones how to play the guitar. Jones was a quick learner, and in 1950, he told Warren that he was leaving to go to New Orleans to make records and was going to call himself Guitar Slim.\nSlim hit New Orleans to little fanfare. He hung out in a booth at a bar in the French Quarter playing guitar for wine, tips, and whatever else he could scrounge up. One story has him dressed in a black suit and a white hat playing on a bridge in the 9th Ward, practicing and trying to get noticed. Singer Geri Hall first heard Slim playing electric guitar at top volume on his front step at six o�clock in the morning, much to his neighbors� dismay. He soon met 15-year-old piano player Huey Smith, and they started playing together. They made their formal debut on August 26, 1950, at the Dew Drop Inn. Also on the bill that night were a female impersonator and a shake dancer. Slim�s repertoire at the time was heavy on covers of Clarence \"Gatemouth\" Brown and probably T-Bone Walker. Brown was probably his greatest influence as Slim was learning his craft as both a guitarist and a performer. But, as legend tells us, Slim took things up a notch. What he lacked in chops, he made up for with his flamboyant style.\nEvery account of Guitar Slim places him as the greatest showman and most outrageous performer in the history of New Orleans music. That's saying something. He would dye his hair the same color as his suit and shoes--sometimes using paint to get the shoe color to match. One week it was red, the next blue, or yellow, and so on. Different reports calculate the length of his guitar cord between 200 and 350 feet. He would enter a club through the front door, playing while moving through the crowd, and join his band onstage, frequently on the shoulders of his personal valet. He exited the stage in the same fashion, proceeding to his car and driving away while still playing.\nThe most incredible facts in all of this are that despite his success and national attention, Slim never made a TV appearance, and that there is no known footage of his stage show anywhere. Not only is there no footage, but there are only a handful of photographs of Slim in circulation, and only one battered snapshot (above) of him onstage.\nNeedless to say, people started to pay attention. Slim soon found management and was playing all the clubs in town, traveling the Southern chitlin� circuit, and making a lot of noise. A lot of noise. He played loudly, with all the knobs on ten, and according to some, favored playing his guitar through a PA rather than an amplifier. Slim's theme song was Gatemouth's \"Boogie Rambler,\" and when Slim finally entered a recording studio in early 1951, he recorded four sides for Imperial at his first session at Cosimo Matassa's J&M Studio, including a variation on Gatemouth's number called \"New Arrival.\"\nI'm a new arrival and they call me Guitar Slim\nIf I don't suit my baby, I guess nobody else will\nMatassa recalls: \"I distinctly remember the first session we did with him. He showed up like he was going onstage.\"\nSlim had arrived, but the records went nowhere. They're crude, but exciting nonetheless. It's a piano/guitar/drums trio, and they are the first recordings of both Slim and Huey \"Piano\" Smith. Smith went on to record a string of legendary R&B hits as a bandleader for Ace throughout the �50's and �60's.\nFrustrated by the poor reception and sales of New Orleans's newest sensation, manager Percy Stovall took Slim into a studio while on the road in Nashville, to record another session for the small J-B label. \"Feelin' Sad\" is a slow mournful gospel blues which was later recorded by Ray Charles. It features Slim as a singer rather than as a blazing guitar player. The B side, \"Certainly All,\" is an upbeat call-and-response gospel number with a rocking guitar solo. The songs were regional hits, and two of the first R&B sides to feature an overtly gospel sound.\nSlim's star was rising, and offers were coming in. He had taken up residence at the Dew Drop Inn--literally, that is--living upstairs surrounded by a rotating cast beautiful and willing women. Downstairs, he was honing his chops and his stage show. Frank Pania, the owner of the Dew Drop, had taken over his management. Jerry Wexler tried to sign Slim to Atlantic, but was beat out by Johnny Vincent, who at the time was doing A&R for Specialty Records. In late 1953, Slim returned to J & M Studios, but without Huey Smith. This session was led by another young piano player, Ray Charles, who had to be bailed out of jail to make the session. Four sides were recorded, including \"The Things That I Used to Do\" and \"Story Of My Life.\" There are differing accounts of this session, and by every indication it was a long, arduous task to get Slim's sound properly waxed for the first time. Cosimo Matassa, when asked about Ray Charles's role, said, \"He ran the session. He literally produced the session.\"\nThe recording date that produced \"The Things That I Used to Do\" went on all night. Somewhere between forty and eighty takes, depending on whom you ask. Cosimo recalls, \"Normally the, quote, producer will do rehearsals, and if during the rehearsal somebody plays a clam, he'll stop. Ray didn't do that. He'd go through the whole song... and remember everything everybody did wrong, and tell them off in one series.\" At the tail end of the final released take, you can hear Charles yell, \"Yeah!,\" relieved, no doubt, to be done. After the sessions, Johnny Vincent played the song for Specialty Records owner Art Rupe. Rupe was less than enthusiastic, saying \"it was the worst piece of shit [he] ever heard.\" What did he know? The record went on to be his biggest seller to date, and it put Slim on the map. It's a masterpiece of pre�rock-�n�-roll New Orleans R&B. The guitar sound is warm and up-front, distorted by volume, and backed by a swinging band. Volume was important to Slim's sound, which was, by all accounts, difficult to translate in the studio.\nAll the recordings from this initial Specialty session are remarkable, but the sound of the guitar on one track in particular shows for the first time Slim's intensity as a soloist. \"Story of My Life\" is a slow blues with lyrics that are almost cliche to the idiom, but in Slim's case pretty close to the truth:\nIf my mother hadn't have died\nLord, and my father left his child at home\nmaybe my life wouldn't be so miserable baby\nLord, and I wouldn't be so all alone\nIn between these lines Slim plays searing fills at lightning speed, which foreshadow a guitar sound not too different from what Jimi Hendrix produced more than a decade later. Many rock guitarists, including Frank Zappa, Billy Gibbons, Stevie Ray Vaughan and Hendrix, cite Slim as a key influence, but what he does on the solo for \"Story of My Life\" is extraordinary, and calls to mind Lou Reed's psychotic guitar break on The Velvet Underground's \"I Heard Her Call My Name\" (\"Closer to dentistry than to guitar playing,\" in the words of my friend Mike DeCapite). It's a sound that is, of course, achieved with volume, but it's almost as if the guitar is playing the player, who has become a conduit for a sound raw, primal, and full of emotion. It's truly exhilarating. According to Cosimo, \"Controls only meant one thing to him. Ten. It was kind of funny. It made a unique sound, and except for the harshness that these overtones create, it's unique, and it wasn't bad, and different for sure.\" Maybe the intensity was too much for an unsuspecting public, because as a follow up single to his number-one hit, it sold poorly.\nThe record company bought Slim a brand-new Cadillac, which he promptly plowed into parked bulldozer. He was hurt, but not badly. The doctor told him to take it easy for a month. No big deal, except that Slim was booked solid and set to go on tour to promote his number-one record. Earl King, who was an up-and-coming guitar player in New Orleans at the time, was a friend and devotee of Slim�s, and for now, had become his understudy. Frank Pania, not wanting to cancel the dates, took King on the road to perform as Guitar Slim. King was scared to death that he'd be found out, but as his early Savoy and Specialty sides attest, he was a dead ringer for Slim, and in the days of radio and jukebox hits, no one really knew what Slim looked like. The tour went off without a hitch. King told writer Jeff Hannusch (in his book I Hear You Knockin'), \"When I got back to town, the first person I saw was Guitar Slim... He was walkin' down LaSalle Street with a hospital gown on, and a guitar under one arm, and an amp under the other, yellin', 'Earl King, I heard you been out there imitatin' me. If you wreck my name, I'm gonna sue, and I'm gonna kill you!' \"\nSlim soon hit the road with his new band, led by bassist Lloyd Lambert. Over the next year and a half, he recorded multiple sides for Specialty, all while out on the road at studios in Chicago and Los Angeles. They are all good, and some sold well, but none matched the success of \"The Things That I Used to Do.\" Still, crowds flocked to see his wild stage show, both at home and on the road. It was not uncommon for people to drive a hundred miles to see him play. As a kid, guitarist Buddy Guy saw Slim and his destiny was set. To this day, he bases his stage show on Slim's (ED NOTE: Guy's especially good at walking around venues to play).\nIn 1956, Specialty released Slim from his contract, and in March of that year, Atlantic Records finally got the opportunity to record him for their Atco subsidiary. Ahmet Ertegun and Jerry Wexler went to New Orleans to record him for the first time there since his first Specialty session. In Wexler's book Rhythm and Blues, he describes the scene of Slim's arrival to the rehearsals for his first Atlantic date. After several hours of waiting for Slim, \"[S]uddenly a wave of humanity comes washing over the street--kids, men, women, and couriers. 'Here come's Slim! Slim's on the way!' A fleet of three red Cadillacs pulls up, and here's the man himself, emerging in a bower of red-robed beauties, dressed to match the Caddies, plus a retinue of courtiers, janissaries, mountebanks, and tumblers. 'Need to change into my singing pants, gents.' \"\nAfter Slim bid adieu to his entourage (initially he�d invited everyone to hang out), rehearsals got underway. The following day they recorded several sides for Atco, including two of Slim�s best songs, \"Down Through the Years\" and \"It Hurts to Love Someone.\" The sessions back at J & M with Cosimo were not without incident. It was stop-and-go, due to Slim's down-home eccentricity and tape-machine tubes being repeatedly blown by the gain on Slim's guitar. At one point, Slim took a solo, with which he had particularly impressed himself, and stopped mid-take, saying, \"Gentlemen! Did you hear that?\" Cosimo recalls, \"Yeah, well, they cured him of that real quick. What they did was sent him outside, and did the rehearsing with him not in the room.\" The Atco sides did moderately well, but Atlantic couldn't get a hit with Slim either. He recorded for them twice the following year, in New Orleans and New York, and one last session in New York, in 1958, produced his final and prophetically titled two-sider \"When There's No Way Out\" and \"If I Had My Life to Live Over.\" A year later, Slim was dead.\nEddie Lee Jones was buried with his Goldtop Les Paul in the Cajun country southwest of New Orleans, in Thibodaux, Louisiana. He's buried next to his friend and final manager, Hosea Hill, who�d persuaded him to move to Thibodaux in 1956. Few people in Thibodaux know who he is, but one resident, Aaron Caillouet, made an unsuccessful bid for mayor in the 1990's, running on a platform of creating a Guitar Slim Day in Thibodaux. It's a shame he didn't win.\nSOURCES:"
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Who first coined the term paradigm for all the factors that influence the scientist's research?
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tc_845
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"In science and philosophy, a paradigm is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates, and standards for what constitutes legitimate contributions to a field.\n\nEtymology\n\nParadigm comes from Greek παράδειγμα (paradeigma), \"pattern, example, sample\" from the verb παραδείκνυμι (paradeiknumi), \"exhibit, represent, expose\" and that from παρά (para), \"beside, beyond\" and δείκνυμι (deiknumi), \"to show, to point out\". \n\nIn rhetoric, paradeigma is known as a type of proof. The purpose of paradeigma is to provide an audience with an illustration of similar occurrences. This illustration is not meant to take the audience to a conclusion, however it is used to help guide them there. A personal accountant is a good comparison of paradeigma to explain how it is meant to guide the audience. It is not the job of a personal accountant to tell their client exactly what (and what not) to spend their money on, but to aid in guiding their client as to how money should be spent based on their financial goals. Anaximenes defined paradeigma as, \"actions that have occurred previously and are similar to, or the opposite of, those which we are now discussing.\" \n\nThe original Greek term παράδειγμα (paradeigma) was used in Greek texts such as Plato's Timaeus (28A) as the model or the pattern that the Demiurge (god) used to create the cosmos. The term had a technical meaning in the field of grammar: the 1900 Merriam-Webster dictionary defines its technical use only in the context of grammar or, in rhetoric, as a term for an illustrative parable or fable. In linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure used paradigm to refer to a class of elements with similarities.\n\nThe Merriam-Webster Online dictionary defines this usage as \"a philosophical and theoretical framework of a scientific school or discipline within which theories, laws, and generalizations and the experiments performed in support of them are formulated; broadly: a philosophical or theoretical framework of any kind.\"[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/paradigm paradigm - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary]\n\nThe Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy attributes the following description of the term to Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions:\nKuhn suggests that certain scientific works, such as Newton's Principia or John Dalton's New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808), provide an open-ended resource: a framework of concepts, results, and procedures within which subsequent work is structured. Normal science proceeds within such a framework or paradigm. A paradigm does not impose a rigid or mechanical approach, but can be taken more or less creatively and flexibly. \n\nScientific paradigm\n\nThe Oxford English Dictionary defines the basic meaning of the term paradigm as \"a typical example or pattern of something; a pattern or model\". The historian of science Thomas Kuhn gave it its contemporary meaning when he adopted the word to refer to the set of concepts and practices that define a scientific discipline at any particular period of time. In his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (first published in 1962), Kuhn defines a scientific paradigm as: \"universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of practitioners, i.e.,\n*what is to be observed and scrutinized\n*the kind of questions that are supposed to be asked and probed for answers in relation to this subject\n*how these questions are to be structured\n*what predictions made by the primary theory within the discipline \n*how the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted\n*how is an experiment to be conducted, and what equipment is available to conduct the experiment.\n\nIn The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn saw the sciences as going through alternating periods of normal science, when an existing model of reality dominates a protracted period of puzzle-solving, and revolution, when the model of reality itself undergoes sudden drastic change. Paradigms have two aspects. Firstly, within normal science, the term refers to the set of exemplary experiments that are likely to be copied or emulated. Secondly, underpinning this set of exemplars are shared preconceptions, made prior to – and conditioning – the collection of evidence. These preconceptions embody both hidden assumptions and elements that he describes as quasi-metaphysical; the interpretations of the paradigm may vary among individual scientists. \n \t\nKuhn was at pains to point out that the rationale for the choice of exemplars is a specific way of viewing reality: that view and the status of \"exemplar\" are mutually reinforcing. For well-integrated members of a particular discipline, its paradigm is so convincing that it normally renders even the possibility of alternatives unconvincing and counter-intuitive. Such a paradigm is opaque, appearing to be a direct view of the bedrock of reality itself, and obscuring the possibility that there might be other, alternative imageries hidden behind it. The conviction that the current paradigm is reality tends to disqualify evidence that might undermine the paradigm itself; this in turn leads to a build-up of unreconciled anomalies. It is the latter that is responsible for the eventual revolutionary overthrow of the incumbent paradigm, and its replacement by a new one. Kuhn used the expression paradigm shift (see below) for this process, and likened it to the perceptual change that occurs when our interpretation of an ambiguous image \"flips over\" from one state to another. (The rabbit-duck illusion is an example: it is not possible to see both the rabbit and the duck simultaneously.) This is significant in relation to the issue of incommensurability (see below).\n\nAn example of a currently accepted paradigm would be the standard model of physics. The scientific method allows for orthodox scientific investigations into phenomena that might contradict or disprove the standard model; however grant funding would be proportionately more difficult to obtain for such experiments, depending on the degree of deviation from the accepted standard model theory the experiment would test for. To illustrate the point, an experiment to test for the mass of neutrinos or the decay of protons (small departures from the model) is more likely to receive money than experiments that look for the violation of the conservation of momentum, or ways to engineer reverse time travel.\n\nMechanisms similar to the original Kuhnian paradigm have been invoked in various disciplines other than the philosophy of science. These include: the idea of major cultural themes, worldviews (and see below), ideologies, and mindsets. They have somewhat similar meanings that apply to smaller and larger scale examples of disciplined thought. In addition, Michel Foucault used the terms episteme and discourse, mathesis and taxinomia, for aspects of a \"paradigm\" in Kuhn's original sense.\n\nParadigm shifts\n\nIn The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn wrote that \"the successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual developmental pattern of mature science.\" (p. 12)\n\nParadigm shifts tend to appear in response to the accumulation of critical anomalies as well as the proposal of a new theory with the power to encompass both older relevant data and explain relevant anomalies. New paradigms tend to be most dramatic in sciences that appear to be stable and mature, as in physics at the end of the 19th century. At that time, a statement generally attributed to physicist Lord Kelvin famously claimed, \"There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and more precise measurement.\" Five years later, Albert Einstein published his paper on special relativity, which challenged the set of rules laid down by Newtonian mechanics, which had been used to describe force and motion for over two hundred years. In this case, the new paradigm reduces the old to a special case in the sense that Newtonian mechanics is still a good model for approximation for speeds that are slow compared to the speed of light. Many philosophers and historians of science, including Kuhn himself, ultimately accepted a modified version of Kuhn's model, which synthesizes his original view with the gradualist model that preceded it. Kuhn's original model is now generally seen as too limited .\n\nKuhn's idea was itself revolutionary in its time, as it caused a major change in the way that academics talk about science. Thus, it may be that it caused or was itself part of a \"paradigm shift\" in the history and sociology of science. However, Kuhn would not recognize such a paradigm shift. Being in the social sciences, people can still use earlier ideas to discuss the history of science.\n\nParadigm paralysis\n\nPerhaps the greatest barrier to a paradigm shift, in some cases, is the reality of paradigm paralysis: the inability or refusal to see beyond the current models of thinking. This is similar to what psychologists term Confirmation bias. Examples include rejection of Aristarchus of Samos', Copernicus', and Galileo's theory of a heliocentric solar system, the discovery of electrostatic photography, xerography and the quartz clock.\n\nIncommensurability\n\nKuhn pointed out that it could be difficult to assess whether a particular paradigm shift had actually led to progress, in the sense of explaining more facts, explaining more important facts, or providing better explanations, because the understanding of \"more important\", \"better\", etc. changed with the paradigm. The two versions of reality are thus incommensurable. Kuhn's version of incommensurability has an important psychological dimension; this is apparent from his analogy between a paradigm shift and the flip-over involved in some optical illusions. However, he subsequently diluted his commitment to incommensurability considerably, partly in the light of other studies of scientific development that did not involve revolutionary change. One of the examples of incommensurability that Kuhn used was the change in the style of chemical investigations that followed the work of Lavoisier on atomic theory in the late 18th Century. In this change, the focus had shifted from the bulk properties of matter (such as hardness, colour, reactivity, etc.) to studies of atomic weights and quantitative studies of reactions. He suggested that it was impossible to make the comparison needed to judge which body of knowledge was better or more advanced. However, this change in research style (and paradigm) eventually (after more than a century) led to a theory of atomic structure that accounts well for the bulk properties of matter; see, for example, Brady's General Chemistry. According to P J Smith, this ability of science to back off, move sideways, and then advance is characteristic of the natural sciences, but contrasts with the position in some social sciences, notably economics. \n\nThis apparent ability does not guarantee that the account is veridical at any one time, of course, and most modern philosophers of science are fallibilists. However, members of other disciplines do see the issue of incommensurability as a much greater obstacle to evaluations of \"progress\"; see, for example, Martin Slattery's Key Ideas in Sociology.\n\nSubsequent developments\n\nOpaque Kuhnian paradigms and paradigm shifts do exist. A few years after the discovery of the mirror-neurons that provide a hard-wired basis for the human capacity for empathy, the scientists involved were unable to identify the incidents that had directed their attention to the issue. Over the course of the investigation, their language and metaphors had changed so that they themselves could no longer interpret all of their own earlier laboratory notes and records. \n\nImre Lakatos and research programmes\n\nHowever, many instances exist in which change in a discipline's core model of reality has happened in a more evolutionary manner, with individual scientists exploring the usefulness of alternatives in a way that would not be possible if they were constrained by a paradigm. Imre Lakatos suggested (as an alternative to Kuhn's formulation) that scientists actually work within research programmes. In Lakatos' sense, a research programme is a sequence of problems, placed in order of priority. This set of priorities, and the associated set of preferred techniques, is the positive heuristic of a programme. Each programme also has a negative heuristic; this consists of a set of fundamental assumptions that – temporarily, at least – takes priority over observational evidence when the two appear to conflict.\n\nThis latter aspect of research programmes is inherited from Kuhn's work on paradigms, and represents an important departure from the elementary account of how science works. According to this, science proceeds through repeated cycles of observation, induction, hypothesis-testing, etc., with the test of consistency with empirical evidence being imposed at each stage. Paradigms and research programmes allow anomalies to be set aside, where there is reason to believe that they arise from incomplete knowledge (about either the substantive topic, or some aspect of the theories implicitly used in making observations.\n\nLarry Laudan: Dormant anomalies, fading credibility, and research traditions\n\nLarry Laudan has also made two important contributions to the debate. Laudan believed that something akin to paradigms exist in the social sciences (Kuhn had contested this, see below); he referred to these as research traditions. Laudan noted that some anomalies become \"dormant\", if they survive a long period during which no competing alternative has shown itself capable of resolving the anomaly. He also presented cases in which a dominant paradigm had withered away because its lost credibility when viewed against changes in the wider intellectual milieu.\n\nConcept of paradigm and the social sciences\n\nKuhn himself did not consider the concept of paradigm as appropriate for the social sciences. He explains in his preface to The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that he developed the concept of paradigm precisely to distinguish the social from the natural sciences. While visiting the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences in 1958 and 1959, surrounded by social scientists, he observed that they were never in agreement about the nature of legitimate scientific problems and methods. He explains that he wrote this book precisely to show that there are no, nor can there be any, paradigms in the social sciences. Mattei Dogan, a French sociologist, in his article \"Paradigms in the Social Sciences,\" develops Kuhn's original thesis that there are no paradigms at all in the social sciences since the concepts are polysemic, involving the deliberate mutual ignorance between scholars and the proliferation of schools in these disciplines. Dogan provides many examples of the non-existence of paradigms in the social sciences in his essay, particularly in sociology, political science and political anthropology.\n\nHowever, both Kuhn's original work and Dogan's commentary are directed at disciplines that are defined by conventional labels (e.g., \"sociology\"). While it is true that such broad groupings in the social sciences are usually not based on a Kuhnian paradigm, each of the competing sub-disciplines may still be underpinned by a paradigm, research programme, research tradition, and/ or professional imagery. These structures will be motivating research, providing it with an agenda, defining what is - and what is not - anomalous evidence, and inhibiting debate with other groups that fall under the same broad disciplinary label. (A good example is provided by the contrast between Skinnerian behaviourism and Personal Construct Theory, PCT, within psychology. The most significant of the many ways these two sub-disciplines of psychology differ concerns meanings and intentions. In PCT, these are seen as the central concern of psychology; in behaviourism, they are not scientific evidence at all, because they cannot be directly observed.) These considerations explain the conflict between the Kuhn/ Dogan view, and the views of others (including Larry Laudan, see above), who do apply these concepts to social sciences.\n\nHanda, M.L. (1986) introduced the idea of \"social paradigm\" in the context of social sciences. He identified the basic components of a social paradigm. Like Kuhn, Handa addressed the issue of changing paradigm; the process popularly known as \"paradigm shift\". In this respect, he focused on social circumstances that precipitate such a shift and the effects of the shift on social institutions, including the institution of education. This broad shift in the social arena, in turn, changes the way the individual perceives reality.\n\nAnother use of the word paradigm is in the sense of \"worldview\". For example, in social science, the term is used to describe the set of experiences, beliefs and values that affect the way an individual perceives reality and responds to that perception. Social scientists have adopted the Kuhnian phrase \"paradigm shift\" to denote a change in how a given society goes about organizing and understanding reality. A \"dominant paradigm\" refers to the values, or system of thought, in a society that are most standard and widely held at a given time. Dominant paradigms are shaped both by the community's cultural background and by the context of the historical moment. The following are conditions that facilitate a system of thought to become an accepted dominant paradigm:\n\n* Professional organizations that give legitimacy to the paradigm\n* Dynamic leaders who introduce and purport the paradigm\n* Journals and editors who write about the system of thought. They both disseminate the information essential to the paradigm and give the paradigm legitimacy\n* Government agencies who give credence to the paradigm\n* Educators who propagate the paradigm's ideas by teaching it to students\n* Conferences conducted that are devoted to discussing ideas central to the paradigm\n* Media coverage\n* Lay groups, or groups based around the concerns of lay persons, that embrace the beliefs central to the paradigm\n* Sources of funding to further research on the paradigm\n\nOther uses\n\nThe word paradigm is also still used to indicate a pattern or model or an outstandingly clear or typical example or archetype. The term is frequently used in this sense in the design professions. Design Paradigms or archetypes comprise functional precedents for design solutions. The best known references on design paradigms are Design Paradigms: A Sourcebook for Creative Visualization, by Wake, and Design Paradigms by Petroski.\n\nThis term is also used in cybernetics. Here it means (in a very wide sense) a (conceptual) protoprogram for reducing the chaotic mass to some form of order. Note the similarities to the concept of entropy in chemistry and physics. A paradigm there would be a sort of prohibition to proceed with any action that would increase the total entropy of the system. To create a paradigm requires a closed system that accepts changes. Thus a paradigm can only apply to a system that is not in its final stage.\n\nBeyond its use in the physical and social sciences, Kuhn's paradigm concept has been analysed in relation to its applicability in identifying 'paradigms' with respect to worldviews at specific points in history. One example is Matthew Edward Harris' book The Notion of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth Century: The Idea of Paradigm in Church History. Harris stresses the primarily sociological importance of paradigms, pointing towards Kuhn's second edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Although obedience to popes such as Innocent III and Boniface VIII was widespread, even written testimony from the time showing loyalty to the pope does not demonstrate that the writer had the same worldview as the Church, and therefore pope, at the centre. The difference between paradigms in the physical sciences and in historical organisations such as the Church is that the former, unlike the latter, requires technical expertise rather than repeating statements. In other words, after scientific training through what Kuhn calls 'exemplars', one could not genuinely believe that, to take a trivial example, the earth is flat, whereas thinkers such as Giles of Rome in the thirteenth century wrote in favour of the pope, then could easily write similarly glowing things about the king. A writer such as Giles would have wanted a good job from the pope; he was a papal publicist. However, Harris writes that 'scientific group membership is not concerned with desire, emotions, gain, loss and any idealistic notions concerning the nature and destiny of humankind...but simply to do with aptitude, explanation, [and] cold description of the facts of the world and the universe from within a paradigm'."
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"Thomas Kuhn: the man who changed the way the world looked at science | Science | The Guardian\nThe Observer\nThomas Kuhn: the man who changed the way the world looked at science\nFifty years ago, a book by Thomas Kuhn altered the way we look at the philosophy behind science, as well as introducing the much abused phrase 'paradigm shift'\nIllustration by Scott Garrett. Click for the full image\nSaturday 18 August 2012 19.05 EDT\nFirst published on Saturday 18 August 2012 19.05 EDT\nShare on Messenger\nClose\nFifty years ago this month, one of the most influential books of the 20th century was published by the University of Chicago Press. Many if not most lay people have probably never heard of its author, Thomas Kuhn, or of his book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions , but their thinking has almost certainly been influenced by his ideas. The litmus test is whether you've ever heard or used the term \"paradigm shift\", which is probably the most used – and abused – term in contemporary discussions of organisational change and intellectual progress. A Google search for it returns more than 10 million hits, for example. And it currently turns up inside no fewer than 18,300 of the books marketed by Amazon . It is also one of the most cited academic books of all time . So if ever a big idea went viral, this is it.\nThe real measure of Kuhn's importance, however, lies not in the infectiousness of one of his concepts but in the fact that he singlehandedly changed the way we think about mankind's most organised attempt to understand the world. Before Kuhn, our view of science was dominated by philosophical ideas about how it ought to develop (\"the scientific method\"), together with a heroic narrative of scientific progress as \"the addition of new truths to the stock of old truths, or the increasing approximation of theories to the truth, and in the odd case, the correction of past errors\", as the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy puts it. Before Kuhn, in other words, we had what amounted to the Whig interpretation of scientific history, in which past researchers, theorists and experimenters had engaged in a long march, if not towards \"truth\", then at least towards greater and greater understanding of the natural world.\nKuhn's version of how science develops differed dramatically from the Whig version. Where the standard account saw steady, cumulative \"progress\", he saw discontinuities – a set of alternating \"normal\" and \"revolutionary\" phases in which communities of specialists in particular fields are plunged into periods of turmoil, uncertainty and angst. These revolutionary phases – for example the transition from Newtonian mechanics to quantum physics – correspond to great conceptual breakthroughs and lay the basis for a succeeding phase of business as usual. The fact that his version seems unremarkable now is, in a way, the greatest measure of his success. But in 1962 almost everything about it was controversial because of the challenge it posed to powerful, entrenched philosophical assumptions about how science did – and should – work.\nWhat made it worse for philosophers of science was that Kuhn wasn't even a philosopher: he was a physicist, dammit. Born in 1922 in Cincinnati, he studied physics at Harvard, graduating summa cum laude in 1943, after which he was swept up by the war effort to work on radar. He returned to Harvard after the war to do a PhD – again in physics – which he obtained in 1949. He was then elected into the university's elite Society of Fellows and might have continued to work on quantum physics until the end of his days had he not been commissioned to teach a course on science for humanities students as part of the General Education in Science curriculum. This was the brainchild of Harvard's reforming president, James Conant , who believed that every educated person should know something about science.\nThe course was centred around historical case studies and teaching it forced Kuhn to study old scientific texts in detail for the first time. (Physicists, then as now, don't go in much for history.) Kuhn's encounter with the scientific work of Aristotle turned out to be a life- and career-changing epiphany.\n\"The question I hoped to answer,\" he recalled later , \"was how much mechanics Aristotle had known, how much he had left for people such as Galileo and Newton to discover. Given that formulation, I rapidly discovered that Aristotle had known almost no mechanics at all… that conclusion was standard and it might in principle have been right. But I found it bothersome because, as I was reading him, Aristotle appeared not only ignorant of mechanics, but a dreadfully bad physical scientist as well. About motion, in particular, his writings seemed to me full of egregious errors, both of logic and of observation.\"\nWhat Kuhn had run up against was the central weakness of the Whig interpretation of history. By the standards of present-day physics, Aristotle looks like an idiot. And yet we know he wasn't. Kuhn's blinding insight came from the sudden realisation that if one is to understand Aristotelian science, one must know about the intellectual tradition within which Aristotle worked. One must understand, for example, that for him the term \"motion\" meant change in general – not just the change in position of a physical body, which is how we think of it. Or, to put it in more general terms, to understand scientific development one must understand the intellectual frameworks within which scientists work. That insight is the engine that drives Kuhn's great book.\nKuhn remained at Harvard until 1956 and, having failed to get tenure, moved to the University of California at Berkeley where he wrote Structure… and was promoted to a professorship in 1961. The following year, the book was published by the University of Chicago Press. Despite the 172 pages of the first edition, Kuhn – in his characteristic, old-world scholarly style – always referred to it as a mere \"sketch\". He would doubtless have preferred to have written an 800-page doorstop.\nBut in the event, the readability and relative brevity of the \"sketch\" was a key factor in its eventual success. Although the book was a slow starter, selling only 919 copies in 1962-3, by mid-1987 it had sold 650,000 copies and sales to date now stand at 1.4 million copies . For a cerebral work of this calibre, these are Harry Potter-scale numbers.\nKuhn's central claim is that a careful study of the history of science reveals that development in any scientific field happens via a series of phases. The first he christened \"normal science\" – business as usual, if you like. In this phase, a community of researchers who share a common intellectual framework – called a paradigm or a \"disciplinary matrix\" – engage in solving puzzles thrown up by discrepancies (anomalies) between what the paradigm predicts and what is revealed by observation or experiment. Most of the time, the anomalies are resolved either by incremental changes to the paradigm or by uncovering observational or experimental error. As philosopher Ian Hacking puts it in his terrific preface to the new edition of Structure: \"Normal science does not aim at novelty but at clearing up the status quo. It tends to discover what it expects to discover.\"\nThe trouble is that over longer periods unresolved anomalies accumulate and eventually get to the point where some scientists begin to question the paradigm itself. At this point, the discipline enters a period of crisis characterised by, in Kuhn's words, \"a proliferation of compelling articulations, the willingness to try anything, the expression of explicit discontent, the recourse to philosophy and to debate over fundamentals\". In the end, the crisis is resolved by a revolutionary change in world-view in which the now-deficient paradigm is replaced by a newer one. This is the paradigm shift of modern parlance and after it has happened the scientific field returns to normal science, based on the new framework. And so it goes on.\nThis brutal summary of the revolutionary process does not do justice to the complexity and subtlety of Kuhn's thinking. To appreciate these, you have to read his book. But it does perhaps indicate why Structure… came as such a bombshell to the philosophers and historians who had pieced together the Whig interpretation of scientific progress.\nAs an illustration, take Kuhn's portrayal of \"normal\" science. The most influential philosopher of science in 1962 was Karl Popper, described by Hacking as \"the most widely read, and to some extent believed, by practising scientists\". Popper summed up the essence of \"the\" scientific method in the title of one of his books: Conjectures and Refutations. According to Popper, real scientists (as opposed to, say, psychoanalysts) were distinguished by the fact that they tried to refute rather than confirm their theories. And yet Kuhn's version suggested that the last thing normal scientists seek to do is to refute the theories embedded in their paradigm!\nMany people were also enraged by Kuhn's description of most scientific activity as mere \"puzzle-solving\" – as if mankind's most earnest quest for knowledge was akin to doing the Times crossword. But in fact these critics were over-sensitive. A puzzle is something to which there is a solution. That doesn't mean that finding it is easy or that it will not require great ingenuity and sustained effort. The unconscionably expensive quest for the Higgs boson that has recently come to fruition at Cern, for example, is a prime example of puzzle-solving because the existence of the particle was predicted by the prevailing paradigm, the so-called \"standard model\" of particle physics.\nBut what really set the cat among the philosophical pigeons was one implication of Kuhn's account of the process of paradigm change. He argued that competing paradigms are \"incommensurable\": that is to say, there exists no objective way of assessing their relative merits. There's no way, for example, that one could make a checklist comparing the merits of Newtonian mechanics (which applies to snooker balls and planets but not to anything that goes on inside the atom) and quantum mechanics (which deals with what happens at the sub-atomic level). But if rival paradigms are really incommensurable, then doesn't that imply that scientific revolutions must be based – at least in part – on irrational grounds? In which case, are not the paradigm shifts that we celebrate as great intellectual breakthroughs merely the result of outbreaks of mob psychology?\nKuhn's book spawned a whole industry of commentary, interpretation and exegesis. His emphasis on the importance of communities of scientists clustered round a shared paradigm essentially triggered the growth of a new academic discipline – the sociology of science – in which researchers began to examine scientific disciplines much as anthropologists studied exotic tribes, and in which science was regarded not as a sacred, untouchable product of the Enlightenment but as just another subculture.\nAs for his big idea – that of a \"paradigm\" as an intellectual framework that makes research possible –well, it quickly escaped into the wild and took on a life of its own. Hucksters, marketers and business school professors adopted it as a way of explaining the need for radical changes of world-view in their clients. And social scientists saw the adoption of a paradigm as a route to respectability and research funding, which in due course led to the emergence of pathological paradigms in fields such as economics, which came to esteem mastery of mathematics over an understanding of how banking actually works, with the consequences that we now have to endure.\nThe most intriguing idea, however, is to use Kuhn's thinking to interpret his own achievement. In his quiet way, he brought about a conceptual revolution by triggering a shift in our understanding of science from a Whiggish paradigm to a Kuhnian one, and much of what is now done in the history and philosophy of science might be regarded as \"normal\" science within the new paradigm. But already the anomalies are beginning to accumulate. Kuhn, like Popper, thought that science was mainly about theory, but an increasing amount of cutting-edge scientific research is data- rather than theory-driven . And while physics was undoubtedly the Queen of the Sciences when Structure… was being written, that role has now passed to molecular genetics and biotechnology. Does Kuhn's analysis hold good for these new areas of science? And if not, isn't it time for a paradigm shift?\nIn the meantime, if you're making a list of books to read before you die, Kuhn's masterwork is one.\nRebekah Higgitt: A recent lecture by Prof Greg Radick questions our scientific inheritance, through textbook histories of genetics and Thomas Kuhn's legacy\nPublished: 28 Aug 2012",
"Thomas Kuhn (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)\nStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\nThomas Kuhn\nFirst published Fri Aug 13, 2004; substantive revision Thu Aug 11, 2011\nThomas Samuel Kuhn (1922–1996) is one of the most influential philosophers of science of the twentieth century, perhaps the most influential. His 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is one of the most cited academic books of all time. Kuhn's contribution to the philosophy of science marked not only a break with several key positivist doctrines, but also inaugurated a new style of philosophy of science that brought it closer to the history of science. His account of the development of science held that science enjoys periods of stable growth punctuated by revisionary revolutions. To this thesis, Kuhn added the controversial ‘incommensurability thesis’, that theories from differing periods suffer from certain deep kinds of failure of comparability.\n1. Life and Career\nThomas Kuhn's academic life started in physics. He then switched to history of science, and as his career developed he moved over to philosophy of science, although retaining a strong interest in the history of physics. In 1943, he graduated from Harvard summa cum laude. Thereafter he spent the remainder of the war years in research related to radar at Harvard and then in Europe. He gained his master's degree in physics in 1946, and his doctorate in 1949, also in physics (concerning an application of quantum mechanics to solid state physics). Kuhn was elected to the prestigious Society of Fellows at Harvard, another of whose members was W. V. Quine. At this time, and until 1956, Kuhn taught a class in science for undergraduates in the humanities, as part of the General Education in Science curriculum, developed by James B. Conant, the President of Harvard. This course was centred around historical case studies, and this was Kuhn's first opportunity to study historical scientific texts in detail. His initial bewilderment on reading the scientific work of Aristotle was a formative experience, followed as it was by a more or less sudden ability to understand Aristotle properly, undistorted by knowledge of subsequent science.\nThis led Kuhn to concentrate on history of science and in due course he was appointed to an assistant professorship in general education and the history of science. During this period his work focussed on eighteenth century matter theory and the early history of thermodynamics. Kuhn then turned to the history of astronomy, and in 1957 he published his first book, The Copernican Revolution.\nIn 1961 Kuhn became a full professor at the University of California at Berkeley, having moved there in 1956 to take up a post in history of science, but in the philosophy department. This enabled him to develop his interest in the philosophy of science. At Berkeley Kuhn's colleagues included Stanley Cavell, who introduced Kuhn to the works of Wittgenstein, and Paul Feyerabend. With Feyerabend Kuhn discussed a draft of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions which was published in 1962 in the series “International Encyclopedia of Unified Science”, edited by Otto Neurath and Rudolf Carnap. The central idea of this extraordinarily influential—and controversial—book is that the development of science is driven, in normal periods of science, by adherence to what Kuhn called a ‘paradigm’. The functions of a paradigm are to supply puzzles for scientists to solve and to provide the tools for their solution. A crisis in science arises when confidence is lost in the ability of the paradigm to solve particularly worrying puzzles called ‘anomalies’. Crisis is followed by a scientific revolution if the existing paradigm is superseded by a rival. Kuhn claimed that science guided by one paradigm would be ‘incommensurable’ with science developed under a different paradigm, by which is meant that there is no common measure for assessing the different scientific theories. This thesis of incommensurability, developed at the same time by Feyerabend, rules out certain kinds of comparison of the two theories and consequently rejects some traditional views of scientific development, such as the view that later science builds on the knowledge contained within earlier theories, or the view that later theories are closer approximations to the truth than earlier theories. Most of Kuhn's subsequent work in philosophy was spent in articulating and developing the ideas in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, although some of these, such as the thesis of incommensurability, underwent transformation in the process.\nAccording to Kuhn himself (2000, 307), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions first aroused interest among social scientists, although it did in due course create the interest among philosophers that Kuhn had intended (and also before long among a much wider academic and general audience). While acknowledging the importance of Kuhn's ideas, the philosophical reception was nonetheless hostile. For example, Dudley Shapere's review (1964) emphasized the relativist implications of Kuhn's ideas, and this set the context for much subsequent philosophical discussion. Since the following of rules (of logic, of scientific method, etc.) was regarded as the sine qua non of rationality, Kuhn's claim that scientists do not employ rules in reaching their decisions appeared tantamount to the claim that science is irrational. This was highlighted by his rejection of the distinction between discovery and justification (denying that we can distinguish between the psychological process of thinking up an idea and the logical process of justifying its claim to truth) and his emphasis on incommensurability (the claim that certain kinds of comparison between theories are impossible). The negative response among philosophers was exacerbated by an important naturalistic tendency in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that was then unfamiliar. A particularly significant instance of this was Kuhn's insistence on the importance of the history of science for philosophy of science. The opening sentence of the book reads: “History, if viewed as a repository for more than anecdote or chronology, could produce a decisive transformation in the image of science by which we are now possessed” (1962/1970, 1). Also significant and unfamiliar was Kuhn's appeal to psychological literature and examples (such as linking theory-change with the changing appearance of a Gestalt image).\nIn 1964 Kuhn left Berkeley to take up the position of M. Taylor Pyne Professor of Philosophy and History of Science at Princeton University. In the following year an important event took place which helped promote Kuhn's profile further among philosophers. An International Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science was held at Bedford College, London. One of the key events of the Colloquium was intended to be a debate between Kuhn and Feyerabend, with Feyerabend promoting the critical rationalism that he shared with Popper. As it was, Feyerabend was ill and unable to attend, and the papers delivered focussed on Kuhn's work. John Watkins took Feyerabend's place in a session chaired by Popper. The ensuing discussion, to which Popper and also Margaret Masterman and Stephen Toulmin contributed, compared and contrasted the viewpoints of Kuhn and Popper and thereby helped illuminate the significance of Kuhn's approach. Papers from these discussants along with contributions from Feyerabend and Lakatos, were published several years later, in Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, edited by Lakatos and Alan Musgrave (1970) (the fourth volume of proceedings from this Colloquium). In the same year the second edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was published, including an important postscript in which Kuhn clarified his notion of paradigm. This was in part in response to Masterman's (1970) criticism that Kuhn had used ‘paradigm’ in a wide variety of ways; in addition, Kuhn felt that critics had failed to appreciate the emphasis he placed upon the idea of a paradigm as an exemplar or model of puzzle-solving. Kuhn also, for the first time, explicitly gave his work an anti-realist element by denying the coherence of the idea that theories could be regarded as more or less close to the truth.\nA collection of Kuhn's essays in the philosophy and history of science was published in 1977, with the title The Essential Tension taken from one of Kuhn's earliest essays in which he emphasizes the importance of tradition in science. The following year saw the publication of his second historical monograph Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, concerning the early history of quantum mechanics. In 1983 he was named Laurence S. Rockefeller Professor of Philosophy at MIT. Kuhn continued throughout the 1980s and 1990s to work on a variety of topics in both history and philosophy of science, including the development of the concept of incommensurability, and at the time of his death in 1996 he was working on a second philosophical monograph dealing with, among other matters, an evolutionary conception of scientific change and concept acquisition in developmental psychology.\n2. The Development of Science\nIn The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Kuhn paints a picture of the development of science quite unlike any that had gone before. Indeed, before Kuhn, there was little by way of a carefully considered, theoretically explained account of scientific change. Instead, there was a conception of how science ought to develop that was a by-product of the prevailing philosophy of science, as well as a popular, heroic view of scientific progress. According to such opinions, science develops by the addition of new truths to the stock of old truths, or the increasing approximation of theories to the truth, and in the odd case, the correction of past errors. Such progress might accelerate in the hands of a particularly great scientist, but progress itself is guaranteed by the scientific method.\nIn the 1950s, when Kuhn began his historical studies of science, the history of science was a young academic discipline. Even so, it was becoming clear that scientific change was not always as straightforward as the standard, traditional view would have it. Kuhn was the first and most important author to articulate a developed alternative account. Since the standard view dovetailed with the dominant, positivist-influenced philosophy of science, a non-standard view would have important consequences for the philosophy of science. Kuhn had little formal philosophical training but was nonetheless fully conscious of the significance of his innovation for philosophy, and indeed he called his work ‘history for philosophical purposes’ (Kuhn 2000, 276).\nAccording to Kuhn the development of a science is not uniform but has alternating ‘normal’ and ‘revolutionary’ (or ‘extraordinary’) phases. The revolutionary phases are not merely periods of accelerated progress, but differ qualitatively from normal science. Normal science does resemble the standard cumulative picture of scientific progress, on the surface at least. Kuhn describes normal science as ‘puzzle-solving’ (1962/1970a, 35–42). While this term suggests that normal science is not dramatic, its main purpose is to convey the idea that like someone doing a crossword puzzle or a chess problem or a jigsaw, the puzzle-solver expects to have a reasonable chance of solving the puzzle, that his doing so will depend mainly on his own ability, and that the puzzle itself and its methods of solution will have a high degree of familiarity. A puzzle-solver is not entering completely uncharted territory. Because its puzzles and their solutions are familiar and relatively straightforward, normal science can expect to accumulate a growing stock of puzzle-solutions. Revolutionary science, however, is not cumulative in that, according to Kuhn, scientific revolutions involve a revision to existing scientific belief or practice (1962/1970a, 92). Not all the achievements of the preceding period of normal science are preserved in a revolution, and indeed a later period of science may find itself without an explanation for a phenomenon that in an earlier period was held to be successfully explained. This feature of scientific revolutions has become known as ‘Kuhn-loss’ (1962/1970a, 99–100).\nIf, as in the standard picture, scientific revolutions are like normal science but better, then revolutionary science will at all times be regarded as something positive, to be sought, promoted, and welcomed. Revolutions are to be sought on Popper's view also, but not because they add to positive knowledge of the truth of theories but because they add to the negative knowledge that the relevant theories are false. Kuhn rejected both the traditional and Popperian views in this regard. He claims that normal science can succeed in making progress only if there is a strong commitment by the relevant scientific community to their shared theoretical beliefs, values, instruments and techniques, and even metaphysics. This constellation of shared commitments Kuhn at one point calls a ‘disciplinary matrix’ (1970a, 182) although elsewhere he often uses the term ‘paradigm’. Because commitment to the disciplinary matrix is a pre-requisite for successful normal science, an inculcation of that commitment is a key element in scientific training and in the formation of the mind-set of a successful scientist. This tension between the desire for innovation and the necessary conservativeness of most scientists was the subject of one of Kuhn's first essays in the theory of science, “The Essential Tension” (1959). The unusual emphasis on a conservative attitude distinguishes Kuhn not only from the heroic element of the standard picture but also from Popper and his depiction of the scientist forever attempting to refute her most important theories.\nThis conservative resistance to the attempted refutation of key theories means that revolutions are not sought except under extreme circumstances. Popper's philosophy requires that a single reproducible, anomalous phenomenon be enough to result in the rejection of a theory (Popper 1959, 86–7). Kuhn's view is that during normal science scientists neither test nor seek to confirm the guiding theories of their disciplinary matrix. Nor do they regard anomalous results as falsifying those theories. (It is only speculative puzzle-solutions that can be falsified in a Popperian fashion during normal science (1970b, 19).) Rather, anomalies are ignored or explained away if at all possible. It is only the accumulation of particularly troublesome anomalies that poses a serious problem for the existing disciplinary matrix. A particularly troublesome anomaly is one that undermines the practice of normal science. For example, an anomaly might reveal inadequacies in some commonly used piece of equipment, perhaps by casting doubt on the underlying theory. If much of normal science relies upon this piece of equipment, normal science will find it difficult to continue with confidence until this anomaly is addressed. A widespread failure in such confidence Kuhn calls a ‘crisis’ (1962/1970a, 66–76).\nThe most interesting response to crisis will be the search for a revised disciplinary matrix, a revision that will allow for the elimination of at least the most pressing anomalies and optimally the solution of many outstanding, unsolved puzzles. Such a revision will be a scientific revolution. According to Popper the revolutionary overthrow of a theory is one that is logically required by an anomaly. According to Kuhn however, there are no rules for deciding the significance of a puzzle and for weighing puzzles and their solutions against one another. The decision to opt for a revision of a disciplinary matrix is not one that is rationally compelled; nor is the particular choice of revision rationally compelled. For this reason the revolutionary phase is particularly open to competition among differing ideas and rational disagreement about their relative merits. Kuhn does briefly mention that extra-scientific factors might help decide the outcome of a scientific revolution—the nationalities and personalities of leading protagonists, for example (1962/1970a, 152–3). This suggestion grew in the hands of some sociologists and historians of science into the thesis that the outcome of a scientific revolution, indeed of any step in the development of science, is always determined by socio-political factors. Kuhn himself repudiated such ideas and his work makes it clear that the factors determining the outcome of a scientific dispute, particularly in modern science, are almost always to be found within science, specifically in connexion with the puzzle-solving power of the competing ideas.\nKuhn states that science does progress, even through revolutions (1962/1970a, 160ff.). The phenomenon of Kuhn-loss does, in Kuhn's view, rule out the traditional cumulative picture of progress. The revolutionary search for a replacement paradigm is driven by the failure of the existing paradigm to solve certain important anomalies. Any replacement paradigm had better solve the majority of those puzzles, or it will not be worth adopting in place of the existing paradigm. At the same time, even if there is some Kuhn-loss, a worthy replacement must also retain much of the problem-solving power of its predecessor (1962/1970a, 169). (Kuhn does clarify the point by asserting that the newer theory must retain pretty well all its predecessor's power to solve quantitative problems. It may however lose some qualitative, explanatory power (1970b, 20).) Hence we can say that revolutions do bring with them an overall increase in puzzle-solving power, the number and significance of the puzzles and anomalies solved by the revised paradigm exceeding the number and significance of the puzzles-solutions that are no longer available as a result of Kuhn-loss. Kuhn is quick to deny that there is any inference from such increases to improved nearness to the truth ((1962/1970a, 170–1). Indeed he later denies that any sense can be made of the notion of nearness to the truth (1970a, 206). Rather, he favours an evolutionary view of scientific progress (1962/1970a, 170–3). The evolutionary development of an organism might be seen as its response to a challenge set by its environment. But that does not imply that there is some ideal form of the organism that it is evolving towards. Analogously, science improves by allowing its theories to evolve in response to puzzles and progress is measured by its success in solving those puzzles; it is not measured by its progress towards to an ideal true theory.\n3. The Concept of a Paradigm\nA mature science, according to Kuhn, experiences alternating phases of normal science and revolutions. In normal science the key theories, instruments, values and metaphysical assumptions that comprise the disciplinary matrix are kept fixed, permitting the cumulative generation of puzzle-solutions, whereas in a scientific revolution the disciplinary matrix undergoes revision, in order to permit the solution of the more serious anomalous puzzles that disturbed the preceding period of normal science.\nA particularly important part of Kuhn's thesis in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions focuses upon one specific component of the disciplinary matrix. This is the consensus on exemplary instances of scientific research. These exemplars of good science are what Kuhn refers to when he uses the term ‘paradigm’ in a narrower sense. He cites Aristotle's analysis of motion, Ptolemy's computations of plantery positions, Lavoisier's application of the balance, and Maxwell's mathematization of the electromagnetic field as paradigms (1962/1970a, 23). Exemplary instances of science are typically to be found in books and papers, and so Kuhn often also describes great texts as paradigms—Ptolemy's Almagest, Lavoisier's Traité élémentaire de chimie, and Newton's Principia Mathematica and Opticks (1962/1970a, 12). Such texts contain not only the key theories and laws, but also—and this is what makes them paradigms—the applications of those theories in the solution of important problems, along with the new experimental or mathematical techniques (such as the chemical balance in Traité élémentaire de chimie and the calculus in Principia Mathematica) employed in those applications.\nIn the postscript to the second edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Kuhn says of paradigms in this sense that they are “the most novel and least understood aspect of this book” (1962/1970a, 187). The claim that the consensus of a disciplinary matrix is primarily agreement on paradigms-as-exemplars is intended to explain the nature of normal science and the process of crisis, revolution, and renewal of normal science. It also explains the birth of a mature science. Kuhn describes an immature science, in what he sometimes calls its ‘pre-paradigm’ period, as lacking consensus. Competing schools of thought possess differing procedures, theories, even metaphysical presuppositions. Consequently there is little opportunity for collective progress. Even localized progress by a particular school is made difficult, since much intellectual energy is put into arguing over the fundamentals with other schools instead of developing a research tradition. However, progress is not impossible, and one school may make a breakthrough whereby the shared problems of the competing schools are solved in a particularly impressive fashion. This success draws away adherents from the other schools, and a widespread consensus is formed around the new puzzle-solutions.\nThis widespread consensus now permits agreement on fundamentals. For a problem-solution will embody particular theories, procedures and instrumentation, scientific language, metaphysics, and so forth. Consensus on the puzzle-solution will thus bring consensus on these other aspects of a disciplinary matrix also. The successful puzzle-solution, now a paradigm puzzle-solution, will not solve all problems. Indeed, it will probably raise new puzzles. For example, the theories it employs may involve a constant whose value is not known with precision; the paradigm puzzle-solution may employ approximations that could be improved; it may suggest other puzzles of the same kind; it may suggest new areas for investigation. Generating new puzzles is one thing that the paradigm puzzle-solution does; helping solve them is another. In the most favourable scenario, the new puzzles raised by the paradigm puzzle-solution can be addressed and answered using precisely the techniques that the paradigm puzzle-solution employs. And since the paradigm puzzle-solution is accepted as a great achievement, these very similar puzzle-solutions will be accepted as successful solutions also. This is why Kuhn uses the terms ‘exemplar’ and ‘paradigm’. For the novel puzzle-solution which crystallizes consensus is regarded and used as a model of exemplary science. In the research tradition it inaugurates, a paradigm-as-exemplar fulfils three functions: (i) it suggests new puzzles; (ii) it suggests approaches to solving those puzzles; (iii) it is the standard by which the quality of a proposed puzzle-solution can be measured (1962/1970a, 38–9). In each case it is similarity to the exemplar that is the scientists’ guide.\nThat normal science proceeds on the basis of perceived similarity to exemplars is an important and distinctive feature of Kuhn's new picture of scientific development. The standard view explained the cumulative addition of new knowledge in terms of the application of the scientific method. Allegedly, the scientific method encapsulates the rules of scientific rationality. It may be that those rules could not account for the creative side of science—the generation of new hypotheses. The latter was thus designated ‘the context of discovery’, leaving the rules of rationality to decide in the ‘context of justification’ whether a new hypothesis should, in the light of the evidence, be added to the stock of accepted theories.\nKuhn rejected the distinction between the context of discovery and the context of justification (1962/1970a, 8), and correspondingly rejected the standard account of each. As regards the context of discovery, the standard view held that the philosophy of science had nothing to say on the issue of the functioning of the creative imagination. But Kuhn's paradigms do provide a partial explanation, since training with exemplars enables scientists to see new puzzle-situations in terms of familiar puzzles and hence enables them to see potential solutions to their new puzzles.\nMore important for Kuhn was the way his account of the context of justification diverged from the standard picture. The functioning of exemplars is intended explicitly to contrast with the operation of rules. The key determinant in the acceptability of a proposed puzzle-solution is its similarity to the paradigmatic puzzle-solutions. Perception of similarity cannot be reduced to rules, and a fortiori cannot be reduced to rules of rationality. This rejection of rules of rationality was one of the factors that led Kuhn's critics to accuse him of irrationalism—regarding science as irrational. In this respect at least the accusation is wide of the mark. For to deny that some cognitive process is the outcome of applying rules of rationality is not to imply that it is an irrational process: the perception of similarity in appearance between two members of the same family also cannot be reduced to the application of rules of rationality. Kuhn's innovation in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was to suggest that a key element in cognition in science operates in the same fashion.\n4. Incommensurability and World-Change\nThe standard empiricist conception of theory evaluation regards our judgment of the epistemic quality of a theory to be a matter of applying rules of method to the theory and the evidence. Kuhn's contrasting view is that we judge the quality of a theory (and its treatment of the evidence) by comparing it to a paradigmatic theory. The standards of assessment therefore are not permanent, theory-independent rules. They are not rules, because they involve perceived relations of similarity (of puzzle-solution to a paradigm). They are not theory-independent, since they involve comparison to a (paradigm) theory. They are not permanent, since the paradigm may change in a scientific revolution. For example, to many in the seventeenth century, Newton's account of gravitation, involving action at a distance with no underlying explanation, seemed a poor account, in that respect at least, when compared, for example, to Ptolemy's explanation of the motion of the planets in terms of contiguous crystalline spheres or to Descartes’ explanation in terms of vortices. However, later, once Newton's theory had become accepted and the paradigm by which later theories were judged, the lack of an underlying mechanism for a fundamental force was regarded as no objection, as, for example, in the case of Coulomb's law of electrostatic attraction. Indeed, in the latter case the very similarity of Coulomb's equation to Newton's was taken to be in its favour.\nConsequently, comparison between theories will not be as straightforward as the standard empiricist picture would have it, since the standards of evaluation are themselves subject to change. This sort of difficulty in theory comparison is an instance of what Kuhn and Feyerabend called ‘incommensurability’. Theories are incommensurable when they share no common measure. Thus, if paradigms are the measures of attempted puzzle-solutions, then puzzle-solutions developed in different eras of normal science will be judged by comparison to differing paradigms and so lack a common measure. The term ‘incommensurable’ derives from a mathematical use, according to which the side and diagonal of a square are incommensurable in virtue of there being no unit that can be used to measure both exactly. Kuhn stressed that incommensurability did not mean non-comparability (just as the side and diagonal of a square are comparable in many respects). Even so, it is clear that at the very least Kuhn's incommensurability thesis would make theory comparison rather more difficult than had commonly been supposed, and in some cases impossible.\nWe can distinguish three types of incommensurability in Kuhn's remarks: (1) methodological—there is no common measure because the methods of comparison and evaluation change; (2) perceptual/observational—observational evidence cannot provide a common basis for theory comparison, since perceptual experience is theory-dependent; (3) semantic—the fact that the languages of theories from different periods of normal science may not be inter-translatable presents an obstacle to the comparison of those theories. (See Sankey 1993 for a useful discussion of Kuhn's changing accounts of incommensurability.)\n4.1 Methodological Incommensurability\nThe incommensurability illustrated above whereby puzzle-solutions from different eras of normal science are evaluated by reference to different paradigms, is methodological incommensurability. Another source of methodological incommensurability is the fact that proponents of competing paradigms may not agree on which problems a candidate paradigm should solve (1962/1970a, 148). In general the factors that determine our choices of theory (whether puzzle-solutions or potential paradigm theories) are not fixed and neutral but vary and are dependent in particular on the disciplinary matrix within which the scientist is working. Indeed, since decision making is not rule-governed or algorithmic, there is no guarantee that those working within the same disciplinary matrix must agree on their evaluation of theory (1962/1970a, 200), although in such cases the room for divergence will be less than when the disputants operate within different disciplinary matrices. Despite the possibility of divergence, there is nonetheless widespread agreement on the desirable features of a new puzzle-solution or theory. Kuhn (1977, 321–2) identifies five characteristics that provide the shared basis for a choice of theory: 1. accuracy; 2. consistency (both internal and with other relevant currently accepted theories); 3. scope (its consequences should extend beyond the data it is required to explain); 4. simplicity (organizing otherwise confused and isolated phenomena); 5. fruitfulness (for further research). Even though these are, for Kuhn, constitutive of science (1977c, 331; 1993, 338) they cannot determine scientific choice. First, which features of a theory satisfy these criteria may be disputable (e.g. does simplicity concern the ontological commitments of a theory or its mathematical form?). Secondly, these criteria are imprecise, and so there is room for disagreement about the degree to which they hold. Thirdly, there can be disagreement about how they are to be weighted relative to one another, especially when they conflict.\n4.2 Perception, Observational Incommensurability, and World-Change\nAn important focus of Kuhn's interest in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was on the nature of perception and how it may be that what a scientist observes can change as a result of scientific revolution. He developed what has become known as the thesis of the theory-dependence of observation, building on the work of N. R. Hanson (1958) while also referring to psychological studies carried out by his Harvard colleagues, Leo Postman and Jerome Bruner (Bruner and Postman 1949). The standard positivist view was that observation provides the neutral arbiter between competing theories. The thesis that Kuhn and Hanson promoted denied this, holding that the nature of observation may be influenced by prior beliefs and experiences. Consequently it cannot be expected that two scientists when observing the same scene will make the same theory-neutral observations. Kuhn asserts that Galileo and an Aristotelian when both looking at a pendulum will see different things (see quoted passage below).\nThe theory-dependence of observation, by rejecting the role of observation as a theory-neutral arbiter among theories, provides another source of incommensurability. Methodological incommensurability (§4.1 above) denies that there are universal methods for making inferences from the data. The theory-dependence of observation means that even if there were agreed methods of inference and interpretation, incommensurability could still arise since scientists might disagree on the nature of the observational data themselves.\nKuhn expresses or builds on the idea that participants in different disciplinary matrices will see the world differently by claiming that their worlds are different:\nIn a sense I am unable to explicate further, the proponents of competing paradigms practice their trades in different worlds. One contains constrained bodies that fall slowly, the other pendulums that repeat their motions again and again. In one, solutions are compounds, in the other mixtures. One is embedded in a flat, the other in a curved, matrix of space. Practicing in different worlds, the two groups of scientists see different things when they look from the same point in the same direction (1962/1970a, 150).\nRemarks such as these gave some commentators the impression that Kuhn was a strong kind of constructivist, holding that the way the world literally is depends on which scientific theory is currently accepted. Kuhn, however, denied any constructivist import to his remarks on world-change. (The closest Kuhn came to constructivism was to acknowledge a parallel with Kantian idealism, which is discussed below in Section 6.4.)\nKuhn likened the change in the phenomenal world to the Gestalt-switch that occurs when one sees the duck-rabbit diagram first as (representing) a duck then as (representing) a rabbit, although he himself acknowledged that he was not sure whether the Gestalt case was just an analogy or whether it illustrated some more general truth about the way the mind works that encompasses the scientific case too.\n4.3 Kuhn's Early Semantic Incommensurability Thesis\nAlthough the theory-dependence of observation plays a significant role in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, neither it nor methodological incommensurability could account for all the phenomena that Kuhn wanted to capture with the notion of incommensurability. Some of his own examples are rather stretched—for instance he says Lavoisier saw oxygen where Priestley saw dephlogisticated air, describing this as a ‘transformation of vision’ (1962/1970a, 118). Moreover observation—if conceived of as a form of perception—does not play a significant part in every science. Kuhn wanted to explain his own experience of reading Aristotle, which first left him with the impression that Aristotle was an inexplicably poor scientist (Kuhn 1987). But careful study led to a change in his understanding that allowed him to see that Aristotle was indeed an excellent scientist. This could not simply be a matter of literally perceiving things differently. Kuhn took the incommensurability that prevented him from properly understanding Aristotle to be at least partly a linguistic, semantic matter. Indeed, Kuhn spent much of his career after The Structure of Scientific Revolutions attempting to articulate a semantic conception of incommensurability.\nIn The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Kuhn asserts that there are important shifts in the meanings of key terms as a consequence of a scientific revolution. For example, Kuhn says:\n… the physical referents of these Einsteinian concepts are by no means identical with those of the Newtonian concepts that bear the same name. (Newtonian mass is conserved; Einsteinian is convertible with energy. Only at low relative velocities may the two be measured in the same way, and even then they must not be conceived to be the same.) (1962/1970a, 102)\nThis is important, because a standard conception of the transition from classical to relativistic physics is that although Einstein's theory of relativity supersedes Newton's theory, what we have is an improvement or generalization whereby Newton's theory is a special case of Einstein's (to a close approximation). We can therefore say that the later theory is closer to the truth than the older theory. Kuhn's view that ‘mass’ as used by Newton cannot be translated by ‘mass’ as used by Einstein allegedly renders this kind of comparison impossible. Hence incommensurability is supposed to rule out convergent realism, the view that science shows ever improving approximation to the truth. (Kuhn also thinks, for independent reasons, that the very ideas of matching the truth and similarity to the truth are incoherent (1970a, 206).)\nKuhn's view as expressed in the passage quoted above depends upon meaning holism—the claim that the meanings of terms are interrelated in such a way that changing the meaning of one term results in changes in the meanings of related terms: “To make the transition to Einstein's universe, the whole conceptual web whose strands are space, time, matter, force, and so on, had to be shifted and laid down again on nature whole.” (1962/1970a, 149). The assumption of meaning holism is a long standing one in Kuhn's work. One source for this is the later philosophy of Wittgenstein. Another not unrelated source is the assumption of holism in the philosophy of science that is consequent upon the positivist conception of theoretical meaning. According to the latter, it is not the function of the theoretical part of scientific language to refer to and describe unobserved entities. Only observational sentences directly describe the world, and this accounts for them having the meaning that they do. Theories permit the deduction of observational sentences. This is what gives theoretical expressions their meaning. Theoretical statements cannot, however, be reduced to observational ones. This is because, first, theoretical propositions are collectively involved in the deduction of observational statements, rather than singly. Secondly, theories generate dispositional statements (e.g. about the solubility of a substance, about how they would appear if observed under certain circumstances, etc.), and dispositional statements, being modal, are not equivalent to any truth-function of (non-modal) observation statements. Consequently, the meaning of a theoretical sentence is not equivalent to the meaning of any observational sentence or combination of observational sentences. The meaning of a theoretical term is a product of two factors: the relationship of the theory or theories of which it is a part to its observational consequences and the role that particular term plays within those theories. This is the double-language model of the language of science and was the standard picture of the relationship of a scientific theory to the world when Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Kuhn's challenge to it lay not in rejecting the anti-realism implicit in the view that theories do not refer to the world but rather in undermining the assumption that the relationship of observation sentence to the world is unproblematic. By insisting on the theory-dependence of observation, Kuhn in effect argued that the holism of theoretical meaning is shared by apparently observational terms also, and for this reason the problem of incommensurability cannot be solved by recourse to theory-neutral observation sentences.\n(Although it is true that Kuhn uses the expression ‘physical referent’ in the passage quoted above, this should not be taken to mean an independently existing worldly entity. If that were the case, Kuhn would be committed to the worldly existence of both Newtonian mass and Einsteinian mass (which are nonetheless not the same). It is implausible that Kuhn intended to endorse such a view. A better interpretation is to understand Kuhn as taking reference, in this context, to be a relation between a term and a hypothetical rather than worldly entity. Reference of anything like the Fregean, worldly kind plays no part in Kuhn's thinking. Again this may be seen as a reflection of the influence of one or other or both of the (later) Wittgensteinian downplaying of reference and of the positivist view that theories are not descriptions of the world but are in one way or another tools for the organization or prediction of observations.)\n4.4 Kuhn's Later Semantic Incommensurability Thesis\nAlthough Kuhn asserted a semantic incommensurability thesis in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions he did not there articulate or argue for the thesis in detail. This he attempted in subsequent work, with the result that the nature of the thesis changed over time. The heart of the incommensurability thesis after The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is the idea that certain kinds of translation are impossible. Early on Kuhn drew a parallel with Quine's thesis of the indeterminacy of translation (1970a, 202; 1970c, 268). According to the latter, if we are translating one language into another, there are inevitably a multitude of ways of providing a translation that is adequate to the behaviour of the speakers. None of the translations is the uniquely correct one, and in Quine's view there is no such thing as the meaning of the words to be translated. It was nonetheless clear that Quine's thesis was rather far from Kuhn's thesis, indeed that they are incompatible. First, Kuhn thought that incommensurability was a matter of there being no fully adequate translation whereas Quine's thesis involved the availability of multiple translations. Secondly, Kuhn does believe that the translated expressions do have a meaning, whereas Quine denies this. Thirdly, Kuhn later went on to say that unlike Quine he does not think that reference is inscrutable—it is just very difficult to recover (1976, 191).\nSubsequently, Kuhn developed the view that incommensurability arises from differences in classificatory schemes. This is taxonomic incommensurability. A field of science is governed by a taxonomy, which divides its subject matter into kinds. Associated with a taxonomy is a lexical network—a network of related terms. A significant scientific change will bring with it an alteration in the lexical network which in turn will lead to a re-alignment of the taxonomy of the field. The terms of the new and old taxonomies will not be inter-translatable.\nThe problematic nature of translation arises from two assumptions. First, as we have seen, Kuhn assumes that meaning is (locally) holistic. A change in the meaning of one part of the lexical structure will result in a change to all its parts. This would rule out preservation of the translatability of taxonomies by redefining the changed part in terms of the unchanged part. Secondly, Kuhn adopts the ‘no-overlap’ principle which states that categories in a taxonomy must be hierarchically organised: if two categories have members in common then one must be fully included within the other; otherwise they are disjoint—they cannot simply overlap. This rules out the possibility of an all-encompassing taxonomy that incorporates both the original and the changed taxonomies. (Ian Hacking (1993) relates this to the world-change thesis: after a revolution the world of individuals remains as it was, but scientists now work in a world of new kinds.)\nKuhn continued to develop his conceptual approach to incommensurability. At the time of his death he had made considerable progress on a book in which he related incommensurability to issues in developmental psychology and concept acquisition.\n5. History of Science\nKuhn's historical work covered several topics in the history of physics and astronomy. During the 1950s his focus was primarily on the early theory of heat and the work of Sadie Carnot. However, his first book concerned the Copernican revolution in planetary astronomy (1957). This book grew out of the teaching he had done on James Conant's General Education in Science curriculum at Harvard but also presaged some of the ideas of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. In detailing the problems with the Ptolemaic system and Copernicus’ solution to them, Kuhn showed two things. First, he demonstrated that Aristotelian science was genuine science and that those working within that tradition, in particular those working on Ptolemaic astronomy, were engaged in an entirely reasonable and recognizably scientific project. Secondly, Kuhn showed that Copernicus was himself far more indebted to that tradition than had typically been recognized. Thus the popular view that Copernicus was a modern scientist who overthrew an unscientific and long-outmoded viewpoint is mistaken both by exaggerating the difference between Copernicus and the Ptolemaic astronomers and in underestimating the scientific credentials of work carried out before Copernicus. This mistaken view—a product of the distortion caused by our current state of knowledge—can be rectified only by seeing the activities of Copernicus and his predecessors in the light of the puzzles presented to them by tradition that they inevitably had to work with. While Kuhn does acknowledge the influence of causes outside science (such as a resurgence in Sun worship (1962/70a, 152–3)), he nonetheless emphasizes the fact that astronomers were responding primarily to problems raised within science. What appealed to them in Copernicus’ model was its ability to do away with ad hoc devices in Ptolemy's system (such as the equant), to explain key phenomena in a pleasing fashion (the observed retrograde motion of the planets), and to explain away otherwise inexplicable coincidences in Ptolemy's system (such as the alignment of the Sun and the centres of the epicycles of the inferior planets).\nIn the 1960s Kuhn's historical work turned toward the early history of quantum theory, culminating in his book Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity. According to classical physics a particle could possess any energy in a continuous range and if it changes energy it does so in a continuous fashion, possessing at some point in time every energy between the initial and final energy states. Modern quantum theory denies both these classical principles. Energy is quantised—a particle may possess only one of a set of discrete energies. Consequently if it changes in energy from one value to the next permitted value it does so discontinuously, jumping straight from one energy to the other without taking any of the intermediate (‘forbidden’) values. In order to explain the distribution of energy within a cavity (black-body radiation), Planck used the device of dividing up the energy states into multiples of the unit or ‘quantum’ hν (where ν is the frequency of radiation and h is what subsequently became known as Planck's constant). Planck did this in order to employ a statistical technique of Boltzmann's whereby the range of possible continuous energies is divided into ‘cells’ of similar energies that could be treated together for mathematical purposes. Kuhn notes that Planck was puzzled that in carrying out his derivation, only by fixing the cell size at hν could he get the result he wanted—the technique should have worked for any way of dividing the cells, so long as they were small enough but not too small. This work of Planck's was carried out in the period 1900–1, which is the date tradition has accorded to the invention of the quantum concept. However, argued Kuhn, Planck did not have in mind a genuine physical discontinuity of energies until 1908, which is after Albert Einstein and Paul Ehrenfest had themselves emphasized it in 1905–6.\nMany readers were surprised not to find mention of paradigms or incommensurability. Kuhn later added an Afterword, “Revisiting Planck”, explaining that he had not repudiated or ignored those ideas but that they were implicit in the argument he gave. Indeed the whole essay may be seen as a demonstration of an incommensurability between the mature quantum theory and the early quantum theory of Planck which was still rooted in classical statistical physics. In particular the very term ‘quantum’ changed its meaning between its introduction by Planck and its later use. Kuhn argues that the modern quantum concept was introduced first not by Planck but by Einstein. Furthermore, this fact is hidden both by the continued use of the same term and by the same distortion of history that has affected our conception of Ptolemy and Copernicus. As in Copernicus’ case, Planck has been seen as more revolutionary than in fact he was. In Planck's case, however, this misconception was also shared by Planck himself later in life.\n6. Criticism and Influence\nKuhn's work met with a largely critical reception among philosophers. Some of this criticism became muted as Kuhn's work became better understood and as his own thinking underwent transformation. At the same time other developments in philosophy opened up new avenues for criticism. That criticism has largely focussed on two areas. First, it has been argued that Kuhn's account of the development of science is not entirely accurate. Secondly, critics have attacked Kuhn's notion of incommensurability, arguing that either it does not exist or, if it does exist, it is not a significant problem. Despite this criticism, Kuhn's work has been hugely influential, both within philosophy and outside it. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was an important stimulus to what has since become known as 'Science Studies', in particular the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge (SSK).\n6.1 Scientific Change\nIn The Structure of Scientific Revolutions periods of normal science and revolutionary science are clearly distinguished. In particular paradigms and their theories are not questioned and not changed in normal science whereas they are questioned and are changed in revolutionary science. Thus a revolution is, by definition revisionary, and normal science is not (as regards paradigms). Furthermore, normal science does not suffer from the conceptual discontinuities that lead to incommensurability whereas revolutions do. This gives the impression, confirmed by Kuhn's examples, that revolutions are particularly significant and reasonably rare episodes in the history of science.\nThis picture has been questioned for its accuracy. Stephen Toulmin (1970) argues that a more realistic picture shows that revisionary changes in science are far more common and correspondingly less dramatic than Kuhn supposes, and that perfectly ‘normal’ science experiences these changes also. Kuhn could reply that such revisions are not revisions to the paradigm but to the non-paradigm puzzle-solutions provided by normal science. But that in turn requires a clear distinction between paradigmatic and non-paradigmatic components of science, a distinction that, arguably, Kuhn has not supplied in any detail.\nAt the same time, by making revisionary change a necessary condition of revolutionary science, Kuhn ignores important discoveries and developments that are widely regarded as revolutionary, such as the discovery of the structure of DNA and the revolution in molecular biology. Kuhn's view is that discoveries and revolutions come about only as a consequence of the appearance of anomalies. Yet it is also clear that a discovery might come about in the course of normal science and initiate a ‘revolution’ (in a non-Kuhnian sense) in a field because of the unexpected insight it provides and the way it opens up opportunities for new avenues of research. The double-helical structure of DNA was not expected but immediately suggested a mechanism for the duplication of genetic information (e.g. in mitosis), which had enormous consequences for subsequent biological research.\n6.2 Incommensurability\nKuhn's incommensurability thesis presented a challenge not only to positivist conceptions of scientific change but also to realist ones. For a realist conception of scientific progress also wishes to assert that, by and large, later science improves on earlier science, in particular by approaching closer to the truth. A standard realist response from the late 1960s was to reject the anti-realism and anti-referentialism shared by both Kuhn's picture and the preceding double-language model. If we do take theories to be potential descriptions of the world, involving reference to worldly entities, kind, and properties, then the problems raised by incommensurability largely evaporate. As we have seen, Kuhn thinks that we cannot properly say that Einstein's theory is an improvement on Newton's in the sense that the latter as deals reasonably accurately (only) with a special case of the former. Whether or not the key terms (such as ‘mass’) in the two theories differ in meaning, a realist and referentialist approach to theories permits one to say that Einstein's theory is closer to the truth than Newton's. For truth and nearness to the truth depend only on reference and not on sense. Two terms can differ in sense yet share the same reference, and correspondingly two sentences may relate to one another as regards truth without their sharing terms with the same sense. And so even if we retain a holism about the sense of theoretical terms and allow that revolutions lead to shifts in sense, there is no direct inference from this to a shift in reference. Consequently, there is no inference to the inadmissibility of the comparison of theories with respect to their truth-nearness.\nWhile this referentialist response to the incommensurability thesis was initially framed in Fregean terms (Scheffler 1967), it received further impetus from the work of Kripke (1980) and Putnam (1975b), which argued that reference could be achieved without anything akin to Fregean sense and that the natural kind terms of science exemplified this sense-free reference. In particular, causal theories of reference permit continuity of reference even through fairly radical theoretical change. (They do not guarantee continuity in reference, and changes in reference can occur on some causal theories, e.g. Gareth Evans's (1973). Arguing that they do occur would require more, however, than merely pointing to a change in theory. Rather, it seems, cases of reference change must be identified and argued for on a case by case basis.) Therefore, if taken to encompass terms for quantities and properties (such as ‘mass’), the changes that Kuhn identified as changes in meaning (e.g. those involved in the shift from Newtonian to relativistic physics) would not necessarily be changes that bear on reference, nor, consequently, on comparison for nearness to the truth. The simple causal theory of reference does have its problems, such as explaining the referential mechanism of empty theoretical terms (e.g.caloric and phlogiston) (c.f. Enç 1976, Nola 1980). Causal-descriptive theories (which allow for a descriptive component) tackle such problems while retaining the key idea that referential continuity is possible despite radical theory change (Kroon 1985, Sankey 1994).\nOf course, the referentialist response shows only that reference can be retained, not that it must be. Consequently it is only a partial defence of realism against semantic incommensurability. A further component of the defence of realism against incommensurability must be an epistemic one. For referentialism shows that a term can retain reference and hence that the relevant theories may be such that the later constitutes a better approximation to the truth than the earlier. Nonetheless it may not be possible for philosophers or others to know that there has been such progress. Methodological incommensurability in particular seems to threaten the possibility of this knowledge. Kuhn thinks that in order to be in a position to compare theories from older and more recent periods of normal science one needs a perspective external to each and indeed any era of science–what he calls an ‘Archimedean platform’ (1992, 14). However, we never are able to escape from our current perspective. A realist response to this kind of incommensurability may appeal to externalist or naturalized epistemology. These (related) approaches reject the idea that for a method to yield knowledge it must be independent of any particular theory, perspective, or historical/cognitive circumstance. So long as the method has an appropriate kind of reliability it can generate knowledge. Contrary to the internalist view characteristic of the positivists (and, it appears, shared by Kuhn) the reliability of a method does not need to be one that must be evaluable independently of any particular scientific perspective. It is not the case, for example, that the reliability of a method used in science must be justifiable by a priori means. Thus the methods developed in one era may indeed generate knowledge, including knowledge that some previous era got certain matters wrong, or right but only to a certain degree. A naturalized epistemology may add that science itself is in the business of investigating and developing methods. As science develops we would expect its methods to change and develop also.\n6.3 Kuhn and Social Science\nKuhn's influence outside of professional philosophy of science may have been even greater than it was within it. The social sciences in particular took up Kuhn with enthusiasm. There are primarily two reasons for this. First, Kuhn's picture of science appeared to permit a more liberal conception of what science is than hitherto, one that could be taken to include disciplines such as sociology and psychoanalysis. Secondly, Kuhn's rejection of rules as determining scientific outcomes appeared to permit appeal to other factors, external to science, in explaining why a scientific revolution took the course that it did.\nThe status as genuine sciences of what we now call the social and human sciences has widely been held in doubt. Such disciplines lack the remarkable track record of established natural sciences and seem to differ also in the methods they employ. More specifically they fail by pre-Kuhnian philosophical criteria of sciencehood. On the one hand, positivists required of a science that it should be verifiable by reference to its predictive successes. On the other, Popper's criterion was that a science should be potentially falsifiable by a prediction of the theory. Yet psychoanalysis, sociology and even economics have difficulty in making precise predictions at all, let alone ones that provide for clear confirmation or unambiguous refutation. Kuhn's picture of a mature science as being dominated by a paradigm that generated sui generis puzzles and criteria for assessing solutions to them could much more easily accommodate these disciplines. For example, Popper famously complained that psychoanalysis could not be scientific because it resists falsification. Kuhn's account argues that resisting falsification is precisely what every disciplinary matrix in science does. Even disciplines that could not claim to be dominated by a settled paradigm but were beset by competing schools with different fundamental ideas could appeal to Kuhn's description of the pre-paradigm state of a science in its infancy. Consequently Kuhn's analysis was popular among those seeking legitimacy as science (and consequently kudos and funding) for their new disciplines. Kuhn himself did not especially promote such extensions of his views, and indeed cast doubt upon them. He denied that psychoanalysis is a science and argued that there are reasons why some fields within the social sciences could not sustain extended periods of puzzle-solving normal science (1991b). Although, he says, the natural sciences involve interpretation just as human and social sciences do, one difference is that hermeneutic re-interpretation, the search for new and deeper intepretations, is the essence of many social scientific enterprises. This contrasts with the natural sciences where an established and unchanging interpretation (e.g. of the heavens) is a pre-condition of normal science. Re-intepretation is the result of a scientific revolution and is typically resisted rather than actively sought. Another reason why regular reinterpretation is part of the human sciences and not the natural sciences is that social and political systems are themselves changing in ways that call for new interpretations, whereas the subject matter of the natural sciences is constant in the relevant respects, permitting a puzzle-solving tradition as well as a standing source of revolution-generating anomalies.\nA rather different influence on social science was Kuhn's influence on the development of social studies of science itself, in particular the ‘Sociology of Scientific Knowledge’. A central claim of Kuhn's work is that scientists do not make their judgments as the result of consciously or unconsciously following rules. Their judgments are nonetheless tightly constrained during normal science by the example of the guiding paradigm. During a revolution they are released from these constraints (though not completely). Consequently there is a gap left for other factors to explain scientific judgments. Kuhn himself suggests in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that Sun worship may have made Kepler a Copernican and that in other cases, facts about an individual's life history, personality or even nationality and reputation may play a role (1962/70a, 152-3). Later Kuhn repeated the point, with the additional examples of German Romanticism, which disposed certain scientists to recognize and accept energy conservation, and British social thought which enabled acceptance of Darwinism (1977c, 325). Such suggestions were taken up as providing an opportunity for a new kind of study of science, showing how social and political factors external to science influence the outcome of scientific debates. In what has become known as social constructivism/constructionism (e.g. Pickering 1984) this influence is taken to be central, not marginal, and to extend to the very content of accepted theories. Kuhn's claim and its exploitation can be seen as analogous to or even an instance of the exploitation of the (alleged) underdetermination of theory by evidence (c.f. Kuhn 1992, 7). Feminists and social theorists (e.g. Nelson 1993) have argued that the fact that the evidence, or, in Kuhn's case, the shared values of science, do not fix a single choice of theory, allows external factors to determine the final outcome (see Martin 1991 and Schiebinger 1999 for feminist social constructivism). Furthermore, the fact that Kuhn identified values as what guide judgment opens up the possibility that scientists ought to employ different values, as has been argued by feminist and post-colonial writers (e.g. Longino 1994).\nKuhn himself, however, showed only limited sympathy for such developments. In his “The Trouble with the Historical Philosophy of Science” (1992) Kuhn derides those who take the view that in the ‘negotiations’ that determine the accepted outcome of an experiment or its theoretical significance, all that counts are the interests and power relations among the participants. Kuhn targeted the proponents of the Strong Programme in the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge with such comments; and even if this is not entirely fair to the Strong Programme, it reflects Kuhn's own view that the primary determinants of the outcome of a scientific episode are to be found within science. External history of science seeks causes of scientific change in social, political, religious and other developments of science. Kuhn sees his work as “pretty straight internalist” (2000: 287). First, the five values Kuhn ascribes to all science are in his view constitutive of science. An enterprise could have different values but it would not be science (1977c, 331; 1993, 338). Secondly, when a scientist is influenced by individual or other factors in applying these values or in coming to a judgment when these values are not decisive, those influencing factors will typically themselves come from within science (especially in modern, professionalized science). Personality may play a role in the acceptance of a theory, because, for example, one scientist is more risk-averse than another (1977c, 325)—but that is still a relationship to the scientific evidence. Even when reputation plays a part, it is typically scientific reputation that encourages the community to back the opinion of an eminent scientist. Thirdly, in a large community such variable factors will tend to cancel out. Kuhn supposes that individual differences are normally distributed and that a judgment corresponding to the mean of the distribution will also correspond to the judgment that would, hypothetically, be demanded by the rules of scientific method, as traditionally conceived (1977c, 333). Moreover, the existence of differences of response within the leeway provided by shared values is crucial to science, since it permits “rational men to disagree” (1977c, 332) and thus to commit themselves to rival theories. Thus the looseness of values and the differences they permit “may . . . appear an indispensable means of spreading the risk which the introduction or support of novelty always entails” (Ibid.).\n6.4 Recent Developments\nEven if Kuhn's work has not remained at the centre of the philosophy of science, a number of philosophers have continued to find it fruitful and have sought to develop it in a number of directions. Paul Hoyningen-Huene (1989/1993), as a result of working with Kuhn, developed an important neo-Kantian interpretation of his discussion of perception and world-change. We may distinguish between the world-in-itself and the ‘world’ of our perceptual and related experiences (the phenomenal world). This corresponds to the Kantian distinction between noumena and phenomena. The important difference between Kant and Kuhn is that Kuhn takes the general form of phenomena not to be fixed but changeable. A shift in paradigm can lead, via the theory-dependence of observation, to a difference in one's experiences of things and thus to a change in one's phenomenal world. This change in phenomenal world articulates the sense in which the world changes as a result of a scientific revolution while also capturing Kuhn's claims about the theory-dependence of observation and consequent incommensurability (Hoyningen-Huene 1990).\nA rather different direction in which Kuhn's thought has been developed proposes that his ideas might be illuminated by advances in cognitive psychology. One the one hand work on conceptual structures can help understand what might be correct in the incommensurability thesis (Nersessian 1987, 2003). Several authors have sought in different ways to emphasize what they take to be the Wittgensteinian element in Kuhn's thought (for example Kindi 1995, Sharrock and Read 2002). Andersen, Barker, and Chen (1996, 1998, 2006) draw in particular on Kuhn's version of Wittgenstein's notion of family resemblance. Kuhn articulates a view according to which the extension of a concept is determined by similarity to a set of exemplary cases rather than by an intension. Andersen, Barker, and Chen argue that Kuhn's view is supported by the work of Rosch (1972; Rosch and Mervis 1975) on prototypes; furthermore, this approach can be developed in the context of dynamic frames (Barsalou 1992), which can then explain the phenomenon of (semantic) incommensurability.\nOn the other hand, the psychology of analogical thinking and cognitive habits may also inform our understanding of the concept of a paradigm. Kuhn himself tells us that “The paradigm as shared example is the central element of what I now take to be the most novel and least understood aspect of [The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]” (1970a, 187). Kuhn, however, failed to develop the paradigm concept in his later work beyond an early application of its semantic aspects to the explanation of incommensurability. Nonetheless, other philosophers, principally Howard Margolis (1987, 1993) have developed the idea that habits of mind formed by training with paradigms-as-exemplars are an important component in understanding the nature of scientific development. As explained by Nickles (2003b) and Bird (2005), this is borne out by recent work by psychologists on model-based and analogical thinking.\n6.5 Assessment\nAssessing Kuhn's significance presents a conundrum. Unquestionably he was one of the most influential philosophers and historians of science of the twentieth century. His most obvious achievement was to have been a major force in bringing about the final demise of logical positivism. Nonetheless, there is no characteristically Kuhnian school that carries on his positive work. It is as if he himself brought about a revolution but did not supply the replacement paradigm. For a period in the 1960s and 1970s it looked as if there was a Kuhnian paradigm ‘historical philosophy of science’, flourishing especially in newly formed departments of history and philosophy of science. But as far as the history of science and science studies more generally are concerned, Kuhn repudiated at least the more radical developments made in his name. Indeed part of Kuhn's fame must be due to the fact that both his supporters and his detractors took his work to be more revolutionary (anti-rationalist, relativist) than it really was.\nTurning to the philosophy of science, it was clear by the end of the 1980s that the centreground was now occupied by a new realism, one that took on board lessons from general philosophy of language and epistemology, in particular referentialist semantics and a belief in the possibility of objective knowledge and justification. There is some irony therefore in the fact that it was the demise of logical positivism/empiricism that led to the rebirth of scientific realism along with causal and externalist semantics and epistemology, positions that Kuhn rejected.\nOne way of understanding this outcome is to see that Kuhn's relationship on the one hand to positivism and on the other hand to realism places him in an interesting position. Kuhn's thesis of the theory-dependence of observation parallels related claims by realists. In the hands of realists the thesis is taken to undermine the theory-observation dichotomy that permitted positivists to take an anti-realist attitude to theories. In the hands of Kuhn however, the thesis is taken, in effect, to extend anti-realism from theories to observation also. This in turn fuels the thesis of incommensurability. The fact that incommensurability is founded upon a response to positivism diametrically opposed to the realist response explains why much of Kuhn's later philosophical work, which developed the incommensurability thesis, has had little impact on the majority of philosophers of science.\nThe explanation of scientific development in terms of paradigms was not only novel but radical too, insofar as it gives a naturalistic explanation of belief-change. Naturalism was not in the early 1960s the familiar part of philosophical landscape that it has subsequently become. Kuhn's explanation contrasted with explanations in terms of rules of method (or confirmation, falsification etc.) that most philosophers of science took to be constitutive of rationality. Furthermore, the relevant disciplines (psychology, cognitive science, artificial intelligence) were not then advanced enough to to support Kuhn's contentions concerning paradigms, or those disciplines were antithetical to Kuhn's views (in the case of classical AI). Now that naturalism has become an accepted component of philosophy, there has recently been interest in reassessing Kuhn's work in the light of developments in the relevant sciences, many of which provide corroboration for Kuhn's claim that science is driven by relations of perceived similarity and analogy. It may yet be that a characteristically Kuhnian thesis will play a prominent part in our understanding of science.\nBooks by Thomas Kuhn\n1957, The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought, Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press.\n1962/1970a, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1970, 2nd edition, with postscript).\n1977a, The Essential Tension. Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\n1978, Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, Oxford: Clarendon Press (2nd edition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press).\n2000, The Road Since Structure, edited by James Conant and John Haugeland, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\nSelected papers of Thomas Kuhn\n1959, “The Essential Tension: Tradition and Innovation in Scientific Research”, in The Third (1959) University of Utah Research Conference on the Identification of Scientific Talent C. Taylor, Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press: 162–74.\n1963, “The Function of Dogma in Scientific Research”, in Scientific Change, A. Crombie (ed.), London: Heinemann: 347–69.\n1970b, “Logic of Discovery or Psychology of Research?”, in Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, edited by I. Lakatos and A. Musgrave, London: Cambridge University Press: 1–23.\n1970c, “Reflections on my Critics”, in Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, I. Lakatos and A. Musgrave (eds.), London: Cambridge University Press: 231–78.\n1974, “Second Thoughts on Paradigms”, in The Structure of Scientific Theories F. Suppe (ed.), Urbana IL: University of Illinois Press: 459–82.\n1976, “Theory-Change as Structure-Change: Comments on the Sneed Formalism” Erkenntnis 10: 179–99.\n1977b, “The Relations between the History and the Philosophy of Science”, in his The Essential Tension, Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 3–20.\n1977c, “Objectivity, Value Judgment, and Theory Choice”, in his The Essential Tension, Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 320–39.\n1979, “Metaphor in Science”, in Metaphor and Thought, edited by A. Ortony Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 409–19.\n1980, “The Halt and the Blind: Philosophy and History of Science”, (review of Howson Method and Appraisal in the Physical Sciences, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 31: 181–92.\n1983a, “Commensurability, Comparability, Communicability”, PSA 198: Proceedings of the 1982 Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, edited by P. Asquith. and T. Nickles, East Lansing MI: Philosophy of Science Association: 669–88.\n1983b, “Rationality and Theory Choice”, Journal of Philosophy 80: 563–70.\n1987, “What are Scientific Revolutions?”, in The Probabilistic Revolution edited by L. Krüger, L. Daston, and M. Heidelberger, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 7-22. Reprinted in Kuhn 2000: 13–32.\n1990, “Dubbing and Redubbing: The Vulnerability of Rigid Designation”, in Scientific Theories edited by C. Savage, Minnesota Studies in Philosophy of Science 14, Minneapolis MN: University of Minnesota Press: 298–318.\n1991a, “The Road Since Structure”, PSA 1990. Proceedings of the 1990 Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association vol.2, edited by A. Fine, M. Forbes, and L. Wessels., East Lansing MI: Philosophy of Science Association: 3–13.\n1991b, “The Natural and the Human Sciences”, in The Interpretative Turn: Philosophy, Science, Culture, edited by D. Hiley, J. Bohman, and R. Shusterman, Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press: 17–24.\n1992, “The Trouble with the Historical Philosophy of Science”, Robert and Maurine Rothschild Distinguished Lecture, 19 November 1991, An Occasional Publication of the Department of the History of Science, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.\n1993, “Afterwords” in World Changes. Thomas Kuhn and the Nature of Science, edited by P. Horwich, Cambridge MA: MIT Press: 311–41.\nOther references and secondary literature\nAndersen, H., 2001, On Kuhn, Belmont CA: Wadsworth.\nAndersen, H., P. Barker, and X. Chen, 1996, “Kuhn's mature philosophy of science and cognitive psychology”, Philosophical Psychology, 9: 347–63.\nAndersen, H., P. Barker, and X. Chen, 1998, “Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions and cognitive psychology”, Philosophical Psychology, 11: 5–28.\nAndersen, H., P. Barker, and X. Chen, 2006, The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\nBarnes, B., 1982, T.S.Kuhn and Social Science, London: Macmillan.\nBarsalou, L. W.. 1992, “Frames, concepts, and conceptual fields”, in A. Lehrer and E. F. Kittay, (eds.) Frames, Fields, and Contrasts: New Essays in Semantic and Lexical Organization, Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 21–74\nBird, A., 2000, Thomas Kuhn, Chesham: Acumen and Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.\nBird, A., 2005, “Naturalizing Kuhn”, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 105: 109–27.\nBird, A., 2007, “Incommensurability naturalized”, in L. Soler, H. Sankey, and P. Hoyningen-Huene (eds.), Rethinking Scientific Change and Theory Comparison (Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 255), Dordrecht: Springer, 21–39.\nBruner, J. and Postman, L., 1949, “On the Perception of incongruity: A paradigm”, Journal of Personality, 18: 206–23.\nCohen, I. B., 1985, Revolution in Science, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.\nDevitt, M., 1979, “Against incommensurability”, Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 57: 29–50.\nDoppelt, G., 1978, “Kuhn's epistemological relativism: An interpretation and defense”, Inquiry, 21: 33–86;\nEnç, B. 1976, “Reference and theoretical terms”, Noûs, 10: 261–82.\nEvans, G. 1973 “The causal theory of names”, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (Supplementary Volume), 47: 187–208.\nFuller, S. 2000, Thomas Kuhn: A Philosophical History for our Times, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\nGutting, G., 1980, Paradigms and Revolutions, Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.\nHacking, I. (ed.), 1981, Scientific Revolutions, Oxford: Oxford University Press.\nHacking, I. (ed.), 1993, “Working in a new world: The taxonomic solution”, in Horwich 1993, 275–310.\nHanson, N. R., 1958, Patterns of Discovery, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\nHorwich, P. (ed.), 1993, World Changes. Thomas Kuhn and the Nature of Science, Cambridge MA: MIT Press.\nHoyningen-Huene, P., 1989, Die Wissenschaftsphilosophie Thomas S. Kuhns: Rekonstruktion und Grundlagenprobleme, translated as Hoyningen-Huene, P., 1993, Reconstructing Scientific Revolutions: Thomas S. Kuhn's Philosophy of Science, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\nHoyningen-Huene, P., 1990, “Kuhn's conception of incommensurability” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A, 21: 481–92.\nKindi, V., 1995, Kuhn and Wittgenstein: Philosophical Investigation of the Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Athens: Smili editions.\nKripke, S., 1980, Naming and Necessity, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.\nKroon, F. 1985, “Theoretical terms and the causal view of reference”, Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 63: 143–66.\nLakatos, I. and Musgrave, A. (eds.), 1970, Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, London: Cambridge University Press.\nLongino, H., 1994, “In search of feminist epistemology”, Monist, 77: 472–85.\nMargolis, H., 1987, Patterns, Thinking, and Cognition: A Theory of Judgment, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\nMargolis, H., 1993, Paradigms and Barriers: How Habits of Mind Govern Scientific Beliefs, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\nMartin, E., 1991, “The egg and the sperm: How science has constructed a romance based on stereotypical male-female sex roles”, Signs, 16: 485–501. Reprinted in E. Keller and H. Longino (eds.), 1996, Feminism and Science, Oxford: Oxford University Press.\nMasterman, M., 1970. “The nature of a paradigm”, in Lakatos and Musgrave 1970, 59–89.\nMusgrave, A., 1971, “Kuhn's second thoughts”, British Journal of the Philosophy of Science, 22: 287–97.\nNagel, E. 1961, The Structure of Science, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.\nNelson, L. H., 1993, “Epistemological communities”, in L. Alcoff and E. Potter (eds.), Feminist Epistemologies, New York: Routledge.\nNersessian, N., 1987, “A cognitive-historical approach to meaning in scientific theories”, in N. Nersessian (ed.) The Process of Science, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 161–77.\nNersessian, N., 2003, “Kuhn, conceptual change, and cognitive science”, in Nickles 2003a, 178–211.\nNewton-Smith, W., 1981, The Rationality of Science, London: Routledge.\nNickles, T., 2003a (ed.), Thomas Kuhn, Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.\nNickles, T., 2003b, “Normal science: From logic to case-based and model-based reasoning”, in Nickles 2003a, 142–77.\nNola, R., 1980, “Fixing the Reference of Theoretical Terms”, Philosophy of Science, 47: 505–31.\nPickering, A., 1984, Contructing Quarks: A Sociological History of Particle Physics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\nPopper, K., 1959, The Logic of Scientific Discovery, London: Hutchinson.\nPutnam, H., 1975a, Mind, Language, and Reality: Philosophical Papers Vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\nPutnam, H., 1975b, “The meaning of ‘meaning’” in Putnam 1975a.\nRosch, E., 1973, “On the internal structure of perceptual and semantic categories”, in T. E. Moore (ed.) Cognitive Development and the Acquisition of Language, New York NY: Academic, 111–44.\nRosch, E. and Mervis C. B., 1975, “Family resemblances: Studies in the internal structures of categories”, Cognitive Psychology, 7: 573–605.\nSankey, H., 1993, “Kuhn's changing concept of incommensurability”, British Journal of the Philosophy of Science, 44: 759–74.\nSankey, H., 1994, The Incommensurability Thesis, Aldershot: Avebury.\nScheffler, I., 1967, Science and Subjectivity, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.\nSchiebinger, L., 1999, Has Feminism Changed Science?, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.\nShapere, D., 1964, “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions”, Philosophical Review, 73: 383–94.\nSharrock, W. and Read, R., 2002, Kuhn: Philosopher of Scientific Revolution, Cambridge: Polity.\nSiegel, H., 1980 “Objectivity, rationality, incommensurability and more”, British Journal of the Philosophy of Science, 31: 359–84.\nToulmin, S., 1970 “Does the distinction between normal and revolutionary science hold water?”, in Lakatos and Musgrave 1970, 39–5.",
"Paradigm Shift - Defined\nWHAT IS A PARADIGM SHIFT?\nIn 1962, Thomas Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolution, and fathered, defined and popularized the concept of \"paradigm shift\" (p.10). Kuhn argues that scientific advancement is not evolutionary, but rather is a \"series of peaceful interludes punctuated by intellectually violent revolutions\", and in those revolutions \"one conceptual world view is replaced by another\".\nThink of a Paradigm Shift as a change from one way of thinking to another. It's a revolution, a transformation, a sort of metamorphosis. It just does not happen, but rather it is driven by agents of change.\nFor example, agriculture changed early primitive society. The primitive Indians existed for centuries roaming the earth constantly hunting and gathering for seasonal foods and water. However, by 2000 B.C., Middle America was a landscape of very small villages, each surrounded by patchy fields of corn and other vegetables.\nAgents of change helped create a paradigm-shift moving scientific theory from the Plolemaic system (the earth at the center of the universe) to the Copernican system (the sun at the center of the universe), and moving from Newtonian physics to Relativity and Quantum Physics. Both movements eventually changed the world view. These transformations were gradual as old beliefs were replaced by the new paradigms creating \"a new gestalt\" (p. 112).\nLikewise, the printing press , the making of books and the use of vernacular language inevitable changed the culture of a people and had a direct affect on the scientific revolution. Johann Gutenberg's invention in the 1440's of movable type was an agent of change. With the invention of the printing press , books became readily available, smaller and easier to handle and cheap to purchase. Masses of people acquired direct access to the scriputures. Attitudes began to change as people were relieved from church domination.\nSimilarly, agents of change are driving a new paradigm shift today. The signs are all around us. For example, the introduction of the personal computer and the internet have impacted both personal and business environments, and is a catalyst for a Paradigm Shift. We are shifting from a mechanistic, manufacturing, industrial society to an organic, service based, information centered society, and increases in technology will continue to impact globally. Change is inevitable. It's the only true constant.\nIn conclusion, for millions of years we have been evolving and will continue to do so. Change is difficult. Human Beings resist change ; however, the process has been set in motion long ago and we will continue to co-create our own experience. Kuhn states that \"awareness is prerequisite to all acceptable changes of theory\" (p. 67). It all begins in the mind of the person. What we perceive, whether normal or metanormal, conscious or unconscious, are subject to the limitations and distortions produced by our inherited and socially conditional nature. However, we are not restricted by this for we can change. We are moving at an accelerated rate of speed and our state of consciousness is transforming and transcending. Many are awakening as our conscious awareness expands.\nReference: Kuhn, Thomas, S., \"The Structure of Scientific Revolutions\", Second Edition, Enlarged, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1970(1962)\nWE ARE NOT HUMAN BEINGS\nHAVING A SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE"
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In which country was Sam Neill born?
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"Nigel John Dermot Neill (born 14 September 1947), known professionally as Sam Neill, is a Northern Irish–born New Zealand actor who first achieved leading roles in films such as Omen III: The Final Conflict and Dead Calm and on television in Reilly, Ace of Spies. He won a broad international audience in 1993 for his roles as Alisdair Stewart in The Piano and Dr. Alan Grant in Jurassic Park, a role he reprised in 2001's Jurassic Park III. Neill also had notable roles in Merlin, The Hunt for Red October and The Tudors. In 2016, he starred in Hunt for the Wilderpeople alongside Julian Dennison, to great acclaim. He holds New Zealand, British and Irish nationality, but identifies primarily as a New Zealander. \n\nEarly life\n\nNeill was born in Omagh, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland, the second son of Dermot Neill, a Harrow- and Sandhurst-educated British Army officer and third-generation New Zealander, and his English wife, Priscilla Beatrice (née Ingham). At the time of Neill's birth, his father was stationed in Northern Ireland, serving with the Irish Guards. His father's family owned Neill and Co., the largest liquor retailers in New Zealand.\n\nIn 1954, Neill returned with his family to New Zealand, where he attended the Anglican boys' boarding school Christ's College in Christchurch. He then went on to study English literature at the University of Canterbury, where he had his first exposure to acting. While at university he lived at College House. He then moved to Wellington to continue his tertiary education at Victoria University, where he graduated BA in English literature.\n\nIn 2004, on the Australian talk show Enough Rope, interviewer Andrew Denton briefly touched on the issue of Neill's \"very bad\" stuttering. It affected most of his childhood and as a result he was \"hoping that people wouldn't talk to [him]\" so he would not have to answer back. He also stated, \"I kind of outgrew it. I can still…you can still detect me as a stammerer.\" \n\nNeill first took to calling himself \"Sam\" at school because there were several other students named Nigel, and because he felt the name Nigel was \"a little effete for…a New Zealand playground\". \n\nActing career\n\nAfter working at the New Zealand National Film Unit as a director, Neill was cast for the lead role in 1977 New Zealand film Sleeping Dogs. Following this he appeared in Australian romance My Brilliant Career (1979), opposite Judy Davis.\n\nIn the late 1970s, his mentor was James Mason. In 1981 he won his first big international role, as Damien Thorn, son of the devil, in Omen III: The Final Conflict; also in that year, he played an outstanding main role in Andrzej Zulawski's cult film, Possession. Later, Neill was also one of the leading candidates to succeed Roger Moore in the role of James Bond, but lost out to Timothy Dalton. Among his many Australian roles is playing Michael Chamberlain in Evil Angels (1988) (released as A Cry in the Dark outside of Australia and New Zealand) about the case of Azaria Chamberlain.\n\nNeill has played heroes and occasionally villains in a succession of film and television dramas and comedies. In the UK he won early fame, and was Golden Globe nominated, after portraying real-life spy Sidney Reilly in mini-series Reilly, Ace of Spies (1983). An early American starring role was in 1987's Amerika (TV miniseries), playing a senior KGB officer leading the occupation and division of a defeated United States. His leading and co-starring roles in films include thriller Dead Calm (1989), two-part historical epic La Révolution française (1989)(as Marquis de Lafayette), The Hunt for Red October (1990), Death in Brunswick (1990), Jurassic Park (1993), Sirens (1994), The Jungle Book (1994), John Carpenter's In the Mouth of Madness (1995), Event Horizon (1997), Bicentennial Man (1999), and comedy The Dish (2000).\n\nNeill has occasionally acted in New Zealand films, notably The Piano (1993), which marked the first time a woman director (Jane Campion) had won the top prize at the Cannes Film Festival. His other New Zealand features include Gaylene Preston's genre-crossing 'romance' Perfect Strangers, and a 2009 adaptation of science fiction tale Under the Mountain. Neill himself returned to directing in 1995 with documentary Cinema of Unease: A Personal Journey by Sam Neill (1995) which he wrote and directed with Judy Rymer.\n\nIn 1993, Neill co-starred with Anne Archer in Question of Faith, an independent drama based on a true story about one woman's fight to beat cancer and have a baby. In 2000, he provided the voice of Sam Sawnoff in The Magic Pudding. In 2001, he hosted and narrated a documentary series for the BBC entitled Space (Hyperspace in the United States).\n\nHe portrayed the legendary wizard in Merlin (1998), a miniseries based on the legends of King Arthur. He reprised his role as Merlin in the sequel, Merlin's Apprentice (2006), in which Merlin learns he fathered a son with the Lady of the Lake.\n\nNeill starred in the historical drama The Tudors, playing Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. \"I have to say I really enjoyed making The Tudors\", Neill said, “It was six months with a character that I found immensely intriguing, with a cast that I liked very much and with a story I found very compelling. It has elements that are hard to beat: revenge and betrayal, lust and treason, all the things that make for good stories.\"\n\nHe acted in the short-lived Fox TV series Alcatraz (2012) as Emerson Hauser. He played the role of Otto Luger in the fantasy adventure movie The Adventurer: The Curse of the Midas Box (2014). He is currently starring in the new BBC series Peaky Blinders, set in post-World War I Birmingham. He plays the role of Chief Inspector Chester Campbell, a sadistic corrupt policeman, who has come to clean up the town on Churchill's orders. In the 2015 BBC TV miniseries And Then There Were None, based on Agatha Christie's thriller, he played the role of General MacArthur.\n\nIn 2016, he starred in the New Zealand–made film, Hunt for the Wilderpeople, directed by Taika Waititi.\n\nPersonal life\n\nNeill has one son, Tim (born in 1983), by New Zealand actress Lisa Harrow. He married makeup artist Noriko Watanabe in 1989 and they have one daughter, Elena (born in 1991). He also has a stepdaughter, Maiko Spencer (born 1982), from Noriko's first marriage.\n\nNeill lives in Queenstown and owns a winery called Two Paddocks made up of a vineyard at Gibbston and two near Alexandra, all in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island. Neill's hobby is running Two Paddocks. \"I’d like the vineyard to support me but I’m afraid it is the other way round. It is not a very economic business\", said Neill, \"It is a ridiculously time- and money-consuming business. I would not do it if it was not so satisfying and fun, and it gets me pissed once in a while.\"Pam Brown. [http://www.thewest.com.au/default.aspx?MenuID24&ContentID\n57032 The West. \"A glorious romp through history\"], 5 February 2008. \n\nNeill also has homes in Wellington, New Zealand, and Sydney, Australia. He is a supporter of the Australian Speak Easy Association and the British Stammering Association (BSA). He supports the New Zealand Labour Party and the Australian Labor Party. He is a patron of the National Performance Conference and donated a pair of jeans to the Jeans for Genes auction; they were painted by artist Merv Moriarty and auctioned in August 1998.\n\nHe was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1991 for his work as an actor. \n\nNeill has been appointed a Distinguished Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit (DCNZM). When knighthoods were returned to the New Zealand Honours System in 2009, those with DCNZM or higher honours were given the option of converting them into knighthoods. Neill chose not to do this, saying the title of Sir was \"just far too grand, by far\". \n\nNeill was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of Canterbury in 2002. \n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision"
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"Sam Neill - Biography - IMDb\nSam Neill\nJump to: Overview (3) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (2) | Trivia (18) | Personal Quotes (10)\nOverview (3)\n5' 11¾\" (1.82 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nSam Neill was born in Omagh, Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland, to army parents, an English-born mother, Priscilla Beatrice (Ingham), and a New Zealand-born father, Dermot Neill. His family moved to the South Island of New Zealand in 1954. He went to boarding schools and then attended the universities at Canterbury and Victoria. He has a BA in English Literature. Following his graduation, he worked with the New Zealand Players and other theater groups. He also was a film director, editor and scriptwriter for the New Zealand National Film Unit for 6 years.\nSam Neill is internationally recognised for his contribution to film and television. He is well known for his roles in Steven Spielberg's Jurassic Park and Jane Campion's Academy Award Winning film The Piano. Other film roles include The Daughter, Backtrack opposite Adrian Brody, Deux Ex Machina, F2014, A Long Way Down, The Tomb, The Hunter with Willem Dafoe, Daybreakers, Legend of the Guardians: The Owls Of G'Ahoole, Little Fish opposite Cate Blanchett, Skin, Dean Spanley, Wimbledon, Yes, Perfect Strangers, Dirty Deeds, The Zookeepers, Bicenntial Man opposite Robin Williams, The Horse Whisperer alongside Kristin Scott Thomas, Sleeping Dogs, My Brilliant Career.\nHe received Emmy and Golden Globe nominations for the NBC miniseries Merlin. He also received a Golden Globe nomination for One Against The Wind, and for Reilly: The Ace of Spies. The British Academy of Film and Television honoured Sam's work in Reilly by naming him Best Actor. Sam received an AFI Award for Best Actor for his role in Jessica.\nOther television includes House of Hancock, Rake, Doctor Zhivago, To the Ends of Earth, The Tudors with Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Cruseo, Alcatraz and recently in Old School opposite Bryan Brown, Peaky Blinders alongside Cillian Murphy, The Dovekeepers for CBS Studios.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Shanahan Management\nSpouse (2)\n(1978 - 1989) (divorced) (1 child)\nTrivia (18)\nOne son, Tim Neill (b.1983), with Lisa Harrow , a daughter Elena Neill with Noriko Watanabe , and a step-daughter Maiko.\nMet wife Noriko Watanabe on the set of Dead Calm (1989), where she worked as a make-up artist.\nHe has homes in Beverly Hills, Sydney and New Zealand.\nAwarded the O.B.E. for Service to Acting (1993).\n\"Best Actor on British Television\" for Reilly: Ace of Spies (1983), Australian Film Institute Award \"Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role\" for A Cry in the Dark (1988) (aka \"Cry in the Dark (1988)\").\nHis vineyard is in the Gibbston Valley, Otago. His wine is a Pinot Noir called Two Paddocks.\nOne of the original candidates for the fourth and fifth actor to portray James Bond - 007 in The Living Daylights (1987) and GoldenEye (1995). Timothy Dalton and Pierce Brosnan ended up as James Bond, respectively.\nMontana is a recurring element in his films: in The Hunt for Red October (1990) he wants to live in Montana; in The Horse Whisperer (1998) he goes to Montana to find with his wife; in Jurassic Park (1993) he is digging up fossils in Montana.\nHe is one of the three founders of Huntaway Films, along with his good friends John Clarke and Jay Cassells .\nWas considered for the role of the villainous \"Doc Ock\" in Spider-Man 2 (2004). His wife ended up as the principal make-up & hair stylist for Kirsten Dunst in the movie.\nHe is a big fan of The Beach Boys .\nMoved to New Zealand at age 7.\nGood friends with musicians Neil Finn , Tim Finn and Jimmy Barnes .\nBorn to Priscilla Beatrice (Ingham), who was English, and Dermot Neill, a New Zealand army officer. His ancestry includes English, Anglo-Irish (Northern Irish), and Irish.\nStudied at the University of Canterbury and at the Victoria University in Wellington, from which he graduated with a BA in English Literature.\nOwns a winery, Two Paddocks, in the Central Otago region of New Zealand. It was started in 1993.\nSuffered with a stammer when he was younger.\nHas fluent Irish accent.\nPersonal Quotes (10)\n\"Of all the characters I've played, I think I have more in common with that guy than with Reilly: Ace of Spies (1983) referring to Carl Fitzgerald in Death in Brunswick (1990). Who Weekly (NZ) 8/23/93.\nReferring to The Simpsons (1989): \"I'm playing a cat burglar. I've made it. This is the high point of my career. I'm really chuffed\". EW, 7/23/93.\n\"Perhaps we should look at somewhere else where they recently used the time-old bribe of tax cuts, and see how it worked. In 2000, George W. Bush , under the reasonable sounding 'compassionate conservatism', offered huge tax cuts. And he delivered. Take a look at America now. The rich are certainly richer, but the economy is in the tank, a healthy surplus has been converted into a massive deficit, and the U.S. is a place that cannot even afford the basics. Like maintaining levees in low-lying Louisiana. Might I suggest that tax cuts led indirectly to the flooding of New Orleans?\".\nIf all I did was acting, I'd go out of my mind.\nThe pathetic thing about actors is they don't feel valid unless they're acting.\n(2012, on My Brilliant Career) A most important role for me, I must say, because that's the film that took me out of New Zealand, the film that allowed me to live and work in Australia, which I love. Yeah, that was probably more transformative than anything else I've done, in a way. Without that film, I never would've-prior to that, I'd done Sleeping Dogs, and I thought, \"That was a one-off, I'll never do another film.\" And if you look at Sleeping Dogs, you think, \"Well, I wouldn't use that bugger again.\" But I did get cast in Brilliant Career, I kind of understood a little bit more about what was necessary, and it was a great opportunity for me. That film changed me into an actor rather than just a part-time thespian.\n(2012, on Dead Calm) Well, that was fantastically good fun, actually, although quite a lot of the time we were seasick and cold and wet and stuff like that. It was a very interesting film to do, as there were only three characters, you know, but it works very well, and it built quite a few careers. For [director] Phillip Noyce, it launched him into big action films, and there's this Australian actress called Nicole Kidman in it who you might've heard of...\n(2012, on filming Sleeping Dogs and working with Warren Oates) You see, that was my first feature film of all, with my friend Roger Donaldson, and there I really had no idea what I was doing. In fact, none of us did. Apart from Michael Seresin, who shot it, no one on that production had ever made a feature film before. In fact, there hadn't been a feature film made in New Zealand for something like 17 years. So we were really... We lit a little candle, which didn't illuminate much of the darkness in front of us, but we got through it. It's a very uneven film, and I'm pretty uneven in it. Oh, actually, the other person on the film who had any experience was, of course, the wonderful Warren Oates. He came in for about two weeks, I think, and... He discovered on day one, I think, that in the area of New Zealand where we were working, they grow the best marijuana, and so he was basically smoking joints all day. In some of the scenes where he's playing Col. Willoughby, a U.S. army advisor in New Zealand, he's addressing his men with his hands behind his back, and you might even possibly detect the little curving smoke behind his right shoulder, because he wouldn't even put the joint aside when the camera was rolling. He just put it behind his back! But Warren was a lovely guy, and when he left-I'll never forget this, actually: He shook my hand, and he said, \"Goodbye, Sam! I'll see you in the movies!\" It was such a surprising thing for him to say, but I was very touched by it. I never saw him again, because he died rather young not very long after that. But he lived hard, you know. And he had some great stories of the madness of working with Sam Peckinpah.\n[2014, on socializing with Michael Williams and Warren Clarke during the making of Enigma (1982)] My liver is still recovering.\n[on changing his name from Nigel to Sam, aged ten] I saved myself a lifetime of pain.\nSee also",
"Sam Neill biography and filmography | Sam Neill movies\nSam Neill\nDate of Birth: September 14, 1947\nBorn in Northern Ireland, Neill was raised in the country he still calls homeNew Zealand. And being far away from the Hollywood spotlight is just the way he likes it. \"The one thing I find sad when I come to Los Angeles,\" he says, \"is that the world here is populated by millions of people who want to be actors and never will be. And it's a particularly American thing, I think, to advise people to follow their dreams. You ought to be very careful about advising such things, because people have all kinds of entirely unrealistic dreams. As a result, so many people here think of themselves as losers, which is the worst thing you can be called in America.\"\nBut \"loser\" is certainly not the category Neill fell into with a film career that has netted him three Golden Globe nominations. Since his wonderful performance in My Brilliant Career (1979) he's worked non-stop. \"I'm a useful actor,\" he says. \"I don't come to the audience with any particular baggage. When I turn up on the screen, you don't necessarily know whether I'm going to solve everything as the good guy or whether I will turn out to be something else entirely.\"\nNeill has managed to carve out a successful career as an actor. Many will remember him from the series of Jurassic Park films. He's also starred in several television shows, including The Tudors, Crusoe, Happy Town and Alcatraz.\nThe veteran actor's most recent films include The Vow (2012), with Channing Tatum and Rachel McAdams , The Hunter (2012) alongside Willem Dafoe and Frances O'Connor , Escape Plan (2013) opposite Sylvester Stallone , Hunt for the Wilderpeople (2016), and The Daughter (2016).\nNeill married Noriko Watanabe, a makeup artist, in September 1989. They have a daughter, Elena. He also has a son, Tim, from a previous relationship with a New Zealand actress. Neil was awarded the Order of the British Empire in 1993 for his service to acting. He and his family divide their time between homes in Los Angeles, Australia and New Zealand.\nFilmography:",
"Sam Neill - IMDb\nIMDb\nActor | Director | Writer\nSam Neill was born in Omagh, Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland, to army parents, an English-born mother, Priscilla Beatrice (Ingham), and a New Zealand-born father, Dermot Neill. His family moved to the South Island of New Zealand in 1954. He went to boarding schools and then attended the universities at Canterbury and Victoria. He has a BA in English ... See full bio »\nBorn:",
"Sam Neill - TV.com\nSam Neill\n9/14/1947, Omagh, Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland, U.K.\nBirth Name\nEDIT\nSam Neill was born to New Zealand Army parents, Dermot and Priscilla Neill, while they were stationed in Northern Ireland. He has an older brother and a younger sister. The family returned to New Zealand in 1954, where he attended boarding school at Christchurch's Christ College, and participated… more\nCredits\nS 1: Ep 2 Episode 2\n12/27/15\nS 1: Ep 1 Episode 1\n12/26/15\nS 1: Ep 13 Tommy Madsen\n3/26/12\nS 1: Ep 12 Garrett Stillman\n3/26/12\nS 1: Ep 11 Webb Porter\n3/19/12\nS 1: Ep 10 Clarence Montgomery\n3/12/12\nS 1: Ep 9 Sonny Burnett\n3/5/12\nS 1: Ep 8 Blame It on Rio Bravo\n7/1/10\nS 1: Ep 6 Questions and Antlers\n6/16/10\nS 1: Ep 5 This Is Why We Stay\n6/9/10\nS 1: Ep 4 Slight of Hand\n6/2/10\nS 1: Ep 12 The Return\n1/31/09\nS 1: Ep 11 The Traveler\n1/24/09\nS 1: Ep 10 The Hunting Party\n1/17/09\nS 1: Ep 9 Smoke and Mirrors\n1/10/09\nS 1: Ep 8 Name of the Game\n12/20/08\nS 1: Ep 10 The Death of Wolsey\n6/10/07\nS 1: Ep 9 Look to God First\n6/3/07\nS 1: Ep 8 Truth and Justice\n5/20/07\nS 1: Ep 7 Message to the Emperor\n5/13/07\nS 1: Ep 6 True Love\n5/6/07\nS 1: Ep 3 Part 3\n12/7/05\nS 1: Ep 2 Part 2\n12/6/05\nS 1: Ep 1 Part 1\n12/5/05\nS 1: Ep 3 Part 3\n12/8/02\nS 1: Ep 2 Part 2\n12/1/02\nS 1: Ep 1 Part 1\n11/24/02\nS 1: Ep 6 Boldy Go\n8/26/01\nS 1: Ep 5 New Worlds\n8/19/01\nS 1: Ep 4 Are We Alone?\n8/12/01\nS 1: Ep 3 Black Holes\n8/5/01\nS 1: Ep 2 Staying Alive\n7/29/01\nS 1: Ep 3 Kane & Abel Part 3\n1/1/85\nS 1: Ep 2 Kane & Abel Part 2\n1/1/85\nS 1: Ep 1 Kane & Abel Part 1\n1/1/85\nS 1: Ep 12 Shutdown\n11/16/83\nS 1: Ep 11 The Last Journey\n11/9/83\nS 1: Ep 10 The Trust\n11/2/83\nS 1: Ep 9 After Moscow\n10/26/83\nS 1: Ep 8 Endgame\n10/19/83\nS 4: Ep 136 Episode #4.136\n2/10/11\nS 5: Ep 3 To Sam With Love\n5/3/09\nS 1: Ep 5 Von Stauffenberg's Stamp\n8/28/06\nS 6: Ep 21 Monday 17th July\n7/17/06\nS 1: Ep 3 Part 3\n12/7/05\nS 1: Ep 0 Sci Fi Inside: The Triangle\n11/27/05\nS 2: Ep 31 7th September, 2005\n9/7/05\nS 2: Ep 17 Sam Neill\n9/4/01\nS 2: Ep 28 August 28, 2001\n8/28/01\nS 10: Ep 157 April 24, 1998\n4/24/98\nS 3: Ep 79 Show #0518\n1/8/96\nS 5: Ep 11 Homer the Vigilante\n1/6/94\nS 2: Ep 11 Episode 61\n1/20/92\nS 41: Ep 1 One Against the Wind\n12/1/91\nS 9: Ep 22 Film 80 Episode 22\n12/1/80\nS 1: Ep 1 Do or Die\nShare\nBecome a contributor\nImportant: You must only upload images which you have created yourself or that you are expressly authorised or licensed to upload. By clicking \"Publish\", you are confirming that the image fully complies with TV.com’s Terms of Use and that you own all rights to the image or have authorization to upload it.\nPlease read the following before uploading\nDo not upload anything which you do not own or are fully licensed to upload. The images should not contain any sexually explicit content, race hatred material or other offensive symbols or images. Remember: Abuse of the TV.com image system may result in you being banned from uploading images or from the entire site – so, play nice and respect the rules!\nChoose background:",
"SAM NEILL at THESPIAN NET\nSeptember 14, 1947\nOmagh, Northern Ireland\nThree countries claim actor Sam Neill as their own: Ireland, where he was born to Army parents; New Zealand, where he grew up and started his prolific film career; and Australia, where he and his family spend much of their time in between movies shot on locations around the world.\n In reality he travels on a New Zealand passport and has no qualms about his agent describing him as \"a man of the world\" ... his career has taken him to scores of countries around the globe.\n Nigel Neill was seven when his New Zealand parents returned home from their Ireland postings, and like most Army siblings, spent much of his boyhood in boarding schools before graduating from Canterbury University with a BA in literature. (The nickname Sam started when he was a youngster in Ireland).\n He had been involved for years with the New Zealand Players Group in theatre presentations before embarking on a career as a writer, editor then director for the Government-operated NZ Film Unit. But he soon realised he enjoyed more being in front of the cameras.\n He acted in two movies - Landfall and Ashes (both in 1975) before gaining prominence co-starring with Warren Oates in Sleeping Dogs (1978), a political thriller directed by Australian Roger Donaldson.\n But it was his next movie and shift to Sydney in Australia that launched his international career. He starred alongside another breakthrough player in Judy Davis in My Brilliant Career (1979), directed by an emerging director, Gillian Armstrong.\n James Mason, at the time married to Australian actress Clarissa Kaye, was so impressed with Neill's work he lobbied producers in London to showcase the young actor in The Omen: The Final Conflict (1981). And since, he's never looked back and made more than 5o movies and mini-series around the world.\n Neil says he doesn't want to be \"a star.\" He varies his roles from small independent outings to major Hollywood offerings like Jurassic Park, The Hunt For Red October, The Horse Whisperer and Bicentennial Man, and the big-rating Merlin mini-series.\n But he is happy to have been called back for Jurassic Park 3 and the role of Dr Alan Grant, the dino scientist (now shooting in Hawaii for producer Steven Spielberg and director Joe Johnson).\n Neill and British actress Lisa Harrow had a long relationship into the mid-80s before he married Japanese make-up artist Noriko Watanabe in 1989. While she usually works on most of Neill's films, she is also well-known for other major credits on the likes of My Best Friend's Wedding and Holy Smoke.\n When he's not away filming or resting in Sydney in between films, Neill is often on the Souh Island of Kiwiland establishing a third vineyard for his Two Paddocks pinoir red wine label in Gibbston Valley at the foot of the Coronet Peak ski field near the picturesque Queenstown, home to many local and international movies, including the recent Chris O'Donnell Hollywood actioner Vertical Limits.\n Says the actor: \"I enjoy being a winemaker of sorts, even if my choice of wine means cultivating a very tricky and elusive grape. More and more of my friends at home and on film locations are after the Two Paddocks label, so I need this third vineyard. But I really do enjoy the commitment away from my real job, the one that pays all the bills - it's good for your soul to balance your work and life.\"\nPhoto © Unknown\nBio contributed by Terry Bourke. Please let us know of any errors.\nGet Sam's OFFICIAL fanmail/contact address.\nColossal Database of over 50,000 addresses! CLICK NOW!\nKeep scrolling for more SAM info!\nSam Neill News\nFeel free to contribute info on Sam. Send It Here.\nNOTE: Please click [report] if you find a dead link, and hit SEND.\nFILM/TV CREDITS",
"Sam Neill — Ethnicity of Celebs | What Nationality Ancestry Race\nby ethnic on August 7, 2010\nBirth Name: Nigel John Dermot Neill\nPlace of Birth: Omagh, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland\nDate of Birth: September 14, 1947\nEthnicity: English, Anglo-Irish (Northern Irish), Irish\nSam Neill is a British and New Zealand actor.\nHe was born in Omagh, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. His mother, Priscilla Beatrice (Ingham), was English, and his father, Dermot Neill, was from New Zealand, and was stationed with the Irish Guards in Northern Ireland when Sam was born. His ancestry includes English, Anglo-Irish (Northern Irish), and Irish. Sam was raised mostly in New Zealand, around Christchurch.\nHis father’s family owned Neill and Co., the largest liquor retailers in New Zealand.\nSam’s paternal grandfather was Sydney Edmund Dermot Neill (the son of Percival Clay Neill and Gertrude Emeline Fyans). Percival was born in Belfast, County Antrim, Northern Ireland, the son of Robert Neill and Margaret Riddle. Gertrude was born in Australia, the daughter of Irish parents, Foster Fyans and Elizabeth Alice Cane.\nSam’s paternal grandmother was Gladys Amy Williams (the daughter of Robert Bernard Williams).\nSam’s maternal grandfather was Robert John FitzGerald Ingham (the son of Robert Wood Ingham and Mary Elizabeth Penrose). Sam’s grandfather Robert was born in Kensington, London, England. Sam’s great-grandfather Robert was the son of James Taylor Ingham and Gertrude Penrose. Mary Elizabeth was the daughter of The Rev. John Dennis Penrose and Harriet Susan Hardy.\nSam’s maternal grandmother was Ella Prendergast Triscott (the daughter of Charles Prideaux Triscott and Catherine May Prendergast). Ella was born in Guildford, Surrey, England. Charles was the son of Joseph Blake Triscott and Sarah Harriett Abbott. Catherine was the daughter of Maunsell Mark Prendergast, who was born in Madras, India, and of Eliza Ann Aubert, who was born in Burdwan, Bengal, India.\nSam’s matrilineal ancestry can be traced back to Hannah Elizabeth Burford, who was born c. 1794.\nSources: Some notes on Sam’s father’s ancestry – http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com\nGenealogy of Sam Neill – https://www.geni.com\nGenealogy of Sam’s mother – http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com\nPhoto by kathclick /Bigstock.com",
"Sam Neill\nSam Neill\nBirthplace: Omagh, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland\nGender: Male\nExecutive summary: Played Reilly, Ace of Spies\nFather: Dermot Neill (d. 1991 cancer)\nMother: Priscilla\nSon: Tim (b. 1983, by Lisa)\nWife: Noriko Watanabe (m. Sep-1989, two daughters)\nDaughter: Elena (b. 1990, by Noriko)\nDaughter: Maiko (stepdaughter, by Noriko)\n High School: Christ College, Christchurch, New Zealand\n University: BA English, Canterbury University\n Endorsement of MCI 1998"
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"title": [
"Sam Neill - Biography - IMDb",
"Sam Neill biography and filmography | Sam Neill movies",
"Sam Neill - IMDb",
"Sam Neill - TV.com",
"SAM NEILL at THESPIAN NET",
"Sam Neill — Ethnicity of Celebs | What Nationality ...",
"Sam Neill - NNDB"
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What was Dorothy Parker's maiden name?
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"Dorothy Parker (August 22, 1893 – June 7, 1967) was an American poet, short story writer, critic, and satirist, best known for her wit, wisecracks and eye for 20th-century urban foibles.\n\nFrom a conflicted and unhappy childhood, Parker rose to acclaim, both for her literary output in publications such as The New Yorker and as a founding member of the Algonquin Round Table. Following the breakup of the circle, Parker traveled to Hollywood to pursue screenwriting. Her successes there, including two Academy Award nominations, were curtailed when her involvement in left-wing politics led to a place on the Hollywood blacklist.\n\nDismissive of her own talents, she deplored her reputation as a \"wisecracker.\" Nevertheless, her literary output and reputation for sharp wit have endured.\n\nEarly life and education\n\nAlso known as Dot or Dottie, Parker was born Dorothy Rothschild to Jacob Henry and Eliza Annie Rothschild (née Marston) at 732 Ocean Avenue in Long Branch, New Jersey, where her parents had a summer beach cottage. Dorothy's mother was of Scottish descent, and her father was of German Jewish descent. Parker wrote in her essay \"My Hometown\" that her parents got her back to their Manhattan apartment shortly after Labor Day so she could be called a true New Yorker. Her mother died in West End in July 1898, when Parker was a month shy of turning five. Her father remarried in 1900 to a woman named Eleanor Francis Lewis. Parker hated her father and stepmother, accusing her father of being physically abusive and refusing to call Eleanor either \"mother\" or \"stepmother\", instead referring to her as \"the housekeeper\". She grew up on the Upper West Side and attended a Roman Catholic elementary school at the Convent of the Blessed Sacrament on West 79th Street with sister Helen, despite having a Jewish father and Protestant stepmother. (Mercedes de Acosta was a classmate.) Parker once joked that she was asked to leave following her characterization of the Immaculate Conception as \"spontaneous combustion\". Her stepmother died in 1903, when Parker was nine. Parker later went to Miss Dana's School, a finishing school in Morristown, New Jersey. She graduated from Miss Dana's School in 1911, at the age of 18. Following her father's death in 1913, she played piano at a dancing school to earn a living while she worked on her verse.\n\nShe sold her first poem to Vanity Fair magazine in 1914 and some months later was hired as an editorial assistant for another Condé Nast magazine, Vogue. She moved to Vanity Fair as a staff writer after two years at Vogue. \n\nIn 1917, she met and married a Wall Street stockbroker, Edwin Pond Parker II \n(1893–1933 ), but they were separated by his army service in World War I. She had ambivalent feelings about her Jewish heritage given the strong antisemitism of that era and joked that she married to escape her name. \n\nAlgonquin Round Table years\n\nHer career took off while she was writing theatre criticism for Vanity Fair, which she began to do in 1918 as a stand-in for the vacationing P. G. Wodehouse. At the magazine, she met Robert Benchley, who became a close friend, and Robert E. Sherwood. The trio began lunching at the Algonquin Hotel on a near-daily basis and became founding members of the Algonquin Round Table. The Round Table numbered among its members the newspaper columnists Franklin Pierce Adams and Alexander Woollcott. Through their re-printing of her lunchtime remarks and short verses, particularly in Adams' column \"The Conning Tower\", Dorothy began developing a national reputation as a wit. One of her most famous comments was made when the group was informed that famously taciturn former president Calvin Coolidge had died; Parker remarked, \"How could they tell?\" \n\nParker's caustic wit as a critic initially proved popular, but she was eventually terminated by Vanity Fair in 1920 after her criticisms began to offend powerful producers too often. In solidarity, both Benchley and Sherwood resigned in protest. \n\nWhen Harold Ross founded The New Yorker in 1925, Parker and Benchley were part of a \"board of editors\" established by Ross to allay concerns of his investors. Parker's first piece for the magazine appeared in its second issue. Parker became famous for her short, viciously humorous poems, many about the perceived ludicrousness of her many (largely unsuccessful) romantic affairs and others wistfully considering the appeal of suicide.\n\nThe next 15 years were Parker's greatest period of productivity and success. In the 1920s alone she published some 300 poems and free verses in Vanity Fair, Vogue, \"The Conning Tower\" and The New Yorker as well as Life, McCall's and The New Republic. \n\nParker published her first volume of poetry, Enough Rope, in 1926. The collection sold 47,000 copiesSilverstein 35 and garnered impressive reviews. The Nation described her verse as \"caked with a salty humor, rough with splinters of disillusion, and tarred with a bright black authenticity\". Although some critics, notably the New York Times reviewer, dismissed her work as \"flapper verse\", the volume helped cement Parker's reputation for sparkling wit. Parker released two more volumes of verse, Sunset Gun (1928) and Death and Taxes (1931), along with the short story collections Laments for the Living (1930) and After Such Pleasures (1933). Not So Deep as a Well (1936) collected much of the material previously published in Rope, Gun and Death and she re-released her fiction with a few new pieces in 1939 under the title Here Lies.\n\nShe collaborated with playwright Elmer Rice to create Close Harmony, which ran on Broadway in December 1924. The play was well received in out-of-town previews and was favorably reviewed in New York but closed after a run of just 24 performances. It did, however, become a successful touring production under the title The Lady Next Door. \n\nSome of Parker's most popular work was published in The New Yorker in the form of acerbic book reviews under the byline \"Constant Reader\" (her response to the whimsy of A. A. Milne's The House at Pooh Corner: \"Tonstant Weader fwowed up.\" ). Her reviews appeared semi-regularly from 1927 to 1933, were widely read, and were later published in a collection under the name Constant Reader in 1970.\n\nHer best-known short story, \"Big Blonde\", published in The Bookman magazine, was awarded the O. Henry Award as the best short story of 1929. Her short stories, though often witty, were also spare and incisive, and more bittersweet than comic.\n\nShe eventually separated from her husband, divorcing in 1928, and had a number of affairs. Her lovers included reporter-turned-playwright Charles MacArthur and the publisher Seward Collins. Her relationship with MacArthur resulted in a pregnancy, about which Parker is alleged to have remarked, \"how like me, to put all my eggs into one bastard.\" She had an abortion, and fell into a depression that culminated in her first attempt at suicide. \n\nIt was toward the end of this period that Parker began to become politically aware and active. What would become a lifelong commitment to activism began in 1927 with the pending executions of Sacco and Vanzetti. Parker travelled to Boston to protest the proceedings. She and fellow Round Tabler Ruth Hale were arrested, and Parker eventually pleaded guilty to a charge of \"loitering and sauntering\", paying a $5 fine. \n\nParker was claimed to be a patron of Polly Adler bordello or brothel in New York. \n\nHollywood\n\nIn 1934, she married Alan Campbell, an actor with aspirations to become a screenwriter. Like Parker, he was half-Jewish and half-Scottish. He was reputed to be bisexual—indeed, Parker claimed in public that he was \"queer as a billy goat\". The pair moved to Hollywood and signed ten-week contracts with Paramount Pictures, with Campbell (who was also expected to act) earning $250 per week and Parker earning $1,000 per week. They would eventually earn $2,000 and in some instances upwards of $5,000 per week as freelancers for various studios. She and Campbell worked on more than 15 films. \n\nIn 1936, she contributed lyrics for the song \"I Wished on the Moon\", with music by Ralph Rainger. The song was introduced in The Big Broadcast of 1936 by Bing Crosby.\n\nWith Robert Carson and Campbell, she wrote the script for the 1937 film A Star is Born, for which they were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Writing—Screenplay. She wrote additional dialogue for The Little Foxes in 1941 and received another Oscar nomination, with Frank Cavett, for 1947's Smash-Up, the Story of a Woman, starring Susan Hayward. \n\nAfter the United States entered the Second World War, Parker and Alexander Woollcott collaborated to produce an anthology of her work as part of a series published by Viking Press for servicemen stationed overseas. With an introduction by Somerset Maugham the volume compiled over two dozen of Parker's short stories along with selected poems from Enough Rope, Sunset Gun, and Death and Taxes. It was released in the United States in 1944 under the title The Portable Dorothy Parker. Parker's is one of only three of the Portable series (the other two being William Shakespeare and The Bible) to remain continuously in print. \n\nDuring the 1930s and 1940s, Parker became an increasingly vocal advocate of causes like civil liberties and civil rights, and a frequent critic of those in authority. She reported on the Loyalist cause in Spain for the Communist magazine The New Masses in 1937. At the behest of Otto Katz, a covert Soviet Comintern agent and operative of German Communist Party agent Willi Muenzenberg, Parker helped to found the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League in 1936 (which was suspected by the FBI of being a Communist Party front). The Hollywood Anti-Nazi League's membership eventually grew to some 4,000 strong. Its often wealthy members' contributions (probably not intended to support Communism) were, in the words of David Caute, \"able to contribute as much to [Communist] Party funds as the whole American working class\".[http://www.heretical.com/miscella/munzen.html Willi Münzenberg's 'Innocents' Clubs']\n\nParker also served as chair of the Joint Anti-Fascist Rescue Committee. She organized Project Rescue Ship to transport Loyalist veterans to Mexico, headed Spanish Children's Relief and lent her name to many other left-wing causes and organizations. Her former Round Table friends saw less and less of her, with her relationship with Robert Benchley being particularly strained (although they would reconcile). Parker met S. J. Perelman at a party in 1932, and despite a rocky start (Perelman called it \"a scarifying ordeal\") —they remained friends for the next 35 years, even becoming neighbors when the Perelmans helped Parker and Campbell buy a run-down farm in Bucks County, Pennsylvania.\n\nParker was listed as a Communist by the publication Red Channels in 1950. The FBI compiled a 1,000-page dossier on her because of her suspected involvement in Communism during the McCarthy era. As a result, she was placed on the Hollywood blacklist by the movie studio bosses. Her final screenplay was The Fan, a 1949 adaptation of Oscar Wilde's Lady Windermere's Fan, directed by Otto Preminger. Her marriage to Campbell was tempestuous, with tensions exacerbated by Parker's increasing alcohol consumption and Campbell's long-term affair with a married woman while he was in Europe during World War II. They divorced in 1947, then remarried in 1950. Parker moved back to New York in 1952, living at the Volney residential hotel at 23 East 74th Street on the Upper East Side. From 1957 to 1962, she wrote book reviews for Esquire, though these pieces were increasingly erratic owing to her continued abuse of alcohol. She returned to Hollywood in 1961 and reconciled with Campbell. In the next two years, they worked together on a number of unproduced projects. Campbell committed suicide by drug overdose in 1963. \n\nLater life and death\n\nFollowing Campbell's death, Parker returned to New York City and the Volney residential hotel. In her later years, she would come to denigrate the group that had brought her such early notoriety, the Algonquin Round Table:\n\nParker was heard occasionally on radio, including Information Please (as a guest) and Author, Author (as a regular panelist). She wrote for the Columbia Workshop, and both Ilka Chase and Tallulah Bankhead used her material for radio monologues. \n\nParker died on June 7, 1967, of a heart attack at the age of 73. In her will, she bequeathed her estate to Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Following King's death, her estate was passed on to the NAACP. Her executor, Lillian Hellman, bitterly but unsuccessfully contested this disposition. Her ashes remained unclaimed in various places, including her attorney Paul O'Dwyer's filing cabinet, for approximately 17 years. \n\nPosthumous honors\n\nIn 1988, the NAACP claimed Parker's remains and designed a memorial garden for them outside their Baltimore headquarters. The plaque reads,\n\nOn August 22, 1992, the 99th anniversary of Parker's birth, the United States Postal Service issued a 29¢ U.S. commemorative postage stamp in the Literary Arts series. The Algonquin Round Table, as well as the number of other literary and theatrical greats who lodged there, helped earn the Algonquin Hotel its status as a New York City Historic Landmark. The hotel was so designated in 1987. In 1996 the hotel was designated a National Literary Landmark by the Friends of Libraries USA based on the contributions of Parker and other members of the Round Table. The organization's bronze plaque is attached to the front of the hotel. Her birthplace was also designated a National Literary Landmark by Friends of Libraries USA in 2005 and a bronze plaque marks the spot where the home once stood. \n\nIn 2014, Parker was elected to the New Jersey Hall of Fame.\n\nIn popular culture\n\nParker was the inspiration for a number of fictional characters in several plays of her day. These included \"Lily Malone\" in Philip Barry's Hotel Universe (1932), \"Mary Hilliard\" (played by Ruth Gordon) in George Oppenheimer's Here Today (1932), \"Paula Wharton\" in Gordon's 1944 play Over Twenty-one (directed by George S. Kaufman), and \"Julia Glenn\" in the Kaufman-Moss Hart collaboration Merrily We Roll Along (1934). Kaufman's representation of her in Merrily We Roll Along led Parker, once his Round Table compatriot, to despise him. She also appeared as \"Daisy Lester\" in Charles Brackett's 1934 novel Entirely Surrounded. She is mentioned in the original introductory lyrics in Cole Porter' song Just One of Those Things from the 1935 Broadway musical Jubilee which have been retained in the standard interpretation of the song when it became part of the Great American Songbook.\n\nParker appears as a character in the novel The Dorothy Parker Murder Case by George Baxt (1984), in a series of \"Algonquin Round Table Mysteries\" by J.J. Murphy (2011– ), and in Ellen Meister's novel Farewell, Dorothy Parker (2013). She is the main character in a short story, \"Love For Miss Dottie,\" by Larry N Mayer, which was selected by Mary Gaitskill for the collection Best New American Voices 2009 (Harcourt).\n\nShe has been portrayed on film and television by Dolores Sutton in F. Scott Fitzgerald in Hollywood (1976), Rosemary Murphy in Julia (1977), Bebe Neuwirth in Dash and Lilly (1999) and Jennifer Jason Leigh in Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle (1994). Neuwirth was nominated for an Emmy Award for her performance, and Leigh received a number of awards and nominations, including a Golden Globe nomination.\n\nParker, along with other figures of the era including Ira Gershwin and George Gershwin, is featured as a character in Act 1, Scene 12 of the stage musical version of Thoroughly Modern Millie, \"Muzzy's Party Scene\". \n\nTelevision creator Amy Sherman-Palladino named her production company 'Dorothy Parker Drank Here Productions' in tribute to Parker.\n\nStandup comedian Jen Kirkman portrayed Dorothy Parker in an edition of the Dead Authors Podcast at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theater in Los Angeles in 2011. \n\nA one-woman show, Dorothy Parker's Room Enough For Two starring Terrie Frankel, was produced in July 1993 at the Groundlings Theatre in Hollywood, California. \n\nPrince features a song entitled \"The Ballad of Dorothy Parker\", on his 1987 album Sign o' the Times. \n\nThe Wild Colonials song, \"Vicious Circle\" from Life As We Know It EP (2007) is about Dorothy Parker. The chorus lyrics are, \"I know how Dorothy Parker felt with someone in her way.\"\n\nIn the 1999 film Girl, Interrupted, the character Lisa recites Parker's poem \"Resume\". \n\nThe Thrilling Adventure Hour podcast has Dorothy Parker as a recurring character (as played by Annie Savage) and member of the Algonquin Four. After being struck by a comet, the group gained powers parodying The Fantastic Four. Parker gained rock-like skin as a self-proclaimed \"rock man\", and is the dim-witted muscle of the team. Her catchphrase is \"Dorothy Parker smash!\"\n\nTucson actress Lesley Abrams wrote and performed the one-woman show Dorothy Parker's Last Call in 2009 in Tucson, Arizona at the Winding Road Theater Ensemble and reprised the role at the Live Theatre Workshop in Tucson in 2014. The play was also selected to be part of the Capital Fringe Festival in DC in 2010. \n\nHer poem \"Threnody\" was recorded by Annifrid Lyngstad, of ABBA fame.\n\nLyrics taken from her book of poetry Not So Deep as a Well were, with the authorization of the NAACP, used by Canadian singer Myriam Gendron to create a folk album of the same name."
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"Her Maiden Name was Dorothy Rothschild. If you’re a certain type of bitter, ... If you’re a certain type of bitter, intellectual female, you like Dorothy Parker.",
"Dorothy Parker (August 22, 1893 ... In 1917 Dorothy met and married Edwin Pond Parker ... But Dorothy would never revert back to her maiden name. She kept the last ...",
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"Only name the day, ... Dorothy Parker was born to J. Henry and Elizabeth Rothschild, ... The Passionate Freudian to His Love. Dorothy Parker, ..."
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"Brilliant, Troubled Dorothy Parker | by Robert Gottlieb | The New York Review of Books\nBrilliant, Troubled Dorothy Parker\nedited by Kevin C. Fitzpatrick\niUniverse, 483 pp., $34.95 (paper)\nby Dorothy Parker, edited by Colleen Breese, with an introduction by Regina Barreca\nPenguin, 447 pp., $18.00 (paper)\nby Dorothy Parker, edited by Marion Meade\nPenguin, 390 pp., $18.00 (paper)\nedited and with an introduction by Marion Meade\nPenguin, 626 pp., $20.00 (paper)\nSimon and Schuster, 318 pp. (1970)\nJacob Lofman/Condé Nast Archive/Corbis\nDorothy Parker and Alan Campbell at their farmhouse in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, 1937\nWhat are we to make today of this famous woman who, beginning almost a century ago, has fascinated generations with her wit, flair, talent, and near genius for self-destruction? For some, what registers most strongly is her central role in the legend of the Algonquin Round Table, with its campiness of wisecracks, quips, and put-downs—a part of her life she would come to repudiate. For others, it’s the descent into alcoholism, and the sad final years holed up in Manhattan’s Volney Hotel. Pick your myth.\nAs for her writing, it has evoked ridiculous exaggeration from her votaries, both her contemporaries and her biographers. Vincent Sheean: “Among contemporary artists, I would put her next to Hemingway and Bill Faulkner. She wasn’t Shakespeare, but what she was, was true.” John Keats in his biography of her, You Might as Well Live (1970): “She wrote poetry that was at least as good as the best of Millay and Housman. She wrote some stories that are easily as good as some of O’Hara and Hemingway.” This is praise that manages to be inflated and qualified at the same time.\nAnd here is Regina Barreca, a professor of English literature and feminist theory at the University of Connecticut, in her introduction to the Penguin edition of the Complete Stories: “If Parker’s work can be dismissed as narrow and easy, then so can the work of Austen, Eliot, and Woolf.” Well, no. Exaggerated claims don’t strengthen the case for Parker’s literary accomplishments. As is inevitably the case with criticism grounded in agenda, they diminish it. But this doesn’t mean that her work is without value or interest.\nCertainly she struck a chord with the public: from the start, her voice spoke to a wide range of readers. Her generally sardonic, often angry, occasionally brutal view of men and women—of love and marriage, of cauterized despair—triggered recognition and perhaps even strengthened resolve. She told the truth as she perceived it, while using her wit and humor to hold at arm’s length the feelings that her personal experiences had unleashed in her. An uncanny modern descendant is Nora Ephron in her novel Heartburn, which reimagines her ugly and painful breakup with Carl Bernstein as a barbed comedy.\nIn 1915, Parker, aged twenty-two, went to work at Vogue (for ten dollars a week), writing captions, proofreading, fact-checking, etc., and after a while moved over to the very young Vanity Fair; her first poem to be published had recently appeared there. She happily functioned as a kind of scribe-of-all-work until three years later she was chosen to replace the departing P.G. Wodehouse as the magazine’s drama critic. She was not only the youngest by far of New York’s theater critics, she was the only female one.\nIt was at the magazine that she met the lovable and sympathetic Robert Benchley, who would become the closest friend of her life, as well as Robert Sherwood, long before his four Pulitzer Prizes (three for drama, one for biography). They became a threesome, and started eating lunch together at the nearby Algonquin Hotel because it was affordable and the food was okay. At about the same time, another threesome drifted in, graduates of Stars and Stripes, the overseas army’s weekly newspaper. They were Alexander Woollcott, Harold Ross, and Franklin Pierce Adams, who as “F.P.A.” was the most influential newspaper columnist of the day. Soon Adams was quoting Parker’s Vanity Fair verses and, even more effectively, her bon mots. Quickly “Dorothy Parker” was a celebrity.\nIt didn’t hurt that she was very pretty, very sexy, and had a somewhat checkered personal life. She had married a good-looking, not very interesting (to others) young WASP businessman named Edwin Parker—she liked to say she did it in order to legitimately shed her maiden name of Rothschild (no, not the Rothschilds). He went into the army in 1917, and she followed him around army bases in the States, but when he came back from overseas, it was over; apart from anything else, he had become seriously addicted to morphine.\nMany amours followed, all of them disastrous and all of them feeding her eternal presentation of herself in her prose and poetry as wounded, heartsick, embittered, soul-weary. Along the way, she had a legal but frightening abortion (she had put it off too long), the father being the charming, womanizing Charles MacArthur, who would go on to cowrite The Front Page and marry Helen Hayes. Parker was crazy about him; his interest waned. The gossip was that when he contributed thirty dollars toward the abortion, she remarked that it was like Judas making a refund.\nIn 1920 Vanity Fair fired her at the insistence of several important Broadway producers whom her caustic reviews had managed to offend. (Benchley immediately resigned in solidarity with her; Sherwood had already been fired.) Another literary magazine, Ainslee’s, with a far larger readership, took her up and gave her a free hand, and she went on laying waste to the tidal wave of meretricious plays and musicals and revues that opened every year, sometimes ten a week; one Christmas night there were eight premieres. Yet—always just, if not always kind—she recognized and saluted real achievement when she actually came upon it.\nMeanwhile, her verses and stories were appearing profusely and everywhere: not only in upscale places like Vanity Fair (which was happier to publish her than employ her), The Smart Set, and The American Mercury, but also in the popular Ladies’ Home Journal, Saturday Evening Post, Life (when it was still a comic magazine), and—starting with its second issue early in February 1925—her old pal Harold Ross’s new venture, The New Yorker, with which she would have an extended on-again, off-again love affair.\nAt first, the stories were essentially sketches fed by her perfect ear for foolish, self-absorbed conversation and her scorn for middle-class hypocrisies. They appealed to the same cast of mind that was responding so clamorously to Sinclair Lewis’s puncturings, in Main Street (1920) and Babbitt (1922), of what H.L. Mencken called the “booboisie.” As time passed, though, her intentions grew more serious, culminating in her longest and best-known story, “Big Blonde,” which won the 1929 O. Henry Award (Faulkner, Cheever, Updike, Carver, Oates, and Munro were among later winners).\n“Big Blonde” reveals the desperate life of a fading party girl who’s run out of steam and tries, and fails, to kill herself. It’s convincing in its verisimilitude and deployment of pathos, but finally it comes across as a masterly performance rather than a reverberant vision of life. (Compare it to Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth.) It’s also Parker dealing with her own failed suicide attempts—slashed wrists, Veronal (Big Blonde’s drug of choice). Suicide was a constant reality for her. The novel she began was to be called Sonnets in Suicide. One of her most famous poems, “Résumé,” summed things up:\nRazors pain you;\nGas smells awful;\nYou might as well live.\nDeath and suicide are never far from her thoughts—she titled her collections Enough Rope, Sunset Gun, Death and Taxes, and Not So Deep as a Well, the first of them a major best seller in 1926, confirming her fame.\nWas her poetry just rhyming badinage dressed up as trenchant, plaintive ruminations on love, loss, and death? Her subjects are serious, but her cleverness undercuts them: there’s almost always a last line, a sardonic zinger, to signal that even if she does care, the more fool she. Even her most famous couplet—“Men seldom make passes/At girls who wear glasses”—bandages a wound, although plenty of men made passes.\nShe was clear about her versifying. “There is poetry and there is not,” she once wrote in The New Yorker, and she knew hers was not. She thought her stories were superior to her poems (she was right), but that wasn’t good enough for her. She never managed to write The Novel (as at that time every writer dreamed of doing). Did Hemingway like her work? Did he like her? (He didn’t, but she didn’t know it. As she was dying, Lillian Hellman had to assure her that he did.) Nor did she have much respect for what she and her second husband, the handsome, possibly gay actor and writer Alan Campbell, whom she married twice, did in Hollywood. (She liked referring to him publicly as “the wickedest woman in Paris.”) They worked hard at their assignments and raked in the chips, and she was twice nominated for an Oscar (A Star Is Born, 1937; Smash-Up: The Story of A Woman, 1947), but her view of film writing never changed from her verdict about it when she was first venturing out to California: “Why, I could do that with one hand tied behind me and the other on Irving Thalberg’s pulse.”\nA turning point in Parker’s life came in 1927 when she went to Boston to protest the executions of Sacco and Vanzetti. It was her first political action, but it came from deep inside her, and she persisted—infiltrating the prison, getting arrested, marching with other writers like John Dos Passos, Edna St. Vincent Millay, and Katherine Anne Porter. They didn’t prevail at this low point in the history of justice in America, but she hadn’t backed down. And as time would show, her actions were not just some outburst of what, decades later, would come to be labeled radical chic.\nFrom then on she was committed to liberal or radical causes. She vigorously supported the Loyalists in Spain, even spending ten days with Alan under the bombs in Madrid and Valencia. She helped found the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League. Whether she actually joined the Communist Party for a short time remains an unanswered question. Although Hellman claimed she was subpoenaed by HUAC and appeared before the committee, this (like so much else in Hellman’s memoirs) is simply untrue. She was, though, visited by two FBI agents in 1951. When they asked her whether she had ever conspired to overthrow the government, she answered, “Listen, I can’t even get my dog to stay down. Do I look to you like someone who could overthrow the government?” The FBI gave her a pass.\nIn the 1930s she had raised money for the defense of the Scottsboro boys, and she never relaxed her efforts in the field of civil rights: when she died, in 1967, her literary estate was left to Martin Luther King, and then to the NAACP , and her ashes are buried in a memorial garden at the organization’s headquarters in Baltimore.\nHer emotional life was less consistent. Men had always been in and out of her life, and she inevitably ended up feeling rejected, betrayed, unwanted. She and Campbell loved each other in their way, but their way seems to have been that of a convenient partnership—he could construct stories, she could come up with convincing dialogue; he flattered and cajoled her out of her anxieties and despairs, she legitimized him in the big world. It might have been different if they had had the child she desperately wanted, but in her forties she miscarried more than once, had a hysterectomy, and that was that.\nThe Campbells tried the rustic life, acquiring an ambitious property near Sid and Laura Perelman in Pennsylvania, but, predictably, that didn’t last. In the early 1940s she went back to Hollywood with modest success—some minor work on Pride of the Yankees, dialogue for Hitchcock’s Saboteur—but it was a far cry from the high-flying (and high-paying) days of the previous decade. Her stories now appeared only sporadically, and no longer were automatically accepted by The New Yorker—some were simply too stridently political. One magazine editor, she wrote in 1939 in the far-left magazine New Masses, tactfully not naming him, “told me that if I changed my piece to make it in favor of Franco, he would publish it. ’God damn it,’ he said, why can’t you be funny again?’” That editor was Harold Ross.\nWorst of all, as time went by everybody was dying, and far too young, from her idol Ring Lardner at forty-eight and Benchley at fifty-six to Scott Fitzgerald at forty-four. (“The poor son-of-a-bitch,” she murmured over his coffin at his sparsely attended Hollywood funeral.) Helen, her sister, was gone. Who was left? Edmund Wilson was still around—they had almost had a fling way back in 1919; now he paid occasional painful visits to her at the Volney. (“She lives with a small and nervous bad-smelling poodle bitch, drinks a lot, and does not care to go out.”)\nShe was still devoted to the Golden Couple, Gerald and Sara Murphy. (“There aren’t any people, Mr. Benchley, except you and the Murphys. I know that now,” she had written to him in 1929.) She had lived with the Murphys in their famous spread on the Riviera, and had spent a good part of a year with them in the Swiss sanitarium to which they moved when their son Patrick contracted tuberculosis. Their lives, however, rarely converged now. Difficult friends like Hellman and recent ones like Gloria Vanderbilt and her husband, Wyatt Cooper, couldn’t take up the slack.\nShe was still revered, a legend, but she had also become a pathetic relic. Yes, “you might as well live,” but for what? And on what? Not only was she running out of old friends, she was running out of money, though uncashed checks, some quite large, were strewn around her apartment (along with the empty bottles), not helping with unpaid bills.\nBy the mid-1950s she was finished with fiction and verse and screenplays, but now she returned to the field in which she had first made a splash and which she had never entirely abandoned: criticism. We mostly don’t think about this work because it hasn’t been available—until very recently, only her New Yorker book reviews, written between 1927 and 1933, had been collected, and that was in 1970. Her column was called “Constant Reader,” a name immortalized in her review of A.A. Milne’s The House at Pooh Corner. Pooh, she tells us, is reciting a song to Piglet which begins “The more it snows, tiddely-pom—”\n“’Tiddely what?’ said Piglet.” (He took, as you might say, the very words out of your correspondent’s mouth.)\n“’Pom,’ said Pooh. ’I put that in to make it more hummy.’”\nAnd it is that word “hummy,” my darlings, that marks the first place in The House at Pooh Corner at which Tonstant Weader Fwowed up.\nThe thirty-one reprinted reviews range in subject from the ludicrous to the sublime. Predictably, Parker is deadly when dealing with nonsense or pretension. Her targets include Nan Britton, who wrote a tell-all book about her love affair (and illegitimate baby) with President Warren Harding, the notorious evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson, and Emily Post and her Etiquette. (She did not react positively to Mrs. Post’s suggestion that to get a conversation going with a stranger, you might try, “I’m thinking of buying a radio. Which make do you think is best?”)\nSo she’s funny. More impressive is her uncannily astute judgment. She admires Katherine Mansfield, Dashiell Hammett (she loved thrillers almost as much as she loved dogs), Ford Madox Ford’s The Good Soldier, Hemingway’s short stories (more than his novels), of course Ring Lardner, Gide’s The Counterfeiters—“too tremendous a thing for praises. To say of it ’Here is a magnificent novel’ is rather like gazing into the Grand Canyon and remarking, ’Well, well, well; quite a slice.’”\nHer most impassioned praise is reserved for Isadora Duncan. Despite calling it “abominably written,” she characterized Duncan’s posthumous autobiography, My Life, as\nan enormously interesting and a profoundly moving book. Here was a great woman; a magnificent, generous, gallant, reckless, fated fool of a woman. There was never a place for her in the ranks of the terrible, slow army of the cautious. She ran ahead, where there were no paths.\nParker would always rise to the challenges of greatness and of garbage; it was what fell in between that drove her crazy.\nLast year there appeared a five-hundred-page collection of Parker’s early drama criticism, edited by Kevin Fitzpatrick and titled Complete Broadway, 1918–1923. Except for half a dozen of these pieces that appear in an updated edition of the essential Portable Dorothy Parker, none to my knowledge has ever been reprinted, and yet not only are they wickedly funny and to the point, they unearth for us what Broadway was actually up to in that hyperactive period in the history of the American theater.\nHer first piece, from April 1918, sets the tone. It covers the latest musicals and it begins in raptures about the new Wodehouse-Bolton-Kern show, Oh, Lady! Lady!! “Not even the presence in the first-night audience of Mr. William Randolph Hearst, wearing an American flag on his conventional black lapel, could spoil my evening.”\nThen things go downhill. Girl O’ Mine was “one of those shows at which you can get a lot of knitting done.” And on to The Love Mill and its “two hundred and fifty pounds of comedienne throwing herself into a man’s arms, felling him to the earth.” And finally there’s Sinbad, the latest Al Jolson extravaganza:\nOf course, I take a certain civic pride in the fact that there is probably more nudity in our own Winter Garden than there is in any other place in the world, nevertheless, there are times during an evening’s entertainment when I pine for 11:15, so that I can go out in the street and see a lot of women with clothes on.\nYet even when she yields to her funny bone at the expense of some monstrosity, she finds time to praise. She may poke fun at a vast and gorgeous spectacle called Mecca—\nIt is comfortable to reflect that it gives congenial and remunerative employment to hundreds, including two exceedingly shabby camels, who, I am willing to wager, although my memory for faces is not infallible, made their debut in the world premiere of Ben Hur…\n—but she goes on to say “the most important announcement is that Michel Fokine directed the dances, for they are startlingly beautiful.” Who knew that the renowned choreographer of The Firebird, Scheherazade, Petrushka, and Les Sylphides had once worked side by side with camels?\nIt’s all here right at the start of her career—the wit, the fun, the creation of “Dorothy Parker” as a character: she was determined to make a name for herself, and she did. But not at the expense of the worthy. She might deride the endless longueurs of Shaw’s Back to Methuselah, but she’s enthusiastic about his Candida. She’s in awe at The Hairy Ape: “One is ashamed to place neat little bouquets of praise on this mighty conception of O’Neill’s.” About Karel Čapek’s R.U.R.: “Here is a play stamped all over with the poisonous marks of the lofty-browed…yet it will give you just the same sort of good, homemade thrills that The Bat did.”\nAfter apologizing at length for her inability to enjoy Shakespeare on the stage,\nI am willing to go down to my plot in Woodlawn secure in the conviction that never has there been so fine a Hamlet as John Barrymore’s. He makes the Prince of Elsinore a young and engaging man, gives him flashes of quiet, skillful humor, grips you suddenly with a glimpse of his desperate loneliness…. As to his sanity, you are never in a moment’s doubt. You leave the theatre ready to take the thing to court, if necessary.\nAnd in that same column of February 1923, she gives an equally ardent and convincing account of Jeanne Eagels’s famous performance in the dramatization of Somerset Maugham’s Rain: “Her voice, her intonations, her bursts of hard laughter and flaming fury—great is the least that you can call them.”\nParker loves Ethel Barrymore, she loves Laurette Taylor, she loves, sometimes, Sir J.M. (“Never-Grow-Up”) Barrie, she loves George M. Cohan, she’s nuts about scary melodramas. For theater-history buffs, all this is catnip. For Parker-lovers, it’s revelation. Yes, she gets repetitious, repeats some gags, stumbles, but in the face of Broadway 1918 to 1923, wouldn’t you?\nTheater critics are trapped by opening-night schedules. Book critics can be more elastic—if they’re lucky, they can pick and choose. In December 1957 Parker began writing a monthly book column for Esquire—monthly in name only, since getting copy out of her was anguish for the editors. (According to her biographer Marion Meade, the magazine’s formidable publisher, Arnold Gingrich, viewed his job with her as “obstetrics, and often referred to the monthly operation as a ‘high-forceps delivery.’”)\nFor almost five years her column was an ornament to Esquire. She announced her standards in her first article, a round-up of the year’s best fiction: William Faulkner is “the greatest writer we have,” and she characterizes 1957 as “the year in which The Town appeared.” She then obliterates James Gould Cozzens’s By Love Possessed—“cold, distant, and exasperatingly patronizing”—anticipating by several weeks Dwight Macdonald’s famously savage assault in Commentary. She highly recommends Cheever’s The Wapshot Chronicle, Sybille Bedford’s “almost terrifyingly brilliant” A Legacy, Nabokov’s Pnin, and Brian Moore’s The Feast of Lupercal. (Among the books she nixes is Waugh’s The Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold, which “must have been written while he was waiting for the lift to reach his floor.”) And she doles out Yeses and Nos and Maybes to a host of others. She had done her work, and then some.\nSome of the columns are workaday, but many are stellar—not only for the acuity of her judgments (“Lolita is a fine book, a distinguished book—all right, then—a great book”) but for the pleasure of her writing. Because these Esquire pieces have never been reprinted, I will indulge myself with some extensive quotation.\nAbout Sheilah Graham’s tell-all Beloved Infidel: Graham lets it be known\nthat of course she felt something awful after [her lover Scott Fitzgerald] died, but of course she had to go on living, and so she married and had two children—quite big children it seems, for they were old enough to hear about Scott Fitzgerald, and they asked Mommie if they weren’t related to Mr. Fitzgerald, and Mommie said yes, darlings, in a way you are.\nI present this as the possible all-time low in American letters.\nAbout the divine Zsa Zsa:\nIt will be a black day in these grubby diggings when some stony-eyed precisionist shall enter, uninvited, and explain to me that there really is a Zsa Zsa Gabor. To me, the lady is a figment of mythology. In my mind, she is one with the unicorn, all shining white and gold, forever swift and lovely, immortal because fabulous. It is a simple belief, and harms no one.\nSo it is a pleasure to me to set down here that even after a careful reading of Zsa Zsa Gabor: My Story Written for Me by Gerold Frank my faith is still unshattered, and Miss Gabor keeps her place in the land of faerie.\nAnd in a review of James Thurber’s The Years with Ross, she draws a heartfelt portrait of her old colleague and friend, their political differences long behind her:\nHis improbabilities started with his looks. His long body seemed to be only basted together, his hair was quills upon the fretful porcupine, his teeth were Stonehenge, his clothes looked as if they had been brought up by somebody else. Poker-faced he was not. Expressions, sometimes several at a time, would race across his countenance, and always, especially when he thought no one was looking, not the brow alone but the whole expanse would be corrugated by his worries over his bitch-mistress, his magazine.\nThis is Parker prose at its absolute finest—and another example of how her take on things is almost inevitably personal rather than analytical.\nThe saddest and most telling moment in her five-year run at Esquire comes at the very end of a discussion of a book about James McNeill Whistler and his circle. She is writing this in 1960, and she is sixty-six. She talks of Whistler, Rossetti, Swinburne, Wilde. “There were giants in those days,” she remarks. “And fools talk about the round table at the Algonquin!”\nDorothy Parker was too smart to buy the legend and too clearheaded to slide into nostalgia. That left her having to acknowledge some bitter realities. If only she hadn’t won celebrity so early and so easily. If only she had been blessed with Hemingway’s talent, had written her novel (and it had been any good), hadn’t succumbed to the easy life and money of Hollywood. If only she had married Mr. Right instead of lumbering herself with all those Mr. Wrongs. If she had had that baby…\nShe was too sensible to live in regret, but she certainly understood how much of her life she had spent carousing and just fooling around. The tragedy of Dorothy Parker, it seems to me, isn’t that she succumbed to alcoholism or died essentially alone. It was that she was too intelligent to believe that she had made the most of herself.",
"Dorothy Parker - Poet | Academy of American Poets\nAcademy of American Poets\nThe Academy of American Poets is the largest membership-based nonprofit organization fostering an appreciation for contemporary poetry and supporting American poets. For over three generations, the Academy has connected millions of people to great poetry through programs such as National Poetry Month, the largest literary celebration in the world; Poets.org, the Academy’s popular website; American Poets, a biannual literary journal; and an annual series of poetry readings and special events. Since its founding, the Academy has awarded more money to poets than any other organization.\nbrowse poems & poets\npoet\nDorothy Parker\nOn August 22, 1893, Dorothy Parker was born to J. Henry and Elizabeth Rothschild, at their summer home in West End, New Jersey. Growing up on Manhattan’s Upper West Side, her childhood was an unhappy one. Both her mother and step-mother died when she was young; her uncle, Martin Rothschild, went down on the Titanic in 1912; and her father died the following year. Young Dorothy attended a Catholic grammar school, then a finishing school in Morristown, NJ. Her formal education abruptly ended when she was 14.\nIn 1914, Dorothy sold her first poem to Vanity Fair. At age 22, she took an editorial job at Vogue. She continued to write poems for newspapers and magazines, and in 1917 she joined Vanity Fair, taking over for P.G. Wodehouse as drama critic. That same year she married a stockbroker, Edwin P. Parker. But the marriage was tempestuous, and the couple divorced in 1928.\nIn 1919, Parker became a founding member of the Algonquin Round Table, an informal gathering of writers who lunched at the Algonquin Hotel. The \"Vicious Circle\" included Robert Benchley, Harpo Marx, George S Kaufman, and Edna Ferber, and was known for its scathing wit and intellectual commentary. In 1922, Parker published her first short story, \"Such a Pretty Little Picture,\" for Smart Set.\nWhen the New Yorker debuted in 1925, Parker was listed on the editorial board. Over the years, she contributed poetry, fiction and book reviews as the \"Constant Reader.\"\nParker’s first collection of poetry, Enough Rope, was published in 1926, and was a bestseller. Her two subsequent collections were Sunset Gun in 1928 and Death and Taxes in 1931. Her collected fiction came out in 1930 as Laments for the Living.\nDuring the 1920s, Parker traveled to Europe several times. She befriended Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, socialites Gerald and Sarah Murphy, and contributed articles to the New Yorker and Life. While her work was successful and she was well-regarded for her wit and conversational abilities, she suffered from depression and alcoholism and attempted suicide.\nIn 1929, she won the O. Henry Award for her autobiographical short story \"Big Blonde.\" She produced short fiction in the early 1930s, and also began writing drama reviews for the New Yorker. In 1934, Parker married actor-writer Alan Campbell in New Mexico; the couple relocated to Los Angeles and became a highly paid screenwriting team. They labored for MGM and Paramount on mostly forgettable features, the highlight being an Academy Award nomination for A Star Is Born in 1937. They divorced in 1947, and remarried in 1950.\nParker, who became a socialist in 1927 when she became involved in the Sacco and Vanzetti trial, was called before the House on Un-American Activities in 1955. She pleaded the Fifth Amendment.\nParker was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1959 and was a visiting professor at California State College in Los Angeles in 1963. That same year, her husband died of an overdose. On June 6, 1967, Parker was found dead of a heart attack in a New York City hotel at age 73. A firm believer in civil rights, she bequeathed her literary estate to Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Upon his assassination some months later, the estate was turned over to the NAACP.\nA Selected Bibliography",
"Jewcy.com | Her Maiden Name was Dorothy Rothschild\nPosts\nHer Maiden Name was Dorothy Rothschild\nIf you’re a certain type of bitter, intellectual female, you like Dorothy Parker. The smart-ass 20's writer is an all ages tonic- consoling you through bad love affairs and high-school unpopularity. Originally born Dorothy Rothschild (not those Rothschilds!), Dottie claimed … Read More\nPRINT ARTICLE\nJewcy loves trees! Please don't print!\nIf you’re a certain type of bitter, intellectual female, you like Dorothy Parker. The smart-ass 20's writer is an all ages tonic- consoling you through bad love affairs and high-school unpopularity. Originally born Dorothy Rothschild (not those Rothschilds!), Dottie claimed to have married just to acquire a waspy last name. Without ever offing herself, she made suicide stylish way before Kurt Cobain. So, imagine my glee when I discovered there was a whole society devoted to resurrecting Dorothy Parker. The Dorothy Parker Society throws drunken parties throughout the year, including the Gin Bowl and Parkerfest! I met president Kevin Fitzpatrick at the NY Comiccon, where he won my heart on his choice of convention sketch. Instead of topless WonderWoman, he wanted St. Dottie in a suit. The Society is also working on returning Dorothy's ashes from Baltimore to New York City. Who wants the provinces as their eternal resting place? Check out the Dottie Parker Society at www.dorothyparker.com . And, if attending their parties, remember that, even in the 1920’s, Alexander Wolcott got booted for vomiting in the Ming vase.",
"Dorothy Parker - New World Encyclopedia\nDorothy Parker\nNew York , New York\nDorothy Parker (August 22, 1893 – June 7, 1967) was an American writer, poet, critic, and influential feminist . Her reputation is legendary, and she is known today as one of the most brilliant writers in American history. Her thoughts and ideas, presented in her characteristic style of illustrating human nature with caustic wit, revolutionized the way many people thought, especially women. Her humor is sometimes cruel, sometimes truthful, but always sarcastic.\nOh, life is a glorious cycle of song,\nA medley of extemporanea;\nAnd love is a thing that can never go wrong;\nAnd I am Marie of Roumania.\nContents\n10 Credits\nDorothy Parker, known to many as Dot or Dottie, had one of the most successful writing careers of any woman of her time. She served as a writer and editor for both Vanity Fair and Vogue magazines, along with writing many successful screenplays and television programs. She also published several articles in The New Yorker and had her own newspaper column called Constant Reader. Even with this success she suffered from severe depression and self criticism. Dorothy Parker is perhaps most recognized as one of the founders of the famous Algonquin Round Table group.\nEarly life\nDorothy Rothschild, (Dot or 'Dottie), was the fourth and final child born to Jacob Henry and Annie Eliza (Marston) Rothschild. The family had an apartment in Manhattan and a summer house in the West End district of Long Branch, New Jersey . Dorothy spent her first few weeks of life in the summer home, but claimed that her parents brought her back to the city right after Labor Day , so she could claim to be a true New Yorker.\nThe Rothchild family was not part of the famous Rothschilds' banking dynasty. Her father worked as a garment manufacturer and the small family was happy and content for the next four years, living on the Upper West Side. On July 20, 1898, Annie died suddenly, leaving behind the four children and a single father to care for them. Jacob was remarried two years later to Eleanor Francis Lewis. However, tragedy struck again when Eleanor died just three short years later from a heart-attack. Although Dorothy never particularly warmed to her stepmother in the short three years, it still caused a deep sense of sadness to be motherless once again. The children all suffered from these losses, as well as Jacob, himself.\nDorothy was sent to Roman Catholic elementary school at the Convent of the Blessed Sacrament. Many see this as an odd choice considering that her father was Jewish and her stepmother was Protestant . The school was harsh and she claims she never learned anything and felt guilt about everything. Dorothy went on to attend Miss Dana's School, a finishing school in Morristown, New Jersey. During these years, Dorothy was not encouraged to share her feelings, thus keeping them bottled up inside. This is thought to be one of the causes for her later episodes of depression. Her graduation from finishing school at 13 ended her formal education.\nTo add to this sad childhood, Dorothy's brother was a passenger on the RMS Titanic and was killed when the ship sank in 1912. The tragedies continued when her father died on December 28, 1913. Dorothy suffered from the effects of all of these deaths, often finding it hard to form solid bonds with people. These events also played a role in her battle with alcoholism.\nWriting Career\nDorothy Parker felt ill prepared for the world of Manhattan that awaited her upon the completion of her limited schooling. Thus, she began earning money by playing piano at a local dancing school, along with other sporadic music jobs. In 1914 she sold her first poem to Vanity Fair, but her big break came in 1916, when Parker started submitting various poems to the editor of another Condé Nast magazine, Vogue. The editor was so impressed with young Dorothy's writings that a job was immediately offered to her. Dorothy worked as an editorial assistant at Vogue for the next year.\nIn 1917 Dorothy met and married Edwin Pond Parker II, a stockbroker. Dorothy was only too happy to marry and rid herself of the Rothchild name. She dealt with strong feelings about her Jewish heritage, most of them negative because of the raging anti-Semitism of the time. She said that she married to escape her name. However, the marriage did not last long. The couple was separated when Edwin Parker was sent to fight during World War I . Edwin was seriously injured after only a few months of service. This injury, along with the pains and memories of the war, led Edwin to a life long addiction to alcohol and morphine. The relationship was not a positive one, and it ended in divorce in 1919. But Dorothy would never revert back to her maiden name. She kept the last name of Parker for the rest of her life, even when she married again. When she was asked if there was a Mr. Parker, she casually responded: \"There used to be.\"\nDorothy transfered over to Vanity Fair in 1917, where she served as a drama critic and staff writer until 1920. Her critiques made her a household name and she developed a large readership. She initially took the position as a stand-in for the author P.G. Woodhouse while he was on vacation. But the rise of her popularity convinced the magazine to retain her in her own right as a writer, once Woodhouse had returned.\nThe managing editor, Frank Crowinshield, stated in an interview that Dorothy Parker had \"the quickest tongue imaginable, and I need not to say the keenest sense of mockery.\" And in the introduction to Parker's Collected Stories, Regina Barreca wrote that, \"Parker's wit caricatures the self-deluded, the powerful, the autocratic, the vain, the silly, and the self important; it does not rely on men and small formulas, and it never ridicules the marginalized, the sidelined or the outcast. When Parker goes for the jugular, its usually a vein with blueblood in it.\"\nIn 1920, it would be this satirical wit and mocking caricatures that would lead to her termination from Vanity Fair. They claimed that she had offended too many people throughout her reviews.\nThe Round Table years\nWhile at Vanity Fair, Dorothy Parker made friends with other writers and these relationships would change her life. Among them was Robert Benchley , who can be said to be her best friend, as well as Robert E. Sherwood. The three writers began taking their daily lunch together at the Algonquin Hotel, located on Forty-Fourth street. These lunches were not merely for eating. They were for sharing ideas, giving critiques of writing, lavishing encouragement and praise upon one another, and sincerely sharing their deepest ideas mixed with their best jokes and a cocktail. They became the founding members of the famous intellectual group, the Algonquin Round Table. As tales of these lunches grew, so did the members. Soon Parker, Benchley and Sherwood were joined by Franklin Pierce Adams and Alexander Woollcott. These men were successful newspaper columnists. Once they became acquainted with the genius who was Dorothy Parker, they became adamant in publicizing her witticisms. Other members, like Harold Ross , would filter in and out of the group over the years. However, Dorothy Parker remained the only woman in the group. She could hold her own when defending her sex, sharing her ideas, and maintaining the respect of every man admitted into the Round Table's elite group.\nIt was during the Round Table years that Dorothy was fired from Vanity Fair. To show their support for her writing, and to validate the injustice that was done to Parker, both Benchley and Sherwood resigned in protest in 1920. During the next few years, Dorothy worked heavily on her poetry and also was hired on as a staff member of a new magazine, The New Yorker. The magazine, founded by fellow Round Table member Harold Ross , gave both Benchley and Parker freedom to write and cultivate their own projects and dictate their own hours. Parker did not write much for The New Yorker until after 1926, when her first collection of poems, Enough Rope was published. The poetry collection was full of rhymes and creative meter, along with lively words, but the topics were much more serious and often vicious. Among this group of poems is perhaps one of Parker's most famous, Résumé.\nRésumé\nGas smell awful;\nYou might as well live.\nParker's poetry found instant success. Readers loved her perceptions of her romantic affairs, many of which were unsuccessful, and her honesty about her suicide thoughts and attempts. She became a part of pop-culture when she turned up in a famous Cole Porter song, Just One Of Those Things, (\"As Dorothy Parker once said/ To her boyfriend: 'Fare thee well!.\")\nParker continued to write over the next 15 years, doing little else with her time. She wrote everything from poetry to short stories, from screenplays to television scripts, and even co-authored a few plays. Her publications came in seven volumes: Enough Rope, Sunset Gun, Laments for the Living, Death and Taxes, After Such Pleasures, Not So Deep as a Well (collected poems), and Here Lies. The famous critic, Brendan Gill, noted that the titles of her collection \"amounted to a capsule autobiography.\" Many highlights from this time period were originally published in The New Yorker, including her famous column \"Constant Reader,\" which were very acerbic book reviews. Unlike Vanity Fair, The New Yorker loved her satire and witty cruelty. Her column became extremely popular and was later published in a collection under the same name.\nWith all of these amazing credits to her name, her best-known story remains, \"A Big Blonde\" published in Bookman Magazine and awarded the O. Henry Award as the most outstanding short story of 1929. Her short stories were sparse and incisive, relying heavily on dialog rather than description. She attributed this characteristic to her love of Ernest Hemingway . They were witty, but in a bittersweet, rather than comedic, sense.\nHer life during the 1920s was full of extra-marital affairs, a heavy reliance on alcohol, and a desire for death (she attempted suicide three times during the decade). Her most noted affairs were with reporter-turned-playwright Charles MacArthur, F. Scott Fitzgerald , and with the publisher Seward Collins.\nHollywood and later life\nAfter the tumultuous 1920s in New York , Dorothy Parker desired a change of pace. In 1934, she married Alan Campbell, an actor with hopes of becoming a screenwriter. The couple moved to Hollywood to pursue careers in the movie business. Campbell had a great desire to act, but he also wanted to contribute to the screen through writing. However, it was Dorothy Parker who shined in this respect. She was the one in the relationship who made the living. She had a natural gift for the work and became quite wealthy (making a salary of $5200 a week) during the the Depression. Upon the move to Hollywood, Parker was contracted as a freelance writer for several Hollywood film studios. In all, the couple, who often worked together on projects, wrote for more than 15 films.\nParker and Campbell joined forces with Robert Carson in 1937 to write the script to the film A Star is Born. The film was directed by William Wellman and starred Janet Gaynor, Fredric March, and Adolphe Menjou. The film was a major success and nominated for several Academy Awards including Best Writing-Screenplay, Best Director, Best Actress, Best Actor and others. It received an Oscar for Best Original Story. She followed up this success with her collaboration with Peter Vierter and Joan Harrison in Alfred Hitchcock 's film Saboteur (1940). Many of Parker's fans could see clearly her quirky additions and contributions to the script. However, when the final project was finished, she claimed that her cameo with Hitchcock was the only interesting part and that the rest of the film was terribly boring.\nIn addition to her screenplay career, Parker also founded the Screen Writer's Guild with Lillian Hellman and Dashiell Hammett . She never seemed to tire as she also reported on the Spanish Civil War and in her spare time worked on several plays, although none of them ever became popular. In spite of all of Parker's and Campbells's success, their marriage was a struggle. The couple would often fight and separate, only to reconcile a few weeks later. Eventually, they divorced in 1947, but even this did not last and society was a bit amused when they remarried in 1950. They stayed married until Campbell's death in 1963.\nDorothy Parker was an outspoken advocate of left-wing causes. Her passion for civil rights was received with harsh criticism and commentary from those who were in authority. As her time in Hollywood lengthened, she became more involved in politics. Parker supported the American Communist Party in 1934. She wrote for the Loyalist cause in Spain for the Communist paper New Masses in 1937, and was one of the founders of the Anti-Nazi League in Hollywood. Many friends thought her behavior too radical, and it caused rifts between Parker and those who used to be close to her. She rarely saw her former Round Table friends.\nThe growth of the American Communist Party led to investigations by the FBI and Dorothy Parker was on their list. The McCarthy era, as this period of time was known, resulted in Parker and others being placed on the Hollywood blacklist by movie studio bosses.\nHer dependence on alcohol began to interfere with her work from 1957 to 1962. Although she wrote a few book reviews for Esquire, her position was not guaranteed, and her erratic behavior and lack of interest in deadlines, caused her popularity among editors to decline. In 1967, Dorothy Parker died of a heart attack at the age of 73 in Volney Apartments in New York City . Her ashes remained unclaimed in various places, including a file cabinet for 21 years. The NAACP eventually claimed them and built a memorial garden for them in their Baltimore headquarters. The plaque reads:\nHere lie the ashes of Dorthy Parker (1893 - 1967) humorist, writer, critic. Defender of human and civil rights. For her epitaph she suggested, 'Excuse my dust'. This memorial garden is dedicated to her noble spirit which celebrated the oneness of humankind and to the bonds of everlasting friendship between black and Jewish people. Dedicated by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. October 28, 1988.\nWhen Parker died, she did something completely unexpected, but not surprising; she bequeathed her entire estate to the Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. foundation. Following King's death, her estate was passed on to the NAACP. Her executor, Lillian Hellman , bitterly but unsuccessfully contested this disposition. Even in death, Parker found a way to support a cause she deeply believed in.\nIn popular culture\nGeorge Oppenheimer wrote a play during the height of Dorothy Parker's popularity. In his play, Here Today (1932), Ruth Gordon played the character based on Parker\nParker's life was the subject of the 1987 video Dorothy And Alan At Norma Place, and the 1994 film Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle in which she was played by Jennifer Jason Leigh; others in the cast were Campbell Scott, Matthew Broderick, and Peter Gallagher.\nOn August 22, 1992 (Parker's 99th birthday), her image appeared on a 29¢ U.S. commemorative postage stamp in the Literary Arts series.\nDorothy Parker's small star tattoo on the inside of her arm was the inspiration for a compendium of literary extracts about tattoos, Dorothy Parker's Elbow - Tattoos on Writers, Writers on Tattoos by Kim Addonizio and Cheryl Dumesnil.\nDorothy Parker, along with other figures of the era such as Ira Gershwin and George Gershwin , is featured as a character in Act 1, Scene 12 of the stage musical version of Thoroughly Modern Millie.\nPublications\n1971. A Month of Saturdays\n1996. Not Much Fun: The Lost Poems of Dorothy Parker\nMovies\nMrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle IMDB\nSources\nAddonizio, Kim, and Cheryl Dumesnil (eds.). 2002. Dorothy Parker's Elbow - Tattoos on Writers, Writers on Tattoos. New York: Warner Books. ISBN 0446679046\nFitzpatrick, Kevin C. 2005. A Journey into Dorothy Parker's New York. Berkeley, CA: Roaring Forties Press. ISBN 0976670607\nKeats, John. 1970. You Might As Well Live: The Life and Times of Dorothy Parker. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0671206605\nMeade, Marion. 1988. Dorothy Parker: What Fresh Hell is This? New York: Villard. ISBN 0140116168\nMeade, Marion. 2006. The Portable Dorothy Parker. Penguin Classic. ISBN 0143039539\nExternal links",
"Dorothy Parker - Biography - IMDb\nDorothy Parker\nBiography\nShowing all 48 items\nJump to: Overview (5) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (3) | Trade Mark (1) | Trivia (13) | Personal Quotes (25)\nOverview (5)\n4' 11\" (1.5 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nDorothy Rothschild was born on August 22, 1893 into a family of comfortable financial means. Raised by her father and Stepmother after her mother's death, she was given an excellent education for the times. Highly intelligent, she pursued a career after her formal education and proved herself to be one of the early feminists. She started writing poems early and her witty remarks are still alive today. In 1917 she was asked to join the staff at Vanity Fair magazine and to marry Edward Pond Parker II, both of which she agreed to gladly. Eddie Parker soon was stationed overseas and Dorothy became one of the founding members of the Algonquin Hotel \"Round Table\". Eddie arrived back from the war with an unfortunate drinking problem, and Dorothy decided she loved her new life more than she did him. They were separated far more than together and divorced in 1928. She spent a very dramatic period of time in New York City, doing theater reviews, spending time with her Algonquin friends, drinking far too much. She published poems and short stories and in 1929 won the national O. Henry Prize for the short story \"Big Blonde\". This established her as a serious writer. She married Alan Campbell when she was forty and he was twenty-nine. He encouraged her to go Hollywood where they became a very successful screenwriting team. Beginning in 1933 they received screen credits for fifteen films, most notably A Star Is Born (1937) which was nominated for an Academy Award. The time spent in Hollywood were the most lucrative years of her career, yet she spent every dime of it. She divorced and remarried Alan Campbell and in 1963 he died. She spent her last years in New York City, in very poor health due to heavy drinking and making do on very little money. Often, she would have to call on friends like Lillian Hellman to help her financially. Dorothy Parker died in 1967 at seventy-three years old in her New York hotel room, all alone. Time magazine devoted an entire page to her obituary, which was considered an amazing tribute. Her estate was left in full to Martin Luther King and the NAACP.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Sheryl Reeder<[email protected]\nSpouse (3)\nSharp, sardonic wit\nTrivia (13)\nLeft most of her estate to Martin Luther King . Left her ashes to Lillian Hellman who never claimed them.\nAt a low point in her finances, a friend interceded with John Gilbert , who graciously sent $2,000. Then, when his career was on the wane, he inquired if it might be possible to collect on some of the loans he'd made. Dorothy sent a check and in return received red roses with a note, \"Thank you, Miss Finland\" (Finland was the only country that had paid its war debt to the U.S. after World War I).\nAfter her death, some of her ashes were scattered at a specially designed memorial garden at the NAACP headquarters in Baltimore, Maryland, USA.\nAttempted suicide many times during her life.\nPictured on a 29¢ US commemorative postage stamp in the Literary Arts series, issued 22 August 1992.\nDorothy's uncle, Martin Rothschild, and his wife Lizzie, were aboard the Titanic in 1912. Lizzie survived, but Martin Rothschild did not. Martin's death was particularly hard for Dorothy's father, Henry Rothschild, and he died shortly thereafter in 1913.\nIn 1922 she had an affair with the emerging playwright Charles MacArthur , who it turned out was having multiple affairs with other women.\nSubject of the song \"Be My Dorothy Parker\" by The Shots of Perspective.\nShe is nominated for the 2008 New Jersey Hall of Fame for her services and contributions to literature.\nProfiled in book \"Funny Ladies\" by Stephen M. Silverman . [1999]\nShe was nominated for the 2012 New Jersey Hall of Fame for her contributions in the General Category.\nShe was nominated for a 2013 New Jersey Hall of Fame in the General Category.\nShe was inducted into the 2014 New Jersey Hall of Fame in the Arts and Letters Category.\nPersonal Quotes (25)\nMen seldom make passes at girls who wear glasses.\nOnce in her long-running feud with Clare Boothe Luce , Mrs. Luce held the door open for Mrs. Parker to walk through and said, \"Age before beauty.\" Mrs. Parker walked through and said, \"Pearls before swine.\" Another time, when told that Mrs. Luce was kind to her inferiors, she said, \"And where does she find them?\"\nIf all the girls who attended the Yale prom were laid end-to-end, I wouldn't be a bit surprised.\nReviewing Katharine Hepburn on Broadway: \"She runs the gamut of emotions from A to B.\"\nThe only '-ism' Hollywood believes in is plagiarism.\nAfter George Oppenheimer and Ruth Gordon each wrote plays with characters based on Mrs. Parker in them, she wrote, \"I wanted to write my autobiography, but now I'm afraid to. George Oppenheimer and Ruth Gordon would sue me for plagiarism.\"\nTime wounds all heels.\nI'd like to have money. And I'd like to be a good writer. These two can come together, and I hope they will, but if that's too adorable, I'd rather have money.\nSorrow is tranquility remembered in emotion.\n(In 1955) \"Hollywood money isn't money. It's congealed snow, melts in your hand, and there you are.\"\nThe best way to keep children at home is to make the home atmosphere pleasant, and let the air out of the tires.\nOne more drink and I'll be under the the table, two more drinks and I'll be under the host.\nBrevity is the soul of lingerie.\nScratch an actor - and you'll find an actress.\nUpon being told that former US President Calvin Coolidge (known as \"Silent Cal\" for being very tight-lipped) had died, she quipped, \"How can they tell?\"\nHe and I had an office so tiny that an inch smaller and it would have been adultery.\nExcuse me, I have to use the toilet. Actually, I have to use the telephone, but I'm too embarrassed to say so.\nHollywood money isn't money. It's congealed snow.\n[on Basil Rathbone ] Two profiles pasted together.\nPeople ought to be one of two things, young or dead.\nOn truth: Wit has truth in it; wisecracking is simply calisthenics with words.\n[on children] The best way to keep children at home is to make the home atmosphere pleasant--and let the air out of the tires.\n[on actress Marion Davies] She has two expressions: joy and indigestion.\n[on actress Dame Edith Evans] To me, Edith looks like something that would eat its young.\nI like to have a martini/Two at the very most/After three I'm under the table/After four I'm under my host.\nSee also",
"The Passionate Freudian to His Love - Poems | Academy of American Poets\nAcademy of American Poets\nThe Academy of American Poets is the largest membership-based nonprofit organization fostering an appreciation for contemporary poetry and supporting American poets. For over three generations, the Academy has connected millions of people to great poetry through programs such as National Poetry Month, the largest literary celebration in the world; Poets.org, the Academy’s popular website; American Poets, a biannual literary journal; and an annual series of poetry readings and special events. Since its founding, the Academy has awarded more money to poets than any other organization.\nbrowse poems & poets\nsign up to receive a new poem-a-day in your inbox\nsign up\npoem\nAbout this poet\nOn August 22, 1893, Dorothy Parker was born to J. Henry and Elizabeth Rothschild, at their summer home in West End, New Jersey. Growing up on Manhattan’s Upper West Side, her childhood was an unhappy one. Both her mother and step-mother died when she was young; her uncle, Martin Rothschild, went down on the Titanic in 1912; and her father died the following year. Young Dorothy attended a Catholic grammar school, then a finishing school in Morristown, NJ. Her formal education abruptly ended when she was 14.\nIn 1914, Dorothy sold her first poem to Vanity Fair. At age 22, she took an editorial job at Vogue. She continued to write poems for newspapers and magazines, and in 1917 she joined Vanity Fair, taking over for P.G. Wodehouse as drama critic. That same year she married a stockbroker, Edwin P. Parker. But the marriage was tempestuous, and the couple divorced in 1928.\nIn 1919, Parker became a founding member of the Algonquin Round Table, an informal gathering of writers who lunched at the Algonquin Hotel. The \"Vicious Circle\" included Robert Benchley, Harpo Marx, George S Kaufman, and Edna Ferber, and was known for its scathing wit and intellectual commentary. In 1922, Parker published her first short story, \"Such a Pretty Little Picture,\" for Smart Set.\nWhen the New Yorker debuted in 1925, Parker was listed on the editorial board. Over the years, she contributed poetry, fiction and book reviews as the \"Constant Reader.\"\nParker’s first collection of poetry, Enough Rope, was published in 1926, and was a bestseller. Her two subsequent collections were Sunset Gun in 1928 and Death and Taxes in 1931. Her collected fiction came out in 1930 as Laments for the Living.\nDuring the 1920s, Parker traveled to Europe several times. She befriended Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, socialites Gerald and Sarah Murphy, and contributed articles to the New Yorker and Life. While her work was successful and she was well-regarded for her wit and conversational abilities, she suffered from depression and alcoholism and attempted suicide.\nIn 1929, she won the O. Henry Award for her autobiographical short story \"Big Blonde.\" She produced short fiction in the early 1930s, and also began writing drama reviews for the New Yorker. In 1934, Parker married actor-writer Alan Campbell in New Mexico; the couple relocated to Los Angeles and became a highly paid screenwriting team. They labored for MGM and Paramount on mostly forgettable features, the highlight being an Academy Award nomination for A Star Is Born in 1937. They divorced in 1947, and remarried in 1950.\nParker, who became a socialist in 1927 when she became involved in the Sacco and Vanzetti trial, was called before the House on Un-American Activities in 1955. She pleaded the Fifth Amendment.\nParker was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1959 and was a visiting professor at California State College in Los Angeles in 1963. That same year, her husband died of an overdose. On June 6, 1967, Parker was found dead of a heart attack in a New York City hotel at age 73. A firm believer in civil rights, she bequeathed her literary estate to Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Upon his assassination some months later, the estate was turned over to the NAACP.\nA Selected Bibliography"
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In which month in 1997 was The Notorious B.I.G. gunned down?
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"Christopher George Latore Wallace (May 21, 1972 – March 9, 1997), better known by his stage names The Notorious B.I.G, Biggie, or Biggie Smalls, was an American rapper. He is consistently ranked as one of the greatest and most influential rappers of all time. \n\nWallace was raised in the Brooklyn borough of New York City. When he released his debut album Ready to Die in 1994, he became a central figure in the East Coast hip hop scene and increased New York's visibility in the genre at a time when West Coast hip hop was dominant in the mainstream. The following year, Wallace led his childhood friends to chart success through his protégé group, Junior M.A.F.I.A. While recording his second album, Wallace was heavily involved in the growing East Coast–West Coast hip hop feud.\n\nOn March 9, 1997, Wallace was killed by an unknown assailant in a drive-by shooting in Los Angeles. His double-disc album Life After Death, released 16 days later, rose to No. 1 on the U.S. album charts and was certified Diamond in 2000, one of the few hip hop albums to receive this certification. Wallace was noted for his \"loose, easy flow\", dark semi-autobiographical lyrics and storytelling abilities. Two more albums have been released since his death. He has certified sales of 17 million units in the United States. \n\nLife and career \n\n1972–94: Early life, arrests, career beginnings and first child \n\nBorn in St. Mary's Hospital in Brooklyn on May 21, 1972, as the only child of Voletta Wallace, a Jamaican preschool teacher, and Selwyn George Latore, a welder and small-time Jamaican politician. His father left the family when Wallace was two years old, and his mother worked two jobs while raising him. Wallace grew up in the Clinton Hill section of Brooklyn, New York City on 226 St. James Place near the border of Bedford-Stuyvesant, considered at the time to be within the latter neighborhood's boundaries. At the Queen of All Saints Middle School, Wallace excelled in class, winning several awards as an English student. He was nicknamed \"Big\" because of his overweight size by age 10. He said he started dealing when he was around the age of 12. His mother, often away at work, did not know of her son's drug sales until Wallace was an adult. \n\nAt his request, Wallace transferred out of the Roman Catholic Bishop Loughlin Memorial High School to attend the state-funded George Westinghouse Career and Technical Education High School, which future rappers DMX, Jay-Z and Busta Rhymes also attended at the time. According to his mother, Wallace was still a good student, but he developed a \"smart-ass\" attitude at the new school. At seventeen, Wallace dropped out of school and became further involved in crime. In 1989, he was arrested on weapons charges in Brooklyn and sentenced to five years' probation. In 1990, he was arrested on a violation of his probation. A year later, Wallace was arrested in North Carolina for dealing crack cocaine. He spent nine months in jail before making bail.\n\nWallace began rapping when he was a teenager. He entertained people on the streets and performed with local groups the Old Gold Brothers and the Techniques. After being released from jail, Wallace made a demo tape under the name Biggie Smalls, a reference to a character in the 1975 film Let's Do It Again as well as his stature; he stood at 6 ft and weighed as much as 300 to(-) according to differing accounts. The tape was reportedly made with no serious intent of getting a recording deal, but was promoted by New York-based DJ Mister Cee, who had previously worked with Big Daddy Kane, and was heard by the editor of The Source. \n\nIn March 1992, Wallace was featured in The Source Unsigned Hype column, dedicated to aspiring rappers, and made a recording off the back of this success. The demo tape was heard by Uptown Records A&R and record producer Sean Combs, who arranged for a meeting with Wallace. He was signed to Uptown immediately and made an appearance on label mates, Heavy D & the Boyz' \"A Buncha Niggas\" (from the album Blue Funk). Soon after signing his recording contract, Combs was fired from Uptown and started a new label. Wallace followed and in mid-1992, signed to Combs' new imprint label, Bad Boy Records.\n\nOn August 8, 1993, Wallace's longtime girlfriend gave birth to his first child, T'yanna. Wallace had split with the girlfriend for some time before T'yanna's birth. \nWallace wanted his daughter to complete her education, despite being a high school dropout himself. Wallace said that if his mother had promised him what he promised his daughter, everything she wanted, Wallace would have been not only a graduate but also at the top of his class. \nHe continued selling drugs after the birth to support his daughter financially. Once Combs discovered this, he forced Wallace to quit.\n\nLater in the year, Wallace gained exposure on a remix to Mary J. Blige's single \"Real Love\", under the pseudonym The Notorious B.I.G. He recorded under this name for the remainder of his career, after finding the original moniker \"Biggie Smalls\" was already in use. \"Real Love\" peaked at No. 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and was followed by a remix of Blige's \"What's the 411?\". He continued this success, to a lesser extent, on remixes with Neneh Cherry (\"Buddy X\") and reggae artist Super Cat (\"Dolly My Baby\", also featuring Combs) in 1993. In April 1993, his solo track, \"Party and Bullshit\", appeared on the Who's the Man? soundtrack. In July 1994, he appeared alongside LL Cool J and Busta Rhymes on a remix to label mate Craig Mack's \"Flava in Ya Ear\", reaching No. 9 on the Billboard Hot 100. \n\n1994: Ready to Die and marriage \n\nOn August 4, 1994, Wallace married R&B singer Faith Evans after they met at a Bad Boy photoshoot. Five days later, Wallace had his first pop chart success as a solo artist with double A-side, \"Juicy/Unbelievable\", which reached No. 27 as the lead single to his debut album. \n\nReady to Die was released on September 13, 1994, and reached No. 13 on the Billboard 200 chart, eventually being certified four times Platinum. The album, released at a time when West Coast hip hop was prominent in the U.S. charts, according to Rolling Stone, \"almost single-handedly... shifted the focus back to East Coast rap\". It immediately gained strong reviews and has received much praise in retrospect. In addition to \"Juicy\", the record produced two hit singles: the Platinum-selling \"Big Poppa\", which reached No. 1 on the U.S. rap chart, and \"One More Chance\" featuring Faith Evans, a loosely related remix of an album track and its best selling single.\n\nBusta Rhymes claimed to have seen Wallace giving out free copies of Ready to Die from his home, which Rhymes reasoned as \"his way of marketing himself.\" Around the time of the album's release, Wallace became friends with Tupac Shakur, also a rapper. Cousin Lil' Cease recalled the pair being close, often traveling together whenever they were not active in furthering their careers. According to him, Wallace was a frequent guest at Shakur's home and they constantly spent time together when Shakur was in California or Washington, D.C.. It was claimed by Yukmouth, an Oakland emcee, that Wallace's style was inspired by that of Shakur. Wallace also formed a friendship with Shaquille O'Neal, O'Neal remembering his first time hearing Wallace, during listening to the song \"Gimme the Loot\", where Wallace mentioned him in the lyrics and thereby attracted O'Neal to his music. O'Neal requested a collaboration with Wallace, which resulted in the song \"You Can't Stop the Reign\". Sean Combs related that Wallace would not do collaborations with \"anybody he didn't really respect\", adding that Wallace paid O'Neal \"respect by shouting him out.\" Daz Dillinger said in 2015 that Wallace and he were \"cool\". Wallace would travel to meet with him, Dillinger remembering serving him weed and recording two songs with him. \n\n1995: Junior M.A.F.I.A., Conspiracy and coastal feud \n\nIn August 1995, Wallace's protégé group, Junior M.A.F.I.A. (\"Junior Masters At Finding Intelligent Attitudes\"), released their debut album Conspiracy. The group consisted of his friends from childhood and included rappers such as Lil' Kim and Lil' Cease, who went on to have solo careers. The record went Gold and its singles, \"Player's Anthem\" and \"Get Money\" both featuring Wallace, went Gold and Platinum. Wallace continued to work with R&B artists, collaborating with R&B groups 112 (on \"Only You\") and Total (on \"Can't You See\"), with both reaching the top 20 of the Hot 100. By the end of the year, Wallace was the top-selling male solo artist and rapper on the U.S. pop and R&B charts. In July 1995, he appeared on the cover of The Source with the caption \"The King of New York Takes Over\", a reference to his Frank White alias from the 1990 film King of New York. At the Source Awards in August 1995, he was named Best New Artist (Solo), Lyricist of the Year, Live Performer of the Year, and his debut Album of the Year. At the Billboard Awards, he was Rap Artist of the Year.\n\nIn his year of success, Wallace became involved in a rivalry between the East and West Coast hip hop scenes with Shakur, now his former friend. In an interview with Vibe in April 1995, while serving time in Clinton Correctional Facility, Shakur accused Uptown Records' founder Andre Harrell, Sean Combs, and Wallace of having prior knowledge of a robbery that resulted in him being shot five times and losing thousands of dollars worth of jewelry on the night of November 30, 1994. Though Wallace and his entourage were in the same Manhattan-based recording studio at the time of the shooting, they denied the accusation. Wallace said: \"It just happened to be a coincidence that he [Shakur] was in the studio. He just, he couldn't really say who really had something to do with it at the time. So he just kinda' leaned the blame on me.\" In 2012, a man named Dexter Isaac, serving a life sentence for unrelated crimes, claimed that he attacked Shakur that night and that the robbery was orchestrated by James Rosemond aka Jimmy Henchman. \n\nFollowing his release from prison, Shakur signed to Death Row Records on October 15, 1995. Bad Boy Records and Death Row, now business rivals, became involved in an intense quarrel. \n\n1996: More arrests, Tupac Shakur's death and second child \n\nWallace began recording his second studio album in September 1995. The album, recorded in New York, Trinidad, and Los Angeles, was interrupted during its 18 months of creation by injury, legal wranglings and the highly publicized hip hop dispute in which he was involved. During this time, he also worked with R&B/pop singer, songwriter and producer Michael Jackson for the HIStory album. Lil' Cease claimed in 2013 that Wallace denied his wishes to meet Jackson, citing that he did not \"trust Michael with kids\". \n\nOn March 23, 1996, Wallace was arrested outside a Manhattan nightclub for chasing and threatening to kill two autograph seekers, smashing the windows of their taxicab and then pulling one of the fans out and punching them. He pleaded guilty to second-degree harassment and was sentenced to 100 hours of community service. In mid-1996, he was arrested at his home in Teaneck, New Jersey, for drug and weapons possession charges.\n\nIn June 1996, Shakur released \"Hit 'Em Up\", a diss song in which he claimed to have had sex with Wallace's wife (at the time estranged) and that Wallace copied his style and image. Wallace referred to the first claim about his wife's pregnancy on Jay-Z's \"Brooklyn's Finest\" where he raps: \"If Faye (Faith Evans, his wife at the time) have twins, she'd probably have two 'Pacs. Get it? 2Pac's?\" However, Wallace did not directly respond to the record during his lifetime, stating in a 1997 radio interview that it was \"not [his] style\" to respond. \n\nShakur was shot multiple times in a drive-by shooting in Las Vegas, Nevada, on September 7, 1996, and died six days later on September 13, 1996 of complications from the gunshot wounds. Rumors of Wallace's involvement with Shakur's murder were reported almost immediately. A two-part series Chuck Philips wrote for the Los Angeles Times in 2002, \"Who Killed Tupac Shakur?\", based on police reports and multiple sources reported that \"the shooting was carried out by a Compton gang called the Southside Crips to avenge the beating of one of its members by Shakur a few hours earlier\" and that Wallace paid for the gun. His family publicly denied the report, producing documents purporting to show that the rapper was in New York and New Jersey at the time. The New York Times called the documents inconclusive, stating: The pages purport to be three computer printouts from Daddy's House, indicating that Wallace was in the studio recording a song called Nasty Boy on the night Shakur was shot. They indicate that Wallace wrote half the session, was In and out/sat around and laid down a ref, shorthand for a reference vocal, the equivalent of a first take. But nothing indicates when the documents were created. And Louis Alfred, the recording engineer listed on the sheets, said in an interview that he remembered recording the song with Wallace in a late-night session, not during the day. He could not recall the date of the session but said it was likely not the night Shakur was shot. We would have heard about it, Mr. Alfred said.\" Moreover, Philips' article was based on multiple sources. As the Assistant Managing Editor of the LA Times Mark Duvoisin wrote: \"Philips' story has withstood all challenges to its accuracy, ...[and] remains the definitive account of the Shakur slaying.\" Faith Evans remembered her husband calling her the night of Shakur's death and crying due to him being in shock. Evans added, \"I think it’s fair to say he was probably afraid, given everything that was going on at that time and all the hype that was put on this so-called beef that he didn’t really have in his heart against anyone.\" Wayne Barrow, Wallace's co-manager at the time, said Wallace was recording the song \"Nasty Girl\" the night Shakur was shot. Shortly after Shakur's death, he met with Snoop Dogg, who claimed that Wallace played the song \"Somebody Gotta Die\" for him, in which Snoop Dogg was mentioned, and declared he never hated Shakur. \n\nOn October 29, 1996, Faith Evans gave birth to Wallace's son, Christopher \"C.J.\" Wallace, Jr. The following month, Junior M.A.F.I.A. member Lil' Kim released her debut album, Hard Core, under Wallace's direction while the two were having a \"love affair\". Lil' Kim recalled being Wallace's \"biggest fan\" and her being \"his pride and joy.\" \nIn a 2012 interview, Lil' Kim said Wallace prevented her from doing a remix of the Jodeci single \"Love U 4 Life\" by locking her in a room and according to her, Wallace stated that she was not \"gonna go do no song with them,\" likely because of the group's close affiliation with Tupac and Death Row Records.\n\n1997: Life After Death and car accident \n\nDuring the recording sessions for his second album, tentatively named \"Life After Death... 'Til Death Do Us Part\", later shortened to Life After Death, Wallace was involved in a car accident that shattered his left leg and temporarily confined him to a wheelchair. The injury forced him to use a cane. He and Lil' Cease were arrested for smoking marijuana in public and had their car repossessed. Wallace chose a Chevrolet Lumina rental SUV as a substitute, despite Lil' Cease's objections. The vehicle had brake problems before the accident but Wallace dismissed them. According to Lil' Cease, Wallace's leg was shattered when they hit a rail along with Lil's Cease's jaw. Wallace spent months in a hospital following the accident and had to complete therapy. Despite his hospitalization, he continued to work on the album. The accident was referred to in the lyrics of \"Long Kiss Goodnight\": \"Ya still tickle me, I used to be as strong as Ripple be / Til Lil' Cease crippled me.\" \n\nIn January 1997, Wallace was ordered to pay US$41,000 in damages following an incident involving a friend of a concert promoter who claimed Wallace and his entourage beat him up following a dispute in May 1995. He faced criminal assault charges for the incident which remains unresolved, but all robbery charges were dropped. Following the events of the previous year, Wallace spoke of a desire to focus on his \"peace of mind\". \"My mom... my son... my daughter... my family... my friends are what matters to me now\". \n\nDeath and funeral \n\nWallace traveled to Los Angeles in February 1997, to promote his upcoming second studio album and film a music video for its lead single, \"Hypnotize\". The album, Life After Death, was scheduled for release on March 25, 1997.\n\nOn March 7, he presented an award to Toni Braxton at the 1997 Soul Train Music Awards in Los Angeles and was booed by some of the audience. The following evening, March 8, Wallace attended an after party hosted by Vibe magazine and Qwest Records at the Petersen Automotive Museum in Los Angeles. Other guests included Faith Evans, Aaliyah, Sean Combs, and members of the Bloods and Crips gangs.\n\nOn March 9, Wallace left in a GMC Suburban SUV at 12:30 a.m. (PST). By 12:45 a.m. (PST), the streets were crowded with people leaving the event. Wallace's SUV stopped at a red light at the corner of Wilshire Blvd & South Fairfax Ave 50 yards (46 m) from the museum. A dark colored Chevrolet Impala SS pulled up alongside Wallace's SUV. The driver of the Impala, a black male dressed in a blue suit and bow tie, rolled down his window, drew a 9mm blue-steel pistol and fired at the SUV. Four bullets hit Wallace. His entourage rushed him to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, where doctors performed an emergency thoracotomy, but he was pronounced dead at 1:15 a.m. (PST), six months after Tupac Shakur was killed.\n\nWallace's autopsy was released to the public in December 2012, over a decade after his death. According to the report, three of the four shots were not fatal. The first bullet hit in his left forearm and traveled down to his wrist; the second hit him in the back, missing all vital organs, and exited through his left shoulder; and the third hit his outer left thigh and left through his inner thigh. The report said that the third bullet struck \"the left side of the scrotum, causing a very shallow, 3⁄8 inch [10 mm] linear laceration.\" The fourth bullet was fatal, entering through his right hip and striking several vital organs, before stopping in his left shoulder area. That bullet struck his colon, liver, heart and upper lobe of his left lung.\n\nWallace's murder remains unsolved and there are many theories regarding the identities and motives of the murderers. Immediately after the shooting, reports surfaced linking Wallace's murder to the murder of Tupac Shakur, because of the similarities in the drive-by shootings and the involvement of Shakur and Wallace in the East Coast–West Coast hip hop rivalry. In 1997, Los Angeles Times authors Chuck Philips and Matt Laitt reported that the key suspect was a member of the Crips acting in service of a personal financial motive.\n\nBiggie's funeral was held on March 18, 1997 at the Frank E. Campbell Funeral Chapel in Manhattan. There were among 350 mourners at the funeral, including Queen Latifah, Flava Flav, Mary J. Blige, Lil' Kim, Lil' Cease, Run–D.M.C., DJ Kool Herc, Busta Rhymes, Salt-N-Pepa, DJ Spinderella, Foxy Brown, Sister Souljah and others. After the funeral, his body was cremated and the ashes were given to his family. \n\nPosthumous releases \n\nSixteen days after his death, Wallace's double-disc second album was released as planned with the shortened title of Life After Death and hit No. 1 on the Billboard 200 charts, after making a premature appearance at No. 176 due to street-date violations. The record album featured a much wider range of guests and producers than its predecessor. It gained strong reviews and in 2000 was certified Diamond, the highest RIAA certification awarded to a solo hip hop album.\n\nIts lead single, \"Hypnotize\", was the last music video recording in which Wallace would participate. His biggest chart success was with its follow-up \"Mo Money Mo Problems\", featuring Sean Combs (under the rap alias \"Puff Daddy\") and Mase. Both singles reached No. 1 in the Hot 100, making Wallace the first artist to achieve this feat posthumously. The third single, \"Sky's The Limit\", featuring the band 112, was noted for its use of children in the music video, directed by Spike Jonze, who were used to portray Wallace and his contemporaries, including Sean Combs, Lil' Kim, and Busta Rhymes. Wallace was named Artist of the Year and \"Hypnotize\" Single of the Year by Spin magazine in December 1997. \n\nIn mid-1997, Combs released his debut album, No Way Out, which featured Wallace on five songs, notably on the third single \"Victory\". The most prominent single from the record album was \"I'll Be Missing You\", featuring Combs, Faith Evans and 112, which was dedicated to Wallace's memory. At the 1998 Grammy Awards, Life After Death and its first two singles received nominations in the rap category. The album award was won by Combs' No Way Out and \"I'll Be Missing You\" won the award in the category of Best Rap Performance By A Duo Or Group in which \"Mo Money Mo Problems\" was nominated.\n\nWallace had founded a hip hop supergroup called The Commission, which consisted of Jay-Z, Lil' Cease, Combs, Charli Baltimore and himself. The Commission was mentioned by Wallace in the lyrics of \"What's Beef\" on Life After Death and \"Victory\" from No Way Out but never completed an album. A song on Duets: The Final Chapter titled \"Whatchu Want (The Commission)\" featuring Jay-Z was based on the group.\n\nIn December 1999, Bad Boy released Born Again. The album consisted of previously unreleased material mixed with guest appearances including many artists Wallace had never collaborated with in his lifetime. It gained some positive reviews but received criticism for its unlikely pairings; The Source describing it as \"compiling some of the most awkward collaborations of his career\". Nevertheless, the album sold 2 million copies. Wallace appeared on Michael Jackson's 2001 album, Invincible. Over the course of time, his vocals were heard on hit songs such as \"Foolish\" by Ashanti and \"Realest Niggas\" in 2002, and the song \"Runnin' (Dying to Live)\" with Shakur the following year. In 2005, Duets: The Final Chapter continued the pattern started on Born Again, criticized for the lack of significant vocals by Wallace on some of its songs. Its lead single \"Nasty Girl\" became Wallace's first UK No. 1 single. Combs and Voletta Wallace have stated the album will be the last release primarily featuring new material. \n\nMusical style \n\nWallace mostly rapped on his songs in a deep tone described by Rolling Stone as a \"thick, jaunty grumble\", which went deeper on Life After Death. He was often accompanied on songs with ad libs from Sean \"Puffy\" Combs. On The Source Unsigned Hype, his style was described as \"cool, nasal, and filtered, to bless his own material\".\n\nAllmusic describe Wallace as having \"a talent for piling multiple rhymes on top of one another in quick succession\". Time magazine wrote Wallace rapped with an ability to \"make multi-syllabic rhymes sound... smooth\", while Krims describes Wallace's rhythmic style as \"effusive.\" Before starting a verse, Wallace sometimes used onomatopoeic vocables to \"warm up\" (for example \"uhhh\" at the beginning of \"Hypnotize\" and \"Big Poppa\" and \"whaat\" after certain rhymes in songs such as \"My Downfall\"). \n\nLateef of Latyrx notes that Wallace had, \"intense and complex flows\", Fredro Starr of Onyx says, \"Biggie was a master of the flow\", and Bishop Lamont states that Wallace mastered \"all the hemispheres of the music\". \"Notorious B.I.G. also often used the single-line rhyme scheme to add variety and interest to his flow\". Big Daddy Kane suggests that Wallace didn't need a large vocabulary to impress listeners – \"he just put his words together a slick way and it worked real good for him\". Wallace was known to compose lyrics in his head, rather than write them down on paper, in a similar way to Jay-Z. Andrea Duncan (March 9, 2006). [http://xxlmag.com/online/?p=408 The Making of Ready to Die: Family Business] XXL. Retrieved March 18, 2008.\n\nWallace would occasionally vary from his usual style. On \"Playa Hater\" from his second album, he sang in a slow-falsetto. On his collaboration with Bone Thugs-n-Harmony, \"Notorious Thugs\", he modified his style to match the rapid rhyme flow of the group.\n\nThemes and lyrical content \n\nWallace's lyrical topics and themes included mafioso tales (\"Niggas Bleed\"), his drug dealing past (\"10 Crack Commandments\"), materialistic bragging (\"Hypnotize\"), as well as humor (\"Just Playing (Dreams)\"), and romance (\"Me & My Bitch\"). Rolling Stone named Wallace in 2004 as \"one of the few young male songwriters in any pop style writing credible love songs\".\n\nGuerilla Black, in the book How to Rap, describes how Wallace was able to both \"glorify the upper echelon\" and \"[make] you feel his struggle\". According to Touré of The New York Times in 1994, Wallace's lyrics \"[mixed] autobiographical details about crime and violence with emotional honesty\". Marriott of The New York Times (in 1997) believed his lyrics were not strictly autobiographical and wrote he \"had a knack for exaggeration that increased sales\". Wallace described his debut as \"a big pie, with each slice indicating a different point in my life involving bitches and niggaz... from the beginning to the end\". \n\nReady to Die is described by Rolling Stone as a contrast of \"bleak\" street visions and being \"full of high-spirited fun, bringing the pleasure principle back to hip-hop\". Allmusic write of \"a sense of doom\" in some of his songs and the NY Times note some being \"laced with paranoia\"; Wallace described himself as feeling \"broke and depressed\" when he made his debut. The final song on the album, \"Suicidal Thoughts\", featured Wallace contemplating suicide and concluded with him committing the act.\n\nOn Life After Death, Wallace's lyrics went \"deeper\". Krims explains how upbeat, dance-oriented tracks (which featured less heavily on his debut) alternate with \"reality rap\" songs on the record and suggests that he was \"going pimp\" through some of the lyrical topics of the former. XXL magazine wrote that Wallace \"revamped his image\" through the portrayal of himself between the albums, going from \"midlevel hustler\" on his debut to \"drug lord\". \n\nAllmusic wrote that the success of Ready to Die is \"mostly due to Wallace's skill as a storyteller\"; in 1994, Rolling Stone described Wallace's ability in this technique as painting \"a sonic picture so vibrant that you're transported right to the scene\". On Life After Death Wallace notably demonstrated this skill on \"I Got a Story to Tell\", creating a story as a rap for the first half of the song and then retelling the same story \"for his boys\" in conversation form.\n\nLegacy \n\nConsidered one of the best artists in hip hop music, Wallace was described by AllMusic as \"the savior of East Coast hip-hop\". The Source magazine named Wallace the greatest rapper of all time in its 150th issue in 2002. In 2003, when XXL magazine asked several hip hop artists to list their five favorite MCs, Wallace's name appeared on more rappers' lists than anyone else. In 2006, MTV ranked him at No. 3 on their list of The Greatest MCs of All Time, calling him possibly \"the most skillful ever on the mic\". Editors of About.com ranked him No. 4 on their list of the Top 50 MCs of Our Time (1987–2007). In 2012, The Source ranked him No. 3 on their list of the Top 50 Lyrical Leaders of all time. Rolling Stone has referred to him as the \"greatest rapper that ever lived\". In 2015, Billboard named Wallace as the greatest rapper of all time.\n\nSince his death, Wallace's lyrics have been sampled and quoted by a variety of hip hop, R&B and pop artists including Jay-Z, 50 Cent, Alicia Keys, Fat Joe, Nelly, Ja Rule, Eminem, Lil Wayne, Game, Clinton Sparks, Michael Jackson and Usher. On August 28, 2005, at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards, Sean Combs (then using the rap alias \"P. Diddy\") and Snoop Dogg paid tribute to Wallace: an orchestra played while the vocals from \"Juicy\" and \"Warning\" played on the arena speakers. In September 2005, VH1 held its second annual \"Hip Hop Honors\", with a tribute to Wallace headlining the show. \n\nWallace had begun to promote a clothing line called Brooklyn Mint, which was to produce plus-sized clothing but fell dormant after he died. In 2004, his managers, Mark Pitts and Wayne Barrow, launched the clothing line, with help from Jay-Z, selling T-shirts with images of Wallace on them. A portion of the proceeds go to the Christopher Wallace Foundation and to Jay-Z's Shawn Carter Scholarship Foundation. In 2005, Voletta Wallace hired branding and licensing agency Wicked Cow Entertainment to guide the estate's licensing efforts. Wallace-branded products on the market include action figures, blankets, and cell phone content. \n\nThe Christopher Wallace Memorial Foundation holds an annual black-tie dinner (\"B.I.G. Night Out\") to raise funds for children's school equipment and supplies and to honor the memory of the late rapper. For this particular event, because it is a children's schools' charity, \"B.I.G.\" is also said to stand for \"Books Instead of Guns\". \n\nThere is an oversize portrait mural of Wallace as Che Guevara on Fulton Street in Brooklyn a half mile west from the star's old block. A fan petitioned to have the corner of Fulton Street and St. James Place, near Wallace's childhood home renamed in his honor, garnering support from local businesses and attracting more than 560 signatures. The Notorious B.I.G.'s children C.J. and Ty'anna are set to star in an animated series called House of Wallace. \n\nBiopic \n\nNotorious is a 2009 biographical film about Wallace and his life that starred rapper Jamal Woolard as Wallace. The film was directed by George Tillman, Jr. and distributed by Fox Searchlight Pictures. Producers included Sean \"Diddy\" Combs, Wallace's former managers Wayne Barrow and Mark Pitts, as well as Voletta Wallace.[http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p\n12877 Director Selected for Biggie Biopic, Diddy to Executive Produce] XXL (August 13, 2007). Retrieved November 28, 2007. On January 16, 2009, the movie's debut at the Grand 18 theater in Greensboro, North Carolina was postponed after a man was shot in the parking lot before the show. The film grossed over $44,000,000 worldwide. \n\nIn early October 2007, open casting calls for the role of Wallace began. Actors, rappers and unknowns all tried out. Beanie Sigel auditioned for the role, but was not picked. Sean Kingston claimed that he would play the role of Wallace, but producers denied it. Eventually it was announced that rapper Jamal Woolard was chosen to play Wallace while Wallace's son, Christopher Wallace, Jr. was cast to play Wallace as a child. Other cast members include Angela Bassett as Voletta Wallace, Derek Luke as Sean Combs, Antonique Smith as Faith Evans, Naturi Naughton formerly of 3LW as Lil' Kim, and Anthony Mackie as Tupac Shakur. Bad Boy released a soundtrack album to the film on January 13, 2009; the album contains hit singles of B.I.G. such as \"Hypnotize\", \"Juicy\", and \"Warning\" as well as rarities. \n\nDiscography \n\n;Studio album\n* Ready to Die (1994)\n\n;Collaboration album\n* Conspiracy (with ) (1995)\n\n;Posthumous studio albums\n* Life After Death (1997)\n* Born Again (1999)\n\n;Compilation albums\n* Duets: The Final Chapter (2005)\n* Greatest Hits (2007)\n* Notorious (2009)\n\nAwards and nominations"
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"March 9, 1997: Notorious B.I.G. Killed Video - ABC News\nABC News\nEast Coast rapper Biggie Smalls is gunned down in a drive-by shooting in L.A.\n3:00 | 09/08/14\nComing up in the next {{countdown}} {{countdownlbl}}\nComing up next:\nMore information on this video\nEnhanced full screen\nTranscript for 3/9/97: Notorious B.I.G. Killed\nThis transcript has been automatically generated and may not be 100% accurate.\nNow Playing: 9/14/82: Grace Kelly Dies\nNow Playing: 9/13/93: PLO-Israeli Peace Agreement\nNow Playing: 9/15/01: Pres. Bush Declares War on Terror\nNow Playing: 9/15/83: Israeli PM Begin Resigns\nNow Playing: 9/17/01: Stock Market Reopens\nNow Playing: 4/29/1983: Chicago's First Black Mayor\nNow Playing: 4/28/1986: Chernobyl Disaster\nNow Playing: 4/4/68: MLK Assassinated\nNow Playing: 6/26/90: Bush Breaks 'No New Tax' Policy\nNow Playing: 4/24/1989: Central Park Jogger Attacked\nNow Playing: 4/24/1990: Hubble Telescope\nNow Playing: 4/26/1980: Hostages in Iran Moved\nNow Playing: 4/27/1994: First Interracial Elections in S. Africa\nNow Playing: 4/25/1990: Nicaraguan President Chamorro\nNow Playing: 4/30/2004: Abu Ghraib Prison Scandal\nNow Playing: 4/30/1992: Rodney King Case Verdict\nNow Playing: 4/30/1970: U.S. Invades So. Vietnam\nNow Playing: 4/13/70: Apollo 13 in Trouble\nNow Playing: 4/14/72: Nixon Visits Canada\nNow Playing: 4/14/88: Soviet Troops Leave Afghanistan\nNow Playing: {{itm.title}}\n{\"id\":13084580,\"title\":\"3/9/97: Notorious B.I.G. Killed\",\"duration\":\"3:00\",\"description\":\"East Coast rapper Biggie Smalls is gunned down in a drive-by shooting in L.A.\",\"url\":\"/Archives/video/march-1997-notorious-big-killed-13084580\",\"section\":\"Archives\",\"mediaType\":\"default\"}",
"The Life and Legacy of Christopher ‘Notorious B.I.G.’ Wallace | News One\nThe Life and Legacy of Christopher ‘Notorious B.I.G.’ Wallace\nLeave a comment\n15 reads\nChristopher “Notorious B.I.G.” Wallace (pictured) was gunned down on March 9, 1997, just two months shy of his 25th birthday. With fame and all the perks that came along with his stellar rapping ability, he was destined to achieve so much more. On Wednesday, Biggie Smalls, as he also known, would have been 42 years of age. NewsOne takes a look back at the life and legacy of the heavyweight Brooklyn rap legend.\nSEE ALSO: Haitian Revolution Leader Toussaint L’Ouverture Was Born On This Day In 1743\nHip-hop music was in a curious place, as many were still mourning the death of Wallace’s rival, Tupac “2Pac” Shakur , who was killed a mere six months prior on September 7, 1996, in Las Vegas via a drive-by shooting. Because of the tensions between East and West Coast rappers at the time, many fans thought 2Pac’s death was a fatal warning serving as a salvo for the escalating coastal war. Dying in a similar fashion, Biggie’s murder left a foreboding cloud over the industry as it suddenly became less about the music and more about the violence it inspired.\nBorn Christopher George Latore Wallace to Jamaican parents George Latore and Voletta Wallace, the future Bad Boy star was raised in the Bedford-Stuyvesant section of Brooklyn. According to his mother’s accounts, Wallace was a good student but succumbed to the trappings of the streets while in middle school. By the time he reached high school, his involvement in the drug trade increased and he was later jailed for his actions. Despite his life of crime, Wallace had a natural knack for rapping and made a demo tape using the alias Biggie Smalls.\nThe tape made its way to the hands of Mister Cee, a popular DJ who worked with another Brooklyn legend, rapper Big Daddy Kane. Mister Cee played the tape for editors at hip-hop magazine The Source who were so wowed that they featured Biggie in its “Unsigned Hype” column in a March 1992 issue and reportedly invited him to record more music. The demo caught the ears of Uptown Records producer and A&R Sean “Diddy” Combs who rushed to sign the hefty MC.\nWallace still sold drugs as he joined Combs’ newly minted label, Bad Boy Records, later in 1992. After an appearance on a remix of Mary J. Blige’s smash “Real Love” single as the Notorious B.I.G., Wallace became a household name.\nWatch Blige’s “Real Love” remix with B.I.G. here:\nCombs developed his protégé along slowly, having Wallace appear on tracks with reggae star Super Cat, LL Cool J, and more, but it was with his debut album, “Ready To Die,” in September of 1994 that Wallace cemented himself as a force.\nMarrying R&B singer Faith Evans a month prior, Wallace’s career arc was exceptional, considering West Coast hip-hop ruled heavily on the air waves and among consumers. Spawning huge hits in the singles “Juicy,” “Big Poppa,” and “One More Chance,” the LP went on to go platinum four times.\nBetween his debut and sophomore effort, Wallace helmed the creation of off-shoot music group Junior M.A.F.I.A., featuring childhood friends Lil’ Kim and Lil’ Cease. The crew had hits in the singles “Player’s Anthem” and “Get Money” — both staples of any old-school rap mix nationwide.\nSurprisingly enough, Shakur and Wallace were once allies and had even performed live shows with each other. Things took a turn, however, when Shakur accused Uptown Records boss Andre Harrell, Combs, and Wallace of setting him up for a robbery and shooting in a New York studio in 1994.\nWallace denied all claims, and just last year it was revealed the beleaguered businessman and music mogul James “Jimmy Henchman” Rosemond was responsible for ordering a hit on Shakur.\nThe feud between the pair never went away and Shakur released his infamous and scathing diss record “Hit ‘Em Up” in the summer of 1996, squarely aimed in Wallace’s direction. Shakur also claimed to have slept with Wallace’s wife on the record, but it went largely ignored by the target.\nAs aforementioned, Shakur was killed later that fall and the rumors began to swirl. Was Wallace responsible for Shakur’s slaying? Did the diss record cut that deep to warrant the shooting?\nWhile in California to promote his second album, Wallace was shot after attending the Soul Train Music Awards the evening prior, and as he was leaving an industry after-party in a SUV, Wallace was hit with four bullets by an African-American man who hopped out of a vehicle while Wallace’s entourage was stuck at a red light.\nThe murder remains unsolved, although it was initially rumored that Suge Knight, the owner of Death Row Records who counted 2Pac as a signee, ordered the shooting.\nThe “Life After Death” album was released posthumously on March 25, 1997. It was a double-disc album, marking the progression of Wallace’s style, and highlighted his amazing ability to adapt to the times. It has gone on to become one of hip-hop’s best-selling albums and was certified Diamond (10 million sold) in 2000.\nSurvived by his daughter Tynna, who is now 19 and in college at Penn State, she just released a clothing line. Tynna was featured in Wallace’s “Juicy” video when she was just a toddler and maintains her father’s legacy. Wallace’s son with Evans, also named Christopher, is a budding actor and rapper as well.\nThe tragic circumstances that led to the death of Wallace just as he was ready to become an even bigger star still boggle the mind. Yet, there is some comfort knowing that Wallace’s legacy remains untarnished despite one too many posthumous releases from Bad Boy’s vaults. Listeners worldwide have been robbed of witnessing what Wallace would have done next, and while he left us with plenty, it will never be enough.\nRest In Powerful Peace, Biggie. You Are The Illest.",
"E-monthly | Notorious | NETWORK. LEARN. BE DISCOVERED. InsideTheMusicBusiness.com\nLegal Corner | Music Videos | Release Reviews | Blogs | IMB Products/Services | Advertise/Contact Us | InsideTheMusicBusiness.com\nOn the night of March 9th 1997, Christopher Wallace aka The Notorious B.I.G. was gunned down in Los Angeles. To date his murder remains a mystery. His life was not. NOTORIOUS, the film and soundtrack is his story. Through determination and raw talent, Wallace transformed himself from a Brooklyn hustler to become one of the greatest rappers of all time; The Notorious B.I.G. As it was ingrained in his head �Mo� Money begets �Mo� Problems.� At the height of his short career, Wallace found himself (along with his mentor and Executive Producer) Sean �Diddy� Combs, in the middle of an �east coast-west coast� hip hop feud. This feud ultimately triggered a series of events over a six month period that brought down two of the legends of the game: First (Death Row recording artist) Tupac Shakur was shot on the Las Vegas strip (September 13, 1996), and then The Notorious B.I.G. was gunned down in Los Angeles six months later (March 9, 1997).\nThe NOTORIOUS soundtrack (Executive Produced by Diddy) mixes some of the B.I.G.G.E.S.T tracks of Wallace�s career including �One More Chance,� �Hypnotize�and �Warning� along with heart felt contributions from some of his friends in the game including Jay-Z with �Brooklyn (Go Hard)�, Jadakiss featuring (Biggie�s wife) Faith Evan�s with �Letter to B.I.G.,� and a tribute from his son CJ doing a �legacy remix of �One More Chance,� with Faith Evans. Christopher Wallace�s legacy now lives not only in song and in the hearts of millions of fans around the globe, but on film for future generations to experience the NOTORIOUS B.I.G.\n- Eric Kline",
"Featured Articles about Notorious B I G - Page 5 - latimes\nFEATURED ARTICLES ABOUT NOTORIOUS B I G - PAGE 5\nNEWS\nHe's making it Biggie again\nMarch 15, 2007 | Geoff Boucher, Times Staff Writer\nTHE Notorious B.I.G. was gunned down a decade ago this month in Los Angeles, but Biggie Smalls is living large again on the U.S. album charts as his \"Greatest Hits\" career survey takes over this week at No. 1, according to Nielsen SoundScan. The CD of music from the man born Christopher Wallace sold 99,000 copies to claim the top spot on the U.S. album chart and features familiar hits as well as two previously unreleased tracks: \"Want That Old Thing Back\" and \"Running Your Mouth.\"\nAdvertisement\nENTERTAINMENT\nA Memorable 'Life' on Its Own Merits : THE NOTORIOUS B.I.G.: \"Life After Death\" Bad Boy / Arista ****\nMarch 26, 1997 | CHEO HODARI COKER, TIMES STAFF WRITER\nThe cover of \"Life After Death,\" the posthumous double album from the Notorious B.I.G., is enough to send chills up the spine of even the most cynical hip-hop critic. The 24-year-old rapper, who was fatally shot March 9 in Los Angeles, is shown leaning on an old-fashioned hearse, not unlike the one that carried his body in a funeral procession through his old Brooklyn neighborhood.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nTaking a New Look at Killing of Rapper\nMarch 17, 2006 | Richard Winton and Patrick McGreevy, Times Staff Writers\nA new team of Los Angeles Police Department detectives is investigating the 1997 murder of rap artist Notorious B.I.G., a top city attorney told City Council members Thursday. In answer to questions about how a lawsuit alleging department involvement in the killing led to a costly court defeat, Assistant City Atty. Don Vincent told the council's public safety committee that a new group of Robbery-Homicide Division detectives had been assigned to the case.\nNATIONAL\nRapper's Family Offers Alibi in Shakur Slaying\nSeptember 11, 2002 | CHUCK PHILIPS, TIMES STAFF WRITER\nThe family of Notorious B.I.G. released documents and an audiotape Tuesday that they contend place the late rapper in a New York recording studio on the night that rival Tupac Shakur was gunned down in Las Vegas. The Los Angeles Times reported last week that Notorious B.I.G., whose real name was Christopher Wallace, met with members of a Compton gang in Las Vegas on the night Shakur was shot, provided the murder weapon and promised to pay the gang $1 million for the assassination.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nSuit Over Rapper's Death Altered\nOctober 29, 2004 | Chuck Philips, Times Staff Writer\nThe mother of late rap star Notorious B.I.G. has decided to dismiss from a wrongful-death lawsuit the man she accused of shooting her son, raising new questions about theories surrounding the entertainer's slaying seven years ago. In her suit, Voletta Wallace had named Southland resident Harry Billups, also known as Amir Muhammad, as the triggerman who ambushed her son on March 9, 1997, in the mid-Wilshire district.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nJudge Rules for Family of Slain Rapper and Sets New Trial Date\nJune 10, 2006 | Sam Quinones, Times Staff Writer\nIn the latest twist in the saga surrounding the slaying of rap star Notorious B.I.G., a federal judge Friday sided with his family in their wrongful-death lawsuit against the city of Los Angeles. U.S.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nRogue Officer Named in Trial\nJune 28, 2005 | David Rosenzweig, Times Staff Writer\nThen-Los Angeles Police Officer Rafael Perez was moonlighting as a security guard for Death Row Records at a music industry party that rapper Notorious B.I.G. attended just before his 1997 slaying, according to a jailhouse informant. The rapper's family is trying to show that the slaying was orchestrated by Perez's onetime partner, LAPD Officer David Mack, who subsequently was convicted of bank robbery and sentenced to 14 years in prison.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nTipster Says Rogue L.A. Officers Killed Rapper\nJune 25, 2005 | Andrew Blankstein, Times Staff Writer\nJurors hearing the Notorious B.I.G. wrongful death suit were sent home early after lawyers told the court Friday that they had received a dramatic eleventh-hour tip linking two rogue Los Angeles police officers to the rapper's 1997 slaying. A Louisiana man who said he had connections with the LAPD told lawyers for B.I.G.'\nENTERTAINMENT\nFaith in a comfort zone\nApril 6, 2005 | Baz Dreisinger, Special to The Times\nA decade ago, a resolute R&B singer from New Jersey released her debut album on a fledgling music label run by a producer whom she heard would be big. That same year, she met -- and, nine days later, married -- a portly rapper from Brooklyn whom she heard would be big. She heard correctly. The producer was Sean \"P. Diddy\" Combs; the rapper was Notorious B.I.G.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nNo Proof Against Knight in Slaying, Attorney Says\nAugust 10, 1999 | CHUCK PHILIPS and MATT LAIT, TIMES STAFF WRITERS\nAn attorney for rap music executive Marion \"Suge\" Knight said Los Angeles detectives have no evidence linking the imprisoned businessman to the slaying of rapper Notorious B.I.G. and accused investigators of falsely identifying his client as a key suspect in the 2-year-old murder case. \"This was nothing but a fishing expedition in which LAPD detectives intentionally disseminated false and misleading statements to the media,\" said attorney Robin J. Yanes.",
"March 1997 - The 30 Greatest Months in Rap History | Complex\nThe 30 Greatest Months in Rap History\n- Scarface's The Untouchable is released on 3/11/1997\n- The Notorious B.I.G.'s Life After Death is released on 3/25/1997\nIt was the best of times, it was the worst of times. Hip-hop's tale of two cities—New York and Los Angeles—came to a tragic conclusion in the early morning hours of March 9, 1997, when Christopher Wallace aka The Notorious B.I.G. was gunned down while sitting in an SUV shortly after leaving a Soul Train Awards after-party hosted by Vibe magazine at L.A.'s Petersen Automotive Museum. Biggie's murder at age 25 came just six months after his friend turned rival Tupac Shakur was killed in another car-to-car drive-by shooting. In the blink of an eye, hip-hop's two biggest, brightest lights were snuffed out. Biggie's funeral procession on March 19 caused unruly cathartic celebration in the streets of Brooklyn as throngs came out to pay their last respects to the assassinated King of New York. Less than a week later his double album Life After Death was unleashed on a still shell-shocked hip-hop nation.\nThe record Biggie hoped would cement his reputation as the best rapper alive sounded totally different knowing the virtuoso rapper heard on tracks like \"Kick In The Door\" and \"Going Back To Cali\" and \"Notorious Thugs\" wasn't alive anymore. Clouded by grief, it was painful to hear all those songs that referred to his \"so-called beef with you-know-who\"—\"What's Beef\" and \"Long Kiss Goodnight\" and \"You're Nobody Till Somebody Kills You\" for God's sake—not to mention the cover art featuring Biggie standing in front of a hearse. It was all too much. And at the same time, it was not nearly enough. Sixteen years later the album stands as one of the greatest in rap history.\nThat same month, Texas O.G. Scarface released The Untouchable, which hit stores just two days after Biggie's murder, and reached No. 1 on the R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. The lead single was called \"Smile\" and it opened with a posthumous verse from Tupac Shakur. \"It's gon' be some stuff you gon' see/That's gon' make it hard to smile in the future,\" 'Pac said at the top of the track. \"But through whatever you see/Through all the rain and the pain/You gotta keep your sense of humor/You gotta be able to smile through all this bullshit/Remember that-Mmm, yeah/Keep ya head up.\" And somehow we did. -Rob Kenner\nWatchNow",
"Notorious B.I.G facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Notorious B.I.G\nSources\nNotorious B.I.G. fully embodied the gangsta life he portrayed on his rap albums. A former crack dealer and convict, B.I.G. rapped his way to a better life only to lose that life to the street violence he could not leave behind. At age 24 he became the victim of a drive-by shooting—the second death connected to a purported deadly feud between rap music’s East Coast and West Coast factions which had claimed the life of rapper Tupac Shakur only months before. B.I.G.’s death cut short a career that promised to propel him into the upper echelons of the music business. His posthumous second album—ironically and prophetically titled Life After Death… ‘Til Death Do Us Part —confirmed that the heavyweight rapper had the potential to be big on the music charts.\nNotorious B.I.G., born Christopher Wallace, was the only child of Voletta Wallace, a preschool teacher who raised him alone in the tough Bedford-Stuyvesant section of Brooklyn . Although he was described as a shy, overweight youngster, Christopher Wallace soon took on the hardened mentality of the gang members around him and began dealing drugs under the street name Biggie Smalls. He never finished high school and, at age 17, was arrested on drug charges in North Carolina and spent nine months in jail. Even after finding success in the music industry, B.I.G. continued to run afoul of the law. In 1995, he was arrested in New York and charged with assault after he allegedly chased two people with a baseball bat and smashed the window of their cab. He was twice arrested in New Jersey —first for allegedly robbing and assaulting a man, then on drug and weapons charges. In the rap world, these incidents established his credibility as someone well-acquainted with the streets but B.I.G. understood the dangers of living out the life he rapped about. In 1994, after the release of his first album, he told the Chicago Tribune that he was “scared to death…. Scared of getting my brains blown out.” B.I.G. moved out of his Brooklyn neighborhood to a safer locale in New Jersey.\nB.I.G. shook the music world with his debut album, Ready to Die, an unflinching portrayal of the despair experienced daily in much of urban America. The album\nAt a Glance…\nBorn Christopher G. Wallace, in Brooklyn, New York; shot to death March 9, 1997, in Los Angeles , CA; son of Voletta Wallace; married Faith Evans (a singer); children: T’Yanna, Christopher, Jr, Known by the street name Biggie Smalls and the stage name Notorious B.I.G.\nCareer: Rapper, Albums: Ready to Die, 1994; Ufe After Death… ‘Til Death Do Us Part, 1997. Guest appearance on Martin, Fox-TV.\nAwards: Billboard Award, Rap Artist of the Year, 1995.\ndetailed drug sales, sex, violence, incarceration, and death, much of which was drawn from his own life. “I can’t say I’m proud of dealing drugs,” B.I.G. once said. “But you do what you can to survive in the ’hood. Live in the real bad part of the ’hood for a while and you’ll see how desperate it can make you,” he continued. B.I.G. drew on that desperation and his law-breaking past in his songs, in which he matter-of-factly “described himself as a former drug dealer and stickup man who had turned to rapping,” Jon Parales wrote in the New York Times “He recalled the mundane details of bagging, transporting and selling drugs; he boasted about sexual conquests and mourned a murdered girlfriend.” After transporting listeners through a brutal urban landscape, the album closes with the death of its rapping narrator who takes his own life. The Los Angeles Times said the album was “jolting and uncompromising” and called B.I.G. “one of (rap) music’s most talented and promising voices.” He was named Rap Artist of the Year at the Billboard Awards in 1995 and cited as Rap Singer of the Year for the song One More Chance.\nFriendship Turned to Deadly Rivalry\nB.I.G. was the protégé of Sean “Puffy” Combs, head of the New York City record company Bad Boy Entertainment. When B.I.G first appeared on the scene, he hung around with Tupac Shakur. The two rappers once shared a friendship, but it had evolved into a bitter rivalry. Shakur accused B.I.G. of copying his musical style and being involved in a 1994 incident in which Shakur was robbed and shot. B.I.G. made references to Shakur in his music and Shakur rapped back that he had had sex with B.I.G’s wife, rhythm and blues vocalist Faith Evans. The rivalry grew and expanded including Combs and Deathrow CEO Marion “Suge” Knight, rap groups Mobb Deep, The Dogg Pound, Junior M.A.F.I.A. and fans of the two rap artists. In September of 1996, Shakur was gunned down in a drive-by shooting in Las Vegas . The media immediately picked up on the rift between B.I.G. and Shakur as a possible motive for murder but the speculation regarding B.I.G.’s involvement in the slaying did not result in any arrests.\nA Targeted Hit\nB.I.G. was sitting in the passenger side of his GMC Suburban following a music industry party in Los Angeles shortly after midnight on March 9, 1997, listening to a tape of his second album which was to be released in two weeks. A dark-colored car—which police believe had been waiting for the rapper—pulled up beside the Suburban. Several shots from a nine-millimeter handgun were fired into B.I.G.’s upper body before the car raced away. Notorious B.I.G. was pronounced dead when his body arrived at Los Angeles’s Cedars-Sinai Medical Center. “The way it went down,” said a police official, “it was a targeted hit.” Police and music industry insiders quickly speculated that B.I.G.’s murder may have been a retaliation killing for the death of Shakur. But in spite of the very public nature of the murder, committed in front of dozens of witnesses that included several off-duty police officers who were acting as security guards, there were no arrests in the case and the investigation seemed permanently stalled. Family and friends of B.I.G. accused the police of dragging their feet because the death of a young black man does not take high priority. The death of Tupac Shakur has likewise been unsolved. “The deaths of Shakur and (B.I.G.) have forced official America to peer into the world of the leading rappers, who have made millions and surrounded themselves with armed heavies,” wrote a London Times contributor. In 1998, Vibe magazine reported that Orlando Anderson, who was a suspect in Shakur’s murder, was also questioned in B.I.G.’s murder. The car used in B.I.G.’s drive-by shooting had been found and belonged to Anderson’s cousin. Anderson had reportedly also been at the same industry party as B.I.G. Orlando Anderson was murdered in a shooting unrelated to both Shakur’s and B.I.G.’s murders.\nB.I.G. commented on the day before his death that he wanted “to see my kids get old,” a wish that was to go unfulfilled. B.I.G.’s funeral attracted rap’s elite and drew hordes of fans onto Brooklyn streets to honor the rap star buried in a white double-breasted suit in an extra-large mahogany casket. At the time of his death, B.I.G. was separated from his wife, singer Faith Evans. He and Evans had a son, also named Christopher, and B.I.G had a 4-year-old daughter, T’yanna, from a previous relationship. Two weeks before his death, according to the Los Angeles Times, B.I.G. was fatalistically quoted as saying: “There’s nothing that protects you from the inevitable. If it’s gonna happen, it’s gonna happen, no matter what you do. It doesn’t matter if you clean your life up and live it differently. What goes around comes around, man.”\nReady to Die, Bad Boy Entertainment, 1994.\nLife After Death… Til Death Do Us Part, Bad Boy Entertainment, 1997.\nAssociated Press, March 10, 1997.\nFacts on File, March 13, 1997, p. 170.\nLondon Times, March 11, 1997.\nLos Angeles Times, March 10, 1997, p. A1; March 11, 1997, p. B1; March 19, 1997, p. B1.\nNewsweek, March 24, 1997, p. 74.\nNew York Times, March 10, 1997, p. A8.\nPeople, March 24, 1997, p. 69; March 31, 1997, p.108.\nVibe, December/January 1997–1998; September 1998.\n—Dave Wilkins and Rebecca Parks\nCite this article\nPick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography.\nMLA\nSources\nEven in death, Notorious B.I.G. was bigger than life. His death at age 24—the second drive-by slaying of a gangsta rapper in a six—month span-intensified a purported deadly feud between rap music’s East Coast and West Coast factions. B.I.G.’s funeral—he was buried in a white double-breasted suit and an extra-large mahogany casket—attracted rap’s elite and drew hordes of fans onto Brooklyn streets. And his posthumous second album—ironically and prophetically titled Life After Death … Til Death Do Us Part— confirmed that the heavyweight rapper had the potential to be big, indeed, on the music charts.\nAt the same time, he was a hard man to pin down. A former crack dealer and convict, BI.G. rapped his way to a better life only to lose that life to the street violence he could not leave behind. A big man, he was variously described as standing between 6-feet and 6-feet-3-inches tall and weighing between 230 and 380 pounds. Born Christopher Wallace, he used the street name Biggie Smalls and the stage name Notorious B.I.G. The product of a brutal environment, he commented on the\nBorn Christopher G. Wallace, in Brooklyn, New York ; shot to death March 9, 1997, in Los Angeles , CA; son of Voletta Wallace; married Faith Evans (a singer); children: T’yanna, Christopher.\nWallace was known by the street name Biggie Smalls and the stage name Notorious B.I.G.\nArrived on the music scene in 1994 with the debut album Ready to Die, which sold more than 1 million copies. B.I.G.’s second album, titled Life After Death… ’Til Death Do Us Part, was released shortly after his death.\nAwards: Billboard Award, Rap Artist of the Year, 1995.\nday before his death that he wanted “to see my kids get old.” That wish, however, went unfulfilled. One some level, B.I.G., seemed to know that the odds were against him escaping his violent past. In 1994, after the release of his first album, he told the Chicago Tribune that he was “scared to death.… Scared of getting my brains blown out.”\nCoincidence or Premonition?\nB.I.G. shook the music world with that debut album, Ready to Die, an unflinching portrayal of the despair experienced daily in much of urban America—and it’s brutal outcomes. The album detailed drug sales, sex, violence, incarceration, and death. The Los Angeles Times said the album was “jolting and uncompromising” and called B.I.G. “one of (rap) music’s most talented and promising voices.” He was named Rap Artist of the Year at the Billboard Awards in 1995 and cited as Rap Singer of the Year for the song One More Chance. After transporting listeners through a brutal urban landscape, the album closes with the death of its rapping narrator—who takes his own life.\nNotorious B.I.G.’s music is perhaps equal parts fiction and autobiography. Before attaining fame, he was a small-time crack dealer in the tough Bedford-Stuyve-sant section of Brooklyn. He never finished high school and, at age 17, was arrested on drug charges in North Carolina and spent nine months in jail. In 1995, he was arrested in New York and charged with assault after he allegedly chased two people with a baseball bat and smashed the window of their cab. He was twice arrested in New Jersey—first for allegedly robbing and assaulting a man, then on drug and weapons charges. “I can’t say I’m proud of dealing drugs,” B.I.G. once said. “But you do what you can to survive in the ’hood. Live in the real bad part of the ’hood for a while and you’ll see how desperate it can make you.” B.I.G. drew on that desperation and his law-breaking past in his songs, in which he matter-of-factly “described himself as a former drug dealer and stickup man who had turned to rapping,” Jon Parales wrote in the New York Times. “He recalled the mundane details of bagging, transporting and selling drugs; he boasted about sexual conquests and mourned a murdered girlfriend.”\nA Targeted Hit\nB.I.G. was sitting in the passenger side of his GMC Suburban following a music industry party shortly after midnight on March 9, 1997. He was listening to a tape of his second album, which was to be released in two weeks. A dark-colored car—which police believe had been waiting for the rapper—pulled up beside the Suburban. Several shots from a nine-millimeter handgun were fired into B.I.G.’s upper body; he was shot in the head at least once. Then the car raced away. Notorious B.I.G. was pronounced dead on arrival at Los Angeles’s Cedars-Sinai Medical Center. “The way it went down,” said a police official, “it was a targeted hit.” Police and music industry insiders quickly speculated that B.I.G.’s killing may have resulted from a volatile, vicious rift in the rap music world—conjecture that was not proven.\nNotorious B.I.G. was produced by, and the protégé of, Sean “Puffy” Combs, head of the New York City record company Bad Boy Entertainment. Combs was the rival of producer Marion “Suge” Knight, owner of Death Row Records, a leading West Coast gangsta rap label. In September 1996, six months before B.I.G.’s death, rapper Tupac Shakur—a Death Row recording artist with a promising future in films—was gunned down in a similar drive-by shooting in Las Vegas . The two rappers once shared a friendship, but it had evolved into a bitter rivalry. Shakur accused B.I.G. of copying his musical style and being involved in a 1994 incident in which Shakur was robbed and shot repeatedly. B.I.G. taunted Shakur on the song called Who Shot Ya, and Shakur rapped back that he had had sex with B.I.G’s wife. “The deaths of Shakur and (B.I.G.) have forced official America to peer into the world of the leading rappers, who have made millions and surrounded themselves with armed heavies,” wrote a London Times contributor.\nB.I.G. was the son of Voletta Wallace, a Brooklyn preschool teacher who named him Christopher and raised him alone. Christopher Wallace, it’s been said, was a shy, overweight youngster who became a crack dealer—before morphing into Notorious B.I.G. and nearly leaving his harsh past behind by chronicling it on record. He did not make it, however. At the time of his death, B.I.G. was separated from his wife, singer Faith Evans. He and Evans had a son, also named Christopher, and B.I.G had a 4-year-old daughter, T’yanna, from a previous relationship. Two weeks before his death, according to the Los Angeles Times, B.I.G. was fatalistically quoted as saying: “There’s nothing that protects you from the inevitable. If it’s gonna happen, it’s gonna happen, no matter what you do. It doesn’t matter if you clean your life up and live it differently. What goes around comes around, man.”\nReady to Die, Bad Boy Entertainment, 1994.\nLife After Death… ’Til Death Do Us Part, Bad Boy Entertainment, 1997.\nAssociated Press, March 10, 1997.\nFacts on File, March 13, 1997.\nLondon Times, March 11, 1997.\nLos Angeles Times, March 10, 1997; March 11, 1997; March 19, 1997.\nNewsweek, March 24, 1997.\nNew York Times, March 10, 1997.\nPeople, March 24, 1997; March 31, 1997.\n—Dave Wilkins\nBorn: Christopher Wallace; Brooklyn , New York , 21 May 1972; died Los Angeles , California , 9 March 1997\nGenre: Hip-Hop\nBest-selling album since 1990: Life after Death (1997)\nHit songs since 1990: \"Juicy,\" \"Big Poppa,\" \"Hypnotize\"\nIn the early 1990s the New York–based rapper the Notorious B.I.G. exploded onto a hip-hop scene then dominated by \"G-Funk,\" the synthesizer-laden, funk-based style pioneered by the West Coast rapper and producer Dr. Dre. The Notorious B.I.G.'s gritty, unromanticized tales of urban crime injected a note of reality into GFunk's over-the-top and often facile celebration of the pleasures of \"gangsta\" life. B.I.G.'s charisma and skill as a storyteller created an instant critical and commercial sensation, re-establishing East Coast rap as a vital force in hip-hop and paving the way for New York–based rappers such as Nas and Jay-Z. The Notorious B.I.G.'s murder in 1997 cut short a career just reaching its prime.\nUp from the Streets\nBorn in the Bedford-Stuyvesant section of Brooklyn, New York, Christopher Wallace began rapping with local groups while still a teenager, taking the name Biggie Smalls in reference to his imposing height and girth. An able but indifferent student, he dropped out of high school at age seventeen, and his subsequent career as a crack dealer resulted in a nine-month stint in a North Carolina jail. A demo tape he made shortly after his release got him a brief write-up in the respected hip-hop magazine The Source. The article attracted the attention of Uptown Records producer Sean \"Puffy\" Combs, who immediately signed Biggie. When Combs left Uptown a short time later to form his own label, Bad Boy, he took Biggie with him. In 1993 the Notorious B.I.G., as he was now known, made his debut as a guest rapper on remixes of the Mary J. Blige singles \"Real Love\" and \"What's the 411?\" He soon followed these with his first solo track, \"Party and Bull****,\" which was heard on the soundtrack of the movie Who's the Man and generated much anticipation for his debut album.\nReleased in September 1994, Ready to Die stands as one of the landmark albums of 1990s hip-hop. Although New York was universally acknowledged as the cradle of hip-hop culture and music, by the early 1990s the hard-edged beats and socially conscious rhymes of East Coast rap had largely been supplanted in popularity by the lazy melodic grooves and gleefully amoral \"gangsta\" posturing of West Coast G-Funk. On Ready to Die the Notorious B.I.G. takes G-Funk-style crime narratives and infuses them with wit and emotional depth, delivering tightly constructed yet seemingly effortless rhymes over Combs's slick, pop-oriented production. On the album's first single, \"Juicy,\" the Notorious B.I.G. spins an autobiographical rags-to-riches tale over a sample of Mtume's huge R&B hit from 1983, \"Juicy Fruit,\" conveying the contrast between his old and new lives with skillful economy: \"We used to fuss when the landlord dissed us / No heat, wonder why Christmas missed us / Birthdays was the worst days / Now we sip champagne when we thirst-ay.\" A sample of another R&B hit from 1983, the Isley Brothers' \"Between the Sheets,\" anchors the album's second single, \"Big Poppa,\" an upbeat boast of sexual prowess that became the Notorious B.I.G.'s signature song. Ready to Die counterbalances its carefree celebrations of sex, crime, and material wealth with more sober-minded tracks. \"Warning\" depicts the paranoia that accompanies sudden wealth and fame, while \"Things Done Changed\" casts a melancholy, nostalgic eye on a deteriorating city neighborhood: \"Back in the days, our parents used to take care of us / Look at em now, they even f****** scared of us.\" The overall result is an album of considerable richness and complexity, unified by the Notorious B.I.G.'s consistently authoritative storytelling. Appropriately, Ready to Die had an immediate impact on hip-hop and popular music, selling 4 million copies and turning the Notorious B.I.G. into a star.\nIn late 1994 the Notorious B.I.G. married a Bad Boy label mate, the R&B singer Faith Evans. He spent the following year bolstering the success of Ready to Die with guest spots on tracks by artists such as Total, R. Kelly, and Michael Jackson. He also used his newfound clout to launch Junior M.A.F.I.A., a rap group consisting of some of his childhood friends. In 1996 the Junior M.A.F.I.A. member Lil' Kim launched a successful solo career under the tutelage of the Notorious B.I.G., with whom she began an affair.\nRivalry and Murder\nWith the Notorious B.I.G.'s success Bad Boy challenged Los Angeles–based Death Row Records as hip-hop's dominant label, sowing the seeds for an intense East Coast/West Coast rivalry. In November 1994 the Death Row artist—and former friend of the Notorious B.I.G.—Tupac Shakur was shot several times in the lobby of a Manhattan recording studio. Shakur accused the Notorious B.I.G. and Combs of masterminding the attack. Although the two denied this, Shakur held a grudge and in 1996 recorded \"Hit 'Em Up,\" a scathing, personal attack on the Notorious B.I.G., Bad Boy, and the entire East Coast scene. In September 1996 Shakur was murdered in an unsolved drive-by shooting in Las Vegas . Speculation linked the Notorious B.I.G. to Shakur's death. Six months later, on March 9, 1997, the Notorious B.I.G. was gunned down in Los Angeles. The two deaths rocked the hip-hop community, leading to an extensive, long-term soul-searching regarding the violence permeating rap music and the rap industry.\nIn death, the Notorious B.I.G., like Shakur, came to be regarded as a kind of hip-hop martyr. This image enhanced the immense respect he already enjoyed as an artist and increased the already-high anticipation of his second album, Life after Death, which was released three weeks after the Notorious B.I.G.'s murder. A sprawling double album of twenty-four tracks, Life after Death enlisted a wide array of producers and guest artists in a successful attempt to expand upon the pop-friendly yet gritty hip-hop style of Ready to Die. It was also a stunning commercial success. It debuted at number one on the charts, selling 700,000 copies in its first weeks and ultimately going eleven-times platinum. Its first two singles, \"Hypnotize\" and \"Mo Money Mo Problems,\" made the Notorious B.I.G. the first artist to have two posthumous number one hits. Moreover, Combs's and Evans's tribute to the Notorious B.I.G., \"I'll Be Missing You,\" became one of the most successful singles of 1997. Born Again (1999), a collection of previously unreleased tracks, was also a commercial success, debuting at number one and selling 2 million copies.\nThe Notorious B.I.G. brought a fresh and distinct voice to hip-hop in the 1990s, expanding the genre both as an art form and as a commercial powerhouse. While his success restored the relevance the East Coast hip-hop scene had lost during the rise of West Coast rap, it also helped engender a bitter and murderous rivalry between the two coasts that divided hip-hop.\nSELECTIVE DISCOGRAPHY:\nReady to Die (Bad Boy, 1994); Life after Death (Bad Boy, 1997); Born Again (Bad Boy, 1999).\nBIBLIOGRAPHY:\nC. Scott, The Murder of Biggie Smalls (New York, 2000); R. Sullivan, Labyrinth (New York, 2002).\nWEBSITES:",
"Articles about Notorious B I G - latimes\nNotorious B.I.G.'s kids to star in animated series 'House of Wallace'\nMarch 12, 2013 | By Gerrick D. Kennedy\nSixteen years after Notorious B.I.G.'s life and career were cut short in a drive-by shooting in Los Angeles, his children will pay homage to their iconic father with a new animated series. \"House of Wallace\" is anchored around the slain rapper's two children, 16-year-old C.J. Wallace -- who he had with his wife, R&B singer Faith Evans -- and 19-year-old T'yanna Wallace, as they fight to maintain his New York City recording studio and preserve his legacy, Ossian Media has announced.\nAdvertisement\nSketch Shows Suspect in Rap Star's Slaying\nMarch 28, 1997 | MATT LAIT, TIMES STAFF WRITER\nPolice on Thursday released a composite sketch of the gunman suspected of killing rap star Notorious B.I.G. in a drive-by shooting and disclosed that they believe he may have conspired with others before carrying out the attack. Los Angeles Police Lt. Ross Moen characterized the March 9 slaying as \"a targeted hit\" by a gunman described as an African American man in his early 20s, wearing a bow tie and driving a dark, late-model sedan at the time of the shooting.\nENTERTAINMENT\nAutopsy report reveals no new details in Notorious B.I.G. slaying\nDecember 8, 2012 | By Gerrick D. Kennedy\nMore than 15 years after Notorious B.I.G. was killed in a drive-by shooting in Los Angeles, one of music's most famous homicides remains unsolved, but police officials have released the slain rapper's autopsy report hoping to generate new leads. The Los Angeles Police Department unsealed the report, which had been on a security hold, on Friday, revealing the graphic details of how the Brooklyn-bred rapper, born Christopher Wallace, died in March 1997. But as The Times' L.A. Now blog reported in its coverage of the autopsy report's release, the LAPD has released no new information about the investigation, and it's still unclear whether the release was prompted by new leads on the unsolved slaying.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nPersonal Dispute Is Focus of Rap Probe\nMarch 18, 1997 | CHUCK PHILIPS and MATT LAIT, TIMES STAFF WRITERS\nThe investigation of Notorious B.I.G.'s slaying is focusing on the likelihood that the rapper was gunned down over a personal dispute with a Compton gang member, law enforcement sources say. Investigators have found no evidence that the March 9 slaying after a Los Angeles record industry party was linked to either a bicoastal feud in the rap community or Los Angeles street gang rivalries.\nNEWS\nGangsta Rap Performer Notorious B.I.G. Slain\nMarch 10, 1997 | ERIC LICHTBLAU and CHUCK PHILIPS and CHEO HODARI COKER, TIMES STAFF WRITERS\nRap music star Notorious B.I.G. was shot to death along Museum Row in Los Angeles' Mid-Wilshire district early Sunday as he left a music industry party, a brazen attack that marked the second drive-by murder of a gangsta rap celebrity in the last six months. B.I.G., born Christopher Wallace, was leaving the party at the Petersen Automotive Museum about 12:30 a.m.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nFBI Probes Rap Star's '97 Killing\nMarch 20, 2004 | Chuck Philips, Times Staff Writer\nSeven years after the killing of rap star Notorious B.I.G., the FBI is investigating allegations that a rogue Los Angeles police officer orchestrated the slaying with rap mogul Marion \"Suge\" Knight, according to court documents and law enforcement sources. The FBI is pursuing a 6-year-old theory that then-Officer David A.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nPolice Seize Car in Probe of Rapper's Slaying\nJune 13, 1997 | CHUCK PHILIPS, TIMES STAFF WRITER\nPolice have impounded a Chevy Impala from a house in Compton that matches the description of the car used in the slaying of rapper Notorious B.I.G. earlier this spring. Los Angeles police detectives refused to discuss the case, but sources said the two-door sedan is believed to belong to a Compton resident named Dwayne Keith \"Keefee D\" Davis and was confiscated from the backyard of his girlfriend's house during a May 29 gang raid unrelated to the murder probe.\nENTERTAINMENT\nEver True to His Name, Notorious B.I.G. Is Big\nApril 10, 1997\nThe Notorious B.I.G.'s posthumous \"Life After Death\" became the first album in more than two months to hold onto the nation's No. 1 sales spot for two weeks. The two-disc rap collection, which sold a staggering 690,000 copies in its first week in the stores, continued to dominate the retail picture last week by selling another 307,000 copies, according to SoundScan. That figure doubled the 147,000 copies sold by the week's runner-up: the Spice Girls' \"Spice.\" Translated into dollars, the B.I.G.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nOfficers May Have Guarded Notorious B.I.G.\nMarch 27, 1997 | CHUCK PHILIPS, TIMES STAFF WRITER\nThe Inglewood police chief said Wednesday that his department is investigating whether one of its officers was working as a bodyguard for Notorious B.I.G. on the evening he was killed in a drive-by shooting. Inglewood Police Chief Alex Perez said the 24-year-old rapper's record company may have hired at least one off-duty officer on March 9 to work security--in violation of department policy. \"A personnel investigation into the matter is underway,\" Perez said.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nLAPD unseals autopsy report of rapper Notorious B.I.G.\nDecember 7, 2012 | By Richard Winton, Los Angeles Times\nThe Los Angeles Police Department took the unusual step Friday of unsealing the 15-year-old autopsy report of rapper Notorious B.I.G., saying they hope to generate new leads in the murder mystery. The autopsy report had been kept private at the request of investigators. But on Friday, the Los Angeles County Coroner's office released the 23-page document, which provided details about the shooting. \"Investigators decided to release the autopsy to stimulate new interest in the case and hopefully produce new leads,\" said Lt. Andrew Neiman.\nNEWS\nFBI releases files on Notorious B.I.G. slaying\nApril 6, 2011 | Los Angeles Times Staff Writer\nThe FBI has released hundreds of pages of records from their investigation into the 1997 slaying of rapper Notorious B.I.G. The records, which contain FBI files spanning eight years, come from a civil rights probe the bureau launched into the killing. The records were posted on the FBI's website and are heavily redacted. The New York rapper, whose real name was Christopher Wallace, was gunned down outside the Petersen Automotive Museum in Los Angeles on March 9, 1997, as he was leaving a music industry party.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nJudge dismisses suit by Notorious B.I.G.’s family against Los Angeles\nApril 20, 2010 | By Victoria Kim, Los Angeles Times\nA federal judge has dismissed a wrongful-death suit filed eight years ago by the family of rapper Notorious B.I.G. against the city of Los Angeles charging that officials covered up police involvement in the rapper's slaying. The rapper Christopher Wallace, also known as Biggie Smalls, was gunned down outside the Petersen Automotive Museum on March 9, 1997, as he was leaving a music industry party. The criminal investigation surrounding Wallace's slaying remains open. The lawsuit was dismissed April 5 by U.S. District Judge Jacqueline H. Nguyen after lawyers on both sides of the case said they had reached an agreement allowing for the lawsuit to be filed at a later date.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nFlorence-Marie Cooper dies at 69; U.S. District judge\nJanuary 16, 2010 | By Carol J. Williams\nU.S. District Judge Florence-Marie Cooper, a former legal secretary who rose to the federal judiciary and held accountable some of the nation's most powerful officials and institutions, died early Friday after suffering a stroke. She was 69. Cooper's most notable rulings included the dismissal of espionage charges against Chinese-born spy suspect Katrina Leung and the sanctioning of Los Angeles city authorities in the wrongful death case of rapper Christopher Wallace, better known as Notorious B.I.G.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nRapper's family prepares for talks\nDecember 27, 2007 | Joel Rubin\nLawyers for relatives of slain rapper Notorious B.I.G. are preparing for mediation talks in their wrongful death lawsuit against the city and several police officers. The rapper, whose real name was Christopher Wallace, was killed in a drive-by shooting in the Mid-Wilshire district in 1997. No arrests were made in the case, and family members filed suit in 2002 alleging that former Los Angeles Police Department officers and others in the rap industry had plotted to kill him.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nNotorious B.I.G.'s family files lawsuit alleging conspiracy\nApril 18, 2007 | J. Michael Kennedy, Times Staff Writer\nThe family of slain rap star Notorious B.I.G. has filed a lawsuit alleging that Los Angeles police officers closely connected to the Rampart corruption scandal were involved in his 1997 killing. The suit, filed in Los Angeles County Superior Court on Monday, alleges that former Officers Raphael Perez and Nino Durden were involved in the shooting, which took place as Notorious B.I.G.\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nCrowds Mourn Rapper in N.Y.\nMarch 19, 1997 | JOHN J. GOLDMAN, TIMES STAFF WRITER\nResplendent in a double-breasted white suit and white hat, the body of rap music star Notorious B.I.G. was driven through the streets of his old Brooklyn neighborhood Tuesday as police struggled to hold back frenzied fans trying to follow his long funeral cortege. People danced atop parked cars as the hearse carrying his casket, followed by stretch limousines, passed a makeshift memorial of candles, flowers and teddy bears in front of B.I.G.'\nCALIFORNIA | LOCAL\nOfficers May Have Seen Rap Killing\nApril 23, 1997 | CHUCK PHILIPS, TIMES STAFF WRITER\nSeveral law enforcement officers may have witnessed the March 9 slaying of rap star Notorious B.I.G., according to law enforcement sources close to the investigation and associates of the rapper. The revelation comes at a time when the investigation is reportedly stymied by a lack of reliable witnesses. One off-duty Inglewood police officer, working security for the rap star's entourage, was in a car directly behind Notorious B.I.G.",
"Lil' Kim, Puff Daddy Guest On New \"Notorious\" B.I.G. Single - MTV\nmtv\narchive-David-Basham\n11/04/1999\nWith the new album from the late rapper Notorious B.I.G., \"Born Again,\" slated for release next month, Bad Boy Records has announced plans to issue \"Notorious,\" a track featuring backing vocals from both Puff Daddy and Lil' Kim, as the next single from the LP.\nAnother song, \"Dead Wrong,\" was sent to radio last month to preview the sound of \"Born Again,\" the second posthumous album from B.I.G., whose last record, \"Life After Death,\" was released less than a month after the rapper was killed in March 1997 (see [article id=\"1425838\"]\"Notorious B.I.G. Gunned Down In Los Angeles\"[/article]).\n\"Born Again\" was executive produced by the late rapper's good friend Sean \"Puffy\" Combs and features a virtual who's who of hip-hop and rap stars in various supporting roles, including Method Man, Redman, Snoop Dogg, Eminem, Nas, Busta Rhymes, Ice Cube, Missy Elliott, Lil' Cease, Too Short, Mobb Deep, Black Rob, and Beanie Siegel, among others.\nAside from those artists,\n\"Born Again\" also features a running monologue from the Notorious B.I.G.'s mother, Voletta Wallace, as well as a haunting appearance from another fallen rapper, Tupac Shakur.\n\"Notorious\" will be released on November 15, while the \"Born Again\" album arrives in stores on December 7.\n-- David Basham"
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"March 9, 1997: Notorious B.I.G. Killed Video - ABC News",
"The Life and Legacy of Christopher ‘Notorious B.I.G ...",
"E-monthly | Notorious - Inside the Music Business",
"Featured Articles about Notorious B I G - Page 5 - latimes",
"March 1997 - The 30 Greatest Months in Rap History | Complex",
"Notorious B.I.G Facts, information, pictures ...",
"Articles about Notorious B I G - latimes - Los Angeles Times",
"Lil’ Kim, Puff Daddy Guest On New “Notorious” B.I.G ..."
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What was the official occupation of Sir Anthony Blunt who was unmasked as a Soviet spy in 1979?
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"Anthony Frederick Blunt (26 September 1907 – 26 March 1983), known as Sir Anthony Blunt, KCVO, from 1956 to 1979, was a leading British art historian who in 1964, after being offered immunity from prosecution, confessed to having been a Soviet spy. He had been a member of the Cambridge Five, a group of spies working for the Soviet Union from some time in the 1930s to at least the early 1950s. A closely held secret for many years, his status was revealed publicly by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in November 1979, and he was stripped of his knighthood immediately thereafter.\n\nBlunt was Professor of the History of Art at the University of London, director of the Courtauld Institute of Art, and Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures. His monograph on the French Baroque painter Nicolas Poussin (1967) is still widely regarded as a watershed book in art history. His teaching text and reference work Art and Architecture in France 1500–1700, first published in 1953, reached its fifth edition in a slightly revised version by Richard Beresford in 1999, when it was still considered the best account of the subject. \n\nEarly life\n\nBlunt was born in Bournemouth, Dorset, the third and youngest son of a vicar, the Revd (Arthur) Stanley Vaughan Blunt (1870–1929), and his wife, Hilda Violet (1880–1969), daughter of Henry Master of the Madras civil service. He was the brother of writer Wilfrid Jasper Walter Blunt and of numismatist Christopher Evelyn Blunt, and the grandnephew of poet Wilfrid Scawen Blunt.\n\nHe was a third cousin of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, the late Queen Mother: his mother was the second cousin of Elizabeth's father Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. On occasions, Blunt and his two brothers, Christopher and Wilfrid, took afternoon tea at the Bowes-Lyon's London home in Bruton Street, Mayfair. \n\nBlunt's vicar father was assigned to Paris with the British embassy chapel, and so moved his family to the French capital for several years during Blunt's childhood. The young Anthony became fluent in French, and experienced intensely the artistic culture closely available to him, stimulating an interest which would last a lifetime and form the basis for his later career. \n\nHe was educated at Marlborough College, where he joined the college's secret 'Society of Amici', in which he was a contemporary of Louis MacNeice (whose unfinished autobiography The Strings are False contains numerous references to Blunt), John Betjeman and Graham Shepard. He was remembered by historian John Edward Bowle, a year ahead of Blunt at Marlborough, as an intellectual prig, too preoccupied with the realm of ideas. He thought Blunt had too much ink in his veins and belonged to a world of rather prissy, cold-blooded, academic puritanism.\n\nCambridge University\n\nHe won a scholarship in mathematics to Trinity College, Cambridge. At that time, scholars in Cambridge University were allowed to skip Part I of the Tripos and complete Part II in two years. However, they could not earn a degree in less than three years, and hence Blunt spent four years at Trinity and switched to Modern Languages, eventually graduating in 1930 with a first class degree. He taught French at Cambridge and became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1932. His graduate research was in French art history and he travelled frequently to continental Europe in connection with his studies.\n\nLike Guy Burgess, Blunt was known to be homosexual, which was a criminal activity at that time in Britain. Both were members of the Cambridge Apostles (also known as the Conversazione Society), a clandestine Cambridge discussion group of 12 undergraduates, mostly from Trinity and King's Colleges who considered themselves to be the brightest minds in the university. Many were homosexual and Marxist at that time. Amongst other members, also later accused of being part of the Cambridge spy ring, were the American Michael Whitney Straight and Victor Rothschild who later worked for MI5. Rothschild gave Blunt £100 to purchase Eliezar and Rebecca by Nicolas Poussin. The painting was sold by Blunt's executors in 1985 for £100,000 (totalling £192,500 with tax remission ) and is now in the Fitzwilliam Museum.[http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/opac/search/cataloguedetail.html?&priref\n2874&_function_xslt&_limit_\n10 Fitzwilliam Museum – OPAC Record]\n\nRecruitment to Soviet espionage\n\nThere are numerous versions of how Blunt was recruited to the NKVD. As a Cambridge don, Blunt visited the Soviet Union in 1933, and was possibly recruited in 1934. In a press conference, Blunt claimed that Guy Burgess recruited him as a spy. Many sources suggest that Blunt remained at Cambridge and served as a talent-spotter. He may have identified Burgess, Kim Philby, Donald Maclean, John Cairncross and Michael Straight – all undergraduates at Trinity College a few years younger than he – as potential spies for the Soviets. Blunt said in his public confession that it was Burgess who converted him to the Soviet cause, after both had left Cambridge. Both were members of the Cambridge Apostles, and Burgess could have recruited Blunt or vice versa either at Cambridge University or later when both worked for British intelligence.\n\nJoining MI5\n\nWith the invasion of Poland by German and Soviet forces, Blunt joined the British Army in 1939. During the phoney war he served in France in the intelligence corps. When the Wehrmacht drove British forces back to Dunkirk in May 1940, he was evacuated by the Royal Navy. During that same year he was recruited to MI5, the Security Service. Before the war MI5 employed mostly former Indian policemen, for it was in India that the British Empire faced security threats. MI5 may have known Blunt's views, for an officer later claimed that it had been virtually running the Communist Party of Great Britain and complained about the cost of pension payments to its retired infiltrators. \n\nBlunt passed the results of Ultra intelligence from decrypted Enigma intercepts of Wehrmacht radio traffic from the Russian front. He also admitted to passing details of German spy rings, operating in the Soviet Union.\nUltra was primarily working on the Kriegsmarine naval codes, which eventually helped win the Battle of the Atlantic, but as the war progressed Wehrmacht army codes were also broken. Sensitive receivers could pick up transmissions, relating to German war plans, from Berlin. There was great risk that, if the Germans discovered their codes had been compromised, they would change the settings of the Enigma wheels, blinding the codebreakers.\n\nFull details of the entire Operation Ultra were fully known by only four people, only one of whom routinely worked at Bletchley Park. Dissemination of Ultra information did not follow usual intelligence protocol but maintained its own communications channels. Military intelligence officers gave intercepts to Ultra liaisons, who in turn forwarded the intercepts to Bletchley Park. Information from decoded messages was then passed back to military leaders through the same channels. Thus, each link in the communications chain knew only one particular job and not the overall Ultra details. Nobody outside Bletchley Park knew the source. \n\nJohn Cairncross, another of the Cambridge Five, was posted from MI6 to work at Bletchley Park. Blunt admitted to recruiting Cairncross and may well have been the cut-out between Cairncross and the Soviet controllers. For although the Soviet Union was now an ally, Russians were not trusted. Some information concerned German preparations and detailed plans for the Battle of Kursk, the last decisive encounter on the Eastern Front. Malcolm Muggeridge, himself a wartime British agent, recalls meeting Kim Philby and Victor Rothschild, a friend of Blunt since Trinity College, Cambridge. He reported that at the Paris meeting in late 1955 Rothschild argued that much more Ultra material should have been given to Stalin. For once, Philby reportedly dropped his reserve, and agreed. \n\nDuring the war, Blunt attained the rank of major. In the final days of World War II in Europe, Blunt made a successful secret trip to Schloss Friedrichshof in Germany to retrieve sensitive letters between the Duke of Windsor and Adolf Hitler and other leading Nazis. George VI asked Blunt, who worked part-time at the Royal Library, to conduct the Royal Librarian, Owen Morshead, to Friedrichshof in March 1945 to liberate letters to the Empress Victoria, a daughter of Queen Victoria, and mother to Kaiser Wilhelm. Papers rescued by Morshead and Blunt were deposited in the Royal Archives. \n\nSuspicion and secret confession\n\nSome people knew of Blunt's role long before his public exposure. In 1948, demobilised army officer Philip Hay attended an interview at Buckingham Palace for the post of private secretary to the Dowager Duchess of Kent. After passing Blunt in a corridor, Sir Alan Lascelles, the King's private secretary, told Hay: \"That's our Russian spy.\"\n\nAccording to MI5 papers released in 2002, Moura Budberg, known as the Russian Mata Hari and suspected of being a double agent, reported in 1950 that Blunt was a member of the Communist Party, but this was ignored. According to Blunt himself, he never joined because Burgess persuaded him that he would be more valuable to the anti-fascist crusade by working with Burgess. He was certainly on friendly terms with Sir Dick White, the head of MI5 and later MI6, in the 1960s, and they used to spend Christmas together with Victor Rothschild in Rothschild's Cambridge house. \n\nHis NKVD control had also become suspicious at the sheer amount of material he was passing over and suspected him of being a triple agent. Later, he was described by a KGB officer as an \"ideological shit\".\n\nWith the defection of Burgess and Maclean to Moscow in May 1951, Blunt came under suspicion. He and Burgess had been friends since Cambridge. Maclean was in imminent danger due to decryptions from Venona as the messages were decrypted. Burgess returned on the Queen Mary to Southampton after being suspended from the British Embassy in Washington for his conduct. He was to warn Maclean, who now worked in the Foreign Office but was under surveillance and isolated from secret material. Blunt collected Burgess at Southampton Docks and took him to stay at his flat in London, although he later denied that he had warned the defecting pair. Blunt was interrogated by MI5 in 1952, but gave away little, if anything. Arthur Martin and Jim Skardon had interviewed Blunt 11 times since 1951, but Blunt had admitted nothing.\n\nBlunt was greatly distressed by Burgess's flight and, on 28 May 1951, confided in his friend Goronwy Rees, a fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, who had briefly supplied the NKVD with political information in 1938–39. Rees suggested that Burgess had gone to the Soviet Union because of his violent anti-Americanism and belief that America would involve Britain in a Third World War, and that he was a Soviet agent. Blunt suggested that this was not sufficient reason to denounce Burgess to MI5. He pointed out that \"Burgess was one of our oldest friends and to denounce him would not be the act of a friend.\" Blunt quoted E. M. Forster's belief that country was less important than friendship. He argued that \"Burgess had told me he was a spy in 1936 and I had not told anyone.\" Blunt was made a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1956 by Queen Elizabeth II.\n\nIn 1963, MI5 learned of Blunt's espionage from an American, Michael Straight, whom he had recruited. Blunt confessed to MI5 on 23 April 1964, and Queen Elizabeth II was informed shortly thereafter. He also gave up John Cairncross, Peter Ashby, Brian Symon and Leonard Henry (Leo) Long as spies. Long had also been a member of the Communist Party and an undergraduate at Trinity College, Cambridge. During the war he served in MI14 military intelligence in the War Office, with responsibility for assessing German offensive plans. He passed analyses but not original material relating to the Eastern Front to Blunt. \n\nIn return for Blunt's full confession, the British government agreed to keep his spying career an official secret for fifteen years, and granted him full immunity from prosecution. According to the memoir of MI5 officer Peter Wright, Wright had regular interviews with Blunt from 1964 onwards for six years. Prior to that, he had a briefing with Michael Adeane, the Queen's private secretary, who told Wright: \"From time to time you may find Blunt referring to an assignment he undertook on behalf of the Palace – a visit to Germany at the end of the war. Please do not pursue this matter. Strictly speaking, it is not relevant to considerations of national security.\" \n\nBlunt's life was little affected. In 1966, two years after his secret confession, Noel Annan, provost of King's College, Cambridge, held a dinner party for Labour Home Secretary Roy Jenkins, Ann Fleming, widow of James Bond author Ian Fleming, and Victor Rothschild and his wife Tess. The Rothschilds brought their friend and lodger – Blunt. All had had wartime connections with British Intelligence, Jenkins at Bletchley Park. \n\nPublic exposure\n\nBlunt's role was represented under the name Maurice in Andrew Boyle's book Climate of Treason in 1979. Maurice was taken from the E. M. Forster novel of that name. Blunt tried to prevent the book's publication, which was reported in the magazine Private Eye. This drew attention to Blunt. In the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher revealed Blunt's wartime role, firstly on Thursday 15 November 1979, and in more detail on 21 November. Sir Bernard Ingham, Thatcher's press secretary, suggested, \"I believe she did it because she didn't see why the system should cover things up. This was early in her prime ministership. I think she wanted to tell the civil service that the politicians decide policy, not the system. She wanted them to know who was boss.\"\n\nFor weeks after Thatcher’s announcement, Blunt was hunted by the press. Once found, he was besieged by photographers. Blunt had recently given a lecture at the invitation of Francis Haskell, Oxford University's professor of art history. Haskell had a Russian mother and wife and had graduated from King’s College, Cambridge. To the press this made him an obvious suspect. They repeatedly telephoned his home in the early hours of the morning, using the names of his friends and claiming to have an urgent message for \"Anthony\". \n\nAlthough Blunt was outwardly calm, the sudden exposure shocked him. His former pupil, art critic Brian Sewell, said at the time, \"He was so businesslike about it; he considered the implications for his knighthood and academic honours and what should be resigned and what retained. What he didn't want was a great debate at his clubs, the Athenaeum and the Travellers. He was incredibly calm about it all.\" Sewell was involved in protecting Blunt from the extensive media attention after his exposure, and his friend was spirited away to a flat within a house in Chiswick. \n\nQueen Elizabeth II stripped Blunt of his knighthood, and he was removed as an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College. After his BBC Television confession at the age of 72, he broke down in tears. \n\nBlunt died of a heart attack at his London home in 1983, aged 75.\n\nMemoirs\n\nBlunt withdrew from society and seldom went out after his exposure. His friend Tess Rothschild suggested that he occupy his time writing his memoirs. Brian Sewell, his former pupil, said they remained unfinished because he had to consult the newspaper library in Colindale, North London, to check facts. He was unhappy at being recognised.\n\n\"I do know he was really worried about upsetting his family,\" said Sewell. \"I think he was being absolutely straight with me when he said that if he could not verify the facts there was no point in going on.\" Blunt stopped writing in 1983, leaving his memoirs to his partner, John Gaskin, who kept them for a year and then gave them to Blunt's executor, John Golding, a fellow art historian.\n\nGolding passed them on to the British Library, insisting that they not be released for 25 years. It was finally made available to readers on 23 July 2009. Golding explains: \"I did so because, although most of the figures mentioned were dead, their families might not like it. It covers his Cambridge days and there are a number of names. They weren't all spies, but communism was common amongst intellectuals in the Thirties.\"\n\nIn the typed manuscript, Blunt conceded that spying for the Soviet Union was the biggest mistake of his life.\n\"What I did not realise is that I was so naïve politically that I was not justified in committing myself to any political action of this kind. The atmosphere in Cambridge was so intense, the enthusiasm for any anti-fascist activity was so great, that I made the biggest mistake of my life.\"\n\nThe memoir revealed little that was not already known about Blunt. When asked whether there would be any new or unexpected names, John Golding replied: \"I'm not sure. It's 25 years since I read it, and my memory is not that good.\"\nAlthough ordered by the KGB to defect with Maclean and Burgess to protect Philby, in 1951 Blunt realised \"quite clearly that I would take any risk in [Britain], rather than go to Russia.\" After he was publicly exposed, he claims to have considered suicide but instead turned to \"whisky and concentrated work\".\n\nCareer as an art historian\n\nThroughout the time of his activities in espionage, Blunt's public career was in the History of Art, a field in which he gained prominence. In 1940, most of his fellowship dissertation was published under the title of Artistic Theories in Italy, 1450–1600. In 1945, he was given the esteemed position of Surveyor of the King's Pictures, and later the Queen’s Pictures (after the death of King George VI in 1952), one of the largest private collections in the world. He held the position for 27 years, was knighted as a KCVO in 1956 for his work in the role, and his contribution was vital in the expansion and cataloguing of the Queen’s Gallery, which opened in 1962.\n\nIn 1947, Blunt became both Professor of the History of Art at the University of London, and the director of the Courtauld Institute of Art, University of London, where he had been lecturing since the spring of 1933, and where his tenure in office as director lasted until 1974. This position included the use of a live-in apartment on the premises. During his 27 years at the Courtauld Institute, Blunt was respected as a dedicated teacher, a kind superior to his staff. His legacy at the Courtauld was to have left it with a larger staff, increased funding, and more space, and his role was central in the acquisition of outstanding collections for the Courtauld's Galleries. He is often credited for making the Courtauld what it is today, as well as for pioneering art history in Britain, and for training the next generation of British art historians.\n\nIn 1953, Blunt published his book Art and Architecture in France, 1500–1700, and he was in particular an expert on the works of Nicolas Poussin, writing numerous books and articles about the painter, and serving as curator for a landmark exhibition of Poussin at the Louvre in 1960, which was an enormous success. He also wrote on topics as diverse as William Blake, Pablo Picasso, the Galleries of England, Scotland, and Wales. He also catalogued the French drawings (1945), G. B. Castiglione and Stefano della Bella drawings (1954) Roman drawings (with H. L. Cooke, 1960) and Venetian (with Edward Croft-Murray, 1957) drawings in the collection of the Queen, as well as a supplement of Addenda and Corrigenda to the Italian catalogues (in E. Schilling's German Drawings).\n\nBlunt attended a summer school in Sicily in 1965, leading to a deep interest in Sicilian architecture, and in 1968 he wrote the only authoritative and in-depth book on Sicilian Baroque. From 1962 he was engaged in a dispute with Denis Mahon regarding the authenticity of a Poussin work which rumbled on for several years. Mahon was shown to be correct. Blunt was also unaware that a painting in his own possession was also by Poussin. It has been suggested that Blunt could not accept that Poussin may have produced inferior work.\n\nNotable students who have been influenced by Blunt include Aaron Scharf, photography historian and author of 'Art and Photography' (whom Blunt assisted, along with Scharf's wife, in escaping McCarthy condemnation for their support of communism), Brian Sewell (an art critic for the Evening Standard), Ron Bloore, Sir Oliver Millar (his successor at the Royal Collection and an expert on Van Dyck), Nicholas Serota, Neil Macgregor, the former editor of the Burlington magazine, former director of the National Gallery and the current director of the British Museum who paid tribute to Blunt as \"a great and generous teacher\", John White (art historian), Sir Alan Bowness (who ran the Tate Gallery), John Golding (who wrote the first major book on Cubism), Reyner Banham (an influential architectural historian), John Shearman (the \"world expert\" on Mannerism and the former Chair of the Art History Department at Harvard University), Melvin Day (former Director of National Art Gallery of New Zealand and Government Art Historian for New Zealand ), Christopher Newall (an expert on the Pre-Raphaelites), Michael Jaffé (an expert on Rubens), Michael Mahoney (former Curator of European Paintings at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., and former Chair of the Art History Department at Trinity College, Hartford), Lee Johnson (an expert on Eugène Delacroix), and Anita Brookner (an art historian and novelist).\n\nAmong his many accomplishments, Blunt also received a series of honorary fellowships, became the National Trust picture adviser, put on exhibitions at the Royal Academy, edited and wrote numerous books and articles, and sat on every influential art committee.\n\nAfter Margaret Thatcher had exposed Blunt's espionage, he continued his art historical work by writing and publishing a Guide to Baroque Rome (1982). He intended to write a monograph about the architecture of Pietro da Cortona but he died before realising the project. His manuscripts were sent to the intended co-author of this work, German art historian Jörg Martin Merz by the executors of his will. Merz published a book, Pietro da Cortona and Roman Baroque Architecture in 2008 incorporating a draft by the late Anthony Blunt.\n\nMany of his publications are still seen today by scholars as integral to the study of art history. His writing is lucid, and is based largely on art and architecture in the context of their place in history. In his book Art and Architecture in France, for example, he begins each section with a brief depiction of the social, political and/or religious contexts in which works of art and art movements are emerging. In Blunt’s Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450–1600, he explains the motivational circumstances involved in the transitions between the High Renaissance and Mannerism.\n\nWorks\n\nA festschrift, Studies in Renaissance and Baroque Art presented to Anthony Blunt on his 60th Birthday, Phaidon 1967 (introduction by Ellis Waterhouse), contains a full list of his writings up to 1966.\n\nMajor works include:\n*Anthony Blunt, François Mansart and the Origins of French Classical Architecture, 1941.\n*Blunt, Art and Architecture in France, 1500–1700, 1953 and many subsequent editions.\n*Blunt, Philibert de l'Orme, A. Zwemmer, 1958.\n*Blunt, Nicolas Poussin. A Critical Catalogue, Phaidon 1966\n*Blunt, Nicolas Poussin, Phaidon 1967 (new edition Pallas Athene publishing, London, 1995).\n*Blunt, Sicilian Baroque, 1968 (ed. it. Milano 1968; Milano 1986).\n*Blunt, Picasso's Guernica, Oxford University Press, 1969.\n*Blunt, Neapolitan Baroque and Rococo Architecture, London 1975 (ed. it. Milano 2006).\n*Blunt, Baroque and Rococo Architecture and Decoration, 1978.\n*Blunt, Borromini, 1979 (ed. it. Roma-Bari 1983).\n*Blunt, L'occhio e la storia. Scritti di critica d'arte (1936–38), a cura di Antonello Negri, Udine 1999.\n\nImportant articles after 1966:\n*Anthony Blunt, 'French Painting, Sculpture and Architecture since 1500,' in France: A Companion to French Studies, ed. D.G. Charlton (New York, Toronto and London: Pitman, 1972), 439–92.\n*Anthony Blunt, 'Rubens and architecture,' Burlington Magazine, 1977, 894, pp. 609–621.\n*Anthony Blunt, 'Roman Baroque Architecture: the Other Side of the Medal,' Art history, no. 1, 1980, pp. 61–80 (includes bibliographical references).\n\nDepictions in popular culture\n\nA Question of Attribution is a play written by Alan Bennett about Blunt, covering the weeks before his public exposure as a spy, and his relationship with Queen Elizabeth II. After a successful run in London's West End, it was made into a television play directed by John Schlesinger and starring James Fox, Prunella Scales and Geoffrey Palmer. It was aired on the BBC in 1991. This play was seen as a companion to Bennett's 1983 television play about Guy Burgess, An Englishman Abroad.\n\nBlunt: The Fourth Man is a 1985 film starring Ian Richardson, Anthony Hopkins, Michael Williams, and Rosie Kerslake, covering the events of 1951 when Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean went missing.\n\nThe Untouchable, a 1997 novel by John Banville, is a roman à clef based largely on the life and character of Anthony Blunt; the novel's protagonist, Victor Maskell, is a loosely disguised Blunt, although some elements of the character are based on Louis MacNeice. \n\n\"I.M. Anthony Blunt\" is a poem by Gavin Ewart, cleverly attempting a humane corrective to the hysteria over Blunt's fall from grace. Published in [http://www.amazon.com/Selected-Poems-1933-1993-Gavin-Ewart/dp/0571241956 Gavin Ewart, Selected Poems 1933-1993], Hutchenson, 1996 (reprinted Faber and Faber, 2011).\n\nA Friendship of Convenience: Being a Discourse on Poussin's \"Landscape With a Man Killed by a Snake\", is a 1997 novel by Rufus Gunn set in 1956 in which Blunt, then Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, encounters Joseph Losey, the famous film director fleeing McCarthyism. \n\nSamuel West portrayed Blunt in Cambridge Spies, a 2003 four-part BBC television drama concerning the lives of the Cambridge Four from 1934 to the defection of Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean to the Soviet Union."
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"Anthony Blunt | Bletchley Park\nBletchley Park\nAnthony Blunt\nOctober 5, 2009 by bletchleyadmin\nAnthony Frederick Blunt (26 September 1907, Bournemouth, Hampshire – 26 March 1983, Westminster, London), known as Sir Anthony Blunt, KCVO between 1956 and 1979, was a British spy, art historian, Professor of the History of Art at the University of London, director of the Courtauld Institute of Art, London (1947-74), and Surveyor of the King’s Pictures (1945-72).\nBlunt was an acclaimed art critic and the “Fourth Man” of the Cambridge Five, a group of traitors and spies working for the Soviet Union from some time in the 1930s to at least the early 1950s.\nBlunt was born in Bournemouth, the third and youngest son of a vicar, the Revd (Arthur) Stanley Vaughan Blunt (1870–1929) and his wife, Hilda Violet (1880–1969), daughter of Henry Master of the Madras civil service. He was the brother of writer Wilfrid Jasper Walter Blunt and of numismatist Christopher Evelyn Blunt, and the grandnephew of Wilfrid Scawen Blunt.\nBlunt is frequently spoken of as a distant relative of Queen Mary (Mary of Teck) – generally Prince Michael of Hesse is given as their common cousin – however, the exact lineage is never produced. He was, however, demonstrably a cousin of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, the late Queen Mother, through his mother, Hilda V. Master, daughter of John Henry Master, son of Frances Mary Smith, sister of Oswald Smith, father of Frances Dora Smith, mother of Claude George Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne, father of Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon, making Blunt and the Queen Mother third cousins, by common descent from George Smith and his wife Frances Mary Mosley.\nHe was educated at Marlborough College, where he joined the College’s secret ‘Society of Amici’, in which he was a contemporary of Louis MacNeice (whose unfinished autobiography The Strings are False contains numerous references to Blunt), John Betjeman and Graham Shepard. He later read mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge, and earned his first degree in that subject. But he switched to Modern Languages, eventually graduating in 1930, to become a teacher of French. He became a Fellow of the college in 1932, and was a member of the Cambridge Apostles, a secret society which at that time was largely Marxist, formed from members (students, alumni, and professors) of Cambridge University.\nAfter visiting the Soviet Union in 1933, Blunt was recruited in 1934 by the NKVD. A committed Communist, Blunt was recruited by his student Guy Burgess at Cambridge although there is reason to believe that Blunt, the older, was control. He joined the British Army in 1939 and in 1940 was recruited to MI5, the military intelligence department. He passed on ULTRA intelligence from decrypted Enigma intercepts to the Soviet Union. He reached the rank of major.\nAs World War II was ending, Blunt successfully undertook a special mission to the defeated Germany on behalf of the British Royal Family, to recover incriminating letters written by the Duke of Windsor to Adolf Hitler. The mission may have also recovered the so-called ‘Vicky Letters’, between Queen Victoria and some of her German relatives.\nFollowing the defection in May 1951 of fellow spies Guy Burgess and Donald Duart Maclean to the Soviet Union, Blunt came under suspicion as well. He had been a close, longtime friend of Burgess, from their time at Cambridge. Maclean was in imminent danger of being unmasked as a spy by decryptions from VENONA. Blunt was interrogated by MI5 in 1952, but gave little, if anything, away. Blunt was knighted in 1956 by the British Government for his work for MI5.\nIn January 1964, Arthur Martin from MI5 interviewed Michael Straight (later owner and editor of The New Republic and chairman of the National Endowment for the Arts), an American who had studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, and who had become friends there with Blunt, Kim Philby, Donald Maclean and Guy Burgess. Straight claimed that Blunt had tried to recruit him to become a Soviet spy. Arthur Martin and Jim Skardon had interviewed Blunt 11 times since 1951 but Blunt admitted nothing. Martin, now equipped with Straight’s story, went to see Blunt again and this time Blunt made a confession. Queen Elizabeth II was informed shortly thereafter. He admitted to being a Soviet agent and named John Cairncross, Peter Ashby, Brian Symon and Leo Long as spies he had recruited. In return for Blunt’s full confession, the British government agreed to keep his spying career an official secret for 15 years, plus immunity from prosecution. Martin himself was disappointed when it was discovered that MI5 Director-General Roger Hollis and Attorney General Sir John Hobson decided not to put Blunt on trial. He again argued that there was still a Soviet spy working at the centre of MI5, but Hollis thought Martin’s suggestion was highly damaging to the organization, and ordered Martin to be suspended from duty. In Peter Wright’s best-selling 1987 book Spycatcher, Wright argues that Hollis was the best fit for the possible Soviet spy in MI5.\nBlunt’s role as a Soviet agent was exposed – albeit under a false name – in Andrew Boyle’s book, Climate of Treason in 1979 and he was publicly named by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the same year. Queen Elizabeth II stripped Blunt of his knighthood, and he was removed as an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College. Blunt is supposed to have fled the country after the public revelation and lived somewhere in southern Europe. However, he returned to London, but may not have fully realized the strength of feeling that had been whipped up against him until one day in February 1980, when he tried to see a film in Notting Hill, he was booed out of the cinema. That same month, his partner since 1953, John Gaskin, threw himself from a sixth-floor balcony but survived. Blunt died at his home in London in 1983.",
"From the archive, 17 November 1979: Art historian who spied for the Soviet Union | From the Guardian | The Guardian\nFrom the archive, 17 November 1979: Art historian who spied for the Soviet Union\nOriginally published in the Guardian on 17 November 1979\nAnthony Blunt, 1968. Taken more than 10 years before he was unmasked as the 'fourth man' in the Cambridge spy ring Photograph: Jane Bown for the Observer\nThursday 17 November 2011 06.05 EST\nFirst published on Thursday 17 November 2011 06.05 EST\nShare on Messenger\nClose\nIn 1972 a humble naval lieutenant in a financial jam sold some humble naval secrets to the Russians. The judge at his trial spoke of a \"monstrous betrayal\" and sentenced him to 21 years.\nThat, amid the myriad issues of the Blunt affair, is a point of reference worth recalling. The sub-lieutenant traded a few blueprints for money. Anthony Blunt sold the names of colleagues, some of whom subsequently perished. How many lives did he put at risk? No one can tell. If conspiracy to murder is a more heinous crime than larceny, Blunt's prison sentence should have stretched through decades. Instead, he roamed free and feted in the Royal Household. And that, truly, is a monstrous betrayal.\nPast Prime Ministers and Attorney-Generals queue to profess their ignorance. What blame there is conveniently seems set to devolve on a deceased politician. One must accept what honourable men say. Lord Home did not know. Lord Butler did not know. Sir Harold Wilson did not know. But that in turn raises deadly issues. When newspapers say that Britain is a secretive and stifled society, they can almost hear their readers stifling a yawn. They would say that, wouldn't they?\nBut here are yesterday's men of probity wringing their hands and complaining that nobody told them anything. Our society, apparently, is so secretive that even the men elected to govern it cannot be trusted with unpleasant facts. That discovery has direct relevance to this Government's new Official Information Bill. As Andrew Boyle, author of The Climate of Treason, points out, six months hence he would not have been able to publish his book – and Anthony Blunt would have been gliding untroubled round the royal picture gallery till his dying day. No wonder Mr David Steel is calling for the Bill's withdrawal.\nThere is a further, deeper worry. It is all too easy, playing the politics of envy, to prate about \"Establishment plots.\" But this is an horrendous case. Perhaps (straining credulity to the uttermost) Anthony Blunt could not have been tried in public. Perhaps (still straining) covert immunity seemed the best policy. But need he have continued to lead an unsullied, honoured life at court – not reproved but regally blessed? The Palace was told 15 years ago. In case it was deaf, it was told again more recently. Yet only at the eleventh hour, and the fifty-ninth minute, in a fluster of Prime Ministerial statements, was knighthood suddenly stripped away.\nSuch conduct reflects appallingly on everyone involved. We despise witchhunts. But in this instance, where nobody knows anything, it is imperative that the fullest, most public investigation now takes place.",
"Anthony Blunt | Covert History Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nTrinity College , Cambridge\nAnthony Frederick Blunt (26 September 1907 – 26 March 1983) [1] , known as Sir Anthony Blunt, KCVO from 1956 - 1979, when he was stripped of his honours, was a British art historian who was exposed as a Soviet spy late in his life.\nBlunt was Professor of the History of Art at the University of London , director of the Courtauld Institute of Art , Surveyor of the King's Pictures and London. He was exposed as a member of the Cambridge Five , a group of spies working for the Soviet Union from some time in the 1930s to at least the early 1950s.\nContents\nEdit\nBlunt was born in Bournemouth , the third and youngest son of a vicar, the Revd (Arthur) Stanley Vaughan Blunt (1870–1929) and his wife, Hilda Violet (1880–1969), daughter of Henry Master of the Madras civil service. He was the brother of writer Wilfrid Jasper Walter Blunt and of numismatist Christopher Evelyn Blunt , and the grandnephew of poet Wilfrid Scawen Blunt .\nHe was a third cousin of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon , the late Queen Mother : his mother was the second cousin of Elizabeth's father Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne . On occasions, Blunt and his two brothers, Christopher and Wilfrid, took afternoon tea at the Bowes-Lyon's London home in Bruton Street, Mayfair. [2]\nBlunt's vicar father was assigned to Paris with the British embassy chapel, and so moved his family to the French capital for several years during Blunt's childhood. The young Anthony became fluent in French, and experienced intensely the artistic culture closely available to him, stimulating an interest which would last a lifetime and form the basis for his later career. [3]\nHe was educated at Marlborough College , where he joined the College's secret ' Society of Amici ', [4] in which he was a contemporary of Louis MacNeice (whose unfinished autobiography The Strings are False contains numerous references to Blunt), John Betjeman and Graham Shepard . He was remembered by historian John Edward Bowle , a year ahead of Blunt at Marlborough, as an intellectual prig, too preoccupied with the realm of ideas. He thought Blunt had too much ink in his veins and belonged to a world of rather prissy, cold-blooded, academic puritanism. [3]\nCambridge University\nEdit\nHe won a scholarship in mathematics to Trinity College, Cambridge . At that time, scholars in Cambridge University were allowed to skip Part I of the Tripos and complete Part II in two years. However, they could not earn a degree in less than three years, [5] and hence Blunt spent four years at Trinity and switched to Modern Languages, eventually graduating in 1930 with a first class degree . He taught French at Cambridge and became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1932. His graduate research was in French art history and he traveled frequently to continental Europe in connection with his studies. [3] Like Guy Burgess , Blunt was known to be homosexual, [6] which was a criminal activity at that time in Britain. Both were members of the Cambridge Apostles (also known as the Conversazione society), a Cambridge clandestine discussion group of 12 undergraduates, mostly from Trinity and King's Colleges who considered themselves to be the brightest minds in the university. Many were homosexual and Marxist at that time. Amongst other members, also later accused of being part of the Cambridge spy ring, were the American Michael Whitney Straight and Victor Rothschild who later worked for MI5 . [7] Rothschild gave Blunt £100 to purchase \"Eliezer and Rebecca\" by Nicholas Poussin . [8] The painting was sold by Blunt's executors in 1985 for £100,000 (totalling £192,500 with tax remission [9] ) and is now in the Fitzwilliam Museum . [10]\nRecruitment to Soviet espionage\nEdit\nThere are numerous versions of how Blunt was recruited to the NKVD . As a Cambridge don , Blunt visited the Soviet Union in 1933, and was possibly recruited in 1934. In a press conference, Blunt claimed that Guy Burgess recruited him as a spy. [11] Many sources suggest that Blunt remained at Cambridge and served as a talent-spotter. He may have identified Burgess, Kim Philby , Donald Maclean , John Cairncross and Michael Straight , who were all undergraduates at Trinity College, a few years younger than him, as potential spies for the Soviets. [3] Blunt himself said in his public confession that it was Burgess who converted him to the Soviet cause, after both had left Cambridge. [12] Both were members of the Cambridge Apostles , and Burgess could have recruited Blunt or vice versa either at Cambridge University or later when both worked for British intelligence.\nJoining MI5\nEdit\nWith the invasion of Poland by German and Soviet forces, Blunt joined the British Army in 1939. During the phoney war he served in France in the intelligence corps. When the Wehrmacht drove British forces back to Dunkirk , in May 1940 he was evacuated by the Royal Navy . During 1940, he was recruited to MI5 , the Security Service. [3] Before the war MI5 mostly employed former Indian policemen, for it was in India that the British Empire faced security threats. But now much new brainpower arrived. MI5 may have known Blunt's views, for an officer later claimed that it had been virtually running the Communist Party of Great Britain and complained about the cost of pension payments to its retired infiltrators. [13]\nBlunt passed the results of Ultra intelligence from decrypted Enigma intercepts of Wehrmacht radio traffic from the Russian front. He also admitted to passing details of German spy rings, operating in the Soviet Union. Ultra was primarily working on the Kriegsmarine naval codes, which eventually helped win the battle of the Atlantic, but as the war progressed Wehrmacht army codes were also broken. Sensitive receivers could pick up transmissions from Berlin, relating to German war plans. There was great risk that if the Germans found out that their codes had been compromised, they would change the settings of the Enigma wheels, blinding the codebreakers.\nFull details of the entire Operation Ultra were fully known by only four people, only one of whom routinely worked at Bletchley Park . Dissemination of Ultra information did not follow usual intelligence protocol, but maintained its own communications channels. Military intelligence officers gave intercepts to Ultra liaisons, who in turn forwarded the intercepts to Bletchley Park. Information from decoded messages was then passed back to military leaders through the same channels. Thus, each link in the communications chain knew only one particular job, and not the overall details of Ultra. Nobody outside Bletchley Park knew the source. [14]\nJohn Cairncross , another of the Cambridge Five, was posted from MI6 to work at Bletchley Park. Blunt admitted to recruiting Cairncross and may well have been the cut-out between Cairncross and the Soviet controllers. For although the Soviet Union was now an ally, Russians were not trusted. Some information concerned German preparations and detailed plans for the Battle of Kursk , the last decisive encounter on the Eastern Front. Malcolm Muggeridge , himself a wartime British agent, recalls meeting Kim Philby and Victor Rothschild , a friend of Blunt since Trinity College, Cambridge. He reported that at the Paris meeting in late 1955 Rothschild argued that much more Ultra material should have been given to Stalin. For once, Philby reportedly dropped his reserve, and agreed. [15]\nDuring the war, Blunt attained the rank of major. [16] In the final days of World War II in Europe, Blunt made a successful secret trip to Schloss Friedrichshof in Germany to retrieve sensitive letters between the Duke of Windsor and Adolf Hitler and other leading Nazis. [17] George VI asked Blunt, who worked part-time at the Royal Library , to conduct the Royal Librarian , Owen Morshead , to Friedrichshof in March 1945 to liberate letters to the Empress Victoria , a daughter of Queen Victoria, and mother to Kaiser Wilhelm . Papers rescued by Morshead and Blunt were deposited in the Royal Archives . [18]\nSuspicion and secret confession\nEdit\nSome people knew of Blunt's role long before his public exposure. In 1948, demobilised army officer Philip Hay, attended an interview at Buckingham Palace for the post of Private Secretary to the Dowager Duchess of Kent . After passing Blunt in a corridor, Sir Alan Lascelles , the King's private secretary, told Hay: \"That's our Russian spy.\" [2]\nAccording to MI5 papers released in 2002, Moura Budberg , known as the Russian Mata Hari and suspected of being a double agent, reported in 1950 that Blunt was a member of the Communist Party , but this was ignored. According to Blunt himself, he never joined because Burgess persuaded him that he would be more valuable to the anti-fascist crusade by working with Burgess. He was certainly on friendly terms with Sir Dick White , the head of MI5 and later MI6 , in the 1960s, and they used to spend Christmas together with Victor Rothschild in Rothschild's house in Cambridge. [19]\nHis NKVD control had also become suspicious at the sheer amount of material he was passing over and suspected him of being a triple agent. Later, he was described by a KGB officer as an \"ideological shit\". [20]\nWith the defection of Burgess and Maclean to Moscow in May 1951, Blunt came under suspicion. He had been a friend of Burgess since Cambridge. Maclean was in imminent danger due to decryptions from Venona as the messages were decrypted. Burgess returned on the Queen Mary to Southampton after being suspended from the British Embassy in Washington for his conduct. He was to warn Maclean, who now worked in the Foreign Office but was under surveillance and isolated from secret material. Blunt collected Burgess at Southampton Docks and took him to stay at his flat in London, although he later denied that he had warned the defecting pair. Blunt was interrogated by MI5 in 1952, but gave little, if anything, away. [21] Arthur Martin and Jim Skardon had interviewed Blunt eleven times since 1951, but Blunt had admitted nothing.\nBlunt was greatly distressed by Burgess' flight and, on 28 May 1951, confided in his friend Goronwy Rees , a fellow of All Souls College, Oxford , who had briefly supplied the NKVD with political information in 1938-9. Rees suggested that Burgess had gone to the Soviet Union because of his violent anti-Americanism and belief that America would involve Britain in a Third World War , and that he was a Soviet agent. Blunt suggested that this was not sufficient reason to denounce Burgess to MI5. He pointed out that \"Burgess was one of our oldest friends and to denounce him would not be the act of a friend.\" Blunt quoted E. M. Forster 's belief that country was less important than friendship. He argued that \"Burgess had told me he was a spy in 1936 and I had not told anyone.\" [22]\nIn 1963 MI5 learned of Blunt's espionage from an American, Michael Straight , whom he had recruited. Blunt confessed to MI5 on 23 April 1964, and Queen Elizabeth II was informed shortly thereafter. [23] He also gave up John Cairncross , Peter Ashby, Brian Symon and Leonard Henry (Leo) Long as spies. Long had also been a member of the Communist Party and an undergraduate at Trinity College, Cambridge . During the war he served in M14 military intelligence in the War Office, with responsibility for assessing German offensive plans. He passed analyses but not original material relating to the Eastern Front to Blunt. [24] In return for Blunt's full confession, the British government agreed to keep his spying career an official secret for fifteen years, and granted him full immunity from prosecution. [25] According to the memoir of MI5 officer Peter Wright , who, he wrote, had regular interviews with Blunt from 1964 onwards for six years, prior to that, he had a briefing by Michael Adeane , the Queen's Private Secretary, who told Wright: \"From time to time you may find Blunt referring to an assignment he undertook on behalf of the Palace - a visit to Germany at the end of the war. Please do not pursue this matter. Strictly speaking, it is not relevant to considerations of national security.\" [26]\nBlunt's life was little affected. In 1966, two years after his secret confession, Noel Annan , provost of King's College, Cambridge, held a dinner party for Labour Home Secretary Roy Jenkins , Ann Fleming, widow of James Bond author Ian Fleming , and Victor Rothschild and his wife Tess. The Rothschilds brought their friend and lodger – Blunt. All had had wartime connections with British Intelligence, Jenkins at Bletchley Park. [27]\nPublic exposure\nEdit\nBlunt's role was represented under the name Maurice in Andrew Boyle 's book, Climate of Treason in 1979. Maurice was taken from the E. M. Forster novel of that name. Blunt tried to prevent the book being published, which was reported in the magazine Private Eye . This drew attention to Blunt. [28] Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher revealed Blunt's wartime role in the House of Commons firstly on Thursday 15 November 1979, and in more detail on 21 November. [29] Sir Bernard Ingham , Thatcher's press secretary, suggested \"I believe she did it because she didn't see why the system should cover things up. This was early in her Prime Ministership. I think she wanted to tell the Civil Service that the politicians decide policy, not the system. She wanted them to know who was boss.\" [2]\nFor weeks after Thatcher’s announcement, Blunt was hunted by the press. Once found, he was besieged by photographers. Blunt had recently given a lecture at the invitation of Francis Haskell , Oxford University's professor of art history. Haskell had a Russian mother and wife and had graduated from King’s College, Cambridge . To the press this made him an obvious suspect. They repeatedly telephoned his home in the early hours of the morning, using the names of his friends and claiming to have an urgent message for \"Anthony\". [30]\nAlthough Blunt was outwardly calm, the sudden exposure shocked him. His former pupil, art critic Brian Sewell , said at the time “He was so businesslike about it; he considered the implications for his knighthood and academic honours and what should be resigned and what retained. What he didn't want was a great debate at his clubs, the Athenaeum and the Travellers . He was incredibly calm about it all.\" [31]\nQueen Elizabeth II stripped Blunt of his knighthood , and he was removed as an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College. After his BBC Television confession at the age of 72, he broke down in tears. [32]\nBlunt died from a heart attack at his home in London in 1983, aged 75.\nMemoirs\nEdit\nBlunt withdrew from society and seldom went out after his exposure. His friend Tess Rothschild suggested that he occupy his time writing his memoirs. Brian Sewell , his former pupil, said they remained unfinished because he had to consult the newspaper library in Colindale, Edgware North London, to check facts. He was unhappy at being recognised. \"I do know he was really worried about upsetting his family,\" suggests Sewell. \"I think he was being absolutely straight with me when he said that if he could not verify the facts there was no point in going on.\" Blunt stopped writing in 1983 leaving his memoirs to his partner John Gaskin, who kept it for a year and gave it to Blunt's executor John Golding, a fellow art historian. [2]\nJohn Golding handed it to the British Library, insisting that it should not to be released for 25 years. [33] It was finally made available to readers on 23 July 2009. [34] Golding explains: \" 'I did so because, although most of the figures mentioned were dead, their families might not like it. It covers his Cambridge days and there are a number of names. They weren't all spies, but Communism was common among intellectuals in the Thirties.\" [2]\nIn the typed manuscript, Blunt conceded that spying for Communist Russia was \"the biggest mistake of his life\": [35]\n\"What I did not realise is that I was so naïve politically that I was not justified in committing myself to any political action of this kind. The atmosphere in Cambridge was so intense, the enthusiasm for any anti-fascist activity was so great, that I made the biggest mistake of my life.\" [36]\nThe memoir revealed little that was not already known about Blunt. When asked whether there would be any new or unexpected names, John Golding replied \"I'm not sure. It's 25 years since I read it, and my memory is not that good.\" Although ordered by the KGB to defect with Maclean and Burgess to protect Philby, in 1951 Blunt realised \"quite clearly that I would take any risk in [Britain], rather than go to Russia.\" [35] After he was publicly exposed, he claims to have considered suicide but instead turned to \"whisky and concentrated work\". [35]\nCareer as an art historian\nEdit\nThroughout the time of his activities in espionage, Blunt's public career was in the History of Art, a field in which he gained prominence. In 1940, most of his fellowship dissertation was published under the title of Artistic Theories in Italy, 1450–1600. In 1945, he was given the esteemed position of Surveyor of the King's Pictures, and later the Queen’s Pictures (after the death of King George VI in 1952), one of the largest private collections in the world. He held the position for 27 years, was knighted as a KCVO in 1956 for his work in the role, and his contribution was vital in the expansion and cataloguing of the Queen’s Gallery, which opened in 1962.\nIn 1947 he became both Professor of the History of Art at the University of London , and the director of the Courtauld Institute of Art , University of London, where he had been lecturing since the spring of 1933, [37] and where his tenure in office as director lasted until 1974. This position included the use of a live-in apartment on the premises. [38] During his 27 years at the Courtauld Institute, Blunt was respected as a dedicated teacher, a kind superior to his staff. His legacy at the Courtauld was to have left it with a larger staff, increased funding, and more space, and his role was central in the acquisition of outstanding collections for the Courtauld's Galleries. He is often credited for making the Courtauld what it is today, as well as for pioneering art history in Britain, and for training the next generation of British art historians.\nIn 1953, Blunt published his book Art and Architecture in France, 1500–1700, and he was in particular an expert on the works of Nicolas Poussin , writing numerous books and articles about the painter, and serving as curator for a landmark exhibition of Poussin at the Louvre in 1960, which was an enormous success. [39] He also wrote on topics as diverse as William Blake , Pablo Picasso , the Galleries of England, Scotland, and Wales. He also catalogued the French drawings (1945), G. B. Castiglione and Stefano della Bella drawings (1954) Roman drawings (with H. L. Cooke, 1960) and Venetian (with Edward Croft Murray, 1957) drawings in the collection of the Queen, as well as a supplement of Addenda and Corrigenda to the Italian catalogues (in E. Schilling's German Drawings). He attended a summer school in Sicily in 1965, leading to a deep interest in Sicilian architecture, and in 1968 he wrote the only authoritative and in-depth book on Sicilian Baroque . From 1962 he was engaged in a dispute with Denis Mahon regarding the authenticity of a Poussin work which rumbled on for several years. Mahon was shown to be correct. Blunt was also unaware that a painting in his own possession was also by Poussin. [40] It has been suggested that Blunt could not accept that Poussin may have produced inferior work.\nNotable students who have been influenced by Blunt include Brian Sewell (an art critic for the Evening Standard ), [41] Ron Bloore , Sir Oliver Millar (his successor at the Royal Collection and an expert on Van Dyck ), Nicholas Serota , Neil Macgregor , the former editor of the Burlington magazine, former director of the National Gallery and the current director of the British Museum , John White (art historian), Sir Alan Bowness (who ran the Tate Gallery ), John Golding (who wrote the first major book on Cubism ), Reyner Banham (an influential architectural historian), John Shearman (the \"world expert\" on Mannerism and the former Chair of the Art History Department at Harvard University ), Melvin Day (former Director of National Art Gallery of New Zealand and Government Art Historian for New Zealand ), Christopher Newall (an expert on the Pre-Raphaelites ), Michael Jaffé (an expert on Rubens ), Michael Mahoney (former Curator of European Paintings at the National Gallery of Art , Washington, D.C., and former Chair of the Art History Department at Trinity College, Hartford), Lee Johnson (an expert on Eugène Delacroix ), and Anita Brookner (an art historian and novelist).\nAmong his many accomplishments, Blunt also received a series of honorary fellowships, became the National Trust picture adviser, put on exhibitions at the Royal Academy , edited and wrote numerous books and articles, and sat on every influential art committee.\nLater life\nEdit\nAfter Margaret Thatcher announced Blunt's espionage, he continued his art historical work by writing and publishing a Guide to Baroque Rome (1982). He intended to write a monograph about the architecture of Pietro da Cortona but he died before realizing the project. His manuscripts were sent to the intended co-author of this work, German art historian Jörg Martin Merz by the executors of his will. Merz published a book, Pietro da Cortona and Roman Baroque Architecture in 2008 incorporating a draft by the late Anthony Blunt.\nMany of his publications are still seen today by scholars as integral to the study of art history. His writing is lucid, and is based largely on art and architecture in the context of their place in history. In his book Art and Architecture in France, for example, he begins each section with a brief depiction of the social, political and/or religious contexts in which works of art and art movements are emerging. In Blunt’s Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450–1600, he explains the motivational circumstances involved in the transitions between the High Renaissance and Mannerism .\nWorks\nA festschrift , Studies in Renaissance and Baroque Art presented to Anthony Blunt on his 60th Birthday, Phaidon 1967 (introduction by Ellis Waterhouse), contains a full list of his writings up to 1966.\nMajor works include:\nAnthony Blunt, François Mansart and the Origins of French Classical Architecture, 1941.\nBlunt, Art and Architecture in France, 1500–1700, 1953 and many subsequent editions.\nBlunt, Nicolas Poussin. A Critical Catalogue, Phaidon 1966\nBlunt, Nicolas Poussin, Phaidon 1967 (new edition Pallas Athene publishing, London, 1995).\nBlunt, Sicilian Baroque, 1968 (ed. it. Milano 1968; Milano 1986).\nBlunt, Picasso's Guernica, Oxford University Press, 1969.\nBlunt, Neapolitan Baroque and Rococo Architecture, London 1975 (ed. it. Milano 2006).\nBlunt, Baroque and Rococo Architecture and Decoration, 1978.\nBlunt, Borromini, 1979 (ed. it. Roma-Bari 1983).\nBlunt, L'occhio e la storia. Scritti di critica d'arte (1936–38), a cura di Antonello Negri, Udine 1999.\nImportant articles after 1966:\nAnthony Blunt, 'Rubens and architecture,' Burlington Magazine, 1977, 894, pp. 609–621.\nAnthony Blunt, 'Roman Baroque Architecture: the Other Side of the Medal,' Art history, no. 1, 1980, pp. 61–80 (includes bibliographical references).\nDepictions in popular culture\nEdit\nA Question of Attribution is a play written by Alan Bennett about Blunt, covering the weeks before his public exposure as a spy, and his relationship with Queen Elizabeth II . After a successful run in London's West End, it was made into a television play directed by John Schlesinger and starring James Fox , Prunella Scales and Geoffrey Palmer . It was aired on the BBC in 1991. This play was seen as a companion to Bennett's 1983 television play about Guy Burgess, An Englishman Abroad .\nBlunt: The Fourth Man is a 1985 film starring Ian Richardson , Anthony Hopkins , Michael Williams , and Rosie Kerslake , covering the events of 1951 when Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean went missing.\nThe Untouchable , a 1997 novel by John Banville , is a roman à clef based largely on the life and character of Anthony Blunt; the novel's protagonist, Victor Maskell, is a loosely disguised Blunt, although some elements of the character are based on Louis MacNeice. [42]\nA Friendship of Convenience: Being a Discourse on Poussin's \"Landscape With a Man Killed by a Snake\", is a 1997 novel by Rufus Gunn set in 1956 in which Blunt, then Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, encounters Joseph Losey , a film director fleeing McCarthyism .\nThe \"Gay Traitor\" room in the infamous Haçienda nightclub was inspired by Blunt.\nSamuel West portrayed Blunt in Cambridge Spies , a 2003 four-part BBC television drama concerning the lives of the Cambridge Four from 1934 to the defection of Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean to the Soviet Union.\nReferences",
"Did Queen Elizabeth suspect Cambridge Spy a decade before confession? - Telegraph\nThe Royal Family\nDid Queen Elizabeth suspect Cambridge Spy a decade before confession?\nThe late Queen Elizabeth may have suspected that an MI5 officer working as a Soviet spy was a Communist more than a decade before he confessed, according to newly released records.\n \nAnthony Blunt with the Queen \n \nImage 1 of 3\nBritish art historian Sir Anthony Blunt, who was exposed in November 1964 as being a Russian spy Photo: CAMERA PRESS\n \nFollow\nAnthony Blunt, the fourth member of the notorious Cambridge Soviet spy ring, was a distant cousin of the Queen Mother and later became Surveyor of the King's pictures.\nAccording to the newly-released diaries of Guy Liddell, Deputy Director of the MI5, the Queen mother became suspicious after Blunt intimated during one of their meetings that he was an atheist.\nBritain's spy chiefs, however, were so thoroughly duped by the spy ring that they refused to believe that Blunt could be a double agent.\nLiddell recalls meeting Sir Alan \"Tommy\" Lascelles, then King George VI's private secretary, in July 1951 in an attempt to allay suspicions surrounding Blunt.\nRelated Articles\nRussian 'secret agents' arrested in the US\n28 Jun 2010\n\"I told Lascelles that I had known Anthony Blunt for about 10 years. I was convinced he had never been a communist in the fullest political sense, even during his days at Cambridge.\n\"Tommy said that he was glad to hear this. He told me Blunt had on one occasion intimited to the Queen that he was an atheist - and that the Queen had been a little shaken by his remarks.\n\"He was certain that if he now went up to her and told her that Anthony was a Communist, her immediate reaction would be 'I always told you so'.\"\nBlunt was one of four double agents recruited by the Soviets at Cambridge University during the 1930s.\nAfter leaving university he and the other agents - Kim Philby, Donald Maclean and Guy Burgess - hid their communist sympathies and went on to secure prominent roles in the Foreign Office, MI5 and MI6.\nHowever, on May 25, 1951, the net appeared to be closing. Burgess and Maclean, who were both working in the foreign office, fled Britain after discovering they were about to be unmasked.\nLiddell, however, had known Burgess, Blunt and Philby for more than a decade and initially refused to accept they had been part of a spy ring.\nHis conviction was not even swayed by a warning from a defecting Russian agent in 1944 that there were two Russian agents in the foreign office and seven in the intelligence services.\nOne of them, according to the Russian defector, was \"head of a section of the British counter-espionage service\". At the time Philby was head of an MI6 unit dedicated to counter-espionage.\nBurgess had turned to Liddell for help in February 1950 after a series of \"grave indiscretions\" in Gibraltar and Tangier during which he got \"very drunk\" at the expense of an aristocrat and gave SIS secrets to a journalist.\nAt the time Liddell had formed a sympathetic view. \"My own view was that Guy Burgess was not the sort of person who would deliberately pass confidential information to unauthorised parties,\" he wrote. \"He was, however, extremely keen and enthusiastic in matters which interested him and would be easily induced... to say more han he ought to.\"\nHe kept faith with Burgess after he left the country. \"It seemed unlikely to me that a man of Burgess's intelligence could imagine he had any future in Russia,\" he wrote in June 1951.\nHe later added: \"He had certainly been a Marxian... and would have been capable of discussing in a highly indiscreet manner with anybody almost anything he got from official sources. He would have done so out of sheer political enthusiasim.\"\nThere were also growing suspicions that Philby had tipped off Maclean about that he was about to be exposed. Liddell defended Philby, suggesting it was \"not unlikely\" that Burgess had seen the papers on Maclean when Philby had accidentally left them on his desk.\nAs the Cambridge connection became clear, Blunt also came under suspicion. Liddell, however, decided once again to defend him.\n\"Whatever the facts, Anthony would have been far more interested in artistic pursuits than in politics, although his friendship with Burgess might well have led to him into doing something stupid.\"\nPhilby was forced to leave the MI6 after security services became convinced he was a double-agent, but did not confess until 1963.\nBlunt confessed in 1964 but was granted anonymity and immunity from prosecution, until he was exposed by Margaret Thatcher in 1979. He died four years later from a heart attack.\nSir Alan also told Liddell about the \"lamentable incident\" of a book published by Marion Crawford, the Queen's governess when she was a child.\nLiddell writes: \"He had spoken to Miss Crawford [ahead of publication], who had dissolved into tears. It was therefore a great shock to him when the book came out. The worst feature is it will encourage others to do the same.\"",
"The Fitzwilliam Museum : Hidden Histories Home\nBiography\nAnthony Blunt (1907-1983)\n1933 was an important year for Anthony Blunt. It was the year he bought Eliezer and Rebecca, a hitherto undiscovered Poussin. It was also the year he first travelled to Moscow. A committed Marxist, he joined the NKVD, the forerunner of the KGB, shortly after.\nA brilliant art historian, at the same time Soviet spy, Blunt was born the son of a clergyman in Bournemouth in 1907. Still young, his family moved to Paris, where happy childhood years nurtured a lifelong affection for all things French. Educated at Marlborough College, Blunt then attended Trinity College, Cambridge, where he read Mathematics and Modern Languages. Elected a Fellow in 1932, he tutored in French language and literature and dedicated himself to the study of French and Italian art. While the university did not acknowledge History of Art as an official subject then (it only introduced Part II of the History of Art Tripos in 1970 and Part I of the History of Art Tripos in 1999), he nonetheless established himself as an acknowledged expert on French art and Poussin, in particular. It was in these years that Blunt joined the Cambridge Apostles, a secret society which was Marxist at the time. Here he met Guy Burgess (1911-1963) and Kim Philby (1912-1988), both of whom he recruited as agents for the NKVD/KGB. Donald Maclean (1913-1983) he recruited later, but by the outbreak of World War II the Cambridge Five, the infamous spy ring, was complete.\nIn 1939, Blunt joined the British army and served as an officer in France. In 1940, following the German invasion and occupation of northern France, he returned to Britain and joined the Security Service MI5. Here his duty consisted of keeping neutral missions in London under close surveillance. A member of the Joint Intelligence Committee, he had access to classified reports and was on the distribution list for Ultra material. The latter detailed the results of German codes broken at Bletchley Park and it was this material, central to British intelligence, which Blunt passed to Russian interests between 1941 and 1945.\nAppointed Surveyor of the King’s Pictures in 1945 (a post he held until 1973, serving Queen Elizabeth II from 1952) and director of the Courtauld Institute of Art in 1947 (a post he held until 1974), Blunt was awarded a knighthood in 1956. By this time, he had assisted Burgess and Maclean to defect to Moscow, but had also distanced himself from the KGB. Appointed Professor of the History of Art in London in 1960 and seemingly at the top of his career, one of his recruits, the American Michael Straight (1916-2004), exposed him to M15. Blunt confessed on 23 April 1964, but was granted immunity from prosecution and a promise of secrecy in return for information. As years passed, however, and Blunt continued to lunch with the Queen, some M15 officers set out to expose the traitor. They leaked the story to Andrew Boyle, a British author with an intelligence background, and in 1979 his Climate of Treason sparked the question: could ‘Maurice’ be Sir Anthony Blunt? Finally, asked in Parliament on 16 November 1979, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher named Blunt as the ‘fourth man’ of the Cambridge Five. He was promptly stripped of his knighthood and removed from the Fellowship of Trinity College, Cambridge. He died in disgrace and shunned in London in 1983.\nUCP\nSelected Bibliography\nJ. Banville, The Untouchable, Vintage, 1997\nA. Bennett, Single Spies (An Englishman Abroad and A Question of Attribution), Faber & Faber, 1989 – Winner of Oliver Award: England’s best comedy for 1989\nA. Blunt, Art and Architecture in France, 1500-1700, Penguin, 1953\nA. Blunt, The Paintings of Nicolas Poussin: A Critical Catalogue, Phaidon, 1966\nA. Boyle, The Climate of Treason: Five who Spied for Russia, Hutchinson, 1979\nM. Carter, Anthony Blunt: His Lives, Macmillan, 2001\nDo you have an interesting history to add to the above story?",
"Anthony Blunt - The Full Wiki\nThe Full Wiki\nMore info on Anthony Blunt\n Wikis\n \n \nNote: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles .\nRelated top topics\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nAnthony Blunt\nAnthony Frederick Blunt (26 September 1907, Bournemouth , Hampshire – 26 March 1983, Westminster , London), [1] , (Sir Anthony Blunt, KCVO between 1956 and 1979), was a British spy , art historian , Professor of the History of Art at the University of London , director of the Courtauld Institute of Art , London (1947-74), and Surveyor of the King's Pictures (1945-72).\nBlunt was an acclaimed art historian and the \"Fourth Man\" of the Cambridge Five , a group of spies working for the Soviet Union from some time in the 1930s to at least the early 1950s.\nContents\n12 External links\nEarly life\nBlunt was born in Bournemouth , the third and youngest son of a vicar, the Revd (Arthur) Stanley Vaughan Blunt (1870–1929) and his wife, Hilda Violet (1880–1969), daughter of Henry Master of the Madras civil service. He was the brother of writer Wilfrid Jasper Walter Blunt and of numismatist Christopher Evelyn Blunt, and the grandnephew of poet Wilfrid Scawen Blunt .\nBlunt is frequently spoken of as a distant relative of Queen Mary ( Mary of Teck ) – generally Prince Michael of Hesse is given as their common cousin – however, the exact lineage is never produced. He was, however, demonstrably a cousin of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon , the late Queen Mother , through his mother, Hilda V. Master, daughter of John Henry Master, son of Frances Mary Smith, sister of Oswald Smith, father of Frances Dora Smith, mother of Claude George Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne , father of Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon , making Blunt and the Queen Mother third cousins, by common descent from George Smith and his wife Frances Mary Mosley. [2]\nBlunt's vicar father was assigned to Paris with the British Embassy chapel, and so moved his family to the French capital for several years during Blunt's childhood period. The young Anthony became fluent in French, and experienced intensely the artistic culture closely available to him, stimulating an interest which would last a lifetime and form the basis for his later career. [3]\nHe was educated at Marlborough College , where he joined the College's secret 'Society of Amici' [4] , in which he was a contemporary of Louis MacNeice (whose unfinished autobiography The Strings are False contains numerous references to Blunt), John Betjeman and Graham Shepard .\nCambridge University\nHe later read mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge , and earned his first degree in that subject, [5] but he switched to Modern Languages, eventually graduating in 1930 with a First Class degree, and became a teacher of French. He became a Fellow of the college in 1932, and was a member of the Cambridge Apostles , a secret society which at that time was largely Marxist, formed from members (students, alumni, and professors) of Cambridge University. Blunt pursued graduate research in art history while a Cambridge don, and traveled frequently to continental Europe in connection with his studies. [3]\nSoviet espionage\nAfter visiting the Soviet Union in 1933, Blunt was recruited in 1934 by the NKVD . A committed Communist , Blunt was recruited by his student Guy Burgess at Cambridge [6] , although there is reason to believe that Blunt, the older, was control. Blunt remained at Cambridge and served as a talent-spotter. He identified Burgess, Kim Philby , Donald Maclean , and John Cairncross , who were all Cambridge friends a few years younger than himself, as potential espionage recruits for the Soviets. [3]\nAdvertisements\nJoins MI5\nWith the onset of World War II , Blunt joined the British Army in 1939, briefly saw limited action in France in the intelligence corps up to the Nazi invasion there in May 1940, was then evacuated from Dunkirk , and later in 1940 was recruited to MI5 , the Security Service. [3] . He passed on ULTRA intelligence from decrypted Enigma intercepts to the Soviet Union, During the war, Blunt attained the rank of major . [7]\nAs World War II was ending, Blunt successfully undertook a special mission to the defeated Germany on behalf of the British royal family, to recover incriminating letters written by the Duke of Windsor to Adolf Hitler . [8] The mission may have also recovered the so-called 'Vicky Letters', between Queen Victoria and some of her German relatives. [7]\nComes under suspicion\nFollowing the defection in May 1951 of fellow spies Burgess and Maclean to the Soviet Union, Blunt came under suspicion as well. He had been a longtime friend of Burgess, from their time at Cambridge. Maclean was in imminent danger of being unmasked as a spy by decryptions from VENONA . Blunt was interrogated by MI5 in 1952, but gave little, if anything, away. [9]\nRenders secret confession\nIn January 1964, Arthur Martin from MI5 interviewed Michael Straight (later owner and editor of The New Republic and chairman of the National Endowment for the Arts ), an American who had studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, and who had become friends there with Blunt, Kim Philby , Donald Maclean and Guy Burgess. Straight claimed that Blunt had tried to recruit him to become a Soviet spy. Arthur Martin and Jim Skardon had interviewed Blunt eleven times since 1951, but Blunt admitted nothing. Martin, now equipped with Straight's story, went to see Blunt again and this time Blunt made a confession. Queen Elizabeth II was informed shortly thereafter. [10] He admitted to being a Soviet agent and named John Cairncross , Peter Ashby, Brian Symon and Leo Long as spies he had recruited. In return for Blunt's full confession, the British government agreed to keep his spying career an official secret for fifteen years, and granted him full immunity from prosecution. [11] Martin himself was disappointed when it was discovered that MI5 Director-General Roger Hollis and Attorney General Sir John Hobson decided not to put Blunt on trial. He again argued that there was still a Soviet spy working at the centre of MI5, but Hollis thought Martin's suggestion was highly damaging to the organization, and ordered Martin to be suspended from duty, soon afterwards terminating his employment in MI5. In Peter Wright's best-selling 1987 book Spycatcher, Wright argued that Hollis was the best fit for the possible Soviet spy in MI5.\nPublic exposure\nBlunt's role as a Soviet agent was exposed – albeit under a false name – in Andrew Boyle 's book, Climate of Treason in 1979 and he was publicly named by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the same year. [12] Queen Elizabeth II stripped Blunt of his knighthood, and he was removed as an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College. Blunt is supposed to have fled the country after the public revelation and lived somewhere in southern Europe. [13] However, he returned to London, but may not have fully realized the strength of feeling that had been whipped up against him until one day in February 1980, when he tried to see a film in Notting Hill, he was booed out of the cinema. That same month, his partner since 1953, John Gaskin, threw himself from a sixth-floor balcony but survived. Blunt died from a heart attack at his home in London in 1983, aged 75.\nAccording to MI5 papers released in 2002, the agency had been told by the writer Moura Budberg in 1950 that Blunt was a member of the Communist Party , but the information was ignored.\nMemoirs\nIn October 2001, the BBC reported that an autobiographical memoir written by Blunt during 1979–83 describing his life and his time as a spy, through to his exposure by Margaret Thatcher's government in 1979, was being held in the British Library. At the time of handing it in, the anonymous donor had insisted that it was not to be released for another 25 years. [14] It was finally made available to readers on 23 July 2009. [15]\nIn the manuscript, Blunt conceded that spying for Communist Russia was \"the biggest mistake of his life\": [16]\n\"What I did not realise is that I was so naïve politically that I was not justified in committing myself to any political action of this kind. The atmosphere in Cambridge was so intense, the enthusiasm for any anti-fascist activity was so great, that I made the biggest mistake of my life.\" [17]\nAlthough urged to defect like Maclean, Burgess and Philby, Blunt states that he \"realised quite clearly that I would take any risk in [Britain], rather than go to Russia.\" [16] After he was publicly exposed, he claims to have considered suicide but instead turned to \"whisky and concentrated work\". [16]\nCareer as an art historian\nThroughout the time of his activities in espionage , Blunt's public career was in the History of Art, a field in which he gained prominence. In 1940, most of his fellowship dissertation was published under the title of Artistic Theories in Italy, 1450-1600. In 1945, he was given the esteemed position of Surveyor of the King's Pictures, and later the Queen’s Pictures (after the death of King George VI in 1952), one of the largest private collections in the world. He held the position for 27 years, was knighted as a KCVO in 1956 for his work in the role, and his contribution was vital in the expansion and cataloguing of the Queen’s Gallery, which opened in 1962.\nIn 1947 he became both Professor of the History of Art at the University of London , and the director of the Courtauld Institute of Art , University of London , where he had been lecturing since the spring of 1933, [18] and where his tenure in office as director lasted until 1974. This position included the use of a live-in apartment on the premises. [19] During his 27 years at the Courtauld Institute, Blunt was respected as a dedicated teacher, a kind superior to his staff. His legacy at the Courtauld was to have left it with a larger staff, increased funding, and more space, and his role was central in the acquisition of outstanding collections for the Courtauld's Galleries. He is often credited for making the Courtauld what it is today, as well as for pioneering art history in Britain, and for training the next generation of British art historians.\nIn 1953, Blunt published his book Art and Architecture in France, 1500-1700, and he was in particular an expert on the works of Nicolas Poussin , writing numerous books and articles about the painter, and serving as curator for a landmark exhibition of Poussin at the Louvre in 1960, which was an enormous success. [20] He did not, however, limit his research in the areas of Italian art and French art , but also wrote on topics as diverse as William Blake , Pablo Picasso , the Galleries of England, Scotland, and Wales. He also catalogued the French drawings (1945), G. B. Castiglione and Stefano della Bella drawings (1954) Roman drawings (with H. L. Cooke, 1960) and Venetian (with Edward Croft Murray, 1957) drawings in the collection of the Queen, as well as a supplement of Addenda and Corrigenda to the Italian catalogues (in E. Schilling's German Drawings).He attended a summer school in Sicily in 1965, leading to a deep interest in Sicilian architecture, and in 1968 he wrote the only authoritative and in-depth book on Sicilian Baroque .\nNotable students who have been influenced by Anthony Blunt include Brian Sewell (an art critic for the Evening Standard ), [21] Ron Bloore , Nicholas Serota , Neil Macgregor , the former editor of the Burlington magazine, former director of the National Gallery and the current director of the British Museum , John White (art historian), Sir Alan Bowness (who ran the Tate Gallery ), John Golding (who wrote the first major book on Cubism ), Reyner Banham (an influential architectural historian), John Shearman (the ‘world expert’ on Mannerism and the former Chair of the Art History Department at Harvard University ), Melvin Day (former Director of National Art Gallery of New Zealand and Government Art Historian for New Zealand ), Christopher Newall (an expert on the Pre-Raphaelites ), Michael Jaffé (an expert on Rubens ), Michael Mahoney (former Curator of European Paintings at the National Gallery of Art , Washington, D.C. , and former Chair of the Art History Department at Trinity College, Hartford), Lee Johnson (an expert on Eugène Delacroix ), and Anita Brookner (an art historian and novelist).\nAmong his many accomplishments, Blunt also received a series of honorary fellowships, became the National Trust picture advisor, put on exhibitions at the Royal Academy , edited and wrote numerous books and articles, and sat on every influential art committee.\nLater life\nAfter Mrs Thatcher announced Blunt’s espionage, he continued his art historical work by writing and publishing a Guide to Baroque Rome (1982) and completing a manuscript (apparently lost by the publisher after they sent it to a German art historian) on the architecture of Pietro da Cortona .\nMany of his publications are still seen today by scholars as integral to the study of art history. His writing is lucid, and is based largely on art and architecture in context of their place in history. In his book Art and Architecture in France, for example, he begins each section with a brief depiction of the social, political and/or religious contexts in which works of art and art movements are emerging. And in Blunt’s Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450-1600, he clearly explains the motivational circumstances involved in the transitions between the High Renaissance and Mannerism . His ground-breaking work and logical method to art history have served as resources for many scholars, including Todd P. Olson and John Beldon Scott.\nWorks\nA Festschrift Studies in Renaissance and Baroque Art presented to Anthony Blunt on his 60th Birthday, Phaidon 1967 (introduction by Ellis Waterhouse) contains a full list of his writings up to 1966.\nMajor works include:\nAnthony Blunt, François Mansart and the Origins of French Classical Architecture, 1941.\nAnthony Blunt, Art and Architecture in France, 1500-1700, 1953 and many subsequent editions.\nAnthony Blunt, Nicolas Poussin. A Critical Catalogue, Phaidon 1966\nAnthony Blunt, Nicolas Poussin, Phaidon 1967 (new edition Pallas Athene publishing, London, 1995).\nAnthony Blunt, Sicilian Baroque, 1968 (ed. it. Milano 1968; Milano 1986).\nAnthony Blunt, Picasso's Guernica, Oxford University Press, 1969.\nAnthony Blunt, Neapolitan Baroque and Rococo Architecture, London 1975 (ed. it. Milano 2006).\nAnthony Blunt, Baroque and Rococo Architecture and Decoration, 1978.\nAnthony Blunt, Borromini, 1979 (ed. it. Roma-Bari 1983).\nAnthony Blunt, L'occhio e la storia. Scritti di critica d'arte (1936-1938), a cura di Antonello Negri, Udine 1999.\nImportant articles after 1966:\nAnthony Blunt, 'Rubens and architecture,' Burlington Magazine, 1977, 894, pp. 609–621.\nAnthony Blunt, 'Roman Baroque Architecture: the Other Side of the Medal,' Art history, no. 1, 1980, pp. 61–80 (includes bibliographical references).\nDepictions in culture\nA Question of Attribution is a play written by Alan Bennett about Blunt, covering the weeks before his public exposure as a spy, and his relationship with Queen Elizabeth II . After a successful run in London's West End , it was made into a television play directed by John Schlesinger and starring James Fox , Prunella Scales and Geoffrey Palmer . It was aired on the BBC in 1991. This play was seen as a companion to Bennett's 1983 television play about Guy Burgess, An Englishman Abroad .\nBlunt: The Fourth Man is a 1985 film starring Ian Richardson , Anthony Hopkins , Michael Williams , and Rosie Kerslake, covering the events of 1951 when Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean went missing.\nThe Untouchable , a 1997 novel by John Banville , is a roman à clef based largely on the life and character of Anthony Blunt; the novel's protagonist, Victor Maskell, is a loosely disguised Blunt, although some elements of the character are based on Louis MacNeice. [22]\nA Friendship of Convenience: Being a Discourse on Poussin's \"Landscape With a Man Killed by a Snake\", is a 1997 novel by Rufus Gunn set in 1956 in which Blunt, then Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, encounters Joseph Losey , a film director fleeing McCarthyism .\nCambridge Spies is a 2003 four-part BBC television drama concerning the lives of the Cambridge Four from 1934 to the defection of Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean to the Soviet Union.\nBibliography",
"Michael Straight, the last of five Cold War spies recruited by the Soviets to infiltrate the British government, told all in a 1983 book, but he took some secrets to the grave - tribunedigital-mcall\nMichael Straight, the last of five Cold War spies recruited by the Soviets to infiltrate the British government, told all in a 1983 book, but he took some secrets to the grave\nIN FROM THE COLD\nFebruary 08, 2004|By Richard Kepler Brunner, Special to The Morning Call - Freelance\n\"In April, 1964, Sir Anthony Blunt admitted to security authorities that he had been recruited as a talent spotter for Russian intelligence before the war
and had passed information regularly to the Russians
He first came under suspicion
in 1953 (and) was interviewed on 11 occasions. He persisted in his denial and no evidence against him was obtained. Early in 1964, new information was received which directly implicated Blunt.\"\n-- Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, Nov. 15, 1979\nWhen he died at age 87 in January, Michael Whitney Straight was the last of the Cambridge Cold War spies to come in from the cold. He was the only American among the English university students recruited as Soviet agents in the 1930s. The recruits included Anthony Blunt, Guy Burgess, Donald Maclean and Harry \"Kim\" Philby. The latter was the most cunning, dangerous and devious double agent among \"Stalin's Englishmen.\"\nFOR THE RECORD - (Published Sunday, February 15, 2004) Due to a production problem, two sentences on page D4 in the Feb. 8 article by Richard Kepler Brunner, \"In from the cold,\" were obscured. The affected sentences should have read. \"(Michael) Straight gave (Michael) Green a memorandum 'setting forth my views on teh Nazi-Soviet pact.' A decade later, Straight was told by an FBI official that sometime in 1942 Green had been summoned to Moscow.\" Also, \"It was on that day, unknown to (Sir Anthony) Blunt, surveyor of the queen's pictures, renowned art historian, respected scholar and a third cousin to the Queen Mother, that Blunt's reputation and brillant career were about to be forever tarnished.\"\nBurgess and Maclean defected to the Soviet Union in 1951, followed by Philby in 1963. All died in exile. Blunt was felled by a heart attack in his London flat on March 26, 1983, the last, but one, of the Cambridge communist cell. His interment on March 29 was the day in Holy Week aptly named \"Spy Wednesday.\"\nThe \"new information\" Thatcher cited that blew Blunt's cover came from Straight, who was a contemporary with Blunt at Trinity College, when Blunt -- with a nudge from Burgess -- recruited him as a Soviet spy. Straight came from a family of wealth, culture and far-reaching connections that radiated from the centers of finance, publishing and government, to inside the White House of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt.\n\"After Long Silence,\" Straight's account of the Russian spy network embedded deep in the British establishment, was published in 1983. Here he tells the story of his recruitment (in 1937) and years as a \"reluctant\" Soviet agent in Washington. He confided this first to the FBI in 1963, and later to Britain's internal security service, M15.\nThat an interval of 26 years elapsed between his recruitment as a communist spy and his \"confession\" to United States and British intelligence services has raised doubts about Straight's integrity. To the end of his life, he insisted that \"I was not a spy in the accepted usage of that word.\" He preferred to believe that he had merely dabbled at the fringe of espionage and had not \"actually betrayed his country.\"\nHowever, in delaying by decades \"Blowing the Gaff\" (his chapter heading when he unmasked Blunt), great damage was done, and countless lives lost, by the traitorous acts of Blunt, Philby, Burgess and Maclean. Each, on orders from their Soviet masters, had managed to gain for themselves lofty positions within British intelligence and diplomatic circles -- an infiltration that permitted them access to government secrets and the opportunity to pass them on to their Soviet handlers, primarily in London, Washington and New York.\nThe ease with which this penetration was accomplished and preserved says a great deal about England's social, political and governmental fraternity, bound together by old school ties and the sacred upper-class shibboleth, \"surely, not one of us.\"\nBy now, Straight was a confirmed Anglophile and Blunt's order, via Moscow, for him to quit England for the United States, was unwelcome news. His assignment was to get inside the Wall Street apparatus and report his findings to a Soviet contact. Straight's capitalist target was well chosen by the Kremlin, for his late father, Willard, had been a partner in the J. P. Morgan Bank; thus the Straight name was an automatic door-opener in Manhattan's financial district.\nBut Straight had other ideas. Shortly after returning to the United States on a visit, he writes, \"My stepfather, Jerry, and I went to Washington. We had tea with President and Mrs. Roosevelt in the White House. I began my search for a job.\" After returning to Cambridge to settle his affairs, Straight came home and began his search for a job inside the government, not on Wall Street.\n\"I went to see Roosevelt in his White House study,\" he writes. \"He tried to think of agencies that might take me on; he gave up.\" That was in the autumn of 1937, when the recession had stalled government hiring -- even of a silver-spooned dilettante with friends in high places.\nIt was then that his other Roosevelt friend, Eleanor, intervened. She wrote a letter on his behalf to Sumner Welles, undersecretary of state. Finally, Straight finagled his way inside the Department of State, albeit as an unpaid volunteer in the Office of the Economic Adviser. He worked in the Old State Department building, an imposing edifice fronting Pennsylvania Avenue, across the road from the White House.\nHe was not long on the job before he received a telephone call at home. \"I heard the thick voice of a stranger, speaking in a European accent
\"Mr. Straight?
I bring you greetings from your friends in Cambridge University.' \"",
"Anthony Blunt and the Cambridge Spies\nBy Tracy R. Twyman\nOriginally written for Dagobert’s Revenge Magazine , Copyright 1998\n(Does not necessarily represent author’s current viewpoint.)\nClockwise: Anthony Blunt, Donald Maclean, Kim Philby, Guy Burgess\nDuring the 1930′s, in the years preceding World War II, four young Englishmen known as “the Cambridge Spies” were used by the KGB to infiltrate British intelligence. They had been recruited from the university’s Trinity College, chosen for their keen minds and their Marxist sensibilities. Their names: Donald Maclean, Harold Adrian Russell “Kim” Philby, Guy Francis de Moncy Burgess, and Anthony F. Blunt, the man this article is concerned with. All but one of them – Philby – was a homosexual. It was Blunt who was recruited first, and he soon began recruiting other alumni, (although he was not responsible for recruiting the other three Cambridge Spies). He and Burgess had been members of a Marxist secret society called “the Cambridge Apostles.” Blunt has been described as “tall, charming, arrogant, somewhat cold, and a dedicated communist.” Of the four, Blunt’s espionage career lasted the longest. After establishing himself as a French tutor, art historian, and advisor to Queen Elizabeth (for which he was knighted), he joined MI5, Britain’s domestic intelligence service, in 1939. Burgess and Maclean became secretaries to the British Foreign Office, and Philby, who would become the ringleader of the Cambridge Spies, served the Communists as a member of MI6, Britain’s CIA.\nBetween 1940 and 1945, these men did some serious damage to Britain and the United States. Blunt and Burgess provided the KGB with secret Foreign Office and MI5 documents describing Allied military strategy. Maclean reported directly to Stalin, and was his “main source” for information on the communications between Churchill and Roosevelt, then later between Churchill and Truman. This included updates on the development of the atom bomb, and how much uranium the U.S. had stockpiled. Philby informed the Russians when the Nazi code “Enigma” was broken by the Brits, and fingered British agents who were working inside Russia, to be dealt with swiftly by the KGB.\nAfter the war, the Cambridge Spies continued to clandestinely serve the Communist cause. Maclean reported to Stalin about Truman and Churchill’s plans to occupy Germany and alter the borders of the Eastern European countries – information he was armed with at the Yalta conference. Philby was sent to Washington to work as a liaison between MI6 and the CIA, and also the FBI. This gave him access to all of the FBI reports shared by the British, and he was able to tell the Russians when the FBI had broken the Soviet code (“Venona”). He also forewarned them that the United States would not use nuclear weapons during the Korean war, and that MacArthur would be prevented from carrying the war beyond the Yalu river. Burgess continues to provide top secret documents to the KGB while working in his capacity as secretary to the British Deputy Foreign Minister. During these years, Blunt mainly acted as a middle man for these transactions.\nIn 1949, Philby became aware that his partner Maclean had been identified as a Russian spy, and that the British would shortly close in on him. He sent Burgess, who was living with him at the time, back to London to warn Maclean of his impending capture, and to suggest that Maclean defect at once to Mother Russia. Before Burgess left, Philby asked him not to defect along with Maclean, lest suspicion fall on Philby himself, whom he was rooming with. Of course, that is exactly what happened, and Philby, who never forgave the betrayal, became known to British intelligence as “the Third Man,” the one suspected of having warned Maclean. He was able to stay on MI6 for several more tumultuous years, but in 1963, while working on assignment in Beirut, an MI6 associate was sent to question him. He confessed, but managed to defect to Russia before he was sent back to London for prosecution.\nAfter Philby’s defection, suspicion began to fall quite heavily on our man Anthony Blunt, whom British intelligence called “the Fourth Man.” One of his recruits from Cambridge, an American named Michael Straight, pointed him out to MI5. Blunt was offered immunity, and on April 23, 1964, confessed. He was then interrogated by “Spycatcher” Peter Wright, but was careful to provide only information pertaining to agents who were already dead, or who had already been found out. But he was not publicly unmasked until 1979, when Margaret Thatcher revealed his treachery to the world and stripped him of his knighthood. He was also forced to resign his post as Adviser to the Queen’s Pictures. But that was the worst punishment he ever received, and he continued to live in England with his lover, John Gaskin, until he died of a heart attack in 1983.\nThe reason why we here have an interest in Anthony Blunt is because of his unusual expertise in the field of art history, for he was actually acknowledged as the world’s foremost expert on the works of Nicholas Poussin. This was the famous French artist whose painting The Shepherds of Arcadia is so central to the thesis of this magazine and the whole issue of the Holy Grail. Poussin was one of the names mentioned in the parchments found at the parish in Rennes-le-Chateau, France, which stated:\nTo Dagobert II, King, and to Sion belong this treasure and he is there dead.\nAnd:\nShepherdess no temptation that Poussin and Teniers hold the key; Peace 681 by the cross and this horse of God I destroy this daemon guardian at noon blue apples.\nAfter these parchments were found by the parish’s cure, Berenger Sauniere, he purchased a copy of The Shepherds of Arcadia, and began performing excavations on the parish grounds in the middle of the night. He soon became fabulously rich, with the help of mysterious contributions from the aristocratic Blanchefort family. It is believed by many, as speculated in the book Holy Blood, Holy Grail\n, that Saunière found the “treasure†that was referred to in the parchments. This treasure was purportedly something which may have proved that Jesus had survived the crucifixion, and that his descendants were none other than France’s original royal family, the Merovingians, of whom King Dagobert II was one. Thus the treasure really would belong to “Sion,” meaning the royal House of David, and to “Dagobert II, King.” It would have also been of interest to the Blanchefort family, which was related by blood to the Merovingians. And such a treasure would most certainly be of interest to the Catholic Church because of the potentially disastrous theological implications, and certainly they would have wished to silence Father Sauniere, with cash contributions perhaps.\nSauniere’s own bizarre behavior following these events – renovating the parish to include a statue of the demon Asmodeus, installing Stations of the Cross that made it look like Jesus was removed from the tomb before the Resurrection, and placing a plaque outside which said “This place is terrible” – are enough to indicate that his own religious beliefs had been shaken to the core. He also began hanging out with known occultists, including opera singer Emma Calve and composer Claude Debussy, who is supposed to have at one time led the infamous Priory of Sion. The Priory was dedicated to the restoration of the Merovingian dynasty, and it was they who chartered the Knights Templar back in 1118, drafted originally as their own military arm. The Templars later became the official guardians of Scotland’s House of Stuart, which is also related to the Merovingians, and interestingly, the Templars are referred to in the Arthurian legends as the “guardians of the Grail.” This is significant, for it is believed by many, including the authors of Holy Blood, Holy Grail\n, that the “Sangreal,” which is the word originally used in these romances and has been translated as “Holy Grail” is actually a play on the French words “sang real,” or “royal blood.” It is therefore a veiled reference to the bloodline of Christ – the Merovingian dynasty and its various offshoots. Thus the “treasure” that Sauniere found, if he did indeed, might have actually been the Holy Grail itself, proof of the continuation of the royal house of David through the royal house of France."
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"From the archive, 17 November 1979: Art historian who ...",
"Anthony Blunt - Covert History Wiki - Wikia",
"Did Queen Elizabeth suspect Cambridge Spy a decade before ...",
"The Fitzwilliam Museum : Hidden Histories Home",
"Anthony Blunt - The Full Wiki",
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"TRACY R. TWYMAN | Anthony Blunt and the Cambridge Spies"
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"https://anthonyblunt.wordpress.com/2009/10/05/anthony-blunt/",
"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/17/anthony-blunt-spy-sentenced-1979",
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"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/theroyalfamily/9634623/Did-Queen-Elizabeth-suspect-Cambridge-Spy-a-decade-before-confession.html",
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Which famous name was accused f the abduction of Stompie Seipei?
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"James Seipei (1974–1989), also known as Stompie Moeketsi, was a teenage United Democratic Front (UDF) activist from Parys in South Africa. He and three other boys were kidnapped on 29 December 1988 by members of Winnie Mandela's bodyguards, known as the Mandela United football club. Moeketsi was murdered on 1 January 1989, the only one of the boys to be killed. \n\nActivism\n\nMoeketsi joined the street uprising against apartheid in the mid-1980s at age ten, and soon took on a leading role. He became the country's youngest political detainee when he spent his 12th birthday in jail without trial. At the age of 13 he was expelled from school.\n\nMurder\n\nMoeketsi, together with Kenny Kgase, Pelo Mekgwe and Thabiso Mono, were kidnapped on 29 December 1988 from the Methodist manse in Orlando, Soweto. Moeketsi was accused of being a police informer and after the 4 boys were kidnapped they were pleading and saying that Stompie isn't a police informer. Jerry Richardson, one of the members of Winnie Mandela's Football Club, was carrying a samurai-like sword before he closed the door and screams were heard as Stompie Moeketsi was murdered at the age of 14. His body was found on waste ground near Winnie Mandela's house on 6 January 1989, and recovered by the police. His throat had been cut. Jerry Richardson, one of Winnie Mandela's bodyguards, was convicted of the murder. He claimed that she had ordered him, with others, to abduct the four youths from Soweto, of whom Moeketsi was the youngest. The four were severely beaten.\n\nInvolvement of Winnie Mandela\n\nIn 1991, Winnie Mandela was convicted of kidnapping and being an accessory to assault, but her six-year jail sentence was reduced to a fine and a two-year suspended sentence on appeal. In 1992 she was accused of ordering the murder of Dr. Abu-Baker Asvat, a family friend who had examined Seipei at Mandela's house, after Seipei had been abducted but before he had been killed. Mandela's role was later probed as part of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearings, in 1997. She was said to have paid the equivalent of $8,000 and supplied the firearm used in the killing, which took place on 27 January 1989. The hearings were later adjourned amid claims that witnesses were being intimidated on Winnie Mandela's orders. \n\nThis incident became a cause célèbre for the apartheid government and opponents of the ANC, and Winnie Mandela's iconic status was dealt a heavy blow.\n\nAppearing before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 1997, she said allegations that she was involved in at least 18 human rights abuses including eight murders were \"ridiculous\" and claimed that her main accuser, former comrade Katiza Cebekhulu, was a former \"mental patient\" and his allegations against her were \"hallucinations\". The Commission found that the abduction had been carried out on Winnie Mandela's instructions, and that she had \"initiated and participated in the assaults\". However, with regard to the actual murder the Commission found Mandela only \"negligent\"."
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"What is Happening in South Africa: The Murder of 14 yr old \"Stompie\"\nThe Murder of 14 yr old \"Stompie\"\nThe Murder of James \"Stompie\" Seipei \nJames Seipei (1974–1988), also known as Stompie Moeketsi, was a teenage African National Congress (ANC) activist from Parys in South Africa. He was kidnapped and murdered on 29 December 1988 by members of Winnie Mandela's bodyguards, known as the Mandela United football club.\nMoeketsi joined the street uprising against apartheid in the mid 1980s at age ten, and soon took on a leading role. He became the country's youngest political detainee when he spent his 12th birthday in jail without trial. At the age of 13 he was expelled from school .\nMoeketsi was kidnapped on 29 December 1988 after a school rally, accused of being a police informer and murdered at the age of 14. His body was found in Soweto with his throat slit. Jerry Richardson, one of Winnie Mandela's bodyguards, was convicted of the murder. \nHe claimed that she had ordered him to abduct four young men from Soweto, of whom Stompie was the youngest. The four were severely beaten and Stompie's body was later recovered by the police.\nInvolvement of Winnie Mandela\nWinnie Madikizela-Mandela (born Nomzamo Winfreda Madikizelza; 26 September 1936) is a South AfricanAfrican National Congress Women's League. She is currently a member of the ANC's National Executive Committee. Although still married to Nelson Mandela at the time of his becoming president of South Africa in May 1994, she was never the first lady of South Africa, as the couple had separated two years earlier after it was revealed that Winnie had been unfaithful during Nelson's incarceration. Their divorce was finalized on 19 March 1996, with an unspecified out-of-court settlement. Winnie Mandela's attempt to obtain a settlement up to US$5 million, half of what she claimed her ex-husband was worth, was dismissed when she failed to appear at court for a financial settlement hearing.\nA controversial activist, she is popular among her supporters, who refer to her as the 'Mother of the Nation', yet reviled by others, mostly due to her alleged involvement in several human rights abuses, including the 1989 kidnap of 14-year old ANC activist Stompie Moeketsi, who was later murdered.\nIn March 2009, the Independent Electoral Commission ruled that Winnie Mandela, who was selected as an ANC candidate, could run in the April 2009 general election, despite having a fraud conviction.\n \nEarly life\nHer Xhosa name is Nomzamo. Nomzamo means \"trial (having a hard time in life)\". She was born in the village of eMbongweni, Bizana, in the Pondo region of what is now South Africa's Eastern Cape Province. She held a number of jobs in various parts of what was then the Bantustan of Transkei, including with the Transkei government, living at various times in Bizana, Shawbury and Johannesburg.\n \nShe met lawyer and anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela in 1957. They were married in 1958 and had two daughters, Zenani (also called Zeni) (b.1959) and Zindzi (b.1960). In June 2010, Winnie was treated for shock after the death of her great-granddaughter, Zenani, who was killed in a car accident on the eve of the opening of South Africa's World Cup. She has diabetes.\nDespite restrictions on education of blacks during apartheid, Mandela earned a degree in social work from the Jan Hofmeyer School in Johannesburg, and several years later earned a Bachelor's degree in international relations from the University of Witwatersrand, also in Johannesburg. She is also a qualified Social Worker.\nApartheid\nMandela emerged as a leading opponent of the white minority rule government during the later years of her husband's long imprisonment (August 1963 – February 1990). For many of those years, she was exiled to the town of Brandfort in the Orange Free State and confined to the area, except for the times she was allowed to visit her husband at the prison on Robben Island. Beginning in 1969, she spent eighteen months in solitary confinement at Pretoria Central Prison.\nDuring the 1980s as well as the early 1990s, she attracted immense national and international media attention and was interviewed by many foreign journalists as well as national journalists such as Jani Allan, then Leading Columnist of the South African Sunday Times.\nIn a leaked letter to Jacob Zuma in October 2008, just-resigned President of South Africa Thabo Mbeki alluded to the role the ANC created for her in the anti-apartheid activism:\nIn the context of the global struggle for the release of political prisoners in our country, our movement took a deliberate decision to profile Nelson Mandela as the representative personality of these prisoners, and therefore to use his personal political biography, including the persecution of his then wife, Winnie Mandela, dramatically to present to the world and the South African community the brutality of the apartheid system.\nViolent rhetoric and murder allegations\nMandela's reputation was damaged by what many considered her sometimes bloodthirsty rhetoric, the most noteworthy example of this being a speech she gave in Munsieville on 13 April 1986, where she endorsed the practice of necklacing (burning people alive using tyres and petrol) in the struggle to end apartheid. \nShe said, \"with our boxes of matches and our necklaces we shall liberate this country\".\nFurther tarnishing her reputation were accusations by her bodyguard, Jerry Musivuzi Richardson, that Winnie Madikizela-Mandela ordered kidnapping and murder. On 29 December 1988, Richardson, coach of the Mandela United Football Club (MUFC) -- which acted as Mrs. Mandela's personal security detail -- abducted 14-year-old James Seipei (also known as Stompie Moeketsi ) and three other youths from the home of Methodist minister Rev. Paul Verryn. Mrs. Mandela claimed that she had the youth taken to her home because she suspected the reverend was sexually abusing them. The four were beaten in order to get them to admit to sex with the reverend and Seipei was also accused of being an informer. Seipei's body was found in a field with stab wounds to the throat on 6 January 1989. This incident became a cause célèbre for the apartheid government. In 1991, she was convicted of kidnapping and being an accessory to assault in connection with the death of Seipei. Her six-year jail sentence was reduced to a fine on appeal. \nThe final report of the South African Truth and Reconciliation commission, issued in 1998, found \"Ms Winnie Madikizela Mandela politically and morally accountable for the gross violations of human rights committed by the MUFC.\"\nTransition to democracy\nDuring South Africa's transition to democracy, she adopted a far less conciliatory attitude than her husband toward the dominant white community. Despite being on her husband's arm when he was released in 1990, the first time the two had been seen in public for nearly thirty years, the Mandelas' 38-year marriage ended when they separated in April 1992 after it was revealed that she had been unfaithful to Nelson during his imprisonment. The couple divorced in March 1996. She then adopted the surname Madikizela-Mandela. Appointed Deputy Minister of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology in the first post-Apartheid government (May 1994), she was dismissed eleven months later following allegations of corruption.\nShe remained popular among many ANC supporters, and, in December 1993 and April 1997, she was elected president of the ANC Women's League, though she withdrew her candidacy for ANC Deputy President at the movement's Mafikeng conference in December 1997. In 1997, she appeared before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Archbishop Desmond Tutu as chairman of the commission recognised her importance in the anti-apartheid struggle, but also begged her to apologize and to admit her mistakes. In a guarded response, she echoed his words, admitting that \"things went horribly wrong\".\nLegal problems\nOn 24 April 2003, she was found guilty on 43 counts of fraud and 25 of theft, and her broker, Addy Moolman, was convicted on 58 counts of fraud and 25 of theft. Both had pleaded not guilty to the charges, which related to money taken from loan applicants' accounts for a funeral fund, but from which the applicants did not benefit. Madikizela-Mandela was sentenced to five years in prison.\nShortly after the conviction, she resigned from all leadership positions in the ANC, including her parliamentary seat and the presidency of the ANC Women's League.\nIn late 2003, her close friend and socialite Hazel Crane was murdered. Crane previously offered to buy Madikizela-Mandela a house.\nIn July 2004, an appeal judge of the Pretoria High Court ruled that \"the crimes were not committed for personal gain\". The judge overturned the conviction for theft, but upheld the one for fraud, handing her a three years and six months suspended sentence.\nIn June 2007, the Canadian High Commission in South Africa declined to grant Winnie Mandela a visa to travel to Toronto, Canada, where she was scheduled to attend a gala fundraising concert organised by arts organization MusicaNoir, which included the world premiere of The Passion of Winnie, an opera based on her life.\nReturn to politics\nWhen the ANC announced the election of its National Executive Committee on 21 December 2007, Mandela placed first with 2845 votes.\nApology to riot victims\nMandela criticised the anti-immigrant violence in May–June 2008 that began in Johannesburg and spread throughout the country, and blamed the government's lack of suitable housing provisions for the sentiments behind the riots. She also apologized to the victims of the riots and visited the Alexandra township.\nShe also offered her home as a shelter for an immigrant family from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. She warned that the perpetrators of the violence could strike at the Gauteng train system.\n2009 general election\nMandela secured fifth place on the ANC's electoral list for the 2009 general election, behind party president and current President of South Africa Jacob Zuma, former President of South Africa Kgalema Motlanthe, Deputy President of South Africa Baleka Mbete, and Finance Minister Trevor Manuel. An article in The Observer suggested that her position near the top of the list indicated that the party's leadership saw her as a valuable asset in the election with regard to solidifying support among the party's grassroots and the poor.\n In 1991, Winnie Mandela was convicted of kidnapping and being an accessory to assault but her six-year jail sentence was reduced to a fine and a two-year suspended sentence on appeal.\n 2010 interview with Nadira Naipaul\n \nIn 2010, Madikizela-Mandela was interviewed by Nadira Naipaul . In the interview, she attacked her ex-husband, claiming that he had \"let blacks down\", claiming that he was only \"wheeled out to collect money\", and that he is \"nothing more than a foundation\". She further attacked his decision to accept the Nobel Peace Prize with FW De Klerk . Among other things, she also claimed that Mandela was no longer \"accessible\" to her daughters. She referred to archbishop Desmond Tutu, in his capacity as the head of the Truth and Reconciliation commission as a \"cretin\".\nThe interview attracted media attention, and the ANC announced it would ask her to explain the apparent attack on Nelson Mandela.\nOn 14 March 2010 a statement was issued on behalf of Winnie Mandela claiming that the interview was a \"fabrication\".\nMy husband and I have just crossed Africa. On the final leg of our journey we had finally come to South Africa – a place that now went hand in hand with the name Mandela.\nMy husband had been reluctant to come here but then he had followed his instinct and it had brought us to the Soweto door of the mystifying Winnie Mandela, a much celebrated and reviled woman of our times.\nLooking out at her garden, I wondered how long we would have to wait to see her. We were in a stronghold of sorts, with high enclosing walls and electronic gates which were controlled from inside a bunker-like guardhouse. There were tall muscular men dressed in black who casually appeared and disappeared.\nIn the late Eighties, Winnie’s thuggish bodyguards, the Mandela United Football Club, terrorized Soweto. Club “captain” was Jerry Richardson, who died in prison last year while serving life for the murder of Stompie Moeketsi, a 14-year-old who was kidnapped with three other boys and beaten in the home where we would soon sit, sipping coffee. Winnie was sentenced to six years for kidnap, which was reduced to a fine on appeal.\nMembers of the gang would later testify to South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission that Winnie had ordered the torture, murder and kidnap of her own people, and even participated directly.\nWinnie used to live, before she was famous, down one of the narrow, congested streets with small brick and iron sheet houses. Soweto is still a predominately black township: tourists come in buses to gawp at the streets linked to freedom, apartheid and Mandela.\nWinnie now has an imposing fortress on the hill. The garden is full of trees and well-manicured shrubs. We walked straight into a small cluttered hallway. It was full of the man: Mandela. He was everywhere. Presents, portraits, honorary degrees and letters covering every empty space on the walls.\nThere was an air of expectancy as we entered. Our fixer had arranged this meeting with Winnie (or Mama Mandela, her township name) through her confidant and admirer. He is a young man in his early forties who is a well-known television presenter here and clearly an ardent devotee.\nHe sat us down and talked softly about her. The politics of his generation, he said, had been defined by this woman. Her courage, her fire and her sheer stubbornness had made them men. They saw how unafraid she was and the risks and humiliations she was willing to absorb. These humiliations had not ended with apartheid. She was discarded, demonized and betrayed, he said.\nMy nerves were playing up: my husband does not like to be kept waiting at the best of times. He is punctilious and has been known to walk away from a delayed meeting, leaving me to deal with the fallout.\nIt was at that moment she appeared, tall, carefully attired in soft grey, wearing her signature wig. She held Vidia’s outstretched hand and asked him to sit next to her. She flashed a smile in my direction. The air was electrified by her presence.\nI did what was expected of me. I asked her if she was happy with the way things had panned out in South Africa. Winnie looked at my husband. Did he wish for the truth? She had heard of him. He pursued the truth or the closest he could get to it.\nNo, she was not happy. And she had her reasons. “I kept the movement alive,” she began. “You have been in the township. You have seen how bleak it still is. Well, it was here where we flung the first stone. It was here where we shed so much blood. Nothing could have been achieved without the sacrifice of the people. Black people.”\nShe looked at Vidia expecting another question. He said nothing, but his dark hooded eyes shone and she carried on with her eyes firmly locked onto his face. “The ANC was in exile. The entire leadership was on the run or in jail. And there was no one to remind these people, black people, of the horror of their daily reality; when something so abnormal as apartheid becomes a daily reality. It was our reality. And four generations had lived with it – as non-people.”\nAs she spoke, I looked at her thinking she was, at 73, as her reputation promised, quite extraordinary. The ANC had needed this passionate revolutionary. Without her, the fire would have been so easily extinguished and she had used everything and anything to stoke it. While some still refer to her as Mother of the Nation, she is decried by many because of her links to the Stompie murder and other violent crimes during the apartheid era, and a conviction for fraud.\n“Were you not afraid?” I asked instinctively, but then I regretted this foolish query.\nShe looked towards my chair. Her grey glasses focused on my face. “Yes, I was afraid in the beginning. But then there is only so much they can do to you. After that it is only death. They can only kill you, and as you see, I am still here.”\nI knew that the apartheid enforcers had done everything in their power to break this woman. She had suffered every indignity a person could bear. They had picked her up in the night and placed her under house arrest in Brandfort, a border town in Orange Free State, 300 miles from Soweto. “It was exile,” she said, “when everything else had failed.”\nAt this remote outpost, where she spent nine years, she had recruited young men for the party. “Right under their noses,” she said to Vidia, laughing with the memory of it. “The only worry or pain I had was for my daughters. Never really knowing what was happening to them. I feel they have really suffered in all this. Not me or Mandela,” she said.\nHer two young daughters had never quite understood what was really happening. Bad men went to prison. Their father was in prison but he was not bad. “That anguish was unbearable for me as a mother, not knowing how my children coped when they held me in long solitary confinement.”\nZenani, now 51, and Zindzi, 50, remain very much in the background, having no wish to enter politics themselves, Winnie said. Nelson Mandela is no longer “accessible” to his daughters and they have to get through much red tape just to speak to their father, she told us.\nWinnie brought up his name very casually, as if it was of no real value to her: not any more.\n“This name Mandela is an albatross around the necks of my family. You all must realise that Mandela was not the only man who suffered. There were many others, hundreds who languished in prison and died. Many unsung and unknown heroes of the struggle, and there were others in the leadership too, like poor Steve Biko, who died of the beatings, horribly all alone. Mandela did go to prison and he went in there as a burning young revolutionary. But look what came out,” she said, looking to the writer. He said nothing but listened.\nIt is hard to knock a living legend. Only a wife, a lover or a mistress has that privilege. Only they are privy to the intimate inner man, I thought.\n“Mandela let us down. He agreed to a bad deal for the blacks. Economically, we are still on the outside. The economy is very much ‘white’. It has a few token blacks, but so many who gave their life in the struggle have died unrewarded.”\nShe was pained. Her uncreased brown face had lost the softness.\n“I cannot forgive him for going to receive the Nobel [Peace Prize in 1993] with his jailer [FW] de Klerk. Hand in hand they went. Do you think de Klerk released him from the goodness of his heart? He had to. The times dictated it, the world had changed, and our struggle was not a flash in the pan, it was bloody to say the least and we had given rivers of blood. I had kept it alive with every means at my disposal”.\nWe could believe that. The world-famous images flashed before our eyes and I am sure hers. The burning tyres – Winnie endorsed the necklacing of collaborators in a speech in 1985 (“with our boxes of matches and our necklaces we shall liberate this country”) – the stoning, the bullets, the terrible deaths of “informers”. Her often bloodthirsty rhetoric has marred her reputation.\n“Look at this Truth and Reconciliation charade. He should never have agreed to it.” Again her anger was focused on Mandela. “What good does the truth do? How does it help anyone to know where and how their loved ones were killed or buried? That Bishop Tutu who turned it all into a religious circus came here,” she said pointing to an empty chair in the distance.\n“He had the cheek to tell me to appear. I told him a few home truths. I told him that he and his other like-minded cretins were only sitting here because of our struggle and ME. Because of the things I and people like me had done to get freedom.”\nWinnie did appear before the TRC in 1997, which in its report judged her to have been implicated in murders: “The commission finds Mandela herself was responsible for committing such gross violations of human rights.”\nWhen begged by Archbishop Desmond Tutu to admit that “things went horribly wrong” and apologise, Winnie finally said sorry to Stompie’s mother and to the family of her former personal doctor whose killing she is alleged to have ordered after he refused to cover up Stompie’s murder.\nSomeone brought in the coffee and we took the offered cups in silence.\n“I am not alone. The people of Soweto are still with me. Look what they make him do. The great Mandela. He has no control or say any more. They put that huge statue of him right in the middle of the most affluent “white” area of Johannesburg. Not here where we spilled our blood and where it all started. Mandela is now a corporate foundation. He is wheeled out globally to collect the money and he is content doing that. The ANC have effectively sidelined him but they keep him as a figurehead for the sake of appearance.”\nThe eyes behind the grey tinted glasses were fiery with anger. It was an economic betrayal, she was saying, nothing had changed for the blacks, except that apartheid had officially gone. As she spoke of betrayal she inadvertently looked at a portrait of Mandela.\nI looked at Winnie. Maybe she did not know when to stop. Maybe that is the bane of a revolutionary: they gather such momentum that he or she can’t stop. I saw that although her trials and tribulations had been recorded, the scars on the inner, most secret part of her spirit tormented her.\nBut for Winnie the deaths, the burning tyres around the necks of the informers and her own Faustian pacts perhaps made Mandela and his vaunted wisdom look like feeble compromises from a feeble man. No one could expect him to protect her or his children from his 27-year incarceration but now he was out he had wanted peace. He had longings, perhaps scars in the mind, fears and perhaps even wisdom that she could not match or return.\nThe rumour rife in South Africa was that she could not abide him or touch him during their two-year attempt to salvage the marriage after his release in 1990. It was all too sad. And though he had been prepared to forgive the past, his wife’s affairs while he was in prison, it had not worked. They divorced in 1996, having spent only five of their 38 married years together. Her anger was a mighty liability and her defiance was too awful for words.\n“I am not sorry. I will never be sorry. I would do everything I did again if I had to. Everything.” She paused.\nI thought of the terrible shadow of the murder of Stompie. Winnie had flung the stone that had cracked the one-way mirror of apartheid. The “interrogators”, the compromisers, were now all unmasked and for what?\n“You know, sometimes I think we had not thought it all out. There was no planning from our side. How could we? We were badly educated and the leadership does not acknowledge that. Maybe we have to go back to the drawing board and see where it all went wrong.”\nThis was Winnie the politician. This was the phoenix. Publicly, the ANC leadership, who made her a minister in the first post-apartheid government in 1994 and welcomed her back subsequently, distanced themselves from her amid allegations of corruption (in 2003, she was convicted of fraud and given a suspended prison sentence). But for the masses, she spoke their language and remains popular with those who feel their government hasn’t done enough.\nWe could see why the ANC had needed this obdurate woman. She was bold and had an idea of her worth. She was the perfect mistress for the ANC in the bad times but then she became dangerous.\nAs we stood up to leave, we saw a photograph of a young Winnie looking wistfully into the camera. She was ravishingly beautiful and Mandela had sought her. But the battle was over. She had played her part. It was over. She had been sidelined and discarded, but since the freedom had not brought the promised dream for the vast black population, she would continue to play her hand in politics. Of that I was sure. She was still a woman who could reflect the dangerous part of a man’s dream, whatever it may be.\n“When I was born my mother was very disappointed. She wanted a son. I knew that from a very early age. So I was a tomboy. I wanted to be a doctor at some point and I was always bringing home strays from school. People who were too poor to pay fees or have food. My parents never rebuked me or told me that they were hard-pressed, too.”\nShe lit up talking of her past and of early memories that had nothing to do with the struggle. And then she suddenly turned towards Vidia and said: “But when I am alone I cannot help but think of the past. The past is still alive in here. In my head.” She pointed to the brain.\nWas it all nothing but a great loss? I wanted to know. Part of me ached for her. As a woman I felt her great transgressions and the pain. I wanted to tell her that if I had been Mandela I would have forgiven her but I lacked the courage. What would Vidia say to me if I did?\nHe was saying goodbye. My eyes were filling. Instinctively she turned and looked into me and her eyes softened. She walked towards me and pulled me into her embrace. “I know what you want to say,” she whispered into my ear, “and for that I am grateful.”\n(The interview appeared on the London Evening Standard on the 8th March 2010. Days later Winnie denied that the interview took place but Nadira insisted that it did)\nCan Winnie Mandela's Heroism Outshine her Crimes? by BBC News , January 25, 2010\nThe Rand Supreme Court sentences Jerry Richardson to death for the murder 14-year-old Stompie Seipei.\nStompie Seipei was a child activist and member of the infamous Mandela Football Club established by Winnie Mandela as a front for the political mobilisation of township youths to stand against apartheid. Jerry Richardson abducted Seipei and three other boys near the Methodist Church (Manse), Soweto and took him to Winnie Mandela’s home. Richardson alleged that Winnie Mandela initiated the torture of Seipei, who was sjamboked and bounced on the floor by Richardson.\nSeipei was allegedly tortured and killed for sexual misconduct with a Methodist reverend Paul Verryn who was accused by some of the boys for having homosexual practices with young boys. Winnie Mandela also accused Seipei for being a police informer, a charge that carried a death penalty in terms of township mob justice.\nWinnie Mandela denied any involvement in the death of Stompie Seipei and accused Richardson for lying. However, the judge implicated Winnie Mandela in Stompie Seipei’s death by ruling that she was present when Stompie Seipei was tortured. The death of Seipei continued to haunt Winnie Mandela until some closure was reached when Winnie Mandela accepted, before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, some responsibility for the death of Seipei. Winnie Mandela had already apologised to Seipei’s mother for the loss of her son, but maintained her innocence.",
"Refworld | South Africa: Information on the Mandela United Football Club\nSouth Africa: Information on the Mandela United Football Club\nPublisher\nResearch Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board, Canada\nPublication Date\nZAF10810\nCite as\nCanada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, South Africa: Information on the Mandela United Football Club, 1 May 1992, ZAF10810, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ad1540.html [accessed 19 January 2017]\nDisclaimer\nThis is not a UNHCR publication. UNHCR is not responsible for, nor does it necessarily endorse, its content. Any views expressed are solely those of the author or publisher and do not necessarily reflect those of UNHCR, the United Nations or its Member States.\n \nPlease find attached some documents which describe the Mandela United Football Club.\nOne article states that the \"Mandela United soccer team\" was formed by Winnie Mandela in 1986 and its members acted as her bodyguards (The Globe and Mail 16 Feb. 1989). Another article indicates that the club exerted a \"reign of terror\" over Soweto since 1986, when Winnie Mandela returned to that township after eight years of exile in the Orange Free State (The Daily Telegraph 14 May 1991).\nThe club reportedly wore orange and green track suits, accompanied Mandela as personal bodyguards and set up a \"kangaroo court\" at the back of her home \"where judgement was pronounced and punishment meted out to opponents and anyone they regarded as traitors\" (Ibid.). The article adds that the club members did not play soccer but were involved, between 1987 and 1989, in more than twelve murders, several abductions and at least two rapes (Ibid.). The club reportedly kept a \"black book\" of prospective victims to be taken before their court, where punishment \"invariably involved beatings,\" and has been held responsible for \"throwing grenades into a shebeen, shootings, blowing up houses and, after one kidnap, carving `Viva ANC' into the flesh of two teenagers and pouring battery acid on their wounds\" (Ibid.). The source adds that Winnie Mandela claimed ignorance about the club's \"nefarious activities\" although it operated from her home and several people reportedly testified that she was a party to the violence and presided over the \"kangaroo courts\" (Ibid.).\nAnother news article describes the Football Club as \"a group of tough youths who live with Mrs. Mandela, and act as her private security force\" (Ibid. 30 Jan. 1989). The report adds that the team was accused of \"exploiting their links with the Mandela name to terrorise local people, and are alleged to have abducted and abused teenage girls\" (Ibid.). According to the source, Soweto activists formed a \"Mandela Crisis Committee\" that urged Winnie Mandela to disband the team. Four youths who were staying at a Soweto Methodist church were reportedly abducted by the team in what some activists stated was a \"retaliation for the Methodist minister's involvement with the Mandela Crisis Committee\" (Ibid.). One of the youths reportedly suffered serious throat injuries caused by a pair of garden shears while another went missing (Ibid.). The missing youth, \"Stompie\" Seipei, was later found dead (see below and Response to Information Request 10811 of 15 May 1992 and its attachments).\nThe Associated Press states that in February 1990 \"a group of South Africa's most prominent black leaders said the soccer team engaged in a `reign of terror' in Soweto\" and \"urged the community to shun Mrs. Mandela\" (AP 8 Aug. 1990).\nAn oral source consulted by the IRBDC described the Mandela United Football Club as not being a sports club, but rather a group of black youths gathered around Winnie Mandela and organizaed by Jerry Richardson (Private Consultant 6 May 1992). The source added that this group invariably posed as Winnie Mandela's bodyguards, adding that the black community in South Africa has accused it of employing intimidation tactics and being involved in \"questionable dealings\" (Ibid.).\nOne article describes the Mandela United Football Club as a group of young bodyguards who acquired a reputation in Soweto as \"a gang of ruthless thugs\" held responsible for at least 16 murders (Christian Science Monitor 9 Oct. 1990). The group is blamed for \"a series of kidnappings, beatings and murders [that] culminated in December 1988 with the abduction of four youths from a Methodist mission in Soweto\" (Ibid.). The leader of the group, Jerry Richardson, was convicted for the murder of the youngest abduction victim, \"Stompie\" Seipei (Ibid.).\nReferences\nThe Associated Press (AP). 8 August 1990, AM Cycle. \"Winnie Mandela's Bodyguard Sentenced to Death.\" (NEXIS)\nThe Christian Science Monitor. 9 October 1990. John Battersby. \"Winnie Mandela Stages Comeback Despite Court Challenges Ahead.\" (NEXIS)\nThe Daily Telegraph. 14 May 1991. Neil Darbyshire. \"The Mandela Soccer Club: How Winnie's Team Played to Kill.\" (NEXIS)\n. 30 January 1989. Stephen Robinson. \"Mrs. Mandela's `Football Club' Accused of Foul Tactics.\" (NEXIS)\nThe Globe and Mail. 16 February 1989, p. A14. \"Mandela Van Impounded by Police.\" (NEXIS)\nPrivate Consultant and author of reports on South Africa, Ottawa. 6 May 1992. Telephone Interview.\nAttachments\nThe Christian Science Monitor. 9 October 1990. John Battersby. \"Winnie Mandela Stages Comeback Despite Court Challenges Ahead.\" (NEXIS)\nThe Daily Telegraph. 14 May 1991. Neil Darbyshire. \"The Mandela Soccer Club: How Winnie's Team Played to Kill.\" (NEXIS)\n. 30 January 1989. Stephen Robinson. \"Mrs. Mandela's `Football Club' Accused of Foul Tactics.\" (NEXIS)\nCopyright notice: This document is published with the permission of the copyright holder and producer Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (IRB). The original version of this document may be found on the offical website of the IRB at http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/ . Documents earlier than 2003 may be found only on Refworld.",
"SAPA - 12 Sep 97 - KAUNDA CLARIFIES STATEMENT ON CEBEKHULU ABDUCTION\nSeptember 12 1997 - SAPA\nKAUNDA CLARIFIES STATEMENT ON CEBEKHULU ABDUCTION\nFormer Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda on Friday said he had assumed that a request to imprison a key witness in Winnie Madikizela-Mandela's kidnapping trial had been made by then ANC president Oliver Tambo on behalf of President Nelson Mandela.\nIn a statement, Kaunda said his attention had been drawn to a documentary recently screened on public television in Britain and South Africa regarding the case of Katiza Cebekhulu.\nKaunda's television interview was also detailed in a book about Cebekhulu - Katiza's Journey - written by British author Fred Bridgland.\nCebekhulu disappeared on the eve of the trial in which he and Madikizela-Mandela were accused of involvement in the kidnapping of teenage activist Stompie Seipei, and was later discovered in a Lusaka jail by former British MP Emma Nicholson.\nKaunda said: \"The impression may have been created by an interview of myself (in the documentary and book)... that I received a request personally from Mr Oliver Tambo on behalf of Mr Nelson Mandela to see to the holding in custody of Cebekhulu.\n\"I must clarify that in fact I did not receive a direct communication from Mr Oliver Tambo himself on this matter. It was (Zambian) government officials who informed me that they had received such a request from officials of Mr Tambo.\"\nKaunda said he had then, in good faith, assumed that Mandela had supported \"this initiative or action\".\n\"The truth is that I have never received a direct or indirect message from Mr Mandela on this matter.\"\nBridgland wrote that according to Zambian government records Kaunda himself believed Mandela might have been the mastermind behind the abduction and imprisonment without trial.\nReferring to the interview with Kaunda, he wrote: \"Kaunda recalled the Cebkhulu case, and Emma asked him whether Nelson Mandela had told him why he wanted Katiza Cebekhulu here and out of South Africa.\"\nBridgland quoted Kaunda's reply: \"He didn't give me any reason at all. What I did was to work on trust.\"\nKuanda explained the message had come from Tambo.\n\"He (Tambo) said that Nelson Mandela wants this man out of South Africa... He said we must go by what Nelson has said about his. And so we took that on trust, and that's how the young man found himself in trouble.\"\nAsked whether Tambo had claimed to be talking on behalf of Mandela, Kaunda replied: \"Exactly\".\nEarlier this week the president's office said Mandela did not arrange for Cebekhulu to be taken out of South Africa or to be incarcerated in Zambia.\nThe president also denied having meeting Cebekhulu during a visit to Zambia in 1992, as claimed in the book.\nThe ANC on Friday said it hoped Kaunda's comment would clarify confusion arising from the book and television documentary about the roles of Mandela and Tambo.\n\"We remain convinced that, as information of this nature comes to light, the true character and intention of those behind the current campaign will be exposed.\"\nFrom the moment the allegations in the book and documentary were publicised, \"it became unacceptable and unfortunate that the name of President Nelson Mandela and that of the late Oliver Tambo were used at a time when the latter is not in a postition to respond personally to the allegations\".\nCebekhulu claimed he was abducted and imprisoned in Zambia by the ANC to avoid implicating Madikizela-Mandela in the murder of 13-year-old Seipei and several other township activists.\nCebekhulu, who is in hiding overseas under Nicholson's protection, has applied for amnesty from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.\n� South African Press Association, 1996\nThis text is for information only and may not be published or reprinted without the permission of the South African Press Association",
"SAPA - 28 Nov 97 - WINNIE'S FAMOUS SPEECH \"A CALL FOR KILLIING COLLABORATORS\"\nJOHANNESBURG Nov 28 - SAPA-AP\nWINNIE'S FAMOUS SPEECH \"A CALL FOR KILLIING COLLABORATORS\"\nWinnie Madikizela-Mandela's most famous speech, in which she said anti-apartheid activists would use the gruesome \"necklace\" method of killing to liberate South Africa, was in effect a call to kill police collaborators in black townships, one of her former colleagues said Friday.\nMurphy Morobe, a top black activist in the 1980s, said under questioning before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission that the 1986 call by President Nelson Mandela's ex-wife was likely interpreted by township activists to use violence against perceived informers.\n\"In a sense, in that environment, that interpretation is one of the most probable ones,\" Morobe said.\nIn her speech, Madikizela-Mandela said \"with our boxes of matches and our necklaces we will liberate this country.\" She referred to the method of killing in which victims had a tire placed around their neck, were doused with gasoline and set on fire.\nStompie Seipei, a 14-year-old activist accused of being an informer, was killed after being abducted by Madikizela-Mandela's bodyguards and beaten at her house in late 1988.\nThe chief bodyguard, Jerry Richardson, was convicted of killing Seipei and is serving a life prison sentence. Tony Richard, a lawyer representing Richardson before the Truth Commission, asked Morobe about the 1986 speech in an effort to show that killing informers was sanctioned by Madikizela-Mandela.\nA series of witnesses have detailed killings, beatings, torture and other atrocities allegedly committed by Madikizela-Mandela's bodyguards, known as the Mandela United Football Club, in the late 1980s in the Soweto black township.\nThe commission is investigating 18 human rights abuses allegedly linked to the bodyguards and Madikizela-Mandela, 63, who was divorced last year and took back her maiden name, Madikizela, with her married name.\nWhile the commission lacks the power to press criminal charges, it can pass on evidence to police for an investigation.\nMadikizela-Mandela has always denied any guilt for the longstanding accusations against her. Dressed in a black-and-white outfit with three strands of pearls and gold jewelry, she showed little emotion on Friday, the fifth day of the hearing, as lawyers cross-examined Morobe and another longtime activist, Azar Cachalia.\nCachalia, now a top official in the Safety and Security Ministry, on Thursday made the strongest statement to date by any former colleague of Madikizela-Mandela, accusing her of sanctioning and even participating human rights abuses.\nHe was a member of an anti-apartheid movement that publicly distanced itself from Madikizela-Mandela in 1989, after Seipei's death and other crimes blamed on the bodyguard unit.\nCachalia received a loud ovation Thursday when he called for anyone convicted of gross human rights abuses to be barred from public office. Madikizela-Mandela was convicted of kidnapping and being an accessory to assault in 1991 in the case involving Seipei and three other young men. Initially sentenced to six years in jail, she eventually paid a dlrs 3,200 fine on appeal.\nOn Friday, Cachalia said he wasn't referring specifically to Madikizela-Mandela in his call the day before. He also agreed the South African Constitution, which bans people who have been sentenced to prison for 12 months or more for a human rights abuse from holding public office, covered the matter.\nMadikizela-Mandela is running for deputy president of the governing African National Congress next month and if successful, could become deputy president of the country after the next national election in 1999. Because her prison sentence was wiped out on appeal, she would avoid the constitutional ban.\nThe testimony of Cachalia and Morobe showed the split that developed in the anti-apartheid movement over Madikizela-Mandela and her bodyguards. The mainstream ANC leadership, including Mandela, opposes her bid for the party leadership post.\nMandela was in prison when the Seipei murder and other crimes occurred. He was released in 1990, and the couple separated in 1992 and divorced last year.\nThe British Broadcasting Co. reported Thursday that convicted killer Cyril Mbatha will testify that Madikizela-Mandela handed him and other a gun to carry out the January 1989 murder of Dr. Abu Asvat.\nMabatha said in the interview from a South African prison that she wanted Asvat killed because the doctor refused to provide false medical records that would help her avoid suspicion in the death of Seipei.\nThe interview repeated allegations made in September by Thulani Dlamini, the other man convicted in the Asvat killing, that Madikizela-Mandela was behind the killing.\n� South African Press Association, 1997\nThis text is for information only and may not be published or reprinted without the permission of the South African Press Association",
"Winnie Mandela Boyfriend | Winnie Mandela made me kill, says murderer Multiple killer blames violent career on her - tribunedigital-baltimoresun\nWinnie Mandela made me kill, says murderer Multiple killer blames violent career on her\nDecember 04, 1997|By Gilbert A. Lewthwaite | Gilbert A. Lewthwaite,SUN FOREIGN STAFF\nJOHANNESBURG, South Africa -- Jerry Richardson, coach of the notorious Mandela United Football Club, told the Truth and Reconciliation Commission yesterday that Winnie Madikizela-Mandela ordered all the murders and assaults he committed.\n\"My hands are full of blood today because I was instructed to kill and I would do as I was told,\" said the key witness against the former wife of President Nelson Mandela.\n\"She was the one that gave the go-ahead or green light for anything that happened. Everything I committed was an order. It was an instruction given to me. I never on my own volition did such things.\n\"The things we did as the Mandela football club are horrible,\" said Richardson. \"They're barbaric.\"\nCommissioner Fazel Randera asked Richardson how a father of young children and a soccer coach could be turned so readily into a \"killing machine.\"\nReplied Richardson, \"Things got out of hand.\n\"I am not proud of what I did, but I feel I am serving my sentence and, to me, that is enough.\"\nMadikizela-Mandela sat grim-faced as he implicated her in the beatings and executions of young men and one young woman who were suspected of being police informers in the late 1980s.\nShe will respond today to the accusations presented to the commission during eight days of hearings into the violence that surrounded the \"mother of the nation\" and the soccer club she started in 1986 to keep young men out of trouble on the streets.\nThe club, according to testimony to the commission, quickly developed into a vigilante gang that terrorized the black township of Soweto.\nMadikizela-Mandela, judging from her attorney's handling of the hearing, will present herself as a maligned social worker who was unaware of the club's activities. She also can be expected to ridicule the credibility of her accusers, most of whom have criminal records and have admitted lying, if only to protect her from prosecution.\nThroughout his daylong testimony, Richardson stuck by his assertion that she authorized the beatings and killings of and by members of the soccer club.\nChilling to petulant\nOverall, his performance swung from the chilling to the petulant. Theatrically, he carried a miniature orange and white soccer ball to the witness table. His answers to questions were frequently evasive or obstructive. His memory appeared to wax and wane at will.\n\"There is some honesty,\" quipped an exasperated Archbishop Desmond Tutu, commission chairman, when Richardson admitted he was \"trying my luck\" by applying for amnesty for his crimes.\nIshmail Semenya, attorney for Madikizela-Mandela, seized the moment: \"I want to put it to you that your suggestion that all of these activities were done at the instruction of Madikizela-Mandela is, as you put it, 'trying your luck.' \"\nRichardson replied: \"I deny that. There's absolutely no truth in that statement.\"\nThe mother of Stompie Seipei, a 14-year-old club member who was accused falsely of being a police informer, wept as Richardson began to describe how her son was beaten and killed. She left the hearing before the most gruesome details of how Richardson and a comrade called \"Sledge\" ended Stompie's life.\n\"I slaughtered him like a goat,\" said Richardson, a burly man with an aggressive demeanor who is serving a life sentence for the murder. Madikizela-Mandela was convicted of taking part in the youth's abduction and received a suspended sentence. \"We made him lay on his back and put the garden shears through his neck. The shears punctured to the back of his neck.\n\"Sledge also had his own pair of garden shears. He cut Stompie's neck. He really wanted to make sure he cut Stompie's throat.\n\"Ultimately we saw that Stompie was dead. We went into a river and washed the traces of blood off.\"\nConstantly referring to Madikizela-Mandela as \"Mammy,\" he told the commission: \"I killed Stompie under instructions from Mammy. Mammy never killed anyone. She used us to kill a lot of people. She didn't even visit us in prison. She used us.\"\nRichardson said he became impatient during an attempt to kill another suspected informer, Leratodi Ikaneng.\nNot 'professional'\n\"They weren't doing a professional job,\" he said. \"I took the shears. I stabbed Leratodi through the neck. When I pulled the garden shears [out], I could hear Leratodi gasping, and blood was coming out of his mouth.\n\"I realized he had not yet died. We took him and threw him in a shallow grave.\"\nIkaneng survived to give similar testimony to the commission this week.\nAfter he slit the throat of a young woman, accused of being an informer after Madikizela-Mandela allegedly became a rival for her boyfriend's affections, Madikizela-Mandela wanted to be shown where he had hidden the body, near a school, he said. He took her to the site where she worried it would be found. It wasn't, until Richardson showed police the grave in 1995.\nRichardson admitted being a police informer himself, betraying the presence of two guerrillas in his house. The guerrillas were killed in a raid by the police, which also left Richardson's police \"handler\" dead.\nRichardson was asked by Khoza Mgojo, a member of the commission, how he had escaped the fate of the other informers. He replied: \"They were very scared of me.\"\nThe commission, which is not a court of justice with powers to establish guilt or innocence, will issue its final report to President Nelson Mandela in June.\nPub Date: 12/04/97",
"SOUTH AFRICANS BURY SLAIN YOUTH - NYTimes.com\nSOUTH AFRICANS BURY SLAIN YOUTH\nBy CHRISTOPHER S. WREN, Special to the New York Times\nPublished: February 26, 1989\nPARYS, South Africa, Feb. 25— Stompie Moeketsi enlisted in the street war against apartheid when he was 10 years old. At 11, he was organizing other children to fight the municipal police. He spent his 12th birthday in jail as a political detainee, the youngest in South Africa.\nAt 13, he had been expelled from school and was running from the authorities.\nAnd last month, at 14, his decomposing body was found near Soweto with its throat slit.\nToday, Stompie Moeketsi, whose real name was James Seipei, was buried in a field near his home in Thumahole, a ramshackle black township in the farmland of Orange Free State. He had become the anti-apartheid movement's newest martyr and one of its most unusual, because his death has been blamed not on the police but on bodyguards of Winnie Mandela, two of whom have been charged with his murder. 'He Found Little Enough Peace'\n''Let Stompie rest in peace,'' a Methodist Bishop, Peter Storey, told mourners packed into St. John the Baptist Catholic Church on Thumahole's main street. ''He found little enough peace in his 14 years.''\nThe funeral, at which one speaker after another pleaded for unity, underscored two problems that the boy's grisly death has created for the anti-apartheid movement.\nOne is that recriminations over the criminal behavior of the Mandela United Football Club, as Mrs. Mandela's bodyuguards have called themselves, are dividing blacks who once cooperated in the struggle against apartheid. Mrs. Mandela's association with the club has led the anti-apartheid movement to turn its back on her.\nAn attack Wednesday night by gunfire and firebombing on a house in Soweto, in which a 13-year-old girl was killed, is being investigated as possible revenge for the killing of one of Mrs. Mandela's former bodyguards, who had in turn been accused of torturing a comrade of Stompie Moeketsi. Pretoria Allows Publicity\nThe other is that the Government appears ready to encourage the dissension by allowing an unusual amount of publicity about Stompie's abduction and death. Justice Minister Kobie H. Coetsee even waived the rules to let Tom Sebena, a spokesman for the outlawed African National Congress, be interviewed by state-run television for a documentary about the Winnie Mandela affair that was broadcast Thursday.\nToday, the Government did not restrict Stompie's funeral. Up to now, such public gatherings have been prohibited under the current State of Emergencies because they quickly turn into political rallies. The police stopped cars entering Thumahole to check for weapons, but did not appear to turn anyone back. And in contrast to the show of force at previous funerals, the police wore plain clothes and watched the procession discreetly from parked cars and rooftops.\nMore than 500 mourners packed the small church for the service. When they headed for the cemetery, the ranks swelled to well over 1,000 marchers. They chanted slogans as they jogged rhythmically through the rutted dirt streets, past shanties of corrugated metal and cinderblock.\nAt the cemetery, the dead boy's mother, Joyce Seipei, sat listless on the red earth as the small white casket was lowered into grave No. 2201. Grasp of Political Issues\nStompie's nickname alluded to his toughness, though he was slight and stood four feet tall. In 1987, he led as many as 1,500 children from 8 to 14 years old in a running battle with the authorities around Thumahole. Those who knew him said he could recite by heart the Freedom Charter, a long bill of rights drafted by the African National Congress, and had an astonishing grasp of political issues. But he once confessed to a British journalist that he would have liked to own a bicycle and new clothes that fit.\nAccording to the police, friends and reports by news organizations, some soccer-club members abducted Stompie and several friends on Dec. 29 from the home of the Rev. Paul Verryn, a Methodist minister who had given them refuge in Soweto.\nThe club members, who held a grudge against Mr. Verryn, drove the boys to Mrs. Mandela's house and beat them to make them say the white minister had sexually abused them. Two other boys gave in, but recanted afterward.\nStompie refused and was battered bloody and into unconsciousness. No Mention of Winnie Mandela\nThe club members assert that he then ran away. The community believes they then killed him.\nToday, Mr. Verryn said Stompie had brimmed with enthusiasm. ''He felt that he was fighting for the rights and the dignity of all South Africans and he was prepared to put his life on the line and stand for those rights,'' the minister said.\nMrs. Mandela went conspicuously unmentioned at the funeral, apparently to prevent stirring up anger. In the only reference apparently made to the soccer club named for Mr. Mandela, Virginia Mthethwa of Soweto asked that people ''please stop misusing his name, because this man is our leader.'' Mr. Mandela's image has not been visibly tarnished by the scandal.\nOther speakers blamed the system that had consumed his youth for Stompie's death rather than his killers.",
"S. African teen was killed by police spy Testimony in case of Winnie Mandela reveals official link - tribunedigital-baltimoresun\nS. African teen was killed by police spy Testimony in case of Winnie Mandela reveals official link\nConfessed killer denies spying\nSouth African police chief tells of paying murderer $2,100 for his services\nNovember 29, 1997|By Gilbert A. Lewthwaite | Gilbert A. Lewthwaite,SUN FOREIGN STAFF\nJOHANNESBURG, South Africa -- The confessed killer of Stompie Seipei, the teen-age member of Winnie Madikizela-Mandela's \"football club\" who was beaten and murdered after being accused of being a police informer, was a police spy himself, South Africa's police chief told the Truth and Reconciliation Commission yesterday.\nAnd, according to a police intelligence officer who also testified, Stompie was killed because he had discovered the double role Jerry Richardson was playing and was threatening to expose him.\nRichardson, who was convicted of the murder and is now seeking amnesty for the slaying of Stompie and two other youths, was the coach of the Mandela United Football Club, a group of young men who, according to testimony, terrorized Soweto in the late 1980s.\nPolice Commissioner George Fivaz said that after Richardson was sentenced to life imprisonment for Stompie's murder, he demanded 10,000 rand ($2,100) he said he was owed by police for information he had given them while living at the Mandela house.\nHe wanted the money before he would help detectives solve other murders he had committed.\nRichardson was given the funds after police verified that he had been an informer but had not been paid. He then gave police details of the burial places of two or three other victims, helping the police solve one of the crimes.\n\"I established from the investigators that the information from the source was useful,\" Fivaz said of Richardson's service.\nRichardson is to testify next week. His lawyer, Tony Richard, told the commission that his client denies being a police informer.\nEarlier the attorney said Richardson claimed that all his crimes were committed with the full knowledge and co-operation of Madikizela-Mandela.\nThe commission is investigating the violence associated with Madikizela-Mandela and her football club, which acted as her bodyguard in an era when near political anarchy and lawlessness ruled the black townships. The government had banned almost all political activity and detained many established black leaders.\nThe hearings, which began Monday and continue next week, have produced allegations linking the former wife of President Nelson Mandela with at least six murders and numerous assaults.\nDisinformation against her\nShe was convicted of kidnapping Stompie and three young men from a Methodist mission house in December 1988, after reports that they were being sexually abused by the white minister. She has denied all knowledge of the teen's death and of the other murders and assaults.\nThe commission was also told yesterday that while the violence was erupting, Madikizela-Mandela was the target of intense police spying and disinformation. She was put under 24-hour surveillance, her phone was tapped and her home bugged.\nPaul Erasmus, the police intelligence officer charged with destroying her image, said he asked local undercover police agents in her Soweto hometown for more information on the Stompie killing but was not given it.\n\"I heard at the time in official circles that he was murdered by Jerry Richardson after he [Stompie] had found out that Richardson was working for the security branch and threatened to expose him,\" he said in a document released yesterday.\nErasmus was gathering information to use in his campaign to undermine her influence in the African National Congress, her support from her main constituency -- radical black youths -- and her reputation abroad.\n\"President Mandela was the obvious target,\" he told the commission. \"But due to his impeccable integrity, it was difficult to target him.\"\nInstead, the security forces concentrated on his wife, presenting her as beyond her husband's control and \"running rampant in the townships with her soccer club, who were inter alia intimidating the local population.\"\nBoth fact and fiction were used by Stratcom, the police department's \"dirty tricks\" section, which continued its campaign against Madikizela-Mandela after her husband's release from prison in 1990. The aim was to diminish the ANC before the 1994 elections, which brought this country's first majority black government.\nAfter Mandela's release, he said, intelligence officers were told they had four years to reduce the ANC \"to just another party.\"\nScandalous rumors\nErasmus said he leaked reports that the Mandelas were constantly arguing, that Nelson Mandela was going senile and had lost control of radical cadres in the party.\nUsing paid or \"friendly\" reporters at home and abroad, he suggested that Madikizela-Mandela had sold out to \"white capitalism\" by having an affair with a leading white banker.\nHe even circulated a photograph of her with Archbishop Desmond Tutu, who was to become the chairman of the commission to which he testified yesterday, suggesting romantic involvement between the two.\nIronically, he said, on the eve of this week's commission hearings reports began to circulate that he was having an affair with Madikizela-Mandela.\nHe said it was an an attempt to discredit him.\nPub Date: 11/29/97",
"Winnie won't be called for Stompie trial | News | National | M&G\nWinnie won't be called for Stompie trial\nWeekly Mail Reporter\n11 May 1990 00:00\nWinnie Mandela will not testify in the Rand Supreme Court where Jerry Richardson, the Mandela football team coach, is charged with the murder of teenage activist Stompie Seipei. Mandela had been mentioned on numerous occasions in the evidence. Richardson also faces four charges of abduction, five counts of assault and a charge of attempted murder. He has pleaded not guilty to all charges. LCJ van Vuuren, for the state, told the Weekly Mail: “Mrs Mandela is not on the state’s list of witnesses. And she will not be called by the state.” \nWitwatersrand attorney general Klaus von Lieres said he had given no instructions for Mandela to be called as a witness. He added that the prosecutor did not have an obligation to subpoena every name mentioned during evidence. The defence team also confirmed they would not subpoena Mandela to testify. Three of the boys allegedly abducted, Kenneth Kgase, Thabiso Mono and Gabriel Pelo Mekgwe, said they were forcefully taken to Mandela’s house in Diepkloof extension and that Mandela was the first to sjambok them and Stompie. This was followed by assaults from other team members, including Richardson.\nStompie’s corpse was found on January 6 1989 in an open field between Noordgesig and New Canada near Soweto. He is said to have died from wounds to the neck and subcutaneous contusion. On January 16 1989 a community meeting in Dobsonville near Soweto decided that community leaders would approach Mandela to discuss Stompie’s disappearance after the meeting had heard the testimonies of Mono, Mekgwe and Katiza Cebekhulu concerning the alleged abduction and assault. \nThis evidence was given in court yesterday by Methodist minister Paul Verryn. The boys were allegedly abducted from Verryn’s Orlando West manse. Apparently Mandela also accused the boys of sexual misconduct with Verryn before beating them. Verryn denied these allegations yesterday. Relating his first contact with the boys after the alleged kidnapping, Verryn said that on January 7 1989, he received a telephone call from the Central Methodist Church informing him of Kgase’s escape. \nHe found Kgase at the church, with a bloodshot eye, a swollen lip and 20 scars on his back. “The first thing he (Kgase) told me was he had learned to kill” Kgase also intimated to Verryn that Stompie was no longer alive. Earlier this week Mono and Mekgwe recounted the events leading to their release from the Mandela home. According to their evidence, Nelson Mandela’s lawyer, Ismail Ayob, visited the house on two occasions during their alleged captivity. \nThe first time Ayob came he informed Mandela the Methodist bishop Peter Storey wanted to see her, Mono said. On the second occasion Ayob brought a message from Nelson Mandela in prison that the boys should be released and allowed to stay at his (Ayob’s) house. Apparently Richardson refused this second request saying he would not agree to “his players being taken to a place unknown to him”. \nAccording to the boys Winnie Mandela’s lawyer, Krish Naidoo, also visited the house and Richardson instructed them to tell Naidoo that they were at Mandela’s house because of sexual misconduct in Verryn’s home. Later that day Mandela did order Richardson and Xoliswa to take the boys to Ayob’s place, Mono said. But Richardson wanted to remain with the boys at Ayob’s place. Ayob said they should return with the boys if they were not prepared to leave them there. \nOn January 16, Mono, Mekgwe and Cebekhulu were taken to Dr Nthato Motlana’s house in Soweto, and at 1pm Motlana took them to Verryn’s house, which was empty. Motlana then took them to Naidoo’s offices where Bishop Peter Storey met them. Apparently Richardson told Storey his name was “Manyways Maseko”. They were then taken to the Dobsonville meeting.\nThis article originally appeared in the Weekly Mail."
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"title": [
"What is Happening in South Africa: The Murder of 14 yr old ...",
"Refworld | South Africa: Information on the Mandela United ...",
"KAUNDA CLARIFIES STATEMENT ON CEBEKHULU ABDUCTION",
"WINNIE'S FAMOUS SPEECH \"A CALL FOR ... - justice.gov.za",
"Winnie Mandela made me kill, says murderer Multiple killer ...",
"SOUTH AFRICANS BURY SLAIN YOUTH - NYTimes.com",
"S. African teen was killed by police spy Testimony in case ...",
"Winnie won't be called for Stompie trial | News | National ..."
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"http://whatishappeninginsouthafrica.blogspot.com/2011/04/murder-of-14-yr-old-stompie.html",
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"http://www.justice.gov.za/trc/media%5C1997%5C9709/s970912d.htm",
"http://www.justice.gov.za/trc/media%5C1997%5C9711/s971128d.htm",
"http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1997-12-04/news/1997338035_1_winnie-mandela-madikizela-president-nelson-mandela",
"http://www.nytimes.com/1989/02/26/world/south-africans-bury-slain-youth.html",
"http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1997-11-29/news/1997333005_1_police-informer-richardson-stompie",
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What was the highest rank Charles Lindbergh attained?
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"Charles Augustus Lindbergh (February 4, 1902 – August 26, 1974), nicknamed Slim, Lucky Lindy, and The Lone Eagle, was an American aviator, author, inventor, military officer, explorer, and social activist. In 1927, at the age of 25, Lindbergh emerged from the virtual obscurity of a U.S. Air Mail pilot to instantaneous world fame as the result of his Orteig Prize-winning solo nonstop flight from Roosevelt Field on Long Island, New York, to Le Bourget Field in Paris, France. He flew the distance of nearly in a single-seat, single-engine, purpose-built Ryan monoplane, Spirit of St. Louis. Lindbergh was the 19th person to make a Transatlantic flight, the first being the Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown from Newfoundland in 1919, but Lindbergh's flight was almost twice the distance. The record-setting flight took hours. Lindbergh, a U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve officer, was also awarded the nation's highest military decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his historic exploit.\n\nIn the late 1920s and early 1930s, Lindbergh used his fame to promote the development of both commercial aviation and Air Mail services in the United States and the Americas. In March 1932, his infant son, Charles Jr., was kidnapped and murdered in what was soon dubbed the \"Crime of the Century\". It was described by journalist H. L. Mencken as \"the biggest story since the resurrection\" and prompted Congress to make kidnapping a federal crime and give the Federal Bureau of Investigation jurisdiction over such cases. The kidnapping eventually led to the Lindbergh family being \"driven into voluntary exile\" in Europe, to which they sailed in secrecy from New York under assumed names in late December 1935 to \"seek a safe, secluded residence away from the tremendous public hysteria\" in America. The Lindberghs returned to the United States in April 1939.\n\nBefore the United States formally entered World War II, some accused Lindbergh of being a fascist sympathizer. He supported the isolationist America First movement, which advocated that America remain neutral during the war, as had his father, Congressman Charles August Lindbergh, during World War I. This conflicted with the Franklin Roosevelt administration's official policy, which sought to protect Britain from a German takeover. Lindbergh subsequently resigned his commission as a colonel in the United States Army Air Forces in April 1941 after being publicly rebuked by President Roosevelt for his isolationist views. Nevertheless, Lindbergh publicly supported the war effort after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and flew 50 combat missions in the Pacific Theater of World War II as a civilian consultant, though President Roosevelt had refused to reinstate his Army Air Corps colonel's commission. In his later years, Lindbergh became a prolific prize-winning author, international explorer, inventor, and environmentalist.\n\nEarly years\n\nAlthough born in Detroit, Michigan, on February 4, 1902, Lindbergh spent most of his childhood in Little Falls, Minnesota, and Washington, D.C. He was the third child of Charles August Lindbergh (birth name Carl Månsson; 1859–1924) who had emigrated from Sweden to Melrose, Minnesota as an infant, and his only child with his second wife, Evangeline Lodge Land Lindbergh (1876–1954), of Detroit. Charles' parents separated in 1909 when he was seven. Lindbergh's father, a U.S. Congressman (R-MN-6) from 1907 to 1917, was one of the relatively few Congressmen to oppose the entry of the U.S. into World War I (although his congressional term ended a month prior to the House of Representatives voting to declare war on Germany). Mrs. Lindbergh was a chemistry teacher at Cass Technical High School in Detroit and later at Little Falls High School from which her son graduated on June 5, 1918. Lindbergh also attended over a dozen other schools from Washington, D.C., to California, during his childhood and teenage years (none for more than a year or two), including the Force School and Sidwell Friends School while living in Washington with his father, and Redondo Union High School in Redondo Beach, California, while living there with his mother. Although he enrolled in the College of Engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in late 1920, Lindbergh dropped out in the middle of his sophomore year and then headed for Lincoln, Nebraska, in March 1922 to begin flight training. \n\nEarly aviation career\n\nFrom an early age, Lindbergh had exhibited an interest in the mechanics of motorized transportation, including his family's Saxon Six automobile, and later his Excelsior motorbike. By the time he started college as a mechanical engineering student, he had also become fascinated with flying, though he \"had never been close enough to a plane to touch it.\" After quitting college in February 1922, Lindbergh enrolled as a student at the Nebraska Aircraft Corporation's flying school in Lincoln two months later and flew for the first time in his life on April 9, 1922, when he took to the air as a passenger in a two-seat Lincoln Standard \"Tourabout\" biplane trainer piloted by Otto Timm. \n\nA few days later, Lindbergh took his first formal flying lesson in that same machine with instructor-pilot Ira O. Biffle, although the then 20-year-old student pilot was never permitted to \"solo\" during his time at the school because he could not afford to post a bond that the company President Ray Page insisted upon in the event the novice flyer were to damage the school's only trainer in the process. To both gain some needed flight experience and earn money for additional instruction, Lindbergh left Lincoln in June to spend the next few months barnstorming across Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana as a wing walker and parachutist with E.G. Bahl and later H.L. Lynch. During this time, he also briefly held a job as an airplane mechanic in Billings, Montana, working at the Billings Municipal Airport (later renamed Billings Logan International Airport). \n\nWith the onset of winter, however, Lindbergh left flying and returned to his father's home in Minnesota. His return to the air and first solo flight would, therefore, not come until half a year later in May 1923 at Souther Field in Americus, Georgia, a former Army flight training field, where he had come to buy a World War I surplus Curtiss JN-4 \"Jenny\" biplane. Though Lindbergh had not touched an airplane in more than six months, he had already secretly decided he was ready to take to the air by himself. After a half-hour of dual time with a pilot who was visiting the field to pick up another surplus JN-4, Lindbergh flew solo for the first time in the Jenny he had just purchased for $500. After spending another week or so at the field to \"practice\" (thereby acquiring five hours of \"pilot in command\" time), Lindbergh took off from Americus for Montgomery, Alabama, on his first solo cross-country flight, and went on to spend much of the rest of 1923 engaged in almost nonstop barnstorming under the name of \"Daredevil Lindbergh\". Unlike the previous year, however, this time Lindbergh did so in his \"own ship\"—and as a pilot. A few weeks after leaving Americus, the young airman also achieved another key aviation milestone when he made his first flight at night near Lake Village, Arkansas. \n\nWhile barnstorming in Lone Rock, WI Lindbergh helped local physician Dr. Bertha Reynolds make two emergency calls by transporting her across the Wisconsin River to patients in Clyde and Plain, which she otherwise could not have reached due to Spring flooding. Lindbergh damaged his Jenny on several occasions over the summer by breaking the propeller on landing, including such as on May 18, 1923, just outside Maben, Mississippi. His most serious accident came when he ran into a ditch in a farm field in Glencoe, Minnesota, on June 3, 1923, while flying his father (who was then running for the U.S. Senate) to a campaign stop. The accident grounded him for a week until he could repair his plane. Lindbergh flew his Jenny to Iowa in October, where he sold it to a flying student. (Found stored in a barn in Iowa almost half a century later, Lindbergh's dismantled Jenny was carefully restored in the early 1970s and is now on display at the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Garden City, New York, adjacent to the site once occupied by Roosevelt Field, from which Lindbergh took off on his flight to Paris in 1927.) After selling the Jenny, Lindbergh returned to Lincoln by train. There, he joined Leon Klink and continued to barnstorm through the South for the next few months in Klink's Curtiss JN-4C \"Canuck\" (the Canadian version of the Jenny). Lindbergh also \"cracked up\" this aircraft once when his engine failed shortly after take-off in Pensacola, Florida, but again he managed to repair the damage himself. \n\nFollowing a few months of barnstorming through the South, the two pilots parted company in San Antonio, Texas, where Lindbergh had been ordered to report to Brooks Field on March 19, 1924, to begin a year of military flight training with the United States Army Air Service both there and later at nearby Kelly Field. Late in his training, Lindbergh experienced his most serious flying accident on March 5, 1925, eight days before graduation. He was involved in a midair collision with another Army S.E.5 while practicing aerial combat maneuvers and was forced to bail out. Only 18 of the 104 cadets who started flight training a year earlier remained when Lindbergh graduated first overall in his class in March 1925, thereby earning his Army pilot's wings and a commission as a 2nd Lieutenant in the Air Service Reserve Corps. \n\nLindbergh later said that this year of Army flight training was critically important in his development as both a focused, goal-oriented individual, and as a skillful and resourceful aviator. With the Army not then in need of additional active-duty pilots, however, immediately following graduation, Lindbergh returned to civilian aviation as a barnstormer and flight instructor, although as a reserve officer, he also continued to do some part-time military flying by joining the 110th Observation Squadron, 35th Division, Missouri National Guard, in St. Louis in November 1925. He was soon promoted to 1st Lieutenant. \n\nAir Mail pilot, pioneer, and promoter\n\nIn October 1925, Lindbergh was hired by the Robertson Aircraft Corporation (RAC) in St. Louis (where he had been working as a flight instructor) to first lay out, and then serve as chief pilot for the newly designated 278 mi Contract Air Mail Route #2 (CAM-2) to provide service between St. Louis and Chicago (Maywood Field) with two intermediate stops in Springfield and Peoria, Illinois. Operating from RAC's home base at the Lambert-St. Louis Flying Field in Anglum, Missouri, Lindbergh and three other RAC pilots, Philip R. Love, Thomas P. Nelson, and Harlan A. \"Bud\" Gurney, flew the mail over CAM-2 in a fleet of four modified war-surplus de Havilland DH-4 biplanes.\n\nCoincidentally, in 1925, just before he signed on to fly with CAM, Lindbergh had applied to serve as a pilot on CDR (later RADM) Richard E. Byrd's famed North Pole expedition, but apparently his bid came too late.Berg [http://www.us.penguingroup.com/nf/Book/BookDisplay/0,,9781101494288,00.html?Lindbergh_A._Scott_Berg 1995, p. 95.]\n\nTwo days before he opened service on the route on April 15, 1926, with its first early-morning southbound flight from Chicago to St. Louis, Lindbergh officially became authorized to be entrusted with the \"care, custody, and conveyance\" of U.S. Mails by formally subscribing and swearing to the Post Office Department's 1874 Oath of Mail Messengers. Twice during the 10 months he flew CAM-2, Lindbergh would be called upon to exhibit his faithfulness to that oath after temporarily losing custody and control of mails he was transporting when he was forced to bail out of his mail plane owing to bad weather, equipment problems, and/or fuel exhaustion. In the two incidents, which both occurred while he was approaching Chicago at night, Lindbergh came down by parachute near small farming communities in northeastern Illinois. On September 16, 1926, he came down about 60 mi southwest of Chicago near the town of Wedron, while six weeks later, on November 3, 1926, Lindbergh bailed out again about 70 mi further south, hitting the ground in another farm field west of the city of Bloomington near the town of Covell. After landing without serious injury on both occasions, Lindbergh's first concern was to immediately locate the wreckage of his crashed mail planes, make sure the bags of mail were promptly secured and salvaged, and then see that they were entrained or trucked on to Chicago with as little delay as possible. Lindbergh continued on as chief pilot of CAM-2 until mid-February 1927, when he left for San Diego, California, to oversee the design and construction of the Spirit of St. Louis. \n\nAlthough Lindbergh never returned to service as a regular U.S. Air Mail pilot, he used the immense fame his New York to Paris flight brought him to help promote the use of the U.S. Air Mail Service. While he carried no official mail in the Spirit to Paris or during the subsequent three-month, 48-state Guggenheim tour, at the request of Capt. Basil L. Rowe, the owner and chief pilot of West Indian Aerial Express (later Pan Am's chief pilot, as well) and a fellow Air Mail pioneer and advocate, in February 1928, Lindbergh carried a small amount (about 3,000 pieces) of special souvenir mail between Santo Domingo, R.D., Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and Havana, Cuba, in the Spirit of St. Louis. These rare Lindbergh-flown \"Good Will Tour\" covers remain very highly prized by collectors of Air Mail postal history, especially as many of the Port-au-Prince to Havana covers were later destroyed during a hurricane that struck Havana in 1931. Those cities were the last three stops he and the Spirit made during their 7800 mi \"Good Will Tour\" of Latin America and the Caribbean between December 13, 1927, and February 8, 1928. The final two legs of the 48-day tour were also the only flights on which officially sanctioned, postally franked mail was ever carried in the Spirit of St. Louis. \n\nExactly two weeks after completing his Latin American tour, Lindbergh \"returned\" to flying CAM-2 for two days so he could pilot a series of special flights over his old route on February 20 (northbound) and February 21 (southbound). Known as \"Horseshoe Mail\" because each piece received a rubber stamp cachet of a large horseshoe with the legend \"LINDBERGH AGAIN FLIES THE AIR MAIL\" and \"CHICAGO ST. LOUIS C.A.M. 2\", there was such huge demand for covers carried on these flights that three mailplanes were used to fly it between St. Louis to Chicago that were flown by Lindbergh and fellow CAM-2 pilots Thomas Nelson, Philip Love, Bud Gurney, E.L. Sloniger, and L.H. Smith. At each stop on the route, Lindbergh switched planes so it could be said that he flew each one of the tens of thousands of self-addressed souvenir covers sent in from all over the nation and the world. After being flown, the covers were backstamped and returned to their senders as a further means to promote awareness and the use of the Air Mail Service. \n\nIn 1929–31, Lindbergh carried much smaller numbers of souvenir covers on the first flights over routes in Latin America and the Caribbean, which he had earlier laid out as a consultant to Pan American Airways to be then flown under contract to the Post Office Department as Foreign Air Mail (FAM) routes 5 and 6. Collectors still seek Lindberghiana—these covers and other artifacts associated with or carried on flights piloted by Lindbergh. \n\nThe Orteig Prize, Spirit of St. Louis, and New York–Paris flight\n\nDesignated as an award to the pilot of the first successful nonstop flight made in either direction between New York City and Paris within five years after its establishment, the $25,000 Orteig Prize was first offered by the French-born New York hotelier (Lafayette Hotel) Raymond Orteig on May 19, 1919. Although that initial time limit lapsed without a serious challenger, the state of aviation technology had advanced sufficiently by 1924 to prompt Orteig to extend his offer for another five years, and this time it began to attract an impressive grouping of well-known, highly experienced, and well-financed contenders. The one exception among these competitors, however, was the still boyish-looking Lindbergh. A 25-year-old relative latecomer to the race, in relation to the others, Lindbergh was also virtually anonymous as an aviation figure. He not only had considerably less overall flying experience (and none over water) than the others, but also Lindbergh's efforts were being financed only by a single $15,000 bank loan, a $1,000 donation from his employer as an Air Mail pilot, and his own modest savings. \n\nThe first of the well-known challengers to attempt a flight was famed World War I French flying ace René Fonck. On September 21, 1926, he attempted to fly eastbound from Roosevelt Field in New York in a three-engine Sikorsky S-35, but never got off the ground as his grossly overloaded (by 10,000 lb) transport biplane crashed and burned on takeoff when its landing gear collapsed. Unlike the later weight-conscious Lindbergh, Fonck wanted to arrive in Paris in sumptuous style and carried a sofa and refrigerator in his Sikorsky. While Fonck escaped the flames, his two crew members, Charles N. Clavier and Jacob Islamoff, died in the fire. U.S. Naval aviators LCDR Noel Davis and LT Stanton H. Wooster were also killed in a takeoff accident at Langley Field, Virginia, on April 26, 1927, while testing the three-engine Keystone Pathfinder biplane, American Legion, that they intended to use for the flight. Less than two weeks later, the first contenders to actually get airborne were French war heroes Captain Charles Nungesser and his navigator, François Coli, who departed from Paris – Le Bourget Airport on May 8, 1927, on a westbound flight in the Levasseur PL 8 seaplane The White Bird (L'Oiseau Blanc). Contact was lost with them over the coast of Ireland, however, and they were never seen or heard from again. \n\nAmerican air racer Clarence D. Chamberlin and Arctic explorer Richard E. Byrd were also in the race. Although he did not win, Chamberlin and his passenger, Charles A. Levine, made the far less-well-remembered second successful nonstop, single-pilot flight of a heavier-than-air aircraft across the Atlantic Ocean in the single-engine Wright-Bellanca WB-2 Miss Columbia (N-X-237), leaving Roosevelt Field on June 4, 1927, two weeks after Lindbergh's flight and landing in Eisleben, Germany 43 hours and 31 minutes later on June 6, 1927. Ironically, the Chamberlin monoplane was the same one the Lindbergh group had originally intended to purchase for his attempt, but passed on when the manufacturer insisted on selecting the pilot. Byrd followed suit in the Fokker F.VII trimotor, America, flying with three others from Roosevelt Field on June 29, 1927. Although they reached Paris on July 1, 1927, Byrd was unable to land because of poor weather and was forced to return to the Normandy coast where he ditched the trimotor high-wing monoplane in the surf near the French village of Ver-sur-Mer. \n\nAcquiring the Spirit of St. Louis\n\nAs an otherwise unknown young Contract Air Mail pilot, acquiring financing to buy a plane and meet the other expenses related to the overall New York to Paris effort had been a major challenge for Lindbergh, who began with only $2,000 of his own money from his savings and his $175 biweekly salary earned flying the U.S. Air Mail for RAC. Eventually, he was able to secure local funding for the purchase of the Spirit, however, by way of a $15,000 State National Bank of St. Louis loan made on February 18, 1927, to St. Louis businessmen Harry H. Knight and Harold M. Bixby, the project's two principal backers and trustees. Another $1,000 was donated by Frank Robertson of RAC on the same day, giving Lindbergh and his backers a relatively modest $18,000 with which to compete against his much more highly funded rivals for the $25,000 Orteig Prize. \n\nThe group tried to buy an \"off-the-peg\" single or multiengine monoplane from Wright Aeronautical (Wright-Bellanca) of Paterson, New Jersey; then Travel Air of Wichita, Kansas; and finally Charles Levine's and Giuseppi Bellanca's newly formed Columbia Aircraft Corporation of Hempstead, New York. However, the manufacturers would not agree to a sale unless they were allowed to select the pilot. The group thus turned to B.F. Mahoney's much smaller Ryan Aircraft Company in San Diego, which agreed to design and build such a monoplane \"from the ground up\" for $10,580, and on February 25, a deal was formally struck. Dubbed the Spirit of St. Louis, the fabric-covered, single-seat, single-engine \"Ryan NYP\" high-wing monoplane (CAB registration: N-X-211) was designed jointly by Lindbergh and the Ryan Company's chief engineer, Donald A. Hall. The Spirit flew for the first time just two months later, on April 28, 1927, and after completing a series of test flights, Lindbergh took off from San Diego on May 10 for St. Louis and on to Roosevelt Field on New York's Long Island from which he would take off for Paris just 10 days later. \n\nMay 20–21, 1927: Lindbergh's New York to Paris flight\n\nSix well-known aviators had already lost their lives in pursuit of the Orteig Prize when Lindbergh took off from Roosevelt Field on his successful attempt in the early morning of Friday, May 20, 1927. Prior to fueling The Spirit, Lindbergh's crew had strained and restrained the Shell Aviation fuel to eliminate as much sediment as possible. This was to prevent any fuel line blockages during the flight. Burdened by its heavy load of 450 U.S. gallons (1,704 liters) of gasoline weighing about 2,710 lb (1,230 kg), and hampered by a muddy, rain-soaked runway, Lindbergh's Wright Whirlwind-powered monoplane gained speed very slowly as it made its 7:52 am (07:52) takeoff run, but its J-5C radial engine still proved powerful enough to allow the Spirit to clear the telephone lines at the far end of the field \"by about twenty feet [six meters] with a fair reserve of flying speed\". Over the next 33.5 hours, he and the Spirit—which Lindbergh always jointly referred to as \"WE\"—faced many challenges, including skimming over both storm clouds at 10000 ft and wave tops at as low at 10 ft, fighting icing, flying blind through fog for several hours, and navigating only by the stars (whenever visible), and dead reckoning before landing at Le Bourget Airport at 10:22 pm (22:22) on Saturday, May 21. The airfield was not marked on his map and Lindbergh knew only that it was some seven miles northeast of the city. He initially mistook the airfield for some large industrial complex with bright lights spreading out in all directions. The lights were, in fact, the headlights of tens of thousands of cars all driven by eager spectators now caught in \"the largest traffic jam in Parisian history.\" \n\nA crowd estimated at 150,000 spectators stormed the field, dragged Lindbergh out of the cockpit, and literally carried him around above their heads for \"nearly half an hour\". While some damage was done to the Spirit (especially to the fine linen, silver-painted fabric covering on the fuselage) by souvenir hunters, both Lindbergh and the Spirit were eventually \"rescued\" from the mob by a group of French military fliers, soldiers, and police, who took them both to safety in a nearby hangar. From that moment on, the previously little-known former U.S. Air Mail pilot had, by his successful flight, achieved virtually instantaneous—and lifelong—world fame. \n\nThe records set by Lindbergh's flight were officially certified by Carl Schory, Secretary of the National Aeronautic Association based on the readings from a sealed barograph Schory had placed in Lindbergh's plane and subsequently verified by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) (the World Air Sports Federation). On August 31, 1927, the flight was \"certified as the Class-C World Record for nonstop flight\" for the distance of 5809 km. \nWhile Lindbergh was the first to fly nonstop from New York to Paris, he was not the first aviator to complete a transatlantic flight in a heavier-than-air aircraft. That had been done first in stages between May 8 and 30, 1919, by the crew of the Navy-Curtiss NC-4 flying boat, which took 24 days to complete its journey from Jamaica Bay at Far Rockaway, Queens, New York, to Plymouth, England, via Halifax, Nova Scotia, Trepassey Bay (Newfoundland), Horta (Azores), and Lisbon, Portugal. \n\nThe world's first nonstop transatlantic flight (albeit over a route far shorter than Lindbergh's, 1890 mi vs. 3600 smi) was achieved on June 14–15, 1919, by two British aviators, John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown, in a modified Vickers Vimy IV bomber from Lester's Field near St. John's, Newfoundland on June 14 and arrived at Clifden, Ireland, the following day. Both men were knighted at Buckingham Palace by King George V, in recognition of their pioneering achievement. \n\nThe lighter-than-air U.S. Navy airship made a nonstop delivery flight crossing from the Zeppelin Company works in Friedrichshafen, Germany, to the U.S. Naval Air Station at Lakehurst, New Jersey, from October 12 to 15, 1924. \n\nImmediate aftermath of the flight\n\nThe adulation and celebration of Lindbergh that emerged after the solo Atlantic flight were unprecedented. People were \"behaving as though Lindbergh had walked on water, not flown over it.\"A. Scott Berg, as cited in Belfiore 2007, p. 17. Every major newspaper, magazine, and radio show in the U.S. wanted to interview him, and he was flooded with job offers from numerous companies, think tanks, and universities.\n\nThe French Foreign Office flew the American flag, the first time it had saluted someone not a head of state. Lindbergh also made a series of brief flights in Europe to Belgium and Great Britain in the quickly recovered Spirit (portions of its linen skin had been torn from it by souvenir hunters at Le Bourget) before returning to the United States. Gaston Doumergue, the President of France, bestowed the French Légion d'honneur on the young Capt. Lindbergh, and on his arrival back in the United States aboard the United States Navy cruiser on June 11, 1927, a fleet of warships and multiple flights of military aircraft including pursuit planes, bombers, and the rigid airship , escorted him up the Potomac River to the Washington Navy Yard on the Anacostia River in southeast Washington, D.C., where President Calvin Coolidge awarded him the Distinguished Flying Cross. On the same day Lindbergh and the Spirit arrived in Washington, the U.S. Post Office Department issued a 10-cent Air Mail stamp (Scott C-10) depicting the Spirit of St. Louis and a map of the flight. The day after he landed in Paris, his mother's house in Detroit was surrounded by a crowd estimated at about 1,000 persons in celebration of the flight to Paris. \n\nLindbergh flew from Washington to New York City on June 13, 1927 arriving at the Battery in lower Manhattan and traveling up Broadway to City Hall where he was received at a ceremony hosted by Mayor Jimmy Walker. A massive ticker-tape parade followed running up Park Row, Centre St., and Lafayette St. to Astor Place, west on Ninth St. to Fifth Ave., up Fifth to 60th St., and then through Central Park on East Drive to Central Park Mall where he was honored at another ceremony hosted by New York Governor Al Smith attended by a crowd of 200,000. It was estimated by city officials that upwards of 4,000,000 persons saw Lindbergh that day. That evening, Lindbergh, accompanied by his mother and Mayor Walker, was the guest of honor at a banquet and dance, with 500 guests, held at Clarence MacKay's Long Island estate, Harbor Hill. Lindbergh and his mother slipped away early, telling no one, causing a panicked MacKay to have the estate searched for the missing pilot. \n\nThe following night, Lindbergh was honored with a grand banquet at the Hotel Commodore given by the Mayor's Committee on Receptions of the City of New York and attended by some 3,700 people. He was officially awarded the check for the prize on June 16. The massive publicity surrounding him and his flight boosted the aviation industry and made a skeptical public take air travel seriously, as Lindbergh became an important voice on behalf of aviation activities, including the central committee of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, an appointment made by President Herbert Hoover. Within a year of his flight, a quarter of Americans (an estimated 30 million) personally saw Lindbergh and the Spirit of St. Louis. Over the remainder of 1927, applications for pilot's licenses in the U.S. tripled, the number of licensed aircraft quadrupled, and U.S. airline passengers grew between 1926 and 1929 from 5,782 to 173,405. Lindbergh later charted both polar and South American air routes, developed techniques for high-altitude flying, and during World War II, demonstrated how to increase flying range by developing techniques of refining flight attitudes and leaning fuel mixture to decrease the rate of gasoline consumption and improving efficiency.\n\nOn December 14, 1927, a Special Act of Congress awarded Lindbergh the Medal of Honor despite the fact that it was almost always awarded for heroism in combat. It was presented to Lindbergh by President Coolidge at the White House on March 21, 1928. Other noncombat awards of the Medal of Honor were made to aviators Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett, as well as arctic explorer Adolphus W. Greely.\n\nAfter his transatlantic flight, Lindbergh wrote a letter to the director of Longines, describing in detail a watch that would make navigation easier for pilots. The watch was manufactured to his design and is still produced today. \n\nLindbergh was selected as the first Time magazine \"Man of the Year\" (for 1927), appearing in its cover on January 2, 1928, and remains the youngest individual (age 25) to receive the designation. He also appeared on Times cover on June 13, 1938 (with Dr. Alexis Carrel) and June 19, 1939, and his kidnapped infant son, Charles Jr, was on the cover on May 2, 1932. \n\nThe winner of the 1930 Best Woman Aviator of the Year Award, Elinor Smith Sullivan, said that before Lindbergh's flight, \"people seemed to think we [aviators] were from outer space or something. But after Charles Lindbergh's flight, we could do no wrong. It's hard to describe the impact Lindbergh had on people. Even the first walk on the moon doesn't come close. The twenties was such an innocent time, and people were still so religious—I think they felt like this man was sent by God to do this. And it changed aviation forever because all of a sudden the Wall Streeters were banging on doors looking for airplanes to invest in. We'd been standing on our heads trying to get them to notice us but after Lindbergh, suddenly everyone wanted to fly, and there weren't enough planes to carry them.\" \n\n\"WE\", the U.S. and Latin American \"Tours\", and the Spirit retires\n\nBarely two months after Lindbergh had completed the flight to Paris,\"WE\", the first of what would be 15 books he would eventually author or significantly contribute to over his lifetime, was released on July 27, 1927 by G.P. Putnam's Sons (The Knickerbocker Press), the New York publishing house run by prominent promoter and aviation enthusiast George P. Putnam (1887-1950) who later promoted the career (and eventually married) another almost equally famous flyer of the era, the ill-fated American aviatrix Amelia Earhart. An \"instant\" autobiography of the suddenly world famous young aviator, the 318-page book was an immediate best seller.\n\nThe first edition dustjacket notes that Lindbergh wrote the book to provide the public with his \"own story of his life and his transatlantic flight together with his views on the future of aviation\". It also says that the book's simple, one-word \"flying pronoun\" title \"WE\" referred to Lindbergh's view of a deep \"spiritual partnership\" that had developed \"between himself and his airplane during the dark hours of his flight\". Putnam's had selected the title without its author's knowledge or approval, however, and Lindbergh would forever complain about that interpretation of its meaning was wrong. Instead he said that \"we\" referred to himself and his financial backers in St. Louis, not his airplane, as the press had people believing, although his frequent unconscious use of the phrase seemed to suggest otherwise. \n\nBy mid September \"WE\" had sold close to 190,000 copies at $2.50 apiece, and limited edition of 1,000 autographed copies also sold out quickly at $25 each. The book was also soon translated into most major languages and remained at the top of best-seller lists well into 1928. With dozens of printings made and more than 650,000 copies sold in the first year, \"WE\" earned Lindbergh more than $250,000. The book's great commercial success was considerably aided by its publication coinciding with the start of his three-month tour of the United States in the Spirit on behalf of the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics. No other author before or since ever had such an extensive, highly publicized tour that helped promote a book than did Lindbergh's \"We\" of himself and the Spirit during their 22,350-mile, July 20 to October 23, 1927 tour of the U.S., visiting 82 cities in all 48 states during which the nation's nascent aviation superhero delivered 147 speeches and rode 1290 mi in parades. The nation became obsessed with Lindbergh during the tour in which he was seen in person by more than 30 million Americans, a quarter of the nation's then population.\n\nPrior to retiring the Spirit, Lindbergh made a second tour to 16 Latin America countries from December 13, 1927, to February 8, 1928. Dubbed the \"Good Will Tour\", it included stops in México (where he also met his future wife, Anne, the daughter of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Morrow), Guatemala, British Honduras, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, the Canal Zone, Colombia, Venezuela, St. Thomas, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Cuba, covering 9,390 miles in 116:30 of flight time. A year and two days after it had made its first flight, Lindbergh flew the Spirit from St. Louis to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C., and donated it to the Smithsonian Institution, where it has remained on static public display ever since. Over the previous 367 days, Lindbergh and the Spirit had logged 489:28 of flight time together while making 174 flights to all 48 states and 19 foreign countries. \n\n\"1927 marked the breakout year of commercial aviation in the United States [and] the beginning of what came to be called the Lindbergh boom. In April, the month before Lindbergh's flight, 97000 lb of mail flew on airplanes. In September, that figure was up 50 percent, to 146000 lb. The number of applicants for pilots' licenses tripled that year,\" and the number of airplanes quadrupled.\n\nFollowing his flight to Paris, Lindbergh, together with Pan American World Airways head Juan Trippe, had interest in developing a great circle air route across Alaska and Siberia to China and Japan. In the summer of 1931, with Trippe's support, Lindbergh and his wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh flew from Long Island to Nome, Alaska and from there to Siberia, Japan and China. The route was not available for commercial service until after World War II, as prewar aircraft could not fly from Alaska to Japan nonstop, and the U.S. government had not officially recognized the Soviet government. While in China, the Lindberghs volunteered themselves to help in disaster investigation and relief effort for the infamous Central China flood of 1931. This was later documented in Anne Morrow Lindbergh's book North to the Orient.\n\nPersonal life\n\nAnne Morrow Lindbergh (1906–2001) was the daughter of Dwight Morrow who, as partner at J.P. Morgan & Co., had acted as financial adviser to Lindbergh and who had been appointed U.S. Ambassador to Mexico in 1927. Lindbergh was invited by Morrow on a goodwill tour to Mexico, and he met Anne in Mexico City in December 1927.\n\nThe couple were married on May 27, 1929 in Engelwood and managed to keep the location of their honeymoon a secret despite the best efforts of paparazzi to find them. They went on to have six children: Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. (1930–1932); Jon Morrow Lindbergh (b. August 16, 1932); Land Morrow Lindbergh (b. 1937), who studied anthropology at Stanford University and married Susan Miller in San Diego; Anne Lindbergh (1940–1993); Scott Lindbergh (b. 1942); and Reeve Lindbergh (b. 1945), a writer. Lindbergh also taught his wife how to fly and did much of his exploring and charting of air routes with her.\n\nLindbergh saw his children for only a few months a year. He kept track of each child's infractions, which included such activities as gum-chewing. He insisted that Anne track all her household expenditures, including even 15 cents spent for rubber bands, in account books. \n\nAccording to a Biography Channel profile on Lindbergh, she was the only woman whom he had ever asked out on a date. In Lindbergh's autobiography, he derides womanizing pilots he met as \"barnstormers,\" and Army cadets for their \"facile\" approach to relationships. Lindbergh wrote that the ideal romance was stable and long term, with a woman with keen intellect, good health, and strong genes. Lindbergh said his \"experience in breeding animals on our farm had taught me the importance of good heredity.\" \n\nAlmost three decades after Lindbergh's death in 1974 and years after his widow's passing in 2001, their children and the public learned that from the late 1950s until his death, Lindbergh had maintained three secret families in Europe that included seven out-of-wedlock children borne by three different mothers. In late July 2003, one of the largest national daily newspapers in Germany, Munich's Süddeutsche Zeitung, reported that Lindbergh had fathered three children by German hat maker Brigitte Hesshaimer (1926–2003), who had lived in the small Bavarian town of Geretsried just south of Munich. By the time of the publication of German biographer Rudolf Schröck's book Das Doppelleben des Charles A. Lindbergh (The Double Life of Charles A. Lindbergh) two years later, however, it had been further revealed that Lindbergh had also fathered four other such children in Germany and Switzerland with two more mistresses. Beginning in March 1957, Lindbergh had established romantic relationships with Brigitte Hesshaimer; her sister, Mariette, a painter living in Grimisuat in the Swiss canton Valais with whom he had two children; and with Valeska, an East Prussian aristocrat who was his private secretary in Europe and lived in Baden-Baden with whom he had two more children, a son born in 1959 and a daughter in 1961. All seven children had been born between 1958 and 1967. \n\nTen days before he died on August 26, 1974, Lindbergh wrote letters from his New York hospital bed to each of his three European mistresses, imploring them to maintain the \"utmost secrecy\" about their relationships after his death. The three women (none of whom ever married) all managed to keep their affairs secret even from their children, who during his lifetime (and for almost a decade after), did not know the true identity of their father whom they had only known by the alias \"Careu Kent\" and seen only when he visited for a few days once or twice per year. However, after finding and reading a magazine article about Lindbergh in the mid-1980s, Brigitte's daughter Astrid learned her father's true identity and later discovered snapshots and more than 150 love letters written to her mother by Lindbergh between 1957 and 1974. After both Brigitte and Anne Morrow Lindbergh had died, Astrid finally publicly disclosed the identity of her and her brothers' father. On November 23, 2003, DNA tests confirmed that Lindbergh had fathered Dyrk, Astrid, and David, Brigitte's three children. \n\nIn April 2008, Reeve Lindbergh, his youngest child with his wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh, published Forward From Here: Leaving Middle Age and Other Unexpected Adventures, a book of essays that includes her learning in late July 2003 the truth about her father's secret European families and writing in her personal journal on August 8, 2003, \"This story reflects absolutely Byzantine layers of deception on the part of our shared father. These children did not even know who he was! He used a pseudonym with them (To protect them, perhaps? To protect himself, absolutely!)\" A year later, she traveled to Europe to meet all seven of her half siblings and understand an expanded meaning of family. \n\n\"The Crime of the Century\"\n\nOn the evening of March 1, 1932, in what the press of the time came to sensationally refer to as \"The Crime of the Century\" an intruder abducted 20-month-old Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. from his crib in the second-story nursery of his family's rural home, Highfields, in East Amwell, New Jersey, near the town of Hopewell. While a 10-week nationwide search for the child was being undertaken, ransom negotiations were also conducted simultaneously with a self-identified kidnapper by a volunteer intermediary, Dr. John F. Condon (\"Jafsie\"). These resulted in the payment on April 2 of $50,000 in cash, part of which was made in soon-to-be withdrawn (and thus more easily traceable) Gold certificates, the serial numbers of which had been recorded, in exchange for information about the child's whereabouts that proved to be false. The child's remains were found by chance by a passing truckdriver six weeks later on May 12 in roadside woodlands near Mount Rose, New Jersey. \n\nIn response to the highly publicized crime, Congress passed the so-called \"Lindbergh Law\" on June 13, which made kidnapping a federal offense under certain circumstances. Known formally as the \"Federal Kidnapping Act of 1932\" ((a)(1)), the new statute provided for federal jurisdiction over all future kidnappings in which any victim(s) were taken across state lines and/or (as had occurred in the Lindbergh case) the kidnapper(s) used \"the mail or any means, facility, or instrumentality of interstate or foreign commerce in committing or in furtherance of the commission of the offense\", including as a means to demand a ransom. \n\nThe assiduous tracing of the serial numbers of $10 and $20 gold certificates passed in the New York City area over the next year and a half eventually led police to Richard Hauptmann, a 34-year-old German immigrant carpenter, who was arrested near his home in the Bronx, New York, on September 19, 1934. (Hauptmann was identified by the license plate number of his automobile, which a gas station attendant had written on the bill after receiving it from him in payment for services.) A stash containing $13,760 of the ransom money was subsequently found hidden in his garage. Charged with kidnapping, extortion, and first-degree murder, Hauptmann went on trial in a circus-like atmosphere in Flemington, New Jersey, on January 2, 1935. Six weeks later, he was convicted on all counts when, following 11 hours of deliberation, the jury delivered its verdict late on the night of February 13, after which Judge Thomas Trenchard immediately sentenced Hauptmann to death. Although he continued to adamantly maintain his innocence, all of Hauptmann's appeals and petitions for clemency were rejected by early December 1935. Despite a last-minute attempt by New Jersey Governor Harold G. Hoffman (who believed Hauptmann was guilty, but expressed doubts that he could have acted alone) to convince him to confess to the crimes in exchange for getting his sentence commuted to life imprisonment, the by then 36-year-old Hauptmann refused and was electrocuted at Trenton State Prison on April 3, 1936. \n\nSelf exile in Europe (1936–1939)\n\nAn intensely private man when it came to his family life, Lindbergh became exasperated by the unrelenting press and public attention focused on them in the wake of the kidnapping and Hauptmann trial. Particularly concerned for the physical safety of their then three-year-old second son, Jon, by late 1935, the Lindberghs came secretly to the decision to go into voluntary exile in Europe. Consequently, in the predawn hours of Sunday, December 22, 1935, the family \"sailed furtively\" from Pier 60 (West 20th St, Manhattan) for Liverpool, England, as the only three passengers on board the United States Lines freighter SS American Importer. To help maintain the strict secrecy Lindbergh insisted upon for their departure, the family traveled under assumed names and using diplomatic passports that had been issued a week earlier through the personal intervention of Treasury Secretary Ogden Mills. \n\nNews of the Lindberghs' \"flight to Europe\" did not become public until a full day later by way of an exclusive front-page story by The New York Times aviation editor Lauren \"Deac\" Lyman, a longtime family friend, supporter, and confidant, published in the paper's final Monday morning edition. At Lindbergh's request, however, Lyman intentionally withheld the identity of the ship, as well as its time and port of departure, from that initial account. While Lyman finally revealed the information in his follow-up story published the next day when the ship was already two days out to sea, radiograms sent to Lindbergh on the American Importer were nevertheless all returned with the notation \"Addressee not aboard\".\n\nAlthough Lindbergh had \"offered no public explanation\" for the family's unannounced departure, shortly before they sailed, he had told Lyman in a private interview: \"We Americans are a primitive people. We do not have discipline. Our moral standards are low. It shows up in the private lives of people we know — their drinking and 'behavior with women'. It shows in the newspapers, the morbid curiosity over crimes and murder trials. Americans seem to have little respect for law, or the rights of others.\"Butterfield, Roger. \"Lindbergh: A Stubborn Young Man of Strange Ideas Becomes the Leader of the Wartime Opposition.\" Life, August 11, 1941. For those reasons, Lindbergh told Lyman, he had decided to take his family to England to \"seek a safe, secluded residence away from the tremendous public hysteria\" that surrounded him in America. The Lindberghs arrived in Liverpool on December 31, 1935, where they secluded themselves before later departing for South Wales to stay with relatives. \n\nThe family eventually rented \"Long Barn\" in Sevenoaks Weald, Kent, England. One newspaper wrote that Lindbergh \"won immediate popularity by announcing he intended to purchase his supplies 'right in the village, from local tradesmen.' The reserve of the villagers, most of whom had decided in advance he would be a blustering, boastful young American, is melting.\" At the time of Hauptmann's execution, local police almost sealed off the area surrounding Long Barn with \"orders to regard as suspects anyone except residents who approached within a mile of the home.\" Lindbergh later described his three years in the Kent village as \"among the happiest days of my life.\" In 1938, the family moved to Île Illiec, a small four-acre island Lindbergh purchased off the Breton coast of France. \n\nAlthough Charles and Anne Lindbergh had made a brief unannounced holiday visit to the U.S. in December 1937, the family (including a third son, Land, born in London in May 1937) continued to live and travel extensively in Europe for more than three years before finally returning to reside again in the United States in April 1939, settling in a rented seaside estate at Lloyd Neck, Long Island, New York. The timing of the family's return came primarily as the result of a personal request by General H. H. (\"Hap\") Arnold, the chief of the United States Army Air Corps in which Lindbergh was a colonel in the reserves, for him to accept a temporary call-up to active duty to help evaluate that service's readiness for a potential war. His duties included evaluating new aircraft types in development, recruitment procedures, and finding a site for a new air force research institute and other potential air bases. Assigned a Curtiss P-36 fighter, he toured various facilities, reporting back to Wright Field. Lindbergh's brief four-month tour was also his first period of active military service since his graduation from the Army's Flight School 14 years earlier in 1925.\n\nPre-war activities\n\nIn 1929, Lindbergh became interested in the work of rocket pioneer Robert H. Goddard. By helping Goddard secure an endowment from Daniel Guggenheim in 1930, Lindbergh allowed Goddard to expand his research and development. Throughout his life, Lindbergh remained a key advocate of Goddard's work. \n\nIn 1930, Lindbergh's sister-in-law developed a fatal heart condition. Lindbergh began to wonder why hearts could not be repaired with surgery. Starting in early 1931 at the Rockefeller Institute and continuing during his time living in France, Lindbergh studied the perfusion of organs outside the body with Nobel Prize-winning French surgeon Dr. Alexis Carrel. Although perfused organs were said to have survived surprisingly well, all showed progressive degenerative changes within a few days. Lindbergh's invention, a glass perfusion pump, named the \"Model T\" pump, is credited with making future heart surgeries possible. In this early stage, the pump was far from perfected. In 1938, Lindbergh and Carrel described an artificial heart in the book in which they summarized their work, The Culture of Organs, but it was decades before one was built. In later years, Lindbergh's pump was further developed by others, eventually leading to the construction of the first heart-lung machine. \n\nAt the behest of the U.S. military, Lindbergh traveled several times to Germany to report on German aviation and the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) from 1936 to 1938. Hanna Reitsch demonstrated the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 helicopter to Lindbergh in 1937.Reitsch, H., 1955, The Sky My Kingdom, London: Biddles Limited, Guildford and King's Lynn, ISBN 1853672629\n\nLindbergh toured German aviation facilities, where the commander of the Luftwaffe, SA-Gruppenführer Hermann Göring convinced Lindbergh the Luftwaffe was far more powerful than it was. With the approval of Göring and Ernst Udet, Lindbergh was the first American permitted to examine the Luftwaffe's newest bomber, the Junkers Ju 88, and Germany's front-line fighter aircraft, the Messerschmitt Bf 109. Lindbergh received the unprecedented opportunity to pilot the Bf 109. Lindbergh said of the fighter that he knew \"of no other pursuit plane which combines simplicity of construction with such excellent performance characteristics.\" Colonel Lindbergh inspected all the types of military aircraft Germany was to use in 1939 and 1940. \n\nLindbergh reported to the U.S. military that Germany was leading in metal construction, low-wing designs, dirigibles, and diesel engines. Lindbergh also undertook a survey of aviation in the Soviet Union in 1938, and his findings were included in air intelligence reports long before the outbreak of World War II. The American ambassador to Germany, Hugh Wilson, invited Lindbergh to dinner with Göring at the American embassy in Berlin in 1938. The dinner included diplomats and three of the greatest minds of German aviation, Ernst Heinkel, Adolf Baeumker, and Dr. Willy Messerschmitt. For Lindbergh's 1927 flight and services to aviation, on behalf of Adolf Hitler, Göring presented him with the Commander Cross of the Order of the German Eagle. (Henry Ford received the same award earlier in July.) Lindbergh's acceptance of the medal caused controversy after Kristallnacht, an anti-Jewish pogrom that broke out in Germany a few weeks later. Lindbergh declined to return the medal, later writing (according to A. Scott Berg): \"It seems to me that the returning of decorations, which were given in times of peace and as a gesture of friendship, can have no constructive effect. If I were to return the German medal, it seems to me that it would be an unnecessary insult. Even if war develops between us, I can see no gain in indulging in a spitting contest before that war begins.\" \n\nMunich crisis\n\nAt the urging of U.S. Ambassador Joseph Kennedy, Lindbergh wrote a secret memo to the British warning that if Britain and France responded militarily to German dictator Adolf Hitler's violation of the Munich Agreement in 1938, it would be suicide. Lindbergh stated that France's military strength was inadequate and that Britain had an outdated military overly reliant upon naval power. He recommended they urgently strengthen their air arsenal to force Hitler to turn his ambitions eastward to a war against \"Asiatic Communism.\" \n\nIn a controversial 1939 Reader's Digest article, Lindbergh said, \"Our civilization depends on peace among Western nations ... and therefore on united strength, for Peace is a virgin who dare not show her face without Strength, her father, for protection.\" Lindbergh deplored the rivalry between Germany and Britain, but favored a war between Germany and Russia. Some controversy exists as to how accurate his reports concerning the Luftwaffe were, but Cole reports the consensus among British and American officials was that they were slightly exaggerated but badly needed.\n\nFollowing the invasion of Czechoslovakia and Poland, many favored military aid, a suggestion Lindbergh rejected. \"I do not believe that repealing the arms embargo would assist democracy in Europe.\". Lindbergh specifically opposed military aid to assist England in 1939. \"If we repeal the arms embargo with the idea of assisting one of the warring sides to overcome the other, then why mislead ourselves by talk of neutrality? He suggested any military assistance to England might be done for improper financial reasons- \"To those who argue that we could make a profit and build up our own industry by selling munitions abroad, I reply that we in America have not yet reached a point where we wish to capitalize on the destruction and death of war.\"\n\nAmerica First involvement\n\nIn late 1940, he became spokesman of the antiwar America First Committee. He soon became its most prominent public spokesman, speaking to overflowing crowds in Madison Square Garden in New York City and Soldier Field in Chicago. His speeches were heard by millions. During this time, Lindbergh lived in Lloyd Neck, on Long Island, New York.\n\nLindbergh argued that America did not have any business attacking Germany and believed in upholding the Monroe Doctrine, which his interventionist rivals felt was outdated. In his autobiography, he wrote:\n\nIn his January 23, 1941, testimony in opposition to the Lend-Lease bill before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Lindbergh proposed that the United States negotiate a neutrality pact with Germany. President Roosevelt publicly criticized Lindbergh's views on neutrality three months later during a White House press conference on April 25, 1941, as being those of a \"defeatist and appeaser\" and compared him to U.S. Rep. Clement L. Vallandigham (D-OH), the leader of the \"Copperhead\" movement that had opposed the American Civil War. Three days later, Lindbergh resigned his commission as a colonel in the U.S. Army Air Corps in an April 28 letter to the President in which he said he could find \"no honorable alternative\" to his taking such an action after Roosevelt had publicly questioned his loyalty. \n\nIn a speech at an America First rally at the Des Moines Coliseum on September 11, 1941, \"Who Are the War Agitators?\", Lindbergh claimed the three groups, \"pressing this country toward war [are] the British, the Jewish, and the Roosevelt Administration\", and said of Jewish groups,\n\nIn the speech, he warned of the Jewish people's \"large ownership and influence in our motion pictures, our press, our radio, and our government\". He used the term \"Jewish race\" in the speech, the same terminology that had been used by Nazis. He went on to condemn Nazi Germany's antisemitism: \"No person with a sense of the dignity of mankind can condone the persecution of the Jewish race in Germany.\" Lindbergh declared,\n\nThe speech was heavily criticized as being anti-Semitic. In response, Lindbergh stated again he was not anti-Semitic, but he did not back away from his statements.\n\nLindbergh's wife, Anne Morrow Lindbergh, had concerns about the reaction to the speech and how it would affect his reputation, wrongfully in her view. From her diary:\n\nInterventionists created pamphlets pointing out his efforts were praised in Nazi Germany and included quotations such as \"Racial strength is vital; politics, a luxury\". They included pictures of him and other America Firsters using the stiff-armed Bellamy salute (a hand gesture described by Francis Bellamy to accompany his Pledge of Allegiance to the American flag); the photos were taken from an angle not showing the flag, so to observers it was indistinguishable from the Hitler salute. \n\nPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt disliked Lindbergh's outspoken opposition to intervention and his administration's policies, such as the Lend-Lease Act, and said to Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau in May 1940, \"if I should die tomorrow, I want you to know this, I am absolutely convinced Lindbergh is a Nazi.\" On April 26, 1941, Roosevelt wrote to Secretary of War Henry Stimson: \"When I read Lindbergh's speech I felt that it could not have been better put if it had been written by Goebbels himself. What a pity that this youngster has completely abandoned his belief in our form of government and has accepted Nazi methods because apparently they are efficient.\" \n\nIn his book written after the war, Lindbergh said that no one he met in pre-wartime Nazi Germany did not believe the country would be better off without the Jews, though some condemned the means used to achieve that goal. \n\nThoughts on race and racism\n\nLindbergh elucidated his beliefs about the white race in an article he published in Reader's Digest in 1939:\n\nLindbergh's speeches and writings reflected his adoption of Nazi views on race and religion. He wrote in his memoirs that all of the Germans he met thought the country would be better off without its Jews. \n\nBecause of his trips to Nazi Germany, combined with a belief in eugenics, Lindbergh was suspected of being a Nazi sympathizer.\n\nLindbergh's reaction to Kristallnacht was entrusted to his diary: \"I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans,\" he wrote. \"It seems so contrary to their sense of order and intelligence. They have undoubtedly had a difficult 'Jewish problem', but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?\" Lindbergh had planned to move to Berlin for the winter of 1938–39, after Kristallnacht, a time when many Americans reacted with revulsion at Nazi barbarism. He had provisionally found a house in Wannsee, but after Nazi friends discouraged him from leasing it because it had been formerly owned by Jews, it was recommended that he contact Albert Speer, who said he would build the Lindberghs a house anywhere they wanted. On the advice of his close friend, the eugenicist Alexis Carrel, he cancelled the trip.\n\nIn his diaries, he wrote: \"We must limit to a reasonable amount the Jewish influence ... Whenever the Jewish percentage of total population becomes too high, a reaction seems to invariably occur. It is too bad because a few Jews of the right type are, I believe, an asset to any country.\"\n\nNazi classification and racial definition\n\nLindbergh's anticommunism resonated deeply with many Americans, while eugenics and Nordicism enjoyed social acceptance.\n\nAlthough Lindbergh considered Hitler a fanatic and avowed a belief in American democracy, he clearly stated elsewhere that he believed the survival of the white race was more important than the survival of democracy in Europe: \"Our bond with Europe is one of race and not of political ideology,\" he declared. Critics have noticed an apparent influence of German philosopher Oswald Spengler on Lindbergh. Spengler was a conservative authoritarian and during the interwar era, was widely read throughout the Western World, though by this point he had fallen out of favor with the Nazis because he had not wholly subscribed to their theories of racial purity.\n\nLindbergh developed a long-term friendship with the automobile pioneer Henry Ford, who was well known for his anti-Semitic newspaper The Dearborn Independent. In a famous comment about Lindbergh to Detroit's former FBI field office special agent in charge in July 1940, Ford said: \"When Charles comes out here, we only talk about the Jews.\" \n\nLindbergh considered Russia a \"semi-Asiatic\" country compared to Germany, and he believed Communism was an ideology that would destroy the West's \"racial strength\" and replace everyone of European descent with \"a pressing sea of Yellow, Black, and Brown.\" He stated that if he had to choose, he would rather see America allied with Nazi Germany than Soviet Russia. He preferred Nordics, but he believed, after Soviet Communism was defeated, Russia would be a valuable ally against potential aggression from East Asia. \n\nLindbergh said certain races have \"demonstrated superior ability in the design, manufacture, and operation of machines.\" He further said, \"The growth of our western civilization has been closely related to this superiority.\" Lindbergh admired \"the German genius for science and organization, the English genius for government and commerce, the French genius for living and the understanding of life.\" He believed that \"in America they can be blended to form the greatest genius of all.\" His message was popular throughout many Northern communities and especially well received in the Midwest, while the American South was anglophilic and supported a pro-British foreign policy. The South was the most pro-British and interventionist part of the country. \n\nHolocaust researcher and investigative journalist Max Wallace, in his book The American Axis, agreed with Franklin Roosevelt's assessment that Lindbergh was \"pro-Nazi.\" Wallace finds the Roosevelt Administration's accusations of dual loyalty or treason as unsubstantiated. Wallace considers Lindbergh a well-intentioned, but bigoted and misguided, Nazi sympathizer whose career as the leader of the isolationist movement had a destructive impact on Jewish people. \n\nLindbergh's Pulitzer Prize-winning biographer, A. Scott Berg, contends Lindbergh was not so much a supporter of the Nazi regime as someone so stubborn in his convictions and relatively inexperienced in political maneuvering that he easily allowed rivals to portray him as one. Lindbergh's receipt of the German medal was approved without objection by the American embassy; the war had not yet begun in Europe. The award did not cause controversy until the war began and Lindbergh returned to the United States in 1939 to spread his message of nonintervention. Berg contends Lindbergh's views were commonplace in the United States in the pre–World War II era. Lindbergh's support for the America First Committee was representative of the sentiments of a number of American people. \n\nYet Berg also notes that \"As late as April 1939 – after Germany overtook Czechoslovakia – Lindbergh was willing to make excuses for Hitler. 'Much as I disapprove of many things Hitler had done,' he wrote in his diary on April 2, 1939, 'I believe she [Germany] has pursued the only consistent policy in Europe in recent years. I cannot support her broken promises, but she has only moved a little faster than other nations ... in breaking promises. The question of right and wrong is one thing by law and another thing by history.'\" Berg also explains that leading up to the war, in Lindbergh's mind, the great battle would be between the Soviet Union and Germany, not fascism and democracy.\n\nWallace noted that it was difficult to find social scientists among Lindbergh's contemporaries in the 1930s who found validity in racial explanations for human behavior. Wallace went on to observe that \"throughout his life, eugenics would remain one of Lindbergh's enduring passions.\" In Pat Buchanan's book A Republic, Not an Empire: Reclaiming America's Destiny, he portrays Lindbergh and other pre-war isolationists as American patriots who were smeared by interventionists during the months leading up to the attack on Pearl Harbor. Buchanan suggests the backlash against Lindbergh highlights \"the explosiveness of mixing ethnic politics with foreign policy.\" \n\nLindbergh always preached military strength and alertness. He believed that a strong defensive war machine would make America an impenetrable fortress and defend the Western Hemisphere from an attack by foreign powers, and that this was the U.S. military's sole purpose. \n\nBerg reveals that while the attack on Pearl Harbor came as a shock to Lindbergh, he did predict that America's \"wavering policy in the Philippines\" would invite a bloody war there, and, in one speech, he warned that \"we should either fortify these islands adequately, or get out of them entirely.\" \n\nWorld War II\n\nAfter the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Lindbergh sought to be recommissioned in the USAAF. The Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson, declined the request on instructions from the White House. \n\nUnable to take on an active military role, Lindbergh approached a number of aviation companies, offering his services as a consultant. As a technical adviser with Ford in 1942, he was heavily involved in troubleshooting early problems encountered at the Willow Run Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomber production line. As B-24 production smoothed out, he joined United Aircraft in 1943 as an engineering consultant, devoting most of his time to its Chance-Vought Division. \n\nThe following year, Lindbergh persuaded United Aircraft to designate him a technical representative in the Pacific Theater to study aircraft performances under combat conditions. Among other things, he showed Marine pilots how to take off safely with a bomb load double the Vought F4U Corsair fighter-bomber's rated capacity. At the time, several Marine squadrons were flying bomber escorts to destroy the Japanese stronghold of Rabaul, New Britain, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. On May 21, 1944, Lindbergh flew his first combat mission: a strafing run with VMF-222 near the Japanese garrison of Rabaul. He also flew with VMF-216, from the Marine Air Base at Torokina, Bougainville. Lindbergh was escorted on one of these missions by Lt. Robert E. (Lefty) McDonough, who refused to fly with Lindbergh again, as he did not want to be known as \"the guy who killed Lindbergh.\"\n\nIn his six months in the Pacific in 1944, Lindbergh took part in fighter bomber raids on Japanese positions, flying 50 combat missions (again as a civilian). His innovations in the use of Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighters impressed a supportive Gen. Douglas MacArthur. Lindbergh introduced engine-leaning techniques to P-38 pilots, greatly improving fuel consumption at cruise speeds, enabling the long-range fighter aircraft to fly longer range missions. The U.S. Marine and Army Air Force pilots who served with Lindbergh praised his courage and defended his patriotism. \n\nOn July 28, 1944, during a P-38 bomber escort mission with the 433rd Fighter Squadron, in the Ceram area, Lindbergh shot down a Sonia observation plane piloted by Captain Saburo Shimada, Commanding Officer of the 73rd Independent Chutai. \n\nAfter the war, while touring the Nazi concentration camps, Lindbergh wrote in his autobiography that he was disgusted and angered.\n\nLater life\n\nAfter World War II, Lindbergh lived in Darien, Connecticut and served as a consultant to the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force and to Pan American World Airways. With most of Eastern Europe having fallen under Communist control, Lindbergh believed most of his prewar assessments were correct all along. But Berg reports after witnessing the defeat of Germany and the Holocaust firsthand shortly after his service in the Pacific, \"he knew the American public no longer gave a hoot about his opinions.\" In 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower restored Lindbergh's assignment with the U.S. Air Force and made him a Brigadier General. In that year, he served on the Congressional advisory panel set up to establish the site of the United States Air Force Academy.\n\nIn 1957, actor James Stewart portrayed Lindbergh in the movie The Spirit of St. Louis. Stewart lobbied hard for the role as he had been a lifelong admirer of Lindbergh and described his trans-Atlantic flight as \"one of the defining moments of my youth\". He encountered derision for trying to play a 26-year-old man in his late 40s and The Spirit of St. Louis was a commercial failure.\n\nIn December 1968, he visited the crew of Apollo 8 (the first manned spaceflight to travel to the Moon) the day before their launch. On July 16, 1969, Lindbergh and T. Claude Ryan (previous owner of the Ryan Flying Company that built the Spirit of St. Louis aircraft) were present at Cape Canaveral to watch the launch of Apollo 11. Lindbergh later wrote the foreword for Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins's autobiography, Carrying the Fire.\n\nEnvironmental causes\n\nLindbergh spent the final decade of his life campaigning to protect endangered species like humpback and blue whales, was instrumental in establishing protections for the controversial Filipino group, the Tasaday, and African tribes, and supporting the establishment of a national park. While studying the native flora and fauna of the Philippines, he became involved in efforts to protect the Philippine eagle and the tamaraw, a rare dwarf buffalo on Mindoro Island.\n\nLindbergh's speeches and writings later in life emphasized his love of both technology and nature, and a lifelong belief that \"all the achievements of mankind have value only to the extent that they preserve and improve the quality of life.\"\n\nLindbergh's final book, Autobiography of Values, based on an unfinished manuscript was published posthumously. While on his deathbed, he had contacted his friend, William Jovanovich, head of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, to edit the lengthy memoirs. \n\nDeath\n\nLindbergh spent his last years on the Hawaiian island of Maui, where he died of lymphoma on August 26, 1974, at age 72. He was buried on the grounds of the Palapala Ho'omau Church in Kipahulu, Maui. His epitaph, on a simple stone following the words \"Charles A. Lindbergh Born Michigan 1902 Died Maui 1974\", quotes Psalms 139:9: \"... If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea ... C.A.L.\" \n\nHonors and tributes\n\nOn May 8, 1928 a statue was dedicated at the entrance to Le Bourget Airport in Paris honoring Lindbergh and his New York to Paris flight as well as Charles Nungesser and Francois Coli who attempted the same feat two weeks earlier in the other direction aboard L'Oiseau Blanc (The White Bird), disappearing without a trace.\n\nIn the United States, at Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport was named after him, and a replica of the Spirit of St. Louis hangs there. Another such replica hangs in the great hall of the Missouri History Museum in St. Louis. The definitive oil painting of Lindbergh by St. Louisan Richard Krause entitled \"The Spirit Soars\" has been displayed there. San Diego's Lindbergh Field, which is also known as San Diego International Airport, was named after him and also displays a replica of the San Diego-built Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis. The airport in Winslow, Arizona has also been renamed Winslow-Lindbergh Regional. Lindbergh himself designed the airport in 1929 when it was built as a refueling point for the first coast-to-coast air service. Among the many airports and air facilities that bear his name, the airport in Little Falls, Minnesota, where he grew up, has been named Little Falls/Morrison County-Lindbergh Field. \n\nLindbergh donated the original Spirit of St. Louis to the Smithsonian Institution in April 1928 where it has been on display continuously ever since. It currently hangs over the main lobby of the National Air and Space Museum located on the Mall in Washington, D.C. a few blocks from the Capitol. \n\nIn 1952, Grandview High School in St. Louis County was renamed Lindbergh High School. The school newspaper is the Pilot, the yearbook is the Spirit, the students are known as the Flyers, and the school's marching band holds the title of the Spirit of St. Louis Marching Band. The school district was also later named after Lindbergh. The stretch of U.S. 67 that runs through most of the St. Louis metro area is called Lindbergh Boulevard. Lindbergh also has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. He was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1967.\n\nLindbergh Senior High School is located in the southeastern section Renton, Washington, in Renton School District 403. It was founded in 1972. The class of 1974 was the first to graduate. In the 1970s, Charles A. Lindbergh Senior High School, in the Hopkins School District 270, located in a southwestern suburb of Minneapolis, was named for the Minnesota native and famed aviator. In 1980, Hopkins closed an older high school and renamed Lindbergh High as Hopkins Senior High School. The Lindbergh Center is located on the Hopkins High School campus.\n\nIn Lindbergh's hometown of Little Falls, Minnesota, one of the district's elementary schools is named Charles Lindbergh Elementary. The district's sports teams are named the Flyers and Lindbergh Drive is a major road on the west side of town, leading to Charles A. Lindbergh State Park. The junior hockey team in Little Falls also bears an aviation-inspired name, the Minnesota Flying Aces. The Lindberghs donated their farmstead to the state to use as a park in memory of Lindbergh's father. The original Lindbergh residence is maintained as a museum, the Charles A. Lindbergh Historic Site, and is listed as a National Historic Landmark. Lindbergh is a recipient of the Silver Buffalo Award, the highest adult award given by the Boy Scouts of America.\n\nOne of the elementary schools in the El Paso Independent School District in El Paso, Texas, where Lindbergh persuaded the city's leaders to establish an airport in the 1920s, was named Lindbergh Elementary in his honor when it opened in 1974; it was later renamed Mitzi Bond Elementary after a principal of the school who died suddenly and tragically in a traffic accident. The street where the school is located is still called Lindbergh Avenue.\n\nIn February 2002, the Medical University of South Carolina at Charleston, within the celebrations for the Lindbergh 100th birthday established the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize, given to major contributors to \"development of perfusion and bioreactor technologies for organ preservation and growth\". M. E. DeBakey and nine other scientists received the prize, a bronze statuette expressly created for the event by the Italian artist C. Zoli and named \"Elisabeth\", after Elisabeth Morrow, sister of Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow, who died as a result of heart disease. Lindbergh was disappointed that contemporary medical technology could not provide an artificial heart pump that would allow for heart surgery on Elisabeth and that led to the first contact between Carrel and Lindbergh.\n\nOn May 2, 2002, Lindbergh's grandson, Erik Lindbergh, celebrated the 75th anniversary of the pioneering 1927 flight of the Spirit of St. Louis by duplicating the journey in a single-engine, two-seat Lancair Columbia 200. The younger Lindbergh's solo flight from Republic Airport on Long Island, to Le Bourget Airport in Paris was completed in 17 hours and 7 minutes, or a little more than half the time of his grandfather's 33.5 hour original flight. \n\nAwards and decorations\n\nLindbergh received many awards, medals and decorations, most of which were later donated to the Missouri Historical Society and are on display at the Jefferson Memorial, now part of the Missouri History Museum in Forest Park in St. Louis, Missouri.\n\nUnited States awards\n\n* Medal of Honor (1927)\n* Distinguished Flying Cross (1927)\n* Congressional Gold Medal (1928)\n* Langley Gold Medal from the Smithsonian Institution (1927)\n* Hubbard Medal (1927)\n* Honorary Scout (Boy Scouts of America, 1927) \n* Silver Buffalo Award (Boy Scouts of America)\n* Wright Brothers Memorial Trophy (1949)\n* Daniel Guggenheim Medal (1953)\n* Pulitzer Prize (1954)\n\nNon-U.S. awards\n\n* Commander of the Legion of Honor (France, 1931) \n* Knight of the Order of Leopold (Belgium, 1927)\n* Air Force Cross (UK) (1927)\n* Order of the German Eagle with Star (Germany Deutsches Reich, 19 October 1938) \n* Official Royal Air Force Museum Medal (UK)\n* Fédération Aéronautique Internationale FAI Gold Medal (1927)\n* ICAO Edward Warner Award \n\nMedal of Honor\n\nRank and organization: Captain, U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve. Place and date: From New York City to Paris, France, May 20–21, 1927. Entered service at: Little Falls, Minn. Born: February 4, 1902, Detroit, Mich. G.O. No.: 5, W.D., 1928; Act of Congress December 14, 1927.\n\nCitation:\n\nOther recognition\n\n*1991 Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame Inductee \n*Ranked No. 3 on Flying magazine's 2013 list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation \n* Member of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nBooks\n\nIn addition to \"WE\" and The Spirit of St. Louis, Lindbergh also wrote prolifically over the years on other topics of interest to him, including science, technology, nationalism, war, materialism, and values. Included among those writings were five other books: The Culture of Organs (with Dr. Alexis Carrel) (1938), Of Flight and Life (1948), The Wartime Journals of Charles A. Lindbergh (1970), Boyhood on the Upper Mississippi (1972), and his final book, Autobiography of Values, which was published posthumously in 1978. \n\nIn addition to many biographies such as A. Scott Berg's massive \"Lindbergh\" published in 1999 and others, Lindbergh also influenced or was the model for characters in a variety of works of fiction. Shortly after he made his famous flight, the Stratemeyer Syndicate began publishing a series of books for juvenile readers called the Ted Scott Flying Stories (1927–1943), which were written by a number of authors all using the nom de plume of Franklin W. Dixon, in which the pilot hero was closely modeled after Lindbergh. Ted Scott duplicated the solo flight to Paris in the series' first volume, entitled Over the Ocean to Paris published in 1927. Another fictional literary reference to Lindbergh appears in the Agatha Christie book (1934) and movie Murder on the Orient Express (1974) which begins with a fictionalized depiction of the Lindbergh baby kidnapping. \n\nThe Philip Roth novel, The Plot Against America (2004), a speculative fiction novel, explores an alternate history where Franklin Delano Roosevelt is defeated in the 1940 presidential election by Lindbergh, who allies the United States with Nazi Germany. \n\nFilm and television\n\nVerdensberømtheder i København (1939) was a Danish short subject produced by the Dansk Film Co. in which Lindbergh as well as Hollywood actors Robert Taylor, Myrna Loy, and Edward G. Robinson all appeared as themselves. The 1938 Paramount film Men with Wings (Fred MacMurray, Ray Milland) featured a replica of the Spirit of St. Louis fashioned from a Ryan B-1 \"Brougham\" similar to one presented to Lindbergh by the manufacturer, the Mahoney Aircraft Corporation, shortly after the Spirit was retired in April 1928. The 1942 MGM picture Keeper of the Flame (Katharine Hepburn, Spencer Tracy) features Hepburn as the widow of Robert V. Forrest, a \"Lindbergh-like\" national hero, who was exposed after his death as a secret fascist intending to use his influence—especially over America's youth—to turn the country into a fascist state and eliminate those he deemed as inferior races.\n\nFour years after its 1953 publication, Lindbergh's second book about his flying \"partner\" served as the basis for the namesake major Hollywood Cinemascope motion picture The Spirit of St. Louis, directed by Billy Wilder and released on April 20, 1957, one month short of the 30th anniversary of the flight to Paris. The Spirit was \"portrayed\" in the film by three flyable replicas of the Ryan NYP, while Lindbergh was played by veteran American actor and fellow Army aviator James Stewart. To accurately depict the transatlantic flight, the film production built three replicas of the Spirit of St. Louis (at a cost of $1.3 million—equal to more than $11 million in 2013) for various location and studio film units. A similar Ryan Brougham was bought by Stewart and modified with Lindbergh's supervision.\n\nLindbergh has also been the subject of numerous screen, television, and other documentary films over the years, including Charles A. Lindbergh (1927), a UK documentary by De Forest Phonofilm based on Lindbergh's milestone flight, 40,000 Miles with Lindbergh (1928) featuring Charles A. Lindbergh, and The American Experience—Lindbergh: The Shocking, Turbulent Life of America's Lone Eagle (1988) PBS documentary directed by Stephen Ives. \n\nThe story of Lindbergh and his association with the former German Nazi Party was featured on the Science Channel TV show, Dark Matters: Twisted But True. \n\nActor Josh Lucas portrayed Lindbergh in the 2011 film, J. Edgar, directed by Clint Eastwood.\n\nMusic\n\nWithin days of the flight, dozens of Tin Pan Alley publishers rushed a variety of popular songs into print celebrating Lindbergh and the Spirit of St. Louis including \"Lindbergh (The Eagle of the U.S.A.)\" by Howard Johnson and Al Sherman, and \"Lucky Lindy\" by L. Wolfe Gilbert and Abel Baer. In the two-year period following Lindbergh's flight, the U.S. Copyright Office recorded three hundred applications for Lindbergh songs. Tony Randall revived \"Lucky Lindy\" in an album of Jazz Age and Depression-era songs that he recorded entitled Vo Vo De Oh Doe (1967). \n\nIn 1929, Bertolt Brecht wrote a musical called Der Lindberghflug (The Lindbergh Flight) with music by Kurt Weill and Paul Hindemith. Because of Lindbergh's apparent Nazi sympathies, in 1950 Brecht removed all direct references to Lindbergh and renamed the piece Der Ozeanflug (The Ocean Flight). \n\nIn 1964, Woody Guthrie wrote \"Mister Charlie Lindbergh\", which was critical of Lindbergh's isolationist stance and involvement in America First prior to World War II.\n\nThe 1991 album Defcon by industrial artist :wumpscut: contains a track titled \"Lindbergh\", which uses spoken quotes that reference Lindbergh's trans-Atlantic flight.\n\nIn 1992, the Italian singer Ivano Fossati released an album titled Lindbergh - Lettere da sopra la pioggia. The cover features a picture of the Spirit of St. Louis. \"Lindbergh\" is also the title of the last track of the album.\n\nIn 2016, as part of his series of scores based around historical events, Adam Young released a score based around The Spirit of St. Louis's flight. \n\nPostage stamps\n\nLindbergh and the Spirit have been honored by a variety of world postage stamps over the last eight decades, including three issued by the United States. Less than three weeks after the flight the U.S. Post Office Department issued a 10-cent \"Lindbergh Air Mail\" stamp (Scott C-10) on June 11, 1927, with engraved illustrations of both the Spirit of St. Louis and a map of its route from New York to Paris. This was also the first U.S. stamp to bear the name of a living person. A half-century later, a 13-Cent commemorative stamp (Scott #1710) depicting the Spirit flying low over the Atlantic Ocean was issued on May 20, 1977, the 50th anniversary of the flight from Roosevelt Field. On May 28, 1998, a 32¢ stamp with the legend \"Lindbergh Flies Atlantic\" (Scott #3184m) depicting Lindbergh and the \"Spirit\" was issued as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series."
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"Charles Lindbergh | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nEvangeline Lodge Land Lindbergh\nSignature\nCharles Augustus Lindbergh (February 4, 1902 – August 26, 1974), nicknamed Slim, [1] Lucky Lindy, and The Lone Eagle, was an American aviator, author, inventor, explorer, and social activist.\nAs a 25-year-old U.S. Air Mail pilot, Lindbergh emerged suddenly from virtual obscurity to instantaneous world fame as the result of his Orteig Prize -winning solo non-stop flight on May 20–21, 1927, made from Roosevelt Field [N 1] in Garden City on New York's Long Island to Le Bourget Field in Paris, France, a distance of nearly 3,600 statute miles (5,800 km), in the single-seat, single-engine purpose-built Ryan monoplane Spirit of St. Louis . As a result of this flight Lindbergh was the first person in history to be in New York one day and Paris the next. Lindbergh, a U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve officer, was also awarded the nation's highest military decoration, the Medal of Honor , for his historic exploit.\nIn the late 1920s and early 1930s, Lindbergh used his fame to promote the development of both commercial aviation and Air Mail services in the United States and the Americas. In March 1932, his infant son, Charles, Jr., was kidnapped and murdered in what was soon dubbed the \"Crime of the Century\" . It was described by journalist H.L. Mencken, as \"... the biggest story since the resurrection.\" [2] The kidnapping eventually led to the Lindbergh family being \"driven into voluntary exile\" in Europe to which they sailed in secrecy from New York under assumed names in late December 1935 to \"seek a safe, secluded residence away from the tremendous public hysteria\" in America. The Lindberghs returned to the United States in April 1939.\nBefore the United States formally entered World War II , Lindbergh had been an outspoken advocate of keeping the U.S. out of the world conflict, as had his father, Congressman Charles August Lindbergh , during World War I . Although Lindbergh was a leader in the anti-war America First movement, he nevertheless strongly supported the war effort after Pearl Harbor and flew many combat missions in the Pacific Theater of World War II as a civilian consultant even though President Franklin D. Roosevelt had refused to reinstate his Army Air Corps colonel's commission that he had resigned in April 1941.\nIn his later years, Lindbergh became a prolific prize-winning author, international explorer, inventor, and environmentalist.\nContents\nEdit\nCharles A. Lindbergh: son and father c. 1910\nAlthough born in Detroit, Michigan, on February 4, 1902, Charles Agustus Lindbergh spent most of his childhood in Little Falls, Minnesota , and Washington, D.C.. He was the third child of Swedish immigrant Charles August Lindbergh ( birth name Carl Månsson) (1859–1924), and only child of his second wife, Evangeline Lodge Land Lindbergh (1876–1954), of Detroit although the Lindberghs separated in 1909 when their son was seven. [3] Lindbergh's father, a U.S. Congressman (R-Minnesota (6th)) from 1907 to 1917, was one of just fifty House members to vote against (373-50) the entry of the U.S. into World War I. [4] Mrs. Lindbergh was a chemistry teacher at Cass Technical High School in Detroit and later at Little Falls High School from which her son graduated on June 5, 1918. Lindbergh also attended over a dozen other schools from Washington, D.C., to California during his childhood and teenage years (none for more than a year or two), including the Force School and Sidwell Friends School while living in Washington with his father, and Redondo Union High School in Redondo Beach, California while living there with his mother. [5] Although he enrolled in the College of Engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in late 1920, Lindbergh dropped out in the middle of his sophomore year and headed for Lincoln, Nebraska, in March 1922 to begin flight training. [6]\nEarly aviation career\nEdit\nFrom an early age Charles Lindbergh had exhibited an interest in the mechanics of motorized transportation, including his family's Saxon Six automobile, and later his Excelsior motorbike. By the time he started college as a mechanical engineering student he had also become fascinated with flying even though he \"had never been close enough to a plane to touch it.\" [7] After quitting college in February 1922, Lindbergh enrolled as a student at the Nebraska Aircraft Corporation's flying school in Lincoln two months later and flew for the first time in his life on April 9, 1922, when he took to the air as a passenger in a two-seat Lincoln Standard \"Tourabout\" biplane trainer piloted by Otto Timm . [8]\nEdit\nCAM-2 first flight cover (April 15, 1926)\nIn October 1925, Lindbergh was hired by the Robertson Aircraft Corporation (RAC) in St. Louis (where he had been working as a flight instructor) to first lay out, and then serve as chief pilot for the newly designated 278-mile (447 km) Contract Air Mail Route #2 (CAM-2) to provide service between St. Louis and Chicago (Maywood Field) with two intermediate stops in Springfield and Peoria, Illinois. [25] Operating from RAC's home base at the Lambert-St. Louis Flying Field in Anglum, Missouri, Lindbergh and three other RAC pilots, Philip R. Love, Thomas P. Nelson, and Harlan A. \"Bud\" Gurney, flew the mail over CAM-2 in a fleet of four modified war surplus de Havilland DH-4 biplanes.\nLindbergh's copy of a CAM-2 \"Weekly Postage Report\" for the week of February 6–12, 1927\nTwo days before he opened service on the route on April 15, 1926, with its first early morning southbound flight from Chicago to St. Louis, Lindbergh officially became authorized to be entrusted with the \"care, custody, and conveyance\" of U.S. Mails by formally subscribing and swearing to the Post Office Department's 1874 Oath of Mail Messengers. [26] Twice during the ten months that he flew CAM-2, Lindbergh would be called upon to exhibit his faithfulness to that oath after temporarily losing custody and control of mails that he was transporting when he was forced to bail out of his mail plane owing to bad weather, equipment problems, and/or fuel exhaustion. [27] [28] In the two incidents, which both occurred while he was approaching Chicago at night, Lindbergh came down by parachute near small farming communities in northeastern Illinois. On September 16, 1926, he came down about 60 miles (97 km) southwest of Chicago near the town of Wedron , [29] while six weeks later, on November 3, 1926, Lindbergh bailed out again about 70 miles (110 km) further south hitting the ground in another farm field west of the city of Bloomington near the town of Covell. [30] After landing without serious injury on both occasions, Lindbergh's first concern was to immediately locate the wreckage of his crashed mail planes, make sure that the bags of mail were promptly secured and salvaged, and then see that they were entrained or trucked on to Chicago with as little delay as possible. [28] [31] Lindbergh continued on as chief pilot of CAM-2 until mid-February 1927, when he left for San Diego, California, to oversee the design and construction of the Spirit of St. Louis. [32]\nA rare surviving B.L. Rowe corner cover flown in the Spirit of St. Louis from Santo Domingo to Port-au-Prince and Havana (February 6–8, 1928)\nAlthough Lindbergh never returned to service as a regular U.S. Air Mail pilot, he used the immense fame that his New York to Paris flight brought him to help promote the use of the U.S. Air Mail Service. While he carried no official mail in the Spirit to Paris or during the subsequent three month, 48-state Guggenheim Tour, at the request of Capt. Basil L. Rowe, the owner and chief pilot of West Indian Aerial Express (later Pan Am's chief pilot as well) and a fellow Air Mail pioneer and advocate, in February 1928, Lindbergh carried a small amount (about 3,000 pieces) of special souvenir mail between Santo Domingo, R.D., Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and Havana, Cuba in the Spirit of St. Louis. [33] These rare Lindbergh flown \"Good Will Tour\" covers remain very highly prized by collectors of Air Mail postal history especially as many of the Port-au-Prince to Havana covers were later destroyed during a hurricane that struck Havana in 1931. [34] Those cities were the last three stops that he and the Spirit made during their 7,800-mile (12,600 km) \"Good Will Tour\" of Latin America and the Caribbean between December 13, 1927, and February 8, 1928. [35] The final two legs of the 48-day tour were also the only flights on which officially sanctioned, postally franked mail was ever carried in the Spirit of St. Louis. [36]\nLindbergh autographed USPOD penalty cover with C-10 flown by him over CAM-2 on February 21–22, 1928\nExactly two weeks after completing his Latin American tour, Lindbergh \"returned\" to flying CAM-2 for two days so that he could pilot a series of special flights over his old route on February 20 (northbound) and February 21 (southbound). Known as \"Horseshoe Mail\" because each piece received a rubber stamp cachet of a large horseshoe with the legend \"LINDBERGH AGAIN FLIES THE AIR MAIL\" and \"CHICAGO ST. LOUIS C.A.M. 2\", there was such huge demand for covers carried on these flights that three mailplanes were used to fly it between St. Louis to Chicago that were flown by Lindbergh and fellow CAM-2 pilots Thomas Nelson, Philip Love, Bud Gurney, E.L. Sloniger and L.H. Smith. At each stop on the route Lindbergh switched planes so it could be said that he flew each one of the tens of thousands of self-addressed souvenir covers sent in from all over the nation and the world. After being flown the covers were backstamped and returned to their senders as a further means to promote awareness and the use of the Air Mail Service. [37]\nIn 1929-31 Lindbergh carried much smaller numbers of souvenir covers on the first flights over routes in Latin America and the Caribbean which he had earlier laid out as a consultant to Pan American Airways to be then flown under contract to the Post Office Department as Foreign Air Mail (FAM) routes 5 and 6. These covers and other artifacts associated with or carried on flights piloted by Lindbergh are still actively collected under the general designation of \"Lindberghiana.\" [38]\nThe Orteig Prize, Spirit of St. Louis, and New York-Paris flight\nFile:CharlesLindbergh22.jpg\nAnne Morrow Lindbergh (1906–2001) was the daughter of Dwight Morrow who, as partner at J.P. Morgan & Co. , had acted as financial adviser to Lindbergh and who had been appointed U.S. Ambassador to Mexico in 1927. Lindbergh was invited by Morrow on a goodwill tour to Mexico, and he met Anne in Mexico City in December 1927.\nThe couple were married on May 27, 1929, and had six children: Charles Augustus Lindbergh, Jr. (1930–1932); Jon Morrow Lindbergh (b. August 16, 1932); Land Morrow Lindbergh (b. 1937), who studied anthropology at Stanford University and married Susan Miller in San Diego; Anne Lindbergh (1940–1993); Scott Lindbergh (b. 1942); and Reeve Lindbergh (b. 1945), a writer. Lindbergh also taught his wife how to fly and did much of his exploring and charting of air routes with her.\nLindbergh saw his children for only a couple of months a year. He kept track of each child’s infractions, which included such activities as gum-chewing. He insisted that Anne track all her household expenditures, including even 15 cents spent for rubber bands, in account books. [76]\nAccording to a Biography Channel profile on Lindbergh, she was the only woman who he had ever asked out on a date. In Lindbergh's autobiography, he derides womanizing pilots he met as \"barnstormers,\" and Army cadets for their \"facile\" approach to relationships. Lindbergh wrote that the ideal romance was stable and long term, with a woman with keen intellect, good health, and strong genes. [77] Lindbergh said his \"experience in breeding animals on our farm had taught me the importance of good heredity.\" [78]\nTwenty-nine years after Lindbergh's 1974 death, the largest national daily newspaper in Germany, Munich's Suddeutsche Zeitung , reported in late July 2003 that he had fathered three out-of-wedlock children by German hat maker Brigitte Hesshaimer (1926–2003) who had lived in the small Bavarian town of Geretsried just south of Munich. [79] By the time of the publication of German biographer Rudolf Schröck's book Das Doppelleben des Charles A. Lindbergh (The Double Life of Charles A. Lindbergh) two years later, however, it had been further revealed that Lindbergh had also fathered four other out-of-wedlock children in Germany and Switzerland with two other mistresses. [80] [81] Beginning in March 1957 Lindbergh had established romantic relationships with Brigitte Hesshaimer, her sister, Mariette, a painter living in Grimisuat in the Swiss canton Valais with whom he had two children, and with Valeska, an East Prussian aristocrat who was his private secretary in Europe and lived in Baden-Baden with whom he had two more children, a son born in 1959 and a daughter in 1961. All seven childred had been born between 1958 and 1967. [82]\nTen days before he died on August 26, 1974, Lindbergh wrote letters from his New York hospital bed to each of his three European mistresses imploring them to maintain the \"utmost secrecy\" about their relationships after his death. [83] The three women (none of whom ever married) all managed to keep their affairs secret even from their children who during his lifetime (and for almost a decade after) did not know the true identity of their father whom they had only known by the alias \"Careu Kent\" and seen only when he visited for a few days once or twice per year. However after finding and reading a magazine article about Lindbergh in the mid-1980s, Brigitte's daughter Astrid learned her father's true identity and later discovered snapshots and more than a 150 love letters written to her mother by Lindbergh between 1957 and 1974. After both Brigitte and Anne Morrow Lindbergh had both died, Astrid finally publicly disclosed who her brothers' and her father was. On November 23, 2003, DNA tests confirmed that Lindbergh had fathered Dyrk, Astrid and David, Brigitte's three children, . [82] [84]\nIn April 2008, Reeve Lindbergh, his youngest child with his wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh, published Forward From Here: Leaving Middle Age and Other Unexpected Adventures, a book of essays that includes her learning in late July 2003 the truth about her father's secret European families and writing in her personal journal on August 8, 2003 that \"This story reflects absolutely Byzantine layers of deception on the part of our shared father. These children did not even know who he was! He used a pseudonym with them (To protect them, perhaps? To protect himself, absolutely!)\" A year later she traveled to Europe to meet all seven of her half siblings and understand an expanded meaning of family. [85]\n\"The Crime of the Century\"\nMain article: Lindbergh kidnapping\nThe \"wanted\" poster\nIn what came to be referred to sensationally by the press of the time as \"The Crime of the Century\", on the evening of March 1, 1932, 20-month-old Charles Augustus Lindbergh, Jr., was abducted by an intruder from his crib in the second-story nursery of his family's rural home in East Amwell, New Jersey near the town of Hopewell . [N 6] While a 10-week nationwide search for the child was being undertaken, ransom negotiations were also conducted simultaneously with a self-identified kidnapper by a volunteer intermediary, Dr. John F. Condon (aka \"Jafsie\"). [87] These resulted in the payment on April 2 of $50,000 in cash, part of which was made in soon-to-be withdrawn (and thus more easily traceable) Gold certificates the serial numbers of which had been recorded, in exchange for information about the child's whereabouts that proved to be false. The child's remains were found by chance by a passing truckdriver six weeks later on May 12 in roadside woodlands near Mount Rose, New Jersey.\nIn response to the highly publicized crime, Congress passed the so-called \"Lindbergh Law\" on June 13, which made kidnapping a federal offense under certain circumstances. Known formally as the \"Federal Kidnapping Act of 1932\" (\n18 U.S.C. § 1201 (a)(1)\n), the new statute provided for federal jurisdiction over all future kidnappings in which any victim(s) were taken across state lines and/or (as had occurred in the Lindbergh case) the kidnapper(s) used \"the mail or any means, facility, or instrumentality of interstate or foreign commerce in committing or in furtherance of the commission of the offense\", including as a means to demand a ransom. [88]\nLindbergh testifies at the Hauptmann trial in 1935\nThe assiduous tracing of the serial numbers of $10 and $20 Gold certificates passed in the New York City area over the next year and a half eventually led police to Bruno Richard Hauptmann , a 34-year-old German immigrant carpenter, who was arrested near his home in The Bronx, New York, on September 19, 1934. (Hauptmann was identified by the license plate number of his automobile, which a gas station attendant had written on the bill after receiving it from him in payment for services.) A stash containing $13,760 of the ransom money was subsequently found hidden in his garage. Charged with kidnapping, extortion, and first-degree murder, Hauptmann went on trial in a circus-like atmosphere in Flemington, New Jersey , on January 2, 1935. Six weeks later he was convicted on all counts when, following 11 hours of deliberation, the jury delivered its verdict late on the night of February 13, after which trial judge Thomas Trenchard immediately sentenced Hauptmann to death. [89] Although he continued to adamantly maintain his innocence, all of Hauptmann's appeals and petitions for clemency were rejected by early December 1935. [90] Despite a last-minute attempt by New Jersey Governor Harold G. Hoffman (who believed Hauptmann was guilty but had always expressed doubts that he could have acted alone) to convince him to confess to the crimes in exchange for getting his sentence commuted to life imprisonment, the by then 36-year-old Hauptmann refused and was electrocuted at Trenton State Prison on April 3, 1936. [91]\nSelf exile in Europe (1936–1939)\nEdit\nAt the urging of U.S. Ambassador Joseph Kennedy , Lindbergh wrote a secret memo to the British warning that if Britain and France responded militarily to German dictator Adolf Hitler 's violation of the Munich Agreement in 1938, it would be suicide. Lindbergh stated that France's military strength was inadequate and that Britain had an outdated military over-reliance upon naval power. He recommended they urgently strengthen their air arsenal in order to force Hitler to turn his ambitions eastward to a war against \"Asiatic Communism.\" [119]\nIn a controversial 1939 Reader's Digest article, Lindbergh said, \"Our civilization depends on peace among Western nations ... and therefore on united strength, for Peace is a virgin who dare not show her face without Strength, her father, for protection.\" [120] [121] Lindbergh deplored the rivalry between Germany and Britain but favored a war between Germany and Russia. There is some controversy as to how accurate his reports concerning the Luftwaffe were, but Cole reports the consensus among British and American officials was that they were slightly exaggerated but badly needed. [119]\n\"America First\" involvement\nEdit\nIn late 1940, he became spokesman of the antiwar America First Committee . [122] He soon became its most prominent public spokesman, speaking to overflowing crowds in Madison Square Garden in New York City and Soldier Field in Chicago. His speeches were heard by millions. During this time, Lindbergh lived in Lloyd Neck , on Long Island, New York.\nLindbergh argued that America did not have any business attacking Germany and believed in upholding the Monroe Doctrine, which his interventionist rivals felt was outdated. In his autobiography he wrote:\n“\nI was deeply concerned that the potentially gigantic power of America, guided by uninformed and impractical idealism, might crusade into Europe to destroy Hitler without realizing that Hitler's destruction would lay Europe open to the rape, loot and barbarism of Soviet Russia's forces, causing possibly the fatal wounding of western civilization. [123]\n”\nCharles Lindbergh speaking at an AFC rally\nIn his January 23, 1941, testimony in opposition to the Lend-Lease Bill before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs , Lindbergh proposed that the United States negotiate a neutrality pact with Germany. [124] President Roosevelt publicly criticized Lindbergh's views on neutrality three months later during a White House press conference on April 25, 1941, as being those of a \"defeatist and appeaser\" and compared him to U.S. Rep. Clement L. Vallandigham (D-OH), the leader of the \"Copperhead\" movement that had opposed the American Civil War . Three days later Lindbergh resigned his commission as a colonel in the U.S. Army Air Corps in an April 28 letter to the President in which he said that he could find \"no honorable alternative\" to his taking such an action after Roosevelt had publicly questioned his loyalty. [125]\nIn a speech at an America First rally at the Des Moines Coliseum on September 11, 1941, \"Who Are the War Agitators?\", Lindbergh claimed the three groups, \"pressing this country toward war [are] the British, the Jewish and the Roosevelt Administration\" and said of Jewish groups,\n“\nInstead of agitating for war, the Jewish groups in this country should be opposing it in every possible way for they will be among the first to feel its consequences. Tolerance is a virtue that depends upon peace and strength. History shows that it cannot survive war and devastation. [126]\n”\nIn the speech, he warned of the Jewish people's \"large ownership and influence in our motion pictures, our press, our radio and our government\". He went on to condemn Nazi Germany's antisemitism: \"No person with a sense of the dignity of mankind can condone the persecution of the Jewish race in Germany.\" Lindbergh declared,\n“\nI am not attacking either the Jewish or the British people. Both races, I admire. But I am saying that the leaders of both the British and the Jewish races, for reasons which are as understandable from their viewpoint as they are inadvisable from ours, for reasons which are not American, wish to involve us in the war. We cannot blame them for looking out for what they believe to be their own interests, but we also must look out for ours. We cannot allow the natural passions and prejudices of other peoples to lead our country to destruction. [127]\n”\nThe speech was heavily criticized as being anti-Semitic. [128] In response Lindbergh stated again he was not anti-Semitic, but he did not back away from his statements.\nLindbergh's wife, Anne Morrow Lindbergh had concerns about the reaction to the speech and how it would affect his reputation, wrongfully in her view. From her diary:\n“\n... I have the greatest faith in [Lindbergh] as a person — in his integrity, his courage, and his essential goodness, fairness, and kindness — his nobility really ... How then explain my profound feeling of grief about what he is doing? If what he said is the truth (and I am inclined to think it is), why was it wrong to state it? He was naming the groups that were pro-war. No one minds his naming the British or the Administration. But to name \"Jew\" is un-American — even if it is done without hate or even criticism. Why? [129]\n”\nInterventionists created pamphlets pointing out his efforts were praised in Nazi Germany and included quotations such as \"Racial strength is vital; politics, a luxury\". They included pictures of him and other America Firsters using the stiff-armed Bellamy salute (a hand gesture described by Francis Bellamy to accompany his Pledge of Allegiance to the American flag); the photos were taken from an angle not showing the flag, so to observers it was indistinguishable from the Hitler salute . [130]\nPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt disliked Lindbergh's outspoken opposition to intervention and his administration's policies, such as the Lend-Lease Act, and said to Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau in May 1940, \"if I should die tomorrow, I want you to know this, I am absolutely convinced Lindbergh is a Nazi.\" [131] FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, on his own authority, began to investigate Lindbergh's personal life. Hoover had his agents look for anything that might discredit Lindbergh's reputation, such as information purporting that during Prohibition, Lindbergh had bootlegged whiskey in Montana and had consorted with pimps and prostitutes. While not ordering the FBI to look into Lindbergh, Roosevelt all the same did not complain about Hoover's efforts. [132]\nThoughts on race and racism\nEdit\nLindbergh elucidated his beliefs about the white race in an article he published in Reader's Digest in 1939:\nWe can have peace and security only so long as we band together to preserve that most priceless possession, our inheritance of European blood, only so long as we guard ourselves against attack by foreign armies and dilution by foreign races. [133]\nBecause of his trips to Nazi Germany, combined with a belief in eugenics, [134] Lindbergh was suspected of being a Nazi sympathizer.\nLindbergh's reaction to Kristallnacht was entrusted to his diary: \"I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans,\" he wrote. \"It seems so contrary to their sense of order and intelligence. They have undoubtedly had a difficult ' Jewish problem ,' but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?\" [135] Lindbergh had planned to move to Berlin for the winter of 1938–39, after Kristallnacht , a time when many Americans reacted with revulsion at Nazi barbarism. He had provisionally found a house in Wannsee , but after Nazi friends discouraged him from leasing it because it had been formerly owned by Jews, [136] it was recommended that he contact Albert Speer who said he would build the Lindberghs a house anywhere they wanted. On the advice of his close friend the eugenicist Alexis Carrel, he cancelled the trip. [136]\nIn his diaries, he wrote: \"We must limit to a reasonable amount the Jewish influence ... Whenever the Jewish percentage of total population becomes too high, a reaction seems to invariably occur. It is too bad because a few Jews of the right type are, I believe, an asset to any country.\"\nLindbergh's anti-communism resonated deeply with many Americans, while eugenics and Nordicism enjoyed social acceptance. [121]\nAlthough Lindbergh considered Hitler a fanatic and avowed a belief in American democracy, [137] [138] he clearly stated elsewhere that he believed the survival of the white race was more important than the survival of democracy in Europe: \"Our bond with Europe is one of race and not of political ideology,\" he declared. [139] Critics have noticed an apparent influence of German philosopher Oswald Spengler on Lindbergh. [140] Spengler was a conservative authoritarian and during the interwar era , was widely read throughout Western World, though by this point he had fallen out of favor with the Nazis because he had not wholly subscribed to their theories of racial purity. [140]\nFile:Fordslindbergh.jpg\nLindbergh developed a long-term friendship with the automobile pioneer Henry Ford , who was well known for his anti-Semitic newspaper The Dearborn Independent . In a famous comment about Lindbergh to Detroit's former FBI field office special agent in charge in July 1940, Ford said: \"When Charles comes out here, we only talk about the Jews.\" [141] [142]\nLindbergh considered Russia to be a \"semi-Asiatic\" country compared to Germany, and he found Communism to be an ideology that would destroy the West's \"racial strength\" and replace everyone of European descent with \"a pressing sea of Yellow, Black, and Brown.\" He stated that if he had to choose, he would rather see America allied with Nazi Germany than Soviet Russia. He preferred Nordics , but he believed, after Soviet Communism was defeated, Russia would be a valuable ally against potential aggression from East Asia. [140] [143]\nLindbergh said certain races have \"demonstrated superior ability in the design, manufacture, and operation of machines.\" [144] He further said, \"The growth of our western civilization has been closely related to this superiority.\" [145] Lindbergh admired \"the German genius for science and organization, the English genius for government and commerce, the French genius for living and the understanding of life.\" He believed that \"in America they can be blended to form the greatest genius of all.\"[ citation needed ] His message was popular throughout many Northern communities and especially well received in the Midwest, while the American South was Anglophilic and supported a pro-British foreign policy. [146] The South was the most pro-British and interventionist part of the country. [147]\nHolocaust researcher and investigative journalist Max Wallace in his book, The American Axis , agreed with Franklin Roosevelt's assessment that Lindbergh was \"pro-Nazi.\" Wallace finds the Roosevelt Administration's accusations of dual loyalty or treason as unsubstantiated. Wallace considers Lindbergh a well-intentioned, but bigoted and misguided, Nazi sympathizer whose career as the leader of the isolationist movement had a destructive impact on Jewish people. [148]\nLindbergh's Pulitzer Prize-winning biographer, A. Scott Berg , contends Lindbergh was not so much a supporter of the Nazi regime as someone so stubborn in his convictions and relatively inexperienced in political maneuvering that he easily allowed rivals to portray him as one. Lindbergh's receipt of the German medal was approved without objection by the American embassy; the war had not yet begun in Europe. The award did not cause controversy until the war began and Lindbergh returned to the United States in 1939 to spread his message of non-intervention. Berg contends Lindbergh's views were commonplace in the United States in the pre–World War II era. Lindbergh's support for the America First Committee was representative of the sentiments of a number of American people. [138]\nYet Berg also notes that \"As late as April 1939 – after Germany overtook Czechoslovakia – Lindbergh was willing to make excuses for Hitler. 'Much as I disapprove of many things Hitler had done,' he wrote in his diary on April 2, 1939, 'I believe she [Germany] has pursued the only consistent policy in Europe in recent years. I cannot support her broken promises, but she has only moved a little faster than other nations ... in breaking promises. The question of right and wrong is one thing by law and another thing by history.'\" Berg also explains that leading up to the war, in Lindbergh's mind, the great battle would be between the Soviet Union and Germany, not fascism and democracy.\nWallace noted that it was difficult to find social scientists among Lindbergh's contemporaries in the 1930s who found validity in racial explanations for human behavior. Wallace went on to observe that \"throughout his life, eugenics would remain one of Lindbergh's enduring passions.\" [149] In Pat Buchanan 's book A Republic, Not an Empire: Reclaiming America's Destiny , he portrays Lindbergh and other pre-war isolationists as American patriots who were smeared by interventionists during the months leading up to the attack on Pearl Harbor . Buchanan suggests the backlash against Lindbergh highlights \"the explosiveness of mixing ethnic politics with foreign policy.\" [150]\nLindbergh always preached military strength and alertness. [151] [152] He believed that a strong defensive war machine would make America an impenetrable fortress and defend the Western Hemisphere from an attack by foreign powers, and that this was the U.S. military's sole purpose. [153]\nBerg reveals that while the attack on Pearl Harbor came as a shock to Lindbergh, he did predict that America's \"wavering policy in the Philippines\" would invite a bloody war there, and, in one speech, he warned that \"we should either fortify these islands adequately, or get out of them entirely.\" [138]\nWorld War II\nAfter the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Lindbergh sought to be recommissioned in the USAAF. The Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson , declined the request on instructions from the White House. [154]\nVMF-222 \"Flying Deuces\"\nUnable to take on an active military role, Lindbergh approached a number of aviation companies, offering his services as a consultant. As a technical adviser with Ford in 1942, he was heavily involved in troubleshooting early problems encountered at the Willow Run Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomber production line. As B-24 production smoothed out, he joined United Aircraft in 1943 as an engineering consultant, devoting most of his time to its Chance-Vought Division . The following year, he persuaded United Aircraft to designate him a technical representative in the Pacific Theater of Operations to study aircraft performances under combat conditions. He showed Marine Vought F4U Corsair pilots how to take off with twice the bomb load than the fighter-bomber was rated for and on May 21, 1944, he flew his first combat mission: a strafing run with VMF-222 near the Japanese garrison of Rabaul, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. [155] He was also flying with VMF-216 (first squadron there) during this period from the Marine Air Base at Torokina, Bougainville Australian Solomon Islands. Several Marine squadrons were flying bomber escorts to destroy the Japanese stronghold of Rabaul. His first flight was escorted by Lt. Robert E. (Lefty) McDonough. It was understood that Lefty refused to fly with him again, as he did not want to be known as \"the guy who killed Lindbergh.\" [155]\n433rd Fighter Squadron \"Satan's Angels\"\nIn his six months in the Pacific in 1944, Lindbergh took part in fighter bomber raids on Japanese positions, flying about 50 combat missions (again as a civilian). His innovations in the use of Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighters impressed a supportive Gen. Douglas MacArthur . [156] Lindbergh introduced engine-leaning techniques to P-38 pilots, greatly improving fuel consumption at cruise speeds, enabling the long-range fighter aircraft to fly longer range missions. The U.S. Marine and Army Air Force pilots who served with Lindbergh praised his courage and defended his patriotism. [155]\nOn July 28, 1944, during a P-38 bomber escort mission with the 433rd Fighter Squadron, 475th Fighter Group, Fifth Air Force, in the Ceram area, Lindbergh shot down a Sonia observation plane piloted by Captain Saburo Shimada, Commanding Officer of the 73rd Independent Chutai. [155] [157]\nAfter the war, while touring the Nazi concentration camps , Lindbergh wrote in his autobiography that he was disgusted and angered. [N 7]\nLater life\nEdit\nAfter World War II, Lindbergh lived in Darien, Connecticut and served as a consultant to the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force and to Pan American World Airways. With most of Eastern Europe having fallen under Communist control, Lindbergh believed most of his pre-war assessments were correct all along. But Berg reports after witnessing the defeat of Germany and the Holocaust firsthand shortly after his service in the Pacific, \"he knew the American public no longer gave a hoot about his opinions.\" In 1954 President Dwight D. Eisenhower restored Lindbergh's assignment with the U.S. Air Force and made him a Brigadier General . In that year, he served on the Congressional advisory panel set up to establish the site of the United States Air Force Academy .\nIn December 1968, he visited the crew of Apollo 8 (the first manned spaceflight to travel to the Moon) the day before their launch. On July 16, 1969, Lindbergh and T. Claude Ryan (previous owner of the Ryan Flying Company that built the Spirit of St. Louis aircraft) were present at Cape Canaveral to watch the launch of Apollo 11. [159] Lindbergh later wrote the foreword for Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins 's autobiography, Carrying the Fire.\nEnvironmental causes\nEdit\nFrom the 1960s on, Lindbergh campaigned to protect endangered species like humpback and blue whales , was instrumental in establishing protections for the controversial [160] Filipino group, the Tasaday , and African tribes, and supporting the establishment of a national park. While studying the native flora and fauna of the Philippines, he became involved in efforts to protect the Philippine Eagle and the Tamaraw , a rare dwarf buffalo on Mindoro Island.\nLindbergh's speeches and writings later in life emphasized his love of both technology and nature, and a lifelong belief that \"all the achievements of mankind have value only to the extent that they preserve and improve the quality of life.\"\nLindbergh's final book, Autobiography of Values, based on an unfinished manuscript was published posthumously. While on his death bed, he had contacted his friend, William Jovanovich , head of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich , to edit the lengthy memoirs. [161]\nDeath\nEdit\nLindbergh's grave\nLindbergh spent his final years on the Hawaiian island of Maui, where he died of lymphoma [162] on August 26, 1974, at age 72. He was buried on the grounds of the Palapala Ho'omau Church in Kipahulu , Maui. His epitaph on a simple stone that quotes Psalms 139:9, reads: \"Charles A. Lindbergh Born Michigan 1902 Died Maui 1974\". The inscription further reads: \"... If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea ... C.A.L.\" [163]\nHonors and tributes\nOfficial Royal Air Force Museum Medal (UK)\nFédération Aéronautique Internationale FAI Gold Medal (1927)\nICAO Edward Warner Award [176]\nMedal of Honor\nEdit\nLindbergh's Medal of Honor\nRank and organization: Captain, U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve. Place and date: From New York City to Paris, France, May 20–21, 1927. Entered service at: Little Falls, Minn. Born: February 4, 1902, Detroit, Mich. G.O. No.: 5, W.D., 1928; Act of Congress December 14, 1927. [N 8]\nCitation:\n\"For displaying heroic courage and skill as a navigator, at the risk of his life, by his nonstop flight in his airplane, the \"Spirit of St. Louis\", from New York City to Paris, France, 20–21 May 1927, by which Capt. Lindbergh not only achieved the greatest individual triumph of any American citizen but demonstrated that travel across the ocean by aircraft was possible\". [180]\nPopular culture\nEdit\nVerdensberømtheder i København (1939) [187] was a Danish short subject produced by the Dansk Film Co. [188] in which Charles Lindbergh as well as Hollywood actors Robert Taylor, Myrna Loy , and Edward G. Robinson all appeared as themselves. The 1938 Paramount film Men with Wings ( Fred MacMurray , Ray Milland ) featured a replica of the Spirit of St. Louis fashioned from a Ryan B-1 \"Brougham\" [189] similar to one presented to Lindbergh by the manufacturer, the Mahoney Aircraft Corporation, shortly after the Spirit was retired in April 1928. [190] The 1942 MGM picture Keeper of the Flame ( Katharine Hepburn , Spencer Tracy ) features Hepburn as the widow of Robert V. Forrest, a \"Lindbergh-like\" national hero, [191] who was exposed after his death as a secret fascist intending to use his influence—especially over America's youth—to turn the country into a fascist state and eliminate those he deemed as inferior races.\nEdit\nScott C-10 and #1710 with May 20, 1977 First Day of Issue CDS\nCharles Lindbergh and the Spirit have been honored by a variety of world postage stamps over the last eight decades, including three issued by the United States. Less than three weeks after the flight the U.S. Post Office Department issued a 10-cent \"Lindbergh Air Mail\" stamp (Scott C-10) on June 11, 1927, with engraved illustrations of both the Spirit of St. Louis and a map of its route from New York to Paris. This was also the first U.S. stamp to bear the name of a living person. [201] A half-century later, a 13-Cent commemorative stamp (Scott #1710) depicting the Spirit flying low over the Atlantic Ocean was issued on May 20, 1977, the 50th anniversary of the flight from Roosevelt Field . [202] On May 28, 1998, a 32¢ stamp with the legend \"Lindbergh Flies Atlantic\" (Scott #3184m) depicting Lindbergh and the \"Spirit\" was issued as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series. [203]\nSee also",
"Charles A. Lindbergh - Biography - IMDb\nCharles A. Lindbergh\nJump to: Overview (5) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (1) | Trivia (21) | Personal Quotes (2)\nOverview (5)\n6' 3\" (1.91 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nCharles A. Lindbergh was born on February 4, 1902 in Detroit, Michigan, USA as Charles Augustus Lindbergh. He is known for his work on The Spirit of St. Louis (1957), Verdensberømtheder i København (1939) and Charles A. Lindbergh (1927). He was married to Anne Morrow Lindbergh . He died on August 26, 1974 in Kipahulu, Maui, Hawaii, USA.\nSpouse (1)\n( 27 May 1929 - 26 August 1974) (his death) (6 children)\nTrivia (21)\nBorn at 2:30am-CST\nFrom the mid-1950s he was a consultant and director of Pan-American Airways.\n1954: Named a brigadier general in the United States Air Force Reserves for his long-term service to the U.S. government.\nA life-long abstainer from tobacco and alcohol.\n1928: Named Time Magazine's \"Man of the Year\".\nChildren, with Anne Morrow Lindbergh : Charles Lindbergh Jr. (b. 1931), Jon Lindbergh (b. 1932), Land (b. 1937), Anne (b. 1940), Scott (b. 1942) and Reeve Lindbergh (b. 1945).\n1927: He became the first pilot to fly an airplane across the Atlantic Ocean from New York to Paris. The race to cross the Atlantic had been attempted by the best pilots of the time, most of whom had made names for themselves during World War I. One of them was Richard E. Byrd Jr. (who was later the first man to fly over the South Pole). With that competition, Lindbergh was seen as an outsider, and he had problems getting financial backing and a plane. He finally got money from a small company in St. Louis, MO, which named his plane \"The Spirit of St. Louis\" for the publicity. What separated Lindbergh from his competition was that he was the only pilot in the running who was going to fly a single-engine plane and the only pilot who was willing to fly alone. One of the chief reasons for his success was that most of his competition has either crashed or had mechanical or financial problems.\nEldest son Charles Lindbergh Jr. is the famous \"Lindbergh baby\". He was kidnapped and murdered in 1932. German immigrant Bruno Richard Hauptmann was tried, convicted and executed for the crime. This story inspired British author Agatha Christie for a murder mystery novel brought to the screen as Murder on the Orient Express (1974). Other deceased family members include daughter Anne Spencer Lindbergh (d. 1993) and wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh (d. 2001).\nRelated to Swedish actor Thomaz Ransmyr .\n5/28/98: Pictured on one of 15 32¢ US commemorative postage stamps in the \"Celebrate the Century\" series, celebrating the 1920s.\nDuring World War II, Lindbergh rose to the rank of Brigadier General in the U.S. Army Air Corps and in 1948, when the AAC separated from the army to become the US Air Force, he went along and kept that same rank. During WWII Lindbergh specifically requested Pacific Theather assignments only, since he had been a strong and vocal supporter and admirer of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany in the 1930s.\n1976: Pictured on a commemorative 50¢ postage label issued by the (now defunct) Independent Postal System of America.\n5/4/28: Awarded a Congressional Gold Medal (45 Stat. 490).\nOctober 1938: In one of many visits to Nazi Germany, Lindbergh received the Service Cross of the German Eagle (Verdienstkreuz der Deutscher Adler). This is the second highest award the Reich could bestow on a foreigner (only Henry Ford , another admirer of Nazi Germany, was awarded a higher-ranking medal).\nHad three children with German hat maker Brigitte Hesshaimer: Dirk (born 1958), Astrid (born 1960) and David (born 1967). They managed to keep the affair secret, until Astrid disclosed it in 2003, two years after both Ms Hesshaimer and Mrs Lindbergh had died. DNA tests have confirmed the truth of these assertions.\nHis record-setting flight over the Atlantic Ocean failed to make the cover of Time Magazine in 1927. Later that year, seeking to fill in a slow news week and make up for missing the story earlier, the editors of Time created their \"Man of the Year\" honorific, devoting an entire issue to how influential the flight was, and making Lindy himself the first person ever to receive that title.\nIn 1927, just prior to his historic flight, Lindbergh was nearly grounded by William P. MacCracken, Jr., a government aeronautics official. Lindbergh had been engaging in barnstorming and daredevil flights in government planes, and had actually wrecked several of them. Only after Lindbergh's supervisor promised to restrain his behavior did MacCracken relent and allow Lindbergh to make his historic flight.\nDuring his 1938 visit to Germany, Reich Air Marshall Hermann Goering took Lindbergh and several other passengers on a flight aboard a new passenger plane. While airborne, Goering turned the controls over to Lindbergh, who was quite flattered.\nPrior to Pearl Harbor, Lindbergh outraged the American public by advocating America's entry into World War II on the side of Nazi Germany.\nWhen Lindbergh landed in France after his historic flight, one of the first reporters to reach him was William Shirer.\nHe strongly opposed the United States siding with the British Empire with Lend-Lease, and warned that the Japanese were likely to be provoked into attacking the US-occupied Philippines. Some of his public statements on Jews were considered anti-Semitic.\nPersonal Quotes (2)\n[in a letter to Apollo 11 Commander Michael Collins ] The ground shook and my chest was beating as though bombs were falling nearby. It seemed impossible for life to exist while carrying that fire. What a fantastic experience it must have been-the first man alone looking down on another celestial body, like a god of space!\n[Lindbergh, an isolationist, replying to a question about the US accommodating Adolf Hitler rather than standing up to him] {it} could maintain peace and civilization throughout the world as far into the future as we can see.\nSee also",
"Charles Lindbergh - World Famous Aviator\nCharles Lindbergh\nThe Most Famous Aviator in History\nAmerican aviator Charles Lindbergh (July 21, 1925). (Photo by General Photographic Agency/Getty Images)\nBy Patricia Daniels, Contributing Writer\nUpdated April 27, 2016.\nWho Was Charles Lindbergh?\nCharles Lindbergh completed the first nonstop transatlantic flight on May 21, 1927. This 33-hour trip from New York to Paris forever changed Lindbergh's life and the future of aviation. Hailed as a hero, the shy, young pilot from Minnesota was unwillingly thrust into the public eye. Lindbergh's unwelcome fame would later haunt him when his infant son was kidnapped for ransom and killed in 1932.\nDates: February 4, 1902 -- August 26, 1974\nAlso Known As: Charles Augustus Lindbergh, Lucky Lindy, The Lone Eagle\nChildhood in Minnesota\nCharles Augustus Lindbergh was born at the home of his maternal grandparents on February 4, 1902 in Detroit, Michigan to Evangeline Land and Charles August Lindbergh. When Charles was five weeks old, he and his mother moved back to their home in Little Falls, Minnesota. He was the only child the Lindberghs would have, although Charles Lindbergh Sr. had two older daughters from a previous marriage.\ncontinue reading below our video\n10 Best Universities in the United States\nC.A., as Lindbergh's father was known, was a successful lawyer in Little Falls. He had been born in Sweden and immigrated with his parents to Minnesota in 1859. Lindbergh's mother, a well-educated woman from a wealthy Detroit family, was a former science teacher.\nWhen Lindbergh was only three years old, the family home, newly-built and located on the banks of the Mississippi River, burned to the ground. The cause of the fire was never determined. The Lindberghs replaced it with a smaller house on the same site.\nLindbergh the Traveler\nIn 1906, C.A. ran for U.S. Congress and won. His victory meant that his son and wife were displaced, moving to Washington, D.C. while Congress was in session. This resulted in young Lindbergh changing schools frequently and never forming lasting friendships as a child. Lindbergh was quiet and shy even as an adult.\nThe Lindbergh marriage also suffered from the constant upheaval, but divorce was considered detrimental to a politician's reputation. Charles and his mother lived in a separate apartment from his father in Washington.\nC.A. bought the family's first car when Charles was ten years old. Although barely able to reach the pedals, young Lindbergh was soon able to drive the car. He also proved himself a natural mechanic and repaired and maintained the car. In 1916, when C.A. ran for re-election, his 14-year-old son drove him across the state of Minnesota for his campaign tour.\nTaking Flight\nDuring World War I , Lindbergh, too young to enlist, became captivated by flying after reading of the exploits of fighter pilots in Europe.\nWhen Lindbergh turned 18, the war was already over, so he entered the University of Wisconsin at Madison to study engineering. His mother accompanied Lindbergh to Madison and the two shared an apartment off campus.\nBored by the academic life and failing most of his courses, Lindbergh left the university after only three semesters. He enrolled in flight school in Nebraska in April 1922.\nLindbergh quickly learned to pilot a plane and later went on barnstorming tours throughout the mid-west. These were exhibitions in which pilots performed dangerous maneuvers in the air. Once they had gained the attention of a crowd, the pilots made money by taking passengers on short sightseeing tours.\nU.S. Army and the Postal Service\nEager to fly more sophisticated airplanes, Lindbergh enlisted in the U.S. Army as an air cadet. After one year of intensive training, he graduated in March 1925 as a second lieutenant. Lindbergh's father did not live to see his son graduate. C.A. died of a brain tumor in May 1924.\nBecause there was little need for Army pilots during peacetime, Lindbergh sought employment elsewhere. He was hired by a commercial aircraft company to pilot airmail routes for the U.S. government, which would begin airmail service for the first time in 1926.\nLindbergh was proud of his role in the new mail delivery system, but did not have confidence in the flimsy, unreliable planes that were used for airmail service.\nThe Race for the Ortieg Prize\nAmerican hotelier Raymond Orteig, who had been born in France, looked forward to a day when the United States and France would be linked by aviation.\nIn an effort to facilitate that connection, Orteig proposed a challenge. He would pay $25,000 to the first pilot who could fly nonstop between New York and Paris. The large monetary prize attracted several pilots, but all of the early attempts failed, some ending in injury and even death.\nLindbergh gave serious thought to Ortieg's challenge. He analyzed data from the previous failures and determined that the key to success was an aircraft that was as light as possible, using a single engine and carrying only one pilot. The plane he envisioned would have to be designed and built to Lindbergh's specifications.\nHe began the search for investors.\nThe Spirit of St. Louis\nAfter repeated disappointments, Lindbergh finally found backing for his venture. A group of St. Louis businessmen agreed to pay for the plane to be built and even provided Lindbergh with its name -- Spirit of St. Louis.\nWork began on his plane in California in March 1927. Lindbergh was anxious for the plane to be completed; he knew that many competitors were also preparing to attempt a transatlantic flight. The plane was finished in two months at a cost of about $10,000.\nAs Lindbergh was preparing to leave San Diego to fly his plane to New York, he received the news that two French pilots had attempted the flight from Paris to New York on May 8. After take-off, the two were never seen again.\nLindbergh's Historic Flight\nOn May 20, 1927, Lindbergh took off from Long Island, New York at 7:52 a.m. After a night of heavy rain, the weather had cleared. Lindbergh seized the opportunity. A crowd of 500 spectators cheered him on as he lifted off.\nTo keep the plane as light as possible, Lindbergh flew without a radio, navigational lights, gas gauges, or parachutes. He carried only a compass, a sextant, his maps of the area, and several fuel tanks. He had even replaced the pilot's chair with a lightweight wicker seat.\nLindbergh flew through several storms in the North Atlantic. When darkness fell and exhaustion set in, Lindbergh brought the plane up to a higher elevation so that he could see the stars, keeping himself oriented. As fatigue swept over him, he stamped his feet, sang aloud, and even slapped his own face.\nAfter flying through the night and the following day, Lindbergh finally spotted fishing boats and Ireland's rugged coastline. He had made it to Europe.\nAt 10:24 p.m. on May 21, 1927, Lindbergh landed at Le Bourget Airport in Paris and was stunned to find 150,000 people waiting to celebrate his remarkable accomplishment. Thirty-three and a half hours had passed since he had taken off from New York.\nThe Hero Returns\nLindbergh climbed out of the plane and was immediately swept up by the crowd and carried away. He was soon rescued and his plane secured, but only after spectators had torn pieces from the fuselage for souvenirs.\nLindbergh was celebrated and honored throughout Europe. He sailed home in June, arriving in Washington D.C. Lindbergh was honored with a parade and awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross by President Coolidge. He was also promoted to the rank of colonel in the Officer's Reserve Corps.\nThat celebration was followed by four days of festivities in New York City, including a ticker tape parade. Lindbergh met Raymond Ortieg and was presented with his $25,000 check.\nLindbergh Meets Anne Morrow\nThe media followed Lindbergh's every move. Uncomfortable in the spotlight, Lindbergh sought refuge in the only place he could be alone -- the cockpit of the Spirit of St. Louis. He toured the U.S., landing in each of the 48 continental states.\nExtending his tour into Latin America, Lindbergh met with American ambassador Dwight Morrow in Mexico City. He spent Christmas 1927 with the Morrow family, becoming acquainted with Morrow's 21-year old daughter, Anne. The two became close, spending time together over the next year as Lindbergh taught Anne how to fly. They married on May 27, 1929.\nThe Lindberghs made several important flights together and collected critical information that would help to plot international flight routes. They set a record for flying across the United States in just over 14 hours and were the first aviators to fly from America to China.\nParenthood, Then Tragedy\nThe Lindberghs became parents on June 22, 1930 with the birth of Charles, Jr. Seeking privacy, they bought a home in a secluded part of Hopewell, New Jersey.\nOn the evening of February 28, 1932, 20-month-old Charles was kidnapped from his crib. Police found a ladder outside the nursery window and a ransom note in the child's room. The kidnapper demanded $50,000 for the return of the child.\nThe ransom was paid, but the Lindbergh child was not returned to his parents. In May 1932, the baby's body was found a few miles from the family home. Investigators concluded that the kidnapper had dropped the baby while descending the ladder on the night of the abduction, killing him instantly.\nAfter more than two years, an arrest was made. German immigrant Bruno Richard Hauptmann was tried and convicted in what was called \"the crime of the century.\" He was executed in April 1936.\nThe Lindberghs' second son Jon was born in August 1932. Unable to avoid constant public scrutiny and fearing for the safety of their second son, the Lindberghs left the country, moving to England in 1935. The Lindbergh family grew to include two daughters and two more sons.\nLindbergh Visits Germany\nIn 1936, Lindbergh was invited by high-ranking Nazi official Hermann Goering to visit his country for a tour of its aircraft facilities.\nImpressed by what he saw, Lindbergh -- possibly overstating Germany's military assets -- reported that Germany's air power was far superior to that of other European nations. Lindbergh's reports worried European leaders and might have contributed to British and French policies of appeasement to Nazi leader Adolf Hitler early in the war.\nOn a return visit to Germany in 1938, Lindbergh received the German Service Cross from Goering and was photographed wearing it. The public reaction was one of outrage that Lindbergh had accepted an award from the Nazi regime.\nFallen Hero\nWith war in Europe looming, the Lindberghs returned to the U.S. in spring of 1939. Colonel Lindbergh was pressed into duty inspecting aircraft manufacturing facilities across the U.S.\nLindbergh began speaking out publicly on the war in Europe. He was opposed to any American involvement in the war, which he viewed as a battle for balance of power in Europe. One speech in particular, given in 1941, was widely criticized as anti-Semitic and racist.\nWhen the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in December 1941, even Lindbergh had to concede that Americans had no choice but to enter the war. He volunteered to serve as an aviator during World War II , but President Franklin Roosevelt refused his offer.\nReturn to Grace\nLindbergh used his expertise to provide help in the private sector, consulting on the production of B-24 bombers and Corsair fighter planes.\nHe went to the South Pacific as a civilian to train pilots and provide technical assistance. Later, with the approval of General Douglas MacArthur , Lindbergh took part in bombing runs on Japanese bases, flying 50 missions over a four-month period.\nIn 1954, Lindbergh was honored with the rank of brigadier general. The same year, he won the Pulitzer Prize for his memoir The Spirit of St. Louis.\nLindbergh became involved in environmental causes later in life and was the spokesman for both the World Wildlife Fund and the Nature Conservancy. He lobbied against the production of supersonic passenger jets, citing the noise and air pollution they created.\nDiagnosed with lymphatic cancer in 1972, Lindbergh chose to live out his remaining days at his home in Maui. He died on August 26, 1974 and was buried in Hawaii in a simple ceremony."
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Who was the second person to make a solo transatlantic flight?
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tc_855
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"A transatlantic flight is the flight of an aircraft across the Atlantic Ocean, from Europe, Africa or the Middle East to North America, Central America or South America, or vice versa. Such flights have been made by fixed-wing aircraft, airships, balloons and other devices.\n\nEarly aircraft engines did not have the reliability needed for the crossing, nor the power to lift the required fuel. There are difficulties navigating over featureless expanses of water for thousands of miles, and the weather, especially in the North Atlantic Ocean, is unpredictable. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, transatlantic flight has been routine, for commercial, military, diplomatic, and other purposes. Experimental flights (in balloons, small aircraft, etc.) still present challenges for transatlantic fliers.\n\nIn 2016 Dr Paul Williams of the University of Reading published a scientific study showing that transatlantic flight times are expected to change as the North Atlantic jet stream responds to global warming, with eastbound flights speeding up and westbound flights slowing down. \n\nHistory\n\nThe idea of transatlantic flight came about with the advent of the balloon. The balloons of the period were inflated with coal gas, a moderate lifting medium compared to hydrogen or helium, but with enough lift to use the winds that would later be known as the Jet Stream. In 1859, John Wise built an enormous aerostat named the Atlantic, intending to cross the Atlantic. The flight lasted less than a day, crash-landing in Henderson, New York. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe prepared a massive balloon of called the City of New York to take off from Philadelphia in 1860, but was interrupted by the onset of the American Civil War in 1861. (The first successful transatlantic flight in a balloon was the Double Eagle II from Presque Isle, Maine, to Miserey, near Paris in 1978.)\n\nFirst transatlantic flights\n\nThe possibility of transatlantic flight by aircraft emerged after the First World War, which had seen tremendous advances in aerial capabilities. In April 1913 the London newspaper The Daily Mail offered a prize of £10,000 to \n\nThe competition was suspended with the outbreak of war in 1914 but reopened after Armistice was declared in 1918. \n\nBetween 8 and 31 May 1919, the Curtiss seaplane NC-4 made a crossing of the Atlantic flying from the U.S. to Newfoundland, then to the Azores and on to mainland Portugal and finally the UK. The whole journey took 23 days, with six stops along the way. A trail of 53 \"station ships\" across the Atlantic gave the aircraft points to navigate by. This flight was not eligible for the Daily Mail prize since it took more than 72 consecutive hours and also because more than one aircraft was used in the attempt.\n\nWith the war over, there were four teams competing to be the first non-stop across the Atlantic. They were pilot Harry Hawker with observer Kenneth Mackenzie-Grieve in a single engine Hawker; Frederick Raynham and C.W.F. Morgan in a Martinsyde; the Handley Page Group, led by Mark Kerr and the Vickers entry John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown. Each group had to ship their aircraft to Newfoundland and make a rough field for the take off.\n\nHawker and Mackenzie-Grieve made the first attempt on 18th May, but engine failure brought them down in the ocean where they were rescued. Raynham and Morgan also made an attempt on 18th May but crashed on take off due to the high fuel load.\nThe Handley Page team were in the final stages of testing their aircraft for the flight in June but the Vickers group was ready before them.\n\nOn 14–15 June 1919, British aviators Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight. During the War, Alcock resolved to fly the Atlantic, and after the war he approached the Vickers engineering and aviation firm at Weybridge, who had considered entering their Vickers Vimy IV twin-engined bomber in the competition but had not yet found a pilot. Alcock's enthusiasm impressed the Vickers' team and he was appointed as their pilot. Work began on converting the Vimy for the long flight, replacing the bomb carriers with extra petrol tanks. Shortly afterwards Brown, who was unemployed, approached Vickers seeking a post and his knowledge of long distance navigation convinced them to take him on as Alcock's navigator. \n\nThe Vickers team quickly assembled their plane and at around 1:45 p.m. on 14 June, whilst the Handley Page team were conducting yet another test, the Vickers plane took off from Lester's Field, in St. John's, Newfoundland. \n\nAlcock and Brown flew the modified Vickers Vimy, powered by two Rolls-Royce Eagle 360 hp engines.\n \nIt was not an easy flight, with unexpected fog and a snow storm almost causing them to crash into the sea.\nTheir altitude varied between sea level and 12,000 ft (3,700 m) and upon take-off they carried 865 imperial gallons (3,900 L) of fuel. They made landfall in Galway at 8:40 a.m. on 15 June 1919, not far from their intended landing place, after less than sixteen hours' flying time. \n\nThe Secretary of State for Air, Winston Churchill, presented them with the Daily Mail prize for the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in 'less than 72 consecutive hours'. There was also a small amount of mail carried on the flight making it the first transatlantic airmail flight. The two aviators were awarded the honour of Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE) a week later by King George V at Windsor Castle.\n\nThe first transatlantic flight by rigid airship, and the first return transatlantic flight, was made just a couple of weeks after the transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown, on 2 July 1919. Major George Herbert Scott of the Royal Air Force flew the airship R34 with his crew and passengers from RAF East Fortune, Scotland to Mineola, New York (on Long Island) covering a distance of about 3,000 statute miles (4,800 km) in about four and a half days.\n\nThe flight was intended as a testing ground for postwar commercial services by airship (see Imperial Airship Scheme) and was the first flight to transport paying passengers. R34 wasn't initially built as a passenger carrier and extra accommodation was arranged by slinging hammocks in the keel walkway. The return journey to Pulham in Norfolk was from 10 to 13 July and took 75 hours.\n\nThe first night-time crossing of the Atlantic was accomplished 16–17 April 1927 by Portuguese aviator José Manuel Sarmento de Beires, flying from Portuguese Guinea to Brazil.\n\nIn the early morning of Friday, 20 May 1927, Charles Lindbergh took off from Roosevelt Field, New York, on his successful attempt to fly nonstop from New York City to the European continental land mass. Over the next 33.5 hours, Lindbergh and the \"Spirit of St. Louis\" encountered many challenges before landing at Le Bourget Airport near Paris, France, at 10:22 PM on Saturday, 21 May 1927, completing the first solo crossing of the Atlantic.\n\nThe first east-west non-stop transatlantic crossing by an aeroplane was made in 1928 by the Bremen, a German Junkers W33 type aircraft, from Baldonnel Airfield in County Dublin, Ireland. On 18 August 1932 Jim Mollison made the first east-to-west solo trans-Atlantic flight; flying from Portmarnock in Ireland to Pennfield, New Brunswick, Canada in a de Havilland Puss Moth. \n\nThe first transpolar transalantic (and transcontinental) crossing was the non-stop flight piloted by Valery Chkalov, 63 hours, 8,811 kilometers, from St. Petersburg, Russia to Vancouver, Washington, June 18 - 20, 1937.\n\nCommercial airship flights\n\nOn 11 October 1928, Hugo Eckener, commanding the Graf Zeppelin airship as part of DELAG's operations, began the first non-stop transatlantic passenger flights, leaving Friedrichshafen, Germany, at 07:54 on 11 October 1928, and arriving at NAS Lakehurst, New Jersey, on 15 October.\n\nThereafter, DELAG used the Graf Zeppelin on regular scheduled passenger flights across the North Atlantic, from Frankfurt-am-Main to Lakehurst. In the summer of 1931 a South Atlantic route was introduced, from Frankfurt and Friedrichshafen to Recife and Rio de Janeiro. Between 1931 and 1937 the Graf Zeppelin crossed the South Atlantic 136 times. \n\nDELAG introduced the Hindenburg, which began passenger flights in 1936 and made 36 Atlantic crossings (North and South). The first passenger trip across the North Atlantic left Friedrichshafen on 6 May with 56 crew and 50 passengers, arriving Lakehurst on 9 May. Fare was $400 one way; the ten westward trips that season took 53 to 78 hours and eastward took 43 to 61 hours. The last eastward trip of the year left Lakehurst on 10 October; the first North Atlantic trip of 1937 ended in the Hindenburg disaster.\n\nThe British rigid airship R100 also made a successful return trip from Cardington to Montreal in July–August 1930, in what was intended to be a proving flight for regularly scheduled passenger services. Following the R101 disaster in October 1930, the British rigid airship program was abandoned and the R100 scrapped, leaving DELAG as the sole remaining operator of transatlantic passenger airship flights.\n\nCommercial aeroplane service attempts\n\nAlthough Alcock and Brown first flew across the Atlantic in 1919, it took two more decades before commercial flights could become practical. The North Atlantic presented severe challenges for aviators due to weather and the long distances involved, with few stopping points. Initial transatlantic services, therefore, focused on the South Atlantic, where a number of French, German, and Italian airlines offered seaplane service for mail between South America and West Africa in the 1930s.\n\nFrom February 1934 to August 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated a regular airmail service between Natal, Brazil, and Bathurst, Gambia, continuing via the Canary Islands and Spain to Stuttgart, Germany. From December 1935, Air France opened a regular weekly airmail route between South America and Africa. German airlines, such as Deutsche Luft Hansa, experimented with mail routes over the North Atlantic in the early 1930s, with seaplanes and dirigibles.\n\nIn the 1930s, a seaplane route was the only practical means of transatlantic travel, as land-based planes lacked sufficient flying range for the crossing. An agreement between the governments of the US, Britain, Canada and the Irish Free State in 1935 set aside the Irish town of Foynes, the most westerly port in Ireland, as the terminal for all such services to be established. \n\nImperial Airways had bought the Short Empire seaplane, primarily for use along the empire routes in Africa and Asia, but began to explore the possibility of using it for transatlantic flights from 1937. The range of the Short Empire was less than that of the equivalent US Sikorsky \"Clipper\" flying boats and as such was initially unable to provide a true trans-Atlantic service.\n\nTwo boats (Caledonia and Cambria) were lightened and given long range tanks to increase the aircraft's range to 3,300 miles.\n\nMeanwhile, in the US, attention was initially focused on transatlantic flight for a faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the second assistant postmaster, wrote an article for Popular Mechanics on the challenges and the need for a regular service. In the 1930s, under the direction of Juan Trippe, Pan American World Airways began to get interested in the feasibility of a transatlantic passenger service using seaplanes.\n\nOn 5 July 1937, A.S. Wilcockson flew a Short Empire for Imperial Airways from Foynes to Botwood, Newfoundland and Harold Gray piloted a Sikorsky S-42 for Pan American in the opposite direction. Both flights were a success and both airlines made a series of subsequent proving flights that same year to test out a variety of different weather conditions. France's Air France also became interested and began experimental flights in 1938. \n\nAs the Short Empire only had enough range with enlarged fuel tanks at the expense of passenger room, a number of pioneering experiments were done with the aircraft to work around the problem. It was known that aircraft could maintain flight with a greater load than is possible to take off with, so Major Robert H. Mayo, Technical General Manager at Imperial Airways proposed mounting a small, long-range seaplane on top of a larger carrier aircraft, using the combined power of both to bring the smaller aircraft to operational height, at which time the two aircraft would separate, the carrier aircraft returning to base while the other flew on to its destination.\n\nThe Short Mayo Composite project, co-designed by Mayo and Shorts chief designer Arthur Gouge, comprised the Short S.21 Maia, (G-ADHK) which was a variant of the Short \"C-Class\" Empire flying-boat fitted with a trestle or pylon on the top of the fuselage to support the Short S.20 Mercury(G-ADHJ). \n\nThe first successful in-flight separation of the Composite was carried out on 6 February 1938, and the first transatlantic flight was made on 21 July 1938 from Foynes to Boucherville. Mercury, piloted by Captain Don Bennett, separated from her carrier at 8 pm to continue what was to become the first commercial non-stop East-to-West transatlantic flight by a heavier-than-air machine. This initial journey took 20 hrs 21 min at an average ground speed of 144 mph (232 km/h). \n\nAnother technology developed for the purpose of transatlantic commercial flight, was aerial refuelling. Sir Alan Cobham developed the Grappled-line looped-hose system to stimulate the possibility for long-range transoceanic commercial aircraft flights, and publicly demonstrated it for the first time in 1935. In the system the receiver aircraft trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was then drawn back into the tanker where the receiver's cable was connected to the refueling hose. The receiver could then haul back in its cable bringing the hose to it. Once the hose was connected, the tanker climbed sufficiently above the receiver aircraft to allow the fuel to flow under gravity. \n\nCobham founded Flight Refuelling Ltd in 1934 and by 1938 had demonstrated the FRL's looped-hose system to refuel the Short Empire flying boat Cambria from an Armstrong Whitworth AW.23. Handley Page Harrows were used in the 1939 trials to aerial refuel the Empire flying boats for regular transatlantic crossings. From August 5 to October 1, 1939, sixteen crossings of the Atlantic were made by Empire flying boats, with fifteen crossings using FRL's aerial refueling system. After the sixteen crossings further trials were suspended due to the outbreak of World War II. \n\nThe Short S.26 was built in 1939 as an enlarged Short Empire, powered by four 1,400 hp (1,044 kW) Bristol Hercules sleeve valve radial engines and designed with the capability of crossing the Atlantic without refuelling. It was intended to form the backbone of Imperial Airways' Empire services. It could fly 6,000 miles unburdened, or 150 passengers for a \"short hop\". On 21 July 1939, the first aircraft, (G-AFCI \"Golden Hind\"), was first flown at Rochester by Shorts' chief test pilot, John Lankester Parker. Although two aircraft were handed over to Imperial Airways for crew training, all three were impressed (along with their crews) into the RAF before they could start civilian operation with the onset of WWII.\n\nMeanwhile, Pan Am purchased nine Boeing 314 Clippers in 1939, a long-range flying boat capable of flying the Atlantic. The \"Clippers\" were built for \"one-class\" luxury air travel, a necessity given the long duration of transoceanic flights. The seats could be converted into 36 bunks for overnight accommodation; with a cruising speed of only 188 mph. The 314s had a lounge and dining area, and the galleys were crewed by chefs from four-star hotels. Men and women were provided with separate dressing rooms, and white-coated stewards served five and six-course meals with gleaming silver service. \n\nThe Yankee Clippers inaugural trip across the Atlantic was on June 24, 1939. Its route was from Southampton to Port Washington, New York with intermediate stops at Foynes, Ireland, Botwood, Newfoundland, and Shediac, New Brunswick. Its first passenger flight was on 9 July, and this continued until the onset of the Second World War. The Clipper fleet was then pressed into military service and the flying boats were used for ferrying personnel and equipment to the European and Pacific fronts.\n\nIn 1938 a Lufthansa Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor long range airliner flew non-stop from Berlin to New York and returned non-stop as a proving flight for the development of passenger carrying services. This was the first landplane to fulfil this function and marked a departure from the British and American reliance on seaplanes for long over-water routes. A regular Lufthansa Transatlantic service was planned but didn't start before World War II.\n\nMaturation\n\nIt was from the emergency exigencies of World War II that the crossing of the Atlantic by landplane became a practical and commonplace possibility. With the Fall of France in June 1940, and the loss of much war materiel on the continent, the need for the British to purchase replacement materiel from the United States was urgent.\n\nThe aircraft - such as the Lockheed Hudson - purchased in the United States by Britain were flown to airports in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, partially dis-assembled and loaded on ships and transported to England where they were unloaded and re-assembled, a process that could take several weeks, not counting repairing any damage to the aircraft incurred in the shipment. In addition, German U-boats operating in the North Atlantic Ocean were a constant menace to shipping routes in the North Atlantic making it very hazardous for merchant shipping between Newfoundland and Britain. \n\nHowever, larger aircraft could be flown directly to the UK and an organization was set up to manage this using civilian pilots. The program was begun by the Ministry of Aircraft Production. Its minister, Lord Beaverbrook a Canadian by origin, reached an agreement with Sir Edward Beatty, a friend and chairman of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company to provide ground facilities and support. Ministry of Aircraft Production would provide civilian crews and management and former RAF officer Don Bennett, a specialist in long distance flying and later Air Vice Marshal and commander of the Pathfinder Force, led the first delivery flight in November 1940.[http://www.junobeach.org/e/4/can-tac-air-fer-e.htm Ferrying Aircraft Overseas] Juno Beach Centre\n\nIn 1941, MAP took the operation off CPR to put the whole operation under the Atlantic Ferry Organization (\"Atfero\") was set up by Morris W. Wilson, a banker in Montreal. Wilson hired civilian pilots to fly the aircraft to the UK. The pilots were then ferried back in converted RAF Liberators. \"Atfero hired the pilots, planned the routes, selected the airports [and] set up weather and radiocommunication stations.\" \n\nThe organization was passed to Air Ministry administration though retaining civilian pilots, some of which were Americans, alongside RAF navigators and British radio operators. After completing delivery, crews were flown back to Canada for the next run. RAF Ferry Command was formed on 20 July 1941, by the raising of the RAF Atlantic Ferry Service to Command status.[http://www.rafweb.org/Cmd_H3A.htm \"RAF Home Commands formed between 1939 - 1957\"] Air of Authority - A History of RAF Organisation Its commander for its whole existence was Air Chief Marshal Sir Frederick Bowhill.\n\nAs its name suggests, the main function of Ferry Command was the ferrying of new aircraft from factory to operational unit.[http://www.vanderkloot.com/sky2.html Flying the Secret Sky: The Story of the RAF Ferry Command] Ferry Command did this over only one area of the world, rather than the more general routes that Transport Command later developed. The Command's operational area was the north Atlantic, and its responsibility was to bring the larger aircraft that had the range to do the trip over the ocean from American and Canadian factories to the RAF home Commands.\n\nWith the entry of the United States into the War, the Atlantic Division of the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command began similar ferrying services to transport aircraft, supplies and passengers to the British Isles.\n\nBy September 1944 British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), as Imperial Airways had by then become, had made 1,000 transatlantic crossings. \n\nAfter World War II long runways were available, and North American and European carriers such as Pan Am, TWA, Trans Canada Airlines (TCA), BOAC, and Air France acquired larger piston airliners that could cross the North Atlantic with stops (usually in Gander, Newfoundland and/or Shannon, Ireland). In January 1946 Pan Am's DC-4 was scheduled New York (La Guardia) to London (Hurn) in 17 hours 40 minutes, five days a week; in June 1946 Lockheed 049s had brought the eastward time to Heathrow down to 15 hr 15 min.\n\nTo aid aircraft crossing the Atlantic, six nations grouped to divide the Atlantic into ten zones. Each zone had a letter and a vessels station in that zone, providing radio relay, radio navigation beacons, weather reports and rescues if an aircraft went down. The six nations of the group split the cost of these vessels. \n\nThe September 1947 ABC Guide shows 27 passenger flights a week west across the North Atlantic to the US and Canada on BOAC and other European airlines and 151 flights every two weeks on Pan Am, AOA, TWA and TCA. 15 flights a week to the Caribbean and South America, plus three a month on Iberia and a Latecoere 631 six-engine flying boat every two weeks to Fort de France.\n\nIn May 1952 BOAC was the first airline to introduce a passenger jet, the de Havilland Comet, into airline service. All Comet 1 aircraft were grounded in April 1954 after four Comets crashed, the last two being BOAC aircraft at altitude. Later jet airliners including the revised Comet 4 were designed to be fail-safe: in the event of for example a skin-failure due to cracking the damage would be localized and not catastrophic. In October 1958 BOAC operated the first transatlantic Jet service with the larger and longer-range Comet 4.\n\nSupersonic flights on the Concorde were offered from 1976 to 2003. Since the loosening of regulations in the 1970s and 1980s, many airlines now compete across the Atlantic.\n\nPresent day \n\nIn 2015, 44 million seats were offered on the transatlantic routes, an increase of 6% over the previous year. Of the 67 European airports with links to North America, the busiest was London Heathrow Airport with 231,532 weekly seats, followed by Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport with 129,831, Frankfurt Airport with 115,420, and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol with 79,611. Of the 45 airports in North America, the busiest linked to Europe was New York John F. Kennedy International Airport with 198,442 seats, followed by Toronto Pearson International Airport with 90,982, New York Newark Liberty International Airport with 79,107, and Chicago O'Hare International Airport with 75,391 seats.\n\nJoint Ventures, allowing coordination on prices, schedules, and strategy control near 75% of Transatlantic capacity. They are parallel to Airline alliances : International Airlines Group and American Airlines are part of Oneworld, Lufthansa Group, Air Canada and United Airlines of Star Alliance and Delta Air Lines with Air France–KLM and Alitalia of SkyTeam. Low cost carriers are starting to compete on this market, most importantly Norwegian Air Shuttle and WestJet. \n\nTransatlantic routes\n\nUnlike over land, transatlantic flights use standardized aircraft routes called North Atlantic Tracks (NATs). These change daily in position (although altitudes are standardized) to compensate for weather—particularly the jet stream tailwinds and headwinds, which may be substantial at cruising altitudes and have a strong influence on trip duration and fuel economy. Eastbound flights generally operate during night-time hours, while westbound flights generally operate during daytime hours, for passenger convenience. The eastbound flow, as it is called, generally makes European landfall from about 0600UT to 0900UT. The westbound flow generally operates within a 1200–1500UT time-slot. Restrictions on how far a given aircraft may be from an airport also play a part in determining its route; in the past, airliners with three or more engines were not restricted, but a twin-engine airliner was required to stay within a certain distance of airports that could accommodate it (since a single engine failure in a four-engine aircraft is less crippling than a single engine failure in a twin). Modern aircraft with two engines flying transatlantic (the most common models used for transatlantic service being the Airbus A330, Boeing 767 and Boeing 777) have to be ETOPS certified.\n\nGaps in air traffic control and radar coverage over large stretches of the Earth's oceans, as well as an absence of most types of radio navigation aids, impose a requirement for a high level of autonomy in navigation upon transatlantic flights. Aircraft must include reliable systems that can determine the aircraft's course and position with great accuracy over long distances. In addition to the traditional compass, inertials and satellite navigation systems such as GPS all have their place in transatlantic navigation. Land-based systems such as VOR and DME, because they operate \"line of sight\", are mostly useless for ocean crossings, except in initial and final legs within about 240 nmi of those facilities. In the late 1950s and early 1960s an important facility for low-flying aircraft was the Radio Range. Inertial navigation systems became prominent in the 1970s.\n\nBusiest transatlantic routes\n\nThis table is for the twenty busiest commercial routes between North America and Europe (traffic traveling in both directions):\n\nThis table is for the twenty busiest commercial routes between North, Central and South America and Africa (traffic traveling in both directions) :\n\nEarly notable transatlantic flights and attempts\n\n1910s\n\n;Airship America failure: In October 1910, the American journalist Walter Wellman, who had in 1909 attempted to reach the North Pole by balloon, set out for Europe from Atlantic City in a dirigible, America. A storm off Cape Cod sent him off course, and then engine failure forced him to ditch half way between New York and Bermuda. Wellman, his crew of five – and the balloon's cat – were rescued by RMS Trent, a passing British ship. The Atlantic bid failed, but the distance covered, about 1000 smi, was at the time a record for a dirigible. \n\n;First transatlantic flight: On 8–31 May 1919, the U.S. Navy Curtiss NC-4 flying boat under the command of Albert Read, flew from Rockaway, New York, to Plymouth (England), via among other stops Trepassey (Newfoundland), Horta and Ponta Delgada (both Azores) and Lisbon (Portugal) in 53h 58m, spread over 23 days. The crossing from Newfoundland to the European mainland had taken 10 days 22 hours, with the total time in flight of 26h 46m. The longest non-stop leg of the journey, from Trepassey, Newfoundland, to Horta in the Azores, was and lasted 15h 18m.\n\n;Sopwith Atlantic failure: On 18 May 1919, the Australian Harry Hawker, together with navigator Kenneth Mackenzie Grieve, attempted to become the first to achieve a non-stop flight across the Atlantic Ocean. They set off from Mount Pearl, Newfoundland, in the Sopwith Atlantic biplane. After fourteen and a half hours of flight the engine overheated and they were forced to divert towards the shipping lanes: they found a passing freighter, the Danish Mary, established contact and crash-landed ahead of her. Mary's radio was out of order, so that it was not until six days later when the boat reached Scotland that word was received that they were safe. The wheels from the undercarriage, jettisoned soon after takeoff, were later recovered by local fishermen and are now in the Newfoundland Museum in St. John's.Kev Darling: Hawker Typhoon, Tempest and Sea Fury. The Crowood Press, 2003. ISBN 1 86126 620 0. p.8\n\n; First non-stop transatlantic flight: On 14–15 June 1919, Capt. John Alcock and Lieut. Arthur Whitten Brown of the United Kingdom in Vickers Vimy bomber, between islands, , from St. John's, Newfoundland, to Clifden, Ireland, in 16h 12m.\n;First east-to-west transatlantic flight: On 2 July 1919, Major George Herbert Scott of the Royal Air Force with his crew and passengers flies from RAF East Fortune, Scotland to Mineola, New York (on Long Island) in airship R34, covering a distance of about in about four and a half days. R34 then made the return trip to England arriving at RNAS Pulham in 75 hours, thus also completing the first double crossing of the Atlantic (east-west-east).\n\n1920s\n\n; First flight across the South Atlantic: On 30 March–17 June 1922, Lieutenant Commander Sacadura Cabral and Commander Gago Coutinho of Portugal, using three Fairey IIID floatplanes (Lusitania, Portugal, and Santa Cruz), after two ditchings, with only internal means of navigation (the Coutinho-invented sextant with artificial horizon) from Lisbon, Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. \n; First non-stop aircraft flight between European and American mainlands: In October 1924, the Zeppelin ZR-3 (LZ-126), flew from Germany to New Jersey with a crew commanded by Dr. Hugo Eckener, covering a distance of about . \n; First flight across the South Atlantic made by a non-European crew: On 28 April 1927, Brazilian João Ribeiro de Barros, with the assistance of João Negrão (co-pilot), Newton Braga (navigator), and Vasco Cinquini (mechanic), crossed the Atlantic in the hydroplane Jahú. The four aviators flew from Genoa, in Italy, to Santo Amaro (São Paulo), making stops in Spain, Gibraltar, Cabo Verde and Fernando de Noronha, in the Brazilian territory.\n\n; Disappearance of L'Oiseau Blanc: On 8–9 May 1927, Charles Nungesser and François Coli attempted to cross the Atlantic from Paris to the USA in a Levasseur PL-8 biplane L'Oiseau Blanc (\"The White Bird\"), but were lost.\n\n; First solo transatlantic flight and first non-stop fixed-wing aircraft flight between America and mainland Europe: On 20–21 May 1927, Charles A. Lindbergh flew his Ryan monoplane (named Spirit of St. Louis), , from Roosevelt Field, New York to Paris–Le Bourget Airport, in 33½ hours.\n; First transatlantic air passenger: On 4–6 June 1927, the first transatlantic air passenger was Charles A. Levine. He was carried as a passenger by Clarence D. Chamberlin from Roosevelt Field, New York, to Eisleben, Germany, in a Wright-powered Bellanca.\n; First non-stop air crossing of the South Atlantic: On 14–15 October 1927, Dieudonne Costes and Joseph le Brix, flying a Breguet 19, flew from Senegal to Brazil.\n; First non-stop fixed-wing aircraft westbound flight over the North Atlantic: On 12–13 April 1928, Gunther von Huenfeld and Capt. Hermann Köhl of Germany and Comdr. James Fitzmaurice of Ireland, flew a Junkers W33 monoplane (named Bremen), 2070 smi, from Baldonnell near Dublin, Ireland, to Labrador, in 36½ hours. \n; First crossing of the Atlantic by a woman: On 17–18 June 1928, Amelia Earhart was a passenger on an aircraft piloted by Wilmer Stultz. Since most of the flight was on instruments for which Earhart had no training, she did not pilot the aircraft. Interviewed after landing, she said, \"Stultz did all the flying — had to. I was just baggage, like a sack of potatoes. Maybe someday I'll try it alone.\"\n; Notable flight (around the world): On 1–8 August 1929, in making the circumnavigation, Dr Hugo Eckener piloted the LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin across the Atlantic three times: from Germany 4391 smi east to west in four days from 1 August; return 4391 smi west to east in two days from 8 August; after completing the circumnavigation to Lakehurst, a final 4391 smi west to east landing 4 September, making three crossings in 34 days. \n\n1930s\n\n; First scheduled transatlantic passenger flights: From 1931 onwards, LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin operated the world's first scheduled transatlantic passenger flights, mainly between Germany and Brazil (64 such round trips overall) sometimes stopping in Spain, Miami, London, and Berlin.\n; First nonstop east-to-west fixed-wing aircraft flight between European and American mainlands: On 1–2 September 1930, Dieudonne Costes and Maurice Bellonte flew a Breguet 19 Super Bidon biplane (named Point d'Interrogation, Question Mark), 6,200 km from Paris to New York City.\n; Notable flight (around the world): On 23 June–1 July 1931, Wiley Post and Harold Gatty in a Lockheed Vega monoplane (named Winnie Mae), 15,477 nm (28,663 km) flew from Long Island in 8d 15h 51m, with 14 stops, with a total flying time 107h 2m.\n; First solo crossing of the South Atlantic: 27–28 November 1931. Bert Hinkler flew from Canada to New York, then via the West Indies, Venezuela, Guiana, Brazil and the South Atlantic to Great Britain in a de Havilland Puss Moth. \n; First solo crossing of the Atlantic by a woman: On 20 May 1932, Amelia Earhart set off from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland, intending to fly to Paris in her single engine Lockheed Vega 5b to emulate Charles Lindbergh's solo flight. After encountering storms and a burnt exhaust pipe, Earhart landed in a pasture at Culmore, north of Derry, Northern Ireland, ending a flight lasting 14h 56m.\n; First solo westbound crossing of the Atlantic: On 18–19 August 1932, Jim Mollison, flying a de Havilland Puss Moth, flew from Dublin to New Brunswick.\n; Lightest (empty weight) aircraft that crossed the Atlantic: On 7–8 May 1933, Stanisław Skarżyński made a solo flight across the South Atlantic, covering 3582 km, in a RWD-5bis - empty weight below 450 kg. If considering the total takeoff weight (as per FAI records) then there is a longer distance Atlantic crossing: the distance world record holder, Piper PA-24 Comanche in this class, 1000–1750 kg. [http://records.fai.org/documents.asp?fromgeneral_aviation&id\n10921|FAI].\n; Mass flight: Notable mass transatlantic flight: On 1–15 July 1933, Gen. Italo Balbo of Italy led 24 Savoia-Marchetti S.55X seaplanes 6100 smi, in a flight from Orbetello, Italy, to the Century of Progress International Exposition Chicago, Illinois, in 47h 52m. The flight made six intermediate stops. Previously, Balbo had led a flight of 12 flying boats from Rome to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in December 1930-January 1931, taking nearly a month.\n; First around the world solo flight: On 15–22 July 1933, Wiley Post flew Lockheed Vega monoplane Winnie Mae 15596 smi in 7d 8h 49m, with 11 stops; flying time, 115h 36 mi.\n; First solo westbound crossing of the Atlantic by a woman and first person to solo westbound from England: On 4–5 September 1936, Beryl Markham, flying a Percival Vega Gull from Abingdon, England intended to fly to New York, but was forced down at Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, due to icing of fuel tank vents.\n; First transatlantic passenger service on heavier-than air aircraft: on June 24, 1939, Pan American inaugurated transatlantic passenger service between New York and Marseilles, France, using Boeing 314 flying boats. On 8 July 1939, a service began between New York and Southampton as well. A single fare was US$375. Scheduled landplane flights started in October 1945.\n\n1940s\n\n; First transatlantic flight of non-rigid airships: On 1 June 1944, two K class blimps from Blimp Squadron 14 of the United States Navy (USN) completed the first transatlantic crossing by non-rigid airships. On 28 May 1944, the two K-ships (K-123 and K-130) left South Weymouth, Massachusetts, and flew approximately 16 hours to Naval Station Argentia, Newfoundland. From Argentia, the blimps flew approximately 22 hours to Lajes Field on Terceira Island in the Azores. The final leg of the first transatlantic crossing was about a 20-hour flight from the Azores to Craw Field in Port Lyautey (Kenitra), French Morocco. \n;First jet aircraft to cross the Atlantic Ocean: On 14 July 1948, six de Havilland Vampire F3s of No. 54 Squadron RAF, commanded by Wing Commander D S Wilson-MacDonald, DSO, DFC, flew via Stornoway, Iceland, and Labrador to Montreal on the first leg of a goodwill tour of the U.S. and Canada. \n; First piston aircraft to make a non-stop World flight: In 1949, the Lucky Lady II, a Boeing B-50 Superfortress of the U. S. Air Force, commanded by Captain James Gallagher, became the first aeroplane to circle the world nonstop. This was achieved by refueling the plane in flight. Total time airborne was 94 hours and 1 minute.\n\n1950s\n\n; First jet aircraft to make a non-stop transatlantic flight: On 21 February 1951, an RAF English Electric Canberra B Mk 2 (serial number WD932) flown by Squadron Leader A Callard of the A&AEE, flew from Aldergrove Northern Ireland, to Gander, Newfoundland. The flight covered almost 1800 nmi in 4h 37 m. The aircraft was being flown to the U.S. to act as a pattern aircraft for the Martin B-57 Canberra.\n; First jet aircraft transatlantic passenger service: On 4 October 1958, British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) flew the first jet airliner service using the de Havilland Comet, when G-APDC initiated the first transatlantic Comet 4 service and the first scheduled transatlantic passenger jet service in history, flying from London to New York with a stopover at Gander.\n\n1970s\n\n; First supersonic commercial flight across the atlantic ocean: On 21, January 1976 Concorde jet makes first commercial flight. Supersonic flights were available until 2003.\n\n1980s\n\n; First piston aircraft to make a non-stop World flight without refueling: On 14 December 1986 the Rutan Model 76 Voyager was the first aircraft to fly around the world without stopping or refueling. It was piloted by Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager. The flight took off from Edwards Air Force Base's 15,000 foot (4,600 m) long runway in the Mojave Desert, and ended 9 days, 3 minutes and 44 seconds after start on December 23, setting a flight endurance record. The aircraft flew westerly 26,366 statute miles (42,432 km; the FAI accredited distance is 40,212 km) \n\n2000s\n\n; First jet aircraft to make a non-stop World flight without refueling: In 2005, Steve Fossett, flying a Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer, set the current record for fastest aerial circumnavigation (first non-stop, non-refueled solo circumnavigation in an airplane) in 67 hours, covering 37,000 kilometers.\n\nOther early transatlantic flights\n\n* 29 June–1 July 1927: Admiral Richard Byrd with crew flew Fokker F.VIIa/3m America from New York City to France.\n* 13 July 1928: Ludwik Idzikowski and Kazimierz Kubala attempt a crossing of the Atlantic westbound from Paris to the USA in an Amiot 123 biplane, but crash in the Azores.\n* 6–9 February 1933. Jim Mollison flew a Puss Moth from Senegal to Brazil, across South Atlantic, becoming the first person to fly solo across the North and South Atlantics.\n* 15–17 July 1933: Lithuanians Steponas Darius and Stasys Girėnas were supposed to make a non-stop flight from New York City via Newfoundland to Kaunas in their aircraft named Lituanica, but crashed in the forests of Germany after 6,411 km of flying, only 650 km short of their final destination after a flying time 37 hours, 11 minutes. They carried the first transatlantic airmail consignment.\n* 10 December 1936: Luso-American aviator Joseph Costa took off from the Elmira-Corning Regional Airport in a Lockheed Vega named \"Crystal City\", attempting to cross the Atlantic and land in Portugal, via Brazil. His plane crashed just before a stopover in Rio de Janeiro, on 15 January 1937.\n* 5 July 1937: Captain Harold Gray of Pan Am flew from Botwood, Newfoundland to Foynes, Ireland, in a Sikorsky S-42 flying boat as part of the first transatlantic commercial passenger test flights. On 6 July 1937, Captain Arthur Wilcockson of Imperial Airways flew from Foynes to Botwood, in a Short Empire class flying boat named Caledonia.\n* 21 July 1938: The Short Mercury flew from Foynes, on the west coast of Ireland, to Boucherville, Montreal, Canada, a flight of 2930 smi. The Short Maia, flown by Captain A.S. Wilcockson, took off carrying Mercury (piloted by Captain, later Air Vice Marshal Don Bennett).Mercury separated from the carrier aircraft to continue what was to become the first commercial non-stop east-to-west transatlantic flight by a heavier-than-air machine. This initial journey took 20 hrs 21 min at an average ground speed of 144 mph (232 km/h).\n* 10 August 1938: The first non-stop flight from Berlin to New York was with a Focke-Wulf Fw 200 that flew Staaken to Floyd Bennett in 24 hours, 56 minutes and did the return flight three days later in 19 hours, 47 minutes.\n\nNotable transatlantic flights of the 21st century\n\n* 2 May 2002: Lindbergh's grandson, Erik Lindbergh, celebrated the 75th anniversary of the pioneering 1927 flight of the Spirit of St. Louis by duplicating the journey in a single engine, two seat Lancair Columbia 200. The younger Lindbergh's solo flight from Republic Airport on Long Island, to Le Bourget Airport in Paris was completed in 17 hours and 7 minutes, or just a little more than half the time of his grandfather's 33.5 hour original flight. \n* 22–23 September 2011: Mike Blyth and Jean d'Assonville flew a Sling 4 prototype Light Sport Aircraft, registration ZU-TAF, non-stop from Cabo Frio International Airport, Brazil to Cape Town International Airport, South Africa, a distance of 6,222 km, in 27 hours. The crew set course for co-ordinates 34°S 31°W to take advantage of the westerly winds and at the turning point proceeded in an easterly direction, roughly following the 35°S parallel. This took them within 140 km north of the most remote inhabited island in the world, Tristan da Cunha. The Cabo Frio/Cape Town leg was part of an around the world flight. \n\nFailed transatlantic attempts of the 21st century\n\nIn September 2013, Jonathan Trappe lifted off from Caribou, Maine, United States in an attempt to make the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean by cluster balloon. The craft is essentially a small yellow lifeboat attached to 370 balloons filled with helium. A short time later, due to difficulty controlling the balloons, Trappe was forced to land near the town of York Harbour, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Trappe had expected to arrive in Europe sometime between three and six days after liftoff.\nThe craft ascended by the dropping of ballast, and was to drift at an altitude of up to 25,000 ft (7.6 km). It was intended to follow wind currents toward Europe, the intended destination, however, unpredictable wind currents could have forced the craft to North Africa or Norway. To descend, Trappe would have popped or released some of the balloons.\nThe last time the Atlantic was crossed by helium balloon was in 1984 by Colonel Joe Kittinger."
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"On This Day: Amelia Earhart Embarks on Solo Trans-Atlantic Flight\nmore »\nAssociated Press\nAmelia Earhart poses in front of the plane in which she completed her solo flight across the Atlantic, May 21, 1932, Derry, Ireland.\nOn This Day: Amelia Earhart Embarks on Solo Trans-Atlantic Flight\nMay 20, 2011 06:00 AM\nby findingDulcinea Staff\nOn May 20, 1932, Amelia Earhart took off from Newfoundland; she landed in Ireland nearly 15 hours later, becoming the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean.\nEarhart Becomes Second Person to Fly Solo Across Atlantic\nAviation phenomenon Amelia Earhart first made headlines in 1928 when she became the first woman to cross the Atlantic as a passenger on a trans-Atlantic airplane flight. Though she received international fame, Earhart did not think she deserved it ; “I was just baggage, like a sack of potatoes,” she remarked.\nFour years later, Earhart attempted to make the flight on her own. Just one person, Charles Lindbergh , had flown solo across the Atlantic. A female aviator, Ruth Nichols , had attempted the flight in 1931, but had crashed in Canada.\nOn May 20, 1932, five years to the day after Lindbergh’s flight, Earhart took off from Harbor Grace, Newfoundland, in her red Lockheed Vega 5B . She encountered many difficulties; “Earhart fought fatigue, a leaky fuel tank, and a cracked manifold that spewed flames out the side of the engine cowling,” writes the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum. “Ice formed on the Vega's wings and caused an unstoppable 3,000-foot descent to just above the waves.”\nShe had planned to fly to Paris—the same destination as Lindbergh—but the weather and mechanical problems forced her to land at a farm near Derry, Ireland , completing the flight in 14 hours and 56 minutes. She described her landing in a pasture: “After scaring most of the cows in the neighborhood, I pulled up in a farmer’s back yard.”\nRelated Content\nCharles Lindbergh\n“ Many have said that the last great spectacular feat of this sort which remained in aviation would be a solitary Atlantic crossing by a woman,” the Manchester Guardian wrote. “Without male or other assistance, but relying on her own ability as a pilot, her own skill in the extremely difficult navigation which the Atlantic demands, she has succeeded in proving that the flight is not beyond the knowledge and the capacity for sustained endurance which a woman can acquire.”\nEarhart was lavished with honors , receiving a tickertape parade in New York and being awarded a National Geographic Society medal by President Hoover and the Distinguished Flying Cross by Congress.\nThe New York Times: The Lady Vanishes: Amelia Earhart\nAmelia Earhart , born in 1897 in Kansas, worked as a nurse’s aide and a social worker before learning to fly and buying her own plane in 1921. She set the women’s altitude record in 1923, and in 1928 was offered the opportunity by publicist George Putnam—her future husband—to be the first woman to take part in a trans-Atlantic flight.\nEarhart went on to form the Ninety-Nines , the first organization of female pilots, with 98 other aviatrixes, and set other women’s flying records before her 1932 trans-Atlantic flight. Later, she became the first person to fly the Atlantic alone twice, and the first woman to fly nonstop across the United States.\nHer flying career ended with her disappearance in 1937 during an attempt to circumnavigate the globe . Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, were flying from Lae, New Guinea, to the Pacific Ocean island of Howland in one of the final legs of the flight. Despite massive search and rescue missions, her body was never found. The cause of her disappearance and her ultimate fate remain a mystery.\n“ Earhart’s disappearance spawned countless theories involving radio problems , poor communication, navigation or pilot skills, other landing sites, spy missions and imprisonment, and even living quietly in New Jersey or on a rubber plantation in the Philippines,” according to the National Air and Space Museum. “The most reasonable explanation, based on the known facts of her flight, is that they were unable to locate Howland Island, ran out of fuel, and ditched into the Pacific Ocean.”\nDespite her tragic end, Earhart continues to inspire people today with her legacy of daring and love of flight. “ Amelia Earhart symbolizes modern woman’s invasion of the male world of daring action and adventure,” wrote author Camille Paglia. “As an aviator, she broke barriers and made the machine age her own. … Dashing in man-tailored shirts, jackets and slacks, Earhart became an icon of the rapidly evolving new woman who sought self-definition and fulfillment outside the home.”",
"Amelia Earhart\nAmelia Earhart\nAmelia Earhart\nFamous Female Aviator\nStudio headshot portrait of American aviator Amelia Earhart, the first woman to complete a solo transatlantic flight, wearing a leather jacket. (circa 1932). (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)\nBy Dani Alexis Ryskamp, Contributing Writer\nUpdated November 02, 2015.\nWho Was Amelia Earhart?\nAs a pilot, Amelia Earhart set many world flying records. She became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean and the first person to make a solo flight across both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Earhart also set several height and speed records in an airplane.\nDespite all these records, Amelia Earhart is perhaps best remembered for her mysterious disappearance, which has become one of the enduring mysteries of the 20th century. While attempting to become the first woman to fly around the world, she disappeared on July 2, 1937 while heading toward Howland's Island.\nDates: July 24, 1897 -- July 2, 1937(?)\nAlso Known As: Amelia Mary Earhart, Lady Lindy\nAmelia Earhart’s Childhood\nAmelia Mary Earhart was born in her maternal grandparents’ home in Atchison, Kansas, on July 24, 1897 to Amy and Edwin Earhart. Although Edwin was a lawyer, he never earned the approval of Amy’s parents, Judge Alfred Otis and his wife, Amelia.\ncontinue reading below our video\nWhat are the Seven Wonders of the World\nIn 1899, two-and-a-half years after Amelia’s birth, Edwin and Amy welcomed another daughter, Grace Muriel, into the world.\nAmelia Earhart spent much of her early childhood living with her Otis grandparents in Atchison during the school months and then spending her summers with her parents. Earhart’s early life was filled with outdoor adventures combined with the etiquette lessons expected of upper-middle-class girls of her day.\nAmelia (known as “Millie” in her youth) and her sister Grace Muriel (known as “Pidge”) loved to play together, especially outdoors. After visiting the World’s Fair in St. Louis in 1904 , Amelia decided she wanted to build her own mini roller coaster in her backyard. Enlisting Pidge to help, the two built a homemade roller coaster on the roof of the tool shed, using planks, a wooden box, and lard for grease. Amelia took the first ride, which ended with a crash and some bruises – but she loved it.\nBy 1908, Edwin Earhart had closed his private law firm and was working as a lawyer for a railroad in Des Moines, Iowa; thus, it was time for Amelia to move back in with her parents. That same year, her parents took her to the Iowa State Fair where 10-year-old Amelia saw an airplane for the very first time. Surprisingly, the airplane didn’t interest her.\nProblems at Home\nAt first, life in Des Moines seemed to be going well for the Earhart family; however, it soon became obvious that Edwin had started to heavily drink alcohol. When his alcoholism got worse, Edwin eventually lost his job in Iowa and had trouble finding another.\nIn 1915, with the promise of a job with the Great Northern Railway in St. Paul, Minnesota, the Earhart family packed up their belongings and moved. However, the job fell through once they got there. Tired of her husband’s alcoholism and the family’s increasing money troubles, Amy Earhart moved herself and her daughters to Chicago, leaving their father behind in Minnesota. Edwin and Amy eventually divorced in 1924.\nDue to her family’s frequent moves, Amelia Earhart switched high schools six times, making it hard for her to make or keep friends during her teen years. She did well in her classes, but preferred sports. She graduated from Chicago’s Hyde Park High School in 1916 and is listed in the school’s yearbook as “the girl in brown who walks alone.” Later in life, however, she was known for her friendly and outgoing nature.\nAfter high school, Earhart went to the Ogontz School in Philadelphia, but she soon dropped out to become a nurse for returning World War I soldiers and for victims of the influenza epidemic of 1918 .\nFirst Flights\nIt wasn’t until 1920, when Earhart was 23 years old, that she developed an interest in airplanes. While visiting her father in California, she attended an air show and the stunt-flying feats she watched convinced her that she had to try flying for herself.\nEarhart took her first flying lesson on January 3, 1921. According to her instructors, Earhart wasn’t a “natural” at piloting an airplane; instead, she made up for a lack of talent with plenty of hard work and a passion for flying. Earhart received her “Aviator Pilot” certification from the Federation Aeronautique Internationale on May 16, 1921 -- a major step for any pilot at the time.\nSince her parents could not afford to pay for her lessons, Earhart worked several jobs to raise the money herself. She also saved up the money to buy her own airplane, a small Kinner Airster she called the Canary. In the Canary, she broke the women’s altitude record on October 22, 1922 by becoming the first woman to reach 14,000 feet in an airplane.\nEarhart Becomes the First Woman to Fly Over the Atlantic\nIn 1927, aviator Charles Lindbergh made history by becoming the first person to fly non-stop across the Atlantic, from the U.S. to England. A year later, Amelia Earhart was asked to make a non-stop flight across the same ocean. She had been discovered by publisher George Putnam, who had been asked to look for a suitable female pilot to complete this feat. Since this was not to be a solo flight, Earhart joined a crew of two other aviators, both men.\nOn June 17, 1928, the journey began when the Friendship, a Fokker F7 specially outfitted for the trip, took off from Newfoundland bound for England. Ice and fog made the trip difficult and Earhart spent much of the flight scribbling notes in a journal while her co-pilots, Bill Stultz and Louis Gordon, handled the plane.\nOn June 18, 1928, after 20 hours and 40 minutes in the air, the Friendship landed in South Wales. Although Earhart said she did not contribute any more to the flight than “a sack of potatoes” would have, the press saw her accomplishment differently. They started calling Earhart “Lady Lindy,” after Charles Lindbergh. Shortly after this trip, Earhart published a book about her experiences, titled 20 Hours 40 Minutes.\nBefore long, Amelia Earhart was looking for new records to break in her own airplane. A few months after publishing 20 Hours 40 Minutes, she flew solo across the United States and back -- the first time a female pilot had made the journey alone. In 1929, she founded and participated in the Woman’s Air Derby, an airplane race from Santa Monica, California to Cleveland, Ohio with a substantial cash prize. Flying a more powerful Lockheed Vega, Earhart finished third, behind noted pilots Louise Thaden and Gladys O’Donnell.\nOn February 7, 1931, Earhart married publisher George Putnam, the man who had discovered her. Also in 1931, Earhart and several other female aviators banded together to start a professional international organization for female pilots, of which Earhart became the first president. The Ninety-Niners, named because it originally had 99 members, still represents and supports female pilots today. Earhart published a second book about her accomplishments, The Fun of It, in 1932.\nSolo Across the Ocean\nHaving won multiple competitions, flown in air shows, and set new altitude records, Amelia Earhart began looking for a bigger challenge. In 1932, she decided to become the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic. On May 20, 1932, she took off again from Newfoundland, piloting a small Lockheed Vega.\nIt was a dangerous trip: clouds and fog made it difficult to navigate, her plane’s wings became covered with ice, and the plane developed a fuel leak about two-thirds of the way across the ocean. Worse, the altimeter stopped working, so Earhart had no idea how far above the ocean’s surface her plane was -- a situation that nearly resulted in her crashing into the Atlantic Ocean.\nIn serious danger, Earhart abandoned her plans to land at Southampton, England, and made for the first bit of land she saw. She touched down in a sheep pasture in Ireland on May 21, 1932, becoming the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic and the first-ever person to fly across the Atlantic twice.\nThe solo Atlantic crossing was followed by more book deals, meetings with heads of state, and a lecture tour, as well as more flying competitions. In 1935, Earhart also made a solo flight from Hawaii to Oakland, California, becoming the first person to fly solo from Hawaii to the U.S. mainland. This trip also made Earhart the first person to fly solo across both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.\nAmelia Earhart’s Last Flight\nNot long after making her Pacific flight in 1935, Amelia Earhart decided she wanted to try flying around the entire world. A U.S. Army Air Force crew had made the trip in 1924 and male aviator Wiley Post flew around the world by himself in 1931 and 1933.\nBut Earhart had two new goals. First, she wanted to be the first woman to fly solo around the world. Second, she wanted to fly around the world at or near the equator, the planet’s widest point. The previous flights had both circled the world much closer to the North Pole , where the distance was shortest. Earhart wanted to make the longest possible flight around the globe.\nPlanning and preparation for the trip was difficult, time-consuming, and expensive. Her plane, a Lockheed Electra, had to be completely re-fitted with additional fuel tanks, survival gear, scientific instruments, and a state-of-the-art radio. A 1936 test flight ended in a crash that destroyed the plane’s landing gear. Several months passed while the plane was fixed.\nMeanwhile, Earhart and her navigator, Frank Noonan, plotted their course around the world. The most difficult point in the trip would be the flight from Papua New Guinea to Hawaii because it required a fuel stop at Howland’s Island, a small coral island about 1,700 miles west of Hawaii. Aviation maps were poor at the time and the island would be difficult to find from the air.\nHowever, the stop at Howland’s Island was unavoidable because the plane could only carry about half the fuel needed to fly from Papua New Guinea to Hawaii, making a fuel stop essential if Earhart and Noonan were to make it across the South Pacific. As difficult as it might be to find, Howland’s Island seemed like the best choice for a stop since it is positioned approximately half way between Papua New Guinea and Hawaii.\nOnce their course had been plotted and their plane readied, it was time for the final details. It was during this last minute preparation that Earhart decided not to take the full-sized radio antenna that Lockheed recommended, instead opting for a smaller antenna. The new antenna was lighter, but it also could not transmit or receive signals as well, especially in bad weather.\nOn May 21, 1937, Amelia Earhart and Frank Noonan took off from Oakland, California, on the first leg of their trip. The plane landed first in Puerto Rico and then in several other locations in the Caribbean before heading to Senegal. They crossed Africa, stopping several times for fuel and supplies, then went on to Eritrea, India, Burma, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. There, Earhart and Noonan prepared for the toughest stretch of the trip -- the landing at Howland’s Island.\nSince every pound in the plane meant more fuel used, Earhart removed every non-essential item -- even the parachutes. The plane was checked and re-checked by mechanics to ensure it was in top condition. However, Earhart and Noonan had been flying for over a month straight by this time and both were tired.\nOn July 2, 1937, Earhart’s plane left Papua New Guinea heading toward Howland’s Island. For the first seven hours, Earhart and Noonan stayed in radio contact with the airstrip in Papua New Guinea. After that, they made intermittent radio contact with the U.S.S. Itsaca, a Coast Guard ship patrolling the waters below. However, reception was poor and messages between the plane and the Itsaca were frequently lost or garbled.\nTwo hours after Earhart’s scheduled arrival at Howland’s Island, at about 10:30 a.m. local time on July 2, 1937, the Itsaca received a last static-filled message that indicated Earhart and Noonan could not see the ship or the island and they were almost out of fuel. The crew of the Itsaca tried to signal the ship’s location by sending up black smoke, but the plane did not appear. Neither the plane, Earhart, nor Noonan were ever seen or heard from again.\nThe Mystery Continues\nThe mystery of what happened to Earhart, Noonan, and the plane has not yet been solved. In 1999, British archaeologists claimed to have found artifacts on a small island in the South Pacific that contained Earhart’s DNA, but the evidence is not conclusive.\nNear the plane’s last known location, the ocean reaches depths of 16,000 feet, well below the range of today’s deep-sea diving equipment. If the plane sank into those depths, it may never be recovered.",
"Amelia Earhart’s Historic Landing, 80 Years Ago - History in the Headlines\nAmelia Earhart’s Historic Landing, 80 Years Ago\nMay 21, 2012 By Jennie Cohen\n(Credit: Keystone-FranceGamma-Rapho via Getty Images)\nShare this:\nAmelia Earhart’s Historic Landing, 80 Years Ago\nAuthor\nAmelia Earhart’s Historic Landing, 80 Years Ago\nURL\nGoogle\nEighty-five years ago today, aviator Charles Lindbergh landed his single-engine monoplane Spirit of St. Louis in Paris, France, completing the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic. Five years later Amelia Earhart set out to recreate his historic journey, becoming the second person and first woman to accomplish the feat. She succeeded, but not by following in Lindbergh’s exact contrails.\nWhen the scarlet Lockheed Vega touched down, scattering a herd of cows, farmhand Dan McCallion crossed himself. He puzzled at the grease-smeared face and tousled hair of the pilot who emerged from the cockpit, unsure whether a man or woman had landed in his boss’ Londonderry meadow. “Have you flown far?” he finally asked. “From America,” answered Amelia Earhart.\nEarhart had spent the last 15 hours tossed by dangerous storms over the North Atlantic, contending with failing machinery and sipping a can of tomato juice to calm her queasy stomach. That day—May 21, 1932—she planned to end her journey at Paris’ Le Bourget airfield, where exactly five years earlier Charles Lindbergh had completed the first solo transatlantic flight. When her Vega’s reserve fuel tank sprang a leak and flames began engulfing the exhaust manifold, however, Earhart wound up navigating to a Northern Ireland pasture.\n“I was never in Ireland before,” Earhart later told reporters, “but the sight of the thatched cottages and the marvelous green grass and trees left me no doubt that I had actually made the Emerald Isle. I was still surer when I heard the brogue of my friend Dan McCallion.”\nThough she’d only taken off from Newfoundland on May 20, Earhart’s historic crossing was set in motion several years earlier. After Lindbergh flew across the Atlantic in 1927, steel heiress and aviation enthusiast Amy Phipps Guest determined to prove a woman could do the same. She arranged for Earhart, then a social worker with a passion for flying, to accompany pilot Wilmer Stultz on a jaunt from Newfoundland to Wales in June 1928.\nThrust into the spotlight as the first woman to soar over the pond, Earhart smarted at the attention, particularly when the press likened her to Lindbergh and dubbed her “Lady Lindy.” She repeatedly emphasized that she’d been a mere passenger on the trip, never even touching the controls, and didn’t deserve any accolades. “I was just baggage, like a sack of potatoes,” she gloomily reminded a journalist. “Maybe someday I’ll try it alone.”\nFour years later, as the five-year anniversary of Lindbergh’s feat approached, Earhart had racked up enough training hours to feel ready. Many pilots had vied to become the second person to cross the Atlantic alone, but so far all had failed. One of them, the female aviator Ruth Nichols, was poised to make another attempt, and her plans goaded Earhart to act fast.\nWhen she encountered Dan McCallion 80 years ago, Earhart knew she’d made history in her own right. Shortly thereafter, after drinking some water and washing up, the exhausted aviator hitched a ride into town, where she called her husband, George Putnam, and told him rumors of a crash in France had been greatly exaggerated. She then spent the night with the Gallegher family, owners of the farm where her plane still smoldered. The following day reporters materialized and armfuls of congratulatory correspondence began arriving. Charles Lindbergh and his wife Anne, deep in mourning after the discovery days earlier of their kidnapped son’s body, sent the first note.\nAs the world celebrated Earhart’s triumph, some remained less effusive about her slightly abbreviated voyage—including her own sister. “Of course, any landing on land is good,” Muriel Earhart Morissey told The New York Times. “It is much better than if she’d landed in the water. I am sorry she did not get all the way to Paris, but, after all, a landing in Ireland makes the trip a success.”\nTags",
"Women in Aviation and Space History - Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum\nwomen in aviation and space history\nNational Air and Space Museum Archives, Smithsonian Institution\nAmelia Earhart\nBarron Hilton Pioneers of Flight (208); Golden Age of Flight (105)\nAmelia Earhart is probably the most famous female pilot in aviation history, an accolade due both to her aviation career and to her mysterious disappearance. On May 20–21, 1932, Earhart became the first woman — and the second person after Charles Lindbergh — to fly nonstop and solo across the Atlantic Ocean. Flying a red Lockheed Vega 5B, she left Harbor Grace, Newfoundland, Canada, and landed about 15 hours later near Londonderry, Northern Ireland. The feat made Earhart an instant worldwide sensation and proved she was a courageous and able pilot. Then, on August 24–25, she made the first solo, nonstop flight by a woman across the United States, from Los Angeles to Newark, New Jersey, establishing a women's record of 19 hours and 5 minutes and setting a women's distance record of 3,938 kilometers (2,447 miles).\nBorn in Atchison, Kansas, on July 24, 1897, Amelia Earhart displayed an independent style from childhood, including keeping a scrapbook on accomplished women, taking an auto repair course, and attending college (but never graduating). She attended her first flying exhibition in 1918 while serving as a Red Cross nurse's aide in Toronto, Canada. She took her first flight in California in December 1920, with veteran flyer Frank Hawks, and declared, \"As soon as I left the ground, I knew I myself had to fly.\" Her first instructor was Anita \"Neta\" Snook who gave her lessons in a Curtiss Jenny. To pay for flight lessons, Earhart worked as a telephone company clerk and photographer. Earhart soloed in 1921, bought her first airplane, a Kinner Airster, in 1922 and wasted no time in setting a women's altitude record of 4,267 meters (14,000 feet). In 1923, Earhart became the 16th woman to receive an official Fédération Aéronautique Internationale pilot license.\nEarhart moved to east to be near her sister and mother, and, after a second year at Columbia University in New York City, began working in Boston at the Denison Settlement House as a social worker with immigrant families. In the spring of 1928, she was flying at Dennison Airport, and had joined the local National Aeronautic Association, when she was offered the opportunity of a lifetime: to become the first woman to fly across the Atlantic as a passenger.\nAmy Phipps Guest owned the Fokker F.VII Friendship and wanted to make the flight but when her family objected, she asked aviator Richard Byrd and publisher/publicist George Putnam to find \"the right sort of girl\" for the trip. On June 17, 1928, Earhart and pilots Wilmer Stultz and Lou Gordon departed Trepassey, Newfoundland and, though promised time at the controls of the tri-motor, she was never given the opportunity to fly the aircraft during the 20-hour 40-minute flight to Burry Point, Wales. She did get in the pilot's seat for a time on the final hop to Southampton, England.\nThe dramatic 1928 flight brought her international attention and the opportunity to earn a living in aviation. Putnam became her manager and she began lecturing and writing on aviation around the country. In August of 1929, she placed third in the All-Women's Air Derby, behind Louise Thaden and Gladys O'Donnell, which was the first transcontinental air race for women (from Santa Monica, California to Cleveland, Ohio) and a race she helped organized. This race, closely followed by the press and by the public who flocked to the stops along the way, proved that women could fly in rugged and competitive conditions.\nA few months after the Derby, a group of women pilots decided to form an organization for social, recruitment, and business purposes. Ninety-nine women, out of 285 licensed U.S. female pilots, became charter members, inspiring the organization's name The Ninety-Nines (99s); Earhart became their first president. Female pilots were keenly aware of the lack of social and economic independence for all women and were determined to help one another.\nIn 1930, after only 15 minutes of instruction, Earhart became the first woman to fly an autogiro, made by Pitcairn and featuring rotating blades to increase lift and allow short takeoffs and landings. Earhart set the first autogiro altitude record and made two autogiro cross-country tours, which were marked by three public \"crack-ups,\" as she called them. Though Earhart was the most famous woman pilot, she was not the most skilled.\nDetermined to prove herself, Earhart decided to fly the Atlantic Ocean again, but this time alone. She thought a transatlantic flight would bring her respect, something other women sought too -- Ruth Nichols made an attempt in 1931 crashing in Canada, but she was planning another attempt when Earhart succeeded. During her 3,260-kilometer (2,026-mile) nonstop solo flight across the Atlantic on May 20-21, 1932, Earhart fought fatigue, a leaky fuel tank, and a cracked manifold that spewed flames out the side of the engine cowling. Ice formed on the Vega's wings and caused an unstoppable 3,000-foot descent to just above the waves. Realizing she was on a course far north of France, she landed in a farmer's field in Culmore, near Londonderry, Northern Ireland. Acclaimed in London, Paris, and Rome, she returned home to a ticker tape parade in New York City and honors in Washington, D.C. By July and August she was back in the Vega for her transcontinental flight.\nOn January 11–12, 1935, Amelia Earhart became the first person to fly solo from Hawaii to the U.S. mainland, this time in a Lockheed 5C Vega. Although some called it a publicity stunt for Earhart and Hawaiian sugar plantation promoters, it was a dangerous3,875-kilometer (2,408-mile) flight that had already claimed several lives. Of that flight she remarked: \"I wanted the flight just to contribute. I could only hope one more passage across that part of the Pacific would mark a little more clearly the pathway over which an air service of the future will inevitably fly.\" Later that year, Earhart made record flights from Los Angeles to Mexico City and from Mexico City to Newark, New Jersey. She also placed fifth in the 1935 Bendix Race. Earhart was a two-time Harmon Trophy winner and was also the recipient of the U.S. Distinguished Flying Cross.\nEarhart became the first woman vice president of the National Aeronautic Association, which authorized official records and races. She persuaded the organization to establish separate female records because women did not have the money or planes — and thus the experience — to fairly compete against men for \"world\" titles. Earhart served as a partner in the Transcontinental Air Transport and Ludington airlines and lobbied Congress for aviation legislation. She promoted the safety and efficiency of air travel to women, on the premise that they would influence men. She tirelessly lectured across the country on the subjects of aviation and women's issues and wrote for Cosmopolitan and various magazines. She wrote about her flights and career in 20 Hours and 40 Minutes, The Fun of It, and Last Flight, which was published after her disappearance.\nEarhart married George Putnam in 1931 — hesitantly — on the condition that they would separate in a year if unhappy. Though some called it a marriage of convenience, they remained together.\nEarhart designed a line of \"functional\" women's clothing, including dresses, blouses, pants, suits, and hats, initially using her own sewing machine, dress form, and seamstress. Though \"tousle-haired\" and rather thin, she photographed well and modeled her own designs for promotional spreads. Earhart also designed a line of lightweight, canvas-covered plywood luggage sold by Orenstein Trunk of Newark, New Jersey. Earhart luggage was sold into the 1990s and featured an Amelia Earhart luggage key, prompting some people to believe they possessed her \"personal\" aircraft or suitcase key.\nIn 1935, Earhart became a visiting professor at Purdue University at the invitation of Purdue president Edward Elliott, an advocate of higher education for women, especially in engineering and science. Earhart, a former premedical student, served as a counselor for women and a lecturer in aeronautics. Elliott was also interested in supporting Earhart's flying career and convinced Purdue benefactors to purchase a twin-engine Lockheed 10-E Electra for her. Many companies contributed their latest aviation technology to her Flying Laboratory.\nEarhart decided to make a world flight and she planned a route as close to the equator as possible, which meant flying several long overwater legs to islands in the Pacific Ocean. On March 20, 1937, Earhart crashed on takeoff at Luke Field, Honolulu, Hawaii, ending her westbound world flight that had begun at Oakland, California. The Electra was returned to Lockheed Aircraft Company in Burbank, California, for extensive repairs. On June 1, 1937, Earhart began an eastbound round-the-world flight from Oakland, via Miami, Florida, in the Electra with Fred Noonan as her navigator. They reached Lae, New Guinea on June 29, having flown 35,405 kilometers (22,000 miles) with 11,265 kilometers (7,000 miles) more to go to Oakland. They then departed Lae on July 2 for the 4,113-kilometer (2,556-mile) flight to their next refueling stop, Howland Island, a three-kilometer (two-mile) long and less-than-a-mile wide dot in the Pacific Ocean.\nUnfortunately, due to various circumstances, Earhart and the U.S. Coast Guard cutter Itasca, anchored off shore of Howland, could not complete any direct two-way radio communication and neither Earhart nor Noonan were competent at Morse Code. However, the Itasca did receive several strong voice transmissions from Earhart as she approached the area, the last at 8:43 am stating: \"We are on the line of position 156-137. Will repeat message. We will repeat this message on 6210 kilocycles. Wait. Listening on 6210 kilocycles. We are running north and south.\" Earhart and Noonan never found Howland and they were declared lost at sea on July 19, 1937 following a massive sea and air search.\nEarhart's disappearance spawned countless theories involving radio problems, poor communication, navigation or pilot skills, other landing sites, spy missions and imprisonment, and even living quietly in New Jersey or on a rubber plantation in the Philippines. The most reasonable explanation, based on the known facts of her flight, is that they were unable to locate Howland Island, ran out of fuel, and ditched into the Pacific Ocean.\nEarhart's disappearance remains one of the great unsolved mysteries of the 20th century, and it often overshadows her true legacies as a courageous and dedicated aviator and as an enduring inspiration to women.\nAmelia Earhart Record Setter\n1922 — Feminine altitude record of 4,267 meters (14,000 feet).\n1928 — First woman to fly across the Atlantic as a passenger in the Fokker F.VII Friendship.\n1929 — Feminine speed record.\n1931 — First woman to fly an autogiro.\n1931 — Autogiro altitude record of 5,612 meters (18,415 feet).\n1932 — First woman (and only the second person) to fly solo and nonstop across the Atlantic. Also first person to cross the Atlantic twice by air.\n1932 — First woman to fly solo and nonstop across the United States.\n1933 — Reset her transcontinental record.\n1935 — First person to fly solo from Honolulu, Hawaii, to the U.S. mainland (Oakland, California).\n1935 — Speed record between Mexico City and Washington, D.C.\n1935 — First person to fly solo from Mexico City to Newark, New Jersey."
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Who became commanding general of the First Armored Corps in 1941?
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"In 1941 General George S. Patton Jr ... The 1st Armored Division became \"Old Ironsides ... the 1st Armored Division transferred authority for command and ...",
"General George S. Patton Jr. will ... served for 4 years at the headquarters of the First Corps ... on 19 April 1941. He later became Commanding General of- the ...",
"Notable Generals and Others ... Past Commanding General's of 2nd Armored ... He became the first member of the Tank Corps and organized the First American ...",
"... 'The Supreme Command' [Biographical Sketches]. ... In June 1943 he assumed command of one of the 1st Armored ... he became the commanding general of III Corps, ...",
"The United States was thrown into World War II on December 7, 1941 and the Armored Force ... became the Armored ... Fort Knox Commanding General, ..."
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"The United States Army - Team Bliss\nSearch\n1AD History\nThe 1st Armored Division's commitment to the civic and military values for which \"Old Ironsides\" has been renowned for half a century (patriotism, discipline, readiness, self-sacrifice, combined arms cooperation, shock action, decisiveness, and generosity in victory) remains relentlessly strong today. The distinctive insignia of the 1st Armored Division is drawn in bold colors characteristic of the division. The insignia is designed from the triangular coat-of-arms of the American World War II Tank Corps. The yellow, blue, and red colors of the shoulder sleeve insignia represent the combined arms nature of the armored division (Armor, Infantry, and Artillery). Superimposed on the triangle is the insignia of the former Seventh Cavalry Brigade (Mechanized), the predecessors of the Old Ironsides. The tank track represents mobility and armor protection, the gun denotes firepower, and the chain of lightening symbolizes speed and shock action. Mobility, firepower, and shock action are the basic attributes of Armor. The Arabic numeral in the apex of the triangle indicates the First Armor Division. The nickname of the division, officially sanctioned by the Department of the Army is emblazoned under the triangle and is an integral part of the insignia.\nOLD IRONSIDES DESIGNATION\nThe 1st Armored Division was activated at Fort Knox on July 15, 1940. Its first commander was Major General Bruce R. Magruder from July 1940 to March 1942. In 1941 General George S. Patton Jr. had just named his 2nd Armored Division \"Hell on Wheels\" and everyone thought that the 1st Armored Division needed a name too. Major General Bruce Magruder announced a contest to find a suitable name for his Division. Approximately 200 names were submitted including \"Fire and Brimstone\" and \"Kentucky Wonders.\" The General took them home to study over the weekend but failed to find any that appealed to him. While mulling the matter over, he happened to glance at a painting of the U.S.S. Constitution that he had bought during a drive for funds for the preservation of that famous fighting ship. From the painting of the U.S.S. Constitution USS Constitution he noted its nickname, \"Old Ironsides\". Impressed with the parallel between the early development of the tank and the Navy's \"Old Ironsides\" spirit of daring and durability he decided the 1st Armored Division should also be named \"Old Ironsides.\" Thus a famous warship of the US Navy and the famous 1st Armored Division of the US Army are historically and appropriately welded by name \"Old Ironsides.\" That ended the search for a name. The 1st Armored Division became \"Old Ironsides\" that same day and forty months of fighting later testified that its name was well chosen. This was a fighting Division.\nNORTH AFRICA\nAs part of Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French Northwest Africa, November 8, 1942. In doing so, Old Ironsides became the first American Armored Division to see combat. Although encountering unexpectedly heavy Vichy-French opposition, the Allied invasion force suppressed all resistance in the beachhead within three days. The Division then advanced toward Tunisia where it clashed with Axis forces and learned many hard lessons in armored warfare. Harsh conditions and primitive roads spoiled an early opportunity to capture Tunisia and cut off Rommel's supply lines. January 1943 found the Division under control of the II Corps. Old Ironsides received the mission of defending central Tunisia against an Axis counterattack. A month later, the 1st Armored Division collided with a superior German armored force at Kasserine Pass. Sustaining heavy personnel and equipment losses, Old Ironsides withdrew, battered but wiser. Outrunning his supply lines and facing stiffening Allied resistance, Rommel's advance ground to a halt. Regardless, three more months of fierce fighting followed before the Allies could finally claim victory in North Africa.\nOn 25 March 1944, Private Nicholas Minue, Company A, 6th Armored Infantry, 1st Armored Division, was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for gallantry and intrepidity at the loss of his life above and beyond the call of duty in action with the enemy on 28 April 1943 in the vicinity of MedjezelBab, Tunisia.\nITALY\nThe fall of Sicily in the summer of 1943 cleared the way for an Allied Invasion of the Italian mainland. As part of General Mark Clark's Fifth Army, the 1st Armored Division crushed enemy resistance in an assault landing at Salerno on September 9, and led the drive to Naples. The city fell on October 1, and the Allies pressed onto the Volturno River. In November, the 1st Armored Division attacked the infamous Winter Line. Although breaching the line, the Allied advance came to a halt in the mountainous country near Cassino. To break the stalemate, the Allies made an amphibious assault well behind enemy lines at Anzio on January 23, 1944. Beating back repeated German counterattacks, the 1st Armored Division led the Allied breakout from the beachead on May 23, and spearheaded the drive to Rome, liberating the city on June 4. The 1st Armored Division continued its pursuit of the enemy to the North Apennies where the Germans made their last stand. Rugged mountains and winter weather now stood between the Allies and the open land of the Po Valley. The 1st Armored Division broke into the valley in April 1945 and on May 2, 1945, German forces in Italy surrendered.\n1950s\nIn June 1945 the 1st Armored Division was transferred to Germany to serve as part of the Allied occupation forces. Old Ironsides returned to the United States in April 1946 and was inactivated at Camp Kilmer, New Jersey. Several of the Division's Units, however, remained in Germany as part of the U.S. Constabulary. The success of the Russian made T-34 Tank at the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 brought renewed enthusiasm for armor. As part of the Korean War build up of American forces, the 1st Armored Division was reactivated at Fort Hood, Texas on March 7, 1951. Continuing its tradition of \"firsts\", Old Ironsides became one of the first divisions in the Army to integrate black soldiers throughout the ranks. It was also the only combat-ready armored division in the continental United States and the first to receive the M48 Patton Tank. Training for nuclear war became a major theme in the mid-1950s. Accordingly, the 1st Armored Division participated in tests of the \"Atomic Field Army\" at Fort Hood and in Operation Sagebrush, the largest joint maneuver conducted since World War II. Upon completion of the exercise in February 1956, the 1st Armored Division moved to its new home at Fort Polk, Louisiana.\nCUBA\nToward the end of the 1950s, the Army's preoccupation with a nuclear battlefield waned. The Army experienced years of austere budgets. Reduced in size and moved back to Fort Hood, the 1st Armored Division reverted to a training cadre for new inductees. The start of the 1960s, however, inaugurated a period of military renewal. Important changes in organization, doctrine, and equipment stemmed from the realization that the Army must be prepared to fight anytime, anywhere. In 1962, the 1st Armored Division was brought back to full strength and reorganized. Brigades replaced Combat Commands, and the Division's aviation assets doubled. Intense training followed the reorganization. In October 1962 the 1st Armored Division was declared combat ready, just in time for the Cuban Missile Crisis. In response to the Soviet stationing of missiles in Cuba, Old Ironsides deployed from Fort Hood, Texas to Fort Stewart. The entire operation took just 18 days. For the next six weeks, the 1st Armored Division conducted live-fire training and amphibious exercises on the Georgia and Florida coasts. One highlight was a visit from President John F. Kennedy on November 26, 1962. Shortly thereafter, tensions eased and the 1st Armored Division returned to Ft. Hood.\nVIETNAM\nAlthough the 1st Armored Division did not participate as a Division in the Vietnam War, two units, Company A, 501st Aviation and 1st Squadron, 1st Calvary served with distinction. Both earned Presidential Unit Citations, and 1-1 Cavalry received two Valorous Unit Awards and three Vietnamese Crosses of Gallantry. Neither unit was officially detached from the 1st Armored Division and veterans of both units may wear the Old Ironsides as a combat patch. In addition, in 1967 the 198th Infantry Brigade was formed from three of the Division's Infantry Battalions and deployed from Fort Hood to Vietnam. After the war, two of the three battalions, 1-6 Infantry and 1-52 Infantry, returned to the 1st Armored Division. 1968 was a crisis-filled year of domestic unrest. After the assassination of Martin Luther King, several inner cities exploded into violence. The 3rd Brigade deployed to Chicago to assist in restoring order. The early 1970's brought the withdrawal of American Forces from Vietnam and a major restructuring of the Army. Old Ironsides was rumored to be on the list of units to be inactivated. Veterans of the Division organized a letter-writing campaign to \"save\" the 1st Armored Division. Their efforts were rewarded when on May 10, 1971, 1st Armored Division left its home at Fort Hood, Texas to replace the 4th Armored Division in Germany.\nOn 9 November 1967, Captain (then First Lieutenant) James Allen Taylor, Troop B, 1st Cavalry, Americal Division, was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for his valor in contributing to the success of the assault on an enemy position and saving the lives of a number of his fellow soldiers.\nDESERT SHIELD/DESERT STORM\nOld Ironsides marched into its second half century celebrating victory in the Cold War - a triumph symbolized by the fall of the Berlin Wall, the unification of Germany, and the crumbling of East European, communist regimes. Almost immediately the 1st Armored Division was called upon to meet a new challenge. In November 1990 it was alerted for deployment to the Middle East in response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. In less than two months the Division moved 17,400 soldiers and 7,050 pieces of equipment by rail, sea, and air to Saudi Arabia for Operation Desert Shield/Storm. The Division's own 1st Brigade stayed in Germany and was replaced by 3d Brigade, 3d Infantry Division. On February 24, 1991, the 1st Armored Division crossed into Iraq leading VII Corp's main flanking attack - its mission to destroy the elite, Iraqi Republican Guards Divisions. In its 89-hour blitz across the desert Old Ironsides traveled 250 kilometers; destroyed 768 tanks, APCs and artillery pieces; and captured 1,064 prisoners of war. Four 1st Armored Division soldiers made the ultimate sacrifice in this historic effort. Old Ironsides marked its successful return to Germany on May 8, 1991, when MG Griffith uncased the Division Colors in Ansbach. The 1st Armored Division celebrated its triumph with a visit from the Vice President of the United States and attendance at victory parades in Washington, D.C. and New York City.\nTASK FORCE EAGLE\nOn December 14, 1995, the 1st Armored Division was ordered to Bosnia-Herzegovina as part of Operation Joint Endeavor. This task force, known as Task Force Eagle, assumed control of its area of responsibility during a transfer of authority ceremony with United Nations forces at Eagle Base, Tulza on December 20, 1995. After the historic bridging of the Sava River on December 31, 1995, the Old Ironsides Division, with supporting forces from the 5th U.S. Corps, was joined by Nordic-Polish, Turkish, and Russian brigades - in total - 12 Nations: Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, Turkey, and the United States. Task Force Eagle, one of the most powerful formations ever fielded, enforced the cease-fire, supervised the marking of boundaries and the zone of separation between the former warring factions, enforced withdrawal of the combatants, and the movement of the heavy weapons to designated storage sites. Task Force Eagle also supported the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe's efforts to administer the country's first ever democratic national elections. On November 10, 1996, the 1st Armored Division transferred authority for command and control of Task Force Eagle to the 1st Infantry Division. The 1st Infantry Division deployed as a covering force to allow the safe return of the 1st Armored Division to Germany.\nKOSOVO\nIn April 1999, the 1st Armored Division was alerted to send soldier to Albania as part of Operation Allied Force in response to the ethnic cleansing and fighting in Kosovo. The 1st Armored Division then sent the first soldiers into Kosovo in operation Joint Guardian to uphold the United Nations Security Council resolution to bring peace back to the Kosovo region. On June 20, 2000, the 1st Armored Division took over the mission as the U.S. contingent in Kosovo assuming control of the Multinational Brigade - East, and continues to bring a lasting peace and stability to the region and help build the infrastructure for all in Kosovo.\nOPERATION IRAQI FREEDOM\nThe Division again answered the Nation's call to duty March 4, 2003 when it received orders to deploy to the U.S. Central Command area of responsibility in support of the global war on terrorism . \"Old Ironsides\" began moving out April 15 in Support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. The division and task force marked some major \"firsts\" during the 15-month long mission. For Soldiers of the 1st Armored Division, this was longest deployment of any division in Iraq. Task Force 1st Armored Division was the largest division-based task force in U.S. Army history. Units serving with the Task Force included brigade-sized elements of the 82nd Airborne and 3rd Infantry and 1st Cavalry Divisions, the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment, the 124th Infantry Battalion, the 18th and 89th Military Police Brigades and 168th MP Battalion. Engineer units serving with the task force included the 153rd, 203rd, 389th, 439th, 535th, 842nd and 1457th Engineer Battalions, the 493rd Engineer Group, and the 249th and 671st Engineer Companies. Also serving the task force were the 55th Personnel Service Battalion, the 8th Finance Battalion, the 350th and 354th Civil Affairs Battalions, the 315th and 345th PSYOP Battalions and the 16th Corps Support Group. At its height, more than 39,000 Soldiers were part of the task force. The task force secured some of Baghdad's roughest neighborhoods and brought stability to the city and its surrounding countryside. The Task Force's accomplishments included planning and executing Operations Iron Hammer, Iron Justice, Iron Grip, Longstreet, Iron Bullet, Iron Promise and Iron Sabre. During these task force operations, Soldiers captured more than 700 criminals and former regime insurgents. They also confiscated thousands of rockets, mortars, tank rounds, rocket-propelled grenades and small arms. In addition to combat, task force Soldiers protected and improved the quality of life for over 5 million Iraqi residents in the city of Baghdad. The task force trained Iraqi police and national guardsmen, renovated schools, established neighborhood councils and spent over $60 million on these and other projects.",
"Patton's Third Army Living Historians - Patton History\nGeneral George S. Patton Jr.\nNovember 11, 1885 - December 21, 1945\n \nGeneral Patton was and is considered one of the world greatest Generals. There are those who say he had no equal in World War II on any side, friend or foe. The General’s combat effectiveness as a strategists and tacticians yielded huge results. When called upon by General Eisenhower in extreme emergencies, such as the battle of the bulge. General Patton accomplished what no other General could have been able to do at the time and place.\nGeneral George S. Patton Jr. will forever be part of military history. Yet, his accomplishments transcends the normal and proceeds into a greatness that few ever reach in a life time. The Bible describes a life span as a \"wisp\" in History. When the life leaves the body, then only the memories of the accomplishments and failures linger in the memories of man. When these memories are written down, they become history. It is from that history we look at those who figure looms bigger than others and judge them. General Patton's legacy, when it is all known, if it ever can be, will most likely put him in the company of military giants in World History. Regardless of how he fairs there he is certainly a man worth studying. Military soldiers and historians study his exploits on the battlefield and see how his tactics and strategies went on to change the future of such things. He, like most men, saw his present situation and saw his duty as a soldier to change the circumstances to a victory. Since he knew the past, he was able to foresee how the future might play out and knowing his enemies past. As his enemies on and off the battlefield proceeded in a predictable manner, he was able to conclude where they going and how they would react. He then, like a great chess player on the battlefield field, moved with quickness and saw his plans win battles. He was ahead of his peers and enemies in knowing the battlefield and often was stopped by others on his own side because they could not see nor react as quickly as they could or should have. Now with the passage of time, we see just how right he was and see that had he been allowed to be unrestrained and fight the war as he saw it, there would certainly have been even greater victories and less lives lost than there were. When his final battlefield command was over, he saw that if things continued as they had, unabated, that the futures of his soldiers and those of generations to come would be faced with having to fight again but with tougher opposition and with \"wonder weapons\" that might leave mankind to its final destruction. Based on that, he managed to write several predictions that were not only insightful but very close to what would eventually happen. He lived only 60 years and 30 days which would certainly qualify in biblical terms as a \"wisp.\" However, when you look at when he lived, what he did and how he effected the outcome, you come to understand that the short lifetime was lived to the fullest and the memory of what he did will last until the end of history.\nIf you have gotten this far into this web site, thank you for reading as much as you have. I will be updating this section as time allows. I am writing a book about the General and his Third Army Headquarters so that has slowed the process in this portion of the web site. Check back on this page from time to time. In the meantime, visit the rest of the web sight. There is quite a bit here all ready. If you went directly from the web to this page, you may be asking yourself \"What is a living historian?\" That is us. We play the part and tell the story so that the history is not now lost. By doing it in the first person, we are able to bring it alive to those who want to know it and to those who did not know of it.\nDenny Hair\nThis is official release from General Eisenhower of General Patton obituary. He gives a good synopsis of General Patton’s Military carrier.\n******************************************************************************\nGENERAL ORDERS) WAR DEPARTMENT -\nNo. 121 - ) Washington 25, D.C., 22 December 1945\nThe death of General George Smith Patton, Jr., United States Army, which occurred at Heidelherg, Germany, on 21 December 1945, is announced with deep regret.\nGeneral Patton, as Commanding General, -Third Army, inscribed his name in the annals of military-history by bold and brilliant leadership of his troops in Africa and Sicily and from the Normandy Peninsula across France, German, and Austria,\ninspiring them to many brilliant victories. His sound tactical knowledge, skillful, farsighted judgment, and masterful generalship contributed in the highest degree to the success of Allied arms.\nGeneral Patton was graduated from the United States Military Academy and appointed a second lieutenant of Cavalry on 11 June 1909. He was promoted to first lieutenant on 23 May 1916,-to captain on 15 May 1917, to major (temporary) on 26 January 1918, to lieutenant colonel (temporary) on 30March 1918, to colonel\n(temporary) on -17 October 1918. He reverted to his permanent rank of captain on 3O June 1920 and was promoted to major on 1 July 1920, to lieutenant colonel on 1 March 1934, to colonel on 1 July 1938, to brigadier general (temporary) on 1 October 1940, to major general (temporary) on 4 April 1941, and to lieutenant\ngeneral (temporary) on 12 March 1943. He was appointed brigadier general (permanent) to rank from 1 September 1943, and was promoted to major general (permanent) to rank from 2 September 1943. He was promoted to the rank of general. (temporary) on 14 April 1945.\nAfter serving at Fort Sheridan, Illinois, until December 1911, he was transferred to Fort Myer, Virginia. While On duty at Fort Myer he was detailed to design a- new cavalry saber. In the summer of 1913 'he was ordered to France to study the French saber methods and upon his return to the United States served with Cavalry units at Fort 'Bliss and Sierra Blanca. In 1916 he participated in the Punitive Expedition into Mexico as aide to –General John J Pershing\nAs a member of General Pershing's staff he sailed for France in May 1917 In November of that year he was detailed to the Tank Corps, attended the course at the French Tank School, and was present at the battle of Cambrai in December 1917 when tanks were fist employed on' a large scale by the British. He organized and directed the American Tank Center at Langres and also organized 304thBrigade of the Tank Corps, which he commanded in the St.- Mihiel offensive, l2-14 September 1918.\nTransferred t the Meuse-Argonne Sector with 'his brigade, he was wounded On-26 September 1918, the first day of the offensive. After returning to the United States in March 1919'; he commanded the 3O4th Tank Brigade at Champ Meade, Maryland until September 1920. He then commanded 'a squadron of the 3d Cavalry at Fort Myer, Virginia, until November 1922. After graduation from the Cavalry School, Fort Riley, Kansas, in 1923 and from the Command and General Staff School, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, in 1924, he was detailed to the General Staff Corps and\nserved for 4 years at the headquarters of the First Corps Area, Boston, Massachusetts, and in the Hawaiian Islands.\nHe then served for 4 years in Washington, D. C.; in the Office of the Chief of Cavalry from 1928 to 1931, and at the Army War s College from 1931 to 1932. Upon graduation from the Army War College, he was again ordered to For-t Myer, where he remained on duty with the 3d Cavalry until April 1935.\nHe then served with the General Staff in the Hawaiian Islands 2 years. In July 1938 he assumed command of the 5th Cavalry at Fort Clark, Texas, where he remained until ordered to Fort Myer, Virginia, to command the 3d Cavalry in December 1938.\nIn July 1940, he was ordered to-Fort Benning, Georgia, for duty with the 2d Armored Division, as Brigade Commander. He was assigned as Commanding Officer of the 2d Armored Division, - Fort Benning, on 19 April 1941. He later became Commanding\nGeneral of- the I Armored Corps. -\nOn 8 November 1942, when American forces landed in North- Africa, he commanded the units landing on the west coast. In February 1943, he became Commanding General of the Western Task Force, and subsequently assumed command of ail American ground forces in the Tunisian Combat Area.\nHe became Commanding General, Seventh Army, in Sicily, in 1943, serving in that country until March 1944, when he was assigned to the European Theater of Operations where it later was announced that he commanded the Third Army in -France. In October 1945 he assumed command of the Fifteenth Army in -\nAmerican-Occupied Germany.\nHe was awarded the Distinguished-Service Cross with one Oak- Leaf Cluster, the Distinguished-Service Medal with two Oak-Leaf Clusters, Distinguished -Service Medal (Navy), the Legion of Merit, the Silver Star, the Congressional Life Saving Medal of Honor, the - Bronze Star Medal, the Purple Heart, the Mexican Service Badge, the Victory Medal with four stars, and the following foreign decorations:\nMedal Commemorative of the Volymored (Sweden), Order of the British Empire (Great Britain), and the Most Honorable Order of the Bath (Great Britain). He was awarded the Grand Cross of Ouisan Alaouitê from the Sultan-of Morocco and was\npromoted to the rank of Commander in the. Legion of Honor by the French.\nOFFICIAL: - DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER\nEDWARD F. WITSELL Chief of Staff\nMajor General",
"Generals\nuntil 2nd Armored Division was deflagged\n15 Dec.1995\n Johnson, Briard (Gen) : (Died 1980) was CG of CCB from 1950-1953.\nPalmer, Charles D. (Gen) : ( died 7 June 1999 ) In Mar. 1944 he became chief of staff for the 2nd Armored Div., participated in the Normandy Invasion. He served in 6 campaigns in WW 2. also served in Korea as commander of the 1st Cavalry Div. Graduated from West Point in 1924. \n2nd Armored Congressional Medal of Honor Holders: WW 2 (2nd Armored Division). Capt. James M. Burt from Mass., 13 Oct. 1944. Sgt. Hulon B. Whittington,, LA., 29 July 1944. ( Dec. in 60's )\nAlenus, Willy. To friends of the US 82nd Armored Recce Battl. (Colonel Wheeler MERRIAM) our liberators in the triangle Hasselt - Maaseik � Maastricht (Sept. 44) . My name is Willy D. F. ALENUS. I was born in Hasselt, on 5 October 1932. On 7 September 1944, when you arrived in Hasselt, I was 11 years and 11 months young. But I was NOT physically in Hasselt in September 1944. On the 11th you crossed the Albert Canal at Beeringen and started conquering the area within the above triangle. At 11 o� clock, at Opglabbeek, my 40 years� old father fell into the hands of Parachute Infantry of the 24th Regiment, H�BNER/ MATTHAEAS and of the 21st Para- Regiment, L�YTVED- HARDEGG. He was summarily court- martialed to death and shot on the spot.On the 12th of September, Able for �A� Company, coming from the north (Meeuwen- Gruitrode), did not secure Opglabbeek, defended as it was by Major Ulrich MATTHAEAS and at least one 8, 8 cm anti- tank gun (or 88mm as we call it). But a relevant �after action report� entry reads, -\"On the 14th of September the �C� Company HQ with the 3rd platoon in reserve, moved from Beeringen, Zonhoven, Winterslag, Waterschei- Cit� (where Willy spent the 1940 - 1944 war years of German occupation), to Zutendaal. The 1st platoon moved from Beeringen at first light, to the north of the wooded area north of Winterslag to Opglabbeek, Asch and joined the Company at Waterschei.\" MATTHAEAS and his fierce Paratroops had vacated Opglabbeek during the night of 13 / 14 September and moved to Kinrooi, to the north- east, close to the Holland- Limburg border. Major Ulrich MATTHAEAS died at Bad Bevensen (Niedersachsen), on 21 June 1994. He was 83 years old. Consequently, I was war orphaned, - fatherless, not motherless, - at Opglabbeek on 11 September 1944. But on the 14th at 40 Gordellaan, Waterschei- Cit�, suddenly appeared apparently out of nowhere, half a dozen � 8 Greyhound and/ or Sherman�s of �Charlie� for �C� Company HQ, as I know to- day they were. More than half a century later, the above location remains virtually unchanged, which might both help and fascinate visiting veterans. Unaware of my father� s gruesome fate (that he had been killed three days before) and realizing that the �American Army�, - that is what we called you in those days, - planned to scout the Asch area and Zutendaal (Wiemismeer), Willy and friend managed to explain with almost no knowledge of the English language, that there was such a thing as a short and easy cut to Asch- station where \"Hell on Wheels\" obviously wanted to go. I. e. to follow the railroad track from Waterschei- station to Asch- station. Eventually, if I remember well, the scheme worked and I have already circulated among veterans a recently discovered photograph, featuring \"Hell on Wheels\" entering Asch, surrounded by Belgian teenagers including young Willy, friend(s) and bicycle. Willy achieved a complete overseas career. Colonial, Development Co- operation and United Nations. He retired on 1st January 1991. The King of the Belgians bestowed on him the Honorary Rank, Title and Pension of Hon. Provincial Commissioner (B. C.), the Civil Service equivalent of full Colonel. Willy lives most of the time at B- 8400 Oostende (Belgium), Zeedijk 357, phone + 32 59 70 23 09 - fax + 32 59 50 48 79 - E- mail - [email protected]. He owns a small, self contained guest- house on the Zeedijk (�Seadyke�) in Oostende, and is able and willing to accommodate, free of charge, two visiting adults. Senior soldiers and companion, planning to travel to Belgium to visit the North Sea coast, should not hesitate to call upon Willy ALENUS for possibly needed assistance. On 5 June 1999 he welcomed old friends in Deauville. (1109opgl). I think that this speaks for itself, All the members of the 82nd & the 2nd Armored Division appreciate the efforts of Willy, to honor our fallen hero's. \nBradley, Omar, Gen.: (12 Feb. 1893 to 8 April 1981) Born in Clark, Missouri, graduated from West Point in 1915, and commissioned in the infantry. A prot�g� of Eisenhower, who had been in the same class at West Point. Served with the 14th Infantry Division in various posts in Washington and Arizona, received promotions to first lieutenant in July 1916, and captain in May 1917, then to temporary major in June 1918. Spent a few months at Camp Grange, Illinois, then professor of military science at South Dakota State College in Sept 1919. Reverted to captain in Jan. 1920. Later same year became instructor at West Point stayed there until 1924. Then on to Ft. Benning, Ga., to graduated from the Infantry School in 1925. Spent three years at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii, then on to Command and General Staff School, at Ft. Leavenworth, Ks. in 1929. From 1929 to 1933 he was an instructor at the Infantry School. Graduated from the War College in 1934, then again instructor at West Point until 1938. Promoted to lieutenant colonel in June 1936. In 1938 Bradley was ordered to duty with the General Staff, and promoted to brigadier general, in Feb. 1941. His early career included many years as a formal instructor, However, his contribution to training was by no means insignificant. he served as Commandant of the Infantry School from March 1941 to Feb. 1941. Then to temporary mg to command the 92nd Infantry Division ( later to be the 82nd Airborne) at Camp Claiborne, La. From June 1942 to Jan. 1943 he had the 28th Infantry Division at Camp Livingston, La. General Bradley, of course, is best recognized as the empathetic \"G.I.'s General\" and the able commander of the largest American army ever fielded under a single commander. In Tunisia and Sicily, he commanded American troops who first learned the lessons of actual combat. Short time later he was ordered to N. Africa there he was appointed as an aide to Gen. Eisenhower until April 1942. His career was also linked with Patton's. Bradley first took command of the 11 Corps, from Patton, in North Africa. His troops immediately stormed the German held city of Bizerte on 7 May 1943 and took 40,000 prisoners. The II Corps captured Bizerte, Tunis, on 8 May 1942. Promoted to temporary lieutenant general in June 1942. Bradley led the II Corp's, then part of Patton's Seventh Army, in the landing at Gela and Scoglitti, Sicily, on 10 July 1942.\nIn Sept.1942 he was called to England to assist in the planning of the invasion of Normandy. In Oct. 1943 he was named commander of the First United States Army Group (FUSAG) for that purpose. As a commander at that level he was held responsible to Gen. Courtney H. Hodges and the Third was under command of Gen. Patton, which together carried the advance of the center and and right across most of Europe. In Jan.1944, Bradley would be in command of the center wing, landed in Utah and Omaha beaches, Normandy on D-Day, 6 June 1944. The end of July the First Army made the breakthrough at St. Lo. that released the the Allies from the Cotentin Peninsula. His greatest contribution to the war effort was his part in the Operation Overlord (invasion of France). He was chosen to lead the D-Day assault on the beaches of Normandy, France 6 June 1944. Gen. Bradley was receiving less than $13,000 a year as a Four Star General in 1946. In assessing Bradley, noted military historian, Martin Blumenson, predicts that he will be remembered for, among other things, his \"superb work as combat trainer and commander.\" In 1948 he succeeded Gen.. Eisenhower as Chief of Staff of the Army, holding that post until August 1949, when he became the first chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He was promoted to general of the army in Sept. 1950. In 1951 he published \" A Soldier's Story \", a memoir, and in August 1953 he retired. He served as Chairman of the Board of the Bulova Watch Company in 1958. He was a Soldier's soldier, and a good general. Look for more later.\nBrooks, Edward Hale, Lt. Gen.: (25 April 1893 to 10 Oct.1978) Edward Hale Brooks was born on 25 April 1893 in Concord, NH. His father, Edward Waite Brooks, was a salesman. His mother was the former Mary Frances Hale. Ted Brooks had three sisters, Harriet, Gretchen and Alice Brooks. Both Gretchen and Alice died in their infancy. He was graduated from Concord (NH) High School, after which he attended Norwich University (The Military College of New England) in Northfield, VT., graduating in 1916 with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering. He later also received a master's degree from Norwich University and an honorary doctoral degree in military science from Pennsylvania Military College.\nHe began his military career in June 1915 as a Captain with the 1st Cavalry of the Vermont National Guard. During WW1, he served with the 3rd Division in five major engagements. He was first a Battery Commander in the 76th FA and later assistant G-3 of the 3rd FA Brigade. During the Meuse-Argonne campaign, he earned a Distinguished Service Cross when he \"... exposed himself to heavy and accurate artillery fire directed on an ammunition train while driving a loaded ammunition truck to safety, the driver of which had been killed by enemy fire.\" He was in the Army of Occupation in Europe until Aug. 1919. Gen. Brooks was a member of the 3rd Div. football team. In 1921, at the American Legion Convention in Kansas City, he captained the Army team that defeated Great Lakes Naval Training Station 20-6. Served as a Gunnery instructor at Ft. Sill, OK, from 1922 to 1926, then was in the Philippines for two years where he had command of Battery D of the 24th Field Artillery, a pack mule outfit. He was then transferred to Ft. Riley, KS, served there 1928 to 1932. There his artillery battery, a horse drawn outfit, was the first to complete a 100 mile forced march in less than 24 hours. It was an accomplishment produced by vigorous training of both men and animals. 1932-1934 attended Command and General Staff school at Ft. Leavenworth, KS, then to Harvard University as ROTC instructor from 1934 to 1936. Attended War College 1936-1937 and was detailed as an instructor in the attack section of the Command and General Staff School.\nGen. Brooks was chief of the statistics branch of the old War Department General Staff from 1939 to 1941 where he was closely associated with Gen. Marshall and Secretary Stimpson. By this time he had risen to the rank of LTC. In September 1941, Gen. Jacob L. Devers requested that Gen. Brooks be named to the staff of the new armored force being formed at Ft. Knox, Ky. With this came promotion to Brigadier General. Consequently, he never wore eagles! In 1942 he was promoted once again to Major General. In this capacity he played a major in development of the M-7 self-propelled artillery piece and the M-8, assault gun, both potent forces in armored tactics.\nFrom 1942 he was commander of the 11th Armored Division until 1944, when he was sent to England to take command of the 2nd Armored Division (\"Hell on Wheels\") and led that elite unit into Normandy. The division was prominent in the break-through at St. Lo, crossed the Rhine, and was said to be the first Allied division to enter Belgium. Gen. Brooks contributed, in particular, his skills in artillery coordination to the division. Gen. Brooks was awarded a Silver Star for repeatedly attacking enemy positions along his line and for the rapid commitment of his division against the enemy. He was cited for \" personal gallantry and leadership.\" Later in the war he rose to the command of the VI Corps and its nearly 150,000 men. Accepting the surrender of the German 19th Army during this time (two days before V-E day) was what he considered to be one of his greatest achievements. It was shortly thereafter when one of his deepest personal tragedies occurred, the death of his son, Maj. Edward Hale Brooks, Jr. (USMA Jan 1943), in an airplane crash in Germany after the war had ended. This left him with his wife, Bea, his daughter, Betty, and her husband, R. Potter Campbell, Jr. (USMA 1941).\nIn 1949 Gen. Brooks was promoted to LTG when he was named assistant chief of staff for personnel (G-1). He then served as commanding general of the 2nd Army at Fort Meade, MD from 1951 until he retired from active service in 1953. He lived another blissful 25 years in Concord, NH, dedicated to his family and hobbies of fishing and gardening. ( The following paragraph is an excerpt from his eulogy as written and presented by Gen. Charles D. Palmer.) \"He was an exceptional and courageous leader who inspired confidence, demanded much of his subordinates but gave more of himself, was very strict but fair, never sought personal power and glory. He pushed forward deserving subordinates, but never pushed forward himself, was very modest and very human. Subordinates sometimes referred to him as a \"lucky general\" not meaning that he himself was lucky but that he was lucky for them - such was their confidence that he and they would succeed.\" Gen. Brooks was known as \"standing Eddie\" for his unusual habit of standing up in his jeep as he reviewed the troops so he could better see them. He even had a special railing welded into the jeep to hold onto for this purpose. An example of his legendary fairness is the story of his hiking 20 miles himself in full pack in order to set a reasonable time in which to expect his troops to complete it. He was much beloved and respected by his family. He taught his grandchildren and great-grandchildren to fish and camp, he cared about and was beloved by all the children of our family. A finer man and role-model we couldn't have asked for. Apparently his comrades felt likewise, for his walls were lined with signed pictures from the likes of Eisenhower, Churchill, Montgomery, Bradley and others voicing their respect for the \"great warrior\". He was the man we called \"the General\", \"the old Indian fighter\", and \"standing Eddie\". His grandchildren and great-grandchildren just called him Daddy-Pop, and we were all the better for having known him. The above was written by: \" Ted Kempster , great-grandson of Gen. Ted Brooks\".\nCollier, John H. Gen.: ( Died 1980 ) In 1941 Lt. Col. Collier was Commanding Officer of the 3rd Battalion 66th Armored Regiment. In 1942 he had already moved up to the grade of general. He landed in Casablanca on Christmas Day 1942. Gen. Collier would become Commanding Officer of CC \"A\" shortly after the Germans were driven out of Kasserine Pass. Gen.Collier goes into Caretan with CC\"A\" , joined with the 101st Airborne Div. and assaulted the 17th Panzer Div... Gen. Collier and his main CC\"A\" assault force crossed into Belgium just 11 minutes behind the scout section of \"A\" Co. 82nd Reconnaissance. He would take command of the 2nd Armored Div. in July 1945, relieving Gen. I.D. White. Gen. Collier was a good General. (he was know as \"Pee Wee\", with affection.) more later.\nMr. Arthur F. Colligan returns to grave of friend buried in Henri Chappelle, Belgium\nColligan, Arthur F. . This is a translation of the article of the daily paper \"De Limburger\" in Holland referring to De Limburger June 16th 1999 World War Two veteran finds peace at grave of his comrade. The American Sergeant Arthur Colligan (81) lost on the 8th of October 1944 his best friend Philip Bylewski during a tank battle. Almost 55 years after WW 2, he got at long last the chance to visit in Henri Chapelle the grave of his deceased comrade. Story by Peter van den Berg. Henri Chapelle: Standing lined up looks Arthur Colligan at the thousands of marble crosses on the American Cemetery at Henri Chapelle. For a moment the 81 year old robust man gets emotional. After that the former tank commander wants just one thing. He can't wait to step on the just cut lawn. Searching for Philip Bylewski. With a crumpled piece of paper in his hand Colligan walks the gravel walk. Section F, row 8, grave 61. There must Phil be buried, he whispers almost unintelligible. Arthur stands a few seconds at each grave he passes. As a token of respect for his killed colleagues. When Colligan at last stands eye to eye at the grave of Philip Bylewski, it's for him impossible to say something for a couple of minutes. Arthur Colligan says a prayer and crosses o.s. Full with love he puts his hand on the white cross. He wants to touch his best friend for a while. I've been waiting for this moment for 55 years. It was my duty to return to Europe to see the grave of Philip. He's laying here so beautiful. This is a peaceful place. It's giving me peace, that at last I can say goodbye in a dignified way. He deserved it. \"His thoughts are going back to the 8 th of October 1944, the day Philip Bylewski got killed, at the age of 25, by shell-fire. It seemed that Philip felt that he was going to die. The day before, he went suddenly to church, to pray. Philip was a religious man. He must have felt that something very serious was going to happen. Sergeant Arthur Colligan saw Philip Bylewski dying for his eyes during a tank battle at the German place Baesweiler. He himself got very heavy injured. He lost one eye and his right hand was shattered. The loss of Philip did more to me than my own injuries. I knew Philip from the beginning of the war. Four years we spent each hour together. He was my buddy. Of the 117 soldiers of my company 15 men returned alive to the US after the war. I was one of the lucky few, but it cost me years to work up mental the death of Philip. \"The visit of the Belgian Cemetery is for Arthur Colligan (81) the highlight of his trip to Holland. For two weeks he stays in Limburg on invitation of Gerard Boumans (72) from Linne.Boumans lived during the war in Oirsbeek. As a 17 year old teenager he met the American soldier, after the village was liberated by the tank regiment \"Hell on Wheels\". I've met Art on the 18th of Sept. 1944. The tanks stood close by our house, hidden for German planes, in the orchard. He gave me his address. One way of another I felt myself strongly connected to those boys. I saw the frightened glance in their eyes. Those soldiers knew they were going to meet death. For 48 years Gerard Boumans did nothing with the address of Colligan. I saw the piece of paper off and on in a drawer, but I had my own family and pursuits. It didn't have the time to contact him. After Boumans realized that he was getting older, he got the feeling, that he wanted to know if Arthur Colligan was still alive. By an acquaintance in the US, he got to know the residence of the former sergeant. An intensive correspondence followed. Last year Boumans visited his liberator in Beaver Dam, a little town of 14.000 inhabitant, in the state of Wisconsin. He invited Colligan directly to come to the Netherlands. Boumans took him the last few days to all the places he had been 55 years ago. The environs have changed. I can remember a few things, says Arthur Colligan. The church towers in the villages, give me back horrible memories. The were used by German snipers to shoot at us. While Arthur Colligan walks between the crosses, he notices that in 55 years after the Second World War less has changed. If I see what happens in Kosovo, I get tears in my eyes. Hitler was a dictator. Now they have an other name, Milosevic or Saddam Hussein, it doesn't make the difference. I approve the way they deal with them. What we have gone through, may never return. This is the whole article. Sincerely Henk Smid \nCox, Landon Greaud : (Colonel, US Army Retired), 86, died August 30 at his home in Gaithersburg, Maryland. He was born in New Orleans, Louisiana; graduated from the University of Kentucky in 1936; and began his military career with the Kentucky National Guard. During World War II, he commanded a tank battalion in General Patton's 2nd Armored Division \"Hell on Wheels\" in North Africa, Sicily, and France. Among his many awards, Colonel Cox received two Silver Stars, a Bronze Star, and a Purple Heart. Postwar Assignments included duty in Germany, Japan and Washington, D.C. He was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. \nHarmon, Ernest Nason :(\"Gravel Voice\", General) : (26 Feb1894 to 1979) Born in Lowell, Ma., he grew up there and in West Newbury, Vt. He attended Norwich University for a year then entered West Point, graduating from there in 1917 receiving a commission in the cavalry. He was promoted to first lieutenant in May 1917, and then to temporary captain in Aug., being sent on to France in March 1918. He saw action in the St. Mihiel and Muese-Argonne operations. He was promoted to permanent captain in Aug. 1920, an graduated from the Cavalry School, Ft. Riley, Kansas in 1921. He also competed in the Paris Olympics in 1924, in the modern pentathlon. Then was an instructor at West Point until 1925. From 1927 to 1931 he taught military tactics at Norwich University. He went on to graduate from the Command and General Staff School at Ft. Leavenworth, Ks. and being promoted to major in Nov,1932. He graduated from the Army War College in 1934, and from 1935 to 1939 was attached to the General Staff. In 1940 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and named assistant chief of staff of the I Armored Corps. It was a newly organized corps and Gen. Adna R. Chaffee was heading this force at Ft. Knox, Ky. In Nov. 1941 he was appointed a temporary brigadier general and became chief of staff of the Armed Forces Hdq. In July of 1942 he took command of the 2nd Armored Div.. and advanced in rank to temporary major general the following month.\nHe led an advance part of the 2nd Armored Division in the landing in French Morocco in November 1942 and then on into Tunisia. April of 1943 took command of the 1st Armored Div. and was assigned to the VI Corp's, which was under the command of Gen. John P. Lucas. On 9 Sept. 1943 took part in the landing as a part of Gen. Mark Clark's 5th Army at Salerno and Paestum, Italy. In Jan. 1944 the 1st moved to the beachhead at Anzio under the VI Corp's and in May 1944 led the breakout to form the beachhead. The 1st Armored was the first division to cross the Tiber River, then on to Rome, Italy and beyond. Covering over 200 miles in 5 days. July of 1944 Gen. Harmon was transferred to command the VIII Corp's at Camp Bowie, Texas. He then returned to the 2nd Armored Div. in Belgium, Sept. 1944. The 2nd was assigned to Gen. Courtney H. Hodge's First Army and then to Gen. William H. Simpson's First Army which included the 2nd Armored Div. which broke through the Siegfried Line at Aachen, Germany in October. During the months of Oct. and Nov. 1944 was the one of the 2nd Armored Divs. most difficult times, as they were engaged in one of the most bitter fought tank battles on the western front. Gen. Harmon showed extraordinary perception of what enemy movements might mean and the ability to make immediate adjustments in the alignment of his available units to out maneuver the German panzer divisions, along with their infantry. At times having other units that were not attached the 2nd Armored to assist him, and some just simply refused, others would help him. Then in late at night at 2350 on 21 December of 1944 the 2nd Armored Division was ordered to travel overnight from the Aachen area to take up position in the Ardennes Offensive. The division traveled over 100 miles to then gather in the vicinity of Huy, Belgium, to assemble. Gen. Harmon again took to the offensive in an attempt to push the Germans back and to meet them on his terms. Fighting in freezing cold weather with snow ( and insufficient winter gear ) on the ground most of the time the Ardennes Offensive was a very hard struggle for the 2nd Armored Div.. With decisive bold armored tactics and movements he was able to block the enemy's advance and gain ground while doing so. Then later in January 1945 he was named Commander of the XX11 Corps which in April 1945 had control of the northern part of the Rhine Province. Later at the end of 1945 he briefly commanded the Third Army occupying Czechoslovakia. In February 1946 he took command of the VI Corp's in Germany, which developed into a military police force known as the U.S. Constabulary (was designated this in May 1946). This force was responsible for the entire U.S. occupational zone. He would then be become deputy commander Army Ground Forces in early 1947. Gen. Harmon retired in March 1948. He was named in 1950 as President of Norwich University, and served there until 1965. He retired to Florida in 1970 and wrote a volume of memoirs titled \"Combat Command\". We rate Gen. Harmon as one of the best 2nd Armored Division Commanders.\nHinds, Sidney R., Brig. Gen: Use mouse click on the name to go to site. \nJeffares, Emory L., S/Sgt.: ( 5 March 1922 to 9 Nov. 2000 ) He was born 5 March 1922 to Emory Lee Jeffares and Mary B. Pipper. ( Jeffares ) in Atlanta, Ga. and attended grade school, middle school and high school in Atlanta, Ga. While going to school Emory L. worked in a body shop after school and some Saturdays making one dollar a week. In the summer he would make six dollars a week working 12 hours a day. During this period of time he was learning to be an auto painter. After getting out of school he decided to enlist in the army, and did so on 7 August 1940. He was sent to the 2nd Armored Div., 2nd Reconnaissance Battalion in Ft. Benning, Georgia, this division was just forming. ( later becoming the 82nd Reconnaissance Battalion ) Emory L. was assigned to Company \"A\", 2nd platoon. He was to stay with \"A\" Company, 2nd platoon throughout his army life. He was promoted to Corporal in September 1942, was sent to North Africa in December 1942. In Aug. 1943 was sent to Palermo, Sicily for patrol duty, and occupational duties until November 1943. Then he was transferred to Tidworth Barracks in England for intensive training and to receive new equipment. All of this in preparation for the invasion of France. In Tidworth he was promoted to Sgt. Sgt. Jeffares was still with his unit the Co. \"A\", 2nd platoon, 82nd Reconnaissance Battalion, and with his unit boarded an LST and arrived off the coast of France ( Omaha Beach) on D+2, they couldn't go ashore because of the tide, they had to stay on the British LST until the next day, going ashore on D+3. Sgt. Jeffares would stay as a scout car commander throughout the drive across northern Europe and on into Holland.\nOn the night of 21 Dec. 1944 the entire 2nd Armored Div. was sent overnight, starting at 2300 hrs to Acquier, Belgium traveling with blackout lights on all vehicles. The roads were very bad with slush and much snow on the ground. The 2nd Armored was then at 1000 (10:00 AM) moved to Havelange, Belgium, and immediately committed to action against the Germans. The enemy had made a breakthrough and the 2nd Armored was being rushed to that area to stop the German advance. This was a rough period of time for the 2nd Armored Div., they were not equipped for winter combat fighting, but faced this assignment with determination. It was cold miserable you name it, the worst weather must of us had ever experienced. On 12 Jan. 1945 the company mission was to hold portion of line south of Samree, Belgium and to clear the woods to the east of the line positions. We were to advance in a line Sgt. Jeffares squad on the left. Sgt. Jeffares saw a field telephone hanging over a tree right over the German entrenched position about 200 ft. to the front. The firing from the Germans began just after Sgt..Jeffares noticed this, we suffered several casualties. The left squad took most of the casualties. Tech /5 Isaac Duhon ( was a close friend, his name is also written in this column) and Pfc. John V. McMahon were killed by rifle fire. The following were wounded, Sgt. Emory L. Jeffares, and. Pfc. William M. Polk., Pfc. Oliver Owens, all 2nd platoon. We pulled back, Sgt. Jeffares and Pfc. Owens ended up in England in a hospital.. Sgt. Jeffares then returned to the states and was discharged on 7 August 1945 from the Finney General Hospital at Thomasville, Georgia.\nHe went to work painting automobiles and would marry Miss. Holly Tallman on 18 May 1946. In 1962 he became manager of the body shop where he was working. After a long and happy marriage Mrs. Holly Jeffares passed away 16 Oct.1989 after a long illness.. He retired in 1984, Mr. Emory L. Jeffares now lives in a suburb of Atlanta, Georgia. I once asked Sgt. Jeffares while we were waiting for the St. Lo breakthrough to begin in July 1944, this question, why did he join the Army?, his reply was \" I didn't have anyplace else to go. This was true in some cases, for those that would volunteer around this time, but also they had a sense of patriotism. It was men like Sgt. Emory L. Jeffares that made up the members of the 2nd Armored Division's early on, and under Gen. George Patton became the very best Armored Division that the United States had to offer in WW 2. The men of this great division were ready to offer their lives for their country. We consider these men along with Sgt. Emory L. Jeffares to be true American Hero's. With the information supplied by Emory L. Jeffares, Written and edited by Howard Swonger, Webmaster\nThe following is the story of a family that lost a loved one in World War 11. This is just one, there were many. What more can one give for his country, than to give his life.\nKingery, Pvt. Morris Harold: ( 25 June 1916 to 27 Nov.1944 ) Morris Harold Kingery was born in the small town of Holdenville, Oklahoma. Holdenville is about 80 miles east of Oklahoma City. His parents were Lena and Rannie Kingery. He was their only child. Because of his size, he was called \"Buster\" from the time he was born. His dad worked his whole life for the Frisco Railroad and retired in Holdenville. My dad grew up and went through school in the same town that his maternal grandparents, uncles, aunts and cousins lived, and he had a lot of friends. With great humor, he was a tall curly headed guy that would give anybody help that needed it. He also had some of that Irish temper from his Mother's side. I have been told stories that I thought were an example of his temper and humor. His mother told him he couldn't drive the family car and locked up in the garage. So he drove it through the garage door. I cherish the picture I have of him and his real pretty 1931 Model \"A\" Ford roadster. That was quite the car for a guy in his late teens. He ended up driving it into the Holdenville lake (not on purpose), but he sure was upset. He dated Jimmy Roger's daughter. She got mad at him because he was late for a date one night. She lived in Wewoka, Oklahoma about 8 miles from Holdenville. When he did show up, she started throwing her dad's music records at him and broke a lot of what would become collectable records.\nHe started his work career in sales for a bread company in Holdenville. He moved to Ada, Ok. when he and my mother married. They were both 21 years old in 1937 and had never lived anywhere other than Holdenville. My mother, Lorene (Loftis) Kingery, was raised by her mother and dad, a farmer, furniture store owner and preacher, who wasn't all together sure she should date or marry this big fun loving Irish guy. She had two brothers and one sister. One brother was a good friend of my dad, and they got into a lot of mischief together. So this helped my dad get a date with my mother, and he settled down a lot (or enough to please my grandfather). My dad went to work for a milk company in Ada. He stayed with the milk company for as long as he could but said he was going to have to find something where he didn't break bottles. They took every bottle you broke out of your paycheck. So my parents moved to Oklahoma City where my dad worked for Borden's Milk Company until he joined the army. I was born after they moved to Oklahoma City in November 1939. My mother and I used to go to a park that was right across the street from the Borden's plant, and we met my dad after he got off work. I have memories of him swinging me high in the park swings. He was able to buy a pie route and was really doing well working both jobs. He was a great sales person. We bought a home in Oklahoma City. By then, the war was getting worse, and he joined the army to serve his country as so many others had. We had a real good friend who also owned a pie route in Oklahoma City. He took my dad's business and ran both to keep the business going. \nIn April 1944 at Ft. Sill, Oklahoma, he went for his induction and then to boot camp at Camp Joseph T. Robinson, Ar. Then he went to Camp Meade in Md. where he left in Sept.1944 for overseas. He would be assigned to Company \"G\", 41st Armored Inf. Bn. 2nd Armored Div. His last letter was written 25 November 1944, and mailed from Germany. He was reported KIA ( Killed in Action ) 27 Nov. 1944, Northwest of Merzenhausen, Germany, near the Roer River. Artillery was heavy along this Roer River line. \"C\" Company, 82nd Reconnaissance Bn. would relieve Company \"G\" on 28 November 1944 from this line I was five on 19 November 1944. I remember a uniformed (not sure what kind) man at the front door to our house who informed us of my dad's death. I also remember the decorated Christmas tree in the living room. My dad is buried at Margraten cemetery in Holland. My grandmother could not face the fact he'd been killed and asked my mother to not bring him home that way. She never talked about him. She had lost her only child.\nMy mother never got to visit where my dad is buried, but I have been fortunate enough to visit twice. It is a beautifully cared for resting place, and as Mike Ariano also of the 41st armored infantry Co G said, \"he's with his buddies\". As I was growing up, I had a problem with the fact I didn't understand where he was. It helped a lot to visit the place he had been laid to rest. He left a widow who always said he was the best husband and for which anyone could ever have asked. He left one daughter who is writing this memory in his honor, with all my love. Carla Sue Kingery Holcomb, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma\nLane, Major Robert A.: Born 25 January 1913 -23 August 1944. Robert was born in Marietta, Ohio, graduated from Marietta High School in 1930, and that September entered Ohio State University. Four years later, he graduated from OSU, in June, and in August married LaVerne Shaffer. In Dec.1940 left Fort Meade, MD with Lt. Ralph Luman and others for Fort Benning, Georgia. They were activated and assigned to the 2ndArmored Division. . \n Before the holidays in 1942, he had to say good-bye to LaVerne\nand his children. Lt. Lane stayed with the 2nd Armored Division throughout his service. Far from his wife and family, Bob celebrated his 30th birthday with his 2nd Armored friends in the cork forest, the Foret de Mamora, near Rabat, French Morocco. That Christmas was spent in Morocco was mild compared to the damp, cold \"Merry Olde\" English Christmas at Tidworth Barracks in 1943. Going from Africa to Sicily to England was quite a contrast, to include the intense heat the men experienced during and after the battle for Sicily. Promoted to Major, Bob became the S-2 for Combat Command B, before they sailed into Normandy, June 1944. He advanced through the hedgerows, taking part in the breakthrough at St. Lo, passed the Falaise Gap, to Conches, France. At the forward command post near Conches, France on Wednesday afternoon 23 August he was struck in the back by exploding Nebelwefer ( Commonly known as \"Screaming Meenie\" rockets. ) Major Robert A. Lane is buried at the Normandy American Cemetery at Omaha beach with 134 of his friends in the 2nd Armored Division. Respectfully, Sandra Lane Walker, Robert's daughter. \nMcElwaney, Theron, Sgt.: The story of a remarkable soldier, covering a period of 28 years. One of a group of four soldiers to be the first to enter Belgium in WW II. Serving in the 2nd Armored Div. known as \" Hell On Wheels \". and on into Korea and Vietnam and beyond. Coming soon.\nMcGorman, Frank L.: ( 24 May 1925 to 17 Dec. 1986 ).My brother Frank L.( Bud ) McGorman ( ASN #37571728 ) served in the HQ. 1st Bn., 67th Armored Regiment, 2nd Armored Division. He was injured in battle in Conchies France, August 22, 1944, and remained totally disabled \"shell shock\" until his death. . Frank received the bronze star for meritorious service in action against the enemy on 22 Aug. 1944 in France. \"During this action, in the vicinity of Conches France, the forward artillery observer's tank came into close contact with a large enemy force. Private McGorman, an extra crew member, was riding on the back of the tank when it contacted the enemy. Sensing the vulnerability of his tank to the enemy foot troops, Private McGorman, although exposed to heavy small arms and artillery fire, voluntarily dismounted from the tank and acted as dismounted infantry to protect the tank's flank so that the artillery observer could continue his fire missions. Firing his weapon continuously and inflicting severe casualties on the enemy, Private McGorman, in all probability, saved his tank from a flank or rear attack. By his audacious courage, fine initiative and disregard for himself, acted in the highest traditions of the Military Service. Entered the military service from Minnesota.\" Citation was signed by Major General E. N. Harmon, Office of the Division Commander, APO 252. My brother had also received first degree wounds in a previous battle, and should have received the purple heart for his actions. The records in St. Louis were destroyed by fire, and therefore my brother never got his medal. I tried for years to write everyone that might be able to help, but was unable to succeed. I was a small child when my brother was in the war, but my family always read his letters home and I was proud of him even as a small child. I am still extremely proud of Frank, and have his medal framed in our home. My children also were very proud of their uncle Frank referred to as Bud. My brother was sent to the front lines about the time he should have been graduating from high school. They had an empty seat for him at his graduation. There were so many that did not come back, the ones that did, never regained their place in the life that they left, before going in the service. They paid a high price for freedom, the world changed for them. There is a poem written by his niece, Sandra Shields on the TAPS page along with his obituary.\nMerriam, Wheeler G. BG : ( 15 April 1911-- 12 Feb.1997 ) He was born in North Brookfield, Mass. son of Burr T. and Corinne ( Pease ) Merriam, attended local schools, received a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Maine in 1932, and received a master's degree in education from Harvard University in 1940. Gen. Merriam joined the U.S. Army in 1932 and received a reserve commission as a 2nd Lieutenant in the infantry. He was called to active duty in August 1940 as part of the 82nd Reconnaissance Battalion, and led the 82nd through France, Belgium, Holland, Germany.. His was the first U.S. Army unit to encounter Soviet troops at the Elbe river in Germany, which ended the advance of the U. S. forces in Europe in World War 11. Col. Merriam as we knew him was affectionately referred to as \" Mother Merriam \", he seemed to always be looking out for our welfare, always wanted to be sure that we were as safe as we could be, which was a hard job in combat. Hassselt, Belgium has just named a street after him. He was a good commanding officer of the 82nd. He was a World War 11 hero to everyone and to the men that served under him. After the war, he headed the general instruction department of the Cavalry School at Ft. Riley, KS. In 1947, he entered the Army's Command and General Staff College at Ft. Leavenworth, then went to the Army War College. He was promoted to colonel in 1953 and was assigned as secretary to the United Nations Armistice Commission at Panmunjoin, Korea, where he was responsible for administration of the site and planning for the truce negotiations involving the United Nations, North Korea and China. In 1954, Gen. Merriam was promoted to the rank of brigadier general, and in 1964 was assigned to the 3rd Armored Division in Germany as assistant division commander of maneuvers. During his military career, he was awarded the Silver Star with one oak leaf cluster, the Legion of Merit, Bronze Star with two oak leaf clusters, the Croix de Guerre with palm for action in both Belgium and France, the Fouragere Belgium, and Hero of the Soviet Union. Gen. Merriam was a charter member and past president of the 2nd Armored Division Association.\nAfter retiring from the army in 1966, he started a second career in higher education. He moved to Jaffrey and joined Franklin Pierce College in Rindge as dean of students. During his years at Franklin Pierce, he started the counseling department, developed and outing club, and built up the student center. He also helped to convert a campus hillside into a small ski slope. His first wife , Erica L. ( Bauer ) Merriam died 24 Dec. 1985. Survivors include his wife, Dorothy Merriam of Scottsdale, AZ. four daughters, Vreni Merriam, Jacqueling Merriam Paskow, Veet Deha, Erica Elliott, two sons, George and John Merriam, four grandchildren and two great-grandchildren. Col. Merriam was a fine man and a World War 11 hero.\" Its A fact\"\nMontgomery, Bernard, Gen.: (1987-1976) Montgomery's willfulness, egocentricity and arrogance were dominant traits of his character as young officer. Despite this he rose to rank of general and became Commander of the 3rd Division, which he took to France in 1939 and then evacuated from Dunkirk, battered but still intact, in June 1940. He was one of the last officer's to leave the beach at Dunkirk. Then on to command the V and V11 Corps in 1942, chosen to command the Eighth Army in the western desert. He took over an army that had just received an infusion of modern equipment and reinforcements. He was the first British commander to defeat a German force. He did a good job at at El Alamein in Africa. Gen. Montgomery was to close the Falaise Gap, in Aug. 1944, he changed his instructions on what division's were to take the duty five times,. His inconsistency on the Falaise Gap showed his lack of will to make a firm decision on just how he was going to trap the Germans, and not allow them to escape toward the Seine River. The Ardennes Offensive: 1. He wanted to pull back from the Elsenborn Ridge even as the battle was almost won, but bowed to Gen. Hodges objection. 2. He wanted to pull back immediately from St.Vith, which would have afforded the Germans early use of a vital road network but bowed to Gen. Hodges objection. Hodges had already specified that that decision was to be made by the man on the ground, Hasbrouck. 3. He ordered the 82nd Airborne Div. to withdraw from the Salm River to Trois Ponts-Manhay line, but Ridgeway had already directed Gen. Gavin to prepare for such a withdrawal. 4. He ordered relinquishing the Manhay crossroads, but in recognition that opened another route of the Germans to the Ourthe River, Hodges ordered the crossroads to be retaken. 5. He ordered Joe Collins to assemble for an attack, but when most of Collins force became involved in the defensive battle, authorized withdrawal. Collins attacked instead and stopped the Germans short of the Meuse. 6. When it came to reducing the bulge, he used great skill and less tact. Montgomery moved so slowly-however \"surely\"--that the Germans were able to regroup undisturbed by the First Army for new assaults on Bastogne. 7. Every division of the Ninth Army that was sent to the Ardennes, was sent before Montgomery assumed command. Later Gen. Montgomery requested that the 2nd Armored be sent to the Ardennes 14 Offensive. On 12 Sept. 1944, General Harmon took command of the division and by Oct. 1944 we had crossed the Meuse River, pierced the Siegfried Line, and were in the vicinity of Eubach, Germany, where we were ordered to halt. We were having great difficulty getting gasoline to run our vehicles. What we did not know was that all of our gas supply had been diverted to the big mistake called the Market Garden operation which Montgomery was running in the northern part of Holland, he was trying to capture all of the bridges before the Germans blew them up. This operation not only drained all of our supplies, but all of Patton's and the First Army and our own Ninth Army to which we had been transferred. We also lost more men that we had lost on D-Day, and we accomplished nothing. Because of this fiasco in Northern Holland we were forced to remain inactive for about five weeks. When the war ended he was selected to accept the surrender of the Germans in the Northern region of Europe. After he war he was the Chief of the Imperial General Staff and Deputy Supreme Allied Commander of Europe.\nPatton Jr., George Smith, (General, \"Blood and Guts\"):(11 Nov. 1885 to 21 Dec. 1945) Born in San Gabriel, California, Patton then spent one year at Virginia Military Institute, while there he decided to obtain a commission in the army. Patton was commissioned in the cavalry after his 1909 graduating from the US Military Academy. He gained a reputation for his ability, energy, marksmanship, and superb horsemanship in his early years.. Patton was a pioneer in many areas. In 1912 he represented the United States Military and was the first American to compete in the Modern Pentathlon, an event stressing horsemanship, in the Olympic Games held in Stockholm, Sweden. Immediately after the he attended the French Cavalry school in Samur, France. He wrote the Army Manuel on the Saber, while he was at Ft. Riley, Kansas while serving there as an instructor in the mounted Service School. Patton was promoted to captain in 1917, after participating in General John L. Pershing's Punitive Expedition into Mexico.( trying to hunt down Pancho Villa in 1916). Following his promotion, he joined Gen. Pershing's staff in the American Expeditionary Force in May 1917, and was sent to France. By that time a temporary lieutenant colonel ( Note later reverted to captain at Ft. Meade, Maryland ) in World War I, He became the first member of the Tank Corps and organized the First American Tank Training Center at Langres, France. Patton organized and commanded the 304th Tank Brigade during the St. Mihiel and the Meuse Argonne offensive. This was one of two battalion which provided the bulk of the officers and men of the \"old 66th\". In an engagement, General Patton led his battalion into action seated atop the turret of a two-man Renault tank. A knee wound suffered in a previous action prevented him from getting inside. The tank punched through the enemy & fixed position but the infantry given the mission of following the tanks in close support, had fallen too far behind, General Patton personally went back, located the troops, gave them a sample of his choice of words and brought them up to take over the ground his tanks had over run. He received the Distinguished Service Cross and the Purple Heart during the Meuse Offensive.\nAfter the war he returned to the United States and was reverted from temporary colonel to captain and then in 1919 he was promoted to Major and commanded the 304th Tank Bn. at Ft. Meade, Maryland. Over the next 20 years served with the 3rd Cav. at Ft. Myer, Virginia, two tours in Hawaii and was in the office of the Chief of Cavalry in 1928-31. Graduated from the Cavalry School, Ft. Riley, Kansas in 1923. Graduated from the Command and General Staff School, Ft. Leavenworth in 1924, Army War College in 1932. Was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1934, and then to colonel in 1937. From December 1938 to July 1940 commanded the 3rd Cavalry at Ft. Myers, Virginia. Then was assigned to the 2nd Armored in Ft. Benning Georgia. He advanced to temporary brigadier general in Oct. 1940, in April 1941 he became the divisional commander with the temporary rank of major general. There and later at the army's Desert Training Center ( which he commanded during April-August 1942 ) on the California-Arizona border he molded the 2nd, and from Jan. 1942 the I Armored Corps into a highly efficient force.\nGen. Patton headed the Western Task Force to take part in the North African campaign in November 1942. Took command of the II Corps in Tunisia in March 1943 becoming lieutenant general in April. He did a great job in restoring discipline and morale, and making them ready for combat in the II Corps. Was in on the invasion of Sicily, this would be code named \"Operation Husky\". During the days before the invasion of Sicily Gen. Patton was going by a group of men trying to float a bridge into the shore near Arzew from an LST. Some of the men were falling off into the water, and they seemed to be enjoying it, Gen. Patton seeing that the platoon leader an officer was the only dry man in the platoon, ordered him into the water. He told the officer that if his men are dripping wet he should be too. Later would become involved incident of the slapping of a hospitalized soldier whom he suspected of malingering. He was reprimanded by General Eisenhower, and unduly criticized in the press. We have to remember that at that time the understanding of combat fatigue and stress related to combat action was not fully understood as it is today. He did later apologize. As a result of this his promotion to a higher rank was held up for several months. Early in November 1944 he was ordered to England to take command of the Third Army.\nGen. George S. Patton Jr., known as \"Old Blood and Guts\" was one of the most colorful commanders in the US Army. The famed commander of the Third Army during World War II displayed courage and daring as prominently as the pair of ivory handled revolvers he wore. In the early part of World War II, Patton played a major role in the North Africa and Sicily Campaigns. But he is best remembered for his command of the Third Army during its drive across France. The Third Army pushed through the German defenses and captured thousands of prisoners before being forced to stop, due to a lack of logistical support, at the Seine and Meuse Rivers. Gen.Patton accomplished one of the most remarkable feats in military history in December 1944, when he quickly turned the Third Army northward to reinforce the Allied southern flank against the German attack in the Battle of the Bulge. (Ardennes Offensive) In Dec. 1944 poised on the Saar, he executed one of the most remarkable pieces of staff work and field maneuver in military history by quickly turning the Third Army northward to shore up the Allied southern flank against the German Ardennes Offensive, known also as \" The Battle of the Bulge ).The Third Army's 4th Armored Division, spearheaded by Creighton Abrams 37th Tank Battalion, rescued and relieved the \"Battered Bastards of Bastogne,\" the 101 Airborne Division. General Patton would review his beloved 2nd Armored Division one more time in July of 1945 in Berlin, Germany. And yes, he was wearing his famous pistols, he stood out as an impressive figure. The 82nd Reconnaissance, as a part of the 2nd Armored Division stood for this review, as he passed by in a half-track. This was a moment in history for all of us in the 2nd Armored Division. He was a great general.\nGeneral Patton's doctrines for aggressive employment of massive Armor forces continue to prove themselves in combat areas around the world. The members of the 2nd Armored Division credit the intense training and the readiness that Gen. Patton required of his troops as the reason that the they suffered less casualties than other armored divisions. Even with much more combat time in action. The 2nd Armored Division was best trained armored division in World War 2. He was a \"spit and polish soldier\" he became on of the most brilliant decisive and aggressive military commanders in American History. After the war his public criticisms of the post-war denazification program in occupied Germany, based on apprehensions of Communist takeovers in Europe, led to his being transferred in Oct. 1945 from command of the Third Army and the military governorship of Bavaria to a largely paper Fifteenth Army. In this post he was president of Theater General Board, organized to study the European campaign. In November replaced Gen. Eisenhower as commander of US Forces in Europe. After only two weeks in this position as a result of a car accident he passed away on 21 Dec. 1945 in Heidleberg, Germany. At his own request, he is buried alongside fallen comrades in the American Cemetery at Hamm, Luxembourg. General Patton no doubt at times was over anxious to move his troops forward, when it was best for him to slow down. ( so everybody else could catch up ) He was the ultimate soldier, his understanding of war and how to conquer the enemy was outstanding, there was none better. General Patton was dedicated, devout, profane, flamboyant and sometimes controversial. He was a man for this time and a true American Hero.\nRose, Maurice, General: (26 Nov. 1899 to 30 March 1945) General Maurice Rose was born in Connecticut. He joined the army in 1916, served on the Mexican border with the Colorado National Guard as a private. In 1917, attended the first Officers Training Course at Fort Riley, Kansas and was commissioned in the infantry. Went to France in 1918 with the 353rd Infantry Regiment, then with the 89th Division at St. Mihiel, where he was wounded. After recovery was assigned to the 129th Infantry, 33rd Div. remained with it through the Meuse-Argonne offensive. Then rejoined the 89th Div. in Germany. After a year in civilian life following the war returned to the regular army, serving at various posts for the succeeding six years. Later, he was assistant professor of military science and tactics at Kansas State College. In 1930, transferred to, attended the Cavalry School, served with the 8th Cavalry as a Troop Commander. He was Post Executive at Corozal, Canal Zone, and a Troop Commander in the 6th Cavalry. He attended the Command and General Staff School in 1936-37. For the next three years he was instructor of the 103rd Pennsylvania National Guard. In 1939 joined the Armored Force with the 13th Armored Regiment, and later moved to the 1st Armored Brigade.\nGen. Rose became Chief of Staff of the 2nd Armored Div., in January-Feb. 1942 for a short period of time. Then in late Feb. as a Colonel was assigned as a Chief of Staff of the 1st Armored Div. while in the Kasserine Pass area in Africa. General Rose was in the drive to retake Kasserine Pass, and he stuck it out at an advance observation post despite heavy enemy fire. The battling in Bizerte, Africa permitted no lull for negotiations for surrender. Then with the rank of colonel, General Rose took a vehicle through enemy lines to a German command post and arranged for the capitulation of the 15th Panzer Division. Except for a brief duty with the 2nd Armored in February and March 1942, served with the 1st Armored until the German capitulation in North Africa. In Sicily while the tanks of his command attacked the town of Canicatti, Sicily on the third day of the invasion, he pushed ahead to arrange for the town's surrender. German artillery opened fire on the General's jeep (Peep), General Rose and then Col. Sidney Hinds spent a precarious 20 minutes reaching the safety of a defiled position where he waited until his tanks came up. In May 1943, returned as Commander of Combat Command \"A,\" which the 2nd Armored Div. was part of, was promoted to brigadier general. He served in that capacity until he was given command of 3rd Armored Div. on 6 Aug.1944 in France. General Maurice Rose was killed outside of Hamborn, Germany, 30 March 1945 while leading a column of the 3rd Armored. He was a tough, strict soldier, harsh at times, but a man with a dash and daring who won the admiration of his men. He was not afraid to go to the front of the column. He started at the bottom and was able to achieve all of the above, he was a real World War 11 hero. His wife was Miss. Virginia Barringer. They have a son Maurice Roderick Rose, born Jan. 1941. .General Maurice Rose had two (2) sons -- both named Maurice, as the result of two (2) marriages. The first to Venice Hanson and the second to Virginia Barringer. The first son. Maurice Rose retired from the US Marine Corps after 31 years of active duty as a Colonel. The second son named Maurice Roderick Rose is named after General Roderick Allen. Both are alive today. Read the article that Don R. Marsh authored that appeared in the 2AD 2004 Bulletin of how he located General Rose's two \"missing sons.\nSmith, Harold D., Capt.: (14 May 1916 to 13 Sept. 1944). Harold D. Smith was born in Stillwater, Oklahoma. He attended A&M College in Tucson, Arizona, and was inducted into the army at Fort Bliss, Texas, 2 Feb. 1941. He participated in the Louisiana maneuvers held from 9 Aug. 1941 to 3 Oct. 1941. Then he attended Officer Candidate School at Fort Knox, Kentucky, where he received his commission in Jan.1942. He served under General Patton in Africa and Sicily. Captain Smith, as a 1st Lieutenant, landed in North Africa on 8 Nov. 1942. Lt. Smith was assigned to the 1st Armored Div. at Maknassy (was connected to the battle for Kasserine Pass) which was slightly north east of El Guettar, and south east of Kasserine Pass in Tunisia. He moved directly into action with \"B\" Co., 13th A.R. in an observer capacity. His post was on the southern section of the battle of Kasserine Pass in March 1943. Also served as Liaison Officer to the 2nd Battalion of the 18th Inf. at Beja. Lt. Smith earned a commendation during this and subsequent actions, and was commended for \"his calmness and courage under the most dangerous situations, which served as an inspiration to all with whom he came in contact.\" The commendation goes on to read:\n\"In the actions near Beja he was assigned as Liaison Officer to the 2nd Battalion of the 18th Infantry. In this capacity, he performed his job in a superior manner with utter disregard for his own safety, and his timely information contributed greatly to the success of the operation. Later, he volunteered to command a platoon going into action when all the platoon officers in that particular Company had been killed. Once again he proved himself to be a officer of courage and skill who quickly gained the support of his men. Such actions on the part of an assigned observer I deem highly commendable and deserving of recognition.\" /s/ F.F. Carr, Lt. Col. U.S.A. Commanding.\nLt. Smith went through the Sicilian Campaign, and arrived in Tidworth Barracks in England as a member of the 2nd Armored Division in Dec.1943. Lt. Smith participated in the Normandy landing and then the breakthrough at St. Lo on 27 July 1944. He was awarded the Silver Star for gallantry in action while serving in France, was awarded three medals by the French Government. During the European action he was a member of the 2nd Armored Div.. Capt. Harold D. Smith served under Gen. Edward H. Brooks and Gen. Ernest N. Harmon.\nOn 2 Aug.1944, Reconnaissance. Co., 67th A.R. led off as the Combat Command \"B\", with Capt. Smith as Commanding Officer, moving to block the escape routes into the interior of France of the German Seventh Army elements. In the action near St. Sever Calvados, all platoons were involved in the first contact by the Combat Command \"B\". The first supported an attack of the 28th Inf. on a hill near the Vire highway while the third, supported by the mortars of the first and third under 1st Sergeant Lee, took a hill from which there had been a good deal of enemy fire. Both platoons advanced toward a strong enemy position with a platoon of mediums from \"D\" Company attached, and were met by fierce enemy fire of all kinds, direct artillery, mortar, bazooka, and small arms. They could not retain the position. In the withdrawing, Capt. Smith, working in a defile in the center of many of the wounded, lifted them to the back of the armored cars before they moved out. Tank and infantry casualties were higher than those of the Company. Seiler was killed and Sgt. Mosco and Cpl. Fee were injured. Capt. Smith and Sgt. William J. Huffman were the last to leave the scene, and they surprised the Company by getting out safely at all. Capt. Smith was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his heroism in this action. The reconnaissance objection of the action was reached in the next days by the third platoon when it made contact with the 3rd Armored Div. and passed through their outposts along the route, which was followed by the combat command in its flanking movement to Barenton. The advance drew to a halt in the Marchioness area for lack of gas. The Executive's half-track was completely dry at the main crossroads of Marchioness; gas was borrowed from the division G-3 to move it to the Company assembly area at Landaus. Before assembling at Landaus on 3 Sept. 1944 the First had had a patrol into Belgium. Capt. Smith�s car captured the division commander during that fast moving time.\nThree days were passed here, and they were the days of highest optimism. The Company received orders that carried to the Siegfried Line. Capt. Smith, who had never before expressed high hopes, told the Company that he hoped and expected the next formation to be after victory. The captured aviation gas was issued and the Belgian border was crossed. 1st Inf. and 3rd Armored Div. positions were passed through at Mons and two days spent at Ulbeek. For the first time the command post was indoors. The Company moved out of Ulbeek on Capt. Smith's own order and went up to Beverat where the artillery was in position without protection. While the Division was lined up on the Albert Canal and the Maas (Meuse) River, the Company reconnoitered for bridges and possible bridge sights and protected the approaches from the far side.\nOn 13 Sept. 1944, Capt. Smith led a reconnaissance patrol toward the bank of the Albert Canal, observed an artillery mission on enemy across the Canal, and was hit in the heart by a sniper round. He died almost instantly. He was awarded the Purple Heart, and is interred in Henri-Chapelle U.S. Military Cemetery, Belgium.. Captain Harold D. Smith was a leader of men and an inspiration to the men in his Company. He was a World War II hero. Written by: His niece Ms. Barbara Denny, for the WWW@ site of the http://www.2ndarmoredhellonwheels.com\nSorensen Sr, Ernest G., PFC. :( 23 April 1929 - 2 Nov. 1995 ). Ernest G. Sorensen was born in Archer, Iowa. He entered the army around 1961, and was stationed at Ft. Hood Texas for a while and then participated in the \"Operation Big Lift\". This was to supply food and supplies that were needed by the people of Berlin, Germany to survive the Soviet blockade of that city during the Cold War. He and other soldiers stood at attention for hours on the Tarmac at Templehof Airport in Berlin, Germany the day that President Kennedy was assassinated. Later on returning to Ft. Hood, Texas, he repaired and drove tanks. He was a member of the 2nd Armored Division while there.\nAfter leaving the military and going to back to Oklahoma to live as a civilian he became active in re-enactment's of the American Civil War and founder of The First Wright County Light Artillery. He was a skilled machinist who built a full size 3 inch Ordnance Rifle and a Mountain Howitzer, both from copies of the original blue prints from the 1860's. He christened the Ordnance Rifle 'Hell on Wheels' on 11 Aug. 1984 and went on to win many local and national contests for accuracy as well as participating in battle re-enactment's and historical presentations in cooperation with the regional Historical Societies. He was also a skilled gunsmith, a collector of antique weapons, and a recognized as an authority on building and maintaining replica artillery pieces. He continued to be an active participant even after and accident caused him the loss of his left leg. This loss lent itself to his playing the role of' a \" battlefield casualty \", and with the help of a another gentleman portraying a doctor, he was the victim of many mock amputations to the horror and delight of the spectators. He was buried in the uniform of a 2nd Lieutenant of the Artillery of the Grand Army of the Republic, with full military honors befitting an officer of that time. Including an Honor Guard and a 21 gun salute. He is sadly missed and will be long remembered by his friends and family. Every life has a story and all to many of them are lost to the ages.\nWalker, Walton Harris, Gen.: Biography, World War 11, Korean.\nWhite, Issac D. (I.D) Gen.: (6 Mar.1901 to 11 June 1990) General I.D. White was born at Peterborough, New Hampshire, 6 Mar. 1901. He was the son of MG and Mrs. Daniel M. White. He attended grade school and high school there before graduating from Norwich University at Northfield, Vermont with honors in 1922. Appointed a 2nd Lt. of the cavalry in the Officer's Reserve Corps after graduation he was commissioned in the same branch of the Regular Army 5 Feb. 1923. Domestic posts included Ft. Des Moines, Iowa, Ft. Riley, Kansas, Fort Ethan Allen, Vermont, and Ft Knox, Ky. In 1932, he was on duty with the American Gold Star Pilgrimage in Paris, France. General White was one of the pioneers of the early armored doctrine that evolved in the period from 1917 to 1940, along with General Sidney Hinds.\nCol. White was an instructor in the Cavalry School, Ft. Riley, Kansas in 1937, attended the Command and General Staff School at Ft Leavenworth, Kansas, in July, 1940, was ordered to Ft Benning, Georgia, to organize and command the 2nd Reconnaissance Battalion of the 2nd Armored Division. January 1941 he was under Gen. Patton at Ft Benning and was instructed to train his 2nd Reconnaissance Battalion in the art of successful scouting and patrolling and to be able to do this in advance of a large armored column. In June 1942, Col. White was assigned as Regimental Commander of the 67th Armored Regiment. It was with elements of this group that he invaded Africa, at Safi, French Morocco, on 8 November 1942. After the landings in Africa he was given command of the divisions Combat Command \"B\" and directed that unit, landing at Gela, Sicily on 10 July 1943 and continued the campaign through out the Sicily. The success of this campaign was due in part to his \"development of new training techniques and methods of amphibious operations involving armored units\" and for having trained his Regiment \"to a high state of combat efficiency\". It also showed that his successes in repulsing the strong enemy attack which threatened a beachhead in the Sicilian campaign and his flanking attack which aided in the capture of Palermo. General Harmon had General White headed two tasks forces under the Combat Command \"B\" during the Ardennes Offensive. He would become Commanding General of the 2nd Armored Division from 19 January 1945 to 8 June 1945. He was commandant of the Cavalry School at Ft. Riley, Kansas from July 1945 to Dec. 1946. Dec. 1946 through May 1948 commanding general U.S. Constabulary in Germany. May 1948 through Nov. 1950 Commandant of the Armored School and commanding general of the Armored Center, Aug. 1951 through Aug. l1952. He subsequently commanded X Corps in Korea in Aug. 1952 through Sept.1953, Fourth Army, Ft. Sam Houston, Sept. 1953 through June 1955 Army Forces, Far East; and Eighth Army , Korea ( July 1955-June 1957 ) and from July 1957 until retirement in 1961 , General White was Commander in Chief , U.S. Army Pacific. More later on this outstanding officer.",
"HyperWar: The Supreme Command (ETO) [Biographical Sketches]\nBiographical Sketches *\nBRIG. GEN. FRANK A. ALLEN, JR. served as chief of the Pictorial and Radio Branch of the Bureau of Public Relations, War Department, from February to August 1941. From August 1941 to June 1943 he held various command assignments in the United States with the 1st, 5th, and 9th Armored Divisions. In June 1943 he assumed command of one of the 1st Armored Division�s combat commands in North Africa. Later, in Italy, he headed Task Force Allen, which was organized by II Corps. In July 1944 he was appointed G-2 of the 6th Army Group. He came from that post in September 1944 to SHAEF as chief of the Public Relations Division.\nGENERAL OF THE ARMY HENRY H. ARNOLD, one of the first Army fliers, was a pioneer in the development of airplanes and air techniques in the Army. After being selected Chief of the Air Corps in 1938, he pressed for the development of aircraft production and for a program for the civilian training of flying cadets. In 1940 he became Deputy Chief of Staff (Air) and in the following year Chief, Army Air Forces. In 1942 his title was changed to Commanding General, Army Air Forces.\nGENERAL DER PANZERTRUPPEN HERMANN BALCK served as a company grade officer in World War I. At the outbreak of war in 1939 Balck was in the General Staff of the Army and was transferred to the command of a motorized rifle regiment in late October 1939. During the winter and spring of 1940-41 he commanded a Panzer regiment and later a Panzer brigade. He returned to staff duties in the Army High Command in July 1941. In May 1942, Balck went to the Eastern Front and successively commanded Panzer divisions, corps, and an army. He was transferred from command of the Fourth Panzer Army in Russia to the command of Army Group G in September 1944 and in late December was transferred back to the Eastern Front to command Army Group Balck. Balck was captured in Austria by Allied troops on 8 May 1945.\nMAJ. GEN. RAY W. BARKER was an artillery colonel in early 1942 when he was sent to the United Kingdom. In May of that year, under orders from General Marshall, he associated himself with British planners working on plans for a cross-\n--1--\nChannel operation for 1943. General Barker became head of the planning group at Headquarters, U.S. Forces in Europe, and in addition met regularly with the Combined Commanders planning group. He worked from July to September 1942 on Operation TORCH and then returned to the cross-Channel project. He served as G-5 (then head of war plans) for ETOUSA from June to October 1942, as G-3, ETOUSA, from October 1942 to April 1943, as Deputy Chief of Staff, ETOUSA, from February to April 1943, and as G-5, ETOUSA, from April to October 1943. In the spring of 1943 he became deputy to General Morgan on the COSSAC staff and remained there until the spring of 1944 when he became the SHAEF G-1.\nGENERALOBERST JOHANNES BLASKOWITZ served as an infantry officer in World War I. In World War II he commanded the Eighth Army during the Polish campaign, and after a short term of service as Commander in Chief East in Poland he was transferred to command of the Ninth Army in the west. In early June 1940 he became Military Governor of Northern France. Blaskowitz held this position until October 1940 when he was transferred to the command of the First Army. He retained this post until May 1944 when he was named commander in chief of Army Group G. He was relieved of command of Army Group G in late September 1944 and reinstated on 24 December 1944. On 28 January 1945 he was appointed commander in chief of Army Group H. This command was redesignated in early April 1945 and Blaskowitz became Commander in Chief Netherlands. He was captured on 8 May 1945 at Hilversum, Holland.\nGEN. OMAR N. BRADLEY in 1940 became an assistant secretary of the General Staff in the War Department. In February 1941 he was given command of the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Ga. From this post he went to the 82d Division early in 1942. In June of that year he assumed command of the 28th Division. General Marshall sent him to North Africa in February 1943 to act as an observer for General Eisenhower. A few weeks later Bradley became deputy commander of II Corps under General Patton, and in April, when Patton was given the task of planning the Sicilian campaign, he took command of II Corps. In the new command, General Bradley fought in Tunisia and Sicily. He was selected in September 1943 to head the First U.S. Army in the invasion of northwest Europe as well as a U.S. army group headquarters. General Bradley led the First Army in the Normandy campaign until 1 August 1944 when he became commander of the 12th Army Group.\nLT. GEN. LEWIS H. BRERETON graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1907, transferred to the Army in 1911, and in turn transferred to the flying section of the Signal Corps in 1912. He was a flier in Europe in World War I. In July 1941, General Brereton was given command of the Third Air Force. When war broke out, he was the commanding general of the Far East Air Force in the Philippine Islands. At the beginning of 1942 he became Deputy. Air Commander in Chief,\n--2--\nAllied Air Forces, on the staff of General Wavell besides serving as commander of the Fifth Air Force. General Brereton organized and commanded the Tenth Air Force in India in March 1942. Two months later he became commander of the Middle East Air Force. In February 1943 he assumed in addition the command of U .S. Army Forces in the Middle East. In October 1943 he was transferred to the United Kingdom where he became commanding general of the Ninth Air Force. He was appointed commander in chief of the First Allied Airborne Army in August 1944.\nFIELD MARSHAL SIR ALAN BROOKE (NOW LORD ALANBROOKE), a graduate of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, served in World War I, receiving the Distinguished Service Order with bar and other awards for his actions. By 1941 he had gained a reputation as the Army's expert on mechanization. He commanded the 2d British Corps in France in the early part of World War II and helped to make possible the successful evacuation at Dunkerque. Generals Montgomery and Alexander served under him at that time. Shortly thereafter he became commander of the British Home Forces and organized the defenses of the United Kingdom against possible attack by the Germans. He succeeded Field Marshal Dill as Chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1941.\nMAJ. GEN. HAROLD R. BULL served as Secretary, General Staff, of the War Department in 1939. He followed this duty with assignment as Professor of Military Science and Tactics at Culver Military Academy, and later as assistant division commander of the 4th Motorized Division. After the outbreak of war, he became G-3 of the War Department, and went from this post to head the Replacement School Command, Army Ground Forces. In the summer of 1943 General Marshall sent him to North Africa as a special observer. On his return, he became the commanding general of III Corps, holding this post from June to September 1943. In the latter month, he was sent to London where he became deputy G-3 of COSSAC. In February 1944 he was appointed G-3, SHAEF.\nADMIRAL HAROLD M. BURROUGH was assistant chief of the Naval Staff, Admiralty, at the beginning of the war. From 1940 to 1942 he commanded a cruiser squadron. He was commander of Naval Forces, Algiers, in 1942, and Flag Officer Commanding Gibraltar and Mediterranean Approaches, 1943-43. In January 1943 he succeeded Admiral Ramsay as Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief, Expeditionary Force. After the dissolution of SHAEF he became British Naval Commander-in-Chief, Germany,\nLT. GEN. M. B. BURROWS served in the North Russian Expeditionary Force, 1918-19. In the period 1938-40 he was military attache at Rome, Budapest, and Tirana. He served as head of the British Military Mission to the USSR in 1943-44, and as General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the West Africa Command in 1943-46.\n--3--\nGENERALFELDMARSCHALL ERNST BUSCH served as an infantry officer in World War I. He commanded the VIII Corps in the Polish compaign and in October 1939 was appointed commander of the Sixteenth Army. In November 1943 he was made acting commander in chief of Army Group Center on the Eastern Front. From May 1944 until August 1944 Busch was commander in chief of Army Group Center. He was then relieved and placed in the officers' reserve pool until March 1945 when he was made commander of Fuehrungsstab Nordkueste which was renamed OB NORDWEST in early May 1945.\nMAJ. GEN. A. M. CAMERON, a member of the antiaircraft operations section of the War Office at the beginning of the war, went to Antiaircraft Command Headquarters in 1940. Later he commanded a brigade and a group in the Antiaircraft Command. He was commanding a group on the south coast of England when sent to SHAEF in May 1944.\nMAJ. GEN. JOHN G. W. CLARK was commander of an infantry brigade at the start of the war and led it to France. Later he was a divisional commander in Palestine and Iraq. He served in North Africa and Sicily in 1942 and 1943 and at the end of 1943 he became Major General in Charge of Administration, Middle East. In January 1944 he was transferred to Allied Force Headquarters as chief administrative officer. One year later he became head of the SHAEF Mission (Netherlands).\nLT. GEN. J. LAWTON COLLINS was chief of staff of VII Corps in January 1941. After the attack at Pearl Harbor he became chief of staff of the Hawaiian Department. In May 1942 he became commanding general of the 25th Division. He relieved the 1st Marine Division on Guadalcanal in December 1942 and later fought in the New Georgia campaign. In December 1943 he was transferred to the European Theater of Operations where he assumed command of the VII Corps and led it in the assault on northwest Europe.\nAIR CHIEF MARSHAL SIR ARTHUR CONINGHAM served with the New Zealand Forces Samoa and Egypt from 1914 to 1916 and then in Europe from 1916 to 1919. In World War II he served with Bomber Command, working with the Eighth Army in North Africa and forming the First Tactical Air Force, French North Africa. He furnished air support to the Eighth Army in Sicily and Italy in 1943 and commanded the 2d Tactical Air Force in northwest Europe in 1944-45.\nMAJ. GEN ROBERT W. CRAWFORD was district engineer in New Orleans in 1939 when he was called to the War Plans Division in Washington and assigned duties in connection with overseas supplies, munitions, allocations, and the like. By July 1942 he was transferred to the 8th Armored Division as head of a combat command. Near the end of 1942, he became Commanding General, Services of Supply, U.S. Army Forces in the Middle East. From this post he was sent in July\n--4--\n1943 to the United Kingdom where he served for a time as deputy commander and later as chief of staff of the Services of Supply organization, and as G-4, Headquarters, ETOUSA. In November 1943 he became deputy G-4 of COSSAC. On the activation of SHAEF he became G-4 of SHAEF.\nREAR ADM. GEORGE E. CREASY commanded a destroyer flotilla from 1939 to May 1940. From June 1940 to August 1942, he headed the division of antisubmarine warfare at the Admiralty, and in 1942-43 commanded the Duke of York, taking part in the North African landings. In August 1943 he joined COSSAC as naval chief of staff, becoming chief of staff to Admiral Ram say when the latter was named to the post of Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief, Expeditionary Force.\nGEN. HENRY D. G. CRERAR was senior officer, Canadian Military Headquarters, London, in 1939-40. In 1940-41 he served as Chief of General Staff, Canada. He became commander of the 2d Canadian Division Overseas in 1941. From 1942 to 1944 he commanded the 1st Canadian Corps and for a part of the same period commanded the Canadian Corps Mediterranean Area (1943-44). He led the 1st Canadian Army in 1944-45.\nADMIRAL OF THE FLEET SIR ANDREW B. CUNNINGHAM entered the Royal Navy in 1898 and participated in World War I. As Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean, between 1939 and 1942, he directed operations against the Italian Fleet at Taranto and Matapan and evacuated the British forces from Greece. He headed the British naval delegation in Washington briefly in 1942 before becoming Naval Commander-in-Chief, Expeditionary Force, North Africa. In October 1943 he replaced Admiral Sir Dudley Pound as First Sea Lord.\nBRIG. GEN. THOMAS J. DAVIS was an aide of General MacArthur in the Philippines from 1928 to 1930 and returned with him to the U.S. to duty in the Office of the Chief of Staff in 1930. In September 1933 he returned to the Philippines, serving as assistant military adviser under MacArthur until January 1938 when he became adviser in the Philippines on adjutant general affairs. In January 1940 Davis came back to the War Department, first in The Adjutant General's Office and then as executive officer of the Special Service Branch of the War Department. In April 1942 he became executive officer in the office of the Chief of Administrative Services, Headquarters, SOS. He was appointed adjutant general of Headquarters, ETOUSA, in July 1942. From August 1942 to January 1944 he was adjutant general of Allied Force Headquarters. In February 1944 he was named adjutant general of SHAEF. In April when the SHAEF Public Relations Division was established, he became its head. In October 1944 he returned to the post of adjutant general of SHAEF.\nMAJ. GEN. JOHN R. DEANE was secretary of the War Department General Staff in February 1942. He became American secretary of the Combined Chiefs of Staff\n--5--\nin September 1942. In October 1943 he was appointed as head of the U.S. military mission to the USSR.\nMAJ. GEN. FRANCIS DE GUINGAND, a graduate of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, was Military Assistant to the Secretary of State for War in 1939-40 and later became Director Military Intelligence Middle East. In 1942-44 he served as chief of staff of the British Eighth Army, and in 1944 he took over the same post in the 21 Army Group.\nGEN. SIR MILES DEMPSEY commanded the 13th Infantry Brigade in France in 1940, receiving the D.S.O. He returned to England to become Brigadier General Staff with the Canadians under Gen. A. G. L. MacNaughton. Shortly after El Alamein, he took command of the 13th Corps of the Eighth Army and led it in the Sicilian campaign and in the invasion of Italy. In January 1944 he became commander of the Second British Army, which he led through the remainder of the war in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany.\nGEN. JACOB L. DEVERS became chief of the Armored Forces, Fort Knox, Ky., in the summer of 1941. From this post he went in May 1943 to the command of the European Theater of Operations. While there he helped COSSAC in its planning for the OVERLORD operation. In December 1943 he succeeded General Eisenhower as commanding general of the North African Theater of Operations. Later he was Deputy Commander in Chief, Allied Force Headquarters, and Deputy Supreme Allied Commander, Mediterranean Theater. In September 1944 he became commander of the 6th Army Group, which consisted of Seventh U .S. and First French Armies.\nMAJ. GEN. RICHARD H. DEWING was a brigadier instructing at the Imperial Defence College in 1939. Shortly thereafter he was appointed Director of Military Operations at the War Office with the rank of major general. In 1940 he became Chief of Staff, Far East, and in 1942 joined the British Army staff in Washington. He spent the next two years as head of the United Kingdom Liaison Staff in Australia and in 1945 was appointed head of SHAEF Mission (Denmark).\nFIELD MARSHAL SIR JOHN DILL, a veteran of the Boer War, served near the end of World War I as Field Marshal Haig's Brigadier General Staff Operations. Later he was on the general staff in India, Director of Military Operations and Intelligence in the War Office, and commander in chief at Aldershot. He served as Chief of the Imperial General Staff from May 1940 to the end of 1941. In December 1941 he was sent to Washington as head of the British Joint Staff Mission and senior British member of the Combined Chiefs of Staff organization in Washington. He was serving in this capacity at the time of his death in November 1944. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.\n--6--\nGROSSADMIRAL KARL DOENITZ served in naval air and submarine forces in World War I. He was placed in sole charge of Germany's U-Boats in 1935 when he was appointed Fuehrer der Unterseeboote. In early 1941 Doenitz' position was raised and he was named Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote. He held this position until the spring of 1943 when he was given supreme command of the German Navy and named Grossadmiral. In late April 1945 Hitler designated Doenitz as his successor in place of Goering. After Hitler's death Doenitz carried on the German government until his arrest by the Allied Command in May 1945.\nLT. GEN. JAMES H. DOOLITTLE served in World War I as a flier. He resigned from the Army in 1930 but continued his work in aeronautics as a civilian. He was recalled to duty in 1940, and in April 1942 led the first aerial raid on the Japanese mainland. He was assigned to duty with the Eighth Air Force in the United Kingdom in July 1942 and in September of that year assumed command of the Twelfth Air Force in North Arica. In March 1943 he became commanding general of the North African Strategic Air Forces. He was named commander of the Fifteenth Air Force in November 1943. From January 1944 until the end of the war he headed the Eighth Air Force in the European Theater of Operations.\nBRIG. GEN. BEVERLY C. DUNN was district engineer at Seattle, Wash., in July 1940. In March 1942 he was assigned to the North Atlantic Engineer Division, New York. He became deputy chief engineer at Headquarters, SHAEF, in February 1944. Shortly before the dissolution of SHAEF he succeeded General Hughes as chief engineer.\nGENERAL OF THE ARMY DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER was graduated from West Point in 1915 and commissioned in that year. His first assignment was with the 19th Infantry Regiment. He remained with this unit, except for short periods of detached service, until 1917. In September of that year he was assigned to duty in the 57th Infantry Regiment. During World War I he served as instructor at the Officer Training Camp at Fort Oglethorpe, Ga., from September to December 1917, taught in the Army Service Schools at Fort Leavenworth, Kans., from December 1917 to February 1918, had a tour of duty with the 65th Battalion Engineers, which he organized at Fort Meade, Md., and commanded Camp Colt, Pa. After the war he commanded tank corps troops at Fort Dix, N. J., and at Fort Benning, Ga. In 1919 he returned to Fort Meade where he served in various tank battalions until January 1922. Meanwhile he graduated from the Infantry Tank School. In 1922 he went to the Panama Canal Zone where he served as executive officer at Camp Gaillard. From September to December 1924 he was recreation officer at the headquarters of Third Corps Area. This assignment was followed by a tour as recruiting officer at Fort Logan, Colo., until August 1925. He then attended Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, graduating as an honor student in June 1926. A brief tour with the\n--7--\n24th Division followed. From January to August 1927 he was on duty with the American Battle Monuments Commission in Washington. He graduated from the Army War College in June 1928 and then went back for a year with the Battle Monuments Commission with duty in Washington and France. From November 1929 to February 1933 he was Assistant Executive, Office of the Assistant Secretary of War. During this period he graduated from the Army Industrial College. From 1933 to September 1935 he was in the Office of the Chief of Staff (Gen. Douglas MacArthur). He served as assistant to the military adviser of the Philippine Islands from September 1935 to 1940. In 1940 he was assigned to duty with the 15th Infantry Regiment. In November of that year he became chief of staff of the 3d Division, in March 1941 chief of staff of the IX Corps, and in June 1941 chief of staff of the Third Army. He joined the War Plans Division of the War Department in December 1941 and became chief of the division in the following February. On 25 June 1942 he was named commanding general of the European Theater of Operations. In November 1942 he commanded the Allied landings in North Arica and in the same month became Commander in Chief, Allied Forces in North Africa. As commander of Allied Forces in the Mediterranean he directed operations in Tunisia, Sicily, and Italy until December 1943 when he was named Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force. In this post he directed the invasion of northwest Europe and the campaigns against Germany.\nMAJ. GEN. GEORGE W. E. JAMES ERSKINE was a lieutenant colonel on the staff of a division in England at the outbreak of war. In June 1940 he was given command of a battalion and in January 1941 a brigade. He went with the latter to the Middle East in June 1941. In February 1942 he became Brigadier General Staff, Headquarters, 13 Corps, and in January 1943 was given command of the 7th Armoured Division. He commanded this unit in the Western Desert, Italy, and Normandy. In August 1944 he became head of the SHAEF mission to Belgium.\nGENERALADMIRAL HANS VON FRIEDEBURG, was commanding admiral of submarines in June 1944. He was appointed commander in chief of the German Navy by Doenitz in early May 1945 and as such signed the final capitulations in Reims and Berlin. He committed suicide soon thereafter.\nLT. GEN. SIR HUMFREY M. GALE was deputy director of supplies and transport in the War Office at the beginning of the war. Two months later he became G-4 of 3 British Corps and went to France. In 1940, after Dunkerque, he became Major General in Charge of Administration (includes both G-1 and G-4 functions in the British Army) in the Sottish Command. He left this assignment in July 1941 to take a similar position at Home Forces under Sir Alan Brooke. In August 1942 he was appointed chief administrative officer on General Eisenhower's staff in the Mediterranean, where he remained until February 1944. At that time he was appointed one of the deputy chiefs of staff of SHAEF with the title Chief Administrative Officer .\n--8--\nLT. GEN. LEONARD T. GEROW was executive officer of the War Plans Division of the War Department from 1936 to 1939. He served as chief of staff of the 2d Division through 1939. In 1940 he was appointed assistant commandant of the Infantry School. In October 1940 he was transferred to the 8th Division and in December of that year he was assigned to the War Plans Division, War Department. He was chief of that division at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack. In February 1942 he was given command of the 29th Division and later was put in charge of field forces in the European theater. In July 1943 he became commander of V Corps and led that unit in the assault in northwest Europe. He became commanding general of the Fifteenth Army in January 1945.\nREICHSMARSCHALL HERMANN GOERING was one of Germany's outstanding flyers in World War I. He became a member of the Nazi party in 1922 and held many party positions. In 1933 he was made Reich Minister for Air and in 1935 named Commander in Chief of the Air Force. As President of the Council of Ministers for the Defense of the Reich and as Trustee for the Four Year Plan, Goering exercised great influence on the political and economic life of the Reich. Long designated as Hitler's successor, he was removed from this position in late Apri1 1945. Goering was captured by American forces in May 1945.\nLT. GEN. SIR A. E. GRASETT, a Canadian-born officer, was stationed in China in 1938-41. He returned to the United Kingdom in 1941 to command a division, and from 1941 to 1943 a corps. He next served as chief of the Liaison Branch of the War Office, and after the organization of Supreme Headquarters he became chief of the European Allied Contact Section. In April 1944 he was appointed chief of the G-5 Division.\nGENERALOBERST HEINZ GUDERIAN, a veteran of World War I, was a strong proponent of armored warfare. At the outbreak of World War II, he was given command of XIX Panzer Corps and in this position fought in the Polish and French campaigns. He commanded the Second Panzer Group, later designated Second Panzer Army, in the Russian campaign from June to December 1941. Guderian was then placed in an officers' reserve pool until February 1943, at which time he was assigned as Inspector General of Panzer Troops. In July 1944, while still on this assignment, he was designated as acting chief of the Army General Staff. He held these positions until he was relieved in March 1945. Guderian was captured near Zell am See, Tirol, 10 May 1945.\nMARSHAL OF THE ROYAL AIR FORCE SIR ARTHUR T. HARRIS, who was commanding the RAF in Palestine and Transjordan in the summer of 1939, became chief of the No.5 Group of Bomber Command at the outbreak of war. In 1940 he became deputy chief of the Air Staff under Air Chief Marshal Portal. In May 1941 he came to the United States as head of the RAF delegation and as member of the British Joint Staff Mission. He remained in Washington until February 1942 when he was named Commander-in-Chief, Bomber Command.\n--9--\nGENERALOBERST DER WAFFEN SS PAUL HAUSSER was a member of the General Staff Corps and served as a divisional and corps staff officer in World War I. He was retired from the Army with the rank of Generalleutnant in 1932. Hausser became a member of the Waffen SS in 1934 and by 1939 had again reached his former rank of Generalleutnant. During the Polish campaign Hausser served on the staff of Panzer Division Kempf. From October 1939 until October 1941 he commanded the 2d SS Panzer Division \"Das Reich.\" During this period he was wounded and had to be hospitalized until June 1942, at which time he became commander of the II SS Panzer Corps. He led this corps until the end of June 1944, fighting in the east, in Italy, and finally in Normandy. At the end of June 1944 Hausser was assigned to command the Seventh Army, holding this position until late August 1944, when he was again severely wounded and hospitalized until January 1945. From the end of January until the beginning of April 1945 Hausser commanded Army Group G. Thereafter, until he was taken prisoner on 13 May 1945, Hausser served on the staff of OB WEST.\nREICHSFUEHRER SS UND CHEF DER DEUTSCHEN POLIZEI HEINRICH HIMMLER served as a 2d lieutenant in a Bavarian infantry regiment in World War I. A Nazi party member since 1925, Himmler by 1936 had brought all of the German police and the SS under his control. After the putsch of 20 July 1944 Himmler was also appointed Chief of the Replacement Army (Chef der Heeresruestung und Befehlshaber des Ersatzheeres). In late November 1944 all of the defenses on the eastern bank of the upper Rhine were placed under him as Oberbefehlshaber Oberrhein. Hirnmler retained this command until late January 1945 when he became commander in chief of Army Group Weichsel the Eastern Front. On 20 March 1945 Himmler relinquished command of Army Group Weichsel. He was captured by Allied troops in early May 1945 and committed suicide shortly thereafter.\nGEN. COURTNEY H. HODGES, an overseas veteran of World War I, became cornmandant of the Infantry School, Fort Benning, Ga., in October 1940. He was named Chief of Infantry, War Department, in May 1941, and commanding general of the Replacement and School Command, Army Ground Forces, in March 1942. Later he became commanding general of X Corps. From this post he went to the command of the Third Army in February 1943. In March 1944 he was sent to the European Theater of Operations as deputy commander of the First Army. He succeeded General Bradley in command of that army on 1 August 1944 and led it through France, Belgium, Germany, and to the Czechoslovakian frontier at the war's end.\nMAJ. GEN. H. B. W. HUGHES was chief engineer of the Western Command in 1939 and engineer-in-chief of General Wavell's Middle East Command from 1940 to 1943. In December 1943 he became chief engineer of COSSAC and in February of the following year chief of the Engineer Division of SHAEF. The latter post he held until the spring of 1945.\n--10--\nGENERALOBERST ALFRED JODL served as an artillery officer in World War I. In September 1939 Jodi was assigned to the OKW/Wehrmachtfuehrungsstab, becoming chief of this office in the following month. He held this position until the close of the war. He became a prisoner of war in May of 1945.\nGENERAL ALPHONSE PIERRE JUIN was born in Algiers and spent much of his early career in North Africa. He served for a time as an aide of Marshal Lyautey and was regarded as a strong disciple of that commander. From 1938 to 1939 Juin was chief of staff to General Nogues, commander of the North African Theater of Operations. Near the close of 1939, he headed an infantry division in northern France and helped to cover the withdrawal to Dunkerque the following year. On the fall of France he became a German prisoner, but was released in 1941. In the summer of that year, he was given a command in Morocco and later in 1941 was named commander in chief of French forces in North Africa. In 1943 he was placed at the head of the French Expeditionary Corps, which performed brilliantly in Italy. In 1944 General de Gaulle appointed him to the post of Chief of Staff of the Ministry of National Defense.\nGENERALFELDMARSCHALL WILHELM KElTEL served in various staff positions at corps and army headquarters in World War I. He was appointed chief of OKW in 1938, a position he held for the duration of the war. Keitel was taken into custody in mid-May 1945.\nMAJ. GEN. ALBERT W. KENNER was chief surgeon of the Armored Service at Fort Knox, Ky., at the beginning of the war. He was taken by General Patton to North Mrica as chief surgeon of the Western Task Force in November 1942. One month later he became Chief Surgeon, North African Forces, under General Eisenhower. In 1943 he returned to Washington as Assistant Surgeon General with the task of training and inspecting Ground Forces medical troops. He came to SHAEF in February 1944 as chief medical officer.\nGENERALFELDMARSCHALL ALBERT KESSELRING, served on various divisional and corps staffs in World War I. After staff and troop assignments he was assigned as administrative chief to the Reich Air Ministry. Kesselring remained in this position until June 1936 when he was assigned as chief of the Air Force General Staff. In the Polish campaign he commanded First Air Force and later in 1940 Second Air Force in France. In December 1941 Kesselring was appointed as Commander in Chief South with command of all German Air Force units in the Mediterranean and North African theaters. In the fall of 1943 he was redesignated as Commander in Chief Southwest with nominal command of the German armed forces in Italy. Kesselring was transferred to Germany as Commander in Chief West in March 1945 and later designated as Commander in Chief South. He was taken prisoner at Saalfelden on 6 May 1945.\n--11--\nFLEET ADMIRAL ERNEST J. KING graduated from the Naval Academy in 1901. He served during World War I as assistant chief of staff to the Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet. Beginning in 1937 he served in succession as member of the General Board of the Navy , commander of the U .S. Fleet Patrol Force, and commander in chief of the Atlantic Fleet. In December 1941 he became Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet, and in 1942 also took the title of Chief of Naval Operations.\nVICE ADM. ALAN G. KIRK in 1941 was naval attache in London, where his duties included reporting on German naval organization. From March to October 1941 he served as Chief of Naval Intelligence in Washington. This assignment was followed by brief tours on convoy duty in the North Atlantic and in transporting troops to Iceland. In May 1942 he became chief of staff to Admiral Stark in London. Admiral Kirk was appointed Commander, Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet, in March 1943 and helped prepare the forces for the Sicilian operation. Later he was in charge of transporting some 20,000 soldiers to the Mediterranean. He served as commander of U.S. Naval Forces for the cross-Channel attack and held operational control of all U .S. naval forces under General Eisenhower except those in the south of France. Later he was head of the U.S. Naval Mission at SHAEF and was for a short time acting Allied Naval Commander after Admiral Ramsay was killed in January 1945.\nGENERALFELDMARSCHALL GUENTHER VON KLUGE served as an infantry and mountain troop officer in World War I. During the Polish and French campaigns, and the early part of the Russian campaign, of World War II von Kluge commanded the Fourth Army. In December 1941 he was assigned as commander in chief of Army Group Center on the Eastern Front, a position he held until May 1944. Von Kluge relieved von Rundstedt as Commander in Chief West in early July 1944, and was relieved in turn by Model at the beginning of September 1944. On his way to Germany he committed suicide.\nGEN. PIERRE JOSEPH KOENIG was serving as a captain in the French Foreign Legion at the outbreak of war. As a major he led elements of the legion at Narvik in May and June 1940. After these forces were withdrawn, he went back to France. On the fall of France he fled to the United Kingdom where he joined the Gaullist forces. Shortly thereafter he went to Africa. As the commander of a brigade, he fought at Bir Hacheim in Libya. On 1 August 1943 he became assistant chief of staff of the French ground forces in North Africa. The French Committee of National Liberation named him its delegate to SHAEF in March 1944 and also gave him the title of commander of French Forces of the Interior in Great Britain. When Allied forces entered France, he assumed command of the French Forces of the Interior in France. On the liberation of Paris in August 1944 he was named military governor of Paris and commander of the Military Region of Paris. In July 1945 he became commander in chief of French forces in Germany.\n--12--\nGENERAL DER INFANTERIE HANS KREBS served as an infantry officer in World War I. In 1939 he was in the Intelligence Division of the General Staff of the Army. Krebs was assigned as chief of staff of the VII Corps in December 1939 and served in this capacity until March 1941. He was then appointed as acting German military attache in Moscow, remaining in this post until the outbreak of war between Germany and the Soviet Union. From January 1942 until September 1944 he served as chief of staff first of the Ninth Army and later of Army Group Center on the Eastern Front. Krebs was appointed chief of staff of Army Group B at the beginning of September 1944 and remained in this position until 1 April 1945 when he was named acting chief of the General Staff. Krebs was killed or committed suicide in Berlin in May 1945.\nMAJ. GEN. FRANCIS H. LANAHAN, JR., was chief of the War Plans Division, Signal Corps, from December 1941 to June 1942. From June to December 1942 he served as assistant director of planning in charge of the Theater Section. He was director of planning of the same branch from January to June 1943. From August 1943 to February 1945 he served as deputy chief of the Signal Division at COSSAC and SHAEF. In March 1945 he succeeded General Vulliamy as chief of the Signal Division, SHAEF.\nGEN. JEAN DE LATTRE DE TASSIGNY commanded the 14th Infantry Division in 1940. He withdrew his forces into the French zone in that year. He was commanding a military region in the south of France in November 1942 when he was arrested for a demonstration he made at the time of the Allied landings in North Africa. He was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment by the Vichy authorities but escaped from the Riom prison in September 1943 and went to the United Kingdom. At the end of the year he went to North Africa. On 18 April 1944 he was appointed commanding general of Armee B, which was later named the First French Army.\nFLEET ADMIRAL WILLIAM D. LEAHY graduated from the Naval Academy in 1897 and served in the war against Spain. During World War I he served on ships of the line and on a transport. In 1933 he became chief of the Bureau of Navigation. Four years later he became Chief of Naval Operations. In 1939, after he had retired, President Roosevelt appointed him governor of Puerto Rico and in the following year made him Ambassador to France. He was recalled to active duty in 1942 and made chief of staff to the Commander in Chief, a post he held under Presidents Roosevelt and Truman.\nAIR CHIEF MARSHAL SIR TRAFFORD LEIGH-MALLORY won the Distinguished Flying Order in the Royal Flying Corps in World War I. He commanded the 11 and 12 Fighter Groups in the Battle of Britain in World War II. From November 1942 to December 1943 he served as Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Fighter Com-\n--13--\nmand. At the close of 1943 he was appointed Commander-in-Chief, Allied Expeditionary Air Force, and as such commanded the tactical air forces in support of the Allied Expeditionary Force. He was transferred to the post of Commander-in-Chief, South-East Asia Command, in the early fall of 1944, but was killed in a plane crash en route to that headquarters in November 1944.\nMAJ. GEN. JOHN T. LEWIS served in 1941 in the Office of the Secretary, General Staff, War Department. In February of the following year he was assigned to a coast artillery brigade in New York. He was named Commanding General, Military District of Washington, in May 1942. While in this post he was a member of the commission which tried the Nazi saboteurs. In September 1944 he was selected as chief of SHAEF Mission (France ).\nBRIG. GEN. ROBERT A. MCCLURE, U.S. Millitary Attache in London in 1941 and military attache to the eight governments-in-exile in the United Kingdom, became G-2 of ETOUSA under General Eisenhower early in 1942. From November 1942 to November 1943 he headed the Public Relations, Psychological Warfare and Censorship Section at AFHQ. In November 1943 he was sent to COSSAC to organize a similar section. In February 1944 he became G-6 of SHAEF. When that division was divided later in the year, he was appointed chief of the Psychological Warfare Division of SHAEF .\nBRIGADIER KENNETH G. McLEAN at the outbreak of war became a member of the staff of the 52d Division in Scotland. From April 1940 to June 1941 he was an Army representative on the British GHQ Planning Staff. When COSSAC was established in 1943, he became the Army member of the planning staff. On the activation of SHAEF he was named head of the Planning Section of G-3.\nGENERAL OF THE ARMY GEORGE C. MARSHALL was graduated from Virginia Military Institute in 1901 and commissioned early in the following year. He served on the staffs of the First and Second Armies in World War I. In July 1938 he became Assistant Chief of Staff, War Plans Division, General Staff, and in October was appointed Deputy Chief of Staff of the Army. In September 1939 he became Chief of Staff of the Army.\nGENERALFELDMARSCHALL WALTER MODEL served as an infantry officer in World War I. During the Polish and French campaigns in 1939 and 1940 he served as a corps and army chief of staff. In the Russian campaign from 1941 until 1944 he served in succession as a division, corps, and army commander. Model in January 1944 was assigned as commander in chief of Army Group North on the Eastern Front. In mid-August 1944 he was transferred to the west as Commander in Chief West and concurrently as commander in chief of Army Group B. Upon Rundstedt's return as Commander in Chief West in early September 1944, Model retained\n--14--\ncommand of Army Group B, a post he kept until the final dissolution of Army Group B in April 1945. Model is said to have committed suicide at this time.\nFIELD MARSHAL SIR BERNARD LAW MONTGOMERY commanded the 3d British Division in France in the winter and spring of 1939-40. He was given temporary command of the 2 Corps at Dunkerque. In the fall of 1940 he was given the 5 Corps and, in 1941, the 12 Corps. In 1942 he became head of the Southeast Command. In the summer of that year he was told that he would head the First British Army in the North African invasion, but the death of General Gott, who was slated for the command of the British Eighth Army led to Montgomery's selection for the post. As commander of this army he won the battle of El Alamein, pursued Marshal Rommel's forces to Tunisia, and helped defeat the enemy in Tunisia. Later he led the Eighth Army to Sicily and Italy. His appointment as Commander-in-Chief, 21 Army Group, was announced in December 1943. He commanded the Allied assault forces in Normandy, serving in that capacity until 1 September 1944 when General Eisenhower assumed control of field operations. Field Marshal Montgomery led the combined British and Canadian forces in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany for the remainder of the war. During much of this time the Ninth U.S. Army was also under his command. In the course of the Ardennes counteroffensive he was also given command of the First U.S. Army.\nLT. GEN. SIR FREDERICK E. MORGAN served in France in 1940 as commander of a group of the 1st Armoured Division. In May 1942 he was appointed to command the 1st Corps District, which included Lincolnshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire. In October of that year he was made commander of the 1 Corps and placed under General Eisenhower. He was given the task of preparing a subsidiary landing in the western Mediterranean either to reinforce the initial landings or to deal with a German thrust through Spain. When neither operation proved necessary , he was directed to plan the invasion of Sardinia. In time this was abandoned and he was directed to plan the invasion of Sicily. This project was later given to the armies in North Africa. In the spring of 1943 he became chief of staff to the Supreme Allied Commander and as such directed planning for the invasion of northwest Europe. He served in 1944 and 1945 as Deputy Chief of Staff, SHAEF.\nAMBASSADOR ROBERT D. MURPHY, a career diplomat, was counselor of the U.S. Embassy in Paris when war began in Europe. After the fall of France, he served briefly as charge d'affaires at Vichy. In November 1940 he was detailed to Algiers. In the fall of 1942 he helped in negotiations between Allied military leaders and the French forces in North Africa. After the invasion of that area he was named political adviser to General Eisenhower. Later he became Chief Civil Affairs Adviser for Italian Affairs on General Eisenhower's staff and also served as U.S. member of the Advisory Council to the Allied Control Commission for Italy. At this time he was given the rank of Ambassador. In August 1944 Mr. Murphy\n--15--\nwas named political adviser at SHAEF and Chief of the Political Division for the U.S. Group Control Council set up to plan postwar occupation of Germany. Later he served as political adviser to Generals Eisenhower, McNarney, and Clay.\nBRIG. GEN. ARTHUR S. NEVINS served in the Strategy Section of the War Plans Division of the War Department from May 1941 until after the outbreak of war with Japan. In the spring of 1942 he went to the United Kingdom as a member of the planning staff for the North African invasion. When II U.S. Corps was activated he became its deputy chief of staff. Later he became G-3 of the Fifth U .S. Army. After a month in that position he worked as an Army planner on the Sicilian invasion, and was then appointed operations officer on General Alexander's combined headquarters staff. In October 1943 he went to the United Kingdom to head the Plans and Operations Section of COSSAC, a post he was holding when he was appointed chief of the Operations Section, G-3 Division, SHAEF.\nGEN. SIR BERNARD PAGET was commandant of the Staff College, Camberley, at the outbreak of war. He then took command of the 13th Division in East Anglia and in the spring of 1940 commanded British forces in the Andalsnes area during the expedition to Norway. After Dunkerque he was named Chief of Staff, Home Forces, and then served for a time as chief of the Southeast Command. When General Brooke became Chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1942, General Paget succeeded him as commander of Home Forces. As head of this command, Paget was a member of the Combined Commanders. When the 21 Army Group was established in the summer of 1943, he was named to command it. On 24 December 1943 he was assigned to the Middle East Command.\nLT. GEN. ALEXANDER M. PATCH was in command of the Infantry Replacement Center at Camp Croft, N. C., at the outbreak of war. In the spring of 1942 he commanded a U.S. infantry division in New Caledonia, and on 8 December 1942 he assumed command of Army, Navy, and Marine forces operating against the enemy on Guadalcanal. He became commander of the XIV Corps in January 1943. In April of that year he returned to the United States where he took command of the IV Corps. He was designated commanding general of Seventh Army in March 1944, and in August of that year brought it into southern France. He commanded it in Alsace during that fall and winter and led it into Germany the following spring. In July 1945 he became commanding general of the Fourth Army at Fort Sam Houston, Tex., where he died in November 1945.\nGEN. GEORGE S. PATTON, JR., commanded the ground elements of the Western Task Force in the landings in North Africa in November 1942. In March 1943 he assumed command of the II Corps in Tunisia. In April of that year he began the work of planning the invasion of Sicily. He commanded the U.S. forces in the assault on that island. His headquarters was renamed Seventh U.S. Army after\n--16--\nthe landings in Sicily. He was brought to the United Kingdom as commander of the Third U.S. Army in the spring of 1944. It became active on the Continent on 1 August 1944 and under his direction campaigned in France, Luxembourg, Belgium, Germany, and Czechoslovakia. After the war's end he became commanding general of the Fifteenth Army. He died as a result of an automobile accident in December 1945.\nMR. CHARLES B. P. PEAKE entered the British diplomatic service in 1922. In 1939 he was made head of the News Department of the Foreign Office and Chief Press Adviser to the Ministry of Information. In 1941 he was temporarily attached to Viscount Halifax as personal assistant in Washington and promoted to be a counsellor of embassy. From 1942 to 1943 he was the British representative to the French National Committee and in October 1943 he was appointed to General Eisenhower's staff as political liaison officer to the Supreme Commander with the rank of minister.\nAMBASSADOR WILLIAM PHILLIPS began his career in the foreign service of the United States as private secretary of the U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain in 1903. Among his important appointments after that time were Ambassador to the Netherlands in 1920, Undersecretary of the Department of State, 1922-24 and 1933-36, Ambassador to Italy, 1936-41, and personal representative of the President to India, 1942-43. He was appointed political adviser to the COSSAC staff in September 1943 and held the same position at SHAEF from its activation until September 1944.\nMARSHAL OF THE ROYAL AIR FORCE SIR CHARLES PORTAL served as an observer and fighter pilot in World War I. In the 1930's he commanded the British Forces in Aden and was Director of Organization, Air Ministry. Early in World War II he served on the Air Council and was Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Bomber Command. He was appointed Chief of the Air Staff in October 1940.\nGROSSADMIRAL ERICH RAEDER served in fleet and staff service during World War I. He was commander in chief of the German Navy from 1935 until 1943, when at his own request he was replaced by Doenitz and appointed Inspector General of the German Navy (Admiralinspekteur der Kriegsmarine), a nominal title.\nADMIRAL BERTRAM H. RAMSAY retired in 1938 after forty-two years in the Royal Navy, serving the last three as Chief of Staff, Home Fleet. He was recalled to duty in 1939 as Flag Officer Commanding, Dover, and in that post organized the naval forces for the evacuation of Dunkerque. Later he helped plan the TORCH operation, commanded a task force in the Sicilian invasion, and became British naval commander in the Mediterranean. He was appointed Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief, Expeditionary Force, in the fall of 1943 and served in that post until his death in a plane crash in France on 1 January 1945.\n--17--\nMR. SAMUEL REBER entered the U.S. Foreign Service in 1926. He was stationed in Washington at the beginning of the war, but went to Martinique on a special mission in early 1942. After the landings in North Africa he was transferred to Mr. Murphy's staff in Algiers. From there he went to Italy in October 1943 as a member first of the Allied military mission and later of the Allied Control Commission. While in Italy he was attached for special duty to the Fifth Army. He left Italy in July 1944 and joined SHAEF as a political adviser.\nMAJ. GEN. HAROLD REDMAN was instructing at the British Staff College in 1939. He was then appointed to the War Cabinet Secretariat. In 1940 he was given command of a battalion in the United Kingdom. From June to December 1941 he commanded an infantry brigade in the Middle East. At the end of the year he was selected to be Brigadier General Staff, Headquarters Eighth Army. In March 1942 he returned again to a brigade command, which he held until 1943 when he was appointed secretary to the Combined Chiefs of Staff in Washington. In August 1944 he was promoted to major general and became deputy commander of the French Forces of the Interior. In the following month he was appointed deputy head of the SHAEF mission to France.\nAIR MARSHAL JAMES M. ROBB went to Canada at the beginning of the war to help plan the Commonwealth Air Training Plan. In 1940 he became commander of the No. 2 Bomber Group in the United Kingdom. Later, he was made chief of the No.15 Fighter Group, commanding the Western Approaches to the United Kingdom. In 1942, he served as deputy chief of Combined Operations Headquarters and then acted for a brief period as air commander at Gibralter during the invasion of North Africa. He next served as air adviser to General Eisenhower. On the formation of the Northwest African Air Forces in 1943, he became commander of RAF North Africa and deputy to General Spaatz in the Northwest African Air Forces. He became Deputy Chief of Staff (Air), SHAEF, in March 1944. On the dissolution of AEAF in October 1944, he became Chief of the Air Staff (SHAEF).\nGENERALFELDMARSCHALL ERWIN ROMMEL served as an infantry officer in World War I. In August 1939 he was assigned as commandant of the Fuehrerhauptquartier, a position he held until February 1940. Rommel participated in the French campaign as commander of the Seventh Panzer Division. In February 1941 he was assigned to command the German troops assisting the Italians in North Africa. Rommel remained in Africa from September 1941 until March 1943 and commanded first Panzer Army Africa and later Army Group Africa. In the late summer of 1943 Rommel was assigned as commander of Army Group B in northern Italy. In the fall and winter of 1943 he conducted surveys of coastal defenses in the west. In January 1944 he again became commander of Army Group B in the west and retained this position until he was severely wounded in July 1944. Rommel, suspected of complicity in the plot of 20 July 1944, was forced to commit suicide in October 1944.\n--18--\nGENERALFELDMARSCHALL GERD VON RUNDSTEDT served as chief of staff of various division and corps headquarters in World War I. He was retired in October 1938. In June 1939 he was recalled to command Army Group South in the Polish campaign. After a very short term as Commander in Chief East in occupied Poland he was redesignated as commander in chief of Army Group A and transferred to the Western Front. In May 1940 his forces broke through the Ardennes and advanced to the Channel coast. In October 1940 he was designated as Commander in Chief West, a position he held until the transfer of his headquarters to the east in the spring of 1941. During the Russian campaign von Rundstedt commanded Army Group South (formerly Army Group A) from June until December 1941, when at his own request he was relieved of command because of ill health. In March 1942 he was assigned as Commander in Chief West. He retained this position until he was relieved early in July 1944. Von Rundstedt was reassigned to his former position as Commander in Chief West on 4 September 1944 and remained as such until his final relief on 10 March 1945. He was taken prisoner in Bad Toelz on 1 May 1945.\nMAJ. GEN. LOWELL W. ROOKS was chief of the training division of Headquarters, Army Ground Forces, in March 1942. In June of that year he became chief of staff of II Corps. He was named G-3 of Headquarters, North African Theater of Operations, when that headquarters was organized, and in January 1944 he was named deputy chief of staff of Allied Force Headquarters. In March 1945 he became Deputy G-3, SHAEF. In this position he helped to liquidate OKW at the end of the war .\nGENERALFELDMARSCHALL FERDINAND SCHOERNER served as an infantry officer in World War I. From September 1939 until October 1943, he served with mountain troops, rising from regimental to corps commander. After a short time as an armored corps commander on the Eastern Front and then as a staff officer at OKH, he was assigned as acting commander in chief of Army Group A on the Eastern Front. Schoerner was appointed commander in chief of Army Group A in May 1944 and transferred to Army Group North as commander in chief in July 1944. In January 1945 he became commander of Army Group Center.\nLT. GEN. WILLIAM H. SIMPSON, veteran of overseas service in World War I, held the command of the 9th Infantry Regiment, 2d Division, in June 1940. He was given command of the Infantry Replacement Training Center of the Army in April 1941. Six months later he became commanding general of the 35th Division, and he served from April to September 1942 as commander of the 3Oth Division. For one month he commanded the XII Corps. In September 1943 he was placed at the head of the Fourth Army. In the spring of 1944 an additional army headquarters (the Eighth) was formed from the Fourth Army, and General Simpson was made commander of the new headquarters. He took it to the United Kingdom in May 1944 and remained as its head when it was renumbered the Ninth\n--19--\nArmy. He commanded the Ninth Army in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany.\nLT. GEN. WALTER BEDELL SMITH was assistant secretary of the General Staff in October 1939. He became Secretary, General Staff, in September 1941. In February 1942 he was named U.S. secretary of the Combined Chiefs of Staff and secretary of the Joint Board. General Eisenhower chose him in September 1942 to be chief of staff of the European Theater of Operations. Later he became chief of staff of the Allied forces in North Africa and of the Mediterranean theater. At the end of 1943, he became chief of staff of SHAEF.\nGEN. CARL SPAATZ served with the First Aero Squadron of the Mexican Punitive Expedition in 1916. During World War I he won the Distinguished Service Cross in combat over St. Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne. In 1940 he was sent to the United Kingdom as an official observer of the Battle of Britain. On his return to the United States he became commander of the Air Corps Materiel Division. At the beginning of 1942 he became chief of the Army Air Forces Combat Command. In May of that year he was given the command of the Eighth Air Force, which he took to the United Kingdom in the following July. Shortly thereafter he also became Commanding General, U.S. Army Air Forces in Europe. At the close of the year he was appointed commander of the Twelfth Air Force in North Africa. Two months later he was named commander of the Northwest African Air Forces. When the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces headquarters was established in 1943 under Air Chief Marshal Tedder, General Spaatz became its deputy commander. In January 1944 he went back to the United Kingdom where he assumed command of the United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe.\nMAJ. GEN. KENNETH W. D. STRONG served as assistant military attache in Berlin shortly before the outbreak of war in 1939, and in the first one and a half years of the war as head of the German Section, War Office. Later he commanded a battalion and then became chief of intelligence of Home Forces. In February 1943 he was appointed G-2 of Allied Force Headquarters in the Mediterranean. In this capacity he helped General Smith in armistice negotiations with the Italians. In the spring of 1944 he became G-2 of SHAEF.\nGENERALOBERST KURT STUDENT was one of Germany's first fighter pilots-in 1913-and served in the Luftwaffe during World War I. After the outbreak of World War II, he took an active part in the paratroop attack on Rotterdam and in May 1941 commanded the paratroop attack on Crete. When the Allies invaded Europe, Student held the position of Commander of Paratroops in OKL in Berlin, and from 3 September until 31 October 1944 he was commander of the First Parachute Army under Army Group B in the Albert Canal-Maastricht sector. For the next three months he commanded Army Group Student, later renamed Army Group H, in Holland. During the month of April 1945 he again commanded the First Para-\n--20--\nchute Army in the Weser-Ems area. For the remaining week of the war, General Student commanded Army Group Weichsel on the Eastern Front. He was captured on 28 May 1945 near Flensburg.\nAIR CHIEF MARSHAL SIR ARTHUR W. TEDDER served as British air commander in the Middle East in 1942, helping to stop Rommel's advance toward Egypt. His forces also contributed to the success of the El Alamein attack and the subsequent drive toward Tunisia. From February 1943 until the end of the year, he served as Commander in Chief, Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, which included RAF Middle East, RAF Malta Air Command, and the Northwest African Air Forces. In January 1944 he was appointed Deputy Supreme Commander, SHAEF.\nLT. GEN. HOYT S. VANDENBERG served from June 1939 to June 1942 as assistant chief of the Plans Division in the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps. From June to August 1942 he was chief of the organization and equipment section in the A-3 Division of the same office. He went overseas in August 1942 as chief of staff of the Twelfth Air Force and served in that capacity until August of the following year. From August 1943 to March 1944 he was deputy chief of the Air Staff in Washington. He filled the post of Deputy Air Commander, Allied Expeditionary Air Force, from March to August 1944, and was then appointed to the command of the Ninth Air Force.\nMAJ . GEN. C. H. H. VULLIAMY served in 1939-40 as chief signal officer of the Antiaircraft Defence of Great Britain. In 1940 he became chief signal officer of a corps in Northern Ireland. He held a similar post in an army in 1941-42 before going to the Middle East Command as chief signal officer in 1943. In November of that year he became head of the Signals Division of COSSAC, and in February 1944 became chief of the Signal Division, SHAEF. He held this post until the spring of 1945.\nMAJ. GEN. J. F. M. WHITELEY, veteran of World War I, in which he was awarded the Military Cross, served as Deputy Assistant Adjutant General India from 1932 to 1934. In the following year he became General Staff Officer, War Office, continuing as such until 1938. In World War II he served as deputy chief of staff at Allied Force Headquarters, was assigned briefly as chief of intelligence at SHAEF, and became Deputy G-3, SHAEF, in May 1944.\nGENERALOBERST KURT ZEITZLER served as an infantry officer in World War I. In World War II he served as a corps chief of staff in the Polish and French campaigns and as chief of staff of First Panzer Group, later First Panzer Army, in Russia in 1941. After a short tour as chief of staff of OB WEST he was appointed Chief of the Army General Staff in September 1942. He was relieved of this position in July 1944 and retired from the Army in January 1945.\n--21--",
"History of Fort Knox - About Fort Knox - Fort Knox, Kentucky\nHome > About Fort Knox > Fort Knox History\nHistory of Fort Knox\nAmerica's involvement in World War I made it necessary to establish new military installations. In April 1918 the War Department looked to the area of West Point, Kentucky to establish a permanent artillery camp. According to the Louisville Courier, \"The West Point range would become the artillery training center of the army.\"\nOn April 6, 1918 the first field artillery units arrived at West Point from Camp Zachary Taylor in Louisville. Additional units making up the Field Artillery Brigade of the 84th Division arrived the following month.\nWith the number of troops arriving, it was not long before the Army began looking for additional space. That summer the Army leased 20,000 acres of property in the area of Stithton, Kentucky, a small farming community in Hardin County. Stithton was desired for its close proximity to the railroad and for its higher elevation. Under Major W. H. Radcliffe, constructing quartermaster at Camp Knox, construction of buildings began in August of 1918. The \"tented\" camp at West Point would temporarily remain while permanent construction occurred in Stithton.\nThe land at Stithton was soon acquisitioned by the Army and more land was acquired from Bullitt and Meade Counties. Many of the houses in the town of Stithton were used for the Army's purposes. Modest Victorian architecture once occupied by Stithton residents became homes used by Army officers and their families.\nSt. Patrick's Catholic Church was utilized as a church and other purposes. (Today, it is the Main Post Chapel and the oldest building on post.) Barracks and warehouses were built to accommodate and support the growing population of Soldiers arriving by train.\nStandardized plans were used to build most of these World War I mobilization buildings and identical buildings could be found on most other installations around the country. In this era and locality of the country, horse drawn equipment was still regularly used along with automobiles.\nReflecting its relationship to artillery, the new post was named in honor of General Henry Knox, Chief of Artillery in the Revolutionary War and first Secretary of War. It was World War One and Camp Henry Knox had come into existence as a permanent post for the United States Army.\nIn September 1918 it was decided to permanently move the artillery camp in West Point to Stithton. The following month the Camp Knox News was founded as the post's first newspaper. That October, Camp Knox's Godman Field became the fi rst airfi eld in Kentucky when it was built for the 29th Aero Squadron.\nOn November 11, 1918 America celebrated the armistice that ended World War I and construction at Stithton slowed down dramatically. Later that month the first troops were transferred from West Point. Near the end of December, most of the troops there had been moved to the permanent camp at Stithton and the maximum number of troops on post reached a high of 9,000.\nTroops returning from overseas were brought to Camp Knox to be discharged from the service over the next year. Much of their equipment was turned in and stored in the warehouses that still remain at Fort Knox.\nThe Army's force was reduced in the early 1920s and it was deemed necessary to close the post as a permanent installation in 1922. Although closed as a permanent installation, Camp Knox remained an active training center for the Army. Camp Knox was used by the 5th Corps Area for Reserve Officer training, the National Guard, and Citizen's Military Training Camps (CMTC). For a brief time, during 1925 to 1928, the area was designated as \"Camp Henry Knox National Forest\" until two infantry companies were assigned to the post in 1928.\nMECHANIZED CAVALRY HEADQUARTERED AT CAMP KNOX IN 1931\nIn the following year the War Department created the mechanized force. Upon the recommendation of Lt. Col. Adna R. Chaff ee Jr. and Col. Daniel Van Voorhis, Camp Knox was chosen to be the new headquarters for the Mechanized Cavalry in 1931. The size and terrain of Camp Knox made this a suitable area for such training.\nOn January 1, 1932 Camp Knox was made a permanent installation once again and from then on has been known as Fort Knox. Two weeks later the 1st Cavalry Regiment, the Army's oldest mounted unit, arrived at Fort Knox and exchanged its horses for armored combat cars.\nTo support the newly Mechanized Cavalry, Fort Knox was required to construct housing and support facilities. Designed by the Quartermaster Corps, most of these buildings comprise today's Fort Knox Historic District.\nAs Fort Knox was constructed, Mechanized Cavalry established the early doctrine of armored warfare. Maneuvers were held that supported the importance of armored vehicles in modern combat. Other duties were also presented and in 1937 they were called upon to guard gold moving into the Treasury Department's new depository and assisted during the great flood that ravaged the area.\nDuring the 1930s, Fort Knox was an induction center for the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) enrollees. Train loads of young men were sent to Fort Knox from West Virginia, Indiana, Ohio and Kentucky. They spent about two weeks at Fort Knox where they received their shots, clothing and were trained. After this induction period was completed, the men were put on trains and sent to camps at various locations around the country.\nA number of camps remained at Fort Knox. These camps were assigned such tasks as improving forests, constructing fire breaks, building roads, working in the stone quarry, soil conservation, pest control, cooking, cleaning, and working in the motor pool as mechanics.\nAs Fort Knox grew as an installation, additional infrastructure was required to accommodate all the new personnel and equipment. Both the CCC and the WPA (Works Progress Administration), another work relief program, assisted Fort Knox in this development.\nARMORED FORCE HEADQUARTERED AT FORT KNOX FOR WW II, RESPONSIBLE FOR ARMORED FORMATIONS, DOCTRINE, TRAINING\nWith the outbreak of World War II in Europe, the American Army prepared with the creation of the Armored Force and headquartered it at Fort Knox in the summer of 1940. It was responsible for establishing armored formations, doctrine, and training in the use of armored vehicles. Selective Service was implemented and thousands of citizen soldiers were ordered to Fort Knox and introduced to the tank. The post was required to undergo a massive building boom and acquisition of land to support these troops.\nIn October 1940, the Armored Force School and Armored Force Replacement Center were established, training Soldiers in specific areas such as armor tactics, tank gunnery, communications, and maintenance. The United States was thrown into World War II on December 7, 1941 and the Armored Force experienced their first battle casualty the following day. PFC. Robert Brooks, 192nd Tank Battalion, would be honored with having the main parade ground named for him.\nIn April 1942, Fort Knox served as the location of an important testing location for the Navy. At that time an allwood mock-up of the Landing Ship Tank (LST) well deck was duplicated to allow naval architects to track airflow and test ventilation systems capable of removing poisonous gases created by running tanks and vehicles enclosed in the well deck.\nA solution was found and the go-ahead was given for contractors to complete construction on actual LSTs. In all, more than 1,050 such vessels were built during the war. Today the building, located at 1538 Eisenhower Ave., is used by the General George Patton Museum for various purposes. It is one of the few World War II wooden structures remaining on Fort Knox and is eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places.\nDuring World War II, armor made great advancements through the development of new tanks, organization, and training. Equipment and Soldiers benefited from findingsmade by the Armored Board and Armored Medical Research Laboratory. In 1943 the Armored Force was re-designated the \"Armored Command\" and within a year was changed to the \"Armored Center.\"\nIn 1943 another renaming occurred; the Armored Force Replacement Training Center officially became the Armored Replacement Training Center (ARTC). Here Soldiers received a 17-week course which included instruction in various arms, big tank guns, tank driving and maintenance, chemical warfare and many other subjects. They were introduced to hills \"Misery,\" \"Agony\" and \"Heartbreak\" before graduating and then sent to divisions, additional schooling, or straight into the various theaters of war.\nIn May of 1944 the 477th Bombardment Group, a black Army Air Force unit, was briefly stationed at Godman Army Airfield. They came from Selfridge Airfield near Detroit, where black officers were barred from using the officer's club. The Army moved them to Kentucky in an attempt to avoid further racial conflicts. While at Godman they were allowed to use the officer's club at the airfield, but not on Fort Knox. The following March they were moved to Freeman Field in Indiana. Other World War Two units included the 387th and 391st Bombardment Groups.\nWW II PRISONER OF WAR CAMP ESTABLISHED AT FORT KNOX\nFort Knox was site of a main POW camp between February 1944 and June 1946. The first POWs to arrive were Italian. In May 1944 they received an opportunity to volunteer for special service units to aid the American Army. While still classified as POWs, they were on an honor system and given more opportunities.\nGerman POWs arrived in June 1944 and had a routine camp life which included work, rules, and recreation. Outdoor and indoor work details were assigned, many times alongside civilian employees. Many civilians and prisoners got along well with one another and some became friends. The German POW camp at Ft. Knox has since been demolished. It was located in the vicinity of Scott Middle School. The former camp soccer field is the only remaining feature of that camp and is now used for American football by students.\nA number of Axis prisoners died while at Fort Knox and 18 are buried in the post cemetery. One tragic incident involved the accidental shooting of a number of prisoners and in which two died, Ernst Schlotter and Frederich Wolf.\nAt the close of World War II there were 16 combat tested armored divisions and approximately sixty-five tank battalions. Armored units had participated in every major theater of operations that Americans had participated in. The Armored Center was inactivated in October 1945 but reestablished over a year later.\nIn June 1946, Fort Knox Commanding General, Maj. Gen. Hugh J. Gaffey was killed in a B-25 crash as it attempted to land at Godman Airfield. He is the highest ranking officer buried in the post cemetery.\nIn 1947 Army recruits from the Universal Military Training Experimental Unit arrived at Fort Knox to participate in a short-lived experimental program (UMT) that off ered extended basic training combined with civilian supervision and discipline. Also that year the 3rd Armored Division was reactivated at Fort Knox and assumed command of the ARTC, which was placed on an inactive status. They would train more than 300,000 Soldiers during their time at Fort Knox.\nUnder the Army Organization Act of 1950 armor and cavalry were combined to form the Armor Branch. In 1955 the 3rd Armored Division was shipped to Europe and the ARTC was activated to resume training. It was given the new name U.S. Army Training Center (USATCA), Armor, and comprised approximately half of the population at Fort Knox. Soon after the Armored Center and Armored School were officially designated the \"Armor Center\" and \"Armor School.\" In 1957 it became the US Army Armor Center.\nThe Cold War helped secure the Armor Branch's role in the Army and the Armor Center continued to fulfill the role of producing capable and highly trained armor personnel. By the late 1960s, more than one million trainees had completed one or more training programs in the Fort Knox Training Center since its inception in 1940.\nCombat operations in Korea and Vietnam presented new challenges for the branch that differed from those learned during World War Two. Thus, the Armor Center continued its role in the development and evolution of tactics and vehicles for Armor and Cavalry.\nIn 1981 the Armor Center contributed to the development of the Army's AirLand Battle doctrine, which took advantage of new weaponry to assume an off ensive role in Central Europe. Guidelines set forth in this doctrine were applied successfully during the Gulf War in the early 1990s. During this conflict, Fort Knox served as a mobilization center and provided combat ready Soldiers.\nWith the approaching 21st Century, digital technology dictated another transformation in how armor would conduct itself on the battlefield and a Future Combat System was developed. To assist in this endeavor, the Unit of Action Maneuver Battle Lab was established in 2002. It was during this time that the Stryker Interim Armored Vehicle went through extensive testing. Military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq prompted changes and termination of the program at Fort Knox. However, to support Armor activities, a battle lab was retained.\n2005 BRAC ANNOUNCEMENT SETS STAGE FOR FORT KNOX TRANSITION\nThe most recent era of transformation began in 2005 with the recommendations of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission. The Armor Center and School are relocating to Fort Benning to merge with the Infantry Center and form the Maneuver Center of Excellence. In addition, the Armor School is relocating to Fort Benning and, as with the Infantry School, will be subordinate to the MCoE.\nRelocating to Fort Knox are Human Resources Command, Army Accessions Command and Cadet Command to join Recruiting Command information of the Human Resource Center of Excellence.\nAdditional units relocating to Fort Knox include the 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 1st Infantry Division; Army Reserve Readiness Training Center; 100th Division Headquarters; and the 3rd Sustainment Command (Expeditionary).\nFort Knox served as the \"Home of Cavalry and Armor\" for seven decades and is now embracing its new array of missions brought about by the BRAC transformations.\nAs the Army's Human Resource Center of Excellence, Fort Knox is now positioned to continue its central role in the front ranks of military installations in the United States, recruiting, training and supporting warfighters for the challenges of the twenty-first century. Strength Starts Here!\nLocal Historical Brochures"
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Who was the third wife of the leader of China's Long March?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Mao Zedong or Mao Tse-tung (; December 26, 1893 - September 9, 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary and founding father of the People's Republic of China, which he ruled as an autocrat styled the Chairman of the Communist Party of China from its establishment in 1949, until his death in 1976. His Marxist–Leninist theories, military strategies, and political policies are collectively known as Maoism or Marxism-Leninism-Maoism.\n\nBorn the son of a wealthy farmer in Shaoshan, Hunan, Mao adopted a Chinese nationalist and anti-imperialist outlook in early life, particularly influenced by the events of the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 and May Fourth Movement of 1919. Mao adopted Marxism–Leninism while working at Peking University and became a founding member of the Communist Party of China (CPC), leading the Autumn Harvest Uprising in 1927. During the Chinese Civil War between the Guomindang (GMD) and the CPC, Mao helped to found the Red Army, led the Jiangxi Soviet's radical land policies and ultimately became head of the CPC during the Long March. Although the CPC temporarily allied with the GMD under the United Front during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–45), after Japan's defeat China's civil war resumed and in 1949 Mao's forces defeated the Nationalists who withdrew to Taiwan.\n\nOn October 1, 1949, Mao proclaimed the foundation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), a one-party state controlled by the CPC. In the following years Mao solidified his control through land reform campaigns against landlords, and perceived enemies of the state he termed as \"counter-revolutionaries\". In 1957, he launched the Great Leap Forward campaign that aimed to rapidly transform China's economy from an agrarian economy to an industrial one. The campaign contributed to a widespread famine, whose death toll is estimated at between 15 and 45 million. In 1966, he initiated the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, a program to remove \"counter-revolutionary\" elements of Chinese society that lasted 10 years and which was marked by violent class struggle, widespread destruction of cultural artifacts and unprecedented elevation of Mao's personality cult. In 1972, Mao welcomed American President Richard Nixon in Beijing, signalling a policy of opening China, which was furthered under the rule of Deng Xiaoping (1978–1992). Mao suffered a series of heart attacks in 1976, dying in that September, aged 82. He was succeeded as Paramount leader by Hua Guofeng (1976–1978), who was quickly sidelined and replaced by Deng.\n\nA controversial figure, Mao is regarded as one of the most important individuals in modern world history, and is also known as a theorist, military strategist, poet and visionary. Supporters credit him with driving imperialism out of China, modernising China and building it into a world power, promoting the status of women, improving education and health care, and increasing life expectancy as China's population grew from around 550 million to over 900 million during the period of his leadership. In contrast, critics consider him a dictator comparable to Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin who severely damaged traditional Chinese culture, as well as a perpetrator of systematic human rights abuses who was responsible for an estimated 40 to 70 million deaths through starvation, forced labour and executions, ranking his tenure as the top incidence of democide in human history. \n\nEarly life\n\nYouth and the Xinhai Revolution: 1893–1911\n\nMao Zedong was born on December 26, 1893 in Shaoshan village, Hunan Province, China. His father, Mao Yichang, was a formerly impoverished peasant who had become one of the wealthiest farmers in Shaoshan. Growing up in rural Hunan, Mao Zedong described his father as a stern disciplinarian, who would beat him and his three siblings, the boys Zemin and Zetan, and an adopted girl, Zejian. Mao's mother, Wen Qimei, was a devout Buddhist who tried to temper her husband's strict attitude. Zedong too became a Buddhist, but abandoned this faith in his mid-teenage years. At age 8, Mao was sent to Shaoshan Primary School. Learning the value systems of Confucianism, he later admitted that he didn't enjoy the classical Chinese texts preaching Confucian morals, instead favouring popular novels like Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin. At age 13, Mao finished primary education, and his father united him in an arranged marriage to the 17-year-old Luo Yigu, thereby uniting their land-owning families. Mao refused to recognise her as his wife, becoming a fierce critic of arranged marriage and temporarily moving away. Luo was locally disgraced and died in 1910. \n\nWhile working on his father's farm, Mao read voraciously, and developed a \"political consciousness\" from Zheng Guanying's booklet which lamented the deterioration of Chinese power and argued for the adoption of representative democracy. Interested in history, Mao was inspired by the military prowess and nationalistic fervour of George Washington and Napoleon Bonaparte. His political views were shaped by Gelaohui-led protests which erupted following a famine in Hunanese capital Changsha; Mao supported the protesters' demands, but the armed forces suppressed the dissenters and executed their leaders. The famine spread to Shaoshan, where starving peasants seized his father's grain. He disapproved of their actions as morally wrong, but claimed sympathy for their situation. At age 16, Mao moved to a higher primary school in nearby Dongshan, where he was bullied for his peasant background. \n\nIn 1911, Mao began middle school in Changsha. Revolutionary sentiment was strong in the city, where there was widespread animosity towards Emperor Puyi's absolute monarchy and many were advocating republicanism. The republicans' figurehead was Sun Yat-sen, an American-educated Christian who led the Tongmenghui society. In Changsha, Mao was influenced by Sun's newspaper, The People's Independence (Minli bao), and called for Sun to become president in a school essay. As a symbol of rebellion against the Manchu monarch, Mao and a friend cut off their queue pigtails, a sign of subservience to the emperor. \n\nInspired by Sun's republicanism, the army rose up across southern China, sparking the Xinhai Revolution. Changsha's governor fled, leaving the city in republican control. Supporting the revolution, Mao joined the rebel army as a private soldier, but was not involved in fighting. The northern provinces remained loyal to the emperor, and hoping to avoid a civil war, Sun—proclaimed \"provisional president\" by his supporters—compromised with the monarchist general Yuan Shikai. The monarchy would be abolished, creating the Republic of China, but the monarchist Yuan would become president. The revolution over, Mao resigned from the army in 1912, after six months as a soldier. Around this time, Mao discovered socialism from a newspaper article; proceeding to read pamphlets by Jiang Kanghu, the student founder of the Chinese Socialist Party, Mao remained interested yet unconvinced by the idea. \n\nFourth Normal School of Changsha: 1912–19\n\nOver the next few years, Mao enrolled and dropped out of a police academy, a soap-production school, a law school, an economics school, and the government-run Changsha Middle School. Studying independently, he spent much time in Changsha's library, reading core works of classical liberalism such as Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations and Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws, as well as the works of western scientists and philosophers such as Darwin, Mill, Rousseau, and Spencer. Viewing himself as an intellectual, years later he admitted that at this time he thought himself better than working people. He was inspired by Friedrich Paulsen, whose liberal emphasis on individualism led Mao to believe that strong individuals were not bound by moral codes but should strive for the greater good, and that the \"end justifies the means\" conclusion of Consequentialism. His father saw no use in his son's intellectual pursuits, cut off his allowance, and forced him to move into a hostel for the destitute. \n\nMao desired to become a teacher and enrolled at the Fourth Normal School of Changsha, which soon merged with the First Normal School of Changsha, widely seen as the best in Hunan. Befriending Mao, professor Yang Changji urged him to read a radical newspaper, New Youth (Xin qingnian), the creation of his friend Chen Duxiu, a dean at Peking University. Although a Chinese nationalist, Chen argued that China must look to the west to cleanse itself of superstition and autocracy. Mao published his first article in New Youth in April 1917, instructing readers to increase their physical strength to serve the revolution. He joined the Society for the Study of Wang Fuzhi (Chuan-shan Hsüeh-she), a revolutionary group founded by Changsha literati who wished to emulate the philosopher Wang Fuzhi. \n\nIn his first school year, Mao befriended an older student, Xiao Zisheng; together they went on a walking tour of Hunan, begging and writing literary couplets to obtain food. A popular student, in 1915 Mao was elected secretary of the Students Society. He organized the Association for Student Self-Government and led protests against school rules. In spring 1917, he was elected to command the students' volunteer army, set up to defend the school from marauding soldiers. Increasingly interested in the techniques of war, he took a keen interest in World War I, and also began to develop a sense of solidarity with workers. Mao undertook feats of physical endurance with Xiao Zisheng and Cai Hesen, and with other young revolutionaries they formed the Renovation of the People Study Society in April 1918 to debate Chen Duxiu's ideas. Desiring personal and societal transformation, the Society gained 70–80 members, many of whom would later join the Communist Party. Mao graduated in June 1919, ranked third in the year. \n\nEarly revolutionary activity\n\nBeijing, Anarchism, and Marxism: 1917–19\n\nMao moved to Beijing, where his mentor Yang Changji had taken a job at Peking University. Yang thought Mao exceptionally \"intelligent and handsome\", securing him a job as assistant to the university librarian Li Dazhao, an early Chinese Communist. Li authored a series of New Youth articles on the October Revolution in Russia, during which the Communist Bolshevik Party under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin had seized power. Lenin was an advocate of the socio-political theory of Marxism, first developed by the German sociologists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and Li's articles brought an understanding of Marxism to the Chinese revolutionary movement. Becoming \"more and more radical\", Mao was influenced by Peter Kropotkin's anarchism but joined Li's Study Group and \"developed rapidly toward Marxism\" during the winter of 1919. \n\nPaid a low wage, Mao lived in a cramped room with seven other Hunanese students, but believed that Beijing's beauty offered \"vivid and living compensation\". At the university, Mao was widely snubbed by other students due to his rural Hunanese accent and lowly position. He joined the university's Philosophy and Journalism Societies and attended lectures and seminars by the likes of Chen Duxiu, Hu Shi, and Qian Xuantong. Mao's time in Beijing ended in the spring of 1919, when he travelled to Shanghai with friends from where he departed for France. He did not return to Shaoshan, where his mother was terminally ill. She died in October 1919, with her husband dying in January 1920. \n\nNew Culture and political protests, 1919–20\n\nOn May 4, 1919, students in Beijing gathered at the Gate of Heavenly Peace to protest the Chinese government's weak resistance to Japanese expansion in China. Patriots were outraged at the influence given to Japan in the Twenty-One Demands in 1915, the complicity of Duan Qirui’s Beiyang Government, and the betrayal of China in the Treaty of Versailles, wherein Japan was allowed to receive territories in Shandong which had been surrendered by Germany. These demonstrations ignited the nation-wide May Fourth Movement and fueled the New Culture Movement which blamed China’s diplomatic defeats on social and cultural backwardness. \n\nIn Changsha, Mao had begun teaching history at the Xiuye Primary School and organizing protests against the pro-Duan Governor of Hunan Province, Zhang Jingyao, popularly known as \"Zhang the Venomous\" due to his corrupt and violent rule. In late May, Mao co-founded the Hunanese Student Association with He Shuheng and Deng Zhongxia, organizing a student strike for June and in July 1919 began production of a weekly radical magazine, Xiang River Review (Xiangjiang pinglun). Using vernacular language that would be understandable to the majority of China's populace, he advocated the need for a \"Great Union of the Popular Masses\", strengthened trade unions able to wage non-violent revolution. His ideas were not Marxist, but heavily influenced by Kropotkin's concept of mutual aid. \n\nZhang banned the Student Association, but Mao continued publishing after assuming editorship of the liberal magazine New Hunan (Xin Hunan) and offered articles in popular local newspaper Justice (Ta Kung Po). Several of these advocated feminist views, calling for the liberation of women in Chinese society; Mao was influenced by his forced arranged-marriage. In December 1919, Mao helped organise a general strike in Hunan, securing some concessions, but Mao and other student leaders felt threatened by Zhang, and Mao returned to Beijing, visiting the terminally ill Yang Changji. Mao found that his articles had achieved a level of fame among the revolutionary movement, and set about soliciting support in overthrowing Zhang. Coming across newly translated Marxist literature by Thomas Kirkup, Karl Kautsky, and Marx and Engels—notably The Communist Manifesto—he came under their increasing influence, but was still eclectic in his views. \n\nMao visited Tianjin, Jinan, and Qufu, before moving to Shanghai, where he worked as a laundryman and met Chen Duxiu, noting that Chen's adoption of Marxism \"deeply impressed me at what was probably a critical period in my life\". In Shanghai, Mao met an old teacher of his, Yi Peiji, a revolutionary and member of the Kuomintang (KMT), or Chinese Nationalist Party, which was gaining increasing support and influence. Yi introduced Mao to General Tan Yankai, a senior KMT member who held the loyalty of troops stationed along the Hunanese border with Guangdong. Tan was plotting to overthrow Zhang, and Mao aided him by organizing the Changsha students. In June 1920, Tan led his troops into Changsha, and Zhang fled. In the subsequent reorganization of the provincial administration, Mao was appointed headmaster of the junior section of the First Normal School. Now receiving a large income, he married Yang Kaihui in the winter of 1920. \n\nFounding the Communist Party of China: 1921–22\n\nThe Communist Party of China was founded by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao in the French concession of Shanghai in 1921 as a study society and informal network. Mao set up a Changsha branch, also establishing a branch of the Socialist Youth Corps. Opening a bookstore under the control of his new Cultural Book Society, its purpose was to propagate revolutionary literature throughout Hunan. He was involved in the movement for Hunan autonomy, where he helped organise workers' strikes in the winter of 1920–21, in the hope that a Hunanese constitution would increase civil liberties there and make his revolutionary activity easier. Although the movement was successful, in later life, he denied any involvement. By 1921, small Marxist groups existed in Shanghai, Beijing, Changsha, Wuhan, Guangzhou, and Jinan; it was decided to hold a central meeting, which began in Shanghai on July 23, 1921. The first session of the National Congress of the Communist Party of China was attended by 13 delegates, Mao included. After the authorities sent a police spy to the congress, the delegates moved to a boat on South Lake near Chiahsing to escape detection. Although Soviet and Comintern delegates attended, the first congress ignored Lenin's advice to accept a temporary alliance between the Communists and the \"bourgeois democrats\" who also advocated national revolution; instead they stuck to the orthodox Marxist belief that only the urban proletariat could lead a socialist revolution. \n\nMao was now party secretary for Hunan and stationed in Changsha, from which he went on a recruitment drive. In August 1921, he founded the Self-Study University, through which readers could gain access to revolutionary literature, housed in the premises of the Society for the Study of Wang Fuzhi. Taking part in the YMCA mass education movement to fight illiteracy, he opened a Changsha branch, though replaced the usual textbooks with revolutionary tracts in order to spread Marxism among the students. He continued organizing the labour movement to strike against the administration of Hunan Governor Zhao Hengti, particularly following the execution of two anarchists. In July 1922, the Second Congress of the Communist Party took place in Shanghai, though Mao lost the address and couldn't attend. Adopting Lenin's advice, the delegates agreed to an alliance with the \"bourgeois democrats\" of the KMT for the good of the \"national revolution\". Communist Party members joined the KMT, hoping to push its politics leftward. \nMao enthusiastically agreed with this decision, arguing for an alliance across China's socio-economic classes. Mao was a vocal anti-imperialist and in his writings he lambasted the governments of Japan, UK and US, describing the latter as \"the most murderous of hangmen\". Mao's strategy for the successful and famous Anyuan coal mines strikes (contrary to later Party historians) depended on both \"proletarian\" and \"bourgeois\" strategies. The success depended on innovative organizing by Liu Shaoqi and Li Lisan who not only mobilised the miners, but formed schools and cooperatives. They also engaged local intellectuals, gentry, military officers, merchants, Red Gang dragon heads and church clergy in support. \n\nCollaboration with the Kuomintang: 1922–27\n\nAt the Third Congress of the Communist Party in Shanghai in June 1923, the delegates reaffirmed their commitment to working with the KMT against the Beiyang government and imperialists. Supporting this position, Mao was elected to the Party Committee, taking up residence in Shanghai. Attending the First KMT Congress, held in Guangzhou in early 1924, Mao was elected an alternate member of the KMT Central Executive Committee, and put forward four resolutions to decentralise power to urban and rural bureaus. His enthusiastic support for the KMT earned him the suspicion of some Communists. In late 1924, Mao returned to Shaoshan to recuperate from an illness. He found that the peasantry were increasingly restless due to the upheaval of the past decade and some had seized land from wealthy landowners to found communes. This convinced him of the revolutionary potential of the peasantry, an idea advocated by the KMT but not the Communists. He returned to Guangzhou to run the 6th term of the KMT's Peasant Movement Training Institute from May to September 1926. He also served as the director of its propaganda department and edited its Political Weekly (Zhengzhi Zhoubao) newsletter. Through the Peasant Movement Training Institute, Mao took an active role in organizing the revolutionary Hunanese peasants and preparing them for militant activity, taking them through military training exercises and getting them to study various left-wing texts. In the winter of 1925, Mao fled to Guangzhou after his revolutionary activities attracted the attention of Zhao's regional authorities. \n\nThe Communists controlled the left wing of the KMT, struggling for power with the party's right wing. When party leader Sun Yat-sen died in May 1925, he was succeeded by a rightist, Chiang Kai-shek, who initiated moves to marginalise the position of the Communists. Mao nevertheless supported Chiang's decision to overthrow the Beiyang government and their foreign imperialist allies using the National Revolutionary Army, who embarked on the Northern Expedition attack in 1926 on warlords, particularly Zhang. In the wake of this expedition, peasants rose up, appropriating the land of the wealthy landowners, whom were in many cases killed. Such uprisings angered senior KMT figures, who were themselves landowners, emphasizing the growing class and ideological divide within the revolutionary movement. \n\nIn March 1927, Mao appeared at the Third Plenum of the KMT Central Executive Committee in Wuhan, which sought to strip General Chiang of his power by appointing Wang Jingwei leader. There, Mao played an active role in the discussions regarding the peasant issue, defending a set of \"Regulations for the Repression of Local Bullies and Bad Gentry\", which advocated the death penalty or life imprisonment for anyone found guilty of counter-revolutionary activity, arguing that in a revolutionary situation, \"peaceful methods cannot suffice\". In April 1927, Mao was appointed to the KMT's five-member Central Land Committee, urging peasants to refuse to pay rent. Mao led another group to put together a \"Draft Resolution on the Land Question\", which called for the confiscation of land belonging to \"local bullies and bad gentry, corrupt officials, militarists and all counter-revolutionary elements in the villages\". Proceeding to carry out a \"Land Survey\", he stated that anyone owning over 30 mou (four and a half acres), constituting 13% of the population, were uniformly counter-revolutionary. He accepted that there was great variation in revolutionary enthusiasm across the country, and that a flexible policy of land redistribution was necessary. Presenting his conclusions at the Enlarged Land Committee meeting, many expressed reservations, some believing that it went too far, and others not far enough. Ultimately, his suggestions were only partially implemented. \n\nCivil War\n\nThe Nanchang and Autumn Harvest Uprisings: 1927\n\nFresh from the success of the Northern Expedition against the warlords, Chiang turned on the Communists, who by now numbered in the tens of thousands across China. Chiang ignored the orders of the Wuhan-based KMT government and marched on Shanghai, a city controlled by Communist militias. Although the Communists welcomed Chiang's arrival, he turned on them, massacring 5000 with the aid of the Green Gang. Chiang's army then marched on Wuhan, but was prevented from taking the city by Communist General Ye Ting. Chiang's allies also attacked Communists; in Beijing, 19 leading Communists were killed by Zhang Zuolin, while in Changsha, He Jian's forces machine gunned hundreds of peasant militiamen. That May, tens of thousands of Communists and their sympathisers were killed by nationalists, and the CPC lost approximately of its members.\n\nThe CPC continued supporting the Wuhan KMT government, a position Mao initially supported, but by the time of the CPC's Fifth Congress he had changed his mind, deciding to stake all hope on the peasant militia. The question was rendered moot when the Wuhan government expelled all Communists from the KMT on July 15. The CPC founded the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army of China, better known as the \"Red Army\", to battle Chiang. A battalion led by General Zhu De was ordered to take the city of Nanchang on August 1, 1927 in what became known as the Nanchang Uprising. They were initially successful, but were forced into retreat after five days, marching south to Shantou, and from there they were driven into the wilderness of Fujian. Mao was appointed commander-in-chief of the Red Army and led four regiments against Changsha in the Autumn Harvest Uprising, in the hope of sparking peasant uprisings across Hunan. On the eve of the attack, Mao composed a poem—the earliest of his to survive—titled \"Changsha\". His plan was to attack the KMT-held city from three directions on September 9, but the Fourth Regiment deserted to the KMT cause, attacking the Third Regiment. Mao's army made it to Changsha, but could not take it; by September 15, he accepted defeat and with 1000 survivors marched east to the Jinggang Mountains of Jiangxi. \n\nIn their biography of Mao, Mao: The Unknown Story, Jung Chang and Jon Halliday dispute this version of events. Chang and Halliday claim that the uprising was in fact sabotaged by Mao to allow him to snare a force of Nationalist mutineers defecting from Nanchang to the CPC and prevent them from defecting to any other CPC leader. By doing so, he hoped to strengthen his own personal power within the CPC. They claim that Mao's three-day delay in meeting the other leaders of the Hunan uprising, scheduled for August 15 but delayed by Mao until August 18, was to allow him to check that the mutineers would still be passing close by, and that if Mao had not had the opportunity of adding this force to his own he would not have gone to south Hunan. \n\nChang and Halliday also claim that Mao lobbied to narrow the uprising and talked the other leaders (including Russian diplomats at the Soviet consulate in Changsha who, Chang and Halliday claim, had been controlling much of the CPC activity) into striking only at Changsha. This, they say, Mao desired in order to allow him to also gain control of a force of 1,700 peasant rebels and defectors from the Nationalist army who were near Changsha. Chang and Halliday point out that once Mao had gained control of these men, he then moved to a position 100 km east of Changsha at Wenjiashi, September 11. On September 14, before the troops had reached Changsha or met heavy resistance, Mao ordered them to abandon the assault on Changsha and converge on his position. Chang and Halliday report a view sent to Moscow by the secretary of the Soviet Consulate in Changsha that the retreat was \"the most despicable treachery and cowardice.\"\n\nChang and Halliday allege that Mao later fabricated his version of the events to hide the fact that far from leading a peasant uprising, he had hijacked it for his own personal ends, had sabotaged the organisation, and departed with the new troops before the attack on Changsha had begun.\n\nBase in Jinggangshan: 1927–1928\n\nThe CPC Central Committee, hiding in Shanghai, expelled Mao from their ranks and from the Hunan Provincial Committee, as punishment for his \"military opportunism\", for his focus on rural activity, and for being too lenient with \"bad gentry\". They nevertheless adopted three policies he had long championed: the immediate formation of Workers' councils, the confiscation of all land without exemption, and the rejection of the KMT. Mao's response was to ignore them. He established base in Jinggangshan City, an area of the Jinggang Mountains, where he united five villages as a self-governing state, and supported the confiscation of land from rich landlords, who were \"re-educated\" and sometimes executed. He ensured that no massacres took place in the region, and pursued a more lenient approach than that advocated by the Central Committee. He proclaimed that \"Even the lame, the deaf and the blind could all come in useful for the revolutionary struggle\", he boosted the army's numbers, incorporating two groups of bandits into his army, building a force of around troops. He laid down rules for his soldiers: prompt obedience to orders, all confiscations were to be turned over to the government, and nothing was to be confiscated from poorer peasants. In doing so, he molded his men into a disciplined, efficient fighting force.\n\nIn spring 1928, the Central Committee ordered Mao's troops to southern Hunan, hoping to spark peasant uprisings. Mao was skeptical, but complied. They reached Hunan, where they were attacked by the KMT and fled after heavy losses. Meanwhile, KMT troops had invaded Jinggangshan, leaving them without a base. Wandering the countryside, Mao's forces came across a CPC regiment led by General Zhu De and Lin Biao; they united, and attempted to retake Jinggangshan. They were initially successful, but the KMT counter-attacked, and pushed the CPC back; over the next few weeks, they fought an entrenched guerrilla war in the mountains. The Central Committee again ordered Mao to march to south Hunan, but he refused, and remained at his base. Contrastingly, Zhu complied, and led his armies away. Mao's troops fended the KMT off for 25 days while he left the camp at night to find reinforcements. He reunited with the decimated Zhu's army, and together they returned to Jinggangshan and retook the base. There they were joined by a defecting KMT regiment and Peng Dehuai's Fifth Red Army. In the mountainous area they were unable to grow enough crops to feed everyone, leading to food shortages throughout the winter. \n\nJiangxi Soviet Republic of China: 1929–1934\n\nIn January 1929, Mao and Zhu evacuated the base with 2,000 men and a further 800 provided by Peng, and took their armies south, to the area around Tonggu and Xinfeng in Jiangxi. The evacuation led to a drop in morale, and many troops became disobedient and began thieving; this worried Li Lisan and the Central Committee, who saw Mao's army as lumpenproletariat, that were unable to share in proletariat class consciousness. In keeping with orthodox Marxist thought, Li believed that only the urban proletariat could lead a successful revolution, and saw little need for Mao's peasant guerrillas; he ordered Mao to disband his army into units to be sent out to spread the revolutionary message. Mao replied that while he concurred with Li's theoretical position, he would not disband his army nor abandon his base. Both Li and Mao saw the Chinese revolution as the key to world revolution, believing that a CPC victory would spark the overthrow of global imperialism and capitalism. In this, they disagreed with the official line of the Soviet government and Comintern. Officials in Moscow desired greater control over the CPC and removed Li from power by calling him to Russia for an inquest into his errors. They replaced him with Soviet-educated Chinese Communists, known as the \"28 Bolsheviks\", two of whom, Bo Gu and Zhang Wentian, took control of the Central Committee. Mao disagreed with the new leadership, believing they grasped little of the Chinese situation, and he soon emerged as their key rival. \n\nIn February 1930, Mao created the Southwest Jiangxi Provincial Soviet Government in the region under his control. In November, he suffered emotional trauma after his wife and sister were captured and beheaded by KMT general He Jian. Mao then married He Zizhen, an 18-year-old revolutionary who bore him five children over the following nine years. Facing internal problems, members of the Jiangxi Soviet accused him of being too moderate, and hence anti-revolutionary. In December, they tried to overthrow Mao, resulting in the Futian incident, during which Mao's loyalists tortured many and executed between 2000 and 3000 dissenters. The CPC Central Committee moved to Jiangxi which it saw as a secure area. In November it proclaimed Jiangxi to be the Soviet Republic of China, an independent Communist-governed state. Although he was proclaimed Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, Mao's power was diminished, as his control of the Red Army was allocated to Zhou Enlai. Meanwhile, Mao recovered from tuberculosis. \n\nThe KMT armies adopted a policy of encirclement and annihilation of the Red armies. Outnumbered, Mao responded with guerrilla tactics influenced by the works of ancient military strategists like Sun Tzu, but Zhou and the new leadership followed a policy of open confrontation and conventional warfare. In doing so, the Red Army successfully defeated the first and second encirclements. Angered at his armies' failure, Chiang Kai-shek personally arrived to lead the operation. He too faced setbacks and retreated to deal with the further Japanese incursions into China. As a result of the KMT's change of focus to the defence of China against Japanese expansionism, the Red Army was able to expand its area of control, eventually encompassing a population of 3 million. Mao proceeded with his land reform program. In November 1931 he announced the start of a \"land verification project\" which was expanded in June 1933. He also orchestrated education programs and implemented measures to increase female political participation. Chiang viewed the Communists as a greater threat than the Japanese and returned to Jiangxi, where he initiated the fifth encirclement campaign, which involved the construction of a concrete and barbed wire \"wall of fire\" around the state, which was accompanied by aerial bombardment, to which Zhou's tactics proved ineffective. Trapped inside, morale among the Red Army dropped as food and medicine became scarce. The leadership decided to evacuate. \n\nThe Long March: 1934–1935\n\nOn October 14, 1934, the Red Army broke through the KMT line on the Jiangxi Soviet's south-west corner at Xinfeng with soldiers and party cadres and embarked on the \"Long March\". In order to make the escape, many of the wounded and the ill, as well as women and children, were left behind, defended by a group of guerrilla fighters whom the KMT massacred. The who escaped headed to southern Hunan, first crossing the Xiang River after heavy fighting, and then the Wu River, in Guizhou where they took Zunyi in January 1935. Temporarily resting in the city, they held a conference; here, Mao was elected to a position of leadership, becoming Chairman of the Politburo, and de facto leader of both Party and Red Army, in part because his candidacy was supported by Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin. Insisting that they operate as a guerrilla force, he laid out a destination: the Shenshi Soviet in Shaanxi, Northern China, from where the Communists could focus on fighting the Japanese. Mao believed that in focusing on the anti-imperialist struggle, the Communists would earn the trust of the Chinese people, who in turn would renounce the KMT. \n\nFrom Zunyi, Mao led his troops to Loushan Pass, where they faced armed opposition but successfully crossed the river. Chiang flew into the area to lead his armies against Mao, but the Communists outmanoeuvred him and crossed the Jinsha River. Faced with the more difficult task of crossing the Tatu River, they managed it by fighting a battle over the Luding Bridge in May, taking Luding. Marching through the mountain ranges around Ma'anshan, in Moukung, Western Szechuan, they encountered the -strong CPC Fourth Front Army of Zhang Guotao, and together proceeded to Maoerhkai and then Gansu. Zhang and Mao disagreed over what to do; the latter wished to proceed to Shaanxi, while Zhang wanted to retreat east to Tibet or Sikkim, far from the KMT threat. It was agreed that they would go their separate ways, with Zhu De joining Zhang. Mao's forces proceeded north, through hundreds of miles of Grasslands, an area of quagmire where they were attacked by Manchu tribesman and where many soldiers succumbed to famine and disease. Finally reaching Shaanxi, they fought off both the KMT and an Islamic cavalry militia before crossing the Min Mountains and Mount Liupan and reaching the Shenshi Soviet; only 7-8000 had survived. The Long March cemented Mao's status as the dominant figure in the party. In November 1935, he was named chairman of the Military Commission. From this point onward, Mao was the Communist Party's undisputed leader, even though he would not become party chairman until 1943. \n\nMany if not most of the events as later described by Mao and which the CPC claims are true are seen as false by Jung Chang. During the decade spent researching the book, Mao: The Unknown Story, for instance, Chang found evidence that there was no battle at Luding and that the CPC crossed the bridge unopposed. Chang interviewed an eye witness to the crossing of the Dadu (Tatu) River at Luding, Mrs Zhu De, then 93 years old, who recalled no deaths, except for two people who fell from the bridge at Luding while repairing it. Chang also points out the contradictions in the version of events as told by the CPC, which said the bridge was taken by a suicide attack by 22 men, but that these men were also present at a ceremony following the crossing of the bridge. \n\nChang and Halliday also dispute the Communist Party of China's official version by claiming that far from the Long March being a masterful piece of strategy by the CPC, it was in fact devised by Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the KMT. Chiang's aim was to give the CPC an easy route to follow through warlord controlled areas. Hemmed in by Nationalist troops on three sides, the CPC was forced to follow the route dictated by the KMT. The aim of this was to allow KMT forces to follow the reds into warlord controlled areas such as Sichuan and win over warlords scared of the sudden arrival of the Communist force. The only glitch in this plan came when Mao refused to follow the easy route into Sichuan where he was to meet up with a red army much larger than his own and led by a more senior CPC member, Chang Kuo Tao. Mao recognised the threat Chang posed to his rising position in the CPC and doubled back to give himself time to further cement his political power, causing the needless deaths of thousands of his own troops.\n\nChang and Halliday also claim that Mao and other top CPC leaders did not walk the Long March, but were carried on litters – Mao himself told his staff that being carried on the Long March gave him much time to read – with the litter bearers' knees being worn to the bone when forced to carry Mao up mountains.\n\nAlliance with the Kuomintang: 1935–1940\n\nMao's troops arrived at the Yan'an Soviet during October 1935 and settled in Pao An, until spring 1936. While there, they developed links with local communities, redistributed and farmed the land, offered medical treatment, and began literacy programs. Mao now commanded soldiers, boosted by the arrival of He Long's men from Hunan and the armies of Zhu Den and Zhang Guotao returned from Tibet. In February 1936 they established the North West Anti-Japanese Red Army University in Yan'an, through which they trained increasing numbers of new recruits. In January 1937 they began the \"anti-Japanese expedition\", that sent groups of guerrilla fighters into Japanese-controlled territory to undertake sporadic attacks. In May 1937, a Communist Conference was held in Yan'an to discuss the situation. Western reporters also arrived in the \"Border Region\" (as the Soviet had been renamed); most notable were Edgar Snow, who used his experiences as a basis for Red Star Over China, and Agnes Smedley, whose accounts brought international attention to Mao's cause. \n\nOn the Long March, Mao's wife He Zizen had been injured by a shrapnel wound to the head. She traveled to Moscow for medical treatment; Mao proceeded to divorce her and marry an actress, Jiang Qing. Mao moved into a cave-house and spent much of his time reading, tending his garden and theorizing. He came to believe that the Red Army alone was unable to defeat the Japanese, and that a Communist-led \"government of national defence\" should be formed with the KMT and other \"bourgeois nationalist\" elements to achieve this goal. Although despising Chiang Kai-shek as a \"traitor to the nation\", on May 5 he telegrammed the Military Council of the Nanking National Government proposing a military alliance, a course of action advocated by Stalin. Although Chiang intended to ignore Mao's message and continue the civil war, he was arrested by one of his own generals, Zhang Xueliang, in Xi'an, leading to the Xi'an Incident; Zhang forced Chiang to discuss the issue with the Communists, resulting in the formation of a United Front with concessions on both sides on December 25, 1937. \n\nThe Japanese had taken both Shanghai and Nanking (Nanjing)—resulting in the Nanking Massacre, an atrocity Mao never spoke of all his life—and was pushing the Kuomintang government inland to Chungking. The Japanese's brutality led to increasing numbers of Chinese joining the fight, and the Red Army grew from to . In August 1938, the Red Army formed the New Fourth Army and the Eighth Route Army, which were nominally under the command of Chiang's National Revolutionary Army. In August 1940, the Red Army initiated the Hundred Regiments Campaign, in which troops attacked the Japanese simultaneously in five provinces. It was a military success, that resulted in the death of Japanese, the disruption of railways and the loss of a coal mine. From his base in Yan'an, Mao authored several texts for his troops, including Philosophy of Revolution, which offered an introduction to the Marxist theory of knowledge, Protracted Warfare, which dealt with guerilla and mobile military tactics, and New Democracy, which laid forward ideas for China's future. \n\nResuming civil war: 1940–1949\n\nIn 1944, the Americans sent a special diplomatic envoy, called the Dixie Mission, to the Communist Party of China. According to Edwin Moise, in Modern China: A History 2nd Edition:\n\nMost of the Americans were favourably impressed. The CPC seemed less corrupt, more unified, and more vigorous in its resistance to Japan than the KMT. United States fliers shot down over North China ... confirmed to their superiors that the CPC was both strong and popular over a broad area. In the end, the contacts with the USA developed with the CPC led to very little.\n\nAfter the end of World War II, the U.S. continued their military assistance to Chiang Kai-shek and his KMT government forces against the People's Liberation Army (PLA) led by Mao Zedong during the civil war. Likewise, the Soviet Union gave quasi-covert support to Mao by their occupation of north east China, which allowed the PLA to move in en masse and take large supplies of arms left by the Japanese's Kwantung Army.\n\nTo enhance the Red Army's military operations, Mao as the Chairman of the Communist Party of China, named his close associate General Zhu De to be its Commander-in-Chief. \n\nIn 1948, under direct orders from Mao, the People's Liberation Army starved out the Kuomintang forces occupying the city of Changchun. At least civilians are believed to have perished during the siege, which lasted from June until October. PLA lieutenant colonel Zhang Zhenglu, who documented the siege in his book White Snow, Red Blood, compared it to Hiroshima: \"The casualties were about the same. Hiroshima took nine seconds; Changchun took five months.\" On January 21, 1949, Kuomintang forces suffered great losses in decisive battles against Mao's forces. In the early morning of December 10, 1949, PLA troops laid siege to Chongqing and Chengdu on mainland China, and Chiang Kai-shek fled from the mainland to Formosa (Taiwan). \n\nLeadership of China\n\nThe People's Republic of China was established on October 1, 1949. It was the culmination of over two decades of civil and international wars. Mao's famous phrase \"The Chinese people have stood up\" () associated with the establishment of the People's Republic of China was not used in the speech he delivered from the Gate of Heavenly Peace on October 1. \n\nMao took up residence in Zhongnanhai, a compound next to the Forbidden City in Beijing, and there he ordered the construction of an indoor swimming pool and other buildings. Mao's physician Li Zhisui described him as conducting business either in bed or by the side of the pool, preferring not to wear formal clothes unless absolutely necessary. Li's book, The Private Life of Chairman Mao, is regarded as controversial, especially by those sympathetic to Mao. \n\nIn October 1950, Mao made the decision to send the People's Volunteer Army (PVA), a special unit of the People's Liberation Army, into the war in Korea and fight as well as to reinforce the armed forces of North Korea, the Korean People's Army, which had been in full retreat. Historical records showed that Mao directed the PVA campaigns to the minutest details. As the Chairman of the CPC's Central Military Commission (CMC), he was also the Supreme Commander in Chief of the PLA and the People's Republic and Chairman of the ruling CPC. The PVA was under the overall command of then newly installed Premier Zhou Enlai, with General Peng Dehuai as field commander and political commissar. \n\nDuring the land reform, a significant numbers of landlords and well-to-do peasants were beaten to death at mass meetings organised by the Communist Party as land was taken from them and given to poorer peasants. The Campaign to Suppress Counter-revolutionaries, involved public executions that targeted mainly former Kuomintang officials, businessmen accused of \"disturbing\" the market, former employees of Western companies and intellectuals whose loyalty was suspect. In 1976, the U.S. State department estimated as many as a million were killed in the land reform, and killed in the counter-revolutionary campaign. \n\nMao himself claimed that a total of people were killed in attacks on \"counter-revolutionaries\" during the years 1950–52. However, because there was a policy to select \"at least one landlord, and usually several, in virtually every village for public execution\", the number of deaths range between 2 million and 5 million. In addition, at least 1.5 million people, perhaps as many as 4 to 6 million, were sent to \"reform through labour\" camps where many perished. Mao played a personal role in organizing the mass repressions and established a system of execution quotas, which were often exceeded. He defended these killings as necessary for the securing of power. \n\nStarting in 1951, Mao initiated two successive movements in an effort to rid urban areas of corruption by targeting wealthy capitalists and political opponents, known as the three-anti/five-anti campaigns. Whereas the three-anti campaign was a focused purge of government, industrial and party officials, the five-anti campaign set its sights slightly broader, targeting capitalist elements in general. Workers denounced their bosses, spouses turned on their spouses, and children informed on their parents; the victims were often humiliated at struggle sessions, a method designed to intimidate and terrify people to the maximum. Mao insisted that minor offenders be criticised and reformed or sent to labour camps, \"while the worst among them should be shot\". These campaigns took several hundred thousand additional lives, the vast majority via suicide. \n\nIn Shanghai, suicide by jumping from tall buildings became so commonplace that residents avoided walking on the pavement near skyscrapers for fear that suicides might land on them. Some biographers have pointed out that driving those perceived as enemies to suicide was a common tactic during the Mao-era. For example, in his biography of Mao, Philip Short notes that in the Yan'an Rectification Movement, Mao gave explicit instructions that \"no cadre is to be killed\", but in practice allowed security chief Kang Sheng to drive opponents to suicide and that \"this pattern was repeated throughout his leadership of the People's Republic.\"\n\nFollowing the consolidation of power, Mao launched the First Five-Year Plan (1953–58). The plan aimed to end Chinese dependence upon agriculture in order to become a world power. With the Soviet Union's assistance, new industrial plants were built and agricultural production eventually fell to a point where industry was beginning to produce enough capital that China no longer needed the USSR's support. The success of the First-Five Year Plan was to encourage Mao to instigate the Second Five-Year Plan in 1958. Mao also launched a phase of rapid collectivization. The CPC introduced price controls as well as a Chinese character simplification aimed at increasing literacy. Large-scale industrialization projects were also undertaken.\n\nPrograms pursued during this time include the Hundred Flowers Campaign, in which Mao indicated his supposed willingness to consider different opinions about how China should be governed. Given the freedom to express themselves, liberal and intellectual Chinese began opposing the Communist Party and questioning its leadership. This was initially tolerated and encouraged. After a few months, Mao's government reversed its policy and persecuted those, totaling perhaps , who criticised, as well as those who were merely alleged to have criticised, the party in what is called the Anti-Rightist Movement. Authors such as Jung Chang have alleged that the Hundred Flowers Campaign was merely a ruse to root out \"dangerous\" thinking. \n\nLi Zhisui, Mao's physician, suggested that Mao had initially seen the policy as a way of weakening opposition to him within the party and that he was surprised by the extent of criticism and the fact that it came to be directed at his own leadership. It was only then that he used it as a method of identifying and subsequently persecuting those critical of his government. The Hundred Flowers movement led to the condemnation, silencing, and death of many citizens, also linked to Mao's Anti-Rightist Movement, resulting in deaths possibly in the millions.\n\nGreat Leap Forward\n\nIn January 1958, Mao launched the second Five-Year Plan, known as the Great Leap Forward, a plan intended as an alternative model for economic growth to the Soviet model focusing on heavy industry that was advocated by others in the party. Under this economic program, the relatively small agricultural collectives which had been formed to date were rapidly merged into far larger people's communes, and many of the peasants were ordered to work on massive infrastructure projects and on the production of iron and steel. Some private food production was banned; livestock and farm implements were brought under collective ownership.\n\nUnder the Great Leap Forward, Mao and other party leaders ordered the implementation of a variety of unproven and unscientific new agricultural techniques by the new communes. The combined effect of the diversion of labour to steel production and infrastructure projects, and cyclical natural disasters led to an approximately 15% drop in grain production in 1959 followed by a further 10% decline in 1960 and no recovery in 1961.\n\nIn an effort to win favour with their superiors and avoid being purged, each layer in the party hierarchy exaggerated the amount of grain produced under them. Based upon the fabricated success, party cadres were ordered to requisition a disproportionately high amount of that fictitious harvest for state use, primarily for use in the cities and urban areas but also for export. The result, compounded in some areas by drought and in others by floods, was that rural peasants were left with little food for themselves and many millions starved to death in the largest famine known as the Great Chinese Famine. This famine was a direct cause of the death of some 30 million Chinese peasants between 1959 and 1962. Further, many children who became emaciated and malnourished during years of hardship and struggle for survival died shortly after the Great Leap Forward came to an end in 1962.\n\nThe extent of Mao's knowledge of the severity of the situation has been disputed. Mao's physician believed that he may have been unaware of the extent of the famine, partly due to a reluctance to criticise his policies, and the willingness of his staff to exaggerate or outright fake reports regarding food production. Upon learning of the extent of the starvation, Mao vowed to stop eating meat, an action followed by his staff. \n\nHong Kong-based historian Frank Dikötter, challenged the notion that Mao did not know about the famine throughout the country until it was too late:\n\nThe idea that the state mistakenly took too much grain from the countryside because it assumed that the harvest was much larger than it was is largely a myth—at most partially true for the autumn of 1958 only. In most cases the party knew very well that it was starving its own people to death. At a secret meeting in the Jinjiang Hotel in Shanghai dated March 25, 1959, Mao specifically ordered the party to procure up to one third of all the grain, much more than had ever been the case. At the meeting he announced that \"To distribute resources evenly will only ruin the Great Leap Forward. When there is not enough to eat, people starve to death. It is better to let half of the people die so that the other half can eat their fill.\" \n\nProfessor Emeritus Thomas P. Bernstein of Columbia University offered his view on Mao's statement on starvation in the March 25, 1959 meeting:\n\nSome scholars believe that this shows Mao’s readiness to accept mass death on an immense scale. My own view is that this is an instance of Mao’s use of hyperbole, another being his casual acceptance of death of half the population during a nuclear war. In other contexts, Mao did not in fact accept mass death. Zhou’s Chronology shows that in October 1958, Mao expressed real concern that 40,000 people in Yunnan had starved to death (p. 173). Shortly after the March 25 meeting, he worried about 25.2 million people who were at risk of starvation. But from late summer on, Mao essentially forgot about this issue, until, as noted, the \"Xinyang Incident\" came to light in October 1960. \n\nIn the article \"Mao Zedong and the Famine of 1959–1960: A Study in Wilfulness\", published in 2006 in The China Quarterly, Professor Thomas P. Bernstein also discussed Mao's change of attitudes during different phases of the Great Leap Forward:\n\nIn late autumn 1958, Mao Zedong strongly condemned widespread practices of the Great Leap Forward (GLF) such as subjecting peasants to exhausting labour without adequate food and rest, which had resulted in epidemics, starvation and deaths. At that time Mao explicitly recognized that anti-rightist pressures on officialdom were a major cause of \"production at the expense of livelihood.\" While he was not willing to acknowledge that only abandonment of the GLF could solve these problems, he did strongly demand that they be addressed. After the July 1959 clash at Lushan with Peng Dehuai, Mao revived the GLF in the context of a new, extremely harsh anti-rightist campaign, which he relentlessly promoted into the spring of 1960 together with the radical policies that he previously condemned. Not until spring 1960 did Mao again express concern about abnormal deaths and other abuses, but he failed to apply the pressure needed to stop them. Given what he had already learned about the costs to the peasants of GLF extremism, the Chairman should have known that the revival of GLF radicalism would exact a similar or even bigger price. Instead, he wilfully ignored the lessons of the first radical phase for the sake of achieving extreme ideological and developmental goals.\n\nIn Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine, Jasper Becker notes that Mao was dismissive of reports he received of food shortages in the countryside and refused to change course, believing that peasants were lying and that rightists and kulaks were hoarding grain. He refused to open state granaries, and instead launched a series of \"anti-grain concealment\" drives that resulted in numerous purges and suicides. Other violent campaigns followed in which party leaders went from village to village in search of hidden food reserves, and not only grain, as Mao issued quotas for pigs, chickens, ducks and eggs. Many peasants accused of hiding food were tortured and beaten to death. \n\nWhatever the cause of the disaster, Mao lost esteem among many of the top party cadres, was eventually forced to abandon the policy in 1962, and lost political power to moderate leaders, perhaps most notably Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. Mao, however, supported by national propaganda, claimed that he was only partly to blame for the famine. As a result, he was able to remain Chairman of the Communist Party, with the Presidency transferred to Liu Shaoqi.\n\nThe Great Leap Forward was a tragedy for the vast majority of the Chinese. Although the steel quotas were officially reached, almost all of the supposed steel made in the countryside was iron, as it had been made from assorted scrap metal in home-made furnaces with no reliable source of fuel such as coal. This meant that proper smelting conditions could not be achieved. According to Zhang Rongmei, a geometry teacher in rural Shanghai during the Great Leap Forward:\n\n\"We took all the furniture, pots, and pans we had in our house, and all our neighbours did likewise. We put everything in a big fire and melted down all the metal.\"\n\nThe worst of the famine was steered towards enemies of the state. As Jasper Becker explains:\n\n\"The most vulnerable section of China's population, around five per cent, were those whom Mao called 'enemies of the people'. Anyone who had in previous campaigns of repression been labeled a 'black element' was given the lowest priority in the allocation of food. Landlords, rich peasants, former members of the nationalist regime, religious leaders, rightists, counter-revolutionaries and the families of such individuals died in the greatest numbers.\" \n\nAt a large Communist Party conference in Beijing in January 1962, called the \"Conference of the Seven Thousand\", State Chairman Liu Shaoqi denounced the Great Leap Forward as responsible for widespread famine. The overwhelming majority of delegates expressed agreement, but Defense Minister Lin Biao staunchly defended Mao. A brief period of liberalization followed while Mao and Lin plotted a comeback. Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping rescued the economy by disbanding the people's communes, introducing elements of private control of peasant smallholdings and importing grain from Canada and Australia to mitigate the worst effects of famine.\n\nConsequences\n\nAt the Lushan Conference in July/August 1959, several ministers expressed concern that the Great Leap Forward had not proved as successful as planned. The most direct of these was Minister of Defence and Korean War veteran General Peng Dehuai. Following Peng's criticism of the Great Leap Forward, Mao orchestrated a purge of Peng and his supporters, stifling criticism of the Great Leap policies. Senior officials who reported the truth of the famine to Mao were branded as \"right opportunists.\" A campaign against right-wing opportunism was launched and resulted in party members and ordinary peasants being sent to prison labor camps where many would subsequently die in the famine. Years later the CPC would conclude that as many as six million people were wrongly punished in the campaign. \n\nThe number of deaths by starvation during the Great Leap Forward is deeply controversial. Until the mid-1980s, when official census figures were finally published by the Chinese Government, little was known about the scale of the disaster in the Chinese countryside, as the handful of Western observers allowed access during this time had been restricted to model villages where they were deceived into believing that the Great Leap Forward had been a great success. There was also an assumption that the flow of individual reports of starvation that had been reaching the West, primarily through Hong Kong and Taiwan, must have been localised or exaggerated as China was continuing to claim record harvests and was a net exporter of grain through the period. Because Mao wanted to pay back early to the Soviets debts totalling 1.973 billion yuan from 1960 to 1962, exports increased by 50%, and fellow Communist regimes in North Korea, North Vietnam and Albania were provided grain free of charge.\n\nCensuses were carried out in China in 1953, 1964 and 1982. The first attempt to analyse this data to estimate the number of famine deaths was carried out by American demographer Dr. Judith Banister and published in 1984. Given the lengthy gaps between the censuses and doubts over the reliability of the data, an accurate figure is difficult to ascertain. Nevertheless, Banister concluded that the official data implied that around 15 million excess deaths incurred in China during 1958–61, and that based on her modelling of Chinese demographics during the period and taking account of assumed under-reporting during the famine years, the figure was around 30 million. The official statistic is 20 million deaths, as given by Hu Yaobang. Yang Jisheng, a former Xinhua News Agency reporter who had privileged access and connections available to no other scholars, estimates a death toll of 36 million. Frank Dikötter estimates that there were at least 45 million premature deaths attributable to the Great Leap Forward from 1958 to 1962. Various other sources have put the figure at between 20 and 46 million.\n\nSplit from Soviet Union\n\nOn the international front, the period was dominated by the further isolation of China. The Sino-Soviet split resulted in Nikita Khrushchev's withdrawal of all Soviet technical experts and aid from the country. The split concerned the leadership of world Communism. The USSR had a network of Communist parties it supported; China now created its own rival network to battle it out for local control of the left in numerous countries. Lorenz M. Lüthi argues:\nThe Sino-Soviet split was one of the key events of the Cold War, equal in importance to the construction of the Berlin Wall, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Second Vietnam War, and Sino-American rapprochement. The split helped to determine the framework of the Second Cold War in general, and influenced the course of the Second Vietnam War in particular. \n\nThe split resulted from Nikita Khrushchev's more moderate Soviet leadership after the death of Stalin in March 1953. Only Albania openly sided with China, thereby forming an alliance between the two countries which would last until after Mao's death in 1976. Warned that the Soviets had nuclear weapons, Mao minimized the threat. Becker says that, \"Mao believed that the bomb was a 'paper tiger', declaring to Khrushchev that it would not matter if China lost 300 million people in a nuclear war: the other half of the population would survive to ensure victory.\" \n\nStalin had established himself as the successor of \"correct\" Marxist thought well before Mao controlled the Communist Party of China, and therefore Mao never challenged the suitability of any Stalinist doctrine (at least while Stalin was alive). Upon the death of Stalin, Mao believed (perhaps because of seniority) that the leadership of Marxist doctrine would fall to him. The resulting tension between Khrushchev (at the head of a politically and militarily superior government), and Mao (believing he had a superior understanding of Marxist ideology) eroded the previous patron-client relationship between the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the CPC. In China, the formerly favoured Soviets were now denounced as \"revisionists\" and listed alongside \"American imperialism\" as movements to oppose.\n\nPartly surrounded by hostile American military bases (in South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan), China was now confronted with a new Soviet threat from the north and west. Both the internal crisis and the external threat called for extraordinary statesmanship from Mao, but as China entered the new decade the statesmen of the People's Republic were in hostile confrontation with each other.\n\nGreat Proletarian Cultural Revolution\n\nDuring the early 1960s, Mao became concerned with the nature of post-1959 China. He saw that the revolution and Great Leap Forward had replaced the old elite with a new one. He was concerned that those in power were becoming estranged from the people they were to serve. Mao believed that a revolution of culture would unseat and unsettle the \"ruling class\" and keep China in a state of \"perpetual revolution\" that, theoretically, would serve the interests of the majority, rather than a tiny and privileged elite. State Chairman Liu Shaoqi and General Secretary Deng Xiaoping favoured the idea that Mao be removed from actual power but maintain his ceremonial and symbolic role, with the party upholding all of his positive contributions to the revolution. They attempted to marginalise Mao by taking control of economic policy and asserting themselves politically as well. Many claim that Mao responded to Liu and Deng's movements by launching the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1966. Some scholars, such as Mobo Gao, claim the case for this is overstated. Others, such as Frank Dikötter, hold that Mao launched the Cultural Revolution to wreak revenge on those who had dared to challenge him over the Great Leap Forward. \n\nBelieving that certain liberal bourgeois elements of society continued to threaten the socialist framework, groups of young people known as the Red Guards struggled against authorities at all levels of society and even set up their own tribunals. Chaos reigned in much of the nation, and millions were persecuted, including a famous philosopher, Chen Yuen. During the Cultural Revolution, nearly all of the schools and universities in China were closed and the young intellectuals living in cities were ordered to the countryside to be \"re-educated\" by the peasants, where they performed hard manual labour and other work.\n\nThe Cultural Revolution led to the destruction of much of China's traditional cultural heritage and the imprisonment of a huge number of Chinese citizens, as well as the creation of general economic and social chaos in the country. Millions of lives were ruined during this period, as the Cultural Revolution pierced into every part of Chinese life, depicted by such Chinese films as To Live, The Blue Kite and Farewell My Concubine. It is estimated that hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions, perished in the violence of the Cultural Revolution. \n\nWhen Mao was informed of such losses, particularly that people had been driven to suicide, he is alleged to have commented: \"People who try to commit suicide — don't attempt to save them! . . . China is such a populous nation, it is not as if we cannot do without a few people.\" The authorities allowed the Red Guards to abuse and kill opponents of the regime. Said Xie Fuzhi, national police chief: \"Don't say it is wrong of them to beat up bad persons: if in anger they beat someone to death, then so be it.\" As a result, in August and September 1966, there were a reported 1,772 people murdered by the Red Guards in Beijing alone. \n\nIt was during this period that Mao chose Lin Biao, who seemed to echo all of Mao's ideas, to become his successor. Lin was later officially named as Mao's successor. By 1971, however, a divide between the two men became apparent. Official history in China states that Lin was planning a military coup or an assassination attempt on Mao. Lin Biao died in a plane crash over the air space of Mongolia, presumably as he fled China, probably anticipating his arrest. The CPC declared that Lin was planning to depose Mao, and posthumously expelled Lin from the party. At this time, Mao lost trust in many of the top CPC figures. The highest-ranking Soviet Bloc intelligence defector, Lt. Gen. Ion Mihai Pacepa described his conversation with Nicolae Ceaușescu who told him about a plot to kill Mao Zedong with the help of Lin Biao organised by the KGB. \n\nDespite being considered a feminist figure by some and a supporter of women's rights, documents released by the US Department of State in 2008 show that Mao declared women to be a \"nonsense\" in 1973, in conversation with Kissinger, joking that \"China is a very poor country. We don't have much. What we have in excess is women... Let them go to your place. They will create disasters. That way you can lessen our burdens.\" When Mao offered 10 million women, Kissinger replied by saying that Mao was \"improving his offer\". Mao and Kissinger then agreed that their comments on women be removed from public records, prompted by a Chinese official who feared that Mao's comments might incur public anger if released. \n\n\"Mango fever\"\n\nOn August 4, 1968, Mao was presented with some mangoes by the Pakistani foreign minister, Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada, in an apparent diplomatic gesture. Mao called the mangoes a \"spiritual time bomb\" and shortly afterwards, Mao had his aide divide them up and send them to Mao Zedong Propaganda Teams across Beijing, starting with one started at Tsinghua University on August 5. On August 7, an article was published in the People's Daily saying:\n\nIn the afternoon of the fifth, when the great happy news of Chairman Mao giving mangoes to the Capital Worker and Peasant Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda Team reached the Tsinghua University campus, people immediately gathered around the gift given by the Great Leader Chairman Mao. They cried out enthusiastically and sang with wild abandonment. Tears swelled up in their eyes, and they again and again sincerely wished that our most beloved Great Leader lived then thousand years without bounds ... They all made phone calls to their own work units to spread this happy news; and they also organised all kinds of celebratory activities all night long, and arrived at [the national leadership compound] Zhongnanhai despite the rain to report the good news, and to express their loyalty to the Great Leader Chairman Mao.\n\nSubsequent articles were also written by government officials propagandizing the reception of the mangoes, and another poem in the People's Daily said: \"Seeing that golden mango/Was as if seeing the great leader Chairman Mao ... Again and again touching that golden mango/the golden mango was so warm\". Few people at this time in China had ever seen a mango before, and a mango was seen as \"a fruit of extreme rarity, like Mushrooms of Immortality\".\n\nOne of the mangoes was sent to the Beijing Textile Factory, whose revolutionary committee organised a rally in the mangoes' honour. Workers read out quotations from Mao and celebrated the gift. Altars were erected to prominently display the fruit; when the mango peel began to rot after a few days, the fruit was peeled and boiled in a pot of water. Workers then filed by and each was given a spoonful of mango water. The revolutionary committee also made a wax replica of the mango, and displayed this as a centrepiece in the factory. There followed several months of \"mango fever\", as the fruit became a focus of a \"boundless loyalty\" campaign for Chairman Mao. More replica mangoes were created and the replicas were sent on tour around Beijing and elsewhere in China. Many revolutionary committees visited the mangoes in Beijing from outlying provinces; approximately half a million people greeted the replicas when they arrived in Chengdu. Badges and wall posters featuring the mangoes and Mao were produced in the millions. The fruit was shared among all institutions that had been a part of the propaganda team, and large processions were organised in support of the zhengui lipin (\"precious gift\"), as the mangoes were known as. One dentist in a small village compared a mango to a sweet potato; he was put on trial for malicious slander and executed.\n\nIt has been claimed that Mao used the mangoes to express support for the workers who would go to whatever lengths necessary to end the factional fighting among students, and a \"prime example of Mao's strategy of symbolic support\". Even up until early 1969, participants of Mao Zedong Thought study classes in Beijing would return with mass-produced mango facsimiles and still gain media attention in the provinces.\n\nEnd of the Cultural Revolution\n\nIn 1969, Mao declared the Cultural Revolution to be over, although various historians in and outside of China mark the end of the Cultural Revolution – as a whole or in part – in 1976, following Mao's death and the arrest of the Gang of Four. In the last years of his life, Mao was faced with declining health due to either Parkinson's disease or, according to his physician, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, as well as lung ailments due to smoking and heart trouble. Some also attributed Mao's decline in health to the betrayal of Lin Biao. Mao remained passive as various factions within the Communist Party mobilised for the power struggle anticipated after his death.\n\nThis period is often looked at in official circles in China and in the West as a great stagnation or even of reversal for China. While many people—an estimated 100 million—did suffer, some scholars, such as Lee Feigon and Mobo Gao, claim there were many great advances, and in some sectors the Chinese economy continued to outperform the west. They hold that the Cultural Revolution period laid the foundation for the spectacular growth that continues in China. During the Cultural Revolution, China exploded its first H-Bomb (1967), launched the Dong Fang Hong satellite (January 30, 1970), commissioned its first nuclear submarines and made various advances in science and technology. Healthcare was free, and living standards in the countryside continued to improve.\n\nHistorian Daniel Leese notes that in the 1950s Mao's personality was hardening:\nThe impression of Mao's personality that emerges from the literature is disturbing. It reveals a certain temporal development from a down-to-earth leader, who was amicable when uncontested and occasionally reflected on the limits of his power, to an increasingly ruthless and self-indulgent dictator. Mao's preparedness to accept criticism decreased continuously. \n\nState visits\n\nDuring his leadership, Mao traveled outside China on only two occasions, both state visits to the Soviet Union. When Mao stepped down as head of state in April 1959, further state visits and travels abroad were undertaken by president Liu Shaoqi rather than Mao personally.\n\nDeath and aftermath\n\nSmoking may have played an important role in his declining health, for Mao was a heavy smoker during most of his adult life. It became a state secret that he suffered from multiple lung and heart ailments during his later years. There are unconfirmed reports that he possibly had Parkinson's diseaseParkinson's disease:\n*\n*\n*\n* in addition to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as Lou Gehrig's disease.Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis:\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\nMao's last public appearance—and the last known photograph of him alive—was on May 27, 1976, when he met the visiting Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto during the latter's one-day visit to Beijing. Mao suffered two major heart attacks in 1976, one in March and another in July, before a third struck on September 5, rendering him an invalid. Mao Zedong died nearly four days later just after midnight, at 00:10, on September 9, 1976, at age 82. The Communist Party of China delayed the announcement of his death until 16:00 later that day, when a radio message broadcast across the nation announced the news of Mao's passing while appealing for party unity.\n\nMao's embalmed, CPC-flag-draped body lay in state at the Great Hall of the People for one week. During this period, one million people (none of them foreign diplomats, and the majority crying openly or otherwise displaying some kind of sadness) and many foreign dignitaries (300,000–750,000) filed past Mao to pay their final respects. Chairman Mao's official portrait was hung on the wall, with a banner reading: \"Carry on the cause left by Chairman Mao and carry on the cause of proletarian revolution to the end\", until September 17. On September 17, Chairman Mao's body was taken in a minibus from the Great Hall of the people to Maojiawan to the 305 Hospital that Liu Zhisui directed, and Mao's internal organs were preserved in formaldehyde.\n\nOn September 18, a somber cacophony of guns, sirens, whistles and horns all across China was spontaneously blown in observance of a three-minute silence, which everybody except those performing essential tasks was ordered to observe. After that, a band in Tiananmen Square, packed with and surrounded by millions of people, played \"The Internationale\". The final service on that day was concluded by Hua Guofeng's 20-minute-long eulogy atop Tiananmen Gate. Mao's body was later permanently interred in a mausoleum in Beijing. \n\nLegacy\n\nMao remains a controversial figure and there is little agreement over his legacy both in China and abroad. Supporters generally credit and praise him for having unified China and for ending the previous decades of civil war. He is also credited for having improved the status of women in China and for improving literacy and education. His policies caused the deaths of tens of millions of people in China during his 27-year reign, more than any other Twentieth Century leader; the number of people who died under his regime range from 40 million to as many as 70 million. However, supporters point out that in spite of this, life expectancy improved during his reign. His supporters claim that he rapidly industrialised China; however, others have claimed that his policies such as the \"Great Leap Forward\" and the \"Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution\", were impediments to industrialisation and modernisation. His supporters claim that his policies laid the groundwork for China's later rise to become an economic superpower, while others claim that his policies delayed economic development and that China's economy only underwent its rapid growth only after Mao's policies had been widely abandoned. Mao's revolutionary tactics continue to be used by insurgents, and his political ideology continues to be embraced by many Communist organizations around the world.\n\nIn mainland China, Mao is still revered by many members and supporters of the Communist Party and respected by the majority of the general population as the \"Founding Father of modern China\", credited for giving \"the Chinese people dignity and self-respect.\" Mobo Gao in his 2008 book The Battle for China's Past: Mao and the Cultural Revolution, credits Mao for raising the average life expectancy from 35 in 1949 to 63 by 1975, bringing \"unity and stability to a country that had been plagued by civil wars and foreign invasions\", and laying the foundation for China to \"become the equal of the great global powers\". Gao also lauds Mao for carrying out massive land reform, promoting the status of women, improving popular literacy, and positively \"transform(ing) Chinese society beyond recognition.\"\n\nHowever, Mao has many Chinese critics, both those who live inside and outside China. Opposition to Mao is subject to restriction and censorship in mainland China, but is especially strong elsewhere, where he is often reviled as a brutish ideologue. In the West, his name is generally associated with tyranny and his economic theories are widely discredited—though to some political activists he remains a symbol against capitalism, imperialism and western influence. Even in China, key pillars of his economic theory have been largely dismantled by market reformers like Deng Xiaoping and Zhao Ziyang, who succeeded him as leaders of the Communist Party.\n\nThough the Chinese Communist Party, which Mao led to power, has rejected in practice the economic fundamentals of much of Mao's ideology, it retains for itself many of the powers established under Mao's reign: it controls the Chinese army, police, courts and media and does not permit multi-party elections at the national or local level, except in Hong Kong. Thus it is difficult to gauge the true extent of support for the Chinese Communist Party and Mao's legacy within mainland China. For its part, the Chinese government continues to officially regard Mao as a national hero. On December 25, 2008, China opened the Mao Zedong Square to visitors in his home town of central Hunan Province to mark the 115th anniversary of his birth. \n\nThere continue to be disagreements on Mao's legacy. Former Party official Su Shachi, has opined that \"he was a great historical criminal, but he was also a great force for good.\" In a similar vein, journalist Liu Binyan has described Mao as \"both monster and a genius.\" Some historians argue that Mao Zedong was \"one of the great tyrants of the twentieth century\", and a dictator comparable to Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin,: \"Together with Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler, Mao appears destined to go down in history as one of the great tyrants of the twentieth century\"Michael Lynch. Mao (Routledge Historical Biographies). Routledge, 2004. p. 230 with a death toll surpassing both. In The Black Book of Communism, Jean Louis Margolin writes that \"Mao Zedong was so powerful that he was often known as the Red Emperor ... the violence he erected into a whole system far exceeds any national tradition of violence that we might find in China.\" Mao was frequently likened to China's First Emperor Qin Shi Huang, notorious for burying alive hundreds of scholars, and personally enjoyed the comparison. During a speech to party cadre in 1958, Mao said he had far outdone Qin Shi Huang in his policy against intellectuals: \"What did he amount to? He only buried alive 460 scholars, while we buried 46,000. In our suppression of the counter-revolutionaries, did we not kill some counter-revolutionary intellectuals? I once debated with the democratic people: You accuse us of acting like Ch’in-shih-huang, but you are wrong; we surpass him 100 times.\" As a result of such tactics, critics have pointed out that:\n\nOthers, such as Philip Short, reject such comparisons in Mao: A Life, arguing that whereas the deaths caused by Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia were largely systematic and deliberate, the overwhelming majority of the deaths under Mao were unintended consequences of famine. Short noted that landlord class were not exterminated as a people due to Mao's belief in redemption through thought reform. He instead compared Mao with 19th-century Chinese reformers who challenged China's traditional beliefs in the era of China's clashes with Western colonial powers. Short argues, \"Mao's tragedy and his grandeur were that he remained to the end in thrall to his own revolutionary dreams ... He freed China from the straitjacket of its Confucian past, but the bright Red future he promised turned out to be a sterile purgatory.\n\nMao's English interpreter Sidney Rittenberg wrote in his memoir The Man Who Stayed Behind that whilst Mao \"was a great leader in history\", he was also \"a great criminal because, not that he wanted to, not that he intended to, but in fact, his wild fantasies led to the deaths of tens of millions of people.\" Li Rui, Mao's personal secretary, goes further and claims he was dismissive of the suffering and death caused by his policies: \"Mao's way of thinking and governing was terrifying. He put no value on human life. The deaths of others meant nothing to him.\" \n\nIn their 832-page biography, Mao: The Unknown Story, Jung Chang and Jon Halliday take a very critical view of Mao's life and influence. For example, they note that Mao was well aware that his policies would be responsible for the deaths of millions; While discussing labour-intensive projects such as waterworks and making steel, Mao said to his inner circle in November 1958: \"Working like this, with all these projects, half of China may well have to die. If not half, one-third, or one-tenth—50 million—die.\" \n\nThomas Bernstein of Columbia University argues that this quotation is taken out of context, claiming:\nThe Chinese original, however, is not quite as shocking. In the speech, Mao talks about massive earthmoving irrigation projects and numerous big industrial ones, all requiring huge numbers of people. If the projects, he said, are all undertaken simultaneously \"half of China's population unquestionably will die; and if it's not half, it'll be a third or ten percent, a death toll of 50 million people.\" Mao then pointed to the example of Guangxi provincial Party secretary, Chén Mànyuǎn (陳漫遠) who had been dismissed in 1957 for failing to prevent famine in the previous year, adding: \"If with a death toll of 50 million you didn't lose your jobs, I at least should lose mine; whether I should lose my head would also be in question. Anhui wants to do so much, which is quite all right, but make it a principle to have no deaths.\" \n\nJasper Becker notes, \"archive material gathered by Dikötter ... confirms that far from being ignorant or misled about the famine, the Chinese leadership were kept informed about it all the time. And he exposes the extent of the violence used against the peasants\": \n\nMass killings are not usually associated with Mao and the Great Leap Forward, and China continues to benefit from a more favourable comparison with Cambodia or the Soviet Union. But as fresh and abundant archival evidence shows, coercion, terror and systematic violence were the foundation of the Great Leap, and between 1958 to 1962, by a rough approximation, some 6 to 8 per cent of those who died were tortured to death or summarily killed—amounting to at least 3 million victims.\n\nCountless others were deliberately deprived of food and consequently starved to death. Many more vanished because they were too old, weak or sick to work—and hence unable to earn their keep. People were killed selectively because they had the wrong class background, because they dragged their feet, because they spoke out or simply because they were not liked, for whatever reason, by the man who wielded the ladle in the canteen.\n\nDikötter argues that CPC leaders \"glorified violence and were inured to massive loss of life. And all of them shared an ideology in which the end justified the means. In 1962, having lost millions of people in his province, Li Jingquan compared the Great Leap Forward to the Long March in which only one in ten had made it to the end: 'We are not weak, we are stronger, we have kept the backbone.'\" \n\nRegarding the large-scale irrigation projects, Dikötter stresses that, in spite of Mao being in a good position to see the human cost, they continued unabated for several years, and ultimately claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands of exhausted villagers. He also notes that \"In a chilling precursor of Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, villagers in Qingshui and Gansu called these projects the 'killing fields'.\" \n\nThe United States placed a trade embargo on the People's Republic as a result of its involvement in the Korean War, lasting until Richard Nixon decided that developing relations with the PRC would be useful in dealing with the Soviet Union.\n\nThe television series Biography stated: \"[Mao] turned China from a feudal backwater into one of the most powerful countries in the World ... The Chinese system he overthrew was backward and corrupt; few would argue the fact that he dragged China into the 20th century. But at a cost in human lives that is staggering.\"\n\nIn the book China in the 21st Century: What Everyone Needs to Know published in 2010, Professor Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom of the University of California, Irvine compares China’s relationship to Mao Zedong to Americans' remembrance of Andrew Jackson: both countries regard the leaders in a positive light, despite their respective roles in devastating policies. Jackson forcibly moved Native Americans, resulting in thousands of deaths, while Mao was at the helm during the violent years of the Cultural Revolution and the Great Leap Forward: \n\nThough admittedly far from perfect, the comparison is based on the fact that Jackson is remembered both as someone who played a significant role in the development of a political organization (the Democratic Party) that still has many partisans, and as someone responsible for brutal policies toward Native Americans that are now referred to as genocidal.\n\nBoth men are thought of as having done terrible things yet this does not necessarily prevent them from being used as positive symbols. And Jackson still appears on $20 bills, even though Americans tend to view as heinous the institution of slavery (of which he was a passionate defender) and the early 19th-century military campaigns against Native Americans (in which he took part).\n\nAt times Jackson, for all his flaws, is invoked as representing an egalitarian strain within the American democratic tradition, a self-made man of the people who rose to power via straight talk and was not allied with moneyed interests. Mao stands for something roughly similar. \n\nMao's military writings continue to have a large amount of influence both among those who seek to create an insurgency and those who seek to crush one, especially in manners of guerilla warfare, at which Mao is popularly regarded as a genius. As an example, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) followed Mao's examples of guerilla warfare to considerable political and military success even in the 21st century. Mao's major contribution to the military science is his theory of People's War, with not only guerrilla warfare but more importantly, Mobile Warfare methodologies. Mao had successfully applied Mobile Warfare in the Korean War, and was able to encircle, push back and then halt the UN forces in Korea, despite the clear superiority of UN firepower. Mao also gave the impression that he might even welcome a nuclear war. \n\n\"Let us imagine how many people would die if war breaks out. There are 2.7 billion people in the world, and a third could be lost. If it is a little higher, it could be half ... I say that if the worst came to the worst and one-half dies, there will still be one-half left, but imperialism would be razed to the ground and the whole world would become socialist. After a few years there would be 2.7 billion people again\" \n\nBut historians dispute the sincerity of Mao's words. Robert Service says that Mao \"was deadly serious,\" while Frank Dikötter claims that \"He was bluffing ... the sabre-rattling was to show that he, not Khrushchev, was the more determined revolutionary.\"\n\nMao's poems and writings are frequently cited by both Chinese and non-Chinese. The official Chinese translation of President Barack Obama's inauguration speech used a famous line from one of Mao's poems. Republican senator John McCain misattributed a campaign quote to Mao several times during his 2008 presidential election bid, saying \"Remember the words of Chairman Mao: 'It's always darkest before it's totally black.'\"\n\nThe ideology of Maoism has influenced many Communists, mainly in the Third World, including revolutionary movements such as Cambodia's Khmer Rouge, Peru's Shining Path, and the Nepalese revolutionary movement. Under the influence of Mao's agrarian socialism and Cultural Revolution, Cambodia's Pol Pot conceived of his disastrous Year Zero policies which purged the nation of its teachers, artists and intellectuals and emptied its cities, resulting in the Cambodian Genocide. \n\nThe Revolutionary Communist Party, USA also claims Marxism–Leninism-Maoism as its ideology, as do other Communist Parties around the world which are part of the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement. China itself has moved sharply away from Maoism since Mao's death, and most people outside of China who describe themselves as Maoist regard the Deng Xiaoping reforms to be a betrayal of Maoism, in line with Mao's view of \"Capitalist roaders\" within the Communist Party.\n\nAs the Chinese government instituted free market economic reforms starting in the late 1970s and as later Chinese leaders took power, less recognition was given to the status of Mao. This accompanied a decline in state recognition of Mao in later years in contrast to previous years when the state organised numerous events and seminars commemorating Mao's 100th birthday. Nevertheless, the Chinese government has never officially repudiated the tactics of Mao. Deng Xiaoping, who was opposed to the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, has to a certain extent rejected Mao's legacy, famously saying that Mao was \"70% right and 30% wrong\".\n\nIn the mid-1990s, Mao Zedong's picture began to appear on all new renminbi (人民幣) currency from the People's Republic of China. This was officially instituted as an anti-counterfeiting measure as Mao's face is widely recognised in contrast to the generic figures that appear in older currency. On March 13, 2006, a story in the People's Daily reported that a proposal had been made to print the portraits of Sun Yat-sen and Deng Xiaoping. \n\nIn 2006, the government in Shanghai issued a new set of high school history textbooks which omit Mao, with the exception of a single mention in a section on etiquette. Students in Shanghai now only learn about Mao in junior high school. \n\nPublic image\n\nMao gave contradicting statements on the subject of personality cults. In 1955, as a response to the Khrushchev Report that criticised Joseph Stalin, Mao stated that personality cults are \"poisonous ideological survivals of the old society\", and reaffirmed China's commitment to collective leadership. But at the 1958 Party congress in Chengdu, Mao expressed support for the personality cults of people whom he labelled as genuinely worthy figures; not those that expressed \"blind worship\". \n\nIn 1962, Mao proposed the Socialist Education Movement (SEM) in an attempt to educate the peasants to resist the \"temptations\" of feudalism and the sprouts of capitalism that he saw re-emerging in the countryside from Liu's economic reforms. Large quantities of politicised art were produced and circulated — with Mao at the centre. Numerous posters, badges and musical compositions referenced Mao in the phrase \"Chairman Mao is the red sun in our hearts\" (, Máo Zhǔxí Shì Wǒmen Xīnzhōng De Hóng Tàiyáng) and a \"Savior of the people\" (, Rénmín De Dà Jiùxīng).\n\nIn October 1966, Mao's Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung, which was known as the Little Red Book was published. Party members were encouraged to carry a copy with them and possession was almost mandatory as a criterion for membership. Over the years, Mao's image became displayed almost everywhere, present in homes, offices and shops. His quotations were typographically emphasised by putting them in boldface or red type in even the most obscure writings. Music from the period emphasised Mao's stature, as did children's rhymes. The phrase \"Long Live Chairman Mao for ten thousand years\" was commonly heard during the era. \n\nMao also has a presence in China and around the world in popular culture, where his face adorns everything from T-shirts to coffee cups. Mao's granddaughter, Kong Dongmei, defended the phenomenon, stating that \"it shows his influence, that he exists in people's consciousness and has influenced several generations of Chinese people's way of life. Just like Che Guevara's image, his has become a symbol of revolutionary culture.\" Since 1950, over 40 million people have visited Mao's birthplace in Shaoshan, Hunan. \n\nGenealogy\n\nAncestors\n\nHis ancestors were:\n*Máo Yíchāng (毛貽昌, born Xiangtan October 15, 1870, died Shaoshan January 23, 1920), father, courtesy name Máo Shùnshēng (毛順生) or also known as Mao Jen-sheng\n*Wén Qīmèi(文七妹, born Xiangxiang 1867, died October 5, 1919), mother. She was illiterate and a devout Buddhist. She was a descendant of Wen Tianxiang.\n*Máo Ēnpǔ (毛恩普, born May 22, 1846, died November 23, 1904), paternal grandfather\n*née Luó (羅氏), paternal grandmother (given name not recorded) \n*Máo Zǔrén (毛祖人), paternal great-grandfather\n\nWives\n\nMao Zedong had four wives who gave birth to a total of 10 children. They were:\n\n#Luo Yixiu (羅一秀, October 20, 1889 – 1910) of Shaoshan: married 1907 to 1910\n#Yang Kaihui (楊開慧, 1901–1930) of Changsha: married 1921 to 1927, executed by the KMT in 1930; mother to Mao Anying, Mao Anqing, and Mao Anlong\n#He Zizhen (賀子珍, 1910–1984) of Jiangxi: married May 1928 to 1939; mother to Mao Anhong, Li Min, and four other children\n#Jiang Qing (江青, 1914–1991), married 1939 to Mao's death; mother to Li Na\n\nSiblings\n\nHe had several siblings:\n\n*Mao Zemin (毛澤民, 1895–1943), younger brother, executed by a warlord\n*Mao Zetan (毛澤覃, 1905–1935), younger brother, executed by the KMT\n*Mao Zejian (毛澤建, 1905–1929), adopted sister, executed by the KMT\n\nMao Zedong's parents altogether had five sons and two daughters. Two of the sons and both daughters died young, leaving the three brothers Mao Zedong, Mao Zemin, and Mao Zetan. Like all three of Mao Zedong's wives, Mao Zemin and Mao Zetan were communists. Like Yang Kaihui, both Zemin and Zetan were killed in warfare during Mao Zedong's lifetime.\n\nNote that the character zé (澤) appears in all of the siblings' given names. This is a common Chinese naming convention.\n\nFrom the next generation, Zemin's son, Mao Yuanxin, was raised by Mao Zedong's family. He became Mao Zedong's liaison with the Politburo in 1975. In Li Zhisui's The Private Life of Chairman Mao, Mao Yuanxin played a role in the final power-struggles. \n\nChildren\n\nMao Zedong had a total of ten children, including:\n*Mao Anying (毛岸英, 1922–1950): son to Yang, married to Liú Sīqí (劉思齊), who was born Liú Sōnglín (劉松林), killed in action during the Korean War\n*Mao Anqing (毛岸青, 1923–2007): son to Yang, married to Shao Hua (邵華), grandson Mao Xinyu (毛新宇), great-grandson Mao Dongdong\n*Mao Anlong (1927–1931): son to Yang, died during the Chinese Civil War\n*Mao Anhong (1932–1935?): son to He, left to Mao's younger brother Zetan and then to one of Zetan's guards when he went off to war, was never heard of again\n*Li Min (李敏, b. 1936): daughter to He, married to Kǒng Lìnghuá (孔令華), son Kǒng Jìníng (孔繼寧), daughter Kǒng Dōngméi (孔冬梅)\n*Li Na (李訥, Pinyin: Lĭ Nà, b. 1940): daughter to Jiang (whose birth surname was Lǐ, a name also used by Mao while evading the KMT), married to Wáng Jǐngqīng (王景清), son Wáng Xiàozhī (王效芝)\n\nMao's first and second daughters were left to local villagers because it was too dangerous to raise them while fighting the Kuomintang and later the Japanese. Their youngest daughter (born in early 1938 in Moscow after Mao separated) and one other child (born 1933) died in infancy. Two English researchers who retraced the entire Long March route in 2002–2003 located a woman whom they believe might well be one of the missing children abandoned by Mao to peasants in 1935. Ed Jocelyn and Andrew McEwen hope a member of the Mao family will respond to requests for a DNA test. \n\nThrough his ten children, Mao became grandfather to twelve grandchildren, many of whom he never knew. He has many great-grandchildren alive today. One of his granddaughters is businesswoman Kong Dongmei, one of the richest people in China and mother to three of Mao's great-grandchildren. His grandson Mao Xinyu (Kong's half-brother), father of two, is a general in the Chinese army, and is often ridiculed for his weight within China.\n\nPersonal life\n\nMao's private life was very secretive at the time of his rule. However, after Mao's death, Li Zhisui, his personal physician, published The Private Life of Chairman Mao, a memoir which mentions some aspects of Mao's private life, such as chain-smoking cigarettes, rare bathing or dental habits, laziness, addiction to sleeping pills and large number of sexual partners. Some scholars and some other people who also personally knew and worked with Mao, however, have disputed the accuracy of these characterisations. \n\nHaving grown up in Hunan, Mao spoke Mandarin with a marked Hunanese accent. \nRoss Terrill noted Mao was a \"son of the soil ... rural and unsophisticated\" in origins, while Clare Hollingworth asserted he was proud of his \"peasant ways and manners\", having a strong Hunanese accent and providing \"earthy\" comments on sexual matters. Lee Feigon noted that Mao's \"earthiness\" meant that he remained connected to \"everyday Chinese life.\" \n\nBiographer Peter Carter described Mao as having \"an attractive personality\" who could for much of the time be a \"moderate and balanced man\", but noted that he could also be ruthless, and showed no mercy to his opponents. This description was echoed by Sinologist Stuart Schram, who emphasised Mao's ruthlessness, but who also noted that he showed no sign of taking pleasure in torture or killing in the revolutionary cause. Lee Feigon considered Mao \"draconian and authoritarian\" when threatened, but opined that he was not the \"kind of villain that his mentor Stalin was\". Alexander Pantsov and Steven I. Levine claimed that Mao was a \"man of complex moods\", who \"tried his best to bring about prosperity and gain international respect\" for China, being \"neither a saint nor a demon.\" They noted that in early life, he strived to be \"a strong, wilful, and purposeful hero, not bound by any moral chains\", and that he \"passionately desired fame and power\". \nCarter noted that throughout his life, Mao had the ability to gain people's trust, and that as such he gathered around him \"an extraordinarily wide range of friends\" in his early years. \n\nWritings and calligraphy\n\nMao was a prolific writer of political and philosophical literature. He is the attributed author of Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung, known in the West as the \"Little Red Book\" and in Cultural Revolution China as the \"Red Treasure Book\" (紅寶書): first published in January 1964, this is a collection of short extracts from his many speeches and articles, edited by Lin Biao and ordered topically. Mao wrote several other philosophical treatises, both before and after he assumed power. These include:\n*On Guerrilla Warfare (《游擊戰》); 1937\n*On Practice (《實踐論》); 1937\n*On Contradiction (《矛盾論》); 1937\n*On Protracted War (《論持久戰》); 1938\n*In Memory of Norman Bethune (《紀念白求恩》); 1939\n*On New Democracy (《新民主主義論》); 1940\n*Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art (《在延安文藝座談會上的講話》); 1942\n*Serve the People (《為人民服務》); 1944\n*The Foolish Old Man Who Removed the Mountains (《愚公移山》); 1945\n*On the Correct Handling of the Contradictions Among the People (《正確處理人民內部矛盾問題》); 1957\n\nMao was also a skilled Chinese calligrapher with a highly personal style. In China, Mao was considered a master calligrapher during his lifetime. His calligraphy can be seen today throughout mainland China. His work gave rise to a new form of Chinese calligraphy called \"Mao-style\" or Maoti, which has gained increasing popularity since his death. There currently exist various competitions specialising in Mao-style calligraphy. \n\nLiterary works\n\nAs did most Chinese intellectuals of his generation, Mao's education began with Chinese classical literature. Mao told Edgar Snow in 1936 that he had started the study of the Confucian Analects and the Four Books at a village school when he was eight, but that the books he most enjoyed reading were Water Margin, Journey to the West, the Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Mao published poems in classical forms starting in his youth and his abilities as a poet contributed to his image in China after he came to power in 1949. His style was influenced by the great Tang dynasty poets Li Bai and Li He. \n\nSome of his most well-known poems are Changsha (1925), The Double Ninth (1929.10), Loushan Pass (1935), The Long March (1935), Snow (1936), The PLA Captures Nanjing (1949), Reply to Li Shuyi (1957.05.11) and Ode to the Plum Blossom (1961.12).\n\nPortrayal in film and television\n\nMao has been portrayed in film and television numerous times. Some notable actors include: Han Shi, the first actor ever to have portrayed Mao, in a 1978 drama Dielianhua and later again in a 1980 film Cross the Dadu River; Gu Yue, who had portrayed Mao 84 times on screen throughout his 27-year career and had won the Best Actor title at the Hundred Flowers Awards in 1990 and 1993; Liu Ye, who played a young Mao in The Founding of a Party (2011); Tang Guoqiang, who has frequently portrayed Mao in more recent times, in the films The Long March (1996) and The Founding of a Republic (2009), and the television series Huang Yanpei (2010), among others. Mao is a principal character in American composer John Adams' opera Nixon in China (1987). The Beatles' song \"Revolution\" refers to Mao: \"...but if you go carrying pictures of Chairman Mao you ain't going to make it with anyone anyhow...\"; John Lennon expressed regret over including these lines in the song in 1972. \n\nMao and Tibet\n\nAfter Mao Zedong won the Chinese civil war in 1949, his goal became the unification of the \"five nationalities\" under the big family, the People's Republic of China, and under a single political system, the Communist Party of China. Aware of Mao's vision, the Tibetan government in Lhasa sent a representative, Ngabo, to Chamdo, Kham, a strategically high valued town near the border. Ngabo had orders to hold the position while reinforcements were coming from the Lhasa and fight off the Chinese. On October 16, 1950, news came that the People's Liberation Army was advancing towards Chamdo and had also taken another strategic town named, Riwoche, which could block the route to Lhasa. With new orders, Ngabo and his men retreated to a monastery where the People's Liberation Army finally surrounded and captured them, though they were treated with respect. Ngabo wrote to Lhasa suggesting a peaceful surrender instead of war. During the negotiation, the Chinese negotiator laid the cards straight on the table, \"It is up to you to choose whether Tibet would be liberated peacefully or by force. It is only a matter of sending a telegram to the PLA group to recommence their march to Lhasa.\" Ngabo accepted Mao's \"Seventeen-Point Agreement\", which constituted Tibet as part of the People's Republic China, in return for which Tibet would be granted autonomy. In the face of discouraging lack of support from the rest of the world, the Dalai Lama on August 1951, sent a telegram to Mao accepting the Seventeen-Point Agreement. However the delegates signing the agreement were forced to do so and the Tibetan's Government's seal used was forged."
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"The Long March of the Communist Party of China 1934-35\nThe Long March of the\nCommunist Party of China\n1934-35\nThis is the story of the Long March of the Communist Party leadership and the Red Army from South China to Northwest China. The source is mainly Harrison Salisbury's book The Long March. Salisbury's book is a very good book that well conveys the drama of the Long March and its three struggles:\n1. the Red Army with the Nationalist Army of Chiang Kai-shek\n2. the Red Army with the elements and terrain of western China\n3. the factions within the Red Army with each other.\nThe latter struggle was primarily between the Mao Zedong faction and the Communist International (Comintern) faction led by the man Joseph Stalin imposed as a condition for aiding the communists, Otto Braun. There was also a power struggles between the First Army led by Mao Zedong and the Fourth Army led by Zhang Guotao. Salisbury is sympathetic to Mao but his book is objective and well worth reading. There is however another book, Mao: The Unknown Story by Jung Chang and her husband Jon Halliday that tells the story behind the story of the Long March.\nBackground\nBoth the Communist Party and the Guomindang (Nationalist) Party were created around 1920 and had a socialist orientation. The Guomindang although it had a socialist orientation was primarily concerned with establishing a nation state. This meant suppressing the numerous warlords and uniting China. The Guomindang needed financial aid to achieve this and it was not going to get such aid from the imperialist powers. The founder and leader of the Guomindang, Sun Yatsen, sought and received aid from the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union not only sent material aid, it also sent advisors, Michael Borodin and Otto Braun. The latter was a German Communist representing the Communist International, the Comintern. The Soviet Union also required that the Guomindang admit to its membership the members of the Communist Party of China.\nThe Communists worked within the Guomindang during the early and middle 1920's. The arrangement appeared to work well. Chiang Kai-shek directed the Whampoa Military Academy and Zhou Enlai served as the political officer for that academy. Chiang Kai-shek went to Moscow for training and later his son, Chiang Ching-guo, went to Moscow.\nThe trouble came when Sun Yat-sen died of cancer in 1925. It was uncertain who would succeed him as leader of the Guomindang. After a short period of political maneuvering Chiang Kai-shek emerged as the leader. The Guomindang actually split at this time into two factions, a left faction headed by Chiang Kai-shek who accepted continued cooperation with the Communists and a right faction which opposed such cooperation.\nAfter consolidating his hold on the Guomindang Chiang Kai-shek organized a northern expedition to defeat the many warlords who controlled local areas of northern China.\nChiang's Northern Expedition of 1926-27 was a great success. Thirty nine war lords were defeated. The Northern Expedition then moved to Shanghai. The Communist-dominated labor unions staged an uprising prior to the entry of Chiang's army into the city. This uprising established a city government without Chiang's approval. This and other actions by the Communists within the Guomindang led Chiang to fear the Communists were following their own agenda and were striving for control. Chiang's followers turned upon the Communists in Shanghai and massacred them. A similar slaughter and purge of the Communists within the Guomindang throughout other parts of China took place shortly afterwards.\nThose that could escaped and joined the rural communist centers in South China. The major rural Communist strongholds were in the rural areas of Jiangxi and Hunan Provinces. There were also strongholds in the more remote provinces of Sichuan and Shaanxi. In the Jiangxi Soviet, as it was called, Mao Zedong was a major leader.\nMao Zedong\nMao Zedong came from the clan village of Shaoshan in Hunan Province. He was born at the end 1893 and was notably older than the other Communist leaders. His family was moderately well-to-do, land-owning peasants. Mao's grandfather had lost the family farm to money lenders but Mao's father had got it back and had moved upward into trade and money lending. Mao's father wanted his son Zedong educated in order to be better able to handle the family businesses. In the village school Mao learned basic literacy and the Chinese classics from age seven to twelve. At age 13 Mao's father felt he had an adequate education and ended his schooling to have him work fulltime on the family farm. Mao's mother, a kind, hard-working woman who was a devout Buddhist, was a stronger influence on Mao Zedong than his hard-driving father.\nMao rebelled against his father and left the family to study at a higher primary school in a nearby county. He later then went on to Changsha Normal School in the provincial capital of Changsha at about age eighteen. At Changsha Normal he became acquainted with the writings of political revolutionaries, Western as well as Chinese. He was particularly impressed by the writings of Sun Yat-sen. Incidentally Mao first heard of America when reading a short biography of George Washington.\nThe revolution against the Qing Empire was finally successful in 1911, after four failed attempts. Mao joined the army of revolution and was a soldier for six months. But the success of the revolution brought a demobilization of the army and Mao drifted from one pursuit to another uncertain of the what career he should prepare for. He graduated from Changsha Normal School and went to Beijing. He worked as an assistant librarian at Beijing University where he read and participated in some student organizations that gave him his first experience in political organizing.\nSun Yat-sen and his political organization was not as successful in gaining control of China as they had been in overthrowing the Qing Dynasty. The period from 1912 to 1919 saw China falling under the control of local warlords. Sun Yat-sen relinquished the presidency of the Chinese Republic to a man who had been a Qing Empire official but who secured the abdication of the Emperor. Sun Yat-sen felt this man would be best able to unify China. Instead that man sought to make himself the new emperor and also sought to exterminate Sun Yat-sen and his party.\nThe year 1919 saw a renewal of Sun Yat-sen's political organization. In that year the Allies of World War I chose to grant the German Concession in China to Japan rather than returning it to Chinese control. This sparked violent protests. Sun Yat-sen organized a political party called Guomindang (Nationalist Party). The ideological roots of the Guomindang are a bit uncertain but there was an emphasis on nationalism and socialism. Mao was in Beijing at the time of the protests, the May Fourth (1919) Movement. In July of 1919 Mao wrote an editorial which said,\nMao Zedong\nIf we do not act,\nWho will act?\nIn the summer of 1919 Mao left Beijing to organize opposition to Japan among students, workers and merchants in Jiangxi Province in southern China. The fact that peasants were not at this time considered to have revolutionary potential reflected the influence of Marxism. Mao talked and wrote about the Soviet experience but he did not commit himself to Marxism until 1921. Mao differed from the other Communist leaders in that he did not travel to Western Europe or Moscow for study. He moved toward a focus on the Chinese countryside and the peasants. However much this focus on the peasants was at variance with orthodox Marxism, Mao instincts still directed him unerringly to greatest reservoir of revolutionary potential in China.\nThe Jiangxi Soviet\nAfter the massacre of communists in Shanghai and elsewhere in 1927 at the instigation of Chiang Kai-shek the communists attempted rebellions in several cities and towns. The Jiangxi Soviet emerged as a result of attempted insurrections in two cities, an unsuccessful one organized by Mao Zedong and a successful one organized by Zhou En-lai.\nIn July of 1927 Zhou En-lai journeyed to the city of Nanchang to carry out his assignment by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, which was to capture contol. Nanchang was chosen because the Guomindang commander of public safety, Zhu De, was secretly a member of the Communist Party. The insurrectionists had about twenty thousand troops and the troops which remained loyal to Chiang Kai-shek numbered only ten thousand. The Comintern representative ordered Zhou En-lai not to carryout the insurrection. Zhou En-lai defied that order even though it might mean a loss of the material support for the Chinese communists by the Soviet Union.\nThe insurrection was successful. However it was recognized that once the government moved substanial numbers of troops to the area the insurrectionists would not be able to hold the city. The insurrections left Nanchang and headed south.\nMao Zedong had been assigned to organize an Autumn Harvest Uprising in September of 1927 which would capture the city of Changsa. The revolution in Changsa failed and at the end of September Mao was leading a small army of about one thousand toward a mountain in Jiangxi Province called Jinggangshan. It was in an isolated area on the the border between Hunan and Jiangxi Provinces. Jinggangshan was not just a mountain; it was more of a massif being sixty miles long and twenty miles wide..\nJinggangshan had an elevation of about five thousand feet and was under the control of two bandit gangs. Mao believed that he would be able to bring the anti-government bandits over to the communist side. This he did partly with personal persuasion and partly with a gift of rifles. By the end of October of 1927 Mao had established headquarters in the town of Maoping on Jinggangshan and had one of the two bandit groups cooperating with his organization. In February of 1928 Mao used his troops to capture a enemy of the other bandit chief. That brought the second bandit chief into alliance with Mao.\nIn May of 1928 Zhu De brought the reminant 1000 of his force to Mao's area. Mao and Zhu forged a solid alliance that was to continue long into the future. By the next year Mao was able to recruit enough soldiers to bring the troop strength to four thousand. This was too many soldiers to be supported by the local economy of Jinggangshan. Mao and Zhu decided to move their army. They left Peng Dehuai to defend the enclave in Jinggangshan as long as he could. When Chiang Kai-shek sent in a large force to destroy the Red Bandits Peng evacutaed the mountain and moved to join Mao and Zhu. The Guomindang forces executed about a thousand people in the former communist enclave on the mountain.\nThe Mao and Zhu army established a new enclave in southeastern Jiangxi Province and made the town of Rujin the headquarters. The enclave came to be called the Jiangxi Soviet.\nAfter Mao had successfully operated the enclave for a number of years there were Communist Party officials who were not happy with Mao. Mao's emphasis on peasant support was at variance with doctrinaire Marxism. According to Marxist theory, revolution were supposed to arise among the proletariat of advanced industrial nations, not among peasants in backward, unindustrialized countries. The Soviet Union was providing support but required its representative to have a strong voice in the decisions of Communist Party organizations. The decision-making power in the Jiangxi Soviet was taken away from Mao and vested in a three-member committee. One member of that committee was the Comintern representative, Otto Braun. Braun used the Chinese name Li De. Zhou En-lai was another member and the third member was Bo Gu, a man who gave complete support to Braun. Thus Zhou En-lai aways faced two votes for Otto Braun's position on any issue.\nBackgrounds of the Other Communist\nLeaders Involved in the Long March\nZhou Enlai\nAs most who observed him must have suspected, Zhou Enlai came from an upper class, gentry background. He was born in 1898 in Huaian in Jinagsu Province which is north of Shanghai. He was raised by his uncle in Shaoxin in Zhejiang Province which is south of Shanghai. Zhou graduated from a secondary school in Tianjin and then went to Japan for further study in 1917. He returned from Japan in 1919, just in time to be involved in the May Fourth Movement. He was arrested in 1920 and upon his release he left China to go to France for study. While in France he participated in the founding, along with Ho Chi Minh, of the Communist Party of France. Later, when the Communist Party of China was formed in 1921 in Shanghai Zhou joined it.\nZhou returned to China in 1924. Sun Yat-sen had asked for aid from the Soviet Union and received it on the condition that the members of the Chinese Communist Party could join the Guomindang (Nationalist Party). So Zhou returned to China during the era of cooperation between the Guomindang and the Communist Party. Zhou became the political officer at the Whampoa Military Academy, which was under Chiang Kai-shek command.\nChang Kai-shek led a Northern Expedition to subdue the warlords of North China. Chiang was able to defeat thirty some war lords. Chiang then led his armies to Shanghai. Zhou had gone to Shanghai in advance of the Northern Expedition and organized an insurrection in Shanghai. Chiang at that time decided that his Communist Allies were pursuing their own agenda and could not be trusted. Chiang turned against the Communists and had them slaughtered in Shanghai and in the cities around China. Zhou barely escaped. He went to Wuhan where he was elected to the Politburo (Political Bureau) of the Chinese Communist Party.\nZhou helped organize Communist insurrections in the cities but the Nationalist Army soon put them down. Zhou escaped and traveled to Moscow in 1928. He returned to Shanghai from Moscow but in 1931 had to flee. He traveled to Jiangxi Province where Mao Zedong, along with Zhu De, had organized a rural enclave called a Soviet. In 1932 the rest of the Communist organization in Shanghai followed Zhou to Jiangxi. Zhou became the political commissar of the Red Army which had been created in the Jiangxi Soviet by Mao Zedong and Zhu De.\nMoscow had sent a representative of the Comintern (Communist International) to the Jiangxi Soviet. He was a German Communist named Otto Braun. He took the Chinese name of Li De. Otto Braun was supposed to have had some military experience as a street fighter in Europe, but his skill as a military is very doubtful. Li De, though political maneuvering came into control of the Red Army in the Jiangxi Soviet. The control of the Red Army was vested in a three member committee, a troika. The three members of the committee were Otto Braun, Zhou Enlai and a Chinese Communist named Bo Gu who had been trained in Moscow. Bo Gu always supported Otto Braun giving him a two-to-one majority over Zhou Enlai so Otto Braun effectively controlled the Red Army. So Mao, who was a genius in political and military strategy, was pushed aside in favor of Otto Braun, someone without any abilities at all to speak of, because of the slavish support of the Chinese Communists who had been to Moscow. Harrison Salisbury speaks disparagingly of the Chinese Bolsheviks who had gone to Moscow and had been stuffed full of \"Marxist gibberish\" like \"Peking ducks.\" Although Zhou had gone to Moscow he was not one of the slavish Chinese Bolsheviks that supported Otto Braun.\nMao did monstrous things to the Chinese people with his Great Leap Forward and his Cultural Revolution but there is no doubt that he was extraordinarily skilled in political and military strategy. Mao may have been incompetent at choosing economic policies once in power but it is no hyperbole to say that Mao was a genius at guerilla warfare. In the Long March it was the heighth of stupidity to take control away from Mao who was unsurpassed at guerilla warfare and give it to Otto Braum who was a complete dunce in the matter. Sensibly the leadership was returned to Mao by the top officers.\nLiu Shaoqi\nLiu Shaoqi came from the same region and more or less the same social background as Mao Zedong. Liu was born in Hunan Province in 1898, the youngest son of a rich peasant landowner. Although Mao was also the son of a moderately well-to-do landowner there seemed to be a definite class difference between Liu and Mao in terms of demeanor and style. Liu seemed to be from a wealthier class than Mao.\nLiu attended middle school in Ch'angsha, the capital of Hunan, but he journeyed to North China to study French. In 1920 he joined a socialist youth group and subsequently went to Moscow for further study. In Moscow he joined the Chinese Communist Party.\nIn 1922 Liu returned to China and became active in labor organizing for the Communist Party. He served for period as an aide to Mao. As well as organizing strikes Liu was also active in Communist Party organizational structure, receiving appointments a number of positions in the Party hierarchy.\nThis was the period of cooperation between the Goumindang (Nationalist Party) and the Communist Party. The cooperation ended abruptly in April of 1927 when Chiang Kai-shek struck against the Party, attempting to exterminate the Communist Party. Liu survived and moved up further in the Party hierarchy. After assignments in Manchuria and elsewhere he moved to Shanghai, where Party activity continue despite Guomindang persecution. The persecution of the Communist Party in Shanghai and other cities finally drove the Party to the rural soviets such as the one organized by Mao in Jiangxi Province.\nIn 1934 Liu was made a member of the Politburo for the Jiangxi Soviet. Soon afterwards the Party decided to evacuate the area in what became known as the Long March. Liu did not join the Long March but instead journeyed to Beijing to carry on Party activities for North China.\nIn 1939 Liu joined the survivors of the Long March in Yenan.\nDeng Xiaoping\nDeng Xiaoping was born in Sichuan Province in 1904 and hence about a half a generation younger than Mao Zedong. Deng's family was of Hakka background, the ethnic minority that migrated from North China to South China in the seventeenth century and were known as the guest people. The Hakka tended to be involved more in migration, business and radical politics than the rest of the Han people. Deng himself traveled to France at the early age of sixteen. He went there to study but spent most of his time working to support himself. Among other things, he worked as a machinist. He also joined the communist movement. After 1924 he traveled to the Soviet Union. He was in the Soviet Union until 1926 when he returned to China to work in the Jiangxi Soviet under Mao. Deng served as a political and military officer in the Communist Party organization in the Jiangxi Soviet, but he had more than his share of political problems. Before the Long March he was dismissed from his Party offices and publicly denounced. He was placed under armed guard. His wife divorced him. What was behind these troubles and persecution of Deng was the anti-Mao element in the Communist Party. Mao had too much support to be attacked directly so the anti-Mao conspiracy attacked someone who was known to be a strong supporter of Mao.\nThere may have been an additional factor involved. In 1926 some Chinese nationalists formed a pro-Guomindang organization in Nanchang. It was called the AB and now one knew what those initials stood for. This was the error of Nationalist-Commuist Party cooperation. Many communists joined the AB on the basis of its nationalism. When Chinese communist students returned from their training in Moscow they were asked by the Communist Party officials to list which organizations they had joined. A good many listed AB. Some paranoid Communist Party official decided that AB stood for Anti-Bolshevik. Those Communist Party officials then came to believe that the Goumindang had a program to infiltrate agents into the Communist Party. On the basis of this complete phantasy about four thousand of the members of the Communist Party were arrested and interrogated. Under torture many confessed and implicated others. Many were executed. In 1931 Deng was made Secretary of the Communist Party in Rujin. He ended the witch-hunt to consternation of the witch-hunters. They may have retaliated against him in later years.\nDeng commenced the Long March without much official status, but he was a strong supporters of Mao and when Mao rose in power during the Long March Deng returned to power along with Mao.\nIn later years Deng rose and fell out of favor with Mao. Mao had a great respect for Deng's abilities but was perplexed that Deng would stick to his beliefs even they were at odds with those of Mao. Mao said of Deng\nHis mind is round but his actions are square.\nHowever Mao also claimed that Deng, who was hard-of-hearing, sat in the back of meetings so that he would not have to listen to what Mao had to say. Definitely Deng was not the sycophant of Mao that Lin Biao was.\nOne of the endearing stories of Deng Xiaoping was that when he was sent to be the representative of the People's Republic of China at the United Nations in New York he was given a spending allowance of about sixteen dollars. Deng decided to spend it all aon croissants in Paris to take back with him to China.\nPeng Dehuai\nPeng Dehuai came to prominence within the Communist hierarchy by way of a different route than most of the other leaders. Peng was born in Hunan Province in 1898. He did not join the Communist movement at an early age nor did he go to France. Instead Peng pursued a military career in the Nationalist Army of Chiang Kai-shek. He was a general in that army when Chiang decided to exterminate the Communist elements. Peng left the Nationalist Army and became a Communist in 1928. He led guerilla movements and Mao made him one of his senior military officers. Peng was one of the top generals in the Long March.\nPeng was one of top commanders in the war against the Japanese and the Civil War that followed World War II. Peng commanded the Chinese troops in the Korean War.\nPeng was the Minister of National Defense of China from 1954 to 1959. When the Great Leap Forward was launched Peng recognized that it was not working. At a Communist Party Congress at Lushan in 1959 Peng submitted a letter raising questions about the wisdom of the Great Leap Forward . Mao Zedong treated Peng's constructive criticism of the Great Leap Forward as treason and had Peng denounced as a counter-revolutionary. Peng was removed from office and retired from public life. During the Cultural Revolution Peng was arrested and interrogated. He was beaten to make him confess to crimes imagined by the radicals but he never broke, even when he was close to death.\nLin Biao\nLin Biao was not among the top leaders during the March, but he was a rising star noted for the effectiveness of his command. Lin was the son of a factory owner in Hebei province. His father was bankrupted by the tax policies of the government and Lin opted for a military career. His abilities were noted by Chiang Kai-shek when he was the commander of the Whampoa Military Academy in Canton (Guangdong). There Lin became acquainted with Zhou Enlai. When Chiang Kai-shek engineered the slaughter of the Communists in Shanghai Lin chose to join Zhou Enlai and the Communists. He rose to be the commander of the First Army in 1932.\nDuring the March Lin made a formal proposal that Mao relinquish his command of the Red Army to Peng Dehuai and limit himself to political leadership. The proposal was not accepted. Lin Biao survived the March and went on to be a power in the Chinese Peoples' Republic. As the commander of the Peoples' Liberation Army he became the founder of the Cult of Mao when he created the Little Red Book of Quotations of Chairman Mao. He was notorious as sycophant, but his effort paid off in that Mao designated Lin as his successor as ruler of China.\nLin Biao apparently conspire to take Mao captive and rule in his name. When the conspiracy was uncovered Lin tried to escape to the Soviet Union but his plane crashed in Mongolia killing all aboard.\nOtto Braun (a.k.a. Li De)\nOtto Braun was an Austrian communist of rather sleazy character that Joseph Stalin chose as his representative among the Chinese Communists in the southern China enclase that came to be known as the Soviet Republic of China. Strictly speaking Braun was an agent of the Communist International (Cominern) who was to serve as an advisor to the Chinese communists.\nBraun was singularly unsuited for the assignment. He had little knowledge of Chinese culture and politics. He did not speak Chinese and apparently was not interested in learning. As blond, blue-eyed Nordic over six feet tall he stood out like a sore thumb among the black-haired people. The only thing that mattered to Stalin was that Braun would follow scrupulously orders from Moscow.\nBraun had the power to open or close the conduit of aid from the Soviet Union. He was therefore a power to be reckoned with. The Chinese communist gave him a role in their decisions by making him one of three members of the committee which made decisions for the Red Army. The other two members were Zhou Enlai and Bo Gu. The intention was to have the Chinese communists constitute a majority on the committee and thus could outvote Braun, the outsider. However Bo Gu was so in awe of Braun that he always supported Braun's position. Thus Braun, who had little or no experience with guerilla warfare and whose knowledge of military tactics was strictly academic, became effectively the commander of the Red Army.\nBraun was a notorious womanizer and he did not intend to lead a celibate life among the Chinese communists. Braun started giving presents to the beautiful wife of a young officer in the Red Army. Other top leaders recognized what Braun was up to and its explosive potential. They sent word among the women that they needed a volunteer to be Braun's concubine. A sturdy peasant woman agreed to fill the role. She stayed with Braun the whole march and ultimately bore him a child. The child looked far more Chinese than Germanic and Mao joked about this showing that Germans were not a superior race.\nBraun ultimately returned to Europe and settled to live in East Berlin. A street there was named after him as a good soldier of communism.\nThe Guomindang Campaigns Against the Jiangxi Soviet\nChiang Kai-shek sent four expeditions to wipe out the Jiangxi Soviet. The Red Army under the direction of Mao used the time-honored guerilla tactic of falling back from direct engagement and drawing the enemy force into familiar territory. The enemy force then was wiped out itself in ambushes.\nAfter Adolph Hitler came to power in Germany Chiang Kai-shek had an episode of interest in ideological fascism. There was a blue-shirt movement created in China in analogy with the black-shirt movement of Benito Mussolini in Italy and the brown-shirt movement of Adolph Hitler in Germany. Hitler sent one of his generals, Hans von Seeckt, to help Chiang in his campaign against the communists.\nVon Seeckt's strategy was to build rings of block houses encircling the enclave. One the circle was closed then succesively smaller rings would trap the Red Army and force them into a pitched battle.\nVon Seeckt's scheme was working. The Red Army was suffering defeat after defeat. The leadership decided that the Red Army must leave the enclave and find a place of operation that was beyond the reach of Chiang Kai-shek's forces. Months were spent in preparing for the move.\nThe Long March\nThe Operation of the Soviet\nBy the time of the Long March the area under Communist Party control in south China was known as The Soviet Republic of China. It was not an insignificant area. At its maximum extent it was comprised of 26 counties in three provinces having a population of about three million. The area was about the same as that of the State of Maine, 31 thousand square kilometers. It had an operating government and a tax collection system. It had a treasury of about one million silver dollars. It had propaganda teams that performed plays. It was a quite notable accomplishment, largely due to Mao Zedong.\nIt had an army of over 100,000. Many of them however were new recruits without battle experience. The average age was about 18. Often the oldest soldiers in the units were only in their mid-twenties. Some ten to fifteen thousand of older, experienced were wounded.\nThe rules of conduct for the soldiers, formulated by Mao Zedong and Zhu De, were\nRules of Discipline:\nObey orders in all your actions.\nDo not take even a needle or a piece of thread from the people.\nTurn in everything you capture.\nPoints of Attention\nDo not take liberties with women.\nDo not mistreat captives.\nThese were enforced. Soldiers accused of rape were given a trial and, if convicted, were shot. These standards were far higher than those of armies of Chiang Kai-shek and the war lords. Note that these rules of conduct applied only to the treatment of the poor and middle peasants and towns people. Because of the behavior of the Red Army in comparison to that of the other armies the Communists were able to gain local support among the peasants and the poor of the towns.\nFor those very reasons Chiang Kai-shek could not tolerate its existence. His first four campaigns despite having an enormous advantage in numbers and resources failed when confronted by the guerilla tactics of Mao. The fifth campaign made use of a strategy of the encirclement of the Soviet area with rings of blockhouses. This strategy came from a German general lent to Chiang by Adolph Hitler. The strategy was working in 1933-34. The Soviet area was reduced by almost 60 percent.\nAnother development contributed to the fifth campaign's success. This was a change in political control in the Soviet. Control was taken away from Mao Zedong. There was a group of Communists who had been sent to study in Moscow. Upon their return to China about the time of the 1927 massacre of Communists in Shanghai they journeyed to the Jiangxi area. They were known as the Bolsheviks and they were disdainful of Mao's ideology which was not consistent with Marxism. At that time a Comintern agent, Otto Braun, made his way to the south China Soviet. He was only suppose to be a military advisor, but because he controlled the matter of aid to the movement from the Soviet Union he was given high status and a role in the decision-making of the Soviet. The decisions were to be made by a committee of three that consisted of Otto Braun, Zhou Enali and Bo Gu. Mao, who was suffering from a bout of malaria at the time, was left out of the decision-making process for the Soviet he had created.\nBo Gu always sided with Otto Braun so the decisions were effectively those of Otto Braun, a man who knew virtually nothing about the Chinese situation. Braun wanted to counter Chiang Kai-shek's blockhouse strategy by building blockhouses. The Communists did not have the resources to compete with Chiang in terms of blockhouses. The air force of Chiang Kai-shek made short work of the blockhouses that the Red Army did build. So, under Otto Braun's direction the Red Army suffered defeat after defeat until in 1934 Braun decided that the Red Army should attempt an escape.\nof the Central Soviet Area\nUnder the command of Mao Zedong the Red Army defeated four campaigns sent by Chiang Kai-shek to eradicate the communist movement. The fifth campaign involved the stategy of confining the Red Army within successively smaller rings of blockhouses. Due to this strategy, which was proposed by General von Seeckt, a Germany military advisor of Chiang Kai-shek, the area under communist control had shrunk nearly 60 percent. There was the additional factor that during the fifth campaign the Red Army was effectively under the control of another German, Otto Braun. The communists' German advisor, Otto Braun, was less competent militarily than the Chiang's military advisor, von Seeckt. Braun tried to oppose von Seeckt's blockhouses with communist blockhouses, but without the resources of the Nationalist forces. The end result was a string of military defeats for the Red Army. When the end result was clearly foreseeable Braun decided the Soviet Republic of China must be evacuated. However, most of the top leaders were not informed of his plan until shortly before the evacuation was to take place.\nIn particular, Mao Zedong was not informed of the evacuation plan. Some of the Chinese Bolsheviks wanted to leave Mao behind. For them Mao seemed to be an ignorant peasant-type who did not understand Marx. As Salisbury characterized these Chinese Bolsheviks:\nThe [Chinese] Bolsheviks, most of them still in their twenties, had been stuffed in Moscow like Peking ducks with Marxist gibberish….\nThe Chinese Bolsheviks were perfectly right that Mao's ideology was not Marxism. Basically it was tribalism and he never gave up trying to make the people of China into a billion people tribe. However Mao was right about where the revolutionary potential in China was located and the Bolsheviks, Russian as well as Chinese, were wrong.\nIn addition to Mao's Marxist shortcomings he was suffering from attacks of malaria and was not physically able to walk the distances that would be involved in the march. Furthermore, from the perspective of the Chinese Bolsheviks Mao, who was forty years of age, was an old man. He had never traveled out of China and that was heavily counted against him by the Chinese Bolsheviks.\nThus the Long March was not Mao's idea. He later publically asserted that it was a bad idea and was poorly planned. Mao's strategy for dealing with the Nationalist fifth campaign was to use a large part of the Red Army to break out of the rings of blockhouse encirclement to get behind the lines of the Nationalist army. The troop strength of the Nationalist Army in the fifth campaign was about two hundred thousand soldiers. This was about twice the troop strength of the Red Army, but the Red Army had the advantage of familiarity with the territory and fighting, at least in part, from defensive positions. The rule of thumb is that a defensive force can hold off an offensive force up to about three times its size.\nThe best estimates of the size of the Red Army and its components before the start of the Long March are:\nUnit\nCommission Column\n9,853\nBraun's evacuation plan put the Red Army at a disadvantage and made it vulnerable to bombing by the Nationalist air force. Braun's plan also inevitably involved large numbers of the Red Army being left behind to perish at the hands of the Nationalist army. Braun foolishly asserted that his plan would draw Nationalist troops away from the Soviet area. Obviously the Nationalist army leaders were going to gain control of the Soviet area first and only then pursue the fleeeing Red Army. Thus, Mao had very good reasons for disagreeing with Braun's plan. However, ultimately it was Mao who ultimately saved Braun's evacuation plan from total defeat.\nBraun's plan called for the evacuation of a great amount of equipment as well as military and political personnel. There were printing presses and devices for minting coins that had to be disassembled for transport. There were files of documents. These were to be transported through areas which had only foot paths where people could not walk two abreast. Large numbers of porters were hired at a cost of a silver dollar per day. These porters would stay with the Red Army only for a limited distance.\nThe plan called for about 86 thousand of the Red Army to evacuate and about 25 to 30 thousand to be left behind. However of the 25 to 30 thousand to be left behind only about 15 thousand were in fighting condition, the rest were wounded or ill.\nThe Early Stages of the Evacuation\nWhen the evacuation commenced in October of 1934 it stretched out over a distance of sixty miles. The Yudu River was passed without incident. They managed to keep the operation secret from the Nationalist forces until they broke through the ring of blockhouses on the southwest sector. The blockhouses were taken out by soldiers sneaking up to them and tossing grenades into them. The River Xiang was then crossed. Its crossing proved to be difficult because some units crossed without difficulty before Nationalist forces attacked. The situation was then perilous for the Red Army because it was divided. The remainder that needed to cross was then weakened and under attack. The Red Army did make it across the Xiang but there were severe losses of troops and much of the material that had been carried at great effort, such as the library of political and military literature, had to be jettisoned. The battle of the crossing of the Xiang River had taken a week.\nZhou Enlai managed to negotiate an agreement with the warlord of the adjacent territory that the Red Army could pass through their territory unimpeded. The warlord was nominally the governor of the province under the Guomindang government, but he did not want the Nationalist army exerting too much power in his territory. He did not want either the Nationalist or Red Army to defeat the other. It served his purposes to have the two struggling against each other and letting him run his own domains. The warlord cleared a corridor thirty miles wide for the Red Army to pass through.\nMao Zedong during this period was recovering from a bout of malaria. The malaria had been quelled with quinine but Mao was only slowly recovering his physical strength. Mao therefore had to travel in a litter made up of woven fiber stretched between two bamboo poles. Two soldiers carried the litter. At this point Mao was not part of the strategy setting command. Later when he was part of the strategy-setting committee his being carried by litter was justified on the basis that he and the other top leaders had to stay up together late into the night, perhaps even all night, discussing options and therefore had to sleep during the day. As a result, all of them became addicted to sleeping pills.\nWhile the people being carried in litters were not sleeping they carried on some discussions. One prominent topic was how to bring Mao back into power.\nGuizhou Province\nThe area the Red Army was traveling through was a mountainous part of the province of Guizhou. It was said of this area of Guizhou that\nthere was no three li (unit of distance about equal to a mile) without a mountain, no three days without rain and no one who possessed three silver dollars.\nIt was the land of the ethnic minority called the Miao. The Miao were so poor that the women had to remain in their houses because they had no clothes. Teenage children worked naked in the fields. Miao families often had only one pair of trousers to be shared when needed by three or four adult males. It was also the land of the opium poppy. At that time the infant mortality rate was about fifty percent. Often families sold some of their young children to survive. The people of Miao lived on maize because they were too poor to afford rice.\nBy this time the troop strength of the Red Army was down from 80,000 to 30,000. At the town of Tongdao an emergency meeting of the Military Commission was convened. Mao Zedong had been removed from this governing body two years before. He was invited to attend this meeting. He immediately began to dominate the meeting. The question being consider was whether the Red Army should continue on its course to the west or head north to join up with an army group under the command of He Long which had left the Soviet Republic area before the evacuation. Chiang Kai-shek was positioning a large force, as many as 250,000 soldiers, to cutoff any attempt to unite the two groups of the Red Army. Mao proposed that they abandon any attempt to join He Long's forces. Instead he said the Red Army should journey into Guizhou and move west to get beyond the reach of Chiang Kai-shek's forces. The Commission members agreed with Mao, including Otto Braun.\nTwo days later at the city of Liping a formal meeting of the political bureau (politburo) of the Communist Party convened to accept the proposals Mao had made in Tongdao. Zhou Enlai voiced criticisms of Otto Braun's leadership. Mao expanded his proposal to include occupying the largest city in Guizhou, Zunyi, and spending some time resting and reorganizing. In effect, the meeting Liping returned Mao to the leadership of Communist Party and the command of the Red Army. This, however, was not made official until the Red Army occupied Zunyi.\nZunyi\nThe Red Army had to cover about 200 miles from Liping to Zenyi, but the terrain was relatively level and the only river to be crossed, the Wu River, was relatively small. On New Year's Eve the Army was about 30 miles from the Wu stopping at a small town of Houchang (monkey town). Mao's four servants prepared a New Year's Day feast for him but Mao insisted that the army move out as soon as possible. (Salisbury calls the servants bodyguards, which they had to be as well, but they spent most of their time functioning a servants. Mao's wife, He Zizhen, had two servants to serve her.)\nAn advanced unit reached the banks of the Wu on New Year's Day. The local militia guarding the crossing did not surrender and it took three days to secure a crossing. A bamboo bridge had to built and launched across the Wu. After the crossing of the Wu Mao decreed that the army unit procede to Zunyi as soon as possible and take the city by surprise. One unit was able to do this. That unit encountered a squad of the local militia about ten miles from Zunyi and captured all of them. The Red Army unit was able to convince the militia soldiers help them capture Zunyi. This they did by taking the Red Army unit to the city gates and convincing the gate keeper to let them in. The Red Army soon had the city under control. Two days later Mao and the other top leaders arrived.\nThe top leadership occupied the best houses in Zunyi, but Otto Braun and Bo Gu were assigned lesser housing away from Mao and the top leaders. It was symbolic of the change in control of the Red Army.\nFor the following week the leadership investigated the Zunyi and the surrounding area. They considered the possibility of setting up a new soviet state. There was however more crucial issues to be decided; i.e., the control of the Communist Party and the Red Army.\nOn January 15, 1935 the Political Bureau (Politburo) convened an official meeting in Zunyi to assess the recent political and military events. Twenty members attended the evening meeting. Only ten were official members of the politburo. Deng Xiao attended as an observer and as editor of The Red Star, the newspaper of the the Red Army. In the center of the room sat Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and Bo Gu. Otto Braun was given a seat by the door and he was heavily dependent upon his tranlator for following the presentations and discussions.\nBo Gu who was officially the head of the Communist Party of China spoke first. He tried to explain away the failures of the strategy that had been pursued in the Soviet area and on the march. He acknowledged mistakes but tried to make excuses. Zhou Enlai spoke second. He took the blame for failed strategies that the Military Committee had undertaken. The audience knew that those strategies were the choices of Otto Braum and Bo Gu and were chosen over his opposition. Mao then made a long speech in which he cited specific mistakes and placed the fault on Otto Braun and Bo Gu. Mao received an ovation after he finished his speech. He said what the military commanders believed but had been reluctant to say. A supporter of Mao then gave a speech in which he called for Mao to be again placed in command of the Red Army and that Otto Braun and Bo Gu denied any further official authority over the Red Army. Other speakers, including Peng Duhuai, called the return of Mao to command and the removal of Otto Braun and Bo Gu. Only one speaker, He Kequan, spoke in defense of Braun and Bo. He Kequan had studied in Moscow and he told Mao disparagingly, \"You know nothing about Marxism-Leninism. All you have read is Sun Wu Zi's Art of War.\" Braun apparently tried to defend himself, saying that he had been sent to by the Comintern only as an advisor. Lin Biao was at the meeting but apparently did not speak. Zhou Enlai spoke again, criticizing Braun and Bo and calling for Mao to be given command. Finally the Politburo made Mao a member of the Standing Committtee of the Politburo. Military leadership was left to Zhou Enlai and Zhu De.\nThe leadership also decided that Zunyi and its region was not suitable for a new base area of the Communist Party. It produced opium but not enough food to support the Red Army. It was decided to cross the Chang Jiang (Yantse River) and move north.\nZhang Guotao and the Fourth Front Army\nAlready north of the Changjiang was the Fourth Front Army under the leadership of Zhang Guotao. Zhang had come from a landlord family but he joined with radicals such as Mao when they were at the university in Beijing. Zhang along with Mao was one of the twelve founders of the Communist Party of China in 1921. Zhang was involved in the Nanjing Uprising which Zhou Enlai had organized in the summer of 1927. Later Zhang went to Moscow for three years. Back from Moscow in 1931 Zhang, member of the Politburo, was sent by the Party organization in Shanghai to administer a soviet enclave in region of Hubei, Henan and Anhui. This enclave had been given the name Eyuwan, a combination of the three provinces name. The Eyuwan Soviet had been initiated in 1927. Between 1927 and 1931 it had grown enough to justifyleadership by a top leader of the Chinese Communist Party.\nChiang tried to destroy the Eyuwan Soviet but failed. However the pressure was great enought that Zhang moved the Soviet to the border region between Sichuan and Shaanxi. From there Zhang moved it further into northwest Sichuan.\nAt first Zhang declined to set up a Soviet enclave and carry out land redistribution. He was uncertain that he would be able to stay in the area. But finally he did and by 1935 when Mao and the Long March was coming into his region he had about seventy thousand troops and an equal number of noncombatants. His troops were well fed and armed. In contrast Mao had about ten thousand combat troops and little food and only rifles and hand guns for weapons. The Long March had been very destructive to the Jiangxi Soviet's resources. In defense of Mao it should be noted that the Long March was never his idea. Had he remained in south China he would have had troops and resources comparable to what Zhang had in his Soviet in northwest Sichuan.\nThe Predicament of Mao\nAt this point Mao was once again the commander of the Red Army. He chose to ride a white horse at the front of the Red Army. Mao had previously sent Lin Biao and his Second Division to find a good crossing point of the Red River, which had to be crossed before the Changjiang (Yangtze) could be reached. The target for Lin Biao was the city of Chishui. To the surprise of Lin Biao the approach to Chishui was protected by two strong fortifications. Lin Biao's troops were not able to get past these fortifications.\nMeanwhile the main force under the leadership of Mao was being troubled by attacks from behind. Mao thought this was a small force of about two to three thousand troops under the command of Guizhou warlords. Near the town of Tucheng on the Red River Mao decided to to pause and wipe out the troublesome force trailing the Red Army. Peng Duhaui with a force of about ten thousand was to turn upon what was thought to be two thousand or so troublesome marauders. The expectation was that shortly after Peng Duhuai's forces attacked the marauders would flee the battlefield.\nThis expectation was not fulfilled. Instead of amateurish marauders the trailing force was well-trained and well-commanded Sichuan troops and they numbered four thousand. Furthermore they were soon joined by reenforcements bringing the total up to about eight thousand troops. The top leadership, Mao Zedong, Zhu De and Zhou Enlai took personal command of the battle. Lin Biao was ordered to bring his troops into the battle immediately. Despite this reenforcement the battle was still about even. Giving up hope for a victory Mao ordered the Red Army to withdraw from the battle and head immediately for a crossing of the Red River. Lin Biao had previously captured a floating bridge. This was used for the crossing.\nMao chose a route that took the Red Army into Yunnan. Since the Red Army appeared not to to be invading Sichuan province the Sichuan Army did not pursue it.\nThe expectation among the troops of the Red Army was that the Red Army would go west in Yunnan and then head north into Sichuan. Mao chose instead to make a surprise maneuver. Instead of pursuing a path that would take the Red Army to a point where it could cross the Changjiang (Yangtze) he chose to backtrack into Guizhou, the area that had just been escaped from. Mao suggested the Red Army again take control of Zunyi. The leadership council of the Red Army approved Mao's proposal. Mao justified this maneuver on the basis of reports that the Nationalist Army was sending units west into the area in Sichuan the Red Army was expected to enter. This was in February of 1935.\nAt Zunyi the Red Army would be not too far from the Changjiang (Yangtze River) and Zhang's Soviet on the other side. Mao chose not to attempt a march to the river and its crossing. Probably the Red Army would have been too vulnerable to an attack by Chiang's forces at such a crossing. Instead Mao took the Red Army south and led the Nationalist Army on such a chase that its leaders decided finally to stop until they could determine what Mao was trying to do. At that point Mao took the Army on a dash for the Jinshajiang (River of Golden Sands) to make a crossing before the Chiang and the Nationalist Army commanders knew what the Red Army was doing. This is cited as evidence of the brilliance of Mao as guerilla army leader. Jung Chang and her husband give a different explanation for Mao's maneuvers. They feel that Mao was very reluctant to merge with Zhang's forces which were ten times larger than those of Mao. According to them Mao was afraid he would be over-shadowed by Zhang Guotao and his Fourth Frong Army. Lin Biao, who was an exemplary commander of a major portion of the Red Army, also had his doubts about the wisdom of Mao's action. Lin Biao, after leading his troops on the meandering path Mao was taking them on, introduced a motion at a major meeting that Mao relinquish the military command of the Red Army to Peng Dehuai.\nThe Capture of Luding Bridge Over the Dadu River\nOne of the enduring legends of the Long March was of the super-heroic capture of the the suspension bridge across the Dadu River at Luding. Mao Zedong found that ferrying the Red Army across the Dadu River might takes months and keep it vulnerable to attacks by air and on the ground by Nationalist forces. He ordered the capture of the Luding Bridge.\nThe Luding Bridge is a unique structure. It is a suspension bridge held up by thirteen iron link chains. It was built aroung 1700 by the Qing Empire on the border of Tibet. Potentially the capture of this bridge could be very difficult. The chains were covered by cross planks of wood and these could be easily removed or burnt leaving only the chains. Mao Zedong gave the assignment for the capture of the bridge to Lin Biao's unit. Lin in turn gave the assignment to one of his commanders. That commander had to quick march his troops 24 hours in hopes of reaching the bridge before Nationalist troop reenforced its defenses.\nThe bridge was held by the forces of a local warlord. The relationship between the warlord and Chiang Kaishek was very fragile. Nominally the warlords of the region were allied with Chiang and Chiang was supposed to supply them with weapons and munitions but otherwise let them govern their territories. Chiang was a greater danger to them than the Red Army. The Red Army was just passing through, but if Chiang's forces came into their territory on the pretext of fighting the Communists they were unlikely to leave. For the warlords the best resolution of the situation was for the Red Army to pass through their territories. To engage in a pitched battle was likely to bring Chiang's troops in ostensibly to help them in the battle but more likely to take direct control of the territory.\nThe warlord's soldiers at Luding were armed only with bolt-action rifles and the ammunition they had would carry only about 100 feet. In contrast the Red Army had superior weapons which they had captured from the Nationalish Army soldiers. Chang had acquired German weapons as a result of his new relationship with National Socialist Germany.\nWhen Lin Biao's troops arrived at the bridge there were about twenty who were willing to carryout the attack across the bridge. There are differences of opinion as to how much of the bridge was without cross planking. Harrison Salisbury says that most of the planking had been removed except for a small section at the west end of the bridge. Jung Chang and Halliday say that most of the planking was intact except for a small section at the west end. There was a guard house at the west end manned by warlord troops armed with antiquated rifles.\nIn contrast the Red Army soldiers were armed with submachine guns. At some point the Red Army soldiers apparently did have to crawl upsidedown under the chains while the defending soldiers did or could have shot at them. However the Red Army soldiers were apparently able to maintain such a density of fire that the defending soldiers spent most of their time huddled down. In any case, apparently none of the Red Army soldiers were killed in the bridge crossing. There were three or four killed after they made the crossing and went on to capture the town. The warlord soldiers abandoned the guard house soon after the Red Army soldiers started tossing hand grenades in their direction. They may have been advised by the warlord not to try to fight a pitched battle.\nWhat was the truth of the matter? Fortunately we have the authoritative accessment of situation by Deng Xiaoping as told to Zbigniew Brzezinski, the former National Security Advisor to President Jimmy Carter. On March 9, 2005 Brzezinski gave the Michael Oksenberg Lecture for the Asia-Pacific Research Center of the Stanford Institute for International Studies. The speech was entitled America and the New Asia. In it Brzezinski related the following anecdote:\nAfter I left office, I was invited by Chairman Deng to take my family to China and to be his guest, and when the Chinese ambassador came to see me with the invitation, he asked me what it is that I would like to do while I was there. My children were very young teenagers, three of them, as well as my wife, and I invited Mike [Armacost] to join us. David and Debbie Oksenberg came along also. I told the Chinese ambassador that after reflection I didn�t think I wanted to see Shanghai and Beijing. I�d been to both in any case. I wanted to visit Xian, where I hadn�t yet been. I wanted to do something there that no American, no Westerner, had done�namely, retrace the more remote portions of the Long March, to go to the Himalayan Plateau and to retrace the Long March for about two weeks.\nThe Chinese ambassador was startled. He said, �I�ll look into it and report back to you.� Then he came back some days later and said, �Of course, the Chinese government is delighted by your interest and your request of course would be honored, but, alas, it is not possible because those portions of China are closed to foreigners.� Knowing a little bit from Mike about the importance of face in interacting with the Chinese, I adopted the tactic of looking at him with obvious disbelief, and then slightly laughing, and saying, �Ho, ho, this must be a misunderstanding. Chairman Deng invites me and my family to China and now you�re coming back and telling me that I�m forbidden to go to that part of China I want to go to. It�s clearly a misunderstanding!� He readily agreed that it was a misunderstanding and that he would review the facts.\nHe went away, came back a few days later and said, �Oh course, you have permission to go to those remote parts of China where no Westerners have been; you can retrace the Long March, but, alas, it�s not possible, because one, there are no facilities in the area at all. You have to sleep on cots in party offices, in small towns or villages. Second, in some areas there are really no roads, and you will have to ride horseback and you will also have to literally walk up mountains, and third, this is not a good time to go into that part of China, because there are a lot of mosquitoes.�\nSo I said to him, �Well, as far as sleeping on the cots is concerned, my family and I are quite sportive and we like camping, so that�s absolutely a wonderful prospect. We�d love to camp on cots in party cells. As far as riding horses is concerned, we live in Virginia, and we happen to have horses; we love riding horses, so that�s wonderful. We�d love to do it, and we also like climbing hills. And as far as the mosquitoes are concerned, we�ll bring with us something, Mr. Ambassador, that�s called Raid, and we�ll spray them and that will kill them, and therefore there will be no problem with mosquitoes.�\nSo he said, a day later, �Please come to China and retrace the Long March.� So we did, and after that trip I went to Beijing. I had one of a number of visits that I had in subsequent years with Deng. By this time he didn�t want to talk about anything involving American-Chinese relations. He just wanted to talk about the Long March, and he asked me, �Did you go there? In Zunyi?� �Yes,� I replied, �I was in Zunyi. When I was in Zunyi I slept in the same bed as Mao Zedong.� I even told them we went to Luding Bridge, which was the site of a special, important heroic battle in which the Red Forces were able to cross the river under very difficult and treacherous conditions. If they hadn�t they would have been wiped out. It was a great feat of arms to have crossed that bridge. At that point, Chairman Deng smiled and said, �Well, that�s the way it�s presented in our propaganda. We needed that to express the fighting spirit of our forces. In fact, it was a very easy military operation. There wasn�t really much to it. The other side were just some troops of the warlord who were armed with old muskets and it really wasn�t that much of a feat, but we felt we had to dramatize it.�\nPage 3 of the transcript of the speech.\nThat pretty much tells the story of the capture of the Luding Bridge.\nThe Crossing of the Great Snowy Mountains\nThe rest of the Red Army joined the assault force at Luding after a few days. They rested there only a day and, as the warlord anticipated, moved on. The Communist Fourth Front Army, under the command of Zhang Guotao, was in northwest Sichuan at the time. Mao made no effort to join up with Zhang. Harrison Salisbury says this was because the two armies were not in contact with each other and did not know where the other was. Jung Chang says that it was because Mao did not want to join the larger, stronger force and be relegated to second place in command. Mao had the official Communist Party command structure with him, but there would be, if nothing else, a loss of face in meeting up with Zhang.\nMao faced a small range of high mountains, called the Snowy Mountains. He could have taken a route to the west of this range which would have followed a caravan route, but it would have been through a region well populated with potentially hostile Tibetans. He could have chosen a route to the east of the range but that might have exposed the Red Army to attack by Chiang's forces. Instead he chose to take a route through the Snowy Mountains that involved traversing a pass with an altitude of fourteen thousand feet. This was the Jiajinshan. The time was early June but the weather at fourteen thousand feet is that of winter and people have trouble just walking unburdened at that altitude. The typical load carried by the soldiers was on the order of twenty five pounds. Some, such as the cooks, tried to carry loads as heavy as eighty pounds. Frostbite and snow-blindness were a constant threat. The soldiers were advised not to pause at all during the climb up. For the descent on the other side they were advised to try to slide as much as they could.\nIt was a heroic passage. But the Jiajinshan was not the only snowy mountain. The Red Army had to traverse many snow mountains. On the farside of the Snowy Mountains Mao's First Army was met by a contingent of Zhang's Fourth Army.\nThe Great Joining\nMao and Zhang had never been close. They had last seen each other in 1923 and at that time had taken opposing positions on some policy issue in a Communist Party conference. In a village on the northside of the Snowy Mountains Mao arrangements for his meeting with Zhang to place with great fanfare. Zhang came to meet Mao, a move that acknowledged Mao's superior status within the Communist Party hierarchy but he and the dozen subordinates that he brought with him rode in on horses. Zhang rode a white horse. It was raining heavily. Mao and his group leaders were waiting under an oilcloth shelter. They left the shelter to meet Zhang and his group where they dismounted. Mao and Zhang embraced. Back at the shelter Mao gave a speech to the assembled throng waiting in rhe rain. Zhang also gave a speech. The niceties of proper protocol had been observed. Zhang had demonstrated that he could accept Mao's superior status within the Party and Mao demonstrated that he could treat Zhang as a near-equal. Both Mao and Zhang had been, along with ten others, founders of the Communist Party of China in 1921.\nNot everyone conceded that proper protocol was observed. Some felt that Zhang and his party had not halted their horses soon enough as they approached Mao who was on foot. They felt Zhang and his men came close to spattering mud on Mao and his group. But all in all Zhang's behavior toward Mao was an amazing concession. Zhang had close to eighty thousand combat troops, well fed and well armed. He had an equal number of noncombatants under his command. He had control over a large territory with a population of several hundred thousand. Mao on the other hand had less than ten thousand starving and bedraggled soldiers with little ammunition. However, despite Mao and Zhang observing proper protocol, they probably were suspicious and wary of each other.\nAfter the festivities of the coming together of the First and Fourth Red Armies there was a political meeting concerning the very serious business of the future strategy of the Communist forces. At the meeting Mao proposed that the Communist movement move north to where it could be supplied by the Soviet Union through Outer Mongolia. The meeting did not settle upon a definite directive for all who were involved. Outside of the meeting there were attempts to arrange a merging of the First and Fourth Army commands. Zhang promised to transfer two thousand soldiers to the First Army but only one thousand were actually transferred.\nLater the combined armies were combined into two columns, denoted Left and Right. Mao and Zhang's troops were equally divided between the two columns. Mao traveled with the Right Column and Zhang with the Left.\nSo Mao took the group north. Zhang joined in physically but spiritually was following a different course.\nThe Crossing of the Morass of the Great Grasslands\nThe points of divide between the watersheds of two river system are necessarily places of zero slope. The water in those places is not impelled to go either way. These places at the borders of watersheds can be narrow, such as a mountain ridge, or they can be a broad plateau. In this latter case the plateau is a swamp, a place of mud and water without separation. This is the case of the region which is the divide between the watersheds of the Huang-he (Yellow River) and the Changjiang (Yangtze River) in northwest China. It is inaccurately called the Great Grasslands. More accurately it is the Great Morass. It was a territory without roads, without towns and without people.\nThe crossing was made more difficult by the altitude of ten thousand feet. The time was late August of 1935. At its northern location and altitude the summer has ended and freezing storms can occur in late August. Furthermore there was very little that was edible and almost no firewood. Thus the only food available for the Red Army was what they brought with them and even that often could not be properly cooked. At ten thousand foot altitude water boils at a lower temperature than at sea level and the boiling of food takes an inordinately long time. The soldiers resorted to parching the grains such as wheat and millet rather than trying to boil them.\nWhen soldiers sunk into the morass they could not get out and sometimes those attempting to rescue them were lost as well. Hundreds of people died of cold and exhaustion in the week it took to traverse the Great Grasslands. Those that survived called the crossing the most difficult of all the episodes of the Long March. Ironically the Great Grasslands were beautiful to view, a giant carpet of flowers of multiple colors.\nNear Disaster of the Dismerging of the Two Armies\nAs part of the attempt to merge the armies of Mao and Zhang, the subcommanders from Zhang's army had been put in command of the Right Column, the column Mao traveled with and Mao's subcommanders had the command of the Left Column, the one Zhang traveled with. Most of the soldiers in both columns were from Zhang's forces.\nThe two columns traveled separately. When Zhang and the Left Column reached the White River (known by the Tibetan name Gequ) they found it in flood and could not cross it. Zhang then proposed that the plan to take the armies north be abandoned and insteand they should go south. Mao and the Central Commission which he dominated rejected Zhang's proposal.\nZhang then sent a coded message to one of his subcommanders who was with the Right Column. The subcommander was too busy to decode it himself and instead one of his subordinates decoded the message instead. That subordinate happened to be loyal to Mao. The message essentially called for the subcommander to take control of Mao and the members of the Politburo. Mao recognized that armed conflict between the forces loyal to him and those loyal to Zhang could break out at any time. Mao extricated his forces and headed north. The subcommander loyal to Zhang chose not to attack the fleeing forces of Mao. The Zhang forces then moved south.\nThe Battle for Lazikou Pass\nIn order to reach Gansu Province the Red Army of Mao would have to capture Lazikou Pass. This pass at some points was as narrow as twelve feet, making it relatively easy to defend. The Nationalist army had built blockhouses equiped with machine guns to defend the pass. Several hundred Nationalist soldiers were defending the pass.\nThe first assaults on the pass by the troops of the Red Army accomplished nothing. There were rumors that additional Nationalist troops were on their way to the pass.\nAfter midnight Mao assembled about fifty soliers with mountaineering skills. They were sent to climb up the cliff to a point where they were above the blockhouse and could lobb grenades down upon the Nationalist soldiers in the blockhouse. It took the the mountaineers until dawn to make their ascent but when they started drop grenades on the blockhouse the Nationalist soldiers there abandoned it. The Red Army was then able to pass through into Gansu Province. On September 21st of 1935 Mao and his army arrived at the city of Hadapu in Gansu. In Hadapu they found newspapers and the information that a Communist enclave existed in northern Shaanxi Province. It was controlled by someone that Mao knew and trusted, Liu Zhidan. Mao decided to take the bedraggled remnant of his First Front Army to that area. The Long March had not quite ended.",
"Three Chinese Leaders: Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and Deng Xiaoping | Asia for Educators | Columbia University\nThree Chinese Leaders:\nDeng Xiaoping\nMao Zedong\nMao Zedong (1893-1976) was one of the historic figures of the twentieth century. A founder of the CCP (Chinese Communist Party), he played a major role in the establishment of the Red Army and the development of a defensible base area in Jiangxi province during the late 1920s and early 1930s. He consolidated his rule over the Party in the years after the Long March and directed overall strategy during the Sino-Japanese War and the civil war. He formally assumed the post of Party Chairman in 1945. His reliance on the peasantry (a major departure from prevailing Soviet doctrine) and dependence on guerrilla warfare in the revolution were essential to the Communist triumph in China.\nFollowing the establishment of the PRC (People's Republic of China) in 1949, Mao was responsible for many of the political initiatives that transformed the face of China. These included land reform, the collectivization of agriculture, and the spread of medical services. In particular, this leader of the revolution remained alert to what he saw to be new forms of oppression and sensitive to the interests of the oppressed. In 1958 he advocated a self-reliant \"Great Leap Forward\" campaign in rural development. The failure of the Leap led Mao to turn many responsibilities over to other leaders (Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, etc.) and to withdraw from active decision making.\nDuring the early 1960s, Mao continued his restless challenge of what he perceived as new forms of domination (in his words, \"revisionism,\" or \"capitalist restoration\"). In foreign policy he led China's divorce from the Soviet Union. Domestically, he became increasingly wary of his subordinates' approach to development, fearing that it was fostering deep social and political inequalities. When Liu, Deng, and others seemed to be ignoring his call to \"never forget class struggle,\" Mao in 1966 initiated the \"Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution,\" exploiting discontent among some students (the \"Red Guards\") and others. The Cultural Revolution was successful in removing many who opposed his policies but led to serious disorder, forcing Mao to call in the military to restore order in 1967.\nIn 1969 Mao designated Defense Minister Lin Biao, a Cultural Revolution ally, as his heir apparent. But Mao came to have doubts about Lin and soon challenged him politically. One of the issues of debate was the opening to the United States, advocated by Mao and Zhou Enlai as a counter to the Soviet Union. In 1971 Lin was killed in a plane crash while fleeing China after an alleged assassination attempt on Mao.\nUntil his death, a failing Mao refereed a struggle between those who benefited from the Cultural Revolution and defended its policies, and rehabilitated veterans who believed that the Cultural Revolution had done China serious harm. It seemed for a while that the veterans, led by Deng Xiaoping, had won the day. But the radicals, either by manipulating Mao or by appealing to his basic instincts, regained momentum after Zhou Enlai's death in January 1976. Mao chose the more centrist Hua Guofeng to carry on his vision. Four weeks after Mao's death, Hua led the arrest of major radical figures, four of whom — Zhang Chunqiao, Jiang Qing, Wang Hongwen, and Yao Wenyuan — were dubbed a \"gang.\"\nThe post-Mao era has seen a reversal of much that Mao stood for and the eclipse of many individuals, living and dead, that he stood behind. His leadership, especially the Cultural Revolution initiative, has been hotly debated. In June 1981 the Party Central Committee approved a resolution that criticized Mao's rule after 1958, but affirmed his place as a great leader and ideologist of the Chinese Communist revolution.\nFrom Focus on Asian Studies, Vol. IV, No. 1 (New York: The Asia Society, 1984). © 1984 The Asia Society. Reprinted with permission.\nZhou Enlai\nZhou Enlai (1898-1976) was, for decades, one of the most prominent and respected leaders of the Communist movement. Born into an upper-class family, he was drawn into the vortex of Chinese politics during the May Fourth Movement. In 1920 he traveled to Europe on a work-study program in which he met a number of future CCP leaders. He joined the Party in 1922 and returned to China in 1924, becoming the political commissar of the Whampoa Military Academy in Canton during the first united front with the Nationalists. He was in charge of labor union activity in Shanghai when Chiang Kaishek attacked the CCP in April 1927 and helped to plan the Nanchang Uprising against the Nationalists in August — the event now celebrated as the founding of the CCP's Red Army.\nBut Zhou was always most prominent during periods in which the CCP reached out to otherwise hostile political forces. He played an important role in securing Chiang Kaishek's release during the Xian (Sian) Incident of December 1936. Once the Nationalists and CCP had formed a second united front to oppose Japanese imperialism, it was Zhou who headed the CCP liaison team. Similarly, Zhou represented the CCP in negotiations with the Nationalists during the mediation effort of U.S. General George Marshall.\nAfter the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, Zhou became premier of the Government Affairs (later State) Council and foreign minister. In 1955 he acted as China's bridge to the nonaligned world at the Bandung Conference, and in the same year helped engineer initial contacts with the U.S. He passed the foreign minister portfolio to Chen Yi in 1958 but continued to play an active role in foreign policy.\nZhou supported Mao Zedong in the latter's Cultural Revolution attack on the entrenched Party bureaucracy, and subsequently played a critical role in rebuilding political institutions and mediating numerous political quarrels. With the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, Zhou advocated an opening to Japan and the West to counter the Russian threat. Zhou welcomed President Nixon to China in February 1972, and signed the historic Shanghai Communiqué for the PRC. That same year Zhou was diagnosed as having cancer, and he began shedding some of his responsibilities, especially to Deng Xiaoping who was rehabilitated in April 1973. Zhou was also a strong advocate of modernization, particularly at the Fourth National People's Congress in January 1975. Amid radical attacks on him during the Anti-Confucius Campaign, Zhou entered the hospital during 1974 and died on January 8, 1976.\nZhou continued to affect Chinese politics even after his death. In April 1976, the removal of memorial wreaths placed in Tiananmen Square in Zhou's honor sparked riots that led to the second ousting of Deng Xiaoping. With the purge of the \"Gang of Four\" in October 1976, his policy of \"four modernizations\" received the full endorsement of the new leadership. His selected works were published in December 1980, and three years later a memorial room for him was established in Mao's mausoleum.\nFrom Focus on Asian Studies, Vol. IV, No. 1 (New York: The Asia Society, 1984). © 1984 The Asia Society. Reprinted with permission.\n| back to top |\nDeng Xiaoping\nBorn in 1904, Deng Xiaoping (d. 1997) was one of the first generation of Chinese Communist Party leaders. He held prominent positions in the government in the 1950s and 1960s, but he was removed from office and imprisoned during the years of the Cultural Revolution, 1966-76. His family was persecuted. Deng Xiaoping reemerged as China's paramount leader shortly after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976.\nDeng Xiaoping's goal in 1976 was to set China back on the course of economic development that had been badly interrupted during the final years of Mao's leadership. Deng's rallying cry became the \"Four Modernizations,\" articulated by Zhou Enlai in 1975, which entailed the development of industry, agriculture, defense, and science and technology. He set the course of reform by dismantling the communes set up under Mao and replaced them with the Household Responsibility System (HRS), within which each household must be held accountable to the state for only what it agrees to produce, and is free to keep surplus output for private use. In addition to this program, which was an incentive for households to produce more, Deng encouraged farmers to engage in private entrepreneurship and sideline businesses in order to supplement their incomes.\nDeng Xiaoping said that \"practice is the sole criterion of truth,\" and believed that only by experimenting with alternative forms of production and entrepreneurial activity would China find the best path for economic development. Thus began China's experiments with capitalist methods of production. As Deng said, \"it does not matter if a cat is black or white so long as it catches the mouse;\" it no longer matters if an economic policy is capitalist or socialist, in other words, as long as it results in economic growth.\nDeng also wanted to set up an arrangement whereby leadership succession would take place according to legal guidelines rather than personality struggles. In general, he hoped to establish a social and political order governed by \"rule by law, not by man.\" Even after he had retired from his formal positions, Deng encouraged his aging comrades to follow this example. Deng's commitment to replacing the aging leaders suffered a setback, however. When faced with demands for political reforms by students and citizens throughout China in 1989, Deng ordered the military to move in and clear Tiananmen Square, where they were demonstrating for greater freedom of speech and press, and greater accountability on the party of government. Pro-reform leaders like Zhao Ziyang were removed from office and many of the retired leaders, many of whom did not support Zhao's reform effort, returned to power after June 4, 1989.\nEconomically, China has entered a very difficult period characterized by unemployment and general uncertainty. Also unclear is how history will view the role and achievements of Deng Xiaoping in light of the events at Tiananmen Square.\n— By Catherine H. Keyser",
"China in the 20th Century\nChina in the 20th Century\nOverview\nBefore Europeans first arrived in Asia, China was one of the most advanced and powerful nations in the world. It was the most populous, was politically unified, and most importantly, it had mastered the art of agriculture. However, when Europeans first landed on Chinese shores, they found a nation that had revered to traditional culture and warfare. Industrialization was almost nonexistent. \nAt the beginning of the 20th century, China was divided into sphere of influence with each powerful Western nation trying to exert as much control over it as possible. The Chinese resented foreigners control and expressed this at the beginning of the 20th century with the Boxer Rebellion . At the same time, the traditional government of China began to fail in the early years. The Chinese people, being resentful of foreigners and dissatisfied with inability of the present government to throw them out, initiated the Revolution of 1911, replacing the Chinese 2000 year old imperial system with the Republic of China headed by Sun Yat-sen .\nIn March of 1912, Sun Yat-sen resigned and Yuan Shih-kai became the next ruler of China. Yuan attempted to reinstate an imperial system with himself as emperor causing Sun to start one of Chinas first political parties, Kuomintang or KMT. Sun fought hard to establish a democracy but was largely unsuccessful until the 1920s.\nIn 1917, China entered World War I on the side of the allies. Although China did not see any military action, it provided resources in the form of laborers that worked in allied mines and factories. The Treaty of Versailles ignored Chinas plea to end concessions and foreign control of China.\nOn May 4, 1919, the May Fourth Movement took place in which students demonstrated in protest of the Treaty of Versailles. The Movement helped the Chinese by promoting science and making Chinese adopt a new easier form of writing. Moreover, the movement was the foundation for the forming of the Communist Party of China (CCP).\nDuring the 1920s, China was divided in a power struggle began between the CCP and KMT. The KMT controlled a majority of China with a strong base in urban areas while the CCP displaying smallholdings in rural communities. By 1928, the CCP was expelled and China was nationalized under the KMT. However, the Communist Party of China resurfaced on November 1, 1931 when it proclaimed the Jiangxi providence as the Chinese Soviet Republic. The army of the Republic of China, under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek tried to destroy the Communist army in 1934, however, Chiang failed but did cause the CCP to flee northward in the Long March.\nAlso in 1931, Japan began to occupy Manchuria and established a puppet government called Manchukuo. The Japanese aggression in China became full blown on July 7, 1937, the beginning World War II. By 1939, Japan controlled most of the east coast of China, while Chiang blockaded the Communists in the northwest region. By 1944, the United States began to help nationalist China, but the nationalist remained weak due to high inflation and economic strife.\nIn January of 1946, the two factions of China began to have another power struggle. The KMT, supplied by the United States, controlled the cities, while the CCP had a strong hold in the countryside. To make matters worse, high inflation demoralized the citizens and military. By 1948, the CCP began to wage war against the KMT, taking control of Manchuria and working its way south. On October 1, 1949, with the retreat of the KMT to Taiwan , Mao Zedong established the Peoples Republic of China.\nThe Peoples Republic of China completely changed the culture and geography of the Chinese people. It implemented five-year plans that consisted of land reform, social reform, cultural reform, and economic planning. The changes lead to the Great Leap Forward and Great Proletarian Cultural Reform . In 1949, China also implemented a 30-year alliance with Russia against Japanese and Japanese allies, although tensions strained after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1955. Relations between the two countries remained strained until 1985.\nIt was not until 1970s that most Western nations established diplomatic ties to Communist China. With the help of President Richard Nixon and his philosophy of D�tente, China was incorporated into the world community. The high point of the Peoples Republic of China came in 1971 when it was given Taiwans position on the United Nations Security Council.\nAs China was increasing its world reconciliation, the founders of the Peoples Republic of China were slowly dying, including Mao Zedong. The lack of Zhou Enlai and Mao in leadership roles in 1976 caused a power struggle developed between Deng Ziaoping and Maos supports, headed by Jiang Qing. In the same year, students demonstrated in Tiananmen Square in honor of Zhou, causing a flaw in Jiangs power. Seeing his opportunity, Deng seized power and brought younger men with his views to power. He developed state constitutions and brought new policies to the party in 1982. Dengs plan was based on the four modernizations of agriculture, industry, national defense, and science/technology. In 1987, Deng retired and Zhao Ziyang became general secretary, and Li Peng became premier.\nChina remained quit for some years after the power struggle after the death of Mao. However, in 1989, China came into the worlds eyes again with the Tiananmen Square incident. Students demonstrating in the streets of Beijing were attacked and killed by Chinese soldiers. The event caused nations around the world to question Chinas view of human rights and freedoms.\nToday, China is one of the most talked about countries when it comes to the future of the world economy. With more than 1.1 billion people in 1990 and an economy based on agriculture, China, could it ever become industrialized, would have a significant impact on global trade. It has the natural resources and manpower to build and possess the largest economy in the world. More importantly, with the conflict between nationalist Taiwan and communist China, China may become the next Balkans or major player in a third World War. It is important that foreign nations understand the development of the China before they decide which side to defend. What will Chinas role in the 21st century be? The answer may lie in the Taiwan China conflict.\nBibliography\nAbbey, Phil. \"An Eclectic Bits of Chinese History.\" 16 July 1999.; available from http://www.geocities.com/Vienna/5047/CHINABAS.html ; accessed 20 February 2000.\nAn informational website contained bits and pieces of 20th century Chinese history. The site contains information on maritime customs, flags, and important events in Chinese history. The site also contains a page to link to other Chinese and Asia resources.\nAsianSociety.org. \"China: Fifty Years Inside the Peoples Republic.\"; available from http://www.asiasociety.org/arts/chinaphotos/ .; accessed on 20 February 2000.\nA wonderful collection of essays, pictures, and accounts of how the life really was in the Peoples Republic of China. It also contains a chronology starting in 1644, however the majority of the information is a year-by-year list of events in the 20th Century. The site is very useful for starting place on events in Chinese History.\nBouc, Alain. Mao Tse-Tung: A Guide to His Thoughts. New York, N.Y.; St. Martins Press, 1977.\nBouc tries to describe the life and thinking of one of Chinas modern leaders Mao Zedong. He carefully explains Maos ideological struggle with fellow leaders and how he kept China unified through revolution. He exemplifies that Mao was a poor leader in the traditional sense, but his vision and his belief in revolution kept Communist China unified through his rein.\nCheng, Cu-yuan. Behind the Tiananmen Massacre: Social, Political, and Economic Ferment in China. Boulder, Colorado.; Westview Press, Inc., 1990.\nCheng brilliantly looks at the causes and reasoning behind Tiananmen Square. He tries to use a systematic study of unrest through the social, economic, political, intellectual, and military perspectives. Cheng draws many arguments from earlier publications and works of other professors of Chinese studies, however he uses these earlier studies to draw new conclusions about the Tiananmen Massacre.\nChesneaux, Jean. China: The Peoples Republic, 1949-1973. New York, N.Y.; Random House, Inc., 1979.\nChesneauz, as a well-known Sinologist, looks at the later half of Communist China. He discusses Chinas search for industrialization under the guidance of Mao Zedong. Chesneaux looks at the issues such as the Cultural Revolution and the death of Mao to show how China has evolved since 1949.\nClubb, Edmund. 20th Century China. New York, N.Y.; Columbia University Press, 1964.\nEdmund Clubb served twenty years of service in the United States State Department concentrating his effort on China. In 20th Century China, Clubb tries to clarify the events and happenings in China before the 1949. He points out that Sun Yat-sens and the warlords in Peking have two different accounts of events during the time causing him to try to show his view on the political history of China in an unbiased way.\nDaubier, Jean. A History of the Chinese Cultural Revolution. New York, N.Y.; Vintage Books, 1974.\nDaubier looks beyond the simple power struggle during Cultural Revolution and analyzed the fundamental goals of the revolution, showing that human values and ideals were the important factors behind it.\nDoolin, Dennis J, and Robert C. North. The Chinese Peoples Republic. Hong Kong.; Heritage Press Co., 1966.\nThis book is part of a symposium of the Communist system looking at the integration and society built by the fourteen communist states. This particular book looks at the Peoples Republic of China and how it tried to build a communist state.\nEditorial Board. \"Deng Xiaoping and the fate of the Chinese Revolution,\" World Socialist Web Site, 12 March 1997; available from http://www.wsws.org/history/1997/mar1997/dengx.shtml .; accessed 20 February 2000. Internet.\nAn article found on the World Socialist website ( http://www.wsws.org ) discussing the death of Deng Xiaoping and its impact on the Chinese State. However, the article goes into great detail to discuss the life of Deng and the impact that he had on the Chinese state during his life.\nGoodman, David S.G. Deng Xiaoping and the Chinese Revolution. New York, N.Y.; Routledge, 1994.\nGoodman tries to look beyond Dengs ability to transform Chinas economy and tries to understand Dengs source of political power. He starts with Dengs early political career and shows its evolution to the present. Through this method, Goodman tries to unveil one of Chinas most powerful leaders.\nHartford Web Publishing, \"World History Archives: Hong Kong and its Decolonization.\"; 05 November, 1997.; available from http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/55/index-k.html .; accessed 20 February 2000.\nHartford Web Publishing posts articles that are written by different topics of Hong Kong and its decolonization. It brings together essays of different authors with different backgrounds, enabling a broad range of views on the issue. The site contains great resources for future reference on Hong Kong and its situation.\nLui, F. F., A Military History of Modern China, (1924-1949). Princeton, NJ.; Princeton University Press, 1956.\nLui is one of the first authors to attempt to analyze the Chinese army between World War I and II. He tries to clarify what truly occurred in China and discuss their significance to the establishment of Communist China and what could happen in the future.\nReid, John Gilbert. The Manchu Abdication and the Power, 1908-1912: An Episode in Pre-War Diplomacy. West Point, Conn.; Hyperion Press, Inc. 1935.\nReids attempt at a study of foreign diplomacy during the reign of Hsuan Tung. He gathers his evidence from \"non-Chinese\" diplomatic documentary material to discover Chinas role in foreign policy. Most of the material Reid uses is official or semi-official material.\nRonning, Chester. A Memoir of China in Revolution: From the Boxer Rebellion to the Peoples Republic. New York, N.Y.; Random House, Inc., 1974.\nRonning was a Canadian youth growing up in China until he was eventually appointment as Canadian diplomat to China. He views the rapid change in China from a first hand perspective in which he tries to explains how each action the Chinese took led to a new and radical change in Chinese life.\nZiesing, Fabian. \"Chinese History.\"; available from http://www.stud.uni-hannover.de/user/73853/histch.html .; accessed 20 February 2000.\nZiesings website contain a general timeline of 20th century Chinese history. After each important era, he links to other pages to discuss these eras in detail.\nhttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1900yao-boxers.html ; Internet.\nYao Chen-Yuan, Chinese witness to the Boxer Rebellion, tells his story about what he experienced during that time. Although not much historical information is present, it does give a first hand account as to the situation in China at the time. Through Yaos eyes, the seriousness of the Boxer Rebellion can be seen.\nLau, Steve. \"History: The Boxer Rebellion.\" Accessed on 27 March 2000. http://www.chinatown-online.co.uk/pages/culture/history/boxer.html ; Internet.\nLau looks solely at the culture of the Chinese people and why the Boxer Rebellion happened. He also gives explicated details of its impact on the Chinese History in the 20th Century.\nhttp://newton.uor.edu/Departments&Programs/AsianStudiesDept/china.html ; accessed 20 February 2000.\nEng puts together an informative site that contains many different types of information on China political, economical, historical and more. The site is broken down into different social studies of China with links to other sites that help broaden the subject. In the History section, Eng discusses the political leaders of China. The site also contains links to other helpful sites in each category that he breaks down China into.\n\"Dr. Sun Yat-sen His Hawaiian Roots.\" Available http://sunyatsen.hawaii.org/ . Accessed 30 March 2000.\nAlthough the site is dedicated to Dr. Sun Yat-sen efforts and thought in Hawaii, the site does contain a good resource. It contains real player speech by Dr. Sun and also contains a page that gives the name of articles and books that were written on and about him. In all, this site doesnt contain much usefulness except to hear a speech he gave and the name of books some biographies.\nTaiwanese Organizations. \"Taiwans 400 years of History.\" 10 March 1998. Available from\nhttp://www.taiwandc.org/history.htm .; accessed 30 March 2000.\nThis site is a comprehensive website by the Taiwanese organizations about its history. There is information on major incidence, a photographical timeline, and historical documents. The site contains information mostly on Taiwanese political culture and history. There is even a section on Chiang Kai-shek and the 1995-1996-missile crisis with China.\n\"Safe Files Box 2 Folder Titles Lists.\" Available from http://www.academic.marist.edu/psf/box2.htm .; accessed 7 April 2000.\nThis sit contains maps, charts, and documents between various officers and countries dealing with World War II. The documents are in text version for easy reading and in original form to see the writing of individuals. The site contains twenty different ideas that Chiang Kai-shek received or wrote, including correspondents, memoranda, memos, and maps. It also includes fifty three different items that deal with China. Although the site does not contain much historical information on WWII, it does contain the items and opinions that leaders communicated to other leaders.\nF. Zhang, \"The Party Red Line.\" 14 December 1995; available from\nhttp://www.planio.it/linearossa/lrengmao.htm ; accessed 30 March 2000.\nF. Zhang, as student, has put together a great list of references on Mao Zedong. Each reference has a little information about the site and what can be found on it. He also breaks the sites into seven categories: personal life, theory and publications, historic events, the end of Maos era, sites related to Mao, multimedia sites, and research starts. The site contains links to many different sites on Mao and is a great starting place for any research project.\nCold War International History Project. \"Conversation between the Soviet Unions Joseph Stalin and Chinas Mao Zedong.\" Available from http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/mao500122.htm . Accessed 30 March 2000.\nThe website contains a transcript of a general discussion between Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong. It discusses the goals that each country has for each other and discusses certain details to treaties. Although it doesnt contain much information, it does give someone the ability to see how China fared in foreign relations with other countries.\nTime. \"The Lost Emperor.\" Available from\nhttp://www.time.com/time/deng/ . Accessed 30 March 2000.\nThis site is a look at the death and life of Deng Ziaoping. It tries to illustrate the thoughts and ideas of Deng Ziaoping while also showing how the nation mourned his death. The site contains a small collection of photographs that can help people visual China under his rule.\n\"China and Marxism.\"; available from http://www.marxist.com/china.html .; accessed 20 February 2000.\nThis website contains a collection of various articles discussing the effects and conditions of Marxism in China. All of the articles are direct works that each person has done through research. Such topics include Marxisms relationship to Tiananmen Square and Deng. The best article on the site discusses the reaction of the people the urban reform of the last ten years. The site is very useful for someone to understand how Marxism was implemented in China.\nPerry, Elizabeth. \"Introduction: Chinese Political Culture Revisited,\" Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China. Available from\nhttp://www.nmis.org/gate/links/Perry.html . Accessed 30 March 2000.\nPerry discusses the political culture of China during the 20th century. She mostly deals with the last 20 years of history including the rise of Deng to power. However, she does support her thoughts by looking back at the beginning of the Communist Party at which she discusses the changing of China to a Marxist state. Besides the essay, she provides a bibliography that could help in research of the subject. In all, this essay is one of the intellectual essays on the subject China on the web.\nPoon, Leon. \"History of China.\"; available from http://www.chaos.umd.edu/history/prc.hml .; accessed 20 February 2000.\nLeon Poon put together a masterful resource of information. The site contains a timeline of all Chinese eras and gives a brief description of each and, at times, goes into detail of important figures of the each time period. Poon puts a great section together about the goals in implementations of the first five-year plan. He also discusses the political consequences and power changes that happened due to the plan. Besides the timeline, the site contains an extensive bibliography.\nFitch, Cris A, \"Chinas Great Leap Forward Famine.\" Available from\nhttp://www.triptyk.com/crisf/misc/gr_leap.htm . Accessed 30 March 2000.\nFitch does some research on the famine caused by the Great Leap Forward. In a famine that killed almost 30 million people, he believes that not enough people know about. He uses historical data and quotations from histories to try to see the impact of the famine. The site also includes some links that help explain the events in more detail.\nBarm�, Geremie R. \"History for the Masses.\" Available from http://www.nmis.org/Gate/themes/Histmasses.html . Accessed 30 March 2000.\nGeremie presents an essay on the Cultural Revolution and how policy shifts require a re-evaluation of history and historical figures. The essay even includes a section on the conflict between Chiang Kai-shek and the Communist Party on the mainland. In all, it a very intelligent and well thought out article that is a must read to understand the Cultural Revolution.\nNew Jersey Hong Kong Network. \"Basic facts on the Nanking Massacre and Tokyo War Crimes Trial.\" Available from\nhttp://www.cnd.org:8009/mirror/nanjing/NMNJ.html . Accessed on 30 March 2000.\nThe New Jersey Hong Kong Network puts together a comprehensive site that deals with the striking events of the Rape of Nanking. It discusses what happens during the time period and its consequences. Most of all, it even includes a timeline on the invasion of China by Japan.\nBaranovich, Jim, Megan Combs, and Mike McVey. \"Nanking Massacre.\" Available from http://kizuna.cwru.edu/asia110/projects/Meiji3/meiji3.html . Accessed on 30 March 2000.\nThe group discusses the events that lead up to, including, and the events after the Nanking Massacre. Although it doesnt go into as much detail about the Rape of Nanking as the New Jersey Hong Kong Networks site, it does include more information on the events leading up to the massacre.\nTaiwanese Organizations. \"Taiwans 400 years of History.\" 10 March 1998. Available from\nhttp://www.taiwandc.org/history.htm .; Accessed 30 March 2000.\nThis site is a comprehensive website by the Taiwanese organizations about its history. There is information on major incidence, a photographical timeline, and historical documents. The site contains information mostly on Taiwanese political culture and history. There is even a section on Chiang Kai-shek and the 1995-1996 missile crisis with China.\nClark, Cal. \"The 2000 Taiwan Presidential Elections.\" Available from http://www.asiasociety.org/publications/taiwan_elections.html . Accessed 30 March 2000.\nThis site is made by Cal Cark to help people understand the candidates and the issues in the 2000 Taiwanese presidential. It looks at the history of the Taiwanese government and how for the first time the direction that it is going in is unclear. It also gives further reading that could help understand the history of Taiwan better.",
"Deng Xiaoping: A Political Wizard Who Put China on the Capitalist Road\nDeng Xiaoping: A Political Wizard Who Put China on the Capitalist Road\nBy PATRICK E. TYLER\nLike Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai before him, Deng Xiaoping was among the small group of revolutionary elders who fought as guerrillas for the Communist cause and then dominated the leadership of the People's Republic they proclaimed on Oct. 1, 1949.\nFew if any figures in this century matched Mr. Deng for political longevity.\nNearly half a century has passed since Mao first installed Mr. Deng in the upper-reaches of power in China, making him general secretary of the world's largest Communist Party in 1954.\nTwice he was to be dragged down from those heights -- purged as a ''capitalist roader'' in 1967 during the Cultural Revolution and again -- after a remarkable comeback -- following the death of Mao in 1976.\nOnly with his second resurrection did Mr. Deng begin to consolidate his power, becoming China's paramount leader in 1978. He was then 74, seemingly too old to be anything but a transitional figure. Instead, he reigned for a generation.\nEven after his formal retirement in 1989, Mr. Deng remained an all-powerful patriarch, ordering a purge of the military leadership in 1992 and rescuing his economic reform program from a conservative backlash. As his health slipped precipitously -- his last public appearance was during the Lunar New Year festivities in early 1994 -- he seemed further removed from daily decision-making. But still he was consulted to resolve major policy and personnel issues.\nIn the 18 years since he became China's undisputed leader, Mr. Deng nourished an economic boom that radically improved the lives of China's 1.2 billion citizens. By early in the next decade, the reforms Mr. Deng ignited may well propel China's economy to the position of third largest, after the United States and Japan, but China's prosperity will be diluted by the increasing number of Chinese. Nearly 270 million will not have jobs at the turn of the century.\nAt the end of his life, Mr. Deng seemed unable to chart a clear path to economic success his economic reforms still faced daunting challenges. China's rise as a great economic power was becoming a race against time as population growth and incomplete reform were adding to the siege of China's straining foundations. Shortages of water and arable land mounted, and unchecked industrial pollution contributed to an overall degradation of the environmental landscape.\nStill, in cities and in villages, real incomes more than doubled in the Deng era. Most Chinese who have watched a television or used a washing machine or dialed a telephone have done so only since Mr. Deng came to power. The struggle to survive in the Chinese countryside has greatly eased.\nA former American Ambassador to China, J. Stapleton Roy, who as a young man in Nanjing witnessed the Communist takeover in 1949, said once in an interview, ''If you look at the 150 years of modern China's history since the Opium Wars, then you can't avoid the conclusion that the last 15 years are the best 15 years in China's modern history.''\nDuring most of those years, Mr. Deng symbolized the Chinese aspiration to move beyond the ideological extremism that had marked the Maoist era and reclaim for the Chinese a long-denied prosperity.\nBut in doing so, he also came to symbolize a stubborn and inflexible resistance to democratic stirrings. For Mr. Deng, China's economic reform could only occur under the authoritarian rule of the Communist Party.\nChina's security forces, often harsh and brutal under Mao, continued to be so under Mr. Deng. China today remains perennially criticized as a nation whose rulers seem to respect human rights only grudgingly.\nA Small Figure, A Towering Presence\nMr. Deng's early reputation as a visionary who delivered the Chinese from suffering was blackened most notably by his leading role in ordering the June 1989 military crackdown on pro-democracy demonstrators in Beijing. The tank and machine-gun assault on students and bystanders that came to be known as the Tiananmen massacre diminished his prestige as a world leader and isolated China politically for years afterward.\nA generation of students and intellectuals, many of whom had fled the country, held Mr. Deng responsible and scorned his image. But much of the country, particularly the peasantry, seemed grateful to Mr. Deng for providing them with the first prolonged period of peace and stability in this century. If intellectuals could not forgive the brutality at Tiananmen, peasants could not forget that he had ended a long chapter of deprivation.\nIn foreign policy, Mr. Deng negotiated an end to the last vestige of British colonial power in China with an agreement to return Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty later this year. Reunification with Taiwan eluded him, but he worked to settle China's border disputes, normalize relations with the United States and repair the 30-year rift with the Soviet Union.\nHis goal was to focus the totality of national energy on China's economic development. Even the Chinese military had to serve the new national priority by accepting deep budget cuts through the 1980's.\nAs a leader, Mr. Deng cut a most unusual figure in the Chinese pantheon.\nHe was emperor-like in a century in which the Chinese overthrew their last emperor after three millenniums of imperial rule. Mr. Deng was first among equals in the small circle of revolutionary elders who survived Mao. The posts and titles Mr. Deng held in the Communist Party hierarchy never quite equaled or conveyed his stature as paramount leader, a term that seemed invented for Mr. Deng, who was still arguably the most powerful citizen of China when he died.\nYet his physical presence offered no clue to his storied abilities to manipulate events ''much like a puppeteer,'' as the political scientist Lucian W. Pye put it. The conventional wisdom was that Mr. Deng was five feet tall but, as one scholar observed, ''that was surely an exaggeration.''\nIn an essay in 1993, Professor Pye described an audience with Mr. Deng:\n''As he settles into an overstuffed chair, his sandaled feet barely touch the floor, and indeed hang free every time he leans forward to use the spittoon. He has an atrocious Sichuan accent, which makes his words slur together like a gargle. There are few signs of liveliness of mind, of wit or humor, and no sustained, systematic pursuit of ideas.''\nXiao Rong, the youngest of Mr. Deng's three daughters, said in a biography of her father: ''In the eyes of his children, Father is a man of introverted character and few words. Only with old colleagues and old friends does he like to talk, and carries on in a loud voice.''\nHenry A. Kissinger, who helped to engineer the normalization of relations with China during the Nixon Administration, once pronounced Mr. Deng a ''nasty little man.'' But others found a certain charm.\nWhen Queen Elizabeth II paid a visit in October 1986, she was warmed by his self-effacing greeting: ''Thank you for coming all this way to meet an old Chinese man.''\nAlthough he picked his political heirs carefully, Mr. Deng was plagued by the problem of succession. In May 1989 he worried aloud to the Soviet leader, Mikhail S. Gorbachev: ''The only thing that can't be brought to pass is the abolition from the system of lifelong positions for leaders.''\nThat same year, Mr. Deng named Jiang Zemin, the current President and Communist Party chief, as the ''core'' of the ''third generation'' leadership, after him and Mao. But many Chinese say Mr. Jiang could face trouble managing the party now without Mr. Deng behind him and could be swept aside, much as Mao's nominal successor, Hua Guofeng, was swept aside by Mr. Deng.\nNeither intellectual nor poet, Mr. Deng was best known as a pragmatist who focused on the problems of the day, unencumbered by history or ideology. His years as a military strategist and political commissar, balancing real military capabilities against the expectations of politicians, gave him a keen sense of what was possible.\nHe is best remembered for his simple maxims rather than for coherent policies: To defeat ideological attacks from the Maoists, he often quoted the Maoist dictum, ''Seek truth from facts.'' To emphasize that there was no road map for economic reform, he said the Chinese must ''cross the river by feeling out the stones with our feet.'' His most famous aphorism was an old proverb from his native Sichuan: ''It doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white, as long as it catches mice.''\nFear of Disorder, Grounded in History\nIn this century China has been a land of warlords, invading armies, floods, famines and revolution. Tens of millions have died violently, or wretchedly from starvation. Mr. Deng's inherent fear of disorder and the violence it has wrought explains his deep opposition to political pluralism.\n''If all one billion of us undertake multiparty elections, we will certainly run into a full-scale civil war,'' he told President Bush in February 1989. ''Taking precedence over all China's problems is stability.''\nThere was a time when Mr. Deng appeared briefly to embrace democratic ideals: As he struggled to regain power in 1978, he identified with the goals of the Democracy Wall movement in Beijing. But in early 1979, after he had gained the upper hand politically, he crushed the movement and sent its leader, Wei Jingsheng, to prison for 15 years.\nWhen Mr. Wei, once an electrician at the Beijing Zoo, emerged in September 1993 after serving 14 1/2 years, he was still Mr. Deng's fiercest and most fearless critic, and found himself returned to prison seven months after his release.\nThe Dark Shadow Of Tiananmen\nIn 1984, on the 35th anniversary of Communist rule, students at Beijing University hoisted a banner saying, ''Hello, Xiaoping!'' showing their affection through the familiarity of their greeting. At the outset of 1987, Beijing University students marching for democracy chanted, ''Xiaoping, hear our voice!'' still hoping that Mr. Deng would embrace their goal.\nInstead he turned on them, crushed their movement and sacked the Communist Party general secretary, Hu Yaobang, for encouraging the democratic cause.\nThe more Mr. Deng resisted political reform, the more he seemed a guardian of a party elite that was doing little to bring corruption under control as China's economy gained speed. The party leaders, including Mr. Deng, were being chauffeured around in black Mercedes sedans. Some of their children became known as the princelings of conspicuous new wealth. And the leaders all seemed oblivious to their hypocrisy as they admonished the masses to guard against ''bourgeois liberalization.''\nThe death of Mr. Hu in April 1989 unleashed pro-democracy forces for a third time in Mr. Deng's first decade as leader, but he was no longer a figure of hope.\nOne Beijing University poster mourning Mr. Hu captured the antipathy toward Mr. Deng. ''The Wrong Man Died,'' it said.\nZhao Ziyang, the party chief tapped by Mr. Deng as a possible successor, showed sympathy for the Tiananmen demonstrators and was removed on the eve of the crackdown. Mr. Zhao's liberal tone in economic reform and political tolerance was buried by new edicts from the hard-line faction led by Prime Minister Li Peng.\nIn the aftermath of Tiananmen, Mr. Deng and his family took care to disguise his precise role in ordering the tanks and machine-gunners into Beijing, where they killed hundreds, perhaps thousands, of demonstrators and bystanders.\nMr. Evans, the former British Ambassador, says in his biography that Mr. Deng was angry when he learned of the bloodshed around Tiananmen and told the President, Yang Shangkun, and Prime Minister Li that they had ''bungled the military operation appallingly.''\nThe sensitivity of fixing historic responsibility for the massacre was never lost on Mr. Deng, who understood that after his death, the harsh verdict with which he branded the Tiananmen demonstrators as counterrevolutionaries could be reversed and he could become history's villain.\nMr. Deng's rule brought China nearly to the end of a century that opened with the Qing Dynasty still ensconced in the Forbidden City, the vermilion-walled palace compound at the center of Beijing.\nIn the eight decades since the last Emperor, Pu Yi, was deposed in 1911, tens of millions of Chinese have died in war, invasion and famine. Mr. Deng grew to manhood in the midst of chaos and became a revolutionary after spending five years in France on a work-study program, where he toiled in filthy factories that paid subsistence wages to Chinese.\nHis own family members were victims of a violent century: His father, Deng Wenming, was set upon by bandits near his home and killed in 1938.\nDuring the Cultural Revolution of 1966-76, when Mao sought to tear down the Communist Party leadership, Mr. Deng was branded a public enemy, humiliated in ''struggle sessions'' and sent to work in a tractor factory. His younger brother, Deng Shuping, was driven to suicide in 1967 after weeks of abuse by Red Guards.\nMr. Deng's eldest son, Deng Pufang, was terrorized on the campus of Beijing University and, according to his sister Xiao Rong, attempted suicide by jumping from a fourth-floor physics laboratory window in September 1968. The fall broke his back and he suffered for months without adequate medical attention; he remains paralyzed.\nDeng Xiaoping, like many of the emperors, combined the pursuit of a better life for the Chinese people with a studied ruthlessness to preserve the institution of power.\nAs a young revolutionary, he exhorted peasants to kill landowners because, he is said to have reasoned, once the masses had blood on their hands, they would be more committed to the Communist cause.\nMr. Deng would later earn a reputation as a pragmatist, but in the late 1950's he was an exponent of political repression and accelerated socialism. After intellectuals responded to Mao's invitation to ''let a hundred flowers bloom'' -- to express freely their criticisms of the Communist Party -- Mr. Deng helped lead a witch hunt against those who had taken the invitation in full measure.\nIn 1980, Mr. Deng acknowledged that the Anti-Rightist Campaign had been excessive, but he asserted that the essence of the struggle had been ''necessary and correct.''\nEver since Emperor Qinshi united China more than 2,200 years ago, the Chinese have looked to an imperial figure to rule them with the ''mandate of heaven,'' a feudal concept that was used to buttress the absolute right of the sovereign, but later evolved under Confucian traditions of benevolence and wisdom.\nThe Communist revolution that raised the flag of the People's Republic of China on Oct. 1, 1949, aimed at crushing this past and creating a perfect egalitarian society. But neither Mao nor Mr. Deng seemed able or, indeed, willing to completely bury the imperial tradition.\nMao created a cult of personality so broad and pervasive that he had the whole nation mimicking his style of drab clothing, memorizing his quotations from little red books and living under the gaze of his ubiquitous portraits.\nUnder Mr. Deng, China broke out of the monochromatic Mao era to life in full color. A walk down Nanjing Road in Shanghai today reveals the new Chinese glitz under the sparkle of a thousand boutique windows. In the throng of new consumers, the hairdos bounce with the latest styles from Hong Kong above leather jackets trimmed in fur.\nIn contrast to Mao, Mr. Deng was no cultist. Mr. Deng preferred to maneuver on the sidelines, out of the public eye, to exhort policies with occasional pronouncements.\nEach time that Mr. Deng was purged from power, he fought his way back. Rehabilitated in 1973 after the worst of the Cultural Revolution, he was purged again as Mao lay on his deathbed in 1976. Denounced as an ''unrepentant capitalist-roader,'' it appeared that the notorious Gang of Four, the radicals led by Mao's wife, Jiang Qing, had defeated him. Mao himself decreed that Mr. Deng should be relieved of all his posts\nMr. Deng lived under house arrest for nearly a year until one of his old military cohorts, Marshal Ye Jian-ying, intervened after Mao's death, insisting that Mr. Deng's voice be heard in the leadership.\nThe Chinese rejoiced at Mr. Deng's comeback and at the fall of the Gang of Four. To Mao's successor, Hua Guofeng, Mr. Deng pledged his support ''with all my heart.'' But in less than two years, Mr. Deng had rendered Mr. Hua a harmless figurehead and had set about steering China on a new economic course.\nAs the economy soared, Mr. Deng acknowledged that he was as much a witness to history as he was its architect.\n''I am a layman in the field of economics,'' he said in 1984. ''I proposed China's economic policy of opening to the outside world, but as for the details or specifics of how to implement it, I know very little indeed.''\nWhere Mao had preached ''Communes are good,'' Mr. Deng simply preached ''Markets are good.''\nThe Chinese did the rest.\nFrom Sichuan Village To French Factories\nDeng Xiaoping was born Deng Xixian to a landlord family in the heart of China's most populous province, Sichuan, on Aug. 22, 1904.\nThe Deng household was the wealthiest in the village of Paifang. Mr. Deng's father, Deng Wenming, controlled about 25 acres of land with an annual output of about 10 tons of grain. When his wife could not bear children, he took a second wife, or concubine, whose family name was Dan. Her dowry in 1901 included the red-lacquered bed in which the future Chinese leader was born three years later.\nMr. Deng was just entering primary school in 1911 when the last Qing Emperor was overthrown by an amalgam of forces led by Sun Yat-sen.\nRevolution was gathering throughout China and Mr. Deng would soon be part of it.\nBy 1919, Mr. Deng's father, joining the nation-building spirit of the times, decided to send his son to France for a work-study program. When Mr. Deng, age 16, and 200 other students boarded a steamer at Shanghai on Sept. 11, 1920, he was never to see his parents again.\nMr. Deng arrived in Marseilles, and found Europe a seething, ideological vortex of the Industrial and Bolshevik revolutions. He was quickly pulled into its currents.\nIn Paris he befriended the articulate and dashing Zhou Enlai, an ''elder brother'' to Mr. Deng. By 1922, Mr. Deng had joined the Communist Party of Chinese Youth in Europe.\nTo escape the French police, Mr. Deng plotted his departure from France in 1926. His route took him to Moscow, where his revolutionary training continued.\nDuring five years in France, Mr. Deng learned few industrial skills that could be transplanted back to China, but he saw the power of Western technology. He seemed unmarked by France's high culture or by its philosophers of democracy and human rights. His daughter Xiao Rong says the reason is that Mr. Deng was part of an under-class in France, exploited as a foreign laborer and persecuted as a Communist.\n''What he came in contact with was not democratic,'' Ms. Deng said.\nPolitical Conversion, And Return to China\nAfter 11 months of ideological and military training in Moscow, Mr. Deng began taking orders from the Communist International. He returned to China as the chief political adviser to one of the powerful warlords who had carved up northern China.\nBut the Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek was determined to eradicate the Communists. Mr. Deng fled south where he was reunited with Zhou Enlai at Wuhan in 1927. There, Mr. Deng was named secretary to the Communist Party Central Committee. He adopted the name Deng Xiaoping, whose origin he has never publicly explained.\nCivil war was raging. Communists were rounded up and executed, particularly in Shanghai, where the party headquarters and Mr. Deng had moved by the end of 1927.\nIn the chaos, Mr. Deng suffered the first of many personal tragedies when his first wife, Zhang Xiyuan, another young revolutionary whom he had met in Moscow, died after a miscarriage in early 1930. Mr. Deng, a widower at 26, did not attend the funeral, his daughter wrote, because, ''Revolution came first.''\nIn 1929, Mr. Deng led his first successful Communist uprising, in southwestern Guangxi province. But his campaign toward Guangzhou proved a disaster. His Seventh Red Army in tatters, Mr. Deng reached Mao Zedong's base in 1931. His loyalty to Mao's vision of the revolution briefly cost him his freedom during the internal party struggles of the early 1930's.\nMr. Deng married Jin Weiying, another party member, in 1932, but when he came under political attack, she left him to marry his chief accuser, Li Weihan.\nIn October 1933, Chiang Kai-shek marshaled one million men to crush Mao's Communist base in Jiangxi province by building a chain of block houses across the countryside. Thus began in 1934 a yearlong, 6,000-mile retreat known as the Long March. Death from exposure, suffering and frequent attacks thinned the Communist Army from 70,000 to 10,000 as it passed through treacherous and hostile country.\nRehabilitated after his first purge, Mr. Deng set out on the Long March as the editor of Red Star, the party paper. By the time the routed army reached the caves of Yanan in remote Shaanxi province, Mr. Deng had nearly died of typhoid fever. And Mao had reversed his own political fortunes and never again lost his command of the revolution. Mr. Deng was one of his closest lieutenants.\nJapan's invasion of China in 1937 provided Mr. Deng and the Communists the opportunity to defend the nation. It was the period of their greatest exploits as they competed with Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalists for the affection of the masses.\nDuring eight years of war, Communist forces grew from 50,000 to 900,000 in strength and party membership swelled from 40,000 members to 1.2 million. Mr. Deng was appointed top political officer of the 129th Division.\nBy the time Mr. Deng was in his early 30's, he had traveled extensively and commanded armies in the field, experiences giving him a keen sense of the limits of military power and the importance of political discipline in marshaling it. The battlefield hardships Mr. Deng endured created many lasting bonds with China's top field commanders. These bonds also served his rise in the party and may have saved his life when he was later purged.\nAbsorbed with his war duties in 1938, Mr. Deng had little time to react when he received word that his father had been murdered by bandits back in Sichuan. He did not return home.\nBut the next year, during a visit to Yanan, Mr. Deng married for the third and last time. Pu Zhuolin, the daughter of a merchant from Yunnan province, had came to Yanan from Beijing University, where she had studied physics. Mao attended the wedding in September 1939.\nNever active in politics, Zhuo Lin, the name she adopted in Yanan, bore five children between 1940 and 1952 and stood by her husband through a series of crises.\nIn addition to his wife, Mr. Deng's survivors are his five children: the oldest, Deng Lin, an artist who has exhibited her work in New York and Paris; Deng Pufang, the paraplegic son, who for the last decade has worked on behalf of the handicapped in China; a second daughter, Deng Nan, a vice minister of the State Science and Technology Commission; the youngest daughter, Xiao Rong, who has served her father as a personal aide since 1989, and the youngest son, Deng Zhifang, who studied physics in the United States before returning in 1988 to enter high-profile business ventures.\nVictory in War, And in Revolution\nVictory over the Japanese and then over the Nationalists brought the Communists to power with the founding of the People's Republic of China on Oct. 1, 1949. Mr. Deng was dispatched to pacify southwest China and Tibet before returning to Beijing in 1952.\nReunited with Zhou Enlai, he served his mentor and the economist Chen Yun on the Economic Commission before taking over the Finance Ministry. But Mr. Deng's administrative skills and wartime connections propelled him upward. He was appointed secretary general of the Central Committee in June 1954 and, by 1956, secretary general of the Communist Party. With Yang Shangkun as his deputy, Mr. Deng virtually controlled the party personnel apparatus, placing thousands of cadres in jobs and building a party network that became the foundation of his power.\nBeginning in January 1955, one of his most secret tasks was to help Mao and Zhou create and finance the scientific organization that would build and detonate China's first atomic bomb. With the detonation of a fission bomb weighing 3,410 pounds on Oct. 16, 1964, China became a nuclear power.\nMr. Deng's rise to the top of the party in the 1950's coincided with Mao's growing disaffection with those who would succeed him. When the Soviet leader Nikita S. Khrushchev attacked Stalin in a secret speech in 1956, Mao was appalled that his putative heirs seemed to identify with the attack. If Stalin's position was not sacred in Soviet history, Mao reasoned, neither was Mao's in Chinese history.\nGreat Leap Forward, And Many Setbacks\nWith a series of internal political campaigns, Mao began assaulting what he perceived as his many enemies. The Anti-Rightist movement of 1957 led into the Great Leap Forward in 1958. The rupture in relations with the Soviet Union soon followed, becoming apparent in 1960 with the abrupt withdrawal of Soviet aid. In July 1963, a final effort was made to patch up the ideological split when Mr. Deng was dispatched to Moscow in what proved to be the last formal contact between leaders of the two Communist parties for 26 years.\nIn the early stages of the political campaigns, Mr. Deng was the instrument of Mao's revenge, sending thousands of Chinese intellectuals to manual labor camps and prisons.\nMao was not satisfied. He wanted to propel China forward with agricultural communes and steel production. His Great Leap Forward was perhaps the largest policy-induced economic disaster in history. Backyard furnaces turned the peasantry's tools and cookware into useless molten globs. China's harvest rotted in the fields. No one dared tell Mao of the failure; grain exports continued. Then famine struck.\nAs many as 30 million Chinese died of starvation in the next four years.\nThe catastrophe seemed to remold Mr. Deng, and he thereafter placed more emphasis on practical measures for economic growth, especially those that contained incentives for China's peasantry to increase individual production.\nAs Mr. Deng worked more closely with Yang Shangkun and President Liu Shaoqi, Mao began to suspect they were plotting against him. He complained the party leadership was treating him like a ''dead ancestor'' and he singled out Mr. Deng for making decisions like an ''emperor.''\nLuckily for Mr. Deng, he slipped and broke his leg in 1958, thus avoiding the worst confrontation over Mao's policies at the Lushan conference of 1959.\nMao mounted a withering counterattack and Mr. Deng did not escape for long. Mao unleashed the Cultural Revolution in 1966 to destroy his adversaries in the party. He exhorted the masses to ''bombard the party headquarters'' and thrust China into the decade of chaos that fostered civil conflict in every school, factory and municipality.\nThousands of young Red Guards were allowed into Zhongnanhai, the leadership compound in central Beijing. They rampaged through the homes of President Liu, Mr. Deng and other leaders. Mr. Deng was branded the ''No. 2 capitalist-roader'' in the party after President Liu.\nMr. Deng's mordant self-criticism had failed to appease the Red Guards. They continued to attack him as a ''capitalist despot.''\nMr. Deng's penitence and the patronage of Zhou Enlai may have saved his life, but he was stripped of all offices except his party membership. The Deng family was ordered to the countryside. The children were dispersed. Mr. Deng and his wife were sent to Jiangxi province, where they worked in a tractor factory and gardened.\nBy the early 1970's, China seemed to be falling apart. Mao's chosen successor, Lin Biao, was discovered plotting a coup and was killed in a plane crash; Mao feared nuclear war was imminent with the Soviet Union; the economy was in chaos, and Prime Minister Zhou had cancer.\nAfter President Nixon's 1972 visit to China, reporters covering a state banquet in April 1973 for the Cambodian leader, Prince Norodom Sihanouk, were surprised to see a small man in a gray Mao suit, white socks and black oxfords. It was Mr. Deng, recalled a month earlier to help heal the country and perhaps succeed Zhou.\nMao threw Mr. Deng into a Politburo dominated by radicals, and they soon turned on him. When Zhou died in January 1976, thousands of Chinese swarmed into Tiananmen Square to praise Zhou and to express their opposition to the radicals. Mr. Deng was blamed for the revolt and Mao, near death, agreed to purge him for a final time. Mr. Deng was placed under house arrest.\nMao died in September that year, and the Gang of Four was arrested the following month. Mr. Deng pressed to return to his duties and crucial military allies like Marshal Ye Jianying rallied behind him.\nMao's last chosen successor, Hua Guofeng, delayed on releasing Mr. Deng, but Mr. Deng's allies prevailed. Mr. Deng's political comeback gathered momentum through 1977 until December 1978, when he was able to establish himself as the country's paramount leader.\nEye for Strategy, In War and Peace\nMr. Deng moved quickly to get China back on the road to economic modernization.\nIn agriculture, he allowed the provinces to dismantle communes and collective farms, but the peasants moved even faster, dividing up plots of land for private tilling. Output soared. So did profits.\nMr. Deng told the military that the threat of world war was receding and, therefore, the military would have to serve the civilian economy. Arms production stopped in many factories and military modernization was deferred, except for strategic weapons to maintain China's nuclear deterrent.\nBecause he had seen what modernization had done for the West, Mr. Deng's strategic vision was broader than Mao's.\nHe told President Carter in January 1979, ''The Chinese need a long period of peace to realize their full modernization.'' And to American businessmen, he said China needed their money and technology.\nAfter establishing full diplomatic relations with Washington on Jan. 1, 1979, Mr. Deng made a whirlwind tour of the United States that was full of extraordinary images, from Mr. Deng kissing the children who sang in Chinese at the Kennedy Center to wearing a white 10-gallon hat in Texas.\nBack home, it seemed for a time that Mr. Deng's openness to economic reform would lead him to support significant democratic reforms.\nHe told party leaders that he endorsed the spirit of China's new democracy movement. ''Democracy has to be institutionalized and written into law,'' he said.\nBut when Wei Jingsheng and his Democracy Wall colleagues turned their criticism on Mr. Deng, the Chinese leader smashed the movement and persecuted its intellectual leaders. Mr. Deng began to equate democracy with the political turmoil of the Cultural Revolution. ''Our people have just gone through a decade of suffering'' and ''cannot afford further chaos,'' he said.\nMr. Deng wanted the energy of the economic reformers, but could not tolerate their political challenge.\nThe Focus of It All: Economic Change\nOf the changes that Mr. Deng oversaw, economic restructuring was central. And the Chinese often did not wait for new policies as they ''dove into the sea,'' the metaphor for going into business.\nFarmers began raising fish, shrimp and fruit for new markets that sprang up in every township. Private and collective enterprises multiplied as former peasants began manufacturing toys, fireworks, bricks, clothing -- all manner of everyday items.\nThe agricultural changes were easily accomplished and the farmers, by any previous standard, were getting rich. The first thing many did was to build a new houses, creating a huge demand in the construction industry.\nIn industrial reforms, Mr. Deng started cautiously, creating special economic zones in China's coastal provinces of Guangdong and Fujian, where tax subsidies attracted Hong Kong's manufacturing tycoons. Mr. Deng said the coastal provinces could get rich first, but the real strategy was incrementalism because Mr. Deng feared failure and discredit at the hands of the party's Marxist conservatives.\nThe economic zones ignited an export explosion that continues today, with China dominating the world market in toys, shoes and textiles. The zones multiplied, forming a rimland of coastal wealth, but extending inland only to major cities like Beijing.\nAlong with the wealth came scourges. Child labor and sweat shops appeared as parents sent their children to work, not to school. Shoddy and unsafe factories became firetraps where thousands died in accidents or fires. Fly-by-night companies produced dangerous or useless products, including one ubiquitous contraption that promised to make people taller.\nCriminal gangs, prostitution and the sale of women into bondage spread from rural to urban areas. Old Communist cadres who wiped out narcotics trafficking in the 1950's were repulsed at its return. Heroin and opium were back.\nGrafting the success of the coastal provinces onto the larger Chinese economy proved beyond Mr. Deng's capabilities. Today the core of China's economy, the state-owned industrial sector, remains largely unreformed, mired in debt, a slave to party apparatchiks, many of whom are corrupt or incompetent.\nOver 18 years, Mr. Deng's attempts to restructure this monolithic sector, the source of the Communist Party's power and revenue, have led to a series of ''boom and bust'' inflationary cycles that continue today.\nMr. Deng wanted the party to reform the state factories, to make the managers responsible for their profits and losses, and to raise worker productivity.\nBankruptcy, as a concept, entered the Communist lexicon for the first time. But the political consequences of widespread layoffs always prevented Mr. Deng's reformers from acting boldly.\nWhen they did act, there were no macroeconomic levers to adjust the money supply, only blunt instruments of jawboning from Beijing.\nWhen inflation got out of control after the price reform drives of mid-1988, panic buying added to the unrest that sent hundreds of thousands of workers into the streets in support of democracy, but also to protest corruption and mismanagement.\nThe military crackdown at Tiananmen Square and martial law brought the hard-liners back to pre-eminence in economic policy and Mr. Deng had to go along. After the removal of Zhao Ziyang in 1989, Mr. Deng and the other revolutionary leaders could not agree on who should rule. Their compromise was Jiang Zemin, the Shanghai party boss whose strongest suit was consensus-building.\nThe economic bubble that had expanded in the late 1980's finally burst, the economy fell in on itself, production ground to a halt in many industries, foreign investors fled and credit dried up.\nIn November 1989, Mr. Deng announced his retirement from his last formal post, head of the Central Military Commission. But the emphasis in Chinese culture on seniority made it impossible for him to leave politics, or for politics to function without his intervention.\nThe failed Soviet coup in August 1991 and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Communist Party seemed to convince Mr. Deng that the most powerful antidote to such a fate for Chinese Communism would be economic growth. He began to criticize conservatives who obsessed over Western ''plots'' to topple Communism through ''peaceful evolution.''\n''Say less and do more,'' he admonished them, trying to return their focus to practical steps to promote economic growth.\nThe reforms were turning loose forces that eventually would challenge the party, whose ideology had lost its moral sway. Millions of Chinese were turning to religion and Confucianism, seeking a moral structure to replace the void left by the party.\nMr. Deng understood that economic reform and the forces that it unleashed in Chinese society would eventually challenge the Leninist rule of the party.\nThus began a period in which the Communist Party's legitimacy arose from its ability to deliver economic growth and rising incomes.\n''In the end, convincing those who do not believe in socialism will depend on our nation's development,'' Mr. Deng said in late 1991. ''If we can reach a comfortable standard of living by the end of this century, then that will wake them up a bit. And in the next century when we, as a socialist country, join the middle ranks of the developed nations, that will help to convince them. Most of these people will genuinely see that they were mistaken.''\nOne Last Battle Against Conservatives\nBut even as Mr. Deng spoke, the hard-liners in Beijing refused to act and Jiang Zemin was paralyzed by the lack of consensus.\nAt the beginning of 1992, Mr. Deng was rampant against his old adversaries, principally the hard-line faction led by the conservative patriarch Chen Yun. Mr. Chen and many other elders retired as Mr. Deng dominated the 14th Party Congress, which enshrined a new national goal of creating a ''socialist market economy'' by 2000.\nMr. Deng also moved against Yang Shangkun and his younger half-brother, Gen. Yang Baibing, who had created a power base in the military that was threatening the post-Deng political order.\nBut the pace of reform was too fast for Mr. Deng's successors, who craved social stability above all to consolidate their rule. Unemployment, sagging state industries and labor unrest bedeviled the leadership up to the moment of Mr. Deng's death.\nAnd the pro-democracy forces have gradually been suppressed. Instead of charting a clear path, Mr. Deng's successors stumbled politically, seeking concessions from the world on trade and human rights but offering little in return.\nA Clinton Administration review of human rights reported that by the end of last year, public dissent had been ''effectively silenced,'' by intimidation, prison or exile.\nAs long as Mr. Deng drew breath, it seemed that China could cope with its contradictions. But as his health inexorably declined, the Chinese seemed to pause and to wonder about the future."
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"title": [
"The Long March of the Communist Party of China 1934-35",
"Three Chinese Leaders: Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and Deng ...",
"China in the 20th Century - King's College",
"Deng Xiaoping: A Political Wizard Who Put China on the ..."
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In 1985 Terry Waite returned to Beirut after securing the release of four British hostages where?
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tc_858
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Terence Hardy \"Terry\" Waite (born 31 May 1939) is an English humanitarian and author.\n\nWaite was the Assistant for Anglican Communion Affairs for the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Runcie, in the 1980s. As an envoy for the Church of England, he travelled to Lebanon to try to secure the release of four hostages, including the journalist John McCarthy. He was himself kidnapped and held captive from 1987 to 1991.\n\nHe is president of the charity Y Care International (the YMCA's international development and relief agency) and patron of AbleChildAfrica and Habitat for Humanity Great Britain. He is also president of Emmaus UK, a charity for formerly homeless people.\n\nEarly life \n\nThe son of a village policeman in Styal, Cheshire, Waite was educated at Stockton Heath County Secondary school where he became head boy. Although his parents were only nominally religious, he showed a commitment to Christianity from an early age and later became a Quaker and an Anglican.\n\nEarly career \n\nWaite joined the Grenadier Guards at Caterham Barracks, but an allergy to a dye in the uniform obliged him to depart after a few months. He then considered a monastic life, but instead joined the Church Army, a social welfare organisation of the Anglican Church modelled on the Salvation Army, undergoing training and studies in London. While he was held captive in the 1980s, many Church Army officers wore a simple badge with the letter H on it, to remind people that one of their members was still a hostage and was being supported in prayer daily by them and many others.\n\nIn 1963, Waite was appointed Education Advisor to the Anglican Bishop of Bristol, Oliver Tomkins, and assisted with Tomkins's implementation of the SALT (Stewardship and Laity Training) programme in the diocese, along with Basil Moss. This position required Waite to master psychological T-group methods, with the aim of promoting increased active involvement from the laity. During this time he married Helen Frances Watters. As a student, Waite was greatly influenced by the teachings of Ralph Baldry.\n\nIn 1969, he moved to Uganda where he worked as Provincial Training Advisor to Eric Sabiti, the first African Anglican Archbishop of Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi and, in that capacity, travelled extensively throughout East Africa. Together with his wife and their four children, Waite witnessed the Idi Amin coup in Uganda, he and his wife narrowly escaping death on several occasions. From his office in Kampala, Waite founded the Southern Sudan Project and was responsible for developing aid and development programmes for this war-torn region.\n\nHis next post was in Rome where, from 1972, he worked as an International Consultant to the Medical Mission Sisters, a Roman Catholic order seeking to adapt to the leadership reforms of Vatican II. From this base, he travelled extensively throughout Asia, Africa, the Americas and Europe, conducting and advising on programmes concerned with institutional change and development, inter-cultural relations, group and inter-group dynamics and a broad range of development issues connected with health and education.\n\nArchbishop's Special Envoy \n\nWaite returned to the UK in 1978, where he took a job with the British Council of Churches. In 1980, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Runcie, appointed him the Archbishop of Canterbury's Assistant for Anglican Communion Affairs on the recommendation of Tomkins and Bishop John Howe. Based at Lambeth Palace, Waite again travelled extensively throughout the world and had a responsibility for the archbishop’s diplomatic and ecclesiastical exchanges. He arranged and travelled with the archbishop on the first ever visit of an Archbishop of Canterbury to China and had responsibility for travels to Australia, New Zealand, Burma, the United States, Canada, the Caribbean and South Africa.\n\nHostage negotiator \n\nIn 1980, Waite successfully negotiated the release of several hostages in Iran: Iraj Mottahedeh (Anglican priest in Esfahan), Dimitri Bellos (diocesan officer), Nosrat Sharifian (Anglican priest in Kerman), Fazeli (church member), Jean Waddell (who was secretary to the Iranian Anglican bishop Hassan Dehqani-Tafti), Canon John Coleman, and Coleman's wife. On 10 November 1984, he negotiated with Colonel Gaddafi for the release of the four remaining British hostages held in the Libyan Hostage Situation, Michael Berdinner, Alan Russell, Malcolm Anderson and Robin Plummer and was again successful.\n\nFrom 1985, Waite became involved in hostage negotiation in Lebanon, and he assisted in successful negotiations which secured the release of Lawrence Jenco and David Jacobsen. His use of an American helicopter to travel secretly between Cyprus and Lebanon and his appearance with Lt Colonel Oliver North, however, meant that he was compromised when the Irangate scandal broke. Against advice, Waite felt a need to demonstrate his continuing trust and integrity, and his commitment to the remaining hostages. He arrived in Beirut on 12 January 1987 with the intention of negotiating with the Islamic Jihad Organization, which was holding the men. On 20 January 1987, he agreed to meet the captors of the hostages as he was promised safe conduct to visit the hostages, who, he was told, were ill. The group broke trust and took him hostage on 20 January 1987. Waite remained in captivity for 1,763 days, the first four years of which were spent in solitary confinement. He was finally released on 18 November 1991.\n\nRelease and after \n\nFollowing his release he was elected a Fellow Commoner at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, UK, where he wrote his first book, Taken on Trust, an account of his captivity in Lebanon. It quickly became a best-seller in the UK and internationally.\n\nWaite decided to devote himself to study, writing, lecturing and humanitarian activities. His second book, Footfalls in Memory, a further meditation on his captivity in Lebanon, was published in the UK in 1995 and also became a best-seller. His latest book, published in October 2000, Travels with a Primate, is a humorous account of his journeys with his former boss, Robert Runcie. Waite has also contributed articles to many journals and periodicals, ranging from Reader's Digest to the Kipling Journal, and has also supplied articles and forewords to many books.\n\nIn January 1996, Waite became patron of the Warrington Male Voice Choir in recognition of the humanitarian role adopted by the choir following the Warrington bomb attacks. Since then, he has appeared with the choir for performances in prisons in UK and Ireland to assist in rehabilitation programmes. Prison concerts have become a regular feature of the choir’s Christmas activities.\n\nHe is also a co-founder of Y Care International, a development agency linked to the YMCA movement. Recently he founded Hostage UK, an organisation designed to give support to hostage families. He is also president of Emmaus UK, and patron of the Romany Society.\n\nOn 31 March 2007, Waite offered to travel to Iran to negotiate with those holding British sailors and marines seized by Iran in disputed waters on 23 March 2007. \n\nFaith perspective\n\nWaite has a particular regard for Eastern Orthodoxy and the writings of C.G. Jung. In 2008, he joined the Religious Society of Friends or Quakers. \n\nIn 2004, Waite returned to Beirut for the first time since his release from captivity. \n\nWaite traveled again to Beirut in December 2012 to reconcile with his captors and lay to rest what he described as the ghosts of the past. \n\nIn popular culture \n\n* Waite was the subject of a 1986 song by the British post-punk group The Fall, Terry Waite Sez, which was included on their album Bend Sinister.\n* Waite was brought up in the song Buenos Airies'90 by the British group the Macc Lads.\n* Waite was also mentioned in the 2009 Christmas Special of the British comedy The Royle Family.\n* The character Christopher Smythe, Dean of Baillie College, Oxford, in the Yes, Prime Minister episode The Bishop's Gambit, bears a marked resemblance to Terry Waite, who at the time of the episode’s broadcast was the Archbishop of Canterbury's special envoy during the Lebanon hostage crisis.\n\nAwards and honours\n\nIn 1992, Waite received the Four Freedoms Award for the Freedom of Worship. \n\nIn 1992, Durham University made him an honorary Doctor of Civil Law. In 2001, Anglia Ruskin University awarded him an honorary Doctor of Philosophy. On 30 May 2009, at a ceremony in Ely Cathedral, the Open University made him an honorary D.Univ. He was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Chester in 2009. \n\nIn 2006 he was elected a Visiting Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.",
"Beirut ( ';; ) is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. No recent population census has been done but in 2007 estimates ranged from slightly more than 1 million to slightly less than 2 million as part of Greater Beirut. Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast, Beirut is the country's largest and main seaport.\n\nIt is one of the oldest cities in the world, inhabited more than 5,000 years ago. The first historical mention of Beirut is found in the ancient Egyptian Tell el Amarna letters dating from the 15th century BC. The Beirut River runs south to north on the eastern edge of the city.\n\nBeirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with many banks and corporations based in its Central District, Badaro, Rue Verdun, Hamra and Ashrafieh. Following the destructive Lebanese Civil War, Beirut's cultural landscape underwent major reconstruction. Identified and graded for accountancy, advertising, banking/finance and law, Beirut is ranked as a Beta World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. \n\nIn May 2015, Beirut was officially recognized as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, Durban, Havana, Kuala Lumpur, and La Paz. \n\nArchaeology and prehistory\n\nSeveral prehistoric archaeological sites were discovered within the urban area of Beirut, revealing flint tools of sequential periods dating from the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age.\n\nBeirut I, or Minet el Hosn, was listed as \"Beyrouth ville\" by Louis Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orent and Bassoul hotels on the Avenue des Français in central Beirut. The site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900. The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon. \n\nBeirut II, or Umm el Khatib, was suggested by Burkhalter to have been south of Tarik el Jedideh, where P.E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around 100 m above sea level. The site had been built on and destroyed by 1948.\n\nBeirut III, Furn esh Shebbak or Plateau Tabet, was suggested to have been located on the left bank of the Beirut River. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized by Lorraine Copeland. P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were also found at this site, which has now completely disappeared as a result of construction and urbanization of the area. \n\nBeirut IV, or Furn esh Shebbak, river banks, was also on the left bank of the river and on either side of the road leading eastwards from the Furn esh Shebbak police station towards the river that marked the city limits. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces. The site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen, Raoul Describes and Auguste Bergy. Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, Paul Bovier-Lapierre. A large number of Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, now held at the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory. Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings.\n\nBeirut V, or Nahr Beirut (Beirut River), was discovered by Dillenseger and said to be in an orchard of mulberry trees on the left bank of the river, near the river mouth, and to be close to the railway station and bridge to Tripoli. Levallois flints and bones and similar surface material were found amongst brecciated deposits. The area has now been built on. \n\nBeirut VI, or Patriarchate, was a site discovered while building on the property of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. It was notable for the discovery of a finely styled Canaanean blade javelin suggested to date to the Néolithique Ancien or Néolithique Moyen periods of Byblos and which is held in the school library.\n\nBeirut VII, or Rivoli Cinema and Byblos Cinema sites near the Bourj in the Rue el Arz area, are two sites discovered by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe in 1964 and examined by Diana Kirkbride and Roger Saidah. One site was behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema and showed collapsed walls, pits, floors, charcoal, pottery and flints. The other, overlooking a cliff west of the Rivoli Cinema, was composed of three layers resting on limestone bedrock. Fragments of blades and broad flakes were recovered from the first layer of black soil, above which some Bronze Age pottery was recovered in a layer of grey soil. Pieces of Roman pottery and mosaics were found in the upper layer. Middle Bronze Age tombs were found in this area, and the ancient tell of Beirut is thought to be in the Bourj area. \n\nThe Phoenician port of Beirut was located between Rue Foch and Rue Allenby on the north coast. The port or harbor was excavated and reported on several years ago and now lies buried under the city. Another suggested port or dry dock was claimed to have been discovered ~1 km to the west, in 2011 by a team of Lebanese archaeologists from the Directorate General of Antiquities of Lebanese University. Controversy arose on 26 June 2012 when authorization was given by Lebanese Minister of Culture Gaby Layoun for a private company called Venus Towers Real Estate Development Company to destroy the ruins (archaeological site BEY194) in the $500 million construction project of three skyscrapers and a garden behind Hotel Monroe in downtown Beirut. Two later reports by an international committee of archaeologists appointed by Layoun, including Hanz Curver, and an expert report by Ralph Pederson, a member of the institute of Nautical Archaeology and now teaching at Marburg in Germany, dismissed the claims that the trenches were a port, on various criteria. The exact function of site BEY194 may now never be discovered, and the issue raised heated emotions and led to increased coverage on the subject of Lebanese heritage in the press. \n\nHistory\n\nBeirut was settled more than 5,000 years ago. Its name derives from the Canaanite-Phoenician be'erot (\"wells\"), referring to the underground water table that is still tapped by the local inhabitants for general use. [https://wayback.archive.org/web/20071015223704/http://lebanonembassyus.org/country_lebanon/history.html Profile of Lebanon: History] Lebanese Embassy of the U.S. Another version is that the city was named after the Phoenician daughter of Adonis and Aphrodite, Beroe. \nExcavations in the downtown area have unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader and Ottoman remains. The first historical reference to Beirut dates from the 14th century BC, when it is mentioned in the cuneiform tablets of the Amarna letters, three letters that Ammunira of Biruta (Beirut) sent to the pharaoh of Egypt. Biruta is also referenced in the letters from Rib-Hadda, king of Byblos (also known as Jbeil). The oldest settlement was on an island in the river that progressively silted up. The city was known in antiquity as Berytus. This name was taken in 1934 for the archaeological journal published by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the American University of Beirut. \n\nHellenistic and Roman period\n\nIn 140 B.C. the city was destroyed by Diodotus Tryphon in his contest with Antiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of the Macedonian Seleucid monarchy. Beirut was soon rebuilt on a more conventional Hellenistic plan and renamed Laodicea in Phoenicia () or Laodicea in Canaan in honor of a Seleucid Laodice. The modern city overlies the ancient one, and little archaeology was carried out until after the end of the civil war in 1991. The post-war salvage excavations (1993-to date) have yielded new insights in the layout and history of Roman Berytus. Public architecture included several bath complexes, colonnaded streets, a circus and theater; residential areas were excavated in the Future Garden of Forgiveness, Martyrs' Square and the Beirut Souks. \n\nMid-first-century coins from Berytus bear the head of Tyche, goddess of fortune; on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines an anchor. This symbol was later taken up by the early printer Aldus Manutius in 15th century Venice.\n\nBeirut was conquered by Pompey in 64 B.C. The city was assimilated into the Roman Empire, veteran soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken.[http://www.downtownbeirut.com/AboutBeirut.html About Beirut and Downtown Beirut], DownTownBeirut.com. Retrieved 17 November 2007.[http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/beirut Beirut Travel Information], [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/ Lonely Planet] Beirut was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. \n\nIn 14 B.C., during the reign of Herod the Great, Berytus became a colonia and was named Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus. Its law school was widely known; two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian, both natives of Phoenicia, taught there under the Severan emperors. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws was derived from these two jurists, and in 533 Justinian recognized the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire. After the 551 Beirut earthquake the students were transferred to Sidon. \n\nMiddle Ages\n\nBeirut passed into Arab control in 635.[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9356914 Beirut] , Britannica.com Prince Arslan bin al-Mundhir founded the Principality of Sin-el-Fil in Beirut in 759 AD. From this principality developed the later Principality of Mount Lebanon, which was the basis for the establishment of Greater Lebanon, today's Lebanon. As a trading centre of the eastern Mediterranean, Beirut was overshadowed by Acre during the Middle Ages. From 1110 to 1291 it was in the hands of the Crusaders' Kingdom of Jerusalem. John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut (1179–1236) rebuilt the city after the battles with Saladin and also built the Ibelin family palace in Beirut.\n\nOttoman rule\n\nUnder the Ottoman sultan Selim I (1512–1520), the Ottomans conquered Syria including present-day Lebanon. Beirut was controlled by local Druze emirs throughout the Ottoman period. One of them, Fakhr-al-Din II, fortified it early in the 17th century,[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/BEC_BER/BEIRUT.html Beirut], Jrank.org but the Ottomans reclaimed it in 1763. With the help of Damascus, Beirut successfully broke Acre's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading centre in the region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony in Acre under Jezzar Pasha and Abdullah Pasha, Beirut declined to a small town with a population of about 10,000 and was an object of contention between the Ottomans, the local Druze, and the Mamluks.\nAfter Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt captured Acre in 1832, Beirut began its revival.\n\nBy the second half of the nineteenth century, Beirut was developing close commercial and political ties with European imperial powers, particularly France. European interests in Lebanese silk and other export products transformed the city into a major port and commercial centre. This boom in cross-regional trade allowed certain groups, such as the Sursock family, to establish trade and manufacturing empires that further strengthened Beirut's position as a key partner in the interests of imperial dynasties. Meanwhile, Ottoman power in the region continued to decline. Sectarian and religious conflicts, power vacuums, and changes in the political dynamics of the region culminated in the 1860 Lebanon conflict. Beirut became a destination for Maronite Christian refugees fleeing from the worst areas of the fighting on Mount Lebanon and in Damascus. This in turn altered the ethnic composition of Beirut itself, sowing the seeds of future ethnic and religious troubles there and in greater Lebanon. However, Beirut was able to prosper in the meantime. This was again a product of European intervention, and also a general realization amongst the city's residents that commerce, trade, and prosperity depended on domestic stability. \n\nIn 1888, Beirut was made capital of a vilayet (governorate) in Syria, including the sanjaks (prefectures) Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Bekaa.[http://www.lebanonlinks.com/country/beirut_history_beyrouth.html History of Beirut] , Lebanon Links By this time, Beirut had grown into a cosmopolitan city and had close links with Europe and the United States. It also became a centre of missionary activity that spawned educational institutions, such as the American University of Beirut. Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, silk exports to Europe came to dominate the local economy. After French engineers established a modern harbor in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon to Damascus and Aleppo in 1907, much of the trade was carried by French ships to Marseille. French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica reported a population consisting of 36,000 Muslims, 77,000 Christians, 2,500 Jews, 400 Druze and 4,100 foreigners. At the start of the 20th century, Salim Ali Salam was one of the most prominent figures in Beirut, holding numerous public positions including deputy from Beirut to the Ottoman parliament and President of the Municipality of Beirut. Given his modern way of life, the emergence of Salim Ali Salam as a public figure constituted a transformation in terms of the social development of the city.\n\nModern era\n\nAfter the collapse of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under the French Mandate. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, and Beirut became the capital city. The city remained a regional intellectual capital, becoming a major tourist destination and a banking haven, especially for the Persian Gulf oil boom.\n\nThis era of relative prosperity ended in 1975 when the Lebanese Civil War broke out throughout the country. During most of the war, Beirut was divided between the Muslim west part and the Christian east. The downtown area, previously the home of much of the city's commercial and cultural activity, became a no man's land known as the Green Line. Many inhabitants fled to other countries. About 60,000 people died in the first two years of the war (1975–1976), and much of the city was devastated. A particularly destructive period was the 1978 Syrian siege of Achrafiyeh, the main Christian district of Beirut. Syrian troops relentlessly bombed the eastern quarter of the city, but Christian militias defeated multiple attempts by Syria's elite forces to capture the strategic area in a three-month campaign later known as the Hundred Days' War.\n\nAnother destructive chapter was the 1982 Lebanon War, during which most of West Beirut was under siege by Israeli troops. In 1983, French and US barracks were bombed, killing 241 American servicemen, 58 French servicemen, six civilians and the two suicide bombers. \n\nSince the end of the war in 1990, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, and by the start of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a tourist, cultural and intellectual center in the Middle East and as a centre for commerce, fashion, and media. The reconstruction of downtown Beirut has been largely driven by Solidere, a development company established in 1994 by Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. The city has been host to the Asian Club Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Cup and has hosted the Miss Europe pageant eight times, 1960–1964, 1999, 2001–2002.\n\nRafic Hariri was assassinated in 2005 near the Saint George Hotel in Beirut. A month later about one million people gathered for an opposition rally in Beirut. The Cedar Revolution was the largest rally in Lebanon's history at that time. The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on 26 April 2005, and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2008. \n\nDuring the 2006 Lebanon War, Israeli bombardment caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the predominantly Shiite southern suburbs of Beirut.\n\nIn May 2008, after the government decided to disband Hezbollah's communications network (a decision it later rescinded), violent clashes broke out briefly between government allies and opposition forces, before control of the city was handed over to the Lebanese Army. After this a national dialogue conference was held in Doha at the invitation of the Prince of Qatar. The conference agreed to appoint a new president of Lebanon and to establish a new national government involving all the political adversaries. As a result of the Doha Agreement, the opposition's barricades were dismantled and so were the opposition's protest camps in Martyrs' Square. On 19 October 2012, a car bomb killed eight people in the Beirut's neighbourhood of Achrafiyeh, including Brigadier General Wissam al-Hassan, chief of the Intelligence Bureau of the Internal Security Forces. In addition, 78 others were wounded in the bombing. It was the largest attack in the capital since 2008. On 27 December 2013, a car bomb exploded in the Central District killing at least five people, including the former Lebanese ambassador to the U.S. Mohamad Chatah, and wounding 71 others. \n\nIn the 12 November 2015 Beirut bombings, two suicide bombers detonated explosives outside a mosque and inside a bakery, killing 43 people and injuring 200. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant immediately claimed responsibility for the attacks: \n\"Let the Shiite apostates know that we will not rest until we take revenge in the name of the Prophet.\" \n\nGeography\n\nBeirut sits on a peninsula extending westward into the Mediterranean Sea about 94 km north of the Lebanon-Israel border. It is flanked by the Lebanon Mountains and has taken on a triangular shape, largely influenced by its situation between and atop two hills: Al-Ashrafieh and Al-Musaytibah. The Beirut Governorate occupies 18 km2, and the city's metropolitan area 67 km2. The coast is rather diverse, with rocky beaches, sandy shores and cliffs situated beside one another.\n\nClimate\n\nBeirut has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa) characterized by mild days and nights. Autumn and spring are warm, winter is mild and rainy, and summer can be virtually rainless. August is considered the only really hot muggy month, with a monthly average high temperature of 32 °C, and January and February are the coldest months, with a monthly average low temperature of 11 °C. The prevailing wind during the afternoon and evening is from the west (onshore, blowing in from the Mediterranean); at night it reverses to offshore, blowing from the land out to sea. \n\nThe average annual rainfall is 893 mm, with the majority falling in winter, autumn and spring. Much of the autumn and spring rain falls in heavy downpours on a limited number of days, but in winter it is spread more evenly over a large number of days. Summer receives very little rainfall, if any. Snow is rare, except in the mountainous eastern suburbs, where snowfall is common due to the region's high altitudes.\n\nEnvironmental issues\n\nSee Marine environmental issues in Lebanon.\n\nQuarters and sectors\n\nBeirut is divided into 12 quarters (quartiers):\n* Achrafieh\n* Dar El Mreisse\n* Bachoura\n* Mazraa\n* Medawar\n* Minet El Hosn\n* Moussaitbeh\n* Port\n* Ras Beirut\n* Rmeil\n* Saifi\n* Zuqaq al-Blat\n\nThese quarters are divided into sectors (secteurs).\n\nBadaro is an edgy, bohemian style neighborhood, within the green district of Beirut (secteur du parc) which also include the Beirut Hippodrome and the Beirut Pine Forest and the French ambassador's Pine Residence. It is one of Beirut's favorite hip nightlife destination.\n\nTwo of the twelve official Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon are located in the southern suburbs of Beirut: Bourj el-Barajneh and Shatila. There is also one within its municipal boundaries: Mar Elias.\n\nSouthern suburban districts include Chiyah, Ghobeiry (Bir Hassan, Jnah and Ouzai are part of the Ghobeiry municipality), Haret Hreik, Burj al Barajneh, Laylake-Mreijeh, Hay al Sillum and Hadath. Eastern suburbs include Burj Hammoud, Sin el Fil, Dekwane and Mkalles. Hazmiyeh is also considered as an eastern suburb with its close proximity to the capital.\n Of the fifteen unregistered or unofficial refugee camps, Sabra, which lies adjacent to Shatila, is also located in southern Beirut.\n \n\nPeople in Lebanon often use different names for the same geographic locations, and few people rely on official, government-provided street numbers. Instead, historic and commercial landmarks and location codes such as PinLiban are more common.\n\nDemographics\n\nNo population census has been taken in Lebanon since 1932, and estimates of Beirut's population range from as low as 938,940 through 1,303,129 to as high as 2,012,000 as part of Greater Beirut.\n\nReligion\n\nBeirut is one of the most cosmopolitan and religiously diverse cities of Lebanon and all of the Middle East. The city boasts significant Christian and Muslim communities. There are nine major religious groups in Beirut: Maronite Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Armenian Apostolic, Armenian Catholic, Protestant, Sunni Muslim, Shia Muslim, Jews, and Druze.\n\nFile:Maghen Abraham Synagogue (side).JPG|Jewish Maghen Abraham Synagogue that was renovated in 2010 in Downtown Beirut\nFile:ChurchMosque.jpg|Church of Saint George Maronite and Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque coexist side by side in Downtown Beirut\nFile:St Elie - St Gregory Armenian Catholic Cathedral.jpg|Church of St. Gregory the Illuminator Armenian Catholic in Downtown Beirut\nFile:Beirut 017.jpg|Cathedral of St. George's Greek Orthodox in Downtown Beirut\n\nFamily matters such as marriage, divorce and inheritance are still handled by the religious authorities representing a person's faith (the Ottoman \"millet\" system). Calls for civil marriage are unanimously rejected by the religious authorities, but civil marriages held in another country are recognized by Lebanese civil authorities. Until the mid-20th century, Beirut was also home to a Jewish community in the Bab Idriss sector of Zokak el-Blat.\n\nBefore the civil war the neighborhoods of Beirut were fairly heterogeneous, but they became largely segregated by religion since the conflict. East Beirut has a mainly Christian population with a small Muslim minority, while West Beirut has a Sunni Muslim majority with small minorities of Christians and Druze. Since the end of the civil war, East and West Beirut have begun to see an increase in Muslims and Christians moving into each half. The southern suburbs are populated largely by Shia Muslims, while the eastern and northern suburbs are largely Christian.\n\nThe city is also home to a small number of Latin Rite Roman Catholics in the form of an apostolic vicariate with Archbishop Paul Dahdah, OCD, as the apostolic vicar.\n\nBeirut Central District\n\nThe Beirut Central District (BCD) or Centre Ville is the name given to Beirut's historical and geographical core by \"Solidere\", the \"vibrant financial, commercial, and administrative hub of the country.\" It is an area thousands of years old, traditionally a focus of business, finance, culture and leisure. Its reconstruction constitutes one of the most ambitious contemporary urban developments. Due to the devastation incurred on the city center from the Lebanese Civil War, the Beirut Central District underwent a thorough reconstruction and development plan that gave it back its cultural and economic position in the region. Ever since, Beirut Central District has evolved into an integrated business and commercial environment and the focus of the financial activity in the region. That evolution was accompanied with the relocation of international organizations, reoccupation of civic and government buildings, expansion of financial activities, and establishment of regional headquarters and global firms in the city center. \n\nAssessment of the demand for build-up space in the BCD has been done in reference to a number of macro-economic, demographic, and urban planning considerations at a time of marked need for new activity poles in the city, such as Souks, financial, cultural and recreational centers. The district's total area is , the majority of which is dedicated to residential space (). The Beirut Central District contains over 60 gardens, squares and open spaces. These spaces comprise landscaped streets, gardens, historical squares, pedestrian areas and sea promenades thus totaling to an area of 96 acres of open spaces.\n\nThe central district is Lebanon's prime location for shopping, entertainment, and dining. There are over 100 cafes, restaurants, pubs and nightclubs open in the Beirut Central District, and over 350 retail outlets distributed along its streets and quarters. Beirut Souks alone are home to over 200 stores and a handful of restaurants and cafes. Beirut Souks are the Central District's old medieval market, recently renovated along with the original Hellenistic street grid that characterized the old souks and the area's historical landmarks along long vaulted shopping alleys and arcades. Solidere, the company responsible for the reconstruction and renovation of the district, organizes music and entertainment events all throughout the year like the Beirut Marathon, Fête de la Musique, Beirut Jazz Festival.\n\nEconomy\n\nBeirut's economy is service-oriented with the main growth sectors being banking and tourism.\n\nIn an area dominated by authoritarian or militarist regimes, the Lebanese capital was generally regarded as a haven of liberalism, though a precarious one. With its seaport and airport—coupled with Lebanon's free economic and foreign exchange system, solid gold-backed currency, banking-secrecy law, and favourable interest rates—Beirut became an established banking centre for Arab wealth, much of which was invested in construction, commercial enterprise, and industry (mostly the manufacture of textiles and shoes, food processing, and printing). The economy of Beirut is diverse, including publishing, banking, trade and various industries. During that period, Beirut was the region's financial services center. At the onset of the oil boom starting in the 1960s, Lebanon-based banks were the main recipients of the region's petrodollars. \n\nBeirut is the focal point of the Economy of Lebanon. The capital hosts the headquarters of Banque du Liban, Lebanon's central bank, the Beirut Stock Exchange, the head office of Lebanon's flag-carrier Middle East Airlines, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, the Union of Arab Banks, and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges. \n\nBanking and finance\n\nThe Banking System is the backbone of the local economy with a balance sheet of $152 billion at the end of 2012, nearing 3.5 times the GDP estimated at $43 billion by the IMF. Bank deposits also increased in 2012 by 8% to 125 billion dollars, 82 percent of the sector's assets. \"Banks are still attracting deposits because the interest rates offered are higher than the ones in Europe and the United States\", says Marwan Mikhael, head of research at BLOM Bank. \n\nBeirut's foreign reserves were still close to an all-time high when they reached $32.5 billion in 2011 and analysts say that the Central Bank can cover nearly 80 percent of the Lebanese currency in the market. This means that the Central Bank can easily cope with any unforeseen crisis in the future thanks to the massive foreign currency reserves. \n\nThe Lebanese banking system is endowed with several characteristics that promote the role of Beirut as a regional financial center, in terms of ensuring protection for foreign capital and earnings. The Lebanese currency is fully convertible and can be exchanged freely with any other currency. Moreover, no restrictions are put on the free flow of capital and earnings into and out of the Lebanese economy. The passing of the banking secrecy law on 3 September 1956, subjected all banks established in Lebanon as well as foreign banks' branches to the \"secret of the profession\". Both article 16 of law No. 282 dated 30 December 1993 and article 12 of decree No. 5451 dated 26 August. 1994, offer exemptions from income tax on all interest and revenues earned on all types of accounts opened in Lebanese banks. On the first of April 1975, decree No. 29 established a free banking zone by granting the Lebanese government the right to exempt non-residents' deposits and liabilities in foreign currency from: the income tax on interest earned, the required reserves imposed by the Banque Du Liban by virtue of article 76 of the Code of Money and Credit, the premium of deposit guarantee imposed on bank deposits to the profit of the National Deposit Guarantee Institution. \n\nTourism\n\nThe tourism industry in Beirut has been historically important to the local economy and remains to this day to be a major source of revenue for the city, and Lebanon in general. Before the Lebanese Civil War, Beirut was widely regarded as \"The Paris of the Middle East,\"[https://books.google.com/books?idQj-gMqGK1YUC&pg\nPA3&dq%22Paris+of+the+Middle+East%22&hl\nen&saX&ei\nixPdUeKdEfCXiAe4w4CoBg&ved0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v\nonepage&q%22Paris%20of%20the%20Middle%20East%22&f\nfalse Out of the Middle East: The Emergence of an Arab Global Business – Kamal Shair – Google Books] often cited as a financial and business hub where visitors could experience the Levantine Mediterranean culture. Beirut's diverse atmosphere and ancient history make it an important destination which is slowly rebuilding itself after continued turmoil. Although in recent times, certain countries such as the United States frequently place Lebanon and Beirut in particular, within their travel warnings list due to a large number of car bombings and orchestrated political violence. \n\nAccording to the 2012 tourist statistics, 34% of the tourists in Beirut came from states within the Arab League, 33% came from European countries (mainly France, Germany, and Britain), and 16% from the Americas (about half of which are from the United States).[http://www.lebanon-tourism.gov.lb/Publications/Statistics WebHost4Life]\n\nThe largely pedestrianized Beirut Central District is the core of the Beirut tourism scene. The district is a cluster of stone-façade buildings lining arcaded streets and radial alleyways. The architecture of the area is a mix of French Architecture and Venetian Gothic architecture mixed with Arabesque and Ottoman Architecture. The district contains numerous old mosques and crusader churches, as well as uncovered remnants and ruins of the Roman era. The District contains tens of restaurants, cafes and pubs, as well as a wide range of shopping stores mainly in Beirut Souks. High-rise hotels and towers line the district's New Waterfront, marina and seaside promenade.\n\nAnother popular tourist destination in Beirut is the Corniche Beirut, a pedestrian promenade that encircles the capital's seafront from the Saint George Bay in the north all the way to Avenue de Paris and Avenue General de Gaulle south of the city. The corniche reaches its maximum height above sea level at Raouché, a high-rise residential neighborhood rising over a giant white limestone cliff and facing the recognizable off-shore Raouché Rocks.\n\nBadaro is one of Beirut's most appealing neighborhoods, a lovely place to stroll during daytime and a destination for going out in the evening. Some say Badaro is like NYC's east village without the beatniks. It is more comparable Greenwich Village. Badaro is within Beirut's green district with a 75 acres public park (The Beirut Pine forest) and a 50 acres hippodrome. It is a neighborhood on a very human scale with small groceries around every corner. The neighborhood residents, a mix of old impoverished Christian bourgeoisie, bohemian style people in their 30's and well-established urban professionals, are loyal to local bakery and pastry shops. Because of the blossoming café and bar scene it has become lately a hip destination for Beirut's young and restless but old Beirutis remember that Badaro was already Beirut's version of the Village in the swinging sixties. Groceries and eateries can be found on almost every street of the area. There are dozens of restaurants, pubs and sidewalk cafés of virtually every style. Badaro \"Village\" thrives on local residents, day-trippers and hipsters from all over Beirut, office employees and many expatriates. Contrary to areas such as Gemmayzé or Mar Mikhael, despite being very lively, pubs and cafes are keen on avoiding to make a lot of noise, and people are respectful and do not do things in public that they wouldn't want someone to do in front of their house. \n\nHamra Street is a long cobblestone street connecting the Beirut Central District with the coastal Raouche area. The street is a large concentration of shopping stores, boutiques, restaurants, banks, street vendors, sidewalk cafes, newspaper kiosks, and a booming nightlife spurred by students from the neighboring American University of Beirut. The AUB campus is another popular visitor destination, composed of a cluster of 19th century red-roofed buildings dispersed on a wooded hillside overlooking the Mediterranean.\n\nGemmayzeh is Beirut's artistic Bohemian quarter, full of narrow streets and historic buildings from the French era. It is located East of the Beirut Central District, bordering the Saifi Village. The neighborhood is well known for its trendy bars and pubs, cafes, restaurants and lounges; most are directly located on Rue Gouraud, the main thoroughfare that cuts through the middle of the district. In 2004, Travel + Leisure magazine called Gemmayzeh \"SoHo by the Sea,\" due to its colorful and chic cafés amid 1950s apartment buildings and hole-in-the-wall shops. \n\nBeirut is a destination for tourists from both the Arab world and West. In Travel + Leisure magazine's World Best Awards 2006, it was ranked 9th best city in the world. That list was voted upon shortly before the 2006 Lebanon War broke out, but in 2008 The Guardian listed Beirut as one of its top ten cities in the world. The New York Times ranked it at number One on its \"44 places to go\" list of 2009. 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa, totaling $6.5 billion. Beirut was chosen in 2012 by Condé Nast Traveler as the best city in the Middle East, beating Tel Aviv and Dubai.\n\nMany of the tourists are returning Lebanese expatriates, but many are from Western countries. Approximately 3 million visitors visited in 2010; the previous record was 1.4 million in 1974. \nIn 2012, San Diego television channel WealthTV will feature Beirut, its culture and its people as a part of the travel series Uncover. \n\nLike other forms of tourism, medical tourism in Lebanon is on the rise recently. Although visitors from neighboring Arab nations make up the bulk of medical tourism patients here due to its proximity, Beirut is strongly trying to woo more southern Europeans, Asians and North Americans to its land. Its Agency for Investment Development in Lebanon reports that growth in the medical tourism industry is growing by up to 30% a year since 2009. The country's tourism ministry is working closely with the medical sector and top-class hotels to create an organized, quality medical destination. Major hotel and spa chains work with local clinics, travel agencies and the tourism ministry to create comprehensive healthcare and recuperation packages for foreign visitors. The government is highly involved in this industry and strives to make the process as easy as possible. \nCosmetic surgery is a major component of medical tourism in Lebanon. Most of the foreign patients come for routine operations like plastic surgery, dental or eye surgery, and Beirut's hospitals are also capable of performing specialized procedures such as internal bypass surgery and other technical treatments. Its top clinics and hospitals like Sahel General are equipped to handle the full range of surgical procedures. Beirut-based Clemenceau Medical Center (CMC), affiliated with Johns Hopkins International, was ranked one of the world's top ten best hospitals for medical tourism in 2012. \n\nGovernment\n\nBeirut is the capital of Lebanon and its seat of government. The Lebanese Parliament, all the Ministries and most of the public administrations, embassies and consulates are there. The Beirut Governorate is one of six mohafazat (plural of mohafazah, a state governorate). The others are North Lebanon, Mount Lebanon, South Lebanon, Beqaa and Nabatiye. \n\nFile:Beirut city hall.jpg|Facade of the Beirut City Hall\nFile:Grand serail solidere 4.jpg|The Grand Serail\nFile:BeirutParliament.jpg|Lebanese Parliament\nFile:UNbeirut.jpg|United Nations Lebanon headquarters\n\nInternational organizations\n\nThe city is home to numerous international organizations. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) is headquartered in downtown Beirut, The Arab Air Carriers Organization (AACO), the Union of Arab Banks and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges are also headquartered in the city. The International Labour Organization (ILO) and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) both have regional offices in Beirut covering the Arab world.\n\nEducation\n\nHigher education throughout Lebanon is provided by universities, colleges and technical and vocational institutes.\n\nThe American University of Beirut and Université Saint-Joseph (USJ), are the oldest respectively English medium and French medium universities in the country.\n\nThe Lebanese University is the only public institution for higher education in Beirut., Unesco.org Beirut is also home to the Lebanese American University (LAU), which is also, together with many of its programs, accredited by US bodies and considered lately one of the top universities in the Middle East. LAU also offers an architecture degree equivalent to the French DEA, allowing graduates to practice in the European Union. Beirut is also home to the American University of Science and Technology (AUST), University of Balamand, École Supérieure des Affaires (ESA), Beirut Arab University (BAU), Haigazian University (HU), Lebanese International University (LIU), as well as the Notre Dame University – Louaize (NDU).\nNotre Dame University (NDU)'s degrees are becoming more and more valuable with time. NDU received its accreditation from NIASC in 2015.\n\nThe Directorate General of Higher Education is responsible for managing the university colleges, university institutes and universities in Beirut and nationwide.\n\nAmong the private secondary schools in Beirut are, College Saint Joseph Antoura, Lycee Abdel Kader Grand Lycée Franco-Libanais, Lycée Franco-Libanais Verdun, American Community School, International College, Collège Notre-Dame de Jamhour, College Melkart, Carmel Saint-Joseph, Collège Louise Wegmann, Rawdah High School, Saint Mary's Orthodox College, Collège Notre Dame de Nazareth, Collège du Sacré-Coeur Gemmayzé, Collège Protestant Français, Armenian Evangelical Central High School, German School of Beirut, and the Armenian Hamazkayin Arslanian College.\n\nFile:American-University-Beirut-NW.jpg|AUB established in 1866 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions\nFile:USJ Campus.jpg|Saint Joseph University, or Université Saint-Joseph, founded by the Jesuits in 1875\nFile:AUST at night.jpg|AUST, established in Beirut in 1989\nFile:Beirut Universitet Haigazian.jpg|Haigazian University was founded in 1955 by the Armenian Evangelical community \nFile:GU_CAM.jpg|Global University in Beirut\nFile:Portalis mansion.jpg|École supérieure des affaires, founded in 1996 as a joint cooperation between the Paris Chamber of Commerce (Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie de Paris) and the Bank of Lebanon\n\nTransportation\n\nThe city's renovated airport is the Rafic Hariri International Airport, located in the southern suburbs. The Port of Beirut, one of the largest and most commercial in the eastern Mediterranean, is another port of entry. As a final destination, Lebanon can be reached by ferry from Cyprus via the nearby city of Jounieh or by road from Damascus via the Beqaa valley in the east.\n\nBeirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria such as Homs and its capital Damascus. There are a number of different companies providing public transport in Lebanon. The publicly owned buses are managed by Office des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC – \"Railway and Public Transportation Authority\"). Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station. \n\nThe ministry of transport and public works purchased an extra 250 intra and inter-buses in 2012 to better serve regions outside the capital as well as congestion-choked Beirut, hoping to lessen the use of private cars. \n\nBeirut has also private buses that are provided by the Lebanese Commuting Company.\n\nCulture\n\nThe culture of Beirut has evolved under the influence of many different peoples and civilizations, such as Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and French. The law school in downtown Beirut was one of the world's earliest and was considered to be a leading center of legal studies in the Eastern Roman Empire.\n\nBeirut hosted the Francophonie and Arab League summits in 2002, and in 2007 it hosted the ceremony for the Prix Albert Londres, which rewards outstanding francophone journalists every year. The city also hosted the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. In the same year it was proclaimed World Book Capital by UNESCO. \n\nBeirut has also been called the \"party capital of the Arab world\". Rue Monnot has an international reputation among clubbers, and Rue Gouraud in districts such as Gemmayze and Mar Mikhael have emerged as new hotspots for bar patrons and clubbers, as well as \"The Alleyway\" in Hamra Street.\n\nMuseums\n\nThe National Museum of Beirut is the principal museum of archaeology in Lebanon. It has about 1,300 exhibits ranging in date from prehistoric times to the medieval Mamluk period.[http://www.beirutnationalmuseum.com/e-histoire.htm History] , National Museum of Beirut The Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut is the third oldest museum in the Middle East, exhibiting a wide range of artifacts from Lebanon and neighboring countries. Sursock Museum was built by the illustrious Sursock family at the end of the 19th century as a private villa for Nicolas Sursock, and then donated to the Lebanese state upon his death. It now houses Beirut's most influential and popular art museum. The permanent collection shows a set of Japanese engravings, numerous works of Islamic art and classic Italian paintings, while temporary exhibitions are also shown throughout the year. The Robert Mouawad Private Museum near Beirut's Grand Serail exhibits Henri Pharaon's private collection of archaeology and antiques. Planet Discovery is a children's science museum with interactive experiments, exhibitions, performances, workshops and awareness competitions. The Saint Joseph University opened the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory in 2000, the first prehistory museum in the Arabic Middle East, displaying bones, stone tools and neolithic pottery collected by Jesuits. \n\nIn October 2013, mim museum, a private mineral museum, opened its doors to the public. It has on display some 1600 minerals from more than 60 countries. mim museum's collection is considered to be one of the world's paramount private collection for the variety and quality of its minerals. A didactic circuit, accompanied by screens showing films and scientific applications of mineralogy, will reveal a world of unsuspected marvels—priceless both from an aesthetic and scientific point of view.\n\nMedia\n\nBeirut is a main center for the television, newspaper, and book publishing industries.\n\nTelevision stations based in Beirut include Télé Liban, LBC, ÓTV (Orange TV), MTV Lebanon, Tele Lumiere (Catholic TV), Future TV, New TV, NBN, ANB and Saudi TV 1 on 33 UHF and MBC 1, MBC 4, MBC Action, Fox, Al Jazeera, Rotana, OSN First, OSN News, Al Yawm and Arabic Series Channel on 45 UHF.\n\nNewspapers include An-Nahar, Al Joumhouria, As-Safir, Al Mustaqbal, Al-Akhbar, Al-Balad, Ad-Diyar, Al Anwar, Al Sharq.\n\nNewspapers and magazines published in French include L'Orient Le Jour (since 1971), La Revue Du Liban, Al Balad-French Version, Al Intiqad, Magazine L'Hebdo and La Commerce Du Levant.\n\nEnglish newspapers published in Beirut are The Daily Star, Executive Magazine (weekly), Beirut Online, Beirut Times (weekly) and Monday Morning.\n\nSports\n\nThe Lebanese capital hosted the Mediterranean Games in 1959, FIBA Asia Champions Cup in 1999, 2000, 2012, the AFC Asian Cup in 2000, and the FIBA Asia Cup in 2010. Beirut was the host city for the 6th Annual Games of the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. Beirut also hosted the Pan Arab Games in 1957, 1997, and will do so again in 2015.\n\nBeirut, with Sidon and Tripoli, hosted the 2000 AFC Asian Cup. There are two stadiums in the city, Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium and Beirut Municipal Stadium.\n\nBasketball is the most popular sport in Lebanon. Currently, four Beirut teams play in Lebanese Basketball League Division 1: Hekmeh, Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut, Hoops Club and Homenetmen Beirut.\n\nOther sports events in Beirut include the annual Beirut Marathon, hip ball, weekly horse racing at the Beirut Hippodrome, and golf and tennis tournaments that take place at Golf Club of Lebanon. Three out of the five teams in the Lebanese rugby league championship are based in Beirut.\n\nArt and Fashion\n\nThere are hundreds of art galleries in Beirut and its suburbs. Every year hundreds of fine art students graduate from universities and institutions. Artist workshops exist all over Lebanon. The inauguration of the Beirut Art Center, a non-profit association, space and platform dedicated to contemporary art in Lebanon, in the Mkalles suburb of Beirut added to the number of exhibition spaces available in the city, with a screening and performance room, mediatheque, bookstore, cafe and terrace. Adjacent to the latter is the Ashkal Alwan Home Workspace, a venue hosting cultural events and educational programs.\n\nA number of international fashion designers have displayed their work in big fashion shows. Most major fashion labels have shops in Beirut's shopping districts, and the city is home to a number of local fashion designers, some of whom like Elie Saab,Yara Farhat, Reem Acra, Zuhair Murad, Georges Chakra, Georges Hobeika, Jean Faris, Nicolas Jebran, Rabih Kayrouz and Abed Mahfouz have achieved international fame.\n\nBeirut is also the home for a dynamic street art scene that has developed after the Lebanese Civil War, one of the most notable street artists is Yazan Halwani who is known to produce the largest murals on the walls of Beirut in areas such as Gemmayzeh, Hamra, Verdun and Achrafieh. \n\nTwin towns and sister cities\n\nBeirut is twinned with: \n\n* Dubai, United Arab Emirates\n* Los Angeles, United States of America\n* Isfahan, Iran \n* Istanbul, Turkey \n* Kuwait City, Kuwait\n* Paris, France\n* Moscow, Russia\n* Quebec City, Canada\n* Mexico City, Mexico\n* Tripoli, Libya\n* São Paulo,\nBrazil\n* Cairo,\nEgypt\n\nForeign opinion\n\nBeirut was named the top place to visit by The New York Times in 2009, and as one of the ten liveliest cities in the world by Lonely Planet in the same year. According to a 2010 study by the American global consulting firm Mercer comparing high-end items such as upscale residential areas and entertainment venues, Beirut was ranked as the 4th most expensive city in the Middle East and 15th among the Upper Middle Income Countries included in the survey. Beirut came in first place regionally and 10th place internationally in a 2010 study by \"EuroCost International\" about the rental markets for high quality housing. 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa, totaling $6.5 billion. Beirut was chosen in 2012 by Condé Nast Traveler as the best city in the Middle East. \nCondé Nast Reader choice awards 2013 selected Beirut as the 20th best city in the world, with a score of 81.0, tied with Seville, Spain. \n\nOn 7 December 2014, Beirut was selected to be among the New 7 Wonders of Cities, along with Doha, Durban, La Paz, Havana, Kuala Lumpur and Vigan.[http://world.new7wonders.com/2014/12/07/new7wonders-cities/ And the New7Wonders Cities are… – World of New7Wonders] The campaign was held by New 7 Wonders.[http://www.new7wonders.com/ New7Wonders | The global voting site]",
"The Lebanon hostage crisis refers to the kidnapping in Lebanon of 104 foreign hostages between 1982 and 1992, when the Lebanese Civil War was \"at its height\". The hostages were mostly Americans and Western Europeans, but 21 national origins were represented. At least eight hostages died in captivity; some were murdered, while others died from lack of adequate medical attention to illnesses. \n\nThose taking responsibility for the kidnapping used different names, but the testimony of former hostages indicates that almost all the kidnappings were done by a single group of about a dozen men, coming from various clans within the Hezbollah organization. Particularly important in the organization was Imad Mughniyah. Hezbollah has publicly denied involvement. The Islamic Republic of Iran is thought to have played a major role in the kidnappings, and may have instigated them. Syria also had some involvement.\n\nThe original motive for the hostage-taking is thought to have been to discourage retaliation by the U.S., Syria, or other powers against Hezbollah, which is credited with the killing of 241 Americans and 58 Frenchmen in the Marine barracks and embassy bombings in Beirut. Other explanations for the kidnappings or the prolonged holding of hostages are Iranian foreign policy interests, including a desire to extract concessions from the Western countries, the hostage takers being strong allies of the Islamic Republic of Iran. \n\nThe tight security measures taken by the hostage-keepers succeeded in preventing the rescue of all but a handful of hostages, and this along with public pressure from the media and families of the hostages led to a breakdown of the anti-terrorism principle of \"no negotiations, no concessions\" by American and French officials. In the United States, the Reagan administration negotiated a secret and illegal arms for hostage swap with Iran known as the Iran–Contra affair.\n\nThe end of the crisis in 1992 is thought to have been precipitated by the need for Western aid and investment by Syria and Iran following the end of the Iran–Iraq war and the collapse of the Soviet Union, and with promises to Hezbollah that it could remain armed following the end of the Lebanese Civil War and that France and America would not seek revenge against it. \n\nBackground\n\n25 victims were Americans, 16 were Frenchmen, 12 Britons, 7 Swiss, and 7 West Germans. Among the names the hostage takers used were Islamic Jihad, Organization for the Defense of Free People, Organization for the Oppressed of the Earth and Islamic Jihad for the Liberation of Palestine.\n\nHostages\n\nWith the exception of a few hostages such as CIA Bureau Chief William Francis Buckley and Marine Colonel William Higgins, (who were both killed) most of the hostages were chosen not for any political activity or alleged wrongdoing, but because of the country they came from and the ease of kidnapping them. Despite this, the hostages complained of and had physical signs of mistreatment, such as repeated beatings and mock executions. \n\nSome of the victims include:\n* David S. Dodge. Among the first victims whose case was widely publicized was American University of Beirut president David Dodge, abducted 19 July 1982 and freed on July 21, 1983. According to Lebanese journalist Hala Jaber, \"Dodge was abducted initially by pro-Palestinian Lebanese\" in hopes of pressuring the Americans to pressure Israel which had invaded Lebanon to stop Lebanon-based PLO attacks. After the PLO evacuated Lebanon, Dodge was taken into Iranian custody, and moved him from Beqaa Valley to Tehran. The Iranians hoped to use Dodge to gain the release of four Iranian officials who had been kidnapped by Lebanese Christians in July 1982. The four Iranians were never found. Dodge spent the next three months in Evin Prison, and was asked for information about the kidnapped Iranians whenever he was interrogated. He was released, reportedly, because Syrian President Assad was angered by Iran's involvement in the kidnapping. Dodge was released from captivity and driven back to the airport by an official of the Iranian Revolutionary Guards. He flew to Damascus, and was handed over to the American embassy on arrival there. \n\n* Benjamin Weir. The Presbyterian minister was kidnapped in May 1984 by three armed men while strolling with his wife. Weir may have thought he was safe from harm from Muslims because he lived in Shiite West Beirut working with Muslim charities, and had lived in Lebanon since 1958. Two days after his abduction, a telephone message claimed: \"Islamic Jihad organization claims it is responsible for the abduction ... in order to renew our acceptance of Reagan's challenge [to fight \"state terrorism\"] and to confirm our commitment of the statement ... that we will not leave any American on Lebanese soil\". He was released mid-September 1985.\n\n* Terry A. Anderson, chief Middle East correspondent for the Associated Press, was the longest held hostage believed to be captured by Shiite Hezbollah or Islamic Jihad Organization. Anderson was seized on March 16, 1985, finally being released December 4, 1991.\n\n* Charles Glass, an American television correspondent, was seized on June 17, 1987, by a previously unknown group, the \"Organization for the Defense of Free People\", believed to be one of Hezbollah's aliases. He escaped 62 days later.\n\n* Rudolph Cordes and Alfred Schmidt, two citizens of West Germany, were abducted in January 1987 by an organization calling itself \"Strugglers for Freedom\". The West Germans were seized shortly after the West German government arrested Mohammed Ali Hamadi, a Shia terrorist leader who allegedly masterminded the 1985 TWA Flight 847 hijacking and killed diver Robert Dean Stethem. Mohammed Ali Hammadi was not released at that time, but was apparently exchanged in 2006 for a German hostage then held in Iraq. Schmidt was released in September 1987. Cordes was released in September 1988. \n\n* Thomas Sutherland, former Dean of Agriculture at the American University of Beirut in Lebanon, was kidnapped by Islamic Jihad members near his Beirut home on June 9, 1985. He was released on November 18, 1991, at the same time as Terry Waite, having been held hostage for 2,353 days. \n\n* Terry Waite, an Anglican Church envoy, disappeared on January 20, 1987, while on a negotiating mission to free the other kidnap victims. He spent almost five years in captivity, nearly four years of it in solitary confinement, after he was seized by Islamic Jihad from a go-between's house in Lebanon. Before his release in November 1991 he was frequently blindfolded, as well as having been beaten early in his period of imprisonment and subjected to a mock execution. He was chained, suffered desperately from asthma, and was once transported in a refrigerator as his captors moved him about. \n\nKilled\n\n* William Francis Buckley. Former CIA Bureau Chief, Beirut, taken hostage by Islamic Jihad, Mar 16, 1984. and held at the village of Ras al-Ein. On October 3, 1985, the Islamic Jihad Organization claimed to have killed him. The Islamic Jihad Organization later released to a Beirut newspaper a photograph purporting to depict his corpse. Press reports stated that Buckley had been transferred to Iran, where he was tortured and killed. Former American hostage David Jacobsen revealed that Buckley actually died of a heart attack brought on by torture, probably on June 3, 1985. His remains were found in a plastic sack on the side of the road to the Beirut airport in 1991. \n* Alec Collett, a British employee for UNRWA, was kidnapped along with his Austrian driver on March 25, 1985. The Austrian was only briefly held then released. In a videotape released in April 1986, Collett was shown being hanged by his kidnappers. Collett's body was not found until November 2009. \n* Four Soviet diplomats were kidnapped on September 30, 1985. Arkady Katkov, a consular attaché, was killed by his captors; the other three (Oleg Spirin, Valery Mirikov, and Nikolai Svirsky) were released a month later. According to a 1986 report by the Jerusalem Post, the release of the hostages occurred following the kidnapping and murder of a key Hezbollah leader by the KGB. \n* Michel Seurat. On February 10, 1986, the Islamic Jihad Organization released a photograph that claimed to show the body of French sociologist Michel Seurat, who had been kidnapped earlier. On 5 March 1986 Islamic Jihad claimed it had executed Seurat. His fellow hostages revealed on their release that Seurat had died of hepatitis. His body was found in October 2005. \n* Peter Kilburn, Leigh Douglas, and Philip Padfield. On April 17, 1986, the bodies of these three American University of Beirut employees, American citizen Peter Kilburn and Britons Leigh Douglas and Philip Padfield, were discovered near Beirut. The Revolutionary Organization of Socialist Muslims claimed to have executed the three men in retaliation for the United States air raid on Libya on April 15, 1986.\n\n* Another American military man killed by Hezbollah abductors was Colonel William R. Higgins. He was captured February 17, 1988, and taken hostage while serving on a United Nations (UN) peacekeeping mission in southern Lebanon. A year and a half after his capture, a videotape was released by his captors showing his body hanging by the neck. On December 23, 1991, his body was recovered from a Beirut street where it had been dumped.\n* A further victim was Dennis Hill, an English lecturer at the American University of Beirut, originally from Middlesex, UK. Hill, aged 53, had worked for the American University of Beirut on the Intensive English Language Program since October 1984. He was shot several times in the head on May 30, 1985, while attempting to escape from his captors, according to the Associate Press. Islamic Jihad denied responsibility for the killing which it blamed on the CIA, (along with an attempted assassination of the Emir of Kuwait and bombing in Saudi Arabia). \n\nEscaped or rescued\n\n* Frank Regier. American citizen Frank Regier, engineering professor at the American University of Beirut, was kidnapped in Feb. 1984 when he walked off the campus grounds. He was freed after several months in captivity by Amal militiamen, who raided the Beirut hideout of his extremist captors on April 15, 1984. Islamic Jihad responded by threatening Amal. \n* Jonathan Wright. British Journalist escaped from his captors in September 1984. \n* Jerry Levin. On February 14, 1985, American journalist Jeremy Levin escaped from his captors in the Beqaa Valley. Shia militants claimed they had allowed him to escape and the U.S. publicly thanked Syria for intervening on his behalf. \n* Michel Brillant. On April 11, 1986, French captive Michel Brillant escaped several days after his abduction when his captors were surprised by a party of hunters in the Beqaa Valley.\n* On July 16, 1986, a Saudi Arabian diplomat was freed when the Lebanese Army caught his captors.\n* David Hirst. On September 26, 1986, British journalist David Hirst escaped by bolting from his captors' automobile in a Shia neighborhood of Beirut.\n* Jean-Marc Sroussi several days later (from September 26, 1986) French television correspondent Jean-Marc Sroussi escaped from a locked shed days after his capture.\n\nPerpetrators\n\nHezbollah, sometimes described as the \"umbrella group\" of Shia radicalism in Lebanon, is considered by most observers to be the instigator of the crisis.\nAnalysis of the hostage-crisis in Lebanon yields that Hezbollah was undisputably responsible for the aforementioned abductions of Westerners despite attempts to shield its complicity through the employment of cover-names. Its organisational framework was not only sophisticated and assimilated according to Iranian clerical designs but also closely integrated with several key Iranian institutions which provided it with both necessary weaponry and training to successfully confront self-proclaimed Islamic enemies and invaluable financial support ...\n\nHezbollah itself, denies the charge, proclaiming in 1987:\nWe look with ridicule at the accusations of Hezbollah in connection with the abductions of foreign hostages. We consider that is a provocation and hold America responsible for the results.\n\nAnother source claims that with the exceptions of six Iranian hostages, all the hostages appear to have been seized by groups allied with Iran. \n\nThe two main operatives of the hostage taking were reported to be Imad Mughniyah, a senior member of the Hezbollah organization, who was described by journalist Robin Wright as the \"master terrorist\" behind the campaign., and Husayn Al-Musawi (also spelled Hussayn al-Mussawi). The village of Ras al-Ein, in the Beqaa Valley of East Lebanon was a place were the victims were held.\n\nMotivations\n\nAccording to scholar Gilles Kepel \"a few of the kidnappings were money-driven or linked to local concerns, but most obeyed a logic whereby Hezbollah itself was no more than a subcontractor for Iranian initiatives\". \nMotivation for the hostage-taking includes:\n* Insurance \"against retaliation by the U.S., Syria or any other force\" against Hezbollah, for the killing of over 300 Americans in the Marine barracks and embassy bombings in Beirut.\n* The release of four Iranian officials who had been kidnapped on July 5, 1982, by Christian militia Lebanese Forces (aka Phalangists) 25 miles north of Beirut. In December 1988, Hashemi Rafsanjani publicly addressed the Americans just before he was elected president of Iran:\nIf you are interested in having your people [who are] held hostage in Lebanon released, then tell the Phalangists [Christian militia] to release our people who have been in their hands for years. \n\nThe Iranians included Ahmad Motevaselian, the Ba'albek commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard contingent, and Mohsen Musavi, the Iranian charge d'affairs to Lebanon. (The other two Iranians were Akhaven Kazem and Taqi Rastegar Moqaddam.)\n* Pro-Palestinian Lebanese believed they could use the first American hostage, David Dodge, \"as a means of pressuring the American to do something about the Israeli invasion of Lebanon\". \n* Lebanese Hezbollah member Imad Mughniyah wanted to free his cousin, brother-in-law Mustafa Badreddin, one of the \"Kuwait 17\" (the 17 imprisoned perpetrators of the 1983 Kuwait Bombing). \n\nThe hostage in captivity the longest, Terry Anderson, was told that he and the other hostages had been abducted to gain the freedom of their seventeen comrades in Kuwait convicted of perpetrating the 1983 Kuwait Bombing of six key foreign and Kuwaiti installations, \"what might have been the worst terrorist attack of the century had the bombs' rigging not been faulty\". \n* Another of the Kuwait 17, Hussein al-Sayed Yousef al-Musawi, was the first-cousin to Husayn Al-Musawi, leader of Islamic Amal, a sister militia to Hezbollah that was later merged with Hezbollah. \n* Islamist Shia wanted to use French hostages to free Annis Naccache, who was the leader of the Iranian backed assassination team attempting to kill former Iranian Premier Shapour Bakhtiar. Naccache was a Christian Lebanese who had converted to Islam and pledged allegiance to Khomeini following the success of the revolution. He was a \"close personal friend\" of \"Ahmad Khomeini, son of the Iranian revolutionary\" leader, \"Mohasen Rafiqust, Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corp commander in Lebanon\", and of the aforementioned Hezbollah operative Imad Mughniya. They appear to have been completely successful in their efforts.\n\nOn 18 July 1980, Naccache was arrested for the attempted to kill Bakhtiar. A gendarme and a bystander were killed in the subsequent battle with the police. Naccache and three others were given life sentences. ... Naccache's release later became a condition for freeing the Western hostages in Lebanon. Naccache was freed\" on 27 July 1990, together with four accomplices, after being pardoned by President François Mitterrand. All five men were put on a plane bound for Tehran. The deal also brought political, military and financial benefits to Iran itself: the release of its frozen assets and desperately needed spare parts for their armaments. The French also kicked out most of the Iranian opposition leaders who had taken sanctuary in their country following the revolution.\"\n\nFrench hostages were released by kidnappers at the same time. France denied reports that they had made a deal.\n\nResolution\n\nBy 1991 radical Shia operatives imprisoned in Europe had been freed. Islamic Dawa Party members convicted of terrorism in Kuwait had been freed by the Iraqi invasion. There was no need to pressure Western supporters of the Iraq because Iran–Iraq War was over. It was pretty well established that the four missing Iranians were no longer alive. \n\nMore importantly Iran was in need of foreign investment \"to repair its economy and infrastructure\" after the destruction of the Iran–Iraq War, and Syria needed to \"consolidation of its hegemony over Lebanon\" and obtain to Western aid to compensate for the loss of Soviet support following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Syria was actively pressuring Hezbollah to stop the abductions and a February 1987 attack by Syrian troops in Beirut that killed 23 members of Hezbollah was in part an expression of Syrian irritation with the continued hostage-taking. Hezbollah had guarantees from Syria that despite the end of the Lebanese Civil War, it would be allowed to remain armed, while all other Lebanese militias would be disarmed, on the grounds that Hezbollah needed its weapons to fight Israeli occupation in the South. \n\nThis combination of factors created a setting whereby UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar and his personal envoy, Giandomenico Picco (served on the Board of Governmental Relations for the American Iranian Council), could negotiate \"a comprehensive resolution to the hostage-crisis\". By December 1991, Hezbollah had released the last hostage in return for Israel's release of imprisoned Shi'ites. \n\nTimeline\n\n1982\n\n* 1982 July 19 – Abduction: First Westerner abducted is David Dodge, the acting president of the American University of Beirut (AUB) (American). Suggested motivation: the abduction of David Dodge came directly in response to the previous kidnapping of four employees of the Iranian Embassy in Beirut by the Israeli-backed Phalangist militia on July 5, 1982.\" Dodge was the most prominent American citizen in Lebanon next to the U.S. Ambassador. Declared abductor: Islamic Jihad Organization. Alleged abductor: \"it seems clear that the abduction of David Dodge was initiated by the Pasdaran contingent in Lebanon...the operation was executed by Husayn al-Musawi's Islamic Amal\". \n* 1983 July 21 – Release: David Dodge\n\n1984\n\n* 1984 February 11 – Abduction: Frank Regier, engineering professor at the AUB (American) and Christian Joubert (French) Suggested motivation: 25 arrested in Kuwait in wake of Dec. 1983 multiple terrorist attacks. three are Lebanese Shi'ites.\n* 1984 March (late) – Abduction: Jeremy Levin, Bureau chief of Cable News Network (American), and William Buckley \"diplomat\" actually Station chief, Central Intelligence Agency (American).\n* 1984 March 27 – Sentencing: Kuwait's State Security Court sentence Elias Fouad Saab to death ... while Hussein al-Sayed Yousef al-Musawi receive life-imprisonment and Azam Khalil Ibrahim receives 15 years imprisonment. Hezbollah threatens to kill hostages if bombers are executed.\n* 1984 April 15 – Release: Frank Regier by Amal militiamen, who raided the Beirut hideout of his captors.\n* 1984 May – Abduction: Presbyterian minister Benjamin Weir (American). Suggested motivation: another effort to pressure Kuwait to accede to its demands of freedom or leniency for the prisoners. Declared abductor: \"Islamic Jihad organization.\"\n* 1984 August 29 – Abduction of British Journalist Jonathan Wright \n* 1984 December 3 – Abduction: Peter Kilburn. Alleged abductor: \"appears to have been perpetrated by Islamic Amal with close Iranian involvement.\" (p. 93)\n\n1985\n\n* 1985 January 3 – Abduction: Eric Wehrli, Swiss charge d'affairs in Lebanon \n* 1985 January 7 – Release: Eric Wehrli. Suggested motivation: \"evidence suggests that Hezbollah deliberately targeted Wehrli in order to obtain the release of Hosein al-Talaat, Hezbollah member arrested at Zurich Airport on December 18, 1984, with explosives in his possession intended for an attack on the American embassy in Rome. and \n* 1985 January 8 – Abduction: Lawrence Jenco, Director, Catholic Relief Services charitable organization (American). Declared abductor: \"Islamic Jihad Organization\".\n* 1985 March – Abduction: Geoffrey Nash and Brian Lebick (both British). Suggested motivation: retaliation for March 8, 1985 unsuccessful assassination attempt on Sheikh Fadlallah.\n* 1985 March/April – Release: Geoffrey Nash and Brian Lebick, two weeks after abduction. Suggested motivation: \"seems to indicate that their abduction had been made on the mistaken assumption that they were American citizens\". \n* 1985 March 18 – Abduction: Terry A. Anderson, Chief Middle East correspondent, Associated Press (American) Suggested motivation: in retaliation for Fadlallah bombing and UNSC veto by the United States of the resolution condemning Israel's military practices in occupied southern Lebanon. Declared abductor: \"Islamic Jihad Organization\".\n* 1985 March 22 – Abduction: three French embassy employees. Suggested motivation: \"considerations more aligned with Iran's foreign policy, most notably related to Frances continued arms shipments to Iraq and outstanding financial debt to Iran ... [and] as a response to the presence of the French UNIFIL contingent in southern Lebanon and its perceived practice of failing to provide adequate protection to the local Shi'ite population\".\n* 1985 May 20 – Release: Husayn Farrash, Saudi Arabian consul Husayn Farrash released by captors after over a year in captivity.\n* 1985 May 22 – Abduction: French journalist Jean-Paul Kaufmann and French sociologist Michel Seurat. Suggested motivation: part of effort to obtain the release of Anis Naccache, imprisoned in France for the attempted assassination of the Shah's former Prime Minister Shapour Bakhtiar in Paris in July 1980. and Naccache was \"head of the Iranian assassination team and...close personal friend ... with both Ahmad Khomeini, son of the Iranian revolutionary\" leader \"and Mohasen Rafiqust, IRGC commander in Lebanon\", and was a \"close personal\" friend of Imad Mughniya.\n* 1985 May – Abduction: Americans David Jacobsen, American University of Beirut hospital administrator.\n* 1985 June – Thomas Sutherland, agronomist Suggested motivation: \"Hezbollah focused its efforts on the release of 766 mainly Lebanese Shi'ites transferred to Israel in conjunction with it withdrawal from Lebanon, through the abduction of mainly American citizens. This was revealed most clearly by the Declared abductor: \"Islamic Jihad Organization\".\n* 1985 June 14 – Hijacking and abduction: TWA flight 847. Done immediately following the completion of Israel's departure from Lebanon. The flight from Athens to Rome was hijacked by \"Organization for the Oppressed of the Earth.\" Passengers underwent a three-day, 8300 mi ordeal shuttling back and forth between Beirut and Algiers. Groups of passengers were freed over the course of event. One passenger, a U.S. Navy diver, Robert Dean Stethem, was beaten, shot and his body dumped on the runway. Another 39 passengers were held hostage in South Beirut for two weeks, as Lebanese army troops withdrew from the Beirut airport on June 16 leaving Hezbollah and Amal militias to control the area and hold the hostages. On June 30, they were driven to Syria and released. The liberation of the hostages was followed over the next several weeks by the release of 735 Lebanese Shiite militants by Israel. Although this was one of the key demands of the hijackers, Israel maintained the release was unconnected to the hijacking. Suggested motivation: release of 766 mainly Lebanese Shi'ites transferred to Israel in conjunction with its withdrawal from Lebanon \n* 1985 August – clandestine policy of providing armaments to Iran via Israel (aka Iran-Contra Affair) initiated by U.S. government. \n* 1985 mid-September – Release: Reverend Benjamin Weir, held hostage since May 1984 is freed by the \"Islamic Jihad Organization\".\n* 1985 September 30 – Abduction: four Soviet diplomats. Declared abductor: \"Islamic Liberation Organization\".\n\n1986\n\n* 1986 March 3 – Abduction: Marcel Coudry and a French four-man Antenne-2 television crew. Suggested direct motivation: retaliation for decision by France to expel two exiled members of al Dawa al-Islamiyya [Fawzy Harmza and Hassan Kheir al-Din] to Iraq. Other possible motivations: \"Iraq owed $7 billion to France and absorbed almost 40% of all French arms export. Between 1977 and 1985, France sold more than $11.8 billion of high-technology weaponry to Iraq, including 113 Mirage F1 fighter aircraft and 3/4 of French total exports of Exocet missiles. At the same time, Iran was particularly angered over the refusal by the French government to pay between $1-1.5 billion owed from the days of the Shah and supply Iran with military-related equipment\". [source ftnt43: For Iranian claims, see: and Declared abductor: \"Revolutionary Justice Organisation\". \n* 1986 April – Abduction: British citizens Brian Keenan (April 11) and John McCarthy (April 17th) Motivation: reprisal for the American raid on Libya. Suggested motivation for keeping them: demands for the release by Israel of 260 Shiites held in al-Khaim prison in South Lebanon and the release of the three Iranian hostages taken in 1982.\n* 1986 April 17 Killed: Bodies of three American University of Beirut employees: Britons John Douglas and Philip Padfield and American Peter Kilburn, discovered near Beirut. Declared motivation: The \"Revolutionary Organization of Socialist Muslims\" claims to have \"executed\" the three men in retaliation for the United States air raid on Libya on April 15, 1986.\n* 1986 May 7 – Abduction: Camilli Sontag Frenchman in Lebanon (accompanied by \"the initiation of an armed campaign against the French UNIFIL contingent in southern Lebanon.\") Alleged motivation: \"Iranian demands for the withdrawal of UNIFIL and abrogation of UNSCR 425\". \n* 1986 June – Release: two French hostages in June 1986. Alleged motivation: The expulsion of Iranian dissident Mahmoud Rajavi from France by French government in compliance with captors demands.\n* 1986 July 26 – Release: Lawrence Jenco.\n* 1986 September 9, – Abduction: Frank Reed, Director, Labanese International School (American)\n* 1986 September 12 – Abduction: Joseph Ciccipio, Acting controller, American University of Beirut (American)\n* 1986 October 21 – Abduction: Edward Tracy, Writer (American) Alleged motivation: \"replace American hostages released by the arms-for-hostages deals of the so-called Iran-Contra Affair\", and undermine the arms-for-hostages deal \n* 1986 November 2 – Release: David Jacobsen after more than a year and a half in captivity.\n* 1986 November 3 – Revelation: Iran-Contra arms-for-hostage deal with Iran by Lebanese newspaper, Al-Shiraa, which reports that the United States sold arms to Iran. \n* 1986 November – Release: three more French hostages. Alleged motivation: the release by France of $330 million of the $1 billion loan to Iran \n\n1987\n\n* 1987 January – Abduction: Unprecedented number of abductions of foreigners by the Hezbollah organisation. (p. 99) Declared motivation: \"The hostages will perish in case of any military attempts against Muslims in the area and especially in Lebanon\". (U.S. Navy warships in Mediterranean reportedly moving towards Lebanon.) Alleged motivation: \"directly in response to the arrest of three leading Hezbollah member in Europe\". Another alleged motivation: \"clerical factionalism in Iran\" in the aftermath of the Iran-Contra deal. Still another alleged motivation: Demand for the return of 400 Shi'ite and Palestinians imprisoned in Israel.\n* 1987 January 24 – Abducted: Three American and one Indian Professors from Beirut University College in West Beirut: Alann Steen, Jesse Turner, Robert Polhill, Mithal Eshwar Singh Declared abductor: \"Islamic Jihad for the Liberation of Palestine\". \n* 1987 January – Abduction: West German citizens Rudolph Cordes and Alfred Schmidt. Alleged motivation: retaliation for \"the arrest of Mohammad Ali Hamadi in Frankfurt by West German authorities\".\n* 1987 January 13 – Abduction: Frenchman Roger Auque. Alleged motivation: Appears to have been \"related to the previous day's arrest of Bashir Al-Khodour in Milan by Italian authorities\",\n* 1987 January 20 – Abduction: Terry Waite. Waite, Anglican mediator negotiating independently to free captive Westerners, disappears January 20 on his fifth mission to Lebanon. Alleged motivation: \"mainly a consequence of his inability to affect the fate of the imprisoned 17 al-Dawa prisoners in Kuwait\".\n* 1987 June 17 – Abduction: Charles Glass, American television correspondent. Declared abductor: previously unknown group, the \"Organization for the Defense of Free People\".\n* 1987 August 19 – Escape: Charles Glass escapes from his Hezballah captors in Beirut's southern suburbs and makes his way to the Summerland Hotel, where he calls friends to come to his assistance. The full story of his kidnapping is told in the final chapters of his book Tribes with Flags.\n\n1988\n\n* 1988, February 17 – Abduction: Lt. Col William Higgins, American Chief of the UN Truce and Supervision Organisation's observer group in Lebanon (UNTSO) Suggested motivation: Stop UNIFIL from interfering in Hezbollah's armed attacks against the Israeli occupation of the south. Suggested motivation: Show solidarity with the revival of Islamic fundamentalism within the Palestinian intifada \n\n1989\n\n* 1989 Mid – Killing: Video of U.S Marine Lt. Col William Higgins, American Chief of the UNTSO being hanged distributed to press. Declared dead on July 6, 1990. Alleged motivation: challenge to Amal militia's authority to maintain a stable security environment in southern Lebanon, Amal being the leading militia there. Alleged motivation: to sabotage the rapprochement between Syria and the American administration Further alleged motivation: retaliation for kidnapping of Sheikh Obeid, senior Hezbollah cleric and regional military commander of the Islamic Resistance, by elite Israeli military units on July 28, 1989 Another motivation: to help \"Iranian radicals, most notably Mohtashemi\", derail attempts to improve the U.S.-Iranian relationship. \n* 1989 May – Abduction: British citizen Jackie Mann Declared abductor: previously unknown group, the \"Cells for Armed Struggle\" Suggested motivations are that he was kidnapped to demand the release of Palestinian prisoners that the kidnappers claimed were being held in Britain, accused of killing Palestinian cartoonist Naji al-Ali in 1987 or in retaliation against the UK government for providing Salman Rushdie with refuge and protection after Iran's Ayatollah Khomeini's fatwa death threat against Rushdie for the publication of book the Satanic Verses. \n* 1989, October 6 – Abduction: Swiss citizens Emanuel Christen and Elio Erriquez\n\n1990\n\n* 1990 August 24 – Release: Brian Keenan, Irish teacher of English \n\n1991\n\n* 1991 August 8 – Release: John McCarthy – the longest held British hostage in Lebanon, having spent over five years in captivity\n* 1991 October–December – Release: Jesse J. Turner, Joseph J. Cicippio, Thomas Sutherland, Alann Steen, Terry Waite.\n* 1991 December 4 – Release: last American hostage Terry Anderson. Suggested motivation: Part of Hezbollah \"volteface\", and entering into a new era where it participates in Lebanese democratic process while continuing its fight against Israel. \n* 1991 December (late) – Return: bodies of William Buckley and Lt. Col. William Higgins found dumped on Beirut streets.\n\n1992\n\n* June 17, 1992 – Two German relief workers held since 1989, Thomas Kemptner and Heinrich Struebig, are released. They were the last Western hostages in Lebanon. \n\nMentions in popular culture\n\n* Hostages a 1993 HBO film based on the event, starring Colin Firth as John McCarthy\n* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0455257/ Hostage] (1999) three part UK documentary series for Channel Four, featuring interviews with Anderson, Keenan, McCarthy, Waite, Kauffmann, and with the politicians involved, including George Shultz and Oliver North.\n* An Evil Cradling, Brian Keenan's memoir of his ordeal\n* Blind Flight, a 2003 UK film focusing on McCarthy and Keenan\n* Someone Who'll Watch Over Me a play by Irish dramatist Frank McGuinness about an American, an Irishman and an Englishman held as hostages in Lebanon\n* American Top 40, during the show for week ending June 21, 1986 then hostage David Jacobsen was mentioned in a Long Distance Dedication letter from his daughter. She dedicated to him Long and Winding Road by the Beatles.\n* Out of Life, a film directed by Lebanese filmmaker Maroun Baghdadi. Inspired by d'Un otage à Beyrouth, based on the events surrounding hostage Roger Auque, Special Jury Prize at Cannes in 1991\n* Two Rooms, a play by Lee Blessing depicts an American teacher held hostage in a dark room after being captured in Beirut. His wife holds a vigil for him in an empty room in their house outside DC. Originally commissioned and produced in 1988, Two Rooms was named Best Play of the Year by Time Magazine."
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"Articles about Terry Waite by Date - Page 5 - tribunedigital-chicagotribune\nGentle Giant Takes On Terrorists\nBy Ray Moseley, Chicago Tribune | November 24, 1985\nThe British press sometimes refers to Terry Waite as the Henry Kissinger of the Church of England. Like the former U.S. secretary of state, Waite seems forever to be hopping aboard planes and flying to distant countries to perform miracles of diplomacy. Waite, 46, personal assistant to Dr. Robert Runcie, Archbishop of Canterbury and spiritual leader of the Church of England, has two \"missions impossible\" to his credit in four years--getting Britons freed from jails in Iran and Libya.\nAdvertisement\nBack In Beirut, Church Envoy Uses Summit As Bargaining Tool\nBy Liz Sly, Special to The Tribune | November 20, 1985\nChurch of England envoy Terry Waite returned to Beirut Tuesday evening, saying he had \"important things to say\" to the kidnapers of four American hostages in Lebanon. Shortly after his arrival, the representative of the Archbishop of Canterbury issued an impassioned plea for the release of all hostages in Lebanon--Italian, British, American, French and Lebanese--to coincide with the summit meeting in Geneva between President Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. This would \"show Islam and this country in their true glory,\" he said.\nNEWS\nEnvoy Tells `Hope` For 6 Hostages\nBy Liz Sly, Special to The Tribune | November 18, 1985\nAnglican Church envoy Terry Waite left Beirut abruptly Sunday, saying he was going to meet with members of the Reagan administration to pursue his efforts to rescue six Americans held hostage in Lebanon. During a stopover in Rome on his way to London and possibly the United States, Waite said his assessment of the situation was both \"hopeful and dangerous.\" \"I`d like to say to families of the hostages that I am hopeful, I haven`t lost hope at all. I`d like to ask them to continue to maintain hope and be as cheerful as possible under these circumstances.\"\nNEWS\nContact With Beirut Kidnapers Reported\nBy Liz Sly, Special to The Tribune | November 17, 1985\nHopes were raised Saturday for a breakthrough in the U.S. hostage affair in Lebanon with the announcement by Anglican Church envoy Terry Waite that he has established contact with the kidnapers of the four Americans and is to hold a \"face-to-face meeting\" with them. In a brief statement, the lay representative of the Archbishop of Canterbury said he had refrained from arranging a meeting until he was sure he was dealing with the right group. He put certain questions to his intermediary that could only be answered by one of the hostages.\nNEWS\nEnvoy Tells Progress In Hostage Mission\nBy Liz Sly, Special to The Tribune | November 15, 1985\nTerry Waite, the envoy of the archbishop of Canterbury, said Thursday that he had made contact with the kidnapers of four American hostages in Beirut and that the next stage is a \"face-to-face\" meeting. Waite spoke at an impromptu press conference aimed at persuading journalists and cameramen to leave him alone. \"I`d like to make a particular plea that I`m not to be followed by anybody because if that happens, it will jeopardize my own safety and that of other people,\" he told foreign newsmen at the Commodore Hotel in West Beirut.",
"Terry Waite facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Terry Waite\nCOPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc.\nTerry Waite\nTerry Waite (born 1939), an official of the Church of England, made three trips to Lebanon in an effort to free westerners held hostage there. On his third try in 1987, he himself was taken hostage and not freed until almost five years later.\nEven after publication of his book Taken on Trust, chronicling his 1,763 days of being held by Islamic fundamentalists in Lebanon, Terry Waite remains a controversial figure. For many years he was a hero to the British media and public. When he was captured and throughout the years during which there was no news of his whereabouts, prayers were said in churches all over Britain for his safe return. To some he remained a saintly and courageous figure, the innocent envoy from the archbishop of Canterbury, whose intercession saved the lives of a number of Middle East hostages. But to others, notably including journalists specializing in Middle East affairs, he was a muddle-headed meddler and publicity-seeker who allowed himself to be used by Oliver North and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Waite allegedly took credit for hostage releases that had almost everything to do with arms deals and little to do with his efforts. To those critics he was a man who defied his church's wishes for his own vainglory and who put his family on the rack to feed his own hunger for headlines. When he was united with fellow hostages John McCarthy, Terry Anderson, and Tom Sutherland during the last year of his captivity, they were reported to have found him an awkward companion. And in Taken on Trust he is evasive about his knowledge of the Iran-Contra affair.\nAlthough he says of himself in his book: \"Inwardly you are a small, frightened child, anxious to impress people,\" there is certainly no denying the courage of the seventeen stone (238 pounds), 6 foot 7 inches man who spent almost five years in captivity, nearly four years of it in solitary confinement, after he was seized by Islamic Jihad from a gobetween's house in Lebanon on January 20, 1987. Before his release in November 1991 he was frequently blindfolded, beaten, and subjected to mock executions. He lived much of the time chained to a radiator, suffered desperately from asthma, and was transported in a giant refrigerator as his captors moved him about. And yet he emerged from his ordeal able to make a witty and eloquent speech to the waiting media before even greeting his family. In his earlier efforts for other hostages he had shown total disregard for his own safety as virtually the only western figure who ever gained direct access to the kidnappers.\nTerry Waite, whose entry in Who's Who ironically records one of his hobbies as \"travel, especially in remote parts of the world,\" was born on May 31, 1939, the son of a village policeman, and spent his early life in Styal, Cheshire. He left school at 16, having learned the prayer book by heart. He did not last the two-year National Service period in the Grenadier Guards, being discharged after a year because of an allergy to the dye in the uniforms. He then took a degree in theology at the Church Army College in London but decided he did not want to be ordained a priest.\nHis first job was as an adviser on adult education to the bishop of Bristol from 1964 to 1968. Soon after that, working in Africa for the bishop of Uganda, he was taken hostage for the first time with his wife, Frances, and two children.\nIn the early 1970s he worked for the Roman Catholic Church as a widely-traveled consultant on missionary work. In 1980 Robert Runcie, the archbishop of Canterbury, appointed him secretary for Anglican Communion Affairs to work with churches abroad and to organize the arch-bishop's foreign trips. In this role he quickly became a media figure. After a few months he played the key role in securing the release of a missionary, his wife, and the bishop of Iran's secretary, Jean Waddell, when they were held on spy charges in Tehran. At one stage he greeted the arrival of five gunmen in a cell where he was celebrating holy communion by coolly repeating his sermon. After his efforts had led to the release of a fourth detainee, appreciation for Waite's role was shown with the award of a Member of the British Empire (MBE) in the next honors list.\nWaite's reputation as an emissary extraordinary was cemented when in 1984 he established contact with Colonel Muammar Gadaffi in Libya, where four Britons had been detained following the murder of a policewoman outside the Libyan Embassy in London. He eventually secured their release after protracted negotiations and his own theological discussions with the Libyan leader on Christmas Day.\nOver the next two years there followed a series of efforts on behalf of four American hostages held in Lebanon, including one when he was dropped at dead of night by an American helicopter. In this period some critical articles began to appear suggesting that Waite was obsessed with his own publicity, but he insisted that although he had frequent meetings with Oliver North he was never told about the efforts to trade hostages for arms. When the Irangate storm broke, he said in a statement from his arch-bishop's Lambeth Palace headquarters: \"At no time have I ever had any dealings in arms or money.\"\nHis third and final trip to Lebanon in 1987 was made despite a visit from the British ambassador, who urged him not to go because the Amal militia had lost out to the more extreme pro-Iranian Hizbollah faction. Waite himself described the trip that led to his capture and incarceration as \"a walk into a minefield.\" But he insisted he had to go ahead because he was the one person who had met the kidnappers face to face.\nSoon after his release in 1991 Terry Waite resigned his position with the archbishop and became fully engaged with writing his book Taken on Trust, published in September 1993. He took up a fellowship at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and said that he hoped to use proceeds of his writing to help the poor and to work for justice and reconciliation. True to his word, in July 1996 Waite, along with fellow former hostage John McCarthy, sent messages urging the release of four people on the first anniversary of their capture in Kashmir. Waite's various honors include the Commander of the Order of the British Empire bestowed upon him by Queen Elizabeth II.\nFurther Reading\nTerry Waite's own account of his earlier life and his nearly five years as a hostage, Taken on Trust, was published in London (September 1993). Other books by Lebanon hostages include Brian Keenan's An Evil Cradling (1993) and Terry Anderson's Den of Lions (1993). Further light is cast on the Lebanon hostages affair in the various histories of the Iran-Contra affair chronicling the doings of Oliver North. Waite's mid-1990s activities have been noted in various news services including Yereth Rosen, \"Britain still seeking release of Kashmir hostages,\" Reuters (July 3, 1996); and Patricia Edmonds, \"Iran-Contra Charge,\" USA Today (May 5, 1994). □\nCite this article\nPick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography.\nMLA",
"BRITON TO MEET WITH BEIRUT CAPTORS OF AMERICANS - NYTimes.com\nBRITON TO MEET WITH BEIRUT CAPTORS OF AMERICANS\nBy IHSAN A. HIJAZI, Special to the New York Times\nPublished: November 17, 1985\nBEIRUT, Lebanon, Nov. 16— Terry Waite, a special representative of the Archbishop of Canterbury, said today that he had made arrangements to talk directly with the captors of four Americans held in Lebanon.\nThe British mediator said in a statement distributed here to news organizations that he had decided to take the step after he became ''reasonably certain'' that he ''was dealing with the right people.''\nReporters and television crews had gathered in the lobby of the Commodore Hotel in West Beirut expecting Mr. Waite to make an announcement in person. Instead, they were given a brief statement in English that Mr. Waite issued through a Western news agency.\nIt was at the hotel, a center for the international press in Lebanon, that Mr. Waite made an impromptu appearance on Thursday to announce that he had talked with those who say they have kidnapped the Americans in the Moslem western part of this Lebanese capital in the last two years.\nA group calling itself Islamic Holy War has said it seized the hostages. The leaders and members of the shadowy group are not known. They are believed to be Shiite Moslem radicals linked to Iran and its leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.\nMr. Waite, who has gained the release of British captives in Iran and Libya, arrived here Wednesday after the head of the Anglican Church, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Runcie, received a letter from four American hostages.\nThe hostages are Terry A. Anderson, the chief Middle East correspondent for The Associated Press; the Rev. Lawrence M. Jenco, a Roman Catholic priest; David P. Jacobsen, the director of the American University Hospital, and Thomas M. Sutherland, American University's dean of agriculture.\nThere are two other Americans missing in Beirut. The Holy War group said last month that it had ''executed'' one, William Buckley, a political officer at the United States Embassy, although his body has not been found. The fate of the sixth, Peter Kilburn, a head librarian at the American University, remains unknown.\nIn his statement today, Mr. Waite said he had agreed to meet with the captors after receiving answers to questions that could be given only by one of the hostages. He did not elaborate.\n''Since I arrived in Beirut on Wednesday,'' Mr. Waite said in the statement, ''I have been in frequent contact with the group holding the four American hostages. I received an offer to meet the group but declined until I could be reasonably certain that I was dealing with the right people.\n''I put certain questions to my contact which could only be answered by one of the hostages,'' he said. ''When the correct answer was received, I determined that the risk associated with a face-to-face meeting could be taken and that meeting will take place at some point.''\nHe did not say when or where the meeting would take place. His statement was intended to fulfill a promise that he will keep the press and television informed about his progress in return for his privacy.\nHe had said earlier that he would also seek to meet with the hostages.\nHis statement made it clear today that safety is an overriding consideration. ''I wish to stress that I am concerned as much for the safety of the captors as their hostages and myself,'' he said. ''I thank members of the press and other members of the media for giving me the privacy I need in order to carry out my mission.''\nBrig. Gen. Ghazi Kanaan of the Syrian Army has been in touch with fundamentalist groups in West Beirut, and the local press has linked his meetings to what was described as Syrian efforts to free all Western hostages. Moslem fundamentalists are also holding four Frenchmen and a Briton, all also abducted in West Beirut.\nGeneral Kanaan is chief intelligence officer for the 20,000 Syrian troops in Lebanon. He has been credited with securing the release last month of three Soviet Embassy officials.\nThe Russians had been held for a month by men who said they belonged to the previously unknown Islamic Liberation Organization.",
"Waite Plans New Hostage Mission Soon - latimes\nWaite Plans New Hostage Mission Soon\nDecember 22, 1986 |From Times Wire Services\nLONDON — Church of England envoy Terry Waite said Sunday that he wants to return to Lebanon before Christmas to resume negotiations to free the remaining American and British hostages but that the lack of security in Beirut probably will delay his trip.\n\"I spoke to a friend who returned from Beirut yesterday, and he said it was literally carnage in some of the refugee camps,\" Waite said, referring to fighting between Palestinian guerrillas and Shia Muslim militiamen. \"It's very dangerous there at the moment.\n\"Ideally, I would like to be there over Christmas because these Islamic groups know how they feel about their religious festivals, and they recognize the importance of Christmas for us,\" Waite told Press Assn., Britain's domestic news service.\n'Feeling Pretty Dreadful'\n\"All the hostages in Beirut must be feeling pretty dreadful, especially at Christmas,\" he added. \"It would be nice to be there to maintain their hopes.\"\nBut Waite, 47, said it is unlikely that he can arrange security for the trip by Christmas.\nWaite, who in the past has helped to free hostages in Iran, Libya and Lebanon, said he will be looking in particular at the cases of the two British and five American captives still in kidnapers' hands.\n\"The personal danger to me has increased. That's for sure,\" he said. \"But I am absolutely sure of my own integrity. I don't want the speculation to destroy my chances of getting others out.\"\nWaite said his mission has become more difficult in the wake of charges, which he has strongly denied, that he acted as a middleman for the Reagan Administration's alleged arms-for-hostage deal with Iran.\nRobert Oakley, former head of the State Department's Office for Combatting Terrorism, said last week that Waite had met in Washington with Lt. Col. Oliver L. North, the National Security Council aide fired for his alleged role in diverting funds from the arms sales to U.S.-backed contras in Nicaragua.\nNo Government Ties\nWaite, 47, issued a statement last week saying that he \"has been, and will continue to be, independent of any government.\" He would not comment on any meeting with North.\nThe trip would be Waite's second Christmas mission to Beirut on behalf of Americans held hostage by Muslim fundamentalists. Last year, he returned home Christmas Eve without making progress and revealed privately that his life was threatened.\nIn all, more than 15 foreigners are believed held in Lebanon.\nWaite was first sent to Beirut in late 1985 after four American hostages wrote to Archbishop of Canterbury Robert A.K. Runcie asking for help. Runcie is spiritual head of the Church of England.\nAfter three fruitless missions in 1985, Waite was involved in the release this year of two Americans, Father Lawrence M. Jenco, 51, a Roman Catholic priest, and David P. Jacobsen, 55, former director of the American University Hospital in Beirut.\nJenco and Jacobsen were held by Islamic Jihad (Islamic Holy War), an underground group of Shia Muslim extremists believed loyal to Iran.\n2 Other Americans Held\nThe group still holds two other Americans, Terry A. Anderson, 39, chief Middle East correspondent for the Associated Press, and Thomas Sutherland, 55, dean of agriculture at the American University of Beirut.\nThree other American hostages in Lebanon--Joseph J. Cicippio, 56, acting controller at the American University; Edward A. Tracy, 56, an illustrator and book salesman, and Frank H. Reed, 53, director of a private school--are believed held by other groups.\nThe two captive Britons are Brian Keenan, 35, of Northern Ireland, English teacher at the American University, and John McCarthy, a television cameraman, both kidnaped last April.\nMORE:",
"Terry Waite: My mission of peace to the people who held me hostage - Telegraph\nLebanon\nTerry Waite: My mission of peace to the people who held me hostage\nTerry Waite spent five years as a captive in Lebanon. Last week he went back to confront his captors with a message of reconciliation.\nBy Terry Waite\nComments\nThe night before my return visit to Beirut last week, I needed to call my bank regarding a transaction on my credit card. When the matter was dealt with, I thought it wise to inform them that for the next few days I would be overseas in Beirut.\nThere was a pause on the line. “Mr Waite,” said the lady, “I rather wish you hadn’t told me that!”\nHer reaction was hardly surprising. For years, Lebanon has been the scene of kidnapping and warfare. In the late 1980s, I languished there for almost five years as a hostage, most of the time chained to a wall and denied many basic creature comforts.\nIn recent years, the situation in Lebanon has vastly improved, but the name Hizbollah continues to strike terror into the hearts of many. Once wholly identified as a terrorist group, the Iranian-backed Shia militia has since developed into a fully-fledged political party. Now, the country’s fragile peace is threatened by the conflict raging in Syria and the continued turmoil in the Middle East.\nI was released from captivity in November 1991, and returned once, several years later, to support some of the development projects being supported by YCare International, an agency I helped found some 30 years ago. But I had not been back since that visit. I was invited to return again last week, in particular to see for myself the plight of the many Christian refugees who are flooding across the Syrian/Lebanese border to escape the horrors of the so-called “Arab Spring”.\nRelated Articles\nIran and Syria use Hizbollah to seize control in Lebanon\n23 Jan 2011\nTo reach the Syrian border, one has to travel through the Bekaa Valley which, since Roman times, has been a prime agricultural region. In recent years, it has developed a less pastoral image as it has become known as an area where terrorism is rife and where many hostages are alleged to have been kept. For most of my captivity, I was held in the southern suburbs of Beirut, although it is just possible that for the final few months the Bekaa was my home. I can’t be sure about that. Each time I was moved, I would be wrapped in masking tape, blindfolded and transported in the boot of a car.\nOn this visit, I travelled in comfort in the front seat of a four-wheel drive vehicle, although when more people piled in, I did offer to move to the boot!\nIt was strange to be on a road that perhaps I had travelled along years earlier as a hostage. I remembered lying in the boot, trying to recall every twist and turn of the road and listening intently to the sounds of life outside. I don’t suppose I shall ever know where I spent my days incarcerated and, frankly, I don’t much care.\nWe arrived at Al Qaa, a dusty, somewhat ramshackle town that has been the scene of numerous border clashes across the years. It is here that many of the Christian families who have escaped from the terrors of warfare in Syria find a temporary home. For generations – almost for 2,000 years – the different ethnic and religious communities have lived side by side in Syria. Christians and Muslims have shared places of worship.\nToday, that has changed dramatically. It could be argued that the Arab Spring began in 2011 as a genuine movement seeking greater democratic freedom across the Arab world. It could also be argued with equal force that the uprising has now been hijacked by extreme jihadists and that, for the first time in years, religious persecution is taking place where once there was harmony.\nThe refugees now seeking shelter in Lebanon have been taken into the homes of other Christian families or are renting properties. The people I met were not, by any stretch of the imagination, well off. I visited a family paying $200 (£125) a month for rent, plus $100 for fuel. The main breadwinner earned between $10 and $15 a day, if he was lucky, as employment did not come his way on a daily basis. He had a wife and several children to support, including one poor little boy suffering from Down’s syndrome who sat huddled in a blanket in the corner of the room where I was received. In the past few weeks, at least 200 Christian families from Syria have come to this village, and thousands more have entered other parts of the country seeking shelter.\nPoor little Lebanon, I thought, with the Israeli/Palestinian conflict on the one side and now the Syrian horrors on the other. The conflict had become so severe that other families I visited said they had been forced to leave their homes. In one place, there were 15 people living in four small rooms. “The Arab Spring is a joke,” said one of the refugees. “It has become another form of persecution.”\nSuch disruptions over the border in Syria are bound to impinge on Lebanon in many ways. On our return to Beirut, we learned that on the road to the very town we had visited that afternoon, three men were abducted by an armed gang, probably made up of criminal opportunists. Gradually, the fragile peace that Lebanon currently enjoys is being threatened.\nLeaving Al Qaa, I travelled to Zahle, another border town, to talk to John Darwish, the Melkite Archbishop. A mild-mannered and gentle person, he is gravely concerned about the breakdown in relationships in Syria and the number of refugees flocking into Lebanon. It is difficult to get an accurate estimate, but a figure of 250,000 is quoted. It could be more, and is increasing each day.\nApart from the current refugee problems, I also discussed with the Archbishop one of the most remarkable developments in Lebanon in recent years: the agreement, signed in 2006, that effectively brought together a majority of the Christian communities with Hizbollah – Christian and Muslims working together for a united Lebanon.\nCynics might regard this agreement as nothing more than political expediency, and of course the politics of the situation do play heavily in the situation. However, it may well be that it marks the way for the only solution possible for Lebanon, and indeed for the surrounding countries.\nGiven the ethnic and religious mix in Lebanon, the only sensible solution is for the different communities to respect each other and live and work together for the good of the country. The Archbishop strongly backed the new relationship and firmly believed that Hizbollah had grown and matured over the years, and was indeed working for the best interests of all the people of Lebanon. He believed that this act of reconciliation was a positive step forward.\nThe next morning, I decided it was time to make my own move towards reconciliation, believing as I do that political agreements have to be accompanied by individuals stretching out their hand to those with whom they have previously disagreed. With this in mind, I took steps to make contact with senior figures in Hizbollah with a view to having a face-to-face meeting before I left the country.\nThe first step was to track down one of my contacts from 25 years ago, Dr Adnan Mrouea. Dr Mrouea, who later became minister of health, was the person in whose apartment I first met the kidnappers of the Western hostages, and where I was promised safe conduct to visit them when they were allegedly sick and one, so it was said, was about to die. This promise was broken, not by the doctor, and I was taken hostage myself.\nEventually, I found his mobile phone number and called him out of the blue.\n“Hello, Adnan,” I said. “This is Terry, Terry Waite.”\nClearly, he was surprised at hearing me after so long. I asked him if we could meet sometime that day as I would be glad to see him again after so many years.\nIt didn’t surprise me when he said that he was out of town and engaged throughout the day. I was sorry but not surprised. I could tell from his tone of voice that he was not comfortable, and I did my best to put him at ease by saying that the past was the past and whatever had happened all those years ago, I felt no bitterness towards him.\nTo this day, I don’t know how much he knew about my impending kidnap, but it was over and forgotten as far as I was concerned. I wished him well for the future and concluded by saying that I hoped one day we might meet face to face.\nLater in the day, I drove to his apartment, the very place where, years ago, I had walked down the marble steps, climbed into a waiting car and had been driven not to see ailing hostages as I hoped but to be confined to an underground cell.\nMy mind went back across the years to a dark, rainy night when I left my car and driver at the end of the street and walked the final 500 yards to the doctor’s apartment. Then there was little or no traffic on the streets as civil war was raging and it was dangerous to be out after dark. It was exactly as I remembered it.\nThroughout the day, using various contacts, I attempted to get an invitation to visit Hizbollah. Dusk fell and there was nothing. Although I was beginning to wonder if I would get to see them before leaving the next morning, I was not entirely without hope as I knew that they often chose to meet under the cover of darkness, deep within their own territory.\nBeirut, situated as it is on the Mediterranean, has some of the most wonderful sunsets, and I sat for a while taking in the natural beauty and thinking how sad it was that this whole region had suffered so much across the years. The Lebanese were kindly and hospitable people at heart who had so frequently been pushed and pulled in all directions by political and religious forces. Would their turmoil never end?\nThen the call came. “You have a meeting with a senior official from Hizbollah at 10.30 tonight.” I had something light to eat and then prepared for the drive down to the southern suburbs.\nHizbollah’s former administrative headquarters had been razed to the ground some years ago in an Israeli attack, and now they had wisely distributed their offices in different locations. We drove into a small compound and eventually a young man came to raise a barrier to allow us to drive in.\nI squeezed into a small lift and ascended several floors. I was guided along a small corridor and into a meeting room where it was indicated that I should sit. I didn’t feel at all nervous.\nMy encounters in the past had long lost any negative power they had over me, and I was determined to do what I could to make an individual act of reconciliation. As I said earlier, reconciliation between larger groups has to be made up of a thousand smaller acts of reconciliation.\nAfter a few moments, Ammar Moussawi came into the room dressed neatly in a brown jacket, brown trousers and shoes. He was walking with a slight limp. I learned later that he had been wounded in one of the many conflicts that have been part of Lebanon’s heritage.\nAlthough I felt perfectly at ease, I could see that he was, quite understandably, a little anxious. No doubt he was curious at what I was going to say.\nI spoke without notes and started by saying that there were three points I wanted to make. First, that the past was the past. Although I had had my difficulties with Hizbollah, I had no hard feelings. Second, my sufferings were nothing compared to the sufferings so many people from all communities in Lebanon had suffered in the past, and thirdly I believed that reconciliation between all groups within the country was the only way forward.\nI applauded the new spirit of co-operation that existed between the majority of Christian communities and Hizbollah, and I said that I would like to see that co-operation extended to encompass all people throughout the country. I further said that Hizbollah continued to have a very negative image in the West, and I hoped this would improve. For my part I would do what I could to change attitudes.\nThe way forward was clearly not their way of violence, but of peace and reconciliation. The so-called Arab Spring had become a force of oppression not of freedom, and one now saw chaos in Egypt, Libya and Syria. That chaos must not extend to Lebanon, for if it did, that would bring disaster to the whole region.\nHizbollah had a vital role in working for and holding the peace. I expressed my concern for the Christian groups who were leaving Syria and asked if Hizbollah would make a gesture towards helping them, especially at Christmas. I said that a positive gesture from Hizbollah would be one step in cementing the agreement and a step toward changing the negative image of Hizbollah that existed in many parts of the world.\nWhen Mr Moussawi replied, he was in a more relaxed frame of mind. First, he denied that Hizbollah was responsible for my suffering. I did not challenge this as I felt it would lead to a pointless argument, and the kidnapping was far in the past now.\nAll I could say was that Hizbollah, like so many other groups of its kind, had grown and developed tremendously in the years since my captivity, and that we must look forward, not backwards.\nHe said that Hizbollah would not take up arms except to defend itself, especially against Israel. As for the Christian refugees, he asked me to let him have a proposal and he would see if something could be done.\nBy now, almost two hours had passed, and the atmosphere had relaxed considerably. He invited me to return to Lebanon when I would be able to meet other people from Hizbollah, an invitation I said that I would be happy to accept. I left Lebanon early the next morning for London, having,\nI felt, taken a few steps forward, both personally and on behalf of others.\nLebanon is once again standing on the brink. The waters of conflict lap closer and closer, and it is vital for the country and for the whole region to hold together in peace. Old grudges and conflicts need to be confined to the past, and all groups within the country need to be encouraged and supported to move forward together.\nFrom the Christian perspective, Lebanon is rapidly becoming the only country in the entire Middle East where there remains a significant Christian presence.\nIt was the late Pope John Paul II who said: “Lebanon is more than a country. It is a message of freedom and an example of pluralism for East and West.”\nAll men and women can pray that will be true but it requires more than prayer. It requires a change of heart, a change of attitude and political courage. I wonder if we shall be able to rise to the challenge.\nThe making of Hizbollah\nHizbollah, meaning the Party of God, was formed in 1982 as a resistance movement when Israel invaded Lebanon. It\nbegan as a small, paramilitary group of Shia Muslims, but has since grown into a mainstream political party, led for the last 20 years by Hassan Nasrallah, who is rarely seen in public for fear of assassination.\nIts heartland is the Shia communities of southern Lebanon, but its headquarters is an undisclosed location in southern Beirut. Hizbollah is backed and armed by Iran, and publicly declares its devotion to Ayatollah Khomeini (right).\nThe party’s military arm is listed as a terrorist organisation by the UK and several other countries. The US says its political wing is also a terrorist organisation.\nHizbollah was implicated in the 1983 suicide bombing of an American Marine barracks in Lebanon that killed 241 American military personnel.\nIn 2005, the then Sunni prime minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb in Beirut, which was widely blamed on Syria’s Assad regime using Hizbollah to carry out its orders.\nHowever, its political wing still went on to form an unusual alliance that year, joining Christian and secular parties to form a grouping that,\nin 2011, formed a coalition government. Hizbollah currently holds 12 of the 128 seats in the Lebanese parliament, as well as having two ministers in the cabinet.\nIts place in government has not stopped its hatred of Israel or gained it the one thing it apparently hankers after – full recognition as a political party that would grant dialogue with countries including Britain.\nLebanon’s timeline of kidnapped Westerners\nBetween 1982 and 1992, nowhere was more notorious for kidnappings than Lebanon.\n» In all, 96 Westerners were kidnapped by groups, including the Islamic Jihad Organisation and Hizbollah, angry at the involvement of foreign forces in Lebanon; Israel had invaded in 1982, and before the 1983 bombing of US barracks, there was a substantial American peacekeeping operation.\n» Among the most infamous kidnappings was that of William Buckley, the CIA bureau chief in Beirut. He was snatched on his way to work in an attack Washington blamed on Hizbollah. Buckley was tortured for 15 months before being killed in 1985.\n» The longest-held was American Terry Anderson of the Associated Press news agency. He was captured either by Hizbollah or Islamic Jihad in March 1985 and not released until December 1991.\n» Britons in particular were a high-profile and high-value target for Hizbollah, including John McCarthy, the journalist, seized in April 1986. He spent five years in captivity, sharing his cell with Belfast-born Brian Keenan, who was working as a teacher in Beirut when he was bundled into the back of a car by armed gunmen.\n» The spate of abductions brought Terry Waite to Beirut, working as special envoy of the Archbishop of Canterbury to secure the release of kidnap victims.\n» There was international opprobrium when he himself was kidnapped in 1987. Waite spent almost five years in captivity, mostly in solitary confinement. He was chained, regularly beaten and subjected to a mock execution. He was released as the hostage crisis slowly was drawing to an end. McCarthy and Keenan were already free when, on November 18, 1991, Waite arrived, safe, thin and grey but otherwise physically well, in Damascus."
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"Ferdinand Marcos, Ousted Leader Of Philippines, Dies at 72 in Exile - NYTimes.com\nFerdinand Marcos, Ousted Leader Of Philippines, Dies at 72 in Exile\nBy JANE GROSS, Special to The New York Times\nPublished: September 29, 1989\nHONOLULU, Sept. 28— Ferdinand E. Marcos, who ruled the Philippines for 20 years until he was ousted in 1986, died in exile here today at St. Francis Medical Center after a long battle with heart, lung and kidney ailments. He was 72 years old.\nA hospital spokesman, Eugene Tiwanak, said Mr. Marcos died of cardiac arrest shortly after midnight. The former Philippine President had been hospitalized for nearly 10 months, often comatose. His wife, Imelda, was at his bedside. Mr. Marcos, an autocratic leader who imposed martial law in his homeland from 1972 to 1981, died without facing trial on United States criminal charges that he plundered the Philippine Treasury of more than $100 million in his two decades in power. [ An obituary is on page B6. ] Barred From Returning Home In a statement issued in Manila, President Corazon C. Aquino, Mr. Marcos's successor, offered condolences to the Marcos family.\nMrs. Aquino announced that she would not allow Mr. Marcos's body to be brought to the Philippines for burial, saying she was acting for ''the safety of those who would take the death of Mr. Marcos in widely and passionately conflicting ways.'' [ Page B6. ] The assassination in 1983 of Mrs. Aquino's husband, the oppostion leader Benigno S. Aquino Jr., was a pivotal event in Mr. Marcos's downfall. President Aquino said Mr. Marcos's death ''closed a chapter in the history of our nation, a chapter uniquely his own.'' In deference to the Marcos family, Mrs. Aquino said she would leave it ''to others, and ultimately to history,'' to assess Mr. Marcos's rule, which ''touched the life of every Filipino who was his contemporary.''\nPresident Bush, in a statement issued at an education summit conference in Charlottesville, Va., commended Mr. Marcos for his exit from power in 1986 amid a popular uprising and pressure from the United States Government after a disputed presidential election. By leaving the Philippines at ''a critical juncture in his nation's history,'' the White House statement said, Mr. Marcos ''permitted the peaceful transition to popular, democratic rule.''\nMr. Marcos's death was announced early this morning by his son, Ferdinand Jr., who emerged from the medical center's intensive care unit after reciting a rosary at his father's bedside, along with his mother and his sister, Irene Araneta.\n''God has taken this great man from our midst to a better place,'' said the younger Marcos, 31 years old. ''Hopefully, friends and detractors alike will look beyond the man to see what he stood for - his vision, his compassion and his total love of country.''\nMr. Marcos had been on the brink of death many times in his long hospitalization. A family spokesman, Roger Peyuan, said Mrs. Marcos had instructed doctors to take every possible step to save her husband's life.\nMr. Tiwanak said Mr. Marcos's condition began deteriorating 36 hours before his death. He said a pacemaker was implanted about midday on Wednesday, ''and it appeared his functions were coming back to some normalcy.''\nMr. Tiwanak said the pacemaker was needed to keep Mr. Marcos's heart pumping but he also noted that because Mr. Marcos had ''multiple organ problems, any one of those could have gone completely.''\nMr. Marcos had spent most of the time since he entered the hospital in intensive care. According to Mr. Tiwanak, doctors had said that ''if any one of the machines were pulled off he would have died.''\nMr. Tiwanak said Mr. Marcos was semicomatose most of the time before the latest crisis. Mr. Peyuan, the family spokesman, said Mr. Marcos opened his eyes and recognized his son, who had flown here from California, shortly before he died. Liver and Kidney Failure\nThere were several phases in Mr. Marcos's hospital stay when he appeared near death. In mid-May, he had surgery to prepare him for kidney dialysis. In early June, emergency exploratory surgery was performed after an abscess was found in his pancreas. In mid-June, more surgery was performed to correct a bleeding stomach ulcer.\nIn late June, his liver failed and he had a 104-degree fever, but survived to undergo removal of his only functional kidney, which had been transplanted in 1984. Mr. Marcos became dependent on kidney dialysis for survival. His prognosis was poor, but doctors treated him with a new antibiotic. On Sept. 3 his blood pressure dropped sharply.\nA Marcos aide, Col. Arturo Aruiza, said funeral plans were pending at the Nuuanu Memorial Park Mortuary. A family spokesman said the body would be on view at the family compound in Makiki Heights until Sunday. There are no plans for burial of the body elsewhere, Colonel Aruiza said. Mrs. Marcos has said in the past that she intended to embalm her husband's body and display it in Hawaii while she awaited permission to return to the Philippines. F.A.A. Issues Order\nIn Washington, the Federal Aviation Administration issued an order at the request of the State Department barring any aircraft with the body of Mr. Marcos from leaving Hawaii or any other point in the United States for the Philippines. The F.A.A. said that ''such a return, or the attempt to do so, would create a danger to the safety of the aircraft and persons involved.''\nMr. Marcos's mother, Josefa, died last May at the age of 91. Her body has not buried, because her son hadinsisted on presiding at the funeral. Her body is on display at a museum in the Marcos's home province of Ilocos Norte.\nAfter Mr. Marcos's ouster from the Presidency, an inventory at Malacanang Palace in Manila found more than a thousand pairs of shoes belonging to Mrs. Marcos, 888 handbags, 71 pairs of sunglasses and 65 parasols - part of a lavish inventory that shocked and offended the world more than any past estimates of the Marcos's enormous wealth.\nHere in Honolulu, first in guest quarters at the Hickam Air Force Base and then in a hillside villa, Mrs. Marcos has entertained visitors with piano recitals, videos of her husband's presidential speeches and photographs of the couple in the embrace of world leaders. She recently recorded an album of ballads and is reported to have sung at her husband's bedside when he was alert.\nMr. Marcos, his wife and eight others were indicted in New York last year by a Federal grand jury on racketeering charges. In April, the judge separated Mr. Marcos from the other defendants because he was too ill to stand trial.\nMr. Marcos and nearly 100 members of his family and entourage arrived here in February 1986 aboard two United States Air Force jets. One carried passengers and the second had luggage and other personal property that was seized by the United States Customs Service. The seized property was valued then at $8.2 million and a bitter fight over custody of the items still is being waged in the Federal courts.\nThe Marcoses have been living in a villa overlooking Honolulu that was provided for them by friends, according to Colonel Aruiza. The hospital bill for Mr. Marcos exceeded $500,000 but Mr. Tiwanak said the initial payment was made through the family's lawyers several weeks ago. Mr. Tiwanak said the hospital has been in touch with the lawyers ''to make sure they keep a current payment.''\nPhoto of Ferdinand E. Marcos (NYT, 1987)",
"Marcos dies in exile - Sep 28, 1989 - HISTORY.com\nMarcos dies in exile\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nFormer Philippines president Ferdinand Marcos, whose corrupt regime spanned 20 years, dies in exile in Hawaii three years after being driven from his country by a popular front led by Corazon Aquino.\nElected in 1966, Marcos declared martial law in 1972 in response to leftist violence. In the next year, he assumed dictatorial powers. His anti-communist activity won him enthusiastic support from the U.S. government, but his regime was marked by misuse of foreign support, repression, and political murders. In 1986, Marcos defrauded the electorate in a presidential election, declaring himself the victor over Corazon Aquino, the wife of an assassinated rival. Aquino also declared herself the rightful winner, and the public rallied behind her. Deserted by his former supporters, Marcos and his wife, Imelda, fled to Hawaii in exile, where they faced investigation on embezzlement charges. Ferdinand Marcos died in 1989. Three years later, Imelda returned to the Philippines and ran for president and was defeated. In 1995 she won a seat in the Philippine House of Representatives. She made another unsuccessful bid for the presidency in 1998. In 2001, Imelda was arrested on charges of corruption and extortion committed during her husband’s presidency, but was acquitted.\nMore on This Topic",
"The End of an Era - Handholding Ferdinand Marcos in Exile - Association for Diplomatic Studies and TrainingAssociation for Diplomatic Studies and Training\nHe said, “Now.”\nI said, “Why?”\nHe said, “Well, the Marcos entourage just arrived there a few hours ago, and there are all sorts of questions which we can’t sort out from here…. We are having a problem because five or six different people in Honolulu keep calling different people in the U.S. Government. They are calling the White House, the Pentagon, the State Department, etc. and different people are getting different stories. We can’t even coordinate it in Washington because there is not one channel for all of this.”\nI got there [Honolulu] Saturday night and sat down with General Allen, who was absolutely punchy from lack of sleep at that point. He talked about ten hours non-stop into a tape recorder with me asking questions about the actual process of physically getting [the Marcoses] out of the Philippines…We had some 40 plus Filipinos on a U.S. air base, not just President Marcos and immediate family, but several of the cronies and their immediate families, nursemaids, cooks, doctors, security guards, bottle washers, etc. Nobody knew where they were going, what they were going to do, or even who all the people were.\nThere was some expectation that, after a couple of days on the base, Marcos would go live in a house that he owned and we would have done our bit and that would be the end of it. Well, that was certainly a naive expectation….\nI was now to be the inter-agency coordinator and liaison with all the issues of the Marcos entourage in Honolulu. My two-day stay extended to three months.\nAfter about one month I kept periodically saying, “Can I come home?” “No.”\nI got no sympathy out of Washington at all. [They said,] “You are out there in Hawaii,” [and] I would say, “Yes, I know, but I don’t live here.” And, besides, I thought at that point we ought to disengage from the Marcoses. But there was an element of “Keep Rich there as a security blanket and Marcos won’t keep calling President Reagan at the White House….”\nIt was clear that the United States stepping in and extracting Marcos saved a lot of Filipino lives. If we had not done so there could have been a lot of bloodshed and problems created that would have been a long time healing. That was avoided — a very important goal. There will probably be other occasions when it is worthwhile our doing these things.\nBut there are certain things that should be thought out ahead of time. There was the issue of the wealth that the Marcoses took out with them…which included jewelry which, when I later saw it, I felt would have made any museum or the Hapsburgs envious….\nThen there was the issue of assisting the Marcoses to a more permanent destination. Were they going to stay in the United States? When were we going to get them off the base? The naive assumption that they were immediately going to leave the base was totally false. Who was going to be responsible for their security? How were they going to pay? Were we going to assist them to move on to a third country?\nNo Immunity, Lots of Lawsuits\nOne of the basic issues that I think should be addressed but was not adequately addressed in this case is the immunities of a head of government who is extracted by us under such circumstances. I think a good case could be made, if the government decides in time, that legal immunity to a foreign head of state should continue for a certain limited period of time. Because of all the furor around the Marcoses, the American government simply just caved and nobody at the cabinet level was willing to say, “No, this is absurd.”\nAs a result, [the Marcoses] were told “you have no immunity at all here in the United States.” Well, this allowed a tremendous onslaught of legal suits, and the Marcoses could not admit to any funds or resources or they would have been immediately attached by one court or another. Within about ten days or two weeks there must have been over a hundred legal suits filed against them. One day Marcos was in his sitting room, about the size of the living room we are in now, and he had set these stacks of folded legal briefs spread out on the floor. They covered the entire room and then some….\nOne set was suits in which the Philippine government was a party seeking custody of any wealth that had been removed from the Philippines in the evacuation, claiming that this had not been properly acquired with legal funds from his salary and therefore it was property of the Philippine people. Another set of suits involved property, real estate, office buildings, homes, etc. in the United States which it was claimed were owned by the Marcoses, although very complicated legal maneuvers had been conducted to not show them as the owners….\nA third category of suits dated to a rather archaic part of our law which was passed by the first Congress of the United States, about 1787, called the Alien Tort Act…..What it amounted to was that it allowed people outside the United States, in this case in the Philippines, to bring suit in United States courts for acts which had not been perpetrated in the United States, in other words for actions in the Philippines.\nA typical case might involve a family or someone on behalf of a family whose son or husband had disappeared at some point and allegedly was killed by constabulary forces or others under Marcos’ authority. These almost all involved disappearances, torture or killings of some sort over the many years of the Marcos era. These three sets of suits all raised, of course, different kinds of complications. The problem for the Marcoses, having not been given any immunity at all, was that, unlike you or I, they could not go down to a bank and open a bank account to pay the normal bills and expenses of everyday living….\nImelda, A Not-so Simple Housewife \nDuring the early weeks there was much talk in the press about Imelda Marcos’ “little green dress.” Every time any press appeared, any photographs were to be taken, or meetings with anyone outside those of us dealing with the Marcoses, Mrs. Marcos would put on the little green dress, which was probably the simplest dress she owned, and let it be known to the general public that this was all she came away with, with barely the clothes on her back, and that she was a poor, destitute person and she needed the sympathy of the world. This was part of an act and image they carried on for weeks….\nIt had been a rather tacit U.S. assumption that they would go to some third country and not remain long in the United States….A number of alternatives emerged and were discarded. At one point there was a prospect of an offer to go to a small West African country. I recall sitting at the dining table in the Marcoses’ part of the duplex talking with the president about his options.\nMrs. Marcos was sitting perhaps 15 feet away in the sitting room area, not part of our conversation directly. Suddenly she spoke up very loudly and said, “Well, I’m not going there. If you want to go, you go ahead. I am just a simple housewife. I am going home.” She then rose and stomped out of the room. Somehow, I can never see her as the “simple housewife.”\nOne interlude I recall President Marcos was very interested in was an offer from the Knights of Malta, but after some investigation we were able to inform him that the Knights of Malta didn’t have a country and didn’t really have anything but a few decorations and honoraria that they could bestow upon him.\nFinally, these various options centered on Panama. Negotiations proceeded with Panama with the assistance of our embassy there, and we obtained permission for….the Marcoses to rent at tremendous expense a home in the highlands in northwestern Pan\nama….\nHowever, Madam Aquino (in photo) at the last minute called up Noriega in Panama and persuaded him that it would be a very unfriendly act to harbor the Marcoses in Panama. She very much wanted them hostage in the United States where they could be brought under pressures through our legal system. At the nth hour, with bags ready to go through Customs and the airplane fueled and ready to depart, the deal fell through. That was the last major effort to move them onward to some more permanent location.\n“I don’t understand why they are so upset about my shoes”\nIt became clear that we had them in the United States, whether we wanted them or not. My attention then turned primarily to trying to get them off the base into other quarters. It was six weeks before we finally succeeded.\nPerhaps a few stories are interesting from that period. There was a big tree in front of this duplex, between there and the Officer’s Club that we used for the mess, and it became known by the Filipinos as the thinking tree. A few chairs were placed under the tree. I dealt with Mrs. Marcos as little as I could, since my official dealings were with the president, and she was a personality that I found very difficult and personally very repulsive to me. Therefore, I maintained politeness but did not try to socialize with her in any way.\nHowever, from time to time I was caught by her. One day I was stopped by her outside under the tree. You may recall that at that time television was just full of stories about the Marcoses, and they watched them all. She came out blowing steam one day and said, “Shoes! I don’t understand why they are so upset about my shoes. We make shoes in the Philippines, it gives people work, and there is nothing wrong with me buying shoes. Besides, I have a lot more shoes than that down in Tacloban.”\nWell, the background of that was that her shoes were not made in the Philippines. They were all made in Italy. And when she said, “Besides, I have a lot more shoes down in Tacloban,” she was referring to the palace she had built and furnished in the central Philippines near her childhood home without her husband’s knowledge a few years previously. They went down there while I was still in the Philippines, on their annual trip to the ceremonies to reenact MacArthur’s Leyte landing.\nAfter the ceremonies, Imelda told Ferdinand that she wanted to show him something. She took him to this palatial home and he wandered through a few rooms and turned to her and said, “Whose is this?” She said, “It is ours.” They also had such secondary palaces in quite a number of places in the Philippines. So she was saying that she had even far more shoes than the television was talking about.\nI cite this only because the way she reacted was so typical: What is wrong with all this? There was a total opaqueness in her moral understanding of why anybody should get excited over such things. Why was it an issue?\nBack to trying to get them off Hickam Air Base. Some of the issues that had to be resolved in the future should be thought through in advance. For example: How long would the Secret Service provide protection after they moved outside military facilities; how would the transition be conducted between the United States being responsible for security and Marcos’ own security detail? They eventually did move to a very modest home on the water, but any home on the water in Hawaii costs a lot of money. It was actually a rather small place, not easy to maintain security there because there was little distance between house or road or house and adjoining houses. It was spoken of in the press as a much more palatial place than it was.\nThere, too, the charade of not owning anything continued. The little green dress was trotted out upon occasion, and if Marcos was to be seen he would try to be photographed lifting weights or something showing he was fit as a fiddle and ready to go.\nWe did eventually work out arrangements to return a few of this entourage to the Philippines after it became clear that this was a permanent exodus by the Marcos family and clan. Some of these security people, personal servants, staff, medical personnel and others had their lives and families back home, and we returned them to the Philippines at U.S. Government expense and made arrangements to parole the immediate families of those who planned to stay into the United States under circumstances which would allow them to work and earn money.\n“I was urging the Department to disengage”\nSo the human thing was done properly, but it all had to be decided after the fact of the exodus, not before as would have been better. I think these issues are useful because in the future when the decisions are made there should be an awareness in advance that these are all parts of the problem. What kind of immunity is going to be granted and for what period of time? What kind of responsibilities is the U.S. Government acquiring for people who are evacuated by us? The decisions should be made ahead of time, and the party to be evacuated should be told clearly what they can bring and what they cannot bring and what the status of personal effects will be.\nAt the time an emergency exodus is made there is no time then to make those decisions. That is why I hope the U.S. Government will think about these things and have a plan. I actually wrote a draft plan in this regard and gave it to the Secretariat after this episode. Without that there will again be a lot of ad hoc decision making under pressure in an emotional environment. It certainly was the case in the Marcos episode, where there was a high-pressure, volatile press environment, both in our country and elsewhere. There will inevitably be cases again in the future when it is in the deep interest of the United States to avoid civil war, chaos, mayhem and death, and to help smooth a transition to a constructive future by assisting in such an enterprise.…\nThe CINCPAC [Commander in Chief, Pacific Command] Judge Advocate worked with me full time during this period, essentially almost as my deputy, and has become a life-long friend. He later became Judge Advocate General of the Navy and retired as an admiral.\nThe Air Force was a little less comfortable with all of this because we were co-opting a significant part of their facilities, not only their senior officers’ quarters, but an officers’ club and a BOQ [Bachelor Officers’ Quarters], as well as Air Force personnel to establish a perimeter and checkpoints. This was fine for a few days, but it wore thin for the Air Force Base Commander very quickly.\nHe and I saw each other almost every day. His main interest was usually, “When are you going to get them out of here?”\nThey were at Hickam for six weeks, as I recall. I stayed there almost three months, because I was instructed to maintain liaison with them after they moved off base. It was a longer period than I felt advisable.\nIn fact, for several weeks, at least a month before it was over, I was urging the Department to disengage. I felt it was in the U.S. interest not to appear to continue to be nurse-maiding Marcos. I felt at that point there was very little still to be accomplished. However, what was being accomplished, from Washington’s point of view, was essentially to keep Marcos off the White House’s back.\nIn the earlier period I was engaged in extremely intense policy issues and operational problems. In the latter part, I felt I was mostly just providing a security blanket for Washington. Admiral Poindexter (NSC, at left) vetoed the suggestion every time the State Department supported me in suggesting we stand down.\nEarly on the Marcoses had picked up the phone frequently to call “Ronnie” and Mrs. Reagan, and the Reagans didn’t want that. So giving the Marcoses the sense that the U.S. Government was still concerned, paying attention to their problems, and passing their messages continued to be of value to the White House beyond the point when we had accomplished most other purposes.\n \nWalanghiya, makapal ang mukha ni Imelda.\nDolores Escobar\nWe should keep ALL the Marcoses out of the Executive and local government official positions. They have not paid for their si ns and have not returned the stolen wealth which our country needs to feed the poor, house and educate them.\njade cereno\nThen why not Ask the Aquino Government to re-open the case?\njade cereno\nThey’ve one the trial of the century.. almost 1000 plus of lawsuits charged to them and they won all of it… Why? there is no hard evidence…. plane and simple\njade cereno\nKeeping them out means taking away the people’s right to vote for them… Is that like how you look at martial law?? Getting your rights… Read other articles… martial law is not all bad things… People power is… Until now we can feel it… Suffering everywhere…\nstormshadow\nLooks like the Marcos’ fan club is in the house!\nMichael Casten\nPRESIDENT FERDINAND EDRALIN MARCOS SR. AND FIRST LADY IMELDA ROMUALDEZ-MARCOS WAS THE PHILIPPINES DE FACTO MONARCHY RULERS. OUR VERY OWN KING AND QUEEN, SO YOU CAN NEVER ACCUSED THEM OF STEALING PEOPLES MONEY SIMPLY BECAUSE IT WAS THEIR OWN MONEY… MAJORITY OF THE FILIPINOS UP TO THIS DAY BELIEVED THE MARCOSES SERVED ALL FOR THE BENEFIT AND WELFARE OF ALL THE FILIPINOS FOREMOST OF WHICH THE MARGINALIZED POOR (HINDI NILA KAMI PINABAYAAN) AND SO WE ALLOWED THEM TO RULE OVER US UNCONDITIONALLY…\nTHE PRESENT YELLOW-DENGUE INFESTED BRAIN-HEADS THAT RULED OVER US VIA THEIR PROPAGANDA MACHINES AND “COUP DE ETAT” OF 1986 EDSA REVOLT LED BY THE RICH OLIGARCHS AND ELITISTS DID NOT DO MUCH IN UPLIFTING OUR LIVES…THEY KEEP ON POUNDING US WITH THEIR ANTI-MARCOS SHENANIGANS AND WE’RE SICK AND TIRED OF IT . FOR 30 YEARS WE’VE BEEN HEARING IT ALMOST EVERYDAY THRU THEIR YELLOW MEDIA MACHINES…IS THIS WHAT YOU CALL “FREEDOM”??? WHERE ARE WE NOW DID WE PROSPER AFTER THEY KICKED-OUT THE MARCOSES??? CERTAINLY NOT THE POOR…TODAY THE POOR GETS POORER AND THE RICH GET RICHER.. RESULT MODERN DAY SLAVERY… IF NOT FOR THE HEROICS OF ALL OFW – OVERSEAS FOREIGN WORKERS , WE SHOULD HAVE BEEN ALL DEAD BY NOW… THANKS TO YOU YELLOW GOVERNMENTS.\nMARCOS REGIME EPITOMIZED A GOVERNMENT OF THE FILIPINO PEOPLE, BY THE FILIPINO PEOPLE, FOR THE FILIPINO PEOPLE, AND YOUR MEMORIES SHALL NEVER PERISH FROM THE FACE OF THE EARTH . “MABUHAY KAYO PAMILYANG MARCOS”\nMichael Casten\nPRESIDENT FERDINAND EDRALIN MARCOS SR. AND FIRST LADY IMELDA\nROMUALDEZ-MARCOS WAS THE PHILIPPINES DE FACTO MONARCHY RULERS. OUR VERY\nOWN KING AND QUEEN, SO YOU CAN NEVER ACCUSED THEM OF STEALING PEOPLES\nMONEY SIMPLY BECAUSE IT WAS THEIR OWN MONEY… MAJORITY OF THE\nFILIPINOS UP TO THIS DAY BELIEVED THE MARCOSES SERVED ALL FOR THE\nBENEFIT AND WELFARE OF ALL THE FILIPINOS FOREMOST OF WHICH THE\nMARGINALIZED POOR (HINDI NILA KAMI PINABAYAAN) AND SO WE ALLOWED THEM TO\nRULE OVER US UNCONDITIONALLY…\nINFESTED BRAIN-HEADS THAT RULED OVER US VIA THEIR PROPAGANDA MACHINES\nAND “COUP DE ETAT” OF 1986 EDSA REVOLT LED BY THE RICH OLIGARCHS AND\nELITISTS DID NOT DO MUCH IN UPLIFTING OUR LIVES…THEY KEEP ON POUNDING\nUS WITH THEIR ANTI-MARCOS SHENANIGANS AND WE’RE SICK AND TIRED OF IT .\nFOR 30 YEARS WE’VE BEEN HEARING IT ALMOST EVERYDAY THRU THEIR YELLOW\nMEDIA MACHINES…IS THIS WHAT YOU CALL “FREEDOM”??? WHERE ARE WE NOW DID\nWE PROSPER AFTER THEY KICKED-OUT THE MARCOSES??? CERTAINLY NOT THE\nPOOR…TODAY THE POOR GETS POORER AND THE RICH GETS RICHER.. RESULT\nMODERN DAY SLAVERY… IF NOT FOR THE HEROICS OF ALL OFW – OVERSEAS\nFOREIGN WORKERS , WE SHOULD HAVE BEEN ALL DEAD BY NOW… THANKS TO YOU\nYELLOW GOVERNMENTS.\nMARCOS REGIME EPITOMIZED A GOVERNMENT OF THE\nFILIPINO PEOPLE, BY THE FILIPINO PEOPLE, FOR THE FILIPINO PEOPLE, AND\nYOUR MEMORIES SHALL NEVER PERISH FROM THE FACE OF THE EARTH . “MABUHAY\nKAYO PAMILYANG MARCOS”\nMBonifacio\nLOL. i’m currently receiving for a human rights lawsuit we WON against the Marcoses. Study up friend, it is for your own benefit.\nMBonifacio\nstupid is as stupid does. goodluck to you my friend. ignorance is not bliss.\nNillz\nDude can you like be really open-minded about it and not just basing facts on close-minded articles\nNillz\nTell me first why did you file a human rights case against them?\nMBonifacio\nI was born inside the prison to student activist parents. i lived there as a political prisoner till i was 4 years old. my parents were tortured repeatedly. We filed a human rights case so the Marcos atrocities would be marked in history and hopefully future generations would learn from it.\naiem\n“I believe this because he was smart enough politically to realize that. You don’t create that kind of a crisis, because it will engulf you. But Imelda was not so smart politically, and that is, why without firm evidence, I have always felt that she was a key part of the cabal….”\nEhh no… I will give her half a brain just because if she had enough common sense she wouldn’t lay even a pinky on such boiling water.\nTruth is it is the Cojuancos that ordered the assassination of Ninoy to use Cory as the face of democracy and a figure to stand against the Marcos administration.\nMarcos stepped on a lot of Oligarch’s foots. Cojuanco was one of them due to the fact that he was pressing them on the issue of Hacienda Luisita. Up to now, Hacienda Luisita still remains on status quo. Cory threw that case away when she was in power.\nLemonsky\nand the nerve to have an Abnoy fanatic here. What legacy do we have from the Aquinos? nothing but massive pillage of the Treasury, for the Marcoses all were just plain propagandas to demonize them.30 yrs, no one has ever been prosecuted but won all their cases, from 900 plus cases now only about 8 left.OPEN your eyes Abnoys.Be ready, your idol will be put to jail soon.The truth hurts.\nLemonsky\nmas makapal ang mukha mo.look at your face, parang puwet ng baboy abnoy.Look at the grandkids of Imelda……super mga educated and guapings…..mga apos of Ninoy…..meron bang pogi ha?\nLemonsky\nreally?, baka naman nagnakaw ka ng kaldero ng kapitbahay mo.Why dont u charge the torturers of your parents? was it Marcos fault? eh bakit mga namatay sa Haciemda Luisita wasnt the fault of the Aquinos? IDIOT….basa basa ka nga…..wala na si Panot….Si Digong na….at matitigok kayong lahat.\nLemonsky\nWhere are those billion dollar gold certificates of Marcos? Was it the reason why, the US govt doesnt want to give back to Marcos?, because that would show that FM is a billionaire or trillionaire and not one who pillages the country’s coffer.Up to this day, the media and Aquinos are still shouting to high heavens that the Marcoses are thieves but where are the proofs, for all of 30 yrs.?\nL\nvery funny marcos loyalist are blind or maybe on cahoots oh well telling criminals what they did is wrong is usually fruitless since they will say all kinds of alibi and even insult and try to change the table telling you that you are the criminal without bases, by the way marcos loyalist how much money did you gain? after all marcos is just the head he have lots of fingers. also even if what you told is true about the oligarchs it does not change the fact that marcos is still the bigger evil between the two and also just because one thief betrays another thief does not mean the thief that is being betrayed is innocent or less evil there was this story about two girls taking money from one guy but one of the girls betray another and then the one being betray ask for help would i really help? nope both of them are suspects and if i were to help it would be for the sake of the victim the guy were those girls stole money from, it is pretty similar between marcos and his traitors i wont do it for their sake but ill do it for the Filipino for they are the victims, it is a simple logic but i predicted that those marcos loyalist won’t see reason out of it or even understand the logic like monkeys jumping around.",
"Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines\nUpdated August 09, 2016.\nFerdinand Marcos ruled the Philippines with an iron fist from 1966 to 1986.\nCritics charged Marcos and his regime with crimes like corruption and nepotism. Marcos himself is said to have exaggerated his role in World War II. He also murdered a family political rival.\nSo, how did this man stay in power?\nMarcos created an elaborate cult of personality. When that state-mandated adulation proved insufficient for him to maintain control, President Marcos declared martial law.\nEarly Life:\nOn September 11, 1917, Josefa Edralin gave birth to a son in the village of Sarrat, on the island of Luzon, the Philippines. The boy was named Ferdinand Edralin Marcos.\nPersistent rumors say that Ferdinand's biological father was a man named Ferdinand Chua, who served as his godfather. Officially, however, Josefa's husband, Mariano Marcos, was the child's father.\nYoung Ferdinand Marcos grew up in a privileged milieu. He excelled at school, and took an eager interest in martial skills such as boxing and shooting.\ncontinue reading below our video\n10 Best Universities in the United States\nEducation:\nMarcos attended school in Manila. His godfather, Ferdinand Chua, may have helped to pay for his educational expenses.\nDuring the 1930s, the young man studied law at the University of the Philippines, outside of Manila.\nThis legal training would come in handy when Marcos was arrested and tried for a 1935 political murder. In fact, he continued his studies while in prison, and even passed the bar exam with flying colors from his cell.\nMeanwhile, Mariano Marcos ran for a seat on the National Assembly in 1935, but was defeated for a second time by Julio Nalundasan.\nMarcos Assassinates Nalundasan:\nOn September 20, 1935, as he was celebrating his victory over Marcos, Nalundasan was shot dead at his home. Mariano's 18-year-old son Ferdinand had used his shooting skills to kill Nalundasan with a .22-caliber rifle.\nThe young law student was indicted for the killing, and convicted by a district court in November of 1939. He appealed to the Supreme Court of the Philippines in 1940. Representing himself, the young man managed to get his conviction overturned despite strong evidence of his guilt.\nMariano Marcos and (by now) Judge Chua likely used their political power to influence the outcome of the case.\nWorld War II:\nAt the outbreak of World War II, Ferdinand Marcos was practicing law in Manila. He soon joined the Filipino Army, and fought against the Japanese invasion as a combat intelligence officer in the 21st Infantry Division.\nMarcos saw action in the three-month-long Battle of Bataan, in which the Allied forces lost Luzon to the Japanese. He survived the Bataan Death March , a week-long ordeal that killed about 1/4 of Japan's American and Filipino POWs on Luzon.\nMarcos escaped the prison camp and joined the resistance. He later claimed to have been a guerrilla leader, but that claim has been disputed.\nPost-War Era:\nDetractors say that Marcos spent the early post-war period filing false compensation claims for wartime damages with the United States government, such as a claim for almost $600,000 for 2,000 imaginary cattle of Mariano Marcos's.\nIn any case, Ferdinand Marcos certainly did serve as a special assistant to the first president of the newly-independent Republic of the Philippines, Manuel Roxas, in 1946-47.\nMarcos served in the House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959 and the Senate from 1963 to 1965 as a member of Roxas's Liberal Party.\nRise to Power:\nIn 1965, Marcos hoped to secure the Liberal Party nomination for the presidency. The sitting president, Diosdado Macapagal (father of current president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo), had promised to step aside, but reneged and ran again.\nMarcos resigned from the Liberal Party and joined the Nationalists. He won the election, and was sworn in on December 30, 1965.\nPresident Marcos promised economic development, improved infrastructure, and good government to the people of the Philippines. He also pledged help to South Vietnam and the US in the Vietnam War , sending more than 10,000 Filipino soldiers to fight.\nCult of Personality:\nFerdinand Marcos was the first president to be reelected to a second term in the Philippines. Whether his reelection was rigged is a subject of debate.\nIn any case, he consolidated his hold on power by developing a cult of personality, like those of Stalin, Mao, or Niyazov of Turkmenistan.\nMarcos required every business and classroom in the country to display his official presidential portrait. He also posted giant billboards bearing propagandistic messages across the country.\nA handsome man, Marcos had married the former beauty queen Imelda Romualdez in 1954. Her glamour added to his popularity.\nMartial Law:\nWithin weeks of his reelection, Marcos faced violent public protests against his rule by students and other citizens. Students demanded educational reforms; they even commandeered a fire truck and crashed it into the Presidential Palace in 1970.\nThe Filipino Communist Party reemerged as a threat. Meanwhile, a Muslim separatist movement in the south urged succession.\nPresident Marcos responded to all of these threats by declaring martial law on September 21, 1972. He suspended habeas corpus, imposed a curfew and jailed opponents like Benigno \"Ninoy\" Aquino .\nThis period of martial law lasted until January 1981.\nMarcos the Dictator:\nUnder martial law, Ferdinand Marcos took extraordinary powers for himself. He used the country's military as a weapon against his political enemies, displaying a typically ruthless approach to opposition. Marcos also awarded a huge number of government posts to his and Imelda's relatives.\nImelda herself was a member of Parliament (1978-84); Governor of Manila (1976-86); and Minister of Human Settlements (1978-86).\nMarcos called parliamentary elections on April 7, 1978. None of the members of jailed former Senator Benigno Aquino's LABAN party won their races.\nElection monitors cited widespread vote-buying by Marcos loyalists.\nMartial Law Lifted:\nIn preparation for Pope John Paul II's visit, Marcos lifted martial law on January 17, 1981.\nNonetheless, Marcos pushed through legislative and Constitutional reforms to ensure that he would retain all of his extended powers. It was purely a cosmetic change.\nPresidential Election of 1981:\nFor the first time in 12 years, the Philippines held a presidential election on June 16, 1981. Marcos ran against two opponents: Alejo Santos of the Nacionalista Party, and Bartolome Cabangbang of the Federal Party.\nLABAN and Unido both boycotted the election.\nIn proper dictator fashion, Marcos received 88% of the vote. He took the opportunity in his inauguration ceremony to note that he would like the job of \"Eternal President.\"\nDeath of Aquino:\nOpposition leader Benigno Aquino was released in 1980 after nearly 8 years in prison. He went into exile in the United States.\nIn August of 1983, Aquino returned to the Philippines. Upon arrival, he was hustled off the plane, and shot dead on the runway at the Manila Airport by a man in a military uniform.\nThe government claimed that Rolando Galman was the assassin; Galman was immediately killed by airport security.\nMarcos was ill at the time, recovering from a kidney transplant. Imelda may have ordered Aquino's killing, which sparked massive protests.\nMarcos Falls:\nAugust 13, 1985 was the beginning of the end for Marcos. Fifty-six members of Parliament called for his impeachment for graft, corruption, and other high crimes.\nMarcos called a new election for 1986. His opponent was Corazon Aquino , the widow of Benigno.\nMarcos claimed a 1.6 million vote victory, but observers found a 800,000 win by Aquino. A \"People Power\" movement quickly developed, driving the Marcoses into exile in Hawaii, and affirming Aquino's election.\nThe Marcoses had embezzled billions of dollars from the Philippines. Imelda famously left over 2,500 pairs of shoes in her closet when she fled Manila.\nFerdinand Marcos died of multiple organ failure in Honolulu on September 28, 1989. He left behind a reputation as one of the most corrupt and ruthless leaders in modern Asia.",
"Imelda in Exile | Vanity Fair\nLetter from Honolulu\nImelda in Exile\nShe had it all, and lost it all—or did she? The author penetrated the Marcos hideout in Hawaii for a Vanity Fair exclusive.\nby\nTwitter\nDirectly under my balcony at the Kahala Hilton hotel, porpoises frolicked in a pool. Beyond them, past the palm trees blowing in the breeze, a Secret Service man was patrolling the beach with a bomb-sniffing dog. [#image: /photos/54cbfdc61ca1cf0a23acf4a9]Out in the calm Pacific, flanked by two more Secret Service men in bathing attire, Secretary of State George Shultz was enjoying a 6:30 a.m. swim. Two other Secret Service men, in blue blazers and beige slacks, carried walkie-talkies and stared back at the balconies of the hotel.\nAfter a few moments the secretary of state came out of the water, dried himself with a towel, and walked back to the hotel, encircled by his attendants, one of whom let his surveillance of the balconies flag long enough to observe the playful activities of the porpoises in the pool. In Honolulu on a two-night stopover, Mr. Shultz was on his way back to Washington from the summit meeting in Tokyo, via Manila, where he had called on the new president of the Philippines, Corazon Aquino. The previous day a reporter had asked him if he intended, while he was in Honolulu, to call on the former president of the Philippines, Ferdinand Marcos, and his wife, Imelda, who were in temporary residence less than two miles down the beach from the Kahala Hilton. “No!” the secretary of state had snapped.\nLater Mr. Shultz went further and publicly rebuked Ferdinand Marcos for using his safe haven in Hawaii as a base from which to foment difficulties for President Aquino’s government. “He is causing trouble,” said Shultz, and Jaime Cardinal Sin, the Archbishop of Manila, echoed the secretary of state’s remarks. The cardinal said that Marcos was financing demonstrations against Mrs. Aquino, and in some cases paying people 100 to 150 pesos ($5 or $7.50) to dress up as priests and nuns in order to attract favorable press attention for him abroad. The Marcoses were definitely in Dutch.\nFor four days I had sat on my balcony over the porpoises, waiting for Imelda Marcos to respond to my request for an interview. Contact with the former First Lady of the Philippines had been made for me, not through political or diplomatic connections, but through friends of hers in high society. For as everyone now knows, in addition to being the First Lady for twenty-one years and the chatelaine of Malacañang Palace, Imelda Marcos had been a card-carrying member of the jet set, numbering among her friends Lord and Lady Glenconner, the British Aristocrats, who are friends of the royal family; the Count and Countess of Romanones, members of the Spanish nobility; Princess Firyal of Jordan; the Agnelli and Niarchos families; and American multimillionaires like David Rockefeller and Malcolm Forbes. In recent years, however, those closest to her had been less socialy exalted; Adnan Khashoggi, the Arabian billionaire, for whom she entertained extravagantly in her New York mansion; Cristina Ford, the Italian-born former wife of Henry Ford; George Hamilton, the suave and debonair Hollywood actor, and his mother, Anne; Van Cliburn, the acclaimed pianist; and Franco Rossellini, of the New York and Rome film world.\nOn my arrival in Honolulu, I had written her a personal note. For four days it had gone unheeded. I had seen Mrs. Marcos once during that time, but from a distance. The previous Sunday, Mother’s Day, also happened to be the thirty-second wedding anniversary of the Marcoses, and a real-estate broker in Honolulu, had been instrumental in finding a house for them to live in told me that the local pro-Marcos Filipino-American community was planning a celebration in their honor. I arrived at the Blaisdell auditorium at eleven a.m. to ensure getting a seat and stayed until the program ended, at five in the afternoon.\nOf the 115,000 Filipinos in Hawaii, approximately 15,000 are pro-Marcos, and most of those are from Ferdinand Marcos’s home providence of Ilocos Norte. The crowd of cheering Filipinos in the auditorium that day was estimated at between four and five thousand, and the event was long and tedious. Children from the Hawaii Talent Searchers Club sang Cyndi Lauper and Huey Lewis vocals to instrumental tracks recorded on cassettes. There was a demonstration of ballroom dancing by a gray-haired woman and younger female partner. Following that was a magic act, and then, to the delight of the audience, a leading pop star called Anthony Castillo, who had arrived from Manila the day before to take part in the festivities, sang a medley of songs.\nWhen Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos arrived, about an hour before the end of the celebration, the crowd waved V-for-victory signs to them and broke into song:\n*We love you, Mr. President,\nFirst Lady, and family.\n“No questions. This is not an interview.”\n“Fine.”\n“And only,” she concluded, “for ten minutes.”\nShe gave me the address: 5577 Kalanianaole Highway. Of course, I already knew where she lived; everyone in Honolulu knew. I had driven by the house every day since I had been there, and once I had parked my car nearby and walked along the beach to the Marcos place. I was able to look through the shrubbery and stare at the house for fully five minutes before two guards, sitting on chairs and chatting together, noticed me. The security provided by the state had been taken away from the Marcoses three and a half weeks after they arrived in Hawaii; these guards were part of a volunteer security force made up of pro-Marcos members of the Filipino colony in Honolulu. They had walkie-talkies but no guns that I could see; however, when I realized that they had spotted me, I quickly turned and walked away.\nA Hawaiian real-estate agent claimed to me that the Marcoses owned two homes in the fashionable Makiki Heights section of Honolulu, one worth $1.5 million and the other worth $2 million. The houses are said to be in the names of two well-to-do Filipinos. The Marcoses cannot admit owning the houses, for fear the present Philippine government will put a claim on them. Because of the Marcoses’ political un-popularity, it had been hard to find anybody anywhere who would rent to them. For example, an approach had been made through an emissary for the Marcoses to rent one of the great houses on the fashionable Caribbean island of Mustique, but because Mustique is a favorite vacation retreat for members of the British royal family, it was thought that the Marcos presence might prove embarrassing. However, according to a prominent resident of the island, if the United States were to request that they be given haven, or if the Marcoses were to make a proper gesture, such as building a $65 million airstrip on nearby Saint Vincent, new consideration for their future welfare in Mustique might be taken into account.\nThey pay $8,000 a month for the house they finally did find, and since they have a severe cash-flow problem, brokers are on the lookout for a house at half that rent in case the Marcoses are forced to remain in Honolulu. Each Sunday after Mass, which is said privately for them in the house, members of the pro-Marcos Filipino community in Honolulu arrive with food, flowers, and money for the couple and their entourage.\nIn the beginning of their stay, demonstrators collected in front of the house with signs saying, marcos, murderer, go home or honk if you want the marcoses to leave. To the distress of the neighbors, the honking went on all day and all night. Since the bombing attack of Libya and the nuclear fallout of Chernobyl, however, the press has turned its attention away from them, and the demonstrations have stopped, but the former First Family remain in a sense incarcerated, behind locked gates.\nIn a sane real-estate market, the Marcos house would be described as an $80,000 or $90,000 single-family dwelling on valuable beachfront property. There are neighbors close by on both sides, with no walls or fences between the houses. Shrubbery and a high wooden fence with two gates that are kept locked at all times protect the house from the highway. I waved and yelled through the fence, and the gate was finally opened when I made it clear that Mrs. Marcos was expecting me. Five or six old cars littered the short driveway. Parking was difficult, and the guards were unhelpful. The entrance to the single-story, shingle-roofed, ranch-style house was visually marred by an electric-blue tarpaulin strung up haphazardly between two trees to protect the guards from the sun. Beneath it stood a wooden table and a couple of chairs. On the table were a plate of ripening mangoes and several empty Pepsi-Cola cans. One had a sense of “there goes the neighborhood” about the place.\nEntering the small front hallway, a visitor is immediately confronted with the presidential seal, which fills an entire wall. Next to it on a pole is the flag of the Philippines. The house consists of a living room, a dining room, a kitchen, three bedrooms, and a lanai, a sort of porch furnished like a living room which is a feature of most Hawaiian houses. Next to the house is a separate one-room guesthouse. There are, I learned, more than forty people living here. Most of the original furniture has been removed or replace by rented furniture. A plain wooden table on the terrace was covered with a white plastic tablecloth and surrounded by card-table chairs with mgn rental stenciled on the back. In the living room were several television sets, a VCR, and both audio and video recording equipment. (A Honolulu rumor has it that the Marcoses ruined their friendship with President and Mrs. Reagan by videotaping a private telephone conversation they had with them and later giving the tape to television stations.) An upright piano and a synthesizer were pushed against the wall of the lanai. On practically every table surface there were mismatched bouquets of tropical flowers, many wrapped in aluminum foil or tied with homemade bows, unwatered, dying or dead. There were flies everywhere. All the books on the tables, with the single exception of David Stockman’s The Triumph of Politics, were by Ferdinand Marcos, including The Ideology of the Philippines.\nAbout a dozen men in Hawaiian shirts were seated about the room. In a gray suit, shirt, and tie, I felt overcitified. President Marcos, we were told, had a toothache and was at the dentist, but the First Lady would be with us presently. For the first time it occurred to me that all the people there had been summoned, as I had, to see her. I made conversation with a Filipino journalist from New York who had worked in the consulate when Marcos was in power, and with Anthony Castillo, the pop singer from Manila, who told me that one of the first things Corazon Aquino had done was abolish all the cultural programs started by Imelda Marcos. All the artists in the country, he said, stood behind the Marcoses.\nAnd then the First Lady entered the room, the strong scent of heady perfume preceding her. She moves in an extraordinarily graceful manner; even in those simple rooms she was like a queen in a palace. All of those seated jumped to their feet the moment her presence was felt. As if a party like of “stay poor and lie low” were in force to counteract the stories of excess that had dominated the media for months, Mrs. Marcos was again dressed as she had been dressed for every public appearance since she arrived in Hawaii: the green dress, black patent-leather shoes, and pearl earrings and ring which were obviously costume jewelry. Her black hair was majestically coiffed.\nShe gave instructions to a servant to offer coffee to everyone. She greeted a university professor and discussed briefly a paper he was preparing. She exchanged affectionate words with a group of Filipinos who had come from California and New York to participate in the wedding-anniversary celebration. People addressed her as either First Lady or Ma’am. She pointed out to another visitor a huge color photograph in an ornate gilt frame of the president and her with their children and grandchildren which had been an anniversary gift. I understood before she came to greet me that I was part of a morning levee, one of a group being given an audience and a few words of greeting. She offered her hand. Her crimson fingernails had been carefully manicured with white moons and white tips. She is, at fifty-seven, still a beautiful woman. We exchanged a few unmemorable words. When I conveyed greetings from the people who had brought me into contact with her, she indicated that I should take a seat on the lanai. Then, on instructions from her that I was not aware of, the room cleared and we were alone.\nImelda Marcos had been described to me by a friend who knew her well as a woman who understood luxury better than anyone in the world. Flies buzzed around us in great profusion, but she seemed not to notice them. She never waved them away. I had the feeling that she had simply ceased to pay any attention to the surroundings in which she was living. There is a sense of tremendous sadness about her, but if she is at times despondent, she manages to shake herself into positive pursuits. Was this the same woman who had boogied the nights away in the various private discotheques with her jet-set friends, wearing a king’s ransom in jewels on her wrists, fingers, neck, and bosom?\nStories of Imelda Marcos’s extravagance abound. “Please, for God’s sake, don’t use my name,” several of her former friends said to me. People in society are notoriously loath to have their names quoted in stories about events in which they have participated, although they don’t mind filling you in on the details. Former houseguests at Malacañang Palace tell how the streets of Manila were cleared of people when Imelda took them about the city, and how the guest bathrooms in the palace were so well equipped down to the smallest luxury items that ladies even found packages of false eyelashes in their medicine cabinets. They tell how Imelda abolished mechanized street cleaning in Manila and dressed the homeless of the city in yellow-and-red uniforms and provided them with brooms and the title Metro Aide—instead of street cleaner—so that the streets would be immaculate around the clock.\nOn a balmy evening a little over a year ago, Malcolm Forbes gave a dinner cruise around Manhattan aboard his yacht, The Highlander, in honor of Mrs. Marcos. While the party was still in progress, a lady-in-waiting went around the ship and issued impromptu invitations to a select number of Mr. Forbes’s guests to continue the party back at the First Lady’s New York town house on East Sixty-sixth Street. On arriving there, guest were taken up to the sixth-floor discotheque, where an enormous supper had been laid. The amount of food on display was said to be embarrassing—ten entrées to choose from, including lobster and steak. Since they had all just eaten Malcolm Forbes’s sumptuous buffet, they had to pass up Mrs. Marcos’s food, choosing instead to dance to the live orchestra that awaited them. As the festivities came to an end and guests started leaving, Mrs. Marcos proved again that there were inner circles within inner circles by asking a few people to stay behind so that she could show them the private floor of her mansion, where her bedroom and sitting room were. Two large leather caskets, each about the size of half a desk, were brought out by maids. Each contained seven or eight drawers filled with jewelry, which were emptied onto the floor so that the remaining guests could try them on. That was said to be her favorite late-night entertainment, to forestall going to bed. A Madison Avenue jeweler who specializes in estate jewelry told me that Mrs. Marcos had a passion for canary diamonds until last year, when the color yellow became associated with the ascendancy of Corazon Aquino. The town house was furnished out of a Park Avenue triplex maisonette that had belonged to the late philanthropists Mr. and Mrs. Leslie R. Samuels. Mrs. Marcos had tried to buy the triplex for $9 million, but she was turned down by the co-op board of that building because her presence would have posed too great a security risk. Instead she bought the entire contents of the enormous apartment so that she could do up the Sixty-sixth Street town house in just a few days in order to be ready for a party she was giving for Adnan Khashoggi.\nAlthough she was reverential about royalty, she had been known to upstage the crowned heads she revered. She once arrived at a party for the shy and retiring Queen of Thailand, for example, with her own television crew to film her being received by the queen. On another occasion, at a small private party at Claridge’s in London attended by the former king Constantine of Greece, Mrs. Marcos arrived to the cheers of London’s Filipino community, who mysteriously materialized outside the hotel right on cue.\n‘The last two and a half months,” Mrs. Marcos said, looking around the plain rooms filled with rented furniture, “have been so enriching. This is a good period for enlightenment. I have no bitterness in my heart.”\nDisinclined to be questioned, she was more than inclined to talk, and for the three and a half hours that the promised ten minutes eventually stretched into, she talked nonstop on a variety of topics as if she had been starved for conversation. If I sometimes asked things that she did not wish to comment on, she kept talking as if she had not heard me. Thirty minutes into our visit, I asked if she minded if I wrote down something she had said so that I would be able to record her words accurately. She didn’t respond yes or no, but she didn’t ask me to stop writing either, and from that moment on her whole manner and delivery changed. I felt I was watching a well-rehearsed performance as she expounded at great length on the subject of love, couched in a series of mystical, Rajneesh-sounding philosophical phrases.\n“Beauty is love made real,” she said. “Beauty, love, and God are happiness and peace. Love has only one opposite. The opposite of love is not hate. The opposite of love is selfishness. A human being has three levels: his body, his mind, and his spirit. In the spiritual world, you find peace, and none of this matters.” She gestured expansively with her hands and arms to indicate her surroundings. “I am completely devoid of basic human rights, but I am blessed. Everything we have here comes from the people. All our valuables were impounded. We do not have a single dollar. What can you pick up in an hour’s time when you are told to pack up and leave? Your whole lifetime is exposed to the world.\n“Peace is a transcendent state. I was a soldier for beauty and love. I was completely selfless. They say about me that I was extravagant, but I gave. Your magazines and papers say that I bought art. It is true. I bought art, but I bought art to fill our museums so that people could enjoy beauty.\n“I was born in a family that gave much of themselves in love. There were eleven children. I married a president. I was the First Lady for twenty-one years. Very few have been as privileged as I have. If you are successful and have everything, destiny has a way of imposing money, power, and privilege on you.\n“Across the sea is my country, and sometimes when I sit here I think that I can see it. This house is very modest, but your real home is the home within. I am so glad that I have one good dress and one good pair of shoes. Now I don’t have all that hassle about clothes and what to wear.”\nLong stretches of this material I had seen her deliver on tapes left behind in the Sixty-sixth Street house in New York. The irony was that on the tapes she had been expounding her philosophy in a champagne toast to the munitions entrepreneur Adnan Khashoggi.\nHer face is unlined and looked to me unlifted. “People say I have spent a fortune on plastic surgery,” she said, understanding my stare, “but I have not. The only time I thought of having it done was to cover this scar from the assassination attempt on my life.” She held up her arm and showed me the ugly scar from a knife wound inflicted on her in 1972. “My husband said to me at the time, ‘Don’t have it covered. Wear it as your badge of courage.’ Once Queen Elizabeth said to me, ‘Imelda, how did you live through it?’ ”\nMrs. Marcos looked past me but continued talking. I assumed that I had lost her attention and that it was time to leave. She was, in fact, looking at her daughter Irene and indicated by gesture that there was a telephone call for her. “This is my beautiful daughter,” she said, her face filled with love as she looked at her. They exchanged a few words in Pilipino. “I’m so sorry,” she said. “I must take this call. It’s Margot Fonteyn.” Dame Margot Fonteyn had helped Mrs. Marcos found the ballet company of Manila. For that, Mrs. Marcos had given her an award with a pension attached to it. She gave a similar award and pension to Van Cliburn.\nSeveral times she evinced a mildly gallows-type humor. Speaking of the tsunami, a tidal wave from the Aleutian Islands that had threatened to devastate Honolulu a few days earlier, she told how a helicopter had hovered over the house while a man inside shouted orders on a bullhorn to them: “Pack your clothes and get out!” “But we just did that in Manila,” she said she had told her family, and she laughed as she recalled the story.\nTrapped in a Catch-22 situation, the Marcoses were broke. Their tangible assets, including the money and jewelry they entered Hawaii with, had been frozen by the U.S. government. Talking about the generous Filipinos in Honolulu who bring them food and clothing, she said, “They even bring me shoes.” In the manner of an expert storyteller, she let a few seconds pass and then added, “Who knows, soon I may have three thousand pairs.”\nShe suddenly smiled and said, “Oh, here comes the president.” Out onto the lanai walked Ferdinand Marcos, surrounded by aides. He no longer looked the way he had during his last days in office or when he got off the plane at Hickam Air Force Base outside Honolulu, as if he were going to die later in the day. His color was healthy, his step was sure. He was wearing a three-piece suit of beige gabardine with a white shirt, cuff links, and tie. Of course, he was still a far cry from the world leader who had held total control over 50 million people for twenty-one years. Mrs. Marcos rose and walked toward him.\n“How is your tooth, Ferdinand?” asked the First Lady, like any wife concerned with her husband’s welfare.\n“You know, Imelda,” he replied, speaking in English in a high-pitched, singsong fashion and pointing to his mouth, “it wasn’t my tooth after all. There was a fish bone in my tooth. The dentist took out the fish bone, but he didn’t take the tooth.” The president was delighted with his story, and all his aides laughed appreciatively. Mrs. Marcos joined in. They actually seemed for a moment like a Filipino Ma and Pa Kettle. Then the president excused himself, saying he had to return to work with his lawyers.\nAfter he left, she spoke proudly of him. Sometimes she called him Marcos, sometimes “the president,” sometimes just “my husband.” “My husband wrote two or three dozen books,” she said, “including The Ideology of the Philippines—the only world leader to write an ideology of his country. Your media,” she said, in the scoffing tone she used every time she mentioned the U.S. press and television coverage of their downfall, “said that Marcos’s medals from World War II were fake. But his medals were awarded to him by General Douglas MacArthur. Is General Douglas MacArthur a fake too? Your media says that my husband had no money when he became the president, that he became rich in office by stealing from the Treasury. That is completely untrue. My husband was a flourishing lawyer in Manila for years before he became president.” She walked out of the lanai into the living room, disappeared down a short hallway, and returned almost immediately. “Let me show you the only thing I kept,” she said, placing a large diamond ring in my hand. “This is my engagement ring from thirty-two years ago, eleven years before he became president. You can see from this ring that my husband wasn’t exactly poor then.” She told me that the jewelry firm of Harry Winston had appraised the ring several years ago at $300,000.\nAfter I handed the diamond ring back to her, she again left the lanai. This time she returned with another thing she had obviously kept, one of the world’s most famous diamonds, called the Star of the South, which she said the president had given her for their twenty-fifth wedding anniversary. She said it was listed in the Harry Winston book, and it is. The kite-shaped 14.37-carat D-color diamond has belonged to the late Evalyn Walsh McLean, the owner of the ill-fated Hope diamond, as well as to the Duchess of Windsor’s great friend Mrs. George F. Baker. The Winston book says that the jeweler sold it again in 1981—two years after the Marcoses’ twenty-fifth wedding anniversary.\nIt had been widely reported that the gangs of international social figures who had danced in her discotheques and been recipients of her bounty had, for business or social reasons, deserted her in her decline and disgrace. A host of one of the major upcoming international society balls said, “We were going to invite Imelda, but, you know, it’s less easy now.” Another onetime friend said, “I’d like to call her, but it’s bad for business.”\n“Have you been disappointed by your friends?” I asked. She looked at me but did not answer. “Have you heard from them?”\nShe replied slowly, choosing her words. “Those who had our telephone number in Hawaii, yes. Those who had the time, yes. But this is when you find out who are your real friends, and this is when you cut out the fakes.” Again she thought for a time and then added, “I have no bitterness in my heart.”\n“Do you suffer when you read what is said about you in the press?”\n“I don’t read anymore what they say about me. I only read straight news. I am not a masochist. I am a very positive human being. I have so much energy that I sleep only two hours a night. In the end we will be judged by history, not what they write about us now.”\n“I want to show you something,” she said. She called inside to have a television-and-VCR set rolled out onto the lanai. Anthony Castillo, the pop singer, operated the machine for her. She wanted to watch a tape that had arrived a few days before from the Philippines, showing pro-Marcos demonstrations in Manila, which, she said, had become daily occurrences in the city even though the Aquino government would not grant permits for such demonstrations. She obviously knew every frame of the hour-long tape and, snapping her fingers, gave frequent, excited instructions to Castillo. It was suddenly easy to see her as a woman used to giving orders and used to having them obeyed. “Go forward. More. More! Stop here. Listen to what these people are singing: ‘You can imprison us, but you cannot imprison our spirits.’ That’s their song. There are a million people in that crowd. Go forward. More. Go to the demonstration for Mrs. Aquino. Stop! Look at her crowds. The people are just not there for her. Mrs. Aquino is an out-and-out Communist. America doesn’t want to believe this, but it is true. The minister of labor is a Communist. Go forward. To the nuns and the priests. Look at them. ‘Marcos,’ they are yelling. Nuns. Look here, Mr. Dunne, do you see that woman? She is a famous film star. All those people there are artists and writers. All the creative people are for Marcos. Go forward. Watch here. See that child on the shoulders of his mother? The Communist Mrs. Aquino’s soldiers are going to shoot that child. Watch. Listen to what they’re saying about Cardinal Sin. They say, ‘Cardinal Sin is the officer in charge of hell!’ ”\nWhen the tape ended, we sat for a few moments in silence. “Would you like to see my house?” she asked. In the kitchen a half-dozen women were preparing lunch, setting out big plates of mismatched food, like a potluck dinner. “The people here bring us our food,” she said, exchanging greetings with the women. “Two people sleep on the floor of this room,” she said, opening the door of a tiny laundry room with a washer and dryer. She then opened the door of the maid’s room. Lined up on the floor were canvas cots, and there were women asleep on several of them. She walked in and stood in the small space between two of the cots. “Sixteen women sleep in here,” she said. “In shifts. The nurses and the women in the kitchen and the others.” The sleeping women slept through her talking. We next walked through the garage. On a shelf were a pile of unopened legal-looking envelopes. “Look,” she said, pointing to them and then holding them up for ridicule. “Do you know what these are? They’re subpoenas. We’re being sued by people all over the world. Even my daughter is being sued. Even my baby grandchild! Someone thinks valuables and Philippine currency were smuggled out in the baby’s clothes.” She shook her head at the lunacy of it. I followed her as she walked along a cement walkway between the garage and the one-room guesthouse next to it. “Forty-two men sleep in this room,” she said, indicating it with a toss of her head.\n“There were forty-two, Ma’am,” said the chief of the guards. “There are only fifteen here now.”\nInside were rows of cots with clothes piled on the floor beside each one. Some men were eating, some were sitting on their cots, some were sleeping. It was hot, and the room smelled. It looked like an enlisted men’s barracks badly in need of inspection. The men started out as we stared in.\nMrs. Marcos moved on across the lawn, stopping to look for a moment at a neighbor next door. No greeting passed between them. We went in the side entrance of the house and were in the hallway of the three main bedrooms. One bedroom was his. One was hers. Six people slept in the third bedroom, including the Marcoses’ eight-year-old adopted daughter, Aimee, the grandchild of Mrs. Marcos’s late brother and sister-in-law. A vibrant personality in the beleaguered household, Aimee had the previous Sunday patiently fanned Ferdinand Marcos in the hot auditorium during the anniversary proceedings. Their daughter Irene and her husband and children have their own house elsewhere. When I asked where her daughter Imee, a former member of Parliament, and her son, Ferdinand junior, the former governor of the province of Ilocos Norte, who is known as Bongbong, were, she did not answer. I had heard rumors that they were in Mexico seeking a haven for the family. The hallway was full of suitcases, piled high one on top of the other, cheap blue plastic cases next to expensive Louis Vuitton cases—the old kind of Louis Vuitton cases, before they were mass-marketed. On one bag was a tag saying “Mink Coat.”\n“We won the election by a million and a half votes,” she said, becoming impassioned again, “but the world media makes Mrs. Aquino look like Joan of Arc.” Her loathing of Corazon Aquino was evident in every word. “Even the people in her own province voted for my husband. She was the underdog because of Karma. She has abolished the constitution. What she is is a dictator. They are beginning to discover just how far to the left she is.”\nShe found a book about herself that she had been searching for. Page after page of it was filled with her cultural and political accomplishments. “I have been in more corridors of power than any woman in history,” she said. “I have been received by every head of state. Only five months ago I was received by Gorbachev. I went to Tripoli and personally made a treaty with Qaddafi, the only treaty he has ever honored.”\nShe turned the pages of the book. “I had this building built in a hundred days,” she said. “Our Cultural Center, which I commissioned, was built before the Kennedy Center and the Sydney Opera House. Reagan, when he was still the governor of California, came over to dedicate the center. I founded the University of Life. President Giscard d’Estaing came himself to see my University of Life so that he could build one in France. Today the literacy rate of the Philippines is 90 percent, and the literacy rate of the city of Manila is 100 percent!” A further litany of her accomplishments followed: “I planted … I founded … I built … I commissioned … I opened … I had composed … I began … ”\nShe paused dramatically. “Do you read about any of that in your papers? No. Your magazines showed a picture of me saying, ‘Mrs. Marcos was blazing in diamonds and rubies.’ ” Her voice was filled with scorn. “What they don’t understand was that the necklace was false. They are pop-in beads. I’ll show you. I’ve got them here. Most of the jewelry I wear is imitation, made by the artisans and craftsmen of my country.” A maid passed through the front hall, where we were standing, and Mrs. Marcos spoke to her in Pilipino. When the maid returned, she was carrying six or seven necklaces. Each in a stiff plastic case with snaps. “Look at these,” said Mrs. Marcos. She handed me the cases of necklaces, and I put them on the seat of a chair and knelt down to look at them. I do not know if they were imitation or not. Certainly they were beautiful, and the workmanship was extraordinary. On one necklace, canary diamonds alternated with pink diamonds. She said that the settings had been dipped in gold so that they would not turn her neck black.\nMrs. Marcos said that because these necklaces were imitation she had left them behind in Malacañang Palace when they fled. Later they were stolen from the palace. A friend of hers in Manila recognized them, bought them for 20,000 pesos, or about $1,000, and sent them to her in Honolulu.\nAt that moment a small louver window looking out from the hall onto the front porch opened vertically, and Ferdinand Marcos was framed in it. “I’m listening, Imelda,” he said. In an instant the First Lady threw a cloth over the cases of necklaces. “He doesn’t like me to show the jewelry,” she whispered. The president came out the door, and I felt ridiculous as I stood up in front of the chair to block his view. In another instant Mrs. Marcos was at his side. She took his hand affectionately. “Do you know, Ferdinand,” she said, “Mr. Dunne has written a best-selling novel that is going to be made into a film in Hollywood?”\n“Oh?” he said, smiling. “In Hollywood!”\nIn a wonderfully complex moment of stunning social pyrotechnics, Mrs. Marcos had diverted her husband’s attention and also acknowledged for the first time that she knew things about me. We chatted pleasantly, and then the president excused himself, saying he had to get back to work on one of the many lawsuits pending against them.\n“How much is this one for, Ferdinand?” she asked.\n“Oh, 24 billion,” he joked, and they both laughed.\nIt was time to leave. We shook hands good-bye. “For four hundred years we were a subject people,” she said. “When Marcos became president, we had been independent for only twenty years. We were a mixture of races. We had to identify who we were. We helped our people to understand what it meant to be Filipino.”\nDominick Dunne is a best-selling author and special correspondent for Vanity Fair. His diary is a mainstay of the magazine.\nShare",
"Ferdinand Marcos - Dictator, Lawyer - Biography.com\nFerdinand Marcos\nKnown for running a corrupt, undemocratic regime, Ferdinand Marcos was the president of the Philippines from 1966 to 1986 before fleeing to the United States.\nIN THESE GROUPS\nFamous People Who Died in United States\nSynopsis\nFerdinand Marcos, born on September 11, 1917, in Ilocos Norte province, was a member of the Philippine House of Representatives (1949-1959) and Senate (1959-1965) before winning the presidential election. After winning a second term, he declared martial law in 1972, establishing with wife Imelda an autocratic regime based on widespread favoritism that eventually lead to economic stagnation and recurring reports of human rights violations. Marcos held onto the presidency until 1986, when his people rose against his dictatorial rule and he was forced to flee. He died on September 28, 1989 in exile in Honolulu, Hawaii.\nBackground and Early Life\nFerdinand Marcos was born on September 11, 1917, in the municipality of Sarrat, part of the Ilocos Norte province. He went to school in Manila and later attended law school at the University of the Philippines. His father, Mariano Marcos, was a Filipino politician, and on September 20, 1935, after Julio Nalundasan defeated Mariano for a seat in the National Assembly (for the second time), Nalundasan was shot and killed in his home. Ferdinand, Mariano and other family members were eventually tried for the assassination, and Ferdinand was found guilty of murder. \nAppealing the verdict, Ferdinand argued on his own behalf to his country's supreme court and won acquittal in 1940. Remarkably, while Marcos was preparing his case in jail, he was studying for the bar exam and became a trial lawyer in Manila subsequent to the acquittal. (It has been reported that Marcos' freedom was abetted by Judge Ferdinand Chua, who was also believed by some to be Marcos' actual biological father.) \nSuccess in Politics\nDuring World War II, Ferdinand Marcos served as an officer with his country's armed forces, later claiming that he was also a top figure in the Filipino guerrilla resistance movement. (U.S. governmental records eventually revealed these assertions to be false.) At the end of the war, when the American government granted the Philippines independence on July 4, 1946, the Philippine Congress was created. After working as a corporate attorney, Marcos campaigned and was twice elected as representative to his district, serving from 1949 to 1959. In 1959, Marcos took a seat in the senate, a position he would hold until he ran for and won the presidency in 1965 on the Nationalist Party ticket.\nWhile serving in Congress, he wed singer and beauty queen Imelda Romualdez in 1954 after an 11-day courtship, with the couple going on to have three children.\nAscension to the Presidency\nMarcos was inaugurated on December 30, 1965. His first presidential term was notable for his decision to send troops into the fray of the Vietnam War, a move he had previously opposed as a Liberal Party senator. He also focused on construction projects and bolstering the country's rice production.\nMarcos was reelected in 1969, the first Filipino president to win a second term, but violence and fraud were associated with his campaign, which was believed to be funded with millions from the national treasury. What arose from the campaign unrest became known as the First Quarter Storm, during which leftists took to the streets to demonstrate against both American involvement in Philippine affairs and the increasingly apparent dictatorial style of Ferdinand Marcos.\nAuthoritarian Regime\nMarcos decreed martial law in 1972, with Imelda eventually becoming an official who often appointed her relatives to lucrative governmental and industrial positions. (She would later be known for accumulating upward of 1,000 pairs of shoes along with Manhattan luxury real estate.) These acts were part of Marcos’ state-imposed \"crony capitalism,\" by which private businesses were seized by the government and handed over to friends and relatives of regime members, later leading to much economic instability. Though making domestic headway over time with infrastructure projects and harvesting, Marcos' administration bolstered the military by huge numbers (recruiting unqualified personnel), curtailed public discourse, took over the media and imprisoned political opponents, students and denouncers at will.\nMarcos also oversaw a 1973 national referendum that allowed him to hold power indefinitely. Preceding a visit by Pope John Paul II , martial law ended in January 1981. Marcos, serving as both president and prime minister by this point, resigned from the latter post, still retaining the power to implement laws at his command and imprison dissenters without due process. In June 1981, he would win presidential reelection for another six years, with his political opponents boycotting the vote. \nDownfall\nOn August 21, 1983, the previously jailed Benigno Aquino Jr. returned from his long exile to offer the Philippine people a new face of hope, but he was shot and killed as he stepped off the plane in Manila. Countrywide demonstrations followed in the wake of the killing. Marcos launched a civilian-based independent commission whose findings implicated military personnel in Aquino's assassination, although it has since been suggested that Marcos or his wife had ordered the murder.\nWith the country's economy plummeting and Aquino's murder becoming part of the national consciousness, the urban wealthy and middle class, often core supporters of Marcos, began to push for an end to his power. Also contributing to Marcos' downfall was a far-reaching Communist insurgency and the resolution signed in 1985 by 56 assemblymen calling for his impeachment for enriching his personal coffers via crony capitalism, monopolies and overseas investments that violated the law. To quiet the opposition and reassert his power, Marcos called for special presidential elections to be held in 1986, a bit more than a year before the end of his current six-year term. The popular Corazon Aquino , the widow of Benigno, became the presidential candidate of the opposition.\nMarcos managed to defeat Aquino and retain the presidency, but his victory was deemed by many to be fraudulent. As word spread of the rigged election, a tense standoff ensued between supporters of Marcos and those of Aquino, with thousands upon thousands of citizens taking to the streets to support a non-violent military rebellion.\nExile, Death and Burial\nWith his health failing and support for his regime fading fast, on February 25, 1986, Ferdinand Marcos and much of his family were airlifted from the Manila presidential palace, going into exile in Hawaii. Evidence was later uncovered showing that Marcos and his associates had stolen billions from the Philippine economy. \nFocusing on racketeering charges, a federal grand jury then indicted both of the Marcoses, but Ferdinand died in Honolulu in 1989 from cardiac arrest after suffering from an array of ailments. Imelda was acquitted of all charges and returned to the Philippines the following year, though she went on to face other legal challenges. She would later run unsuccessfully for president and win congressional elections, with two of her three children, Imee and Ferdinand Jr., also serving as governmental officials.\nSince 1993, Marcos' corpse had been embalmed in a glass casket in his home province of Ilocos Norte. In 2016, President Rodrigo Duterte ordered Marcos' body to be buried at the National Heroes' Cemetery in Manila, with protests erupting in opposition to such a move considering Marcos' human rights abuses. Nonetheless, in November the remains of Marcos were interred at the new site in a hero's burial. \nFact Check\nWe strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us !\nCitation Information",
"Marcos flees the Philippines - Feb 25, 1986 - HISTORY.com\nMarcos flees the Philippines\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nIn the face of mass demonstrations against his rule, Philippines President Ferdinand Marcos and his entourage are airlifted from the presidential palace in Manila by U.S. helicopters.\nElected in 1966, Marcos declared martial law in 1972 in response to leftist violence. In the next year, he assumed dictatorial powers. Backed by the United States, his regime was marked by misuse of foreign support, repression, and political murders. In 1986, Marcos defrauded the electorate in a presidential election, declaring himself the victor over Corazon Aquino, the wife of an assassinated rival. Aquino also declared herself the rightful winner, and the public rallied behind her. Deserted by his former supporters, Marcos and his wife, Imelda, fled to Hawaii in exile, where they faced investigation on embezzlement charges. He died in 1989.\nRelated Videos"
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"The End of an Era - Handholding Ferdinand Marcos in Exile ...",
"Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines - About.com Education",
"Imelda in Exile | Vanity Fair",
"Ferdinand Marcos - Dictator, Lawyer - Biography.com",
"Marcos flees the Philippines - Feb 25, 1986 - HISTORY.com"
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Which American led a team to put 10 people on the summit of Everest in 1990?
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"Mount Everest | mountain, Asia | Britannica.com\nMount Everest\nAlternative Titles: Chomolungma, Chu-mu-lang-ma Feng, Peak XV, Qomolangma Feng, Sagarmatha, Zhumulangma Feng\nRelated Topics\nGerlinde Kaltenbrunner\nMount Everest, Sanskrit and Nepali Sagarmatha, Tibetan Chomolungma, Chinese (Pinyin) Zhumulangma Feng or (Wade-Giles romanization) Chu-mu-lang-ma Feng, also spelled Qomolangma Feng, mountain on the crest of the Great Himalayas of southern Asia that lies on the border between Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China , at 27°59′ N 86°56′ E. Reaching an elevation of 29,035 feet (8,850 metres), Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world, the highest point on Earth.\nLike other high peaks in the region, Mount Everest has long been revered by local peoples. Its most common Tibetan name, Chomolungma, means “Goddess Mother of the World” or “Goddess of the Valley.” The Sanskrit name Sagarmatha means literally “Peak of Heaven.” Its identity as the highest point on the Earth’s surface was not recognized, however, until 1852, when the governmental Survey of India established that fact. In 1865 the mountain—previously referred to as Peak XV—was renamed for Sir George Everest , British surveyor general of India from 1830 to 1843.\nThe North Face of Mount Everest, as seen from Tibet (China).\nMaria Stenzel—National Geographic/Getty Images\nPhysical features\nGeology and relief\nThe Himalayan ranges were thrust upward by tectonic action as the Indian-Australian Plate moved northward from the south and was subducted (forced downward) under the Eurasian Plate following the collision of the two plates between about 40 and 50 million years ago. The Himalayas themselves started rising about 25 to 30 million years ago, and the Great Himalayas began to take their present form during the Pleistocene Epoch (about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago). Everest and its surrounding peaks are part of a large mountain massif that forms a focal point, or knot, of this tectonic action in the Great Himalayas. Information from global positioning instruments in place on Everest since the late 1990s indicates that the mountain continues to move a few inches to the northeast and rise a fraction of an inch each year.\nThe Mount Everest massif, Himalayas, Nepal.\n© Marta/Fotolia\nMount Pinatubo\nEverest is composed of multiple layers of rock folded back on themselves (nappes). Rock on the lower elevations of the mountain consists of metamorphic schists and gneisses, topped by igneous granites. Higher up are found sedimentary rocks of marine origin (remnants of the ancient floor of the Tethys Sea that closed after the collision of the two plates). Notable is the Yellow Band, a limestone formation that is prominently visible just below the summit pyramid.\nThe barren Southeast, Northeast, and West ridges culminate in the Everest summit; a short distance away is the South Summit, a minor bump on the Southeast Ridge with an elevation of 28,700 feet (8,748 metres). The mountain can be seen directly from its northeastern side, where it rises about 12,000 feet (3,600 metres) above the Plateau of Tibet . The peak of Changtse (24,803 feet [7,560 metres]) rises to the north. Khumbutse (21,867 feet [6,665 metres]), Nuptse (25,791 feet [7,861 metres]), and Lhotse (27,940 feet [8,516 metres]) surround Everest’s base to the west and south.\nEverest is shaped like a three-sided pyramid . The three generally flat planes constituting the sides are called faces, and the line by which two faces join is known as a ridge. The North Face rises above Tibet and is bounded by the North Ridge (which meets the Northeast Ridge) and the West Ridge; key features of this side of the mountain include the Great and Hornbein couloirs (steep gullies) and the North Col at the start of the North Ridge. The Southwest Face rises above Nepal and is bounded by the West Ridge and the Southeast Ridge; notable features on this side include the South Col (at the start of the Southeast Ridge) and the Khumbu Icefall, the latter a jumble of large blocks of ice that has long been a daunting challenge for climbers. The East Face—or Kangshung (Kangxung) Face—also rises above Tibet and is bounded by the Southeast Ridge and the Northeast Ridge.\nMount Everest (left background) towering above the Khumbu Icefall at the mountain’s base, …\nLee Klopfer/Alamy\nBig Radio Burst from Tiny Galaxy\nThe summit of Everest itself is covered by rock-hard snow surmounted by a layer of softer snow that fluctuates annually by some 5–20 feet (1.5–6 metres); the snow level is highest in September, after the monsoon, and lowest in May after having been depleted by the strong northwesterly winter winds. The summit and upper slopes sit so high in the Earth’s atmosphere that the amount of breathable oxygen there is one-third what it is at sea level. Lack of oxygen, powerful winds, and extremely cold temperatures preclude the development of any plant or animal life there.\nDrainage and climate\nAll About Asia\nGlaciers cover the slopes of Everest to its base. Individual glaciers flanking the mountain are the Kangshung Glacier to the east; the East, Central, and West Rongbuk (Rongpu) glaciers to the north and northwest; the Pumori Glacier to the northwest; and the Khumbu Glacier to the west and south, which is fed by the glacier bed of the Western Cwm, an enclosed valley of ice between Everest and the Lhotse-Nuptse Ridge to the south. Glacial action has been the primary force behind the heavy and continuous erosion of Everest and the other high Himalayan peaks.\nFrozen pond on the Khumbu Glacier, near Mount Everest, Himalayas, Nepal.\n© Shawn McCullars\nThe mountain’s drainage pattern radiates to the southwest, north, and east. The Khumbu Glacier melts into the Lobujya (Lobuche) River of Nepal, which flows southward as the Imja River to its confluence with the Dudh Kosi River . In Tibet the Rong River originates from the Pumori and Rongbuk glaciers and the Kama River from the Kangshung Glacier: both flow into the Arun River, which cuts through the Himalayas into Nepal. The Rong, Dudh Kosi, and Kama river valleys form, respectively, the northern, southern, and eastern access routes to the summit.\nBuddhist prayer flags fluttering in front of the Mount Everest massif; in the foreground is the …\nAlan Kearney—Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images\nConnect with Britannica\nFacebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest\nThe climate of Everest is always hostile to living things. The warmest average daytime temperature (in July) is only about −2 °F (−19 °C) on the summit; in January , the coldest month, summit temperatures average −33 °F (−36 °C) and can drop as low as −76 °F (−60 °C). Storms can come up suddenly, and temperatures can plummet unexpectedly. The peak of Everest is so high that it reaches the lower limit of the jet stream , and it can be buffeted by sustained winds of more than 100 miles (160 km) per hour. Precipitation falls as snow during the summer monsoon (late May to mid-September). The risk of frostbite to climbers on Everest is extremely high.\nThe height of Everest\nControversy over the exact elevation of the summit developed because of variations in snow level, gravity deviation, and light refraction. The figure 29,028 feet (8,848 metres), plus or minus a fraction, was established by the Survey of India between 1952 and 1954 and became widely accepted. This value was used by most researchers, mapping agencies, and publishers until 1999.\nAttempts were subsequently made to remeasure the mountain’s height. A Chinese survey in 1975 obtained the figure of 29,029.24 feet (8,848.11 metres), and an Italian survey, using satellite surveying techniques, obtained a value of 29,108 feet (8,872 metres) in 1987, but questions arose about the methods used. In 1992 another Italian survey, using the Global Positioning System ( GPS ) and laser measurement technology, yielded the figure 29,023 feet (8,846 metres) by subtracting from the measured height 6.5 feet (2 metres) of ice and snow on the summit, but the methodology used was again called into question.\nIn 1999 an American survey, sponsored by the (U.S.) National Geographic Society and others, took precise measurements using GPS equipment. Their finding of 29,035 feet (8,850 metres), plus or minus 6.5 feet (2 metres), was accepted by the society and by various specialists in the fields of geodesy and cartography . The Chinese mounted another expedition in 2005 that utilized ice-penetrating radar in conjunction with GPS equipment. The result of this was what the Chinese called a “rock height” of 29,017.12 feet (8,844.43 metres), which, though widely reported in the media, was recognized only by China for the next several years. Nepal in particular disputed the Chinese figure, preferring what was termed the “snow height” of 29,028 feet. In April 2010 China and Nepal agreed to recognize the validity of both figures.\nHuman factors\nEditor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies\nHabitation\nEverest is so tall and its climate so severe that it is incapable of supporting sustained human occupation, but the valleys below the mountain are inhabited by Tibetan-speaking peoples. Notable among these are the Sherpa s, who live in villages at elevations up to about 14,000 feet (4,270 metres) in the Khumbu valley of Nepal and other locations. Traditionally an agricultural people with little cultivable land at their disposal, the Sherpas for years were traders and led a seminomadic lifestyle in their search for pastureland. In summer , livestock was grazed as high as 16,000 feet (4,880 metres), while winter refuge was taken at lower elevations on sheltered ledges and along riverbanks.\nA herders’ shelter in the Mount Everest region of the Himalayas; Lhotse I, just southeast of …\nTed Kerasote/Photo Researchers\nLiving in close proximity to the world’s highest mountains, the Sherpas traditionally treated the Himalayas as sacred—building Buddhist monasteries at their base, placing prayer flags on the slopes, and establishing sanctuaries for the wildlife of the valleys that included musk deer, monal pheasant, and Himalayan partridge. Gods and demons were believed to live in the high peaks, and the Yeti (the so-called Abominable Snowman ) was said to roam the lower slopes. For these reasons, the Sherpas traditionally did not climb the mountains.\nHowever, beginning with the British expeditions of the early 20th century, surveying and portering work became available. Eventually, the respect and pay earned in mountaineering made it attractive to the Sherpas, who, being so well adapted to the high altitudes, were capable of carrying large loads of cargo over long distances. Though Sherpas and other hill people (the name Sherpa came to be applied—erroneously—to all porters) tend to outperform their foreign clients, they typically have played a subordinate role in expeditions; rarely, for example, has one of their names been associated with a pioneering route on Everest. The influx of foreign climbers—and, in far greater numbers, trekkers—has dramatically changed Sherpa life, as their livelihood increasingly has come to depend on these climbing expeditions.\nIndustrial Revolution\nOn the Nepalese side of the international boundary, the mountain and its surrounding valleys lie within Sagarmatha National Park, a 480-square-mile (1,243-square-km) zone established in 1976. In 1979 the park was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site . The valleys contain stands of rhododendron and forests of birch and pine, while above the tree line alpine vegetation extends to the feet of the glaciers. Over the years, carelessness and excessive consumption of resources by mountaineers, as well as overgrazing by livestock, have damaged the habitats of snow leopards , lesser pandas , Tibetan bears , and scores of bird species. To counteract past abuses, various reforestation programs have been carried out by local communities and the Nepalese government.\nExpeditions have removed supplies and equipment left by climbers on Everest’s slopes, including hundreds of oxygen containers. A large quantity of the litter of past climbers—tons of items such as tents , cans, crampons, and human waste—has been hauled down from the mountain and recycled or discarded. However, the bodies of most of the more than 280 climbers who have died on Everest (notably on its upper slopes) have not been removed, as they are unreachable or—for those that are accessible—their weight makes carrying them down extremely difficult. Notable in the cleanup endeavour have been the efforts of the Eco Everest Expeditions, the first of which was organized in 2008 to commemorate the death that January of Everest-climbing pioneer Sir Edmund Hillary . Those expeditions also have publicized ecological issues (in particular, concerns about the effects of climate change in the region through observations that the Khumbu Icefall has been melting).\nMountaineering on Everest\nThe human challenge\nMount Everest is difficult to get to and more difficult to climb, even with the great advances made in equipment, transportation , communications, and weather forecasting since the first major expeditions in the 1920s. The mountain itself lies in a highly isolated location. There are no roads in the region on the Nepalese side, and before the 1960s all goods and supplies had to be carried long distances by humans and pack animals. Since then, airstrips built in the Khumbu valley have greatly facilitated transport to the Everest vicinity, although the higher areas have remained accessible only via footpaths. In Tibet there is now a road to the north-side Base Camp.\nClimbers on the Nepali side of Mount Everest.\n© David Keaton/Corbis\nThere are only two brief time periods when the weather on Everest is the most hospitable for an ascent. The best one is in April and May, right before the monsoon . Once the monsoon comes, the snow is too soft and the likelihood of avalanche too great. For a few weeks in September, after the monsoon, weather conditions may also permit an attempt; by October, however, the winter storms begin and persist until March, making climbing then nearly impossible.\nIn addition to the challenges posed by Everest’s location and climate , the effects of high altitudes on the human body are extreme: the region in the Himalayas above about 25,000 feet (7,600 metres) is known as the “death zone.” Climbers at such high altitude have much more rapid breathing and pulse rates (as their bodies try to obtain more oxygen ). In addition, they are not able to digest food well (and often find eating unappealing), they sleep poorly, and they often find their thinking to be confused. These symptoms are manifestations of oxygen deprivation ( hypoxia ) in the body tissues, which makes any effort difficult and can lead to poor decisions being made in an already dangerous environment . Supplemental (bottled) oxygen breathed through a mask can partially alleviate the effects of hypoxia , but it can present an additional problem if a climber becomes used to the oxygen and then runs out while still at high altitude. (See also altitude sickness .)\nTwo other medical conditions can affect climbers at high elevations. High-altitude cerebral edema (HACE) occurs when the body responds to the lack of oxygen by increasing blood flow to the brain ; the brain begins to swell, and coma and death may occur. High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a similar condition in which the body circulates additional blood to the lungs ; this blood begins to leak into the air sacs , and death is caused essentially by drowning . The most effective treatment for both conditions is to move the affected person to a lower elevation. It has been found that the drug dexamethasone is a useful emergency first-aid treatment when injected into stricken climbers, allowing them to regain movement (when they might otherwise be incapacitated) and thus descend.\nRoutes and techniques\nThe southern route via the Khumbu Icefall and the South Col is the one most commonly taken by climbers attempting to summit Everest. It is the route used by the 1953 British expedition when New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay became the first men known to have reached Everest’s summit. The northern route, attempted unsuccessfully by seven British expeditions in the 1920s and ’30s, is also climbed. It is now generally accepted that the first successful ascent via that approach was made by a Chinese expedition in 1960, with Wang Fuzhou, Qu Yinhua, Liu Lianman, and a Tibetan, Konbu, reaching the summit. The East Face, Everest’s biggest, is rarely climbed. An American team made the first ascent of it in 1983, and Carlos Buhler, Kim Momb, and Lou Reichardt reached the summit.\nMountaineer Apa Sherpa climbing through the Khumbu Icefall en route to his 20th ascent of the …\nPhoto courtesy of www.apasherpa.com\nPerhaps because most of the early climbers on Everest had military backgrounds, the traditional method of ascending it has been called “ siege” climbing. With this technique, a large team of climbers establishes a series of tented camps farther and farther up the mountain’s side. For instance, on the most frequently climbed southern route, the Base Camp on the Khumbu Glacier is at an elevation of about 17,600 feet (5,400 metres). The theory is that the climbers ascend higher and higher to establish camps farther up the route, then come down to sleep at night at the camp below the one being established. (Mountain climbers express this in the phrase, “Climb high, sleep low.”) This practice allows climbers to acclimatize to the high altitude. Camps are established along the route about every 1,500 feet (450 metres) of vertical elevation and are given designations of Camp I, Camp II, and so on. Finally, a last camp is set up close enough to the summit (usually about 3,000 feet [900 metres] below) to allow a small group (called the “assault” team) to reach the peak. This was the way the British organized their expeditions; most of the large commercial expeditions continue to use it—except that all paying clients are now given a chance at the summit. Essential to the siege climbing style is the logistical support given to the climbers by the Sherpas.\nAmerican Robert Anderson, leader of the 1988 Everest expedition, follows a fixed rope up a steep …\n© Stephen Venables\nThere had been a feeling among some early 20th-century climbers that ascending with oxygen , support from Sherpas, and a large party was “unsporting” or that it missed the point of mountain climbing. British explorer Eric Shipton expressed the view that these large expeditions caused climbers to lose their sense of the aesthetic of mountain climbing and to focus instead on only achieving the summit. Top mountaineers, disenchanted with the ponderous and predictable nature of these siege climbs, began in the 1970s to bring a more traditional “ Alpine ” style of climbing to the world’s highest peaks; by the 1980s this included even Everest. In this approach, a small party of perhaps three or four climbers goes up and down the mountain as quickly as possible, carrying all needed gear and provisions. This lightweight approach precludes fixing miles of safety ropes and carrying heavy supplemental oxygen. Speed is of the essence. However, at least four weeks still must be spent at and around Base Camp acclimatizing to altitude before the party can consider a summit attempt.\nTents of the Mount Everest Base Camp dotting the background landscape behind a pony, Himalayas, …\n© Shawn McCullars\nEarly expeditions\nReconnaissance of 1921\nIn the 1890s British army officers Sir Francis Younghusband and Charles (C.G.) Bruce, who were stationed in India, met and began discussing the possibility of an expedition to Everest. The officers became involved with two British exploring organizations—the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) and the Alpine Club—and these groups became instrumental in fostering interest in exploring the mountain. Bruce and Younghusband sought permission to mount an Everest expedition beginning in the early 1900s, but political tensions and bureaucratic difficulties made it impossible. Though Tibet was closed to Westerners, British officer John (J.B.L.) Noel disguised himself and entered it in 1913; he eventually got within 40 miles (65 km) of Everest and was able to see the summit. His lecture to the RGS in 1919 once again generated interest in Everest, permission to explore it was requested of Tibet, and this was granted in 1920. In 1921 the RGS and the Alpine Club formed the Mount Everest Committee, chaired by Younghusband, to organize and finance the expedition. A party under Lieutenant Colonel C.K. Howard-Bury set out to explore the whole Himalayan range and find a route up Everest. The other members were G.H. Bullock , A.M. Kellas, George Mallory , H. Raeburn, A.F.R. Wollaston, Majors H.T. Morshead and O.E. Wheeler (surveyors), and A.M. Heron (geologist).\nGeorge Mallory (seated, far left) and Guy Bullock (seated, third from the left), planners of the …\nThe Granger Collection, New York\nDuring the summer of 1921 the northern approaches to the mountain were thoroughly explored. On the approach to Everest, Kellas died of heart failure. Because Raeburn also fell ill, the high exploration devolved almost entirely upon Mallory and Bullock. Neither had Himalayan experience, and they were faced with the problem of acclimatization besides the difficulty of the terrain.\nThe first object was to explore the Rongbuk valley. The party ascended the Central Rongbuk Glacier, missing the narrower opening of the eastern branch and the possible line up Everest. They returned eastward for a rest at Kharta Shekar. From there they discovered a pass at 22,000 feet (6,700 metres), the Lhakpa (Lhagba), leading to the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier. The saddle north of Everest, despite its forbidding appearance, was climbed on September 24 by Mallory, Bullock, and Wheeler and named the North Col. A bitter wind prevented them from going higher, but Mallory had from there traced a potential route to the summit.\nAttempt of 1922\nMembers of the expedition were Brigadier General C.G. Bruce (leader), Captain J.G. Bruce, C.G. Crawford, G.I. Finch, T.G. Longstaff, Mallory, Captain C.J. Morris, Major Morshead, Edward Norton , T.H. Somervell, Colonel E.I. Strutt, A.W. Wakefield, and John Noel. It was decided that the mountain must be attempted before the onset of the summer monsoon. In the spring, therefore, the baggage was carried by Sherpas across the high, windy Plateau of Tibet.\nSupplies were carried from Base Camp at 16,500 feet (5,030 metres) to an advanced base at Camp III. From there, on May 13, a camp was established on the North Col. With great difficulty a higher camp was set at 25,000 feet (7,620 metres) on the sheltered side of the North Ridge. On the next morning, May 21, Mallory, Norton, and Somervell left Morshead, who was suffering from frostbite, and pushed on through trying windy conditions to 27,000 feet (8,230 metres) near the crest of the Northeast Ridge. On May 25 Finch and Captain Bruce set out from Camp III using oxygen. Finch, a protagonist of oxygen, was justified by the results. The party, with the Gurkha Tejbir Bura, established Camp V at 25,500 feet (7,772 metres). There they were stormbound for a day and two nights, but the next morning Finch and Bruce reached 27,300 feet (8,320 metres) and returned the same day to Camp III. A third attempt during the early monsoon snow ended in disaster. On June 7 Mallory, Crawford, and Somervell, with 14 Sherpas, were crossing the North Col slopes. Nine Sherpas were swept by an avalanche over an ice cliff, and seven were killed. Mallory’s party was carried down 150 feet (45 metres) but not injured.\nAttempt of 1924\nMembers of the expedition were Brigadier General Bruce (leader), Bentley Beetham, Captain Bruce, J. de V. Hazard, Major R.W.G. Hingston, Andrew Irvine, Mallory, Norton, Noel Odell, E.O. Shebbeare (transport), Somervell, and Noel (photographer). Noel devised a novel publicity scheme for financing this trip by buying all film and lecture rights for the expedition, which covered the entire cost of the venture. To generate interest in the climb, he designed a commemorative postcard and stamp; sacks of postcards were then mailed from Base Camp, mostly to schoolchildren who had requested them. This was the first of many Everest public relations ventures.\nOn the climb itself, because of wintry conditions, Camp IV on the North Col was established only on May 22 by a new and steeper though safer route; the party was then forced to descend. General Bruce had to return because of illness, and under Norton Camp IV was reestablished on June 1. At 25,000 feet (7,620 metres), Mallory and Captain Bruce were stopped when the Sherpas became exhausted. On June 4 Norton and Somervell, with three Sherpas, pitched Camp VI at 26,800 feet (8,170 metres); the next day they reached 28,000 feet (8,535 metres). Norton went on to 28,100 feet (8,565 metres), a documented height unsurpassed until 1953. Mallory and Irvine , using oxygen, set out from the North Col on June 6. On June 8 they started for the summit. Odell, who had come up that morning, believed he saw them in early afternoon high up between the mists.\nInitially, Odell claimed to have seen them at what became known as the Second Step (more recently, some have claimed that Odell was describing the Third Step), though later he was less certain exactly where it had been. On the Northeast Ridge there are three “steps”—steep rock barriers—between the elevations of 27,890 and 28,870 feet (8,500 and 8,800 metres) that make the final approach to the summit difficult. The First Step is a limestone vertical barrier about 110 feet (34 metres) high. Above that is a ledge and the Second Step, which is about 160 feet (50 metres) high. (In 1975 a Chinese expedition from the north affixed an aluminum ladder to the step that now makes climbing it much easier.) The Third Step contains another sheer section of rock about 100 feet (30 metres) high that leads to a more gradual slope to the summit. If Odell actually saw Mallory and Irvine at the Third Step at about 12:50 pm, then they would have been some 500 feet (150 metres) below the summit at that point. However, there has long been great uncertainty and considerable debate about all this, especially whether the pair made it to the top that day and if they were ascending or descending the mountain when Odell spotted them. The next morning Odell went up to search and reached Camp VI on June 10, but he found no trace of either man.\nWhen Mallory was asked why he wanted to climb Everest, he replied with the famous line, “Because it’s there.” The British public had come to admire the determined climber over the course of his three expeditions, and they were shocked by his disappearance. (The fate of Mallory remained a mystery for 75 years; see Finding Mallory and commemorating the historic ascents .)\nAttempt of 1933\nMembers of the expedition were Hugh Ruttledge (leader), Captain E. St. J. Birnie, Lieutenant Colonel H. Boustead, T.A. Brocklebank, Crawford, C.R. Greene, Percy Wyn-Harris, J.L. Longland, W.W. McLean, Shebbeare (transport), Eric Shipton, Francis S. Smythe, Lawrence R. Wager, G. Wood-Johnson, and Lieutenants W.R. Smyth-Windham and E.C. Thompson (wireless).\nHigh winds made it extremely difficult to establish Base Camp in the North Col, but it was finally done on May 1. Its occupants were cut off from the others for several days. On May 22, however, Camp V was placed at 25,700 feet (7,830 metres); again storms set in, retreat was ordered, and V was not reoccupied until the 28th. On the 29th Wyn-Harris, Wager, and Longland pitched Camp VI at 27,400 feet (8,350 metres). On the way down, Longland’s party, caught in a blizzard, had great difficulty.\nOn May 30, while Smythe and Shipton came up to Camp V, Wyn-Harris and Wager set off from Camp VI. A short distance below the crest of the Northeast Ridge, they found Irvine’s ice ax. They reckoned that the Second Step was impossible to ascend and were compelled to follow Norton’s 1924 traverse to the Great Couloir splitting the face below the summit. They crossed the gorge to a height about the same as Norton’s but then had to return. Smythe and Shipton made a final attempt on June 1. Shipton returned to Camp V. Smythe pushed on alone, crossed the couloir, and reached the same height as Wyn-Harris and Wager. On his return the monsoon ended operations.\nAlso in 1933 a series of airplane flights were conducted over Everest—the first occurring on April 3—which permitted the summit and surrounding landscape to be photographed. In 1934 Maurice Wilson, an inexperienced climber who was obsessed with the mountain, died above Camp III attempting to climb Everest alone.\nReconnaissance of 1935\nIn 1935 an expedition led by Shipton was sent to reconnoitre the mountain, explore the western approaches, and discover more about monsoon conditions. Other members were L.V. Bryant, E.G.H. Kempson, M. Spender (surveyor), H.W. Tilman, C. Warren, and E.H.L. Wigram. In late July the party succeeded in putting a camp on the North Col, but dangerous avalanche conditions kept them off the mountain. One more visit was paid to the North Col area in an attempt on Changtse (the north peak). During the reconnaissance Wilson’s body was found and buried; his diary was also recovered.\nAttempts of 1936 and 1938\nMembers of the 1936 expedition were Ruttledge (leader), J.M.L. Gavin, Wyn-Harris, G.N. Humphreys, Kempson, Morris (transport), P.R. Oliver, Shipton, Smyth-Windham (wireless), Smythe, Warren, and Wigram. This expedition had the misfortune of an unusually early monsoon. The route up to the North Col was finished on May 13, but the wind had dropped, and heavy snowfalls almost immediately after the camp was established put an end to climbing the upper part of the mountain. Several later attempts to regain the col failed.\nMembers of the 1938 expedition were Tilman (leader), P. Lloyd, Odell, Oliver, Shipton, Smythe, and Warren. Unlike the two previous parties, some members of this expedition used oxygen . The party arrived early, in view of the experience of 1936, but they were actually too early and had to withdraw, meeting again at Camp III on May 20. The North Col camp was pitched under snowy conditions on May 24. Shortly after, because of dangerous snow, the route was changed and a new one made up the west side of the col. On June 6 Camp V was established. On June 8, in deep snow, Shipton and Smythe with seven Sherpas pitched Camp VI, at 27,200 feet (8,290 metres), but the next day they were stopped above it by deep powder. The same fate befell Tilman and Lloyd, who made their attempt on the 11th. Lloyd benefited from an open-circuit oxygen apparatus that partly allowed him to breathe the outside air. Bad weather compelled a final retreat.\nGolden age of Everest climbs\nReconnaissance of 1951\nAfter 1938, expeditions to Everest were interrupted by World War II and the immediate postwar years. In addition, the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950 precluded using the northern approach. In 1951 permission was received from the Nepalese for a reconnaissance of the mountain from the south. Members of the expedition were Shipton (leader), T.D. Bourdillon, Edmund Hillary, W.H. Murray, H.E. Riddiford, and M.P. Ward. The party marched through the monsoon, reaching Namche Bazar, the chief village of Solu-Khumbu, on September 22. At Khumbu Glacier they found it possible to scale the great icefall seen by Mallory from the west. They were stopped at the top by a huge crevasse but traced a possible line up the Western Cwm (cirque, or valley) to the South Col, the high saddle between Lhotse and Everest.\nSpring attempt of 1952\nExpedition members were E. Wyss Dunant (leader), J.J. Asper, R. Aubert, G. Chevalley, R. Dittert (leader of climbing party), L. Flory, E. Hofstetter, P.C. Bonnant, R. Lambert, A. Roch, A. Lombard (geologist), and A. Zimmermann (botanist). This strong Swiss party first set foot on the Khumbu Icefall on April 26. After considerable difficulty with the route, they overcame the final crevasse by means of a rope bridge. The 4,000-foot (1,220-metre) face of Lhotse, which had to be climbed to reach the South Col, was attempted by a route running beside a long spur of rock christened the Éperon des Genevois. The first party, Lambert, Flory, Aubert, and Tenzing Norgay (sirdar, or leader of the porters), with five Sherpas, tried to reach the col in one day. They were compelled to bivouac quite a distance below it (May 25) and the next day reached the summit of the Éperon, at 26,300 feet (8,016 metres), whence they descended to the col and pitched camp. On May 27 the party (less the five Sherpas) climbed up the Southeast Ridge. They reached approximately 27,200 feet (8,290 metres), and there Lambert and Tenzing bivouacked. The next day they pushed on up the ridge and turned back at approximately 28,000 feet (8,535 metres). Also on May 28 Asper, Chevalley, Dittert, Hofstetter, and Roch reached the South Col, but they were prevented by wind conditions from going higher and descended to the base.\nAutumn attempt of 1952\nMembers of this second Swiss expedition were Chevalley (leader), J. Buzio, G. Gross, Lambert, E. Reiss, A. Spöhel, and Norman Dyhrenfurth (photographer). The party found the icefall easier to climb than in the spring and had brought poles to bridge the great crevasse. Camp IV was occupied on October 20. Higher up, however, they were constantly harassed by bitterly cold winds. On the ice slope below the Éperon one Sherpa was killed, and the party took to the glaciated face of Lhotse on the right. The South Col was reached on November 19, but the summit party climbed only 300 feet (90 metres) higher before being forced to withdraw.\nThe historic ascent of 1953\nMembers of the expedition, which was sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club, were Colonel John Hunt (leader; later Baron Hunt), G.C. Band, Bourdillon, R.C. Evans, A. Gregory, Edmund Hillary , W.G. Lowe, C.W.F. Noyce, M.P. Ward, M.H. Westmacott, Major C.G. Wylie (transport), T. Stobart (cinematographer), and L.G.C. Pugh (physiologist). After three weeks’ training on neighbouring mountains, a route was worked out up the Khumbu Icefall, and it was possible to start ferrying loads of supplies to the Western Cwm head. Two forms of oxygen apparatus, closed- and open-circuit types, were tried. As a result of a reconnaissance of Lhotse in early May, Hunt decided that Bourdillon and Evans, experts on closed-circuit, should make the first attempt from the South Col. Hillary with Tenzing Norgay as sirdar were to follow, using open-circuit and a higher camp.\nRoute of Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay to the summit of Mount Everest, May 1953.\nBased on the map published by the Royal Geograhical Society\nLowe spent nine days, most of them with Ang Nyima Sherpa, working at the lower section of the Lhotse face. On May 17 a camp was pitched on it at 24,000 feet (7,315 metres). The route on the upper part of the face, over the top of the Éperon, was first made by Noyce and Annullu Sherpa on May 21. The next day 13 Sherpas led by Wylie, with Hillary and Tenzing ahead, reached the col and dumped loads. The fine weather continued from May 14 but with high winds. On May 24 the first summit party, with Hunt and two Sherpas in support, reached the col. On the 26th Evans and Bourdillon climbed to the South Summit of Everest, but by then it was too late in the day to go farther. Meanwhile Hunt and Da Namgyal Sherpa left loads for a ridge camp at 27,350 feet (8,335 metres).\nOn the 28th the ridge camp was established at 27,900 feet (8,500 metres) by Hillary, Tenzing, Lowe, Gregory, and Ang Nyima, and Hillary and Tenzing passed the night there. The two set out early on the morning of May 29, reaching the South Summit by 9:00 am. The first challenge on the final approach to the summit of Everest was a fairly level ridge of rock some 400 feet (120 metres) long flanked by an ice “cornice”; to the right was the East (Kangshung) Face, and to the left was the Southwest Face, both sheer drop-offs. The final obstacle, about halfway between the South Summit and the summit of Everest, was a steep spur of rock and ice—now called the Hillary Step. Though it is only about 55 feet (17 metres) high, the formation is difficult to climb because of its extreme pitch and because a mistake would be deadly. Climbers now use fixed ropes to ascend this section, but Hillary and Tenzing had only ice-climbing equipment. First Hillary and then Tenzing tackled the barrier much as one would climb a rock chimney—i.e., they inched up a little at a time with their backs against the rock wall and their feet wedged in a crack between the rock and ice.\nEdmund (later Sir Edmund) Hillary and Tenzing Norgay preparing to depart on their successful summit …\nThe Granger Collection, New York\nThey reached the summit of Everest at 11:30 am. Hillary turned to Tenzing, and the men shook hands; Tenzing then embraced Hillary in a hug. Hillary took photos, and the two searched for but did not find signs that Mallory and Irvine had been to the summit. Tenzing, a Buddhist, made an offering of food for the mountain; Hillary left a crucifix Hunt had given him. The two men ate some sweets and then headed down. They had spent about 15 minutes on the top of the world.\nThey were met on the slopes above the South Col that afternoon by Lowe and Noyce. Hillary is reputed to have said to Lowe, “Well, George, we knocked the bastard off.” By June 2 the whole expedition had reassembled at the Base Camp.\nA correspondent for The Times, James (later Jan) Morris, had hiked up to Camp IV to follow the story more closely and was on hand to cover the event. Worried that other papers might scoop him, Morris wired his story to the paper in code. It reached London in time to appear in the June 2 edition. A headline from another London paper published later that day, “All this, and Everest too!” referred to the fact that Elizabeth II was being crowned on the same day on which the news broke about the success on Everest. After years of privation during and after World War II and the subsequent loss of empire, the effect of the successful Everest ascent was a sensation for the British public. The feat was also celebrated worldwide, but nowhere like in Britain and the Commonwealth, whose climbers had been so closely associated with Everest for more than 30 years. As Walt Unsworth described it in Everest,\nAnd so, the British, as usual, had not only won the last battle but had timed victory in a masterly fashion. Even had it not been announced on Coronation Day it would have made world headlines, but in Britain the linking of the two events was regarded as almost an omen, ordained by the Almighty as a special blessing for the dawn of a New Elizabethan Age. It is doubtful whether any single adventure had ever before received such universal acclaim: Scott’s epic last journey, perhaps, or Stanley’s finding of Livingstone—it was of that order.\nTenzing Norgay (right) and Edmund Hillary showing the kit they wore to the top of Mount Everest, …\nAP\nThe expedition little expected the fanfare that awaited them on their return to Britain. Both Hillary and Hunt were knighted in July (Hunt was later made a life peer), and Tenzing was awarded the George Medal. All members of the expedition were feted at parties and banquets for months, but the spotlight fell mostly on Hillary and Tenzing as the men responsible for one of the defining events of the 20th century.\nEverest- Lhotse, 1956\nIn 1956 the Swiss performed the remarkable feat of getting two ropes up Everest and one up Lhotse , using oxygen. Members of the expedition were A. Eggler (leader), W. Diehl, H. Grimm, H.R. von Gunten, E. Leuthold, F. Luchsinger, J. Marmet, F. Müller, Reiss, A. Reist, and E. Schmied. They followed roughly the British route up the icefall and the Lhotse face. From their Camp VI Reiss and Luchsinger reached the summit of Lhotse on May 18. Camp VI was moved to the South Col, and the summit of Everest was reached from a camp at 27,500 feet (8,380 metres) by Marmet and Schmied (May 23) and Gunten and Reist (May 24).\nAttempts of 1960\nIn 1960 an Indian expedition with Sherpas, led by Brigadier Gyan Singh, attempted to scale Everest from the south. Camp IV was established in the Western Cwm on April 19. Bad weather followed, but a party using oxygen reached the South Col on May 9. On May 24 three members pitched a tent at 27,000 feet (8,230 metres) on the Southeast Ridge but were turned back by wind and weather at about 28,300 feet (8,625 metres). Continued bad weather prevented the second summit party’s leaving the South Col.\nAlso that spring it was reported that a Chinese expedition led by Shi Zhanzhun climbed Everest from the north. By their account they reached the North Col in April, and on May 24 Wang Fuzhou, Qu Yinhua, Liu Lianman, and a Tibetan mountaineer, Konbu, climbed the slab by a human ladder, reaching the top at 4:20 am to place the Chinese flag and a bust of Mao Zedong . The credibility of their account was doubted at the time but later was generally accepted (see below The north approach ).\n(Cuthbert) Wilfrid (Francis) Noyce (Henry Cecil) John Hunt Stephen Venables\nThe U.S. ascent of 1963\nThe first American expedition to Everest was led by the Swiss climber Norman Dyhrenfurth, who selected a team of 19 mountaineers and scientists from throughout the United States and 37 Sherpas. The purpose was twofold: to reach the summit and to carry out scientific research programs in physiology, psychology, glaciology, and meteorology . Of particular interest were the studies on how the climbers changed physiologically and psychologically under extreme stresses at high altitudes where oxygen deprivation was unavoidable. These studies were related to the U.S. space program, and among the 400 sponsors of the expedition were the National Geographic Society , the U.S. State Department , the National Science Foundation , the Office of Naval Research, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration , the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps, the Atomic Energy Commission , and the U.S. Air Force .\nOn February 20 the expedition left Kathmandu , Nepal, for Everest, 180 miles (290 km) away. More than 900 porters carried some 26 tons of food, clothing, equipment, and scientific instruments. Base Camp was established at 17,800 feet (5,425 metres) on Khumbu Glacier on March 20, one month earlier than on any previous expedition. For the next five weeks the team selected a route toward the summit and established and stocked a series of camps up the mountain via the traditional South Col route. They also explored the more difficult and untried West Ridge route. On May 1 James W. Whittaker and Nawang Gombu Sherpa, nephew of Tenzing Norgay, reached the summit despite high winds. On May 22 four other Americans reached the top. Two of them, William F. Unsoeld and Thomas F. Hornbein, made mountaineering history by ascending the West Ridge, which until then had been considered unclimbable. They descended the traditional way, along the Southeast Ridge toward the South Col, thus also accomplishing the first major mountain traverse in the Himalayas. On the descent, Unsoeld and Hornbein, along with Barry C. Bishop and Luther G. Jerstad (who had also reached the summit that day via the South Col), were forced to bivouac in the open at 28,000 feet (8,535 metres). All suffered frostbite, and Bishop and Unsoeld later lost their toes; the two had to be carried out of Base Camp on the backs of Sherpas. On July 8 Dyhrenfurth and all members of the expedition were presented the National Geographic Society’s Hubbard Medal by President John F. Kennedy .\nThe Indian ascent of 1965\nIn 1965 a 21-man Indian expedition, led by Lieutenant Commander M.S. Kohli, succeeded in putting nine men on the summit of Everest. India thus became the fourth country to scale the world’s highest mountain. One of the group, Nawang Gombu, became the first person ever to climb Mount Everest twice, having first accomplished the feat on the U.S. expedition.\nThe 1970s\nThe Southwest Face\nFrom 1966 to 1969 the government of Nepal banned mountaineers from climbing in the Nepalese Himalayas. When the ranges were reopened in 1969, the world’s top mountaineers—following the American example of 1963—set their eyes on new routes to Everest’s summit. With Tibet still closed and only the southern approach available, the obvious challenge was the huge Southwest Face rising from the Western Cwm. The crux of the problem was the Rock Band—a vertical cliff 2,000 feet (600 metres) high starting at about 26,250 feet (8,000 metres). A Japanese reconnaissance expedition reached the foot of the Rock Band in the autumn of 1969 and returned in spring 1970 for a full-scale attempt led by Matsukata Saburō. Failing to make further progress on the Southwest Face, the expedition switched to the easier South Col route, getting the first Japanese climbers, including the renowned Japanese explorer Uemura Naomi, to the summit.\nMount Everest, Himalayas, from Nepal.\n© Michelle Eadie/Fotolia\nExpeditions continued to lay “siege” to the Southwest Face. The most publicized of these climbs was the 1971 International Expedition led by Norman Dyhrenfurth; however, internationalist ideals were savaged by the stresses of high altitude, and the expedition degenerated into rancour between the British and non-British climbers. In the spring of 1972 a European expedition led by the German Karl Herrligkoffer was equally inharmonious.\nThe battle for the Southwest Face continued in a predictable pattern: large teams, supported by Sherpas acting as high-altitude porters, established a succession of camps in the broad, snow-covered couloir leading to the foot of the intractable Rock Band. Success finally came in the autumn of 1975 to a British expedition led by Chris (later Sir Chris) Bonington, who got the full team and its meticulously prepared equipment to Base Camp by the end of August and made the most of the mainly calm weather during the September time window.\nClimbing equipment had changed significantly since 1953. In the mid-1970s rigid box-shaped tents were bolted to aluminum alloy platforms dug into the 45° slope. Smooth-sheathed nylon ropes were affixed to the rock face to make a continuous safety line, which climbers could ascend and descend very efficiently. The 1975 expedition was a smooth operation that utilized a team of 33 Sherpas and was directed by some of the world’s best mountaineers. Unlike previous expeditions, this team explored a deep gully cutting through the left side of the Rock Band, with Paul Braithwaite and Nick Estcourt breaking through to establish Camp VI at about 27,000 feet (8,230 metres). From there Doug Scott and Dougal Haston made a long, bold traverse rightward, eventually gaining the South Summit and continuing over the Hillary Step to the Everest summit, which they reached at 6:00 pm. Rather than risk descending in the dark, they bivouacked in a snow cave close to the South Summit—at 28,750 feet (8,750 metres), this was the highest bivouac in climbing history until Babu Chiri Sherpa bivouacked on the summit itself in 1999. Their oxygen tanks were empty, and they had neither tent nor sleeping bags, but both men survived the ordeal unharmed and returned safely to Camp VI in the morning. Two days later Peter Boardman and Pertemba Sherpa reached the summit, followed by Mick Burke heading for the top in deteriorating weather. Burke never returned; he is presumed to have fallen to his death in the whiteout conditions.\nThe first ascent by a woman\nWhen Scott and Haston reached the summit of Everest in September 1975, they found a metal surveying tripod left the previous spring by a Chinese team—definitive proof of the first uncontested ascent from the north. The Chinese team included a Tibetan woman, Phantog, who reached the summit on May 27. The honours for the first woman to summit Everest, however, belong to the Japanese climber Tabei Junko, who reached the top from the South Col on May 16. She was climbing with the first all-women expedition to Everest (although male Sherpas supported the climb.)\nThe West Ridge direct ascent\nWith the Southwest Face climbed, the next obvious—and harder—challenge was the complete West Ridge direct ascent from Lho Pass (Lho La). Just getting to Lho Pass from Base Camp is a major climb. The West Ridge itself then rises 9,200 feet (2,800 metres) over a distance of 3.5 miles (5.5 km), much of it over difficult rock. In 1979 a Yugoslav team, led by Tone Skarja, made the first ascent, fixing ropes to Camp V at an elevation of about 26,750 feet (8,120 metres), with one rope fixed farther up a steep rock chimney (a crack or gorge large enough to permit a climber to enter). On May 13 Andrej Stremfelj and Jernej Zaplotnik set out from Camp V for the summit. Above the chimney there were two more hard pitches of rock climbing. With no spare rope to fix in place, the climbers realized that they would not be able to descend via these difficult sections. After reaching the summit in midafternoon, they descended by the Hornbein Couloir, bypassing the hardest part of the West Ridge to regain the safety of Camp IV late that evening.\nClimbing without supplemental oxygen\nBeginning in the 1920s and ’30s, the received wisdom had been that an Everest climb needed a team of at least 10 climbers supported by Sherpas and equipped with supplemental oxygen for the final stages. In 1978 that belief was shattered by the Italian (Tyrolean) climber Reinhold Messner and his Austrian climbing partner Peter Habeler . They had already demonstrated on other high Himalayan peaks the art of Alpine-style climbing—moving rapidly, carrying only the barest essentials, and sometimes not even roping together for safety—as opposed to the standard siege style. Another innovation was their use of plastic boots, which were much lighter than the leather equivalent. In 1978 Messner and Habeler attached themselves as a semiautonomous unit to a large German-Austrian expedition led by Oswald Ölz. At 5:30 am on May 8, the two men left their tent at the South Col and started up the summit ridge carrying nothing but ice axes, cameras , and a short rope. The only external assistance was from the Austrians at their top camp, above the South Col, where the two stopped briefly to melt snow for drinking water. (In those days it was still common practice to place a top camp higher than the South Col; nowadays virtually all parties start their final push from the col, some 3,100 feet [950 metres] below the summit). Maintaining a steady ascent rate of about 325 feet (100 metres) per hour, they reached the summit at 1:15 pm. Habeler was terrified of possibly suffering brain damage from the lack of oxygen and made a remarkable descent to the South Col in just one hour. Messner returned later that afternoon. Exhausted—and in Messner’s case snow-blind from having removed his goggles—the two were escorted back down to the Western Cwm the next morning by the Welsh climber Eric Jones.\nMountaineer Reinhold Messner, who pioneered climbing Mount Everest without supplemental oxygen and …\nJohn MacDougall—AFP/Getty Images\nMessner and Habeler had proved that human beings could climb to the top of the world without supplemental oxygen; the German Hans Engl and the Sherpas Ang Dorje and Ang Kami were among several climbers who duplicated this feat in the autumn of 1978. However, for Messner, climbing Everest without supplemental oxygen was not enough: he now wanted to reach the summit completely alone. To do that unroped over the treacherous crevasses of the Western Cwm was considered unthinkable, but it was possible on the less-crevassed northern approach through Tibet; by the late 1970s Tibet was again becoming an option.\nThe north approach\nAfter China occupied Tibet in 1950, permission was denied to any expeditions from noncommunist countries wishing to climb Everest. In 1960 the Chinese army built a road to the Rongbuk Base Camp, then claimed to have made the first ascent of Everest from the north, following the North Col–North Ridge–Northeast Ridge route earlier explored by prewar British expeditions. Many in the West doubted the Chinese assertion, mainly because the official account—which included the claim that Qu Yinhua had scaled the notorious vertical cliff of the Second Step barefoot and which also made constant references to party solidarity and the inspiration of Chairman Mao—was deemed so improbable. Not for the last time, Everest was used as a vehicle for propaganda .\nSince that time, however, people in the West have seen Qu’s feet, mutilated by frostbite, and experts have reexamined the 1960 photos and film—many now believe that Qu, Wang Fuzhou, Liu Lianman, and the Tibetan, Konbu, did indeed reach the summit on May 25, 1960. What none can doubt is the Chinese repeat ascent of 1975 by eight Tibetans (including Phantog) and one Chinese. On that climb the group bolted an aluminium ladder to the Second Step, which has remained there and greatly aided all subsequent ascents on what has become the standard route from the north.\nThe 1980s\nIn 1979 the Chinese authorities announced that noncommunist countries could again begin mounting Everest expeditions through Tibet. Japan was first to do so, with a joint Sino-Japanese expedition led by Watanabe Hyōrikō in the spring of 1980. Half of the 1980 team repeated the Chinese North Ridge–Northeast Ridge route, with Katō Yasuo reaching the summit alone—making him the first person to climb Everest from the south and north. Meanwhile, another team made the first complete ascent of the North Face from the Central Rongbuk Glacier. The upper face is split by the Great Couloir on the left and the Hornbein Couloir (first attained from the West Ridge in 1963) on the right. The 1980 team climbed a lower couloir (the Japanese Couloir) that led directly to the base of the Hornbein Couloir, which was then followed to the top. Shigehiro Tsuneo and Ozaki Takashi ran out of oxygen about four hours below the summit but continued without it, reaching the summit late and bivouacking on the way down. Once again, modern insulated clothing and modern psychological attitudes about what was possible on Everest had allowed climbers to push on in a manner unthinkable to the prewar pioneers.\nFirst solo climb\nReinhold Messner arrived at Rongbuk during the monsoon in July 1980. He spent a month acclimatizing, did one reconnaissance to the North Col to cache supplies there, then set off alone from Advance Base on the East Rongbuk Glacier before dawn on August 18. After a lucky escape from a concealed crevasse into which he had fallen, he reached the North Col, collected his gear, and continued to climb higher up the North Ridge. He then slanted diagonally right, as George Finch and Geoffrey Bruce had done in 1922, traversing a full 1.2 miles (2 km) before stopping to pitch his tent a second time, at 26,900 feet (8,200 metres). On the third day he entered the Great Couloir, continued up it, and achieved what had eluded Edward Norton, Lawrence Wager, Percy Wyn-Harris, and Francis Smythe by climbing rightward out of the couloir, onto the final terraces, and to the summit. Messner later recounted,\nI was in continual agony; I have never in my whole life been so tired as on the summit of Everest that day. I just sat and sat there, oblivious to everything.…I knew I was physically at the end of my tether.\nBack at his tent that night he was too weak even to eat or drink, and the next morning he jettisoned all his survival equipment, committing himself to descending all the way to Advance Base Camp in a single day.\nFurther exploration from Tibet\nMessner’s 1980 solo climb demonstrated just what could be done on the world’s highest mountain. With that same bold spirit, a four-man British team came to Rongbuk in 1982 to attempt the complete Northeast Ridge from Raphu Pass (Raphu La). While he was leading the climb of the first of the three prominent Pinnacles that start at about 26,900 feet (8,200 metres), Dick Renshaw suffered a mild stroke and was invalided home. The expedition leader, Chris Bonington, felt too tired to go back up, and thus it was left to Peter Boardman and Joe Tasker to attempt the final ascent. They were last seen alive between the First Pinnacle and the Second Pinnacle on May 17. Boardman’s body was found 10 years later, sitting in the snow near that point; Tasker has not been found.\nBase Camp for the 1988 ascent of Mount Everest via the East (Kangshung) Face, Tibet; prayer flags …\n© Stephen Venables\nIn 1981 a large American team made the first-ever attempt on Everest’s gigantic East Face from Kangshung Glacier. Avalanche risk thwarted the attempt, but the team returned in autumn of 1983 to attempt again the massive central buttress of the face. This produced some spectacularly hard climbing, led by George Lowe . Above the buttress, the route followed a broad spur of snow and ice to reach the Southeast Ridge just below the South Summit. Carlos Buhler, Lou Reichardt, and Kim Momb reached the Everest summit on October 8, followed the next day by Jay Cassell, Lowe, and Dan Reid.\nIn 1984 the first Australians to attempt Everest chose a new route up the North Face, climbing through the huge central snowfield, dubbed “White Limbo,” to gain the Great Couloir. Then, like Messner in 1980, the Australians cut out right, with Tim Macartney-Snape and Greg Mortimer reaching the summit at sunset before making a difficult descent in the dark.\nThe most remarkable achievement of this era was the 1986 ascent by the Swiss climbers Jean Troillet and Erhard Loretan. Like Messner, they snatched a clear-weather window toward the end of the monsoon for a lightning dash up and down the mountain. Unlike Messner, they did not even carry a tent and sleeping bags. Climbing by night, resting during the comparative warmth of the day, they took just 41.5 hours to climb the Japanese and Hornbein couloirs up the North Face; then, sliding most of the way on their backsides, they descended in about 4.5 hours.\nDevelopments in Nepal\nWhile the most dazzling deeds were being done on the Tibetan side of Everest, there was still much activity in Nepal during the 1980s, with the boldest pioneering expeditions coming from eastern European countries. For dogged teamwork, nothing has surpassed the first winter ascent of Everest. Completed in 1980 by a team of phenomenally rugged Polish climbers, this ascent was led by Andrzej Zawada; expedition members Leszek Cichy and Krzysztof Wielicki reached the summit on February 17. To crown this success, Zawada then led a spring expedition to make the first ascent of the South Pillar (left of the South Col), getting Andrzej Czok and Jerzy Kukuczka to the summit. Kukuczka, like Messner, would eventually climb all of the world’s 26,250-foot (8,000-metre) peaks, nearly all by difficult new routes.\nSeveral teams attempted to repeat the Yugoslav West Ridge direct route without success, until a Bulgarian team did so in 1984. The first Bulgarian to reach the summit, Christo Prodanov, climbed without supplemental oxygen, was forced to bivouac overnight during the descent, and died—one of four summiteers who climbed without oxygen in the 1980s and failed to return.\nThe first Soviet expedition to Everest, in 1982, climbed a new route up the left-hand buttress of the Southwest Face, involving harder climbing than the original 1975 route. Led by Evgeny Tamm, the expedition was highly successful, putting 11 Soviet climbers on the summit.\nThe end of an era\nThe last of the great pioneering climbs of the decade was via a new route up the left side of the East Face to the South Col. Led by American Robert Anderson, it included just four climbers who had no Sherpa support and used no supplemental oxygen. British climber Stephen Venables was the only member of this expedition to reach the summit, on May 12, 1988. After a harrowing descent, during which Venables was forced to bivouac overnight without a tent, all four members of the team made it back to the Base Camp.\nDuring the same period, more than 250 members of the “Asian Friendship Expedition” from China , Nepal, and Japan staged a simultaneous traverse of the mountain from north and south, which was recorded live on television. Also in 1988 the Sherpas Sungdare and Ang Rita both made their fifth summit of the mountain. That autumn the ace French climber, Marc Boivin, made the first paragliding descent from the summit; New Zealander Russell Brice and Briton Harry Taylor climbed the infamous Pinnacles on the Northeast Ridge; and four Czech climbers disappeared in a storm after making an Alpine-style climb of the Southwest Face without supplemental oxygen. The following year five Poles were lost in an avalanche on the West Ridge.\nThe increasing activity on Everest in 1988 foreshadowed what was to come. At the start of the spring season that year, fewer than 200 individuals had summited Everest. However, by the 2003 season, a half century after the historic climb by Hillary and Tenzing, that number exceeded 1,200, and more than 200 climbers had summited Everest two or more times. Both statistics grew dramatically in the succeeding decade, particularly the proportion of climbers with multiple ascents; by the end of the 2013 climbing season, the tally of successful ascents of the mountain was approaching 7,000, and some 2,750 had climbed it more than once.\nSince 1990\nCommercialism and tragedy\nIn the 1950s and ’60s the expense of mounting an expedition to Everest was so great and the number of climbers familiar with the Himalayas so few that there were many years in which no team attempted the mountain. By the 1970s expeditions had become more common, but Nepal was still issuing only two or three permits per year. In the 1980s permits became available for both the pre- and post- monsoon seasons and for routes via China as well as Nepal , and the total number of expeditions increased to about 10 per year. During the 1990s it became normal for there to be at least 10 expeditions per season on each side of the mountain, and those numbers continued to increase after 2000.\nAustralian climber Lincoln Hall on Mount Everest in May 1996, a survivor of the deadly events on …\nJamie McGuinness—Project-Himalaya.com/AP\nOne of the most successful operators, New Zealander Rob Hall, had led teams up the South Col route to the summit in 1990 and in 1992, ’93, and ’94. On May 10, 1996, his group and several other teams were caught at the summit in a bad afternoon storm. Hall and his American client, Doug Hansen, both died at the South Summit. An American guide from a separate commercial expedition, Scott Fischer, also died, along with several other climbers, including three Indians, on the Northeast Ridge. Although the deaths in the late 1980s had gone almost unnoticed, those from the 1996 storm were reported instantly over the Internet and generated massive press coverage and disaster literature. In all, 12 climbers died in that year’s pre-monsoon season, and an additional 3 died after the monsoon. The 1996 disaster may have caught the world’s attention, but it did nothing to decrease the lure of Everest. If anything, commercial traffic increased dramatically, despite the obvious message that no guide can guarantee a climber’s safety at such great heights. Indeed, after 2000 the number of climbers making it to the top of Everest continued to rise, reaching a peak of some 630 in 2007 and exceeding 650 in 2013.\nIt became increasingly common for several expeditions to be operating simultaneously on the mountain and for dozens of climbers to reach the summit on a single day; on May 23, 2001, nearly 90 accomplished the feat, and in succeeding years daily totals typically approached or exceeded that number during the peak of the May climbing season. An unprecedented 234 climbers made it to the top on May 19, 2012. Such large throngs of climbers inevitably created traffic jams in some of the narrower passages. One of the more notorious of those instances was on the record day, May 19, 2012, when the climbers became dangerously backed up at the Hillary Step. Four people died then, prompting expedition leaders to better coordinate their final ascent attempts with each other.\nSouthern (Hillary-Tenzing) summit route up Mount Everest showing the location of the April 18, …\nPhoto: Lee Klopfer/Alamy Art: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.\nOver the years, considerable improvements in climbing gear and equipment, technology (including mobile wireless availability on the mountain), and expedition planning have improved the safety of those climbing Everest. However, the region remains a highly dangerous place where tragedy can strike at any time. Two notable examples occurred almost exactly a year apart. On April 18, 2014, an avalanche struck a group of Sherpas who were carrying supplies through the Khumbu Icefall. A total of 16 died (13 confirmed; 3 missing and presumed killed), making it the deadliest single day in Everest climbing history to that date. On April 25, 2015, however, a massive earthquake in central Nepal triggered avalanches on Everest, one of which swept through Base Camp, killing or injuring dozens of climbers and workers there. The known death toll on the mountain was 19—which included one climber who died after being evacuated to a hospital—surpassing the total from the previous year. In addition, the route through the Khumbu Icefall was severely damaged, stranding dozens of climbers at Camps I and II above the icefall, who then had to be rescued by helicopter.\nClimbers walking to a helicopter landing site prior to evacuation from Mount Everest Base Camp, …\nPhurba Tenjing Sherpa—Reuters/Landov\nThe 2014 disaster put an end to the Nepalese-side climbing season, after the Sherpas decided that they would not climb. One Chinese woman did reach the summit after being helicoptered to and from Camp II, and some 125 climbers made it to the top from the north (Chinese) side. Soon after the 2015 Nepalese-side avalanche, Chinese officials announced that the climbing season on the north side was canceled. For a time, there was some discussion of trying to repair the damaged route through the icefall, but it was deemed not possible, thus effectively ending climbing on the south side also for that year’s spring season. The icefall route was repaired during the summer, and the Nepalese government issued a climbing permit to a Japanese mountaineer. In September he made a solo summit attempt before turning back at an elevation of about 26,740 feet (8,150 metres). As a result, 2015 was the first year in more than four decades that not one person had reached the top of Everest.\nExtraordinary feats\nIn pure mountaineering terms, the big achievements of the 1990s were the first winter ascent of the Southwest Face in 1993 (by a Japanese team led by Yagihara Kuniaki), the first complete ascent of the Northeast Ridge in 1995 (by another Japanese team led by Kanzaki Tadao), and the first ascent of the North-Northeast Couloir in 1996 (by a Russian team led by Sergei Antipin). Most of the activity, however, became concentrated on the two “normal” routes via the South Col and North Col; there the majority of expeditions were commercial operations, with clients paying for (generally) efficient logistics , satellite weather forecasts, the use of a copious amount of fixed ropes, and an increasingly savvy Sherpa workforce.\nMeanwhile, a few individuals continued to achieve astounding new feats. In 1990 Tim Macartney-Snape traveled on foot all the way from sea level in the Bay of Bengal to the summit of Everest, without supplemental oxygen. Goran Kropp took this a step further in 1996 by bicycling all the way from his native Sweden before ascending Everest; he then cycled home. In 2001 the first blind person, American Erik Weihenmayer, summited Everest; he was an experienced climber who had already scaled peaks such as Denali (Mount McKinley) in Alaska and Kilimanjaro in eastern Africa before his climb of Everest.\nBlind American climber Erik Weihenmayer on his successful summit ascent of Mount Everest in 2001.\n© Didrik Johnck/Corbis\nFor sheer physiological prowess, however, few could match the Sherpas: in 1999 Babu Chiri climbed the southern route from Base Camp to summit in 16 hours 56 minutes. However, this accomplishment was surpassed by two Sherpas in 2003— Pemba Dorje and Lakpa Gelu, with Lakpa summiting in just 10 hours 56 minutes. Not to be outdone, Pemba returned the next year and reached the top in 8 hours 10 minutes. Perhaps as remarkable were the achievements of Apa Sherpa . In 2000 he reached the summit for a record 11th time, and he continued to break his own mark in succeeding years. Beginning in 2008, Apa’s summit climbs were undertaken as a member of the Eco Everest Expeditions; he recorded his 21st ascent on May 11, 2011. Apa’s total was matched by another Sherpa, Phurba Tashi, in 2013.\nMountaineer Apa Sherpa on the summit of Mount Everest, 2009.\nMingma Sherpa\nThe record for the youngest person to reach the summit has been set several times since the advent of commercial Everest climbs. For some time it remained at 16 years after Nepal banned climbing by those younger than that age. However, at the time, China imposed no such restrictions, and in 2003 Ming Kipa Sherpa, a 15-year-old Nepalese girl, reached the summit from the Tibetan side. Her record was eclipsed in 2010 when American Jordan Romero, 13, reached the top—again from the north side—on May 22. Romero’s accomplishment was made all the more notable because it was the sixth of the seven continental high points he had reached.\nBeginning in the early 2000s, the record for the oldest person to ascend Everest alternated between two men, Japanese Miura Yūichirō and Nepalese Min Bahadur Sherchan. Miura—a former extreme skier who gained notoriety for skiing down the South Col in 1970 (the subject of an Academy Award -winning 1975 documentary, The Man Who Skied Down Everest)—set the standard at age 70, when he reached the top on May 22, 2003. On May 26, 2008, when he was 75, he made a second successful ascent, but Sherchan, age 76 and a former soldier, had summited the day before, on May 25, to claim the record. Miura regained the honour on May 23, 2013, at the age of 80. The oldest woman to reach the summit was another Japanese climber, Watanabe Tamae, who set the record twice: first on May 16, 2002, at age 63, and again on May 19, 2012, at age 73.\nSome of the most-remarkable of the “stunts” attempted since 1990 have been unusual descents. In 1996 Italian Hans Kammerlander made a one-day ascent and descent of the north side, the latter partly accomplished on skis. In 1999 Pierre Tardivel managed to ski down from the South Summit. The first complete uninterrupted ski descent from the summit was by Slovenian Davo Karničar in 2000, upstaged a year later by the French extreme sportsman Marco Siffredi with his even more-challenging snowboard descent of the North Face.\nFinding Mallory and commemorating historic ascents\nTwo notable Everest events bracketed the turn of the 21st century. In the spring of 1999, 75 years after George Mallory and Andrew Irvine had disappeared climbing Everest, an expedition led by American Eric Simonson set out to learn their fate. On May 1 members of the team found Mallory’s body lying on a scree terrace below the Yellow Band at about 26,700 feet (8,140 metres). It was determined that Mallory had died during or immediately after a bad fall: he had skull and compound leg fractures, and bruising was still visible on the preserved torso—probably caused by a rope that was still tied around his waist. The team could not determine if the body was the same one found by a Chinese climber in 1975 or if that one had been the body of Irvine. It was clear, however, that both Mallory and Irvine had been involved in a serious fall that broke the rope which undoubtedly joined them. Personal effects found on Mallory included his goggles, altimeter , and a pocketknife, but not the camera he is thought to have taken with him when he left for the summit. It had been hoped that the film from it (if it could be developed) might have revealed more about the climb, especially if the pair had reached the summit.\nThe 50th anniversary of Tenzing and Hillary’s historic ascent was widely observed in 2003. Commemoration of the event had actually begun the previous May, when second-generation summiteers—Hillary’s son Peter and Barry Bishop ’s son Brent—scaled the peak (the younger Hillary speaking to his father in New Zealand from the top via satellite phone); Tenzing’s son, Jamling Norgay, also participated in the expedition but did not make the final summit climb. In the spring of 2003 scores of climbers were able to reach the top of Everest before the May 29 anniversary date. Celebrations were held in several locations worldwide on the day itself, including one in Kathmandu where hundreds of past summit climbers joined Hillary and other members of the 1953 expedition.\nSeveral milestone anniversaries were observed in 2013. A variety of events were tied to remembering the 60th anniversary of Tenzing and Hillary’s climb, including summiting of Everest by hundreds of climbers and treks by others on and around its lower slopes. The Royal Geographical Society (RGS) hosted a special lecture on May 29 that included Peter Hillary, Jamling Tenzing, and Jan Morris—the latter being the last surviving member of the 1953 expedition. In March the RGS also hosted a 25th-anniversary reunion of members from the 1988 East Face expedition. Several members of the first U.S. ascent (1963), including James Whittaker and Norman Dyhrenfurth, gathered in San Francisco in February for an observance of the 50th anniversary of that expedition. In addition, the 80th anniversary of the first airplane flight over the mountain was remembered during the year."
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UN Secretary Dag Hammarskjold was killed over which country?
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tc_862
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The headquarters of the United Nations is in Manhattan, New York City, and experiences extraterritoriality. Further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict.\n\nThe United Nations Charter was drafted at a conference in April–June 1945; this charter took effect 24 October 1945, and the UN began operation. The UN's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in major actions in Korea and the Congo, as well as approving the creation of the state of Israel in 1947. The organization's membership grew significantly following widespread decolonization in the 1960s, and by the 1970s its budget for economic and social development programmes far outstripped its spending on peacekeeping. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across the world with varying degrees of success.\n\nThe UN has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) (for promoting international economic and social co-operation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (inactive since 1994). UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, and UNICEF. The UN's most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by South Korean Ban Ki-moon since 2007. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN's work.\n\nThe organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UN's effectiveness have been mixed. Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased.\n\nHistory\n\nBackground\n\nIn the century prior to the UN's creation, several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between countries. This organization resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail, aviation, and opium control, some of which would later be absorbed into the UN. However, the League lacked representation for colonial peoples (then half the world's population) and significant participation from several major powers, including the US, USSR, Germany, and Japan; it failed to act against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935, the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, and German expansions under Adolf Hitler that culminated in the Second World War.\n\n1942 \"Declaration of United Nations\" by the Allies of World War II\n\nThe earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. The text of the \"Declaration by United Nations\" was drafted by President Franklin Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins, while meeting at the White House, 29 December 1941. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France. \"Four Policemen\" was coined to refer four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which was emerged in Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries. \"On New Year's Day 1942, President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill, Maxim Litvinov, of the USSR, and T. V. Soong, of China, signed a short document which later came to be known as the United Nations Declaration and the next day the representatives of twenty-two other nations added their signatures.\" The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted. By 1 March 1945, 21 additional states had signed.\n\nA JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND, THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS, CHINA, AUSTRALIA, BELGIUM, CANADA, COSTA RICA, CUBA, CZECHOSLOVAKIA, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, EL SALVADOR, GREECE, GUATEMALA, HAITI, HONDURAS, INDIA, LUXEMBOURG, NETHERLANDS, NEW ZEALAND, NICARAGUA, NORWAY, PANAMA, POLAND, SOUTH AFRICA, YUGOSLAVIA\n\nThe Governments signatory hereto,\n\nHaving subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14, 1941, known as the Atlantic Charter,\n\nBeing convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life, liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands, and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world,\n\nDECLARE:\n\n(1) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources, military or economic, against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war.\n\n(2) Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies.\n\nThe foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. \n\nDuring the war, the United Nations became the official term for the Allies. To join countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis.\n\nFounding the UN 1945\n\nThe United Nations was formulated and negotiated among the delegations from the Soviet Union, the UK, the US and China at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944. After months of planning, the UN Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco, 25 April 1945, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter. \"The heads of the delegations of the sponsoring countries took turns as chairman of the plenary meetings: Anthony Eden, of Britain, Edward Stettinius, of the United States, T. V. Soong, of China, and Vyacheslav Molotov, of the Soviet Union. At the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov.\" The UN officially came into existence 24 October 1945, upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council—France, the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the UK and the US—and by a majority of the other 46 signatories.\n\nThe first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, and the Security Council took place in London beginning 6 January 1946. The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the United Nations, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory. The Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General.\n\nCold War era\n\nThough the UN's primary mandate was peacekeeping, the division between the US and USSR often paralysed the organization, generally allowing it to intervene only in conflicts distant from the Cold War. (A notable exception was a Security Council resolution in 1950 authorizing a US-led coalition to repel the North Korean invasion of South Korea, passed in the absence of the USSR.) In 1947, the General Assembly approved a resolution to partition Palestine, approving the creation of the state of Israel. Two years later, Ralph Bunche, a UN official, negotiated an armistice to the resulting conflict. In 1956, the first UN peacekeeping force was established to end the Suez Crisis; however, the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following that country's revolution.\n\nIn 1960, the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo (UNOC), the largest military force of its early decades, to bring order to the breakaway State of Katanga, restoring it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964. While travelling to meet with rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict, Dag Hammarskjöld, often named as one of the UN's most effective Secretaries-General, died in a plane crash; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1964, Hammarskjöld's successor, U Thant, deployed the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus, which would become one of the UN's longest-running peacekeeping missions.\n\nWith the spread of decolonization in the 1960s, the organization's membership saw an influx of newly independent nations. In 1960 alone, 17 new states joined the UN, 16 of them from Africa. On 25 October 1971, with opposition from the United States, but with the support of many Third World nations, the mainland, communist People's Republic of China was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of the Republic of China that occupied Taiwan; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization. Third World nations organized into the Group of 77 coalition under the leadership of Algeria, which briefly became a dominant power at the UN. In 1975, a bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed a resolution, over strenuous US and Israeli opposition, declaring Zionism to be racism; the resolution was repealed in 1991, shortly after the end of the Cold War.\n\nWith an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the Middle East, Vietnam, and Kashmir, the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget.\n\nPost-Cold War\n\nAfter the Cold War, the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties, taking on more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades. Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold. The UN negotiated an end to the Salvadoran Civil War, launched a successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia, and oversaw democratic elections in post-apartheid South Africa and post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia. In 1991, the UN authorized a US-led coalition that repulsed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Brian Urquhart, Under-Secretary-General from 1971 to 1985, later described the hopes raised by these successes as a \"false renaissance\" for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed.\n\nThough the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against another, in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous, serious crises within nations such as Somalia, Haiti, Mozambique, and the former Yugoslavia. The UN mission in Somalia was widely viewed as a failure after the US withdrawal following casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu, and the UN mission to Bosnia faced \"worldwide ridicule\" for its indecisive and confused mission in the face of ethnic cleansing. In 1994, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide amid indecision in the Security Council.\n\nBeginning in the last decades of the Cold War, American and European critics of the UN condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption. In 1984, the US President, Ronald Reagan, withdrew his nation's funding from UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, founded 1946) over allegations of mismanagement, followed by Britain and Singapore. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Secretary-General from 1992 to 1996, initiated a reform of the Secretariat, reducing the size of the organization somewhat. His successor, Kofi Annan (1997–2006), initiated further management reforms in the face of threats from the United States to withhold its UN dues.\n\nIn the late 1990s and 2000s, international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms. The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991–2002 was supplemented by British Royal Marines, and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO.In 2003, the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization, prompting a new round of questioning of the organization's effectiveness. Under the current Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, the UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War. In 2013, an internal review of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered \"systemic failure\". One hundred and one UN personnel died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the worst loss of life in the organization's history.\n\nStructure\n\nThe United Nations' system is based on five principal organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice. A sixth principal organ, the Trusteeship Council, suspended operations in 1994, upon the independence of Palau, the last remaining UN trustee territory.\n\nFour of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City. The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi. Other UN institutions are located throughout the world. The six official languages of the United Nations, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish. On the basis of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, the UN and its agencies are immune from the laws of the countries where they operate, safeguarding the UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries. \n\nBelow the six organs sit, in the words of the author Linda Fasulo, \"an amazing collection of entities and organizations, some of which are actually older than the UN itself and operate with almost complete independence from it\". These include specialized agencies, research and training institutions, programmes and funds, and other UN entities.\n\nThe United Nations obey the Noblemaire principle, which is binding on any organization that belongs to the united nations system. This principle calls for salaries that will draw and keep citizens of countries where salaries are highest, and also calls for equal pay for work of equal value independent of the employee's nationality. Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the UN organizations. \n\nGeneral Assembly\n\nThe General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations. Composed of all United Nations member states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions, but emergency sessions can also be called. The assembly is led by a president, elected from among the member states on a rotating regional basis, and 21 vice-presidents. The first session convened 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall Westminster in London and included representatives of 51 nations.\n\nWhen the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by a majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under consideration by the Security Council.\n\nDraft resolutions can be forwarded to the General Assembly by eight committees:\n*General Committee – a supervisory committee consisting of the assembly's president, vice-president, and committee heads\n*Credentials Committee – responsible for determining the credentials of each member nation's UN representatives\n*First Committee (Disarmament and International Security)\n*Second Committee (Economic and Financial)\n*Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural)\n*Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization)\n*Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary)\n*Sixth Committee (Legal)\n\nSecurity Council\n\nThe Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make \"recommendations\" to member states, the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member states have agreed to carry out, under the terms of Charter Article 25. The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions.\n\nThe Security Council is made up of fifteen member states, consisting of five permanent members—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and ten non-permanent members—Angola (term ends 2016), Chad (2015), Chile (2015), Jordan (2015), Lithuania (2015), Malaysia (2016), New Zealand (2016), Nigeria (2015), Spain (2016), and Venezuela (2016). The five permanent members hold veto power over UN resolutions, allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution, though not debate. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms, with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis. The presidency of the Security Council rotates alphabetically each month. \n\nSecretariat\n\nThe UN Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the Security Council, the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies.\n\nThe Secretary-General acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN. The position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization's \"chief administrative officer\". Article 99 of the charter states that the Secretary-General can bring to the Security Council's attention \"any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security\", a phrase that Secretaries-General since Trygve Lie have interpreted as giving the position broad scope for action on the world stage. The office has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues.\n\nThe Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, after being recommended by the Security Council, where the permanent members have veto power. There are no specific criteria for the post, but over the years it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years, that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation, and that the Secretary-General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states. The current Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon, who replaced Kofi Annan in 2007 and was elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016. \n\nInternational Court of Justice\n\nThe International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The Hague, in the Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the UN. Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges who serve 9-year terms and are appointed by the General Assembly; every sitting judge must be from a different nation.\n\nIt is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law, a private centre for the study of international law. The ICJ's primary purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference, ethnic cleansing, and other issues. The ICJ can also be called upon by other UN organs to provide advisory opinions.\n\nEconomic and Social Council\n\nThe Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social co-operation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. The council has one annual meeting in July, held in either New York or Geneva. Viewed as separate from the specialized bodies it co-ordinates, ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. Owing to its broad mandate of co-ordinating many agencies, ECOSOC has at times been criticized as unfocused or irrelevant.\n\nECOSOC's subsidiary bodies include the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, which advises UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous peoples; the United Nations Forum on Forests, which co-ordinates and promotes sustainable forest management; the United Nations Statistical Commission, which co-ordinates information-gathering efforts between agencies; and the Commission on Sustainable Development, which co-ordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs working toward sustainable development. ECOSOC may also grant consultative status to non-governmental organizations; by 2004, more than 2,200 organizations had received this status.\n\nSpecialized agencies\n\nThe UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialized agencies to fulfill its duties. Some best-known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and Agriculture Organization, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Bank, and the World Health Organization (WHO). The UN performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies. Examples include mass vaccination programmes (through WHO), the avoidance of famine and malnutrition (through the work of the WFP), and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people (for example, by UNHCR).\n\nMembership\n\nWith the addition of South Sudan 14 July 2011, there are United Nations member states, including all undisputed independent states apart from Vatican City. \nThe UN Charter outlines the rules for membership:\n\nIn addition, there are two non-member observer states of the United Nations General Assembly: the Holy See (which holds sovereignty over Vatican City) and the State of Palestine. The Cook Islands and Niue, both states in free association with New Zealand, are full members of several UN specialized agencies and have had their \"full treaty-making capacity\" recognized by the Secretariat.\n\nGroup of 77\n\nThe Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations. Seventy-seven nations founded the organization, but by November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 133 member countries. The group was founded 15 June 1964 by the \"Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries\" issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The group held its first major meeting in Algiers in 1967, where it adopted the Charter of Algiers and established the basis for permanent institutional structures. \n\nObjectives\n\nPeacekeeping and security\n\nThe UN, after approval by the Security Council, sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states. These soldiers are sometimes nicknamed \"Blue Helmets\" for their distinctive gear. The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988. \n\nIn September 2013, the UN had peacekeeping soldiers deployed on 15 missions. The largest was the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), which included 20,688 uniformed personnel. The smallest, United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP), included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in Jammu and Kashmir. UN peacekeepers with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948, the longest-running active peacekeeping mission.\n\nA study by the RAND Corporation in 2005 found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. It compared efforts at nation-building by the United Nations to those of the United States, and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace, as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace. Also in 2005, the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides, and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activism—mostly spearheaded by the UN—has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict in that period. Situations in which the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also intervened include the Korean War (1950–53) and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Gulf War (1990–91).\n\nThe UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures. In many cases, member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions. Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the Bangladesh genocide in 1971, the Cambodian genocide in the 1970s, and the Rwandan genocide in 1994. Similarly, UN inaction is blamed for failing to either prevent the Srebrenica massacre in 1995 or complete the peacekeeping operations in 1992–93 during the Somali Civil War. UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape, soliciting prostitutes, and sexual abuse during various peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Haiti, Liberia, Sudan and what is now South Sudan, Burundi, and Ivory Coast. Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely source of the 2010–13 Haiti cholera outbreak, which killed more than 8,000 Haitians following the 2010 Haiti earthquake. \n\nIn addition to peacekeeping, the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament. Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for their creation. The advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter, resulting in the first resolution of the first General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for \"the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction\". The UN has been involved with arms-limitation treaties, such as the Outer Space Treaty (1967), the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1968), the Seabed Arms Control Treaty (1971), the Biological Weapons Convention (1972), the Chemical Weapons Convention (1992), and the Ottawa Treaty (1997), which prohibits landmines. Three UN bodies oversee arms proliferation issues: the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission.\n\nHuman rights\n\nOne of the UN's primary purposes is \"promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion\", and member states pledge to undertake \"joint and separate action\" to protect these rights.\n\nIn 1948, the General Assembly adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights, drafted by a committee headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt's widow, Eleanor, and including the French lawyer René Cassin. The document proclaims basic civil, political, and economic rights common to all human beings, though its effectiveness toward achieving these ends has been disputed since its drafting. The Declaration serves as a \"common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations\" rather than a legally binding document, but it has become the basis of two binding treaties, the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In practice, the UN is unable to take significant action against human rights abuses without a Security Council resolution, though it does substantial work in investigating and reporting abuses.\n\nIn 1979, the General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, followed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989. With the end of the Cold War, the push for human rights action took on new impetus. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights was formed in 1993 to oversee human rights issues for the UN, following the recommendation of that year's World Conference on Human Rights. Jacques Fomerand, a scholar of the UN, describes this organization's mandate as \"broad and vague\", with only \"meager\" resources to carry it out. In 2006, it was replaced by a Human Rights Council consisting of 47 nations. Also in 2006, the General Assembly passed a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, and in 2011 it passed its first resolution recognizing the rights of LGBT people. \n\nOther UN bodies responsible for women's rights issues include United Nations Commission on the Status of Women, a commission of ECOSOC founded in 1946; the United Nations Development Fund for Women, created in 1976; and the United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women, founded in 1979. The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, one of three bodies with a mandate to oversee issues related to indigenous peoples, held its first session in 2002. \n\nEconomic development and humanitarian assistance\n\nAnother primary purpose of the UN is \"to achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character\". Numerous bodies have been created to work towards this goal, primarily under the authority of the General Assembly and ECOSOC. In 2000, the 192 United Nations member states agreed to achieve eight Millennium Development Goals by 2015. \n\nThe UN Development Programme (UNDP), an organization for grant-based technical assistance founded in 1945, is one of the leading bodies in the field of international development. The organization also publishes the UN Human Development Index, a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), also founded in 1945, promotes agricultural development and food security. UNICEF (the United Nations Children's Fund) was created in 1946 to aid European children after the Second World War and expanded its mission to provide aid around the world and to uphold the Convention on the Rights of the Child. \n\nThe World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF) are independent, specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework, according to a 1947 agreement. They were initially formed separately from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944. The World Bank provides loans for international development, while the IMF promotes international economic co-operation and gives emergency loans to indebted countries.\n\nThe World Health Organization (WHO), which focuses on international health issues and disease eradication, is another of the UN's largest agencies. In 1980, the agency announced that the eradication of smallpox had been completed. In subsequent decades, WHO largely eradicated polio, river blindness, and leprosy. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), begun in 1996, co-ordinates the organization's response to the AIDS epidemic. The UN Population Fund, which also dedicates part of its resources to combating HIV, is the world's largest source of funding for reproductive health and family planning services.\n\nAlong with the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, the UN often takes a leading role in co-ordinating emergency relief. The World Food Programme (WFP), created in 1961, provides food aid in response to famine, natural disasters, and armed conflict. The organization reports that it feeds an average of 90 million people in 80 nations each year. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), established in 1950, works to protect the rights of refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless people. UNHCR and WFP programmes are funded by voluntary contributions from governments, corporations, and individuals, though the UNHCR's administrative costs are paid for by the UN's primary budget.\n\nOther\n\nSince the UN's creation, over 80 colonies have attained independence. The General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers. The UN works toward decolonization through groups including the UN Committee on Decolonization, created in 1962. The committee lists seventeen remaining \"Non-Self-Governing Territories\", the largest and most populous of which is Western Sahara. \n\nBeginning with the formation of the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) in 1972, the UN has made environmental issues a prominent part of its agenda. A lack of success in the first two decades of UN work in this area led to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which sought to give new impetus to these efforts. In 1988, the UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), another UN organization, established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which assesses and reports on research on global warming. The UN-sponsored Kyoto Protocol, signed in 1997, set legally binding emissions reduction targets for ratifying states.\n\nThe UN also declares and co-ordinates international observances, periods of time to observe issues of international interest or concern. Examples include World Tuberculosis Day, Earth Day, and the International Year of Deserts and Desertification. \n\nFunding\n\nThe UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by its gross national income (GNI), with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income. The two-year budget for 2012–13 was $5.512 billion in total. \n\nThe Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be unduly dependent on any one member to finance its operations. Thus, there is a \"ceiling\" rate, setting the maximum amount that any member can be assessed for the regular budget. In December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of assessments in response to pressure from the United States. As part of that revision, the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25% to 22%. For the least developed countries (LDCs), a ceiling rate of 0.01% is applied. In addition to the ceiling rates, the minimum amount assessed to any member nation (or \"floor\" rate) is set at 0.001% of the UN budget ($55,120 for the two year budget 2013-2014).\n\nA large share of the UN's expenditure addresses its core mission of peace and security, and this budget is assessed separately from the main organizational budget. The peacekeeping budget for the 2015–16 fiscal year was $8.27 billion, supporting 82,318 troops deployed in 15 missions around the world. UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale that includes a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members, who must approve all peacekeeping operations. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. In 2013, the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were the United States (28.38%), Japan (10.83%), France (7.22%), Germany (7.14%), the United Kingdom (6.68%), China (6.64%), Italy (4.45%), the Russian Federation (3.15%), Canada (2.98%), and Spain (2.97%). \n\nSpecial UN programmes not included in the regular budget, such as UNICEF and the World Food Programme, are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments, corporations, and private individuals. \n\nEvaluations, awards, and criticism\n\nA number of agencies and individuals associated with the UN have won the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of their work. Two Secretaries-General, Dag Hammarskjöld and Kofi Annan, were each awarded the prize (in 1961 and 2001, respectively), as were Ralph Bunche (1950), a UN negotiator, René Cassin (1968), a contributor to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the US Secretary of State Cordell Hull (1945), the latter for his role in the organization's founding. Lester B. Pearson, the Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs, was awarded the prize in 1957 for his role in organizing the UN's first peacekeeping force to resolve the Suez Crisis. UNICEF won the prize in 1965, the International Labour Organization in 1969, the UN Peace-Keeping Forces in 1988, the International Atomic Energy Agency (which reports to the UN) in 2005, and the UN-supported Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in 2013. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was awarded in 1954 and 1981, becoming one of only two recipients to win the prize twice. The UN as a whole was awarded the prize in 2001, sharing it with Annan. \n\nSince its founding, there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations but little consensus on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work. There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council's membership to be increased, for different ways of electing the UN's Secretary-General, and for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly. Jacques Fomerand states the most enduring divide in views of the UN is \"the North–South split\" between richer Northern nations and developing Southern nations. Southern nations tend to favor a more empowered UN with a stronger General Assembly, allowing them a greater voice in world affairs, while Northern nations prefer an economically laissez-faire UN that focuses on transnational threats such as terrorism.\n\nAfter World War II, the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France, and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that created the new organization. The future French president Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously calling it a machin (\"contraption\"), and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace, preferring direct defence treaties between countries. Throughout the Cold War, both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the UN of favoring the other. In 1953, the USSR effectively forced the resignation of Trygve Lie, the Secretary-General, through its refusal to deal with him, while in the 1950s and 1960s, a popular US bumper sticker read, \"You can't spell communism without U.N.\" In a sometimes-misquoted statement, President George W. Bush stated in February 2003 (referring to UN uncertainty towards Iraqi provocations under the Saddam Hussein regime) that \"free nations will not allow the United Nations to fade into history as an ineffective, irrelevant debating society.\" In contrast, the French President, François Hollande, stated in 2012 that \"France trusts the United Nations. She knows that no state, no matter how powerful, can solve urgent problems, fight for development and bring an end to all crises... France wants the UN to be the centre of global governance.\" Critics such as Dore Gold, an Israeli diplomat, Robert S. Wistrich, a British scholar, Alan Dershowitz, an American legal scholar, Mark Dreyfus, an Australian politician, and the Anti-Defamation League consider UN attention to Israel's treatment of Palestinians to be excessive. In September 2015, Saudi Arabia's Faisal bin Hassan Trad has been elected Chair of the United Nations Human Rights Council panel that appoints independent experts, a move criticized by human rights groups. \n\nCritics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and corruption. In 1976, the General Assembly established the Joint Inspection Unit to seek out inefficiencies within the UN system. During the 1990s, the US withheld dues citing inefficiency and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced. In 1994, the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog. In 1994, former Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the UN to Somalia Mohamed Sahnoun published \"Somalia: The Missed Opportunities\", a book in which he analyses the reasons for the failure of the 1992 UN intervention in Somalia, showing that, between the start of the Somali civil war in 1988 and the fall of the Siad Barre regime in January 1991, the UN missed at least three opportunities to prevent major human tragedies; when the UN tried to provide humanitarian assistance, they were totally outperformed by NGOs, whose competence and dedication sharply contrasted with the UN's excessive caution and bureaucratic inefficiencies. If radical reform was not undertaken, warned Mohamed Sahnoun, then the UN would continue to respond to such crisis with inept improvisation. In 2004, the UN faced accusations that its recently ended Oil-for-Food Programme—in which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for basic needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions—had suffered from widespread corruption, including billions of dollars of kickbacks. An independent inquiry created by the UN found that many of its officials had been involved, as well as raising \"significant\" questions about the role of Kojo Annan, the son of Kofi Annan. \n\nIn evaluating the UN as a whole, Jacques Fomerand writes that the \"accomplishments of the United Nations in the last 60 years are impressive in their own terms. Progress in human development during the 20th century has been dramatic and the UN and its agencies have certainly helped the world become a more hospitable and livable place for millions.\" Evaluating the first 50 years of the UN's history, the author Stanley Meisler writes that \"the United Nations never fulfilled the hopes of its founders, but it accomplished a great deal nevertheless\", citing its role in decolonization and its many successful peacekeeping efforts. The British historian Paul Kennedy states that while the organization has suffered some major setbacks, \"when all its aspects are considered, the UN has brought great benefits to our generation and ... will bring benefits to our children's and grandchildren's generations as well.\"",
"Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjöld (; 29 July 1905 – 18 September 1961) was a Swedish diplomat, economist, and author. The second secretary-general of the United Nations, he served from April 1953 until his death in a plane crash in September 1961. At the age of 56 years and 255 days, Hammarskjöld was the youngest to have held the post. He is one of only four people to be awarded a posthumous Nobel Prize. Hammarskjöld is the only UN secretary-general to die in office; he was killed in a Douglas DC-6 airplane crash en route to cease-fire negotiations. Hammarskjöld has been referred to as the \"best secretary general so far\". and his appointment has been mentioned as the most notable success for the UN. US president John F. Kennedy called Hammarskjöld \"the greatest statesman of our century\". \n\nEarly life\n\nDag Hammarskjöld was born to the noble Hammarskjöld family in Jönköping, but spent most of his childhood in Uppsala, his home there, that he considered to be his childhood home, was Uppsala Castle. The fourth and youngest son of Hjalmar Hammarskjöld, Prime Minister of Sweden from 1914 to 1917, and Agnes Hammarskjöld (née Almquist), Hammarskjöld's ancestors served the Monarchy of Sweden since the 17th century. He studied first at Katedralskolan and then at Uppsala University. By 1930, he had obtained Licentiate of Philosophy and Master of Laws degrees. Before he was finished his law degree he had already obtained a job as assistant secretary of the unemployment committee.\n\nCareer\n\nFrom 1930 to 1934, Hammarskjöld was Secretary of a governmental committee on unemployment. During this time he wrote his economics thesis, \"Konjunkturspridningen\" (\"The Spread of the Business Cycle\"), and received a doctorate from Stockholm University. In 1936, he became Secretary of the Sveriges Riksbank and was soon promoted. From 1941 to 1948, he served as Chairman of the bank.\n\nDag Hammarskjöld quickly developed a successful career as a Swedish public servant. He was Secretary of the Riksbank (the central bank of Sweden) 1935–1941, State Secretary in the Ministry of Finance 1936–1945, Governor of the Riksbank 1941–1948, Swedish delegate to the OEEC (Organization for European Economic Cooperation) 1947–1953, Cabinet Secretary for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1949–1951 and minister without portfolio in Tage Erlander's government 1951–1953.\n\nHe helped coordinate government plans to alleviate the economic problems of the post-war period and was a delegate to the Paris conference that established the Marshall Plan. In 1950, he became head of the Swedish delegation to UNISCAN. Although Hammarskjöld served in a cabinet dominated by the Social Democrats, he never officially joined any political party. In 1951, Hammarskjöld was Vice Chairman of the Swedish delegation to the United Nations General Assembly in Paris. He became the Chairman of the Swedish delegation to the General Assembly in New York in 1952. On 20 December 1954, he was elected to take his father's vacated seat in the Swedish Academy.\n\nU.N. Secretary-General\n\nWhen Trygve Lie resigned from his post as UN Secretary-General in 1953, the United Nations Security Council recommended Hammarskjöld for the post. It came as a surprise to him. Seen as a competent technocrat without political views, he was selected on 31 March by a majority of 10 out of eleven Security Council members. The UN General Assembly elected him in the 7–10 April session by 57 votes out of 60. In 1957, he was re-elected.\n\nHammarskjöld began his term by establishing his own secretariat of 4,000 administrators and setting up regulations that defined their responsibilities. He was also actively engaged in smaller projects relating to the UN working environment. For example, he planned and supervised every detail in the creation of a \"meditation room\" at the UN headquarters. This is a place dedicated to silence where people can withdraw into themselves, regardless of their faith, creed, or religion. \n\nDuring his term, Hammarskjöld tried to smooth relations between Israel and the Arab states. Other highlights include a 1955 visit to China to negotiate release of 11 captured US pilots who had served in the Korean War, the 1956 establishment of the United Nations Emergency Force, and his intervention in the 1956 Suez Crisis. He is given credit by some historians for allowing participation of the Holy See within the United Nations that year. \n\nIn 1960, the former Belgian Congo and then newly independent Congo asked for UN aid in defusing the Congo Crisis. Hammarskjöld made four trips to Congo. His efforts toward the decolonisation of Africa were considered insufficient by the Soviet Union; in September 1960, the Soviet government denounced his decision to send a UN emergency force to keep the peace. They demanded his resignation and the replacement of the office of Secretary-General by a three-man directorate with a built-in veto, the \"troika\". The objective was, citing the memoirs of Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, to \"equally represent interests of three groups of countries: capitalist, socialist and recently independent.\" \n\nDeath\n\nIn September 1961, Hammarskjöld learned about fighting between \"non-combatant\" UN forces and Katangese troops of Moise Tshombe. He was en route to negotiate a cease-fire on 18 September when his Douglas DC-6 airliner SE-BDY crashed near Ndola, Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). Hammarskjöld and fifteen others perished in the crash. The circumstances of the incident are still not clear. There is some evidence that suggests the plane was shot down. \n\nGöran Björkdahl (a Swedish aid worker) wrote in 2011 that he believed Dag Hammarskjöld's 1961 death was a murder committed in part to benefit mining companies like Union Minière, after Hammarskjöld had made the UN intervene in the Katanga crisis. Björkdahl based his assertion on interviews with witnesses of the plane crash near the border of the DRC with Zambia, and on archival documents. Former U.S. President Harry Truman commented that Hammarskjöld \"was on the point of getting something done when they killed him. Notice that I said 'when they killed him'.\" \n\nOn 16 March 2015, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon appointed members to an Independent Panel of Experts which would examine new information related to his death. The three-member panel was led by Mohamed Chande Othman, the Chief Justice of Tanzania. The other two members were Kerryn Macaulay (Australia's representative to ICAO) and Henrik Larsen (a ballistics expert from the Danish National Police). The panel's 99-page report, released 6 July 2015, assigned \"moderate\" value to nine new eyewitness accounts and transcripts of radio transmissions. Those accounts suggested that Hammarskjold's plane was already on fire as it landed, that other jet aircraft and intelligence agents were nearby.\n\nSpirituality and Markings\n\nIn 1953, soon after his appointment as United Nations secretary general, Hammarskjöld was interviewed on radio by Edward R. Murrow. In this talk he declared: \"But the explanation of how man should live a life of active social service in full harmony with himself as a member of the community of spirit, I found in the writings of those great medieval mystics [Meister Eckhart and Jan van Ruysbroek] for whom 'self-surrender' had been the way to self-realization, and who in 'singleness of mind' and 'inwardness' had found strength to say yes to every demand which the needs of their neighbours made them face, and to say yes also to every fate life had in store for them when they followed the call of duty as they understood it.\" \n\nHis only book, Vägmärken (Markings), was published in 1963. A collection of his diary reflections, the book starts in 1925, when he was 20 years old, and ends at his death in 1961. This diary was found in his New York house, after his death, along with an undated letter addressed to then Swedish Permanent Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, Leif Belfrage. In this letter, Dag writes, \"These entries provide the only true 'profile' that can be drawn ... If you find them worth publishing, you have my permission to do so\". The foreword is written by W.H. Auden, a friend of Dag's. Markings was described by a theologian, the late Henry P. Van Dusen, as \"the noblest self-disclosure of spiritual struggle and triumph, perhaps the greatest testament of personal faith written ... in the heat of professional life and amidst the most exacting responsibilities for world peace and order.\" Hammarskjöld writes, for example, \"We are not permitted to choose the frame of our destiny. But what we put into it is ours. He who wills adventure will experience it – according to the measure of his courage. He who wills sacrifice will be sacrificed – according to the measure of his purity of heart.\" Markings is characterised by Hammarskjöld's intermingling of prose and haiku poetry in a manner exemplified by the 17th-century Japanese poet Basho in his Narrow Roads to the Deep North. In his foreword to Markings, the English poet W. H. Auden quotes Hammarskjöld as stating \"In our age, the road to holiness necessarily passes through the world of action.\" \n\nThe Evangelical Lutheran Church in America commemorates the life of Hammarskjöld as a renewer of society on the anniversary of his death, 18 September.\n\nLegacy\n\nHonors\n\n* Hammarskjöld posthumously received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1961, having been nominated before his death.\n* Honorary degrees: The Carleton University in Ottawa (then called Carleton College) awarded its first-ever honorary degree to Hammarskjöld in 1954 when it presented him with a Legum Doctor, honoris causa. The University has continued this tradition by conferring an honorary doctorate upon every subsequent Secretary General of the United Nations. He also held honorary degrees from Oxford University, England; in the United States from Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, the University of Pennsylvania, Amherst, Johns Hopkins, the University of California, and Ohio University; in Sweden, Uppsala University; and in Canada from McGill University as well as Carleton. \n\nQuotes\n\n* Refusal to resign: One of Hammarskjöld's greatest moments was refusing to give in to Soviet pressure to resign. Dag Hammarskjöld: \"It is very easy to bow to the wish of a big power. It is another matter to resist it. If it is the wish of those nations who see the organization their best protection in the present world, I shall do so again.\" \n* He is credited with saying, \"I would rather live my life as though there is a God and die to find out that there isn't, than to live my life as though there is no God and die to find out there is.\" (See: Pascal's Wager)\n* Clergyman M. Craig Barnes has reflected on a quotation of Hammarskjöld's published in a placard, \"The humility that comes from others having faith in you...” Barnes reflects on the quote's importance for humility and connectionalism in contemporary leadership. \n\nPeople's views\n\n* John F. Kennedy: After Hammarskjöld's death, U.S. president John F. Kennedy regretted that he opposed the UN policy in the Congo and said: \"I realise now that in comparison to him, I am a small man. He was the greatest statesman of our century.\"\n* In 2011, The Financial Times wrote that Hammarskjöld has remained the benchmark against which later UN Secretaries-General have been judged. \n* John G. Diefenbaker: In his memoirs he called Hammarskjöld a man of high principle and dedication and came to his defense against the Soviets\n* Historians' views:\n** Historian Paul Kennedy hailed Hammarskjöld in his book The Parliament of Man as perhaps the greatest UN Secretary-General because of his ability to shape events, in contrast with his successors.\n** In contrast, the conservative popular historian Paul Johnson in A History of the Modern World from 1917 to the 1980s (1983) was highly critical of his judgment.\n\nEponymous structures\n\n* Libraries:\n** The Dag Hammarskjöld Library, a part of the United Nations headquarters, was dedicated on 16 November 1961 in honour of the late Secretary-General.\n** Uppsala University: There is also a Dag Hammarskjöld Library at his alma mater, Uppsala University.\n* Buildings and rooms:\n**The Waterloo Co-operative Residence Incorporated has a student dormitory that is named after Dag Hammarskjold.\n** Columbia University: The School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia University in New York has a Dag Hammarskjöld Lounge. The graduate school is dedicated to the principles of international peace and cooperation that Hammarskjöld embodied.\n** Stanford University: Dag Hammarskjöld House on the Stanford University campus is a residence cooperative for undergraduate and graduate students with international backgrounds and interests at Stanford. \n** The [http://genevadiplomacy.com/ Geneva School of Diplomacy and International Relations] in Geneva, Switzerland, has a room named after him.\n** Dag Hammarskjöld Stadium is the main football stadium of Ndola, Zambia. Hammarskjold's ill-fated flight in 1961 crashed in the outskirts of Ndola.\n**Dag Hammarskjold College: founded in Columbia, Maryland, in 1972, educating international students from 1972-1974. The concept that international relations are relationships between individuals, and that the better we understand each other, the better chance there is for world peace, was the centerpiece for this college. The College admitted students from both undergraduate and postgraduate levels while living in an international community.\n** Makerere University: Dag Hammarskjöld Hall of residence for graduate students.\n* Streets:\n** Dag Hammarskjöldsleden is a road in Gothenburg, Sweden.\n** Dag Hammarskjölds Gade is a street in Aalborg, Denmark.\n** Dag Hammarskjölds Väg is a street in Lund, Sweden.\n** Dag Hammarskjölds Väg is one of the longest streets in Uppsala, Sweden. There are several other streets in Sweden sharing this name.\n** Dag Hammarskjølds vei is a residential street in Fyllingsdalen in Bergen, Norway.\n** Dag Hammarskjöld's Allé is a street in Copenhagen, Denmark.\n** The headquarters of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL) in Santiago, Chile lies on Avenida Dag Hammarskjöld.\n** The headquarters of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (German Society for International Cooperation, GIZ), is on Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg in Eschborn, Germany.\n** Hammarskjöldplatz is the wide square to the north entrance of the Messe Berlin fairgrounds in Berlin, Germany. \n* Dag Hammarskjold Plaza is a Manhattan public park near the headquarters of the United Nations in New York City, and several of the surrounding office buildings are also named after him.\n* There's a public square in Haedo, Argentina, named after him.\n** Dag Hammarskjöldlaan is a street in the town of Castricum, Netherlands.\n** Dag Hammarskjöldhof is a street in the town of Gouda, Netherlands.\n** Dag Hammarskjöldlaan is a street in the town of Hellevoetsluis, Netherlands.\n** Dag Hammarskjöldsvei street in Fyllingsdalen, Bergen, Norway\n** Hammarskjöld Road is a road in the town of Harlow, UK.\n** Hammarskjold Drive in Burnaby, BC, Canada.\n* Schools: A number of schools have been named after Hammarskjöld, including Hammarskjold Middle School in East Brunswick Township, New Jersey; Dag Hammarskjold Middle School in Wallingford, Connecticut; Dag Hammarskjold Elementary School in Parma, Ohio; Dag Hammarskjold Elementary (PS 254) in Brooklyn, New York; Dag Hammarskjold School#6 in Rochester, New York; Dag Hammarskjold Elementary School in Oakland (now an airport parking business) and Hammarskjold High School in Thunder Bay, Ontario.\n* Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation: In 1962, the Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation was created as Sweden's national memorial to Dag Hammarskjöld. \n\nOther commemorations\n\n* Religious commemoration: He is also commemorated as a peacemaker in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on 18 September of each year.\n* Memorial awards:\n** Medal: On 22 July 1997, the U.N. Security Council in resolution 1121(1997) established the Dag Hammarskjöld Medal in recognition and commemoration of those who have lost their lives as a result of UN peacekeeping operations. Hammarskjöld himself was one of the first three recipients.\n** Prize in Peace and Conflict Studies: Colgate University annually awards a student the Dag Hammarskjöld Prize in Peace and Conflict Studies based on outstanding work in the program. \n** Medallion by the sculptor Harald Salomon issued in Denmark 1962 to help financing the Danish Foreign Aid Program. \n* Postage Stamps: Many countries issued postage stamps commemorating Hammarskjöld. The United Nations Postal Administration issued 5- and 15-cent stamps in 1962. They show the UN flag at half-mast and bear the simple inscription, \"XVIII IX MCMLXI\". The United States Hammarskjöld commemorative 4-cent postage stamp, issued on 23 October 1962, was actually released twice. Famous for its misprint, the second issue is often referred to as the Dag Hammarskjöld invert.\n* On 6 April 2011, the Bank of Sweden announced that Hammarskjöld's image will be used on the 1000-kronor banknote, the highest-denomination banknote in Sweden. Copyright problems have delayed making the new currency design official. \n\nBibliography\n\n* Durel, Bernard, op, (2002), «Au jardin secret d’un diplomate suédois: Jalons de Dag Hammarskjöld, un itinéraire spirituel», La Vie Spirituelle (Paris). T. 82, pp. 901–922.\n* Fröhlich, Manuel (2008) \"Political ethics and the United Nations: Dag Hammarskjöld as Secretary-General\". Routledge, London.\n* Lipsey, Roger Hammarskjöld: A Life (University of Michigan Press; 2013) 670 pages; scholarly biography\n* Urquhart, Brian, (1972), Hammarskjold. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.\n* Velocci, Giovanni, cssr, (1998), «Hammarskjold Dag», in Luigi Borriello, ocd – Edmondo Caruana, ocarm – Maria Rosaria Del Genio – N. Suffi (dirs.), Dizionario di mistica. Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Città del Vaticano, pp. 624–626.\n* Lichello, Robert (1972) \"Dag Hammarskjold: A Giant in Diplomacy.\" Samhar Press, Charlotteville, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-87157-501-2."
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"Dag Hammarskjöld: evidence suggests UN chief's plane was shot down | World news | The Guardian\nDag Hammarskjöld\nDag Hammarskjöld: evidence suggests UN chief's plane was shot down\nEyewitnesses claim a second aircraft fired at the plane raising questions of British cover-up over the 1961 crash and its causes\nThe wreckage of Dag Hammarskjöld's plane near Ndola, now Zambia. Eyewitnesses claim they saw a second plane fire at the UN chief's plane. Photograph: TopFoto\nJulian Borger and Georgina Smith in Ndola\nWednesday 17 August 2011 14.20 EDT\nFirst published on Wednesday 17 August 2011 14.20 EDT\nClose\nThis article is 5 years old\nNew evidence has emerged in one of the most enduring mysteries of United Nations and African history, suggesting that the plane carrying the UN secretary general Dag Hammarskjöld was shot down over Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) 50 years ago, and the murder was covered up by British colonial authorities.\nA British-run commission of inquiry blamed the crash in 1961 on pilot error and a later UN investigation largely rubber-stamped its findings. They ignored or downplayed witness testimony of villagers near the crash site which suggested foul play. The Guardian has talked to surviving witnesses who were never questioned by the official investigations and were too scared to come forward.\nThe residents on the western outskirts of the town of Ndola described Hammarskjöld's DC6 being shot down by a second, smaller aircraft. They say the crash site was sealed off by Northern Rhodesian security forces the next morning, hours before the wreckage was officially declared found, and they were ordered to leave the area.\nThe key witnesses were located and interviewed over the past three years by Göran Björkdahl, a Swedish aid worker based in Africa , who made the investigation of the Hammarskjöld mystery a personal quest since discovering his father had a fragment of the crashed DC6.\n\"My father was in that part of Zambia in the 70s and asking local people about what happened, and a man there, seeing that he was interested, gave him a piece of the plane. That was what got me started,\" Björkdahl said. When he went to work in Africa himself, he went to the site and began to question the local people systematically on what they had seen.\nThe investigation led Björkdahl to previously unpublished telegrams – seen by the Guardian – from the days leading up to Hammarskjöld's death on 17 September 1961, which illustrate US and British anger at an abortive UN military operation that the secretary general ordered on behalf of the Congolese government against a rebellion backed by western mining companies and mercenaries in the mineral-rich Katanga region.\nHammarskjöld was flying to Ndola for peace talks with the Katanga leadership at a meeting that the British helped arrange. The fiercely independent Swedish diplomat had, by then, enraged almost all the major powers on the security council with his support for decolonisation, but support from developing countries meant his re-election as secretary general would have been virtually guaranteed at the general assembly vote due the following year.\nBjörkdahl works for the Swedish international development agency, Sida, but his investigation was carried out in his own time and his report does not represent the official views of his government. However, his report echoes the scepticism about the official verdict voiced by Swedish members of the commissions of inquiry.\nBjörkdahl concludes that:\n• Hammarskjöld's plane was almost certainly shot down by an unidentified second plane.\n• The actions of the British and Northern Rhodesian officials at the scene delayed the search for the missing plane.\n• The wreckage was found and sealed off by Northern Rhodesian troops and police long before its discovery was officially announced.\n• The one survivor of the crash could have been saved but was allowed to die in a poorly equipped local hospital.\n• At the time of his death Hammarskjöld suspected British diplomats secretly supported the Katanga rebellion and had obstructed a bid to arrange a truce.\n• Days before his death, Hammarskjöld authorised a UN offensive on Katanga – codenamed Operation Morthor – despite reservations of the UN legal adviser, to the fury of the US and Britain.\nThe most compelling new evidence comes from witnesses who had not previously been interviewed, mostly charcoal-makers from the forest around Ndola, now in their 70s and 80s.\nDickson Mbewe, now 84, was sitting outside his house in Chifubu compound west of Ndola with a group of friends on the night of the crash.\n\"We saw a plane fly over Chifubu but did not pay any attention to it the first time,\" he told the Guardian. \"When we saw it a second and third time, we thought that this plane was denied landing permission at the airport. Suddenly, we saw another aircraft approach the bigger aircraft at greater speed and release fire which appeared as a bright light.\n\"The plane on the top turned and went in another direction. We sensed the change in sound of the bigger plane. It went down and disappeared.\"\nAt about 5am, Mbewe went to his charcoal kiln close to the crash site, where he found soldiers and policemen already dispersing people. According to the official report the wreckage was only discovered at 3pm that afternoon.\n\"There was a group of white soldiers carrying a body, two in front and two behind,\" he said. \"I heard people saying there was a man who was found alive and should be taken to hospital. Nobody was allowed to stay there.\"\nMbewe did not forward with that information earlier because he was never asked to, he said. \"The atmosphere was not peaceful, we were chased away. I was afraid to go to the police because they might put me in prison.\"\nAnother witness, Custon Chipoya, a 75-year-old charcoal maker, also claims to have seen a second plane in the sky that night. \"I saw a plane turning, it had clear lights and I could hear the roaring sound of the engine,\" he said. \"It wasn't very high. In my opinion, it was at the height that planes are when they are going to land.\n\"It came back a second time, which made us look and the third time, when it was turning towards the airport, I saw a smaller plane approaching behind the bigger one. The lighter aircraft, a smaller jet type of plane, was trailing behind and had a flash light. Then it released some fire on to the bigger plane below and went in the opposite direction.\n\"The bigger aircraft caught fire and started exploding, crashing towards us. We thought it was following us as it chopped off branches and tree trunks. We thought it was war, so we ran away.\"\nChipoya said he returned to the site the next morning at about 6am and found the area cordoned off by police and army officers. He didn't mention what he had seen because: \"It was impossible to talk to a police officer then. We just understood that we had to go away,\" he said.\nSafeli Mulenga, 83, also in Chifubu on the night of the crash, did not see a second plane but witnessed an explosion.\n\"I saw the plane circle twice,\" he said. \"The third time fire came from somewhere above the plane, it glowed so bright. It couldn't have been the plane exploding because the fire was coming on to it,\" he said.\nThere was no announcement for people to come forward with information following the crash, and the federal government did not want people to talk about it, he said. \"There were some who witnessed the crash and they were taken away and imprisoned.\"\nJohn Ngongo, now 75, out in the bush with a friend to learn how to make charcoal on the night of the crash, did not see another plane but he definitely heard one, he said.\n\"Suddenly, we saw a plane with fire on one side coming towards us. It was on fire before it hit the trees. The plane was not alone. I heard another plane at high speed disappearing into the distance but I didn't see it,\" he said.\nThe only survivor among the 15 people on board the DC6 was Harold Julian, an American sergeant on Hammarskjöld's security detail. The official report said he died of his injuries, but Mark Lowenthal, a doctor who helped treat Julian in Ndola, told Björkdahl he could have been saved.\n\"I look upon the episode as having been one of my most egregious professional failures in what has become a long career,\" Lowenthal wrote in an email. \"I must first ask why did the US authorities not at once set out to help/rescue one of their own? Why did I not think of this at the time? Why did I not try to contact US authorities to say, 'Send urgently an aircraft to evacuate a US citizen on secondment to UN who is dying of kidney failure?'\"\nJulian was left in Ndola for five days. Before he died, he told police he had seen sparks in the sky and an explosion before the crash.\nBjörkdahl also raises questions about why the DC6 was made to circle outside Ndola. The official report claims there was no tape recorder in the air traffic control tower, despite the fact that its equipment was new. The air traffic control report of the crash was not filed until 33 hours afterwards.\nAccording to records of the events of the night, the British high commissioner to the Rhodesian and Nyasaland Federation, Cuthbert Alport, who was at the airport that evening, \"suddenly said that he had heard that Hammarskjöld had changed his mind and intended to fly somewhere else. The airport manager therefore didn't send out any emergency alert and everyone simply went to bed.\"\nThe witness accounts of another plane are consistent with other insider accounts of Hammarskjold's death. Two of his top aides, Conor Cruise O'Brien and George Ivan Smith, both became convinced that the secretary general had been shot down by mercenaries working for European industrialists in Katanga. They also believed that the British helped cover up the shooting. In 1992, the two published a letter in the Guardian spelling out their theory. Suspicion of British intentions is a recurring theme of the correspondence Björkdahl has examined from the days before Hammarskjöld's death.\nFormally, the UK backed the UN mission, but, privately, the secretary general and his aides believed British officials were obstructing peace moves, possibly as a result of mining interests and sympathies with the white colonists on the Katanga side.\nOn the morning of 13 September the separatist leader Moise Tshombe signalled that he was ready for a truce, but changed his mind after a one-hour meeting with the UK consul in Katanga, Denzil Dunnett.\nThere is no doubt that at the time of his death Hammarskjöld‚ who had already alienated the Soviets, French and Belgians, had also angered the Americans and the British with his decision to launch Operation Morthor against the rebel leaders and mercenaries in Katanga.\nThe US secretary of state, Dean Rusk, told one of the secretary general's aides that President Kennedy was \"extremely upset\" and was threatening to withdraw support from the UN. The UK , Rusk said, was \"equally upset\".\nAt the end of his investigation Björkdahl is still not sure who killed Hammarskjöld, but he is fairly certain why he was killed: \"It's clear there were a lot of circumstances pointing to possible involvement by western powers. The motive was there – the threat to the west's interests in Congo's huge mineral deposits. And this was the time of black African liberation, and you had whites who were desperate to cling on.\n\"Dag Hammarskjöld was trying to stick to the UN charter and the rules of international law. I have the impression from his telegrams and his private letters that he was disgusted by the behaviour of the big powers.\"\nHistorians at the Foreign Office said they could not comment. British officials believe that, at this late date, no amount of research would conclusively prove or disprove what they see as conspiracy theories that have always surrounded Hammarskjöld's death.\nCommission appeals to US to declassify NSA radio intercepts of warplanes in area where Dag Hammarskjöld's plane crashed\nPublished: 9 Sep 2013\nGöran Björkdahl has interviewed eye-witnesses who were afraid to come forward in 1961\nPublished: 17 Aug 2011\n'Some people were taken away after talking about the crash – when they returned they never spoke about it again'\nPublished: 17 Aug 2011\nClaims over Patrice Lumumba's 1961 assassination made by Labour peer in letter to London Review of Books\nPublished: 1 Apr 2013",
"Dag Hammarskjold: Was his death a crash or a conspiracy? - BBC News\nBBC News\nDag Hammarskjold: Was his death a crash or a conspiracy?\nBy Stephanie Hegarty BBC World Service\n17 September 2011\nRead more about sharing.\nClose share panel\nExactly 50 years ago, UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold died in a plane crash on a mission to prevent civil war in newly independent Congo. Suspicions that the plane was shot down, never fully laid to rest, are now again on the rise.\nAfter his death, Mr Hammarskjold was described by US President John F Kennedy as the \"greatest statesman of our century\". He was a man with a vision of the UN as a \"dynamic instrument\" organising the world community, a protector of small nations, independent of the major powers, acting only in the interests of peace.\nDag Hammarskjold\nBorn in 1905 into an aristocratic Swedish family\nFull name, Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjold\nHelped lay foundations of Swedish welfare state\nSwedish state secretary for foreign affairs (1947-1951)\nThe UN's second secretary general (1953-1961), proposed by Britain and France\nNobel Peace Prize winner 1961\nThe only person to be awarded a Nobel Peace Prize after his death, he established the first armed UN peacekeeping mission following the crisis in Suez.\nJust after midnight on 18 September 1961, he was heading to negotiate a ceasefire in a mineral-rich breakaway region of Congo, where another of his peacekeeping missions was getting bogged down in the complex politics of decolonisation and Cold War rivalry.\nBut his DC6 aircraft crashed in darkness shortly before landing, in a forest near Ndola in Northern Rhodesia - now Zambia.\nKnut Hammarskjold, his nephew, visited the crash site days later.\n\"It was just scattered all over the place, the pieces of the aircraft,\" he says. \"I did not see any bodies, they had been removed earlier, I think.\"\nHe remembers the reaction at home in Sweden, where his uncle was a national hero.\n\"Everybody was so shocked. I can say the whole of Sweden was affected by this. All the shops had his picture in the window, and he had a state funeral which was very unusual for a foreign office person.\"\nIron will\nThere is a mass of evidence that points in the direction that the plane was shot down by a second plane\nSusan Williams, Author of Who Killed Hammarskjold?\nEight years earlier, when the members of the Security Council appointed the unassuming Swede secretary general, they could not have predicted the zeal he would bring to the job.\n\"He was a very spiritual, intellectual, cultured man, and that was all part of his mystical approach to life,\" says Dame Margaret Anstee, the first female under-secretary at the UN, who was starting out on a 40-year career at the organisation. \"He had a certain reserve, and a certain unique kind of dignity.\"\nBut he soon gained a reputation for independence and daring, and instead of staying in his New York office, a hands-on approach became his trademark. He personally negotiated the release of 15 American airmen who had been imprisoned in China at a time when the People's Republic was not represented at the UN.\n\"He had the skills of mediation and persuasion, combined with this almost iron single-minded will of where he wanted to go,\" says Margaret Anstee.\n\"But of course by that very token it brought him into conflict with people who wanted to use the UN for their own ends.\"\nIn Congo, one issue was who should control the southern province of Katanga, rich in copper, uranium and tin. Belgium, the ex-colonial power, backed a secessionist movement led by Moise Tshombe, as did the UK and US who had mining interests in the region.\nSome Unanswered Questions\nWhy was a search and rescue operation not launched immediately, or at dawn?\nWhy did authorities only arrive, officially, at the crash site after 15:00 on the 18th?\nWhy of all those on board was Dag Hammarskjold's the only body undamaged by fire?\nWhy was a playing card, said to be the ace of spades, apparently found tucked into his collar?\nBut Mr Hammarskjold from the start backed Congo's elected central authorities - the Soviet-backed government of prime minister Patrice Lumumba, and later, after Mr Lumumba was deposed and murdered, Prime Minister Cyrille Adoula.\nMr Hammarskjold wanted to pursue a negotiated solution between Mr Tshombe and the central government, a goal that became even more urgent after UN peacekeepers found themselves outgunned during an aggressive operation to drive foreign mercenaries from Katanga.\nMr Tshombe was waiting to talk to him in Ndola on the night he died.\nAirbrushed photos\nThe crash of his aircraft has never been fully explained. Two investigations held in the British-run Central African Federation, which included Northern Rhodesia, were followed by an official UN inquiry, which concluded that foul play could not be ruled out. So people have never stopped coming forward with new explanations, and asking new questions.\nImage caption The crash scene, photographed by Katanga UN representative, George Ivan Smith\nSome 30 years after the crash, in 1992, two men who had served as UN representatives in Katanga just before and just after Hammarskjold's death - Conor Cruise O'Brien and George Ivan Smith - wrote a letter to the Guardian claiming to have evidence that the plane was shot down accidentally, by mercenaries. In their view, a warning shot intended to divert the plane to alternative talks with industrialists in Katanga, in fact hit the plane and caused it to crash.\nIn 1998 South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission, led by Desmond Tutu, published eight letters that suggested CIA, MI5 and South African intelligence were involved in sabotage of the aircraft. British officials responded that these were likely to be Soviet forgeries.\nIn 2005, the head of UN military information in Congo in 1961, Bjorn Egge, told the Aftenposten newspaper he had noticed a round hole in Hammarskjold's forehead when he saw the body in the mortuary. It could have been a bullet hole, he said, and it had been mysteriously airbrushed out of official photographs.\nOver the past four years, Swedish aid worker Goran Bjorkdahl has carried out extensive research and British academic Susan Williams published a book on Thursday - Who Killed Hammarskjold? Both conclude that it is likely the plane was brought down.\nMr Bjorkdahl began his study after inheriting from his father, who had worked in Zambia in the 1970s, a piece of the plane fuselage containing unexplained small holes. He tracked down 12 witnesses, in whose accounts of the night three points appeared repeatedly:\nThe DC6 circled in the air two or three times before it crashed\nA smaller plane flew above it\nA bright light flashed in the sky above the large plane before it went down\nSix witnesses also recall seeing uniformed personnel near the crash site that morning, even though official reports claim it was not located until after 15:00 that day.\nThe official inquiries held at the time also contain witness testimony referring to a second plane in the sky.\nOne of the key questions Ms Williams asks in her book is why this and other inconvenient observations were discounted, or in some cases doctored during the official Rhodesian investigations. She says it is clear to her that there was a cover-up.\nShe places particular emphasis on three of her discoveries:\nThe photographs of Hammarskjold after his death are either taken in such a way as to conceal the area around his right eye, or, where the eye is visible, they show evidence of having been touched up, possibly to hide a wound\nThe sole survivor of the crash, Harold Julien, said there was an explosion before the plane fell from the sky - his evidence was discounted in the original inquiry on the grounds that he was ill and sedated, but Ms Williams has found a doctor's statement insisting that he was lucid at the time (he died of his injuries within days)\nA US intelligence officer at a listening station in Cyprus says he heard a cockpit recording from Ndola, in which a pilot talks of closing in on the DC6 - guns are heard firing, and then the words \"I've hit it\"\n\"There is no smoking gun, but there is a mass of evidence that points in the direction that the plane was shot down by a second plane,\" she told the BBC. \"That is a far more convincing and supported explanation than any other.\"\nThere were a range of people, including white Rhodesians and the Belgian and British mining companies in Katanga, \"with a sense of being at war with the UN and with African nationalism\", she says - and with a motive for preventing Mr Hammarskjold and Mr Tshombe reaching a negotiated settlement.\nModel diplomat\nMr Hammarskjold's main adviser at the time, Brian Urquhart, says it is \"so wrong\" to think that \"at night without ground control you could shoot down a plane or even locate it\". But Ms Williams says experts have told her that the DC6, on its way in to land at Ndola airport on a moonlit night, was a \"sitting duck\".\nThere was a tacit agreement never to have such a single-minded Secretary General again\nDame Margaret Anstee\nMs Williams argues that the time has come for a new inquiry, and Mr Hammarskjold's nephew Knut is reported to have called for one himself , after hearing of Ms Williams' new evidence.\nFifty years later, his uncle is still a model for people working at the UN, says Knut Hammarskjold.\n\"Many, I've been told, still have his photo on their desks, and [former Secretary General] Kofi Annan says he always asks when there is a problem: 'What will Dag have done in this situation?'\"\nDame Margaret Anstee says he had the courage to stand up for his principles and to the strong member states, which his successors have lacked.\n\"There was a tacit agreement never to have such a single-minded secretary general again,\" she says. \"I think we can say they haven't.\"\nAdditional reporting by Stephen Mulvey\nSusan Williams' book, Who Killed Hammarskjold?, is published by Hurst and Company.\nBBC World Service's Witness programme on Monday reports on Dag Hammarskjold's life and death, featuring contributions from Knut Hammarskjold and Dame Margaret Anstee",
"The Mysterious Death of a UN Hero – Consortiumnews\nThe Mysterious Death of a UN Hero\nSeptember 16, 2013\nExclusive: More than a half-century ago at a pivotal moment in the emergence of independent African states UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold was brokering peace in a divisive civil war in Congo when he died in a plane crash, leaving behind an enduring Cold War mystery, as Lisa Pease reports.\nBy Lisa Pease\nFifty-two years ago, just after midnight on Sept. 18, 1961, the plane carrying UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld and 15 others went down in a plane crash over Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). All 16 died, but the facts of the crash were provocatively mysterious.\nThere have been three investigations into the crash: an initial civil aviation Board of Inquiry, a Rhodesian Commission of Inquiry, and a UN Commission in 1962. Not one of them could definitively answer why the plane crashed or whether a deliberate act had been responsible.\nUnited Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld. (Photo from Wikipedia)\nWhile a few authors have looked into and written about the strange facts of the crash in the years since the last official inquiry in 1962, none did a more thorough reinvestigation than Dr. Susan Williams, a Senior Fellow at the Institute of Commonwealth Studies at the University of London, whose book Who Killed Hammarskjöld? was released in 2011, 50 years after the crash.\nHer presentation of the evidence was so powerful it launched a new UN commission to determine whether the UN should reopen its initial investigation. “It is a fact,” the current Commission wrote in its report, “that none of these inquiries was conducted to the standard to which a modern inquiry into a fatal event would be conducted.”\nThe Commission was formed by Lord Lea of Crondall, who assembled a group of volunteer jurists, solicitors and others from the Netherlands, South Africa, Sweden and elsewhere to tabulate and review the evidence the Commission collected from past investigations, Williams’s book, and independent witnesses, such as myself.\nI was one of the 28 witnesses (and one of only three Americans) who provided testimony to the Commission, based on information gathered in the course of my research into the assassinations of the Sixties.\n“It is legitimate to ask whether an inquiry such as this, a full half-century after the events with which it is concerned, can achieve anything except possibly to feed speculation and conspiracy theories surrounding the crash,” the most recent Commission wrote in its report.\n“Our answer, and the reason why we have been willing to give our time and effort to the task, is first that knowledge is always better than ignorance, and secondly that the passage of time, far from obscuring facts, can sometimes bring them to light.”\nThe Congo Crisis\nThe report summarized the historical situation Hammarskjöld was faced with in 1961. In June of 1960, under pressure from forces in the Congo as well as from the United Nations, Belgium had relinquished its claim to the Congo, a move which brought Patrice Lumumba to power.\nLumumba faced a near civil war in his country immediately. The military mutinied, the Belgians stepped back in to protect Belgian settlers, and local leader Moise Tshombe declared Katanga, a mineral-rich province, an independent state.\nAs the Commission’s report noted, “Katanga contained the majority of the Congo’s known mineral resources. These included the world’s richest uranium and four fifths of the West’s cobalt supply. Katanga’s minerals were mined principally by a Belgian company, the Union Minière du Haut Katanga, which immediately recognised and began paying royalties to the secessionist government in Elisabethville. One result of this was that Moise Tshombe’s regime was well funded. Another was that, so long as Katanga remained independent of the Congo, there was no risk that the assets of Union Minière would be expropriated.”\nThe U.S. government feared that Katanga’s rich uranium reserves would fall under Soviet control if the nationalist movement that brought Lumumba to power succeeded in unifying the country. Indeed, rebuffed by Western interests, Lumumba did reach out to the Soviets for help, a move that caused CIA Director Allen Dulles to initiate CIA plans for Lumumba’s assassination. Lumumba was ultimately captured and killed by forces of Joseph Mobutu, whom Andrew Tully called “the CIA’s man” in the Congo just days before President Kennedy’s inauguration.\nOn the southern border of Katanga lay Northern Rhodesia, where Hammarskjöld’s plane would eventually go down, Sir Roy Welensky, a British politician, ruled as prime minister. Welensky, too, pushed for an independent Katanga. Along with the resources, there was also the fear that an integrated Congo and Katanga could lead to the end of apartheid in Rhodesia which might spread to its larger and more prosperous neighbor South Africa.\nThe British situation was divided, with the Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Lord Landsdowne, backing the UN’s efforts at preserving a unified Congo, while the British High Commissioner to the Rhodesian Foundation, Lord Alport, was upset with the UN’s meddling, saying African issues were “better left to Europeans with experience in that part of the world.”\nSimilarly, U.S. policy appeared split in 1961. Allen Dulles and possibly President Dwight D. Eisenhower had worked to kill Lumumba just before President John F. Kennedy took office. But President Kennedy had been a supporter of Lumumba and fully backed the UN’s efforts in the Congo.\nAs the report notes, “There is evidence of a cleft in policy between the US Administration and the US Central Intelligence Agency. While the policy of the Administration was to support the UN, the CIA may have been providing materiel to Katanga.”\nSo British, Belgian and American interests that weren’t always representative of their official heads of state had designs on Katanga, its politics and its resources. What stood in their way? The UN, under the firm leadership of Dag Hammarskjöld.\nThe UN forces had been unsuccessful in unifying the Congo, so Hammarskjöld and his team flew to Leopoldville on Sept. 13, 1961. Hammarskjöld planned to meet Tshombe to discuss aid, contingent on a ceasefire, and the two decided to meet on Sept. 18 in Ndola in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia).\n \nOn Sept. 17, the last day of Hammarskjöld’s life, Neil Ritchie, an MI6 officer, went to pick up Tshombe and the British consul in Katanga, Denzil Dunnett. He found them in the company of a high-level Union Minière employee.\nThat night, Hammarskjöld embarked on the Albertina, a DC6 plane, and flew from Leopoldville to Ndola, where he was to arrive shortly after midnight. Lord Landsdowne, the British leader opposing a unified Congo, flew separately, although the report goes out of its way to say there was nothing sinister in them flying in separate planes and that this was “diplomatically and politically appropriate.”\nA large group of diplomats, Africans, journalists and at least three mercenaries waited for Hammarskjöld’s plane at the Ndola airport. The Commission found the presence of mercenaries there strange as a police inspector was on duty specifically “to ensure nobody was at the airport who had no good reason to be there.”\nThe Crash\nHammarskjöld’s plane deliberately circumvented Katanga, fearing interception. The pilot radioed Ndola 25 minutes before midnight with an estimate that they plane was about 45 minutes from landing. At 12:10 a.m., the pilot notified the Ndola airport “Your lights in sight” and requested confirmation of the air pressure reading (QNH). “Roger QNH 1021mb, report reaching 6000 feet,” the airport replied. “Roger 1021,” the Albertina responded. That was the last communication received from Hammarskjöld’s plane. It crashed within minutes.\nThe Commission found the airport gave the plane correct information, that there was no indication the plane’s altimeter had been tampered with, that the landing gear had been lowered into the proper position and locked, and that the wing flaps had been correctly set. In other words, pilot error, the verdict of the initial Rhodesian inquiry into Dag Hammarskjöld’s death in 1962, did not seem to be the likely cause.\nAt the crash site, several of the crash victims had bullets in their bodies. In addition, the Commission found “evidence from more than one sourcethat holes resembling bullet-holes were observed in the burnt-out fuselage.”\nThe Commission’s two aviation experts concluded the most likely cause of the crash seemed to be a “controlled flight into terrain,” meaning, no in-air explosion. This suggests someone deliberately or mistakenly drove the plane right into the ground. However, the report notes, this does not rule out some form of sabotage that could have distracted or injured the pilots, preventing a successful landing.\nAnd the Commission noted contradictory evidence from a few eyewitnesses who claimed they saw the plane explode in mid-air. Another eyewitness, a member of the flight crew, found alive but badly burned, told a police inspector that the plane “blew up” and that “There was a lot of small explosions all around.”\n \nThe Commission interviewed African eyewitnesses who had feared coming forward years ago. One of them described seeing the plane on fire before it hit the ground. Another described seeing a “ball of fire coming on top of the plane.” Still another described a “flame on top of the plane like a ball of fire.”\nSeveral witnesses saw a second plane near the one that crashed. One witness saw a second, smaller plane following a larger one, and told the Commission, “I saw that the fire came from the small plane” And another witness also recalled seeing two planes in the sky with the larger one on fire. A third witness noted that he saw a flash of flame from one plane strike another. Several witnesses reported two smaller planes following a larger one just before the larger one caught fire.\nA Swedish flight instructor described in 1994 how he had heard dialog via a short-wave radio the night of the crash. He recalled hearing the following from an airport control tower at the time of the crash: “He’s approaching the airport. He’s turning. He’s leveling. Another plane is approaching from behind, what is that?”\nIn one of the more bizarre elements of the case, Hammarskjöld’s body was not burnt, yet the other victims of the crash were severely burnt. The Commission concluded the most likely explanation, though not the sole one, was that Hammarskjöld’s body had been thrown from the plane before it caught fire.\nAnd even more strangely, the commission found the evidence “strongly suggests” that someone moved Hammarskjöld’s body after the crash and stuck a playing card in his collar before the photographs of his body were taken. (The card “or something like it” was plainly visible “in the photographs taken of the body on a stretcher at the site.”)\nGiven the proximity of the plane to the airport, the Commission had a hard time explaining the nine-hour\ndelay between the time of the crash and the Rhodesian authorities’ acknowledgement of its discovery of the wreckage.\nWhile the Commission found a “substantial amount of evidence” that Hammarskjöld’s body had been “found and tampered with well before the afternoon of 18 September and possibly very shortly after the crash,” they also stated the evidence was “no more consistent with hostile persons assuring themselves that he was dead than with bystanders, or possibly looters, examining his body.” But the Commission also noted that “The failure to summon or send help, however, remains an issue.”\nThe Commission tried very hard to find the autopsy X-rays, as there were reports that a bullet hole had been found in Hammarskjöld’s head. But the X-rays appear lost forever.\nWas Hammarskjöld deliberately assassinated?\nFormer President Harry S. Truman was convinced Hammarskjöld had been murdered. A Sept. 20, 1961 New York Times article quoted Truman as having told reporters, “Dag Hammarskjöld was on the point of getting something done when they killed him. Notice that I said ‘When they killed him.’”\nYears later, when the CIA was revealed to have been engaged in assassination plots, reporter Daniel Schorr speculated that the CIA may have been involved in Hammarskjöld’s death.\nThe report references the report of David Doyle, the chief of the CIA’s Elizabethville base in Katanga who wrote in a memoir how three armed Fouga planes were being delivered to Katanga “in direct violation” of U.S. policy. Doyle doubted this was an official CIA operation, since he had not been notified of the delivery.\nBronson Tweedy, the head of the CIA’s Africa division, questioned Doyle about the possibility of a CIA operation to interfere with Hammarskjöld’s plane. The report notes that this could indicate a lack of CIA involvement in Hammarskjöld’s death, “unless, conceivably, Tweedy was simply trying to find out how much Doyle knew.”\nIt is the essence of CIA operations that they are highly compartmentalized and often kept secret between\npeople even within the Agency itself. Meaning, Allen Dulles or someone high up the chain could easily have ordered a single operator to take out Hammarskjöld’s plane without using any official CIA channels. Indeed, that is what one would expect were so sensitive an operation as the assassination of a UN head contemplated.\nAfter Lumumba’s death, in early 1961, the UN passed resolution 161, which urged the immediate removal of Belgian forces and “other foreign military and paramilitary personnel and political advisors not under the United Nations Command, and mercenaries” from the Congo.\nConfession from a CIA operative\nWhen I heard such a commission was forming, I reached out to Lord Lea of Crondall to offer some evidence of my own. John Armstrong, a fellow researcher into the JFK assassination, had forwarded me a series of Church Committee files and correspondence to and from a CIA operative named Roland “Bud” Culligan.\nCulligan claimed the CIA had set him up on a phony bank fraud charge, and his way out of jail appears to have been to offer the Church Committee information on CIA assassinations (which he called “executive actions” or “E.A.’s”). Culligan was asked to list some “E.A.’s” that he had been involved in. Culligan mentioned, among high-profile others, Dag Hammarskjöld.\n“Damn it, I did not want the job,” Culligan wrote to his legal adviser at Yale Law School. Culligan described the plane and the route, he named his CIA handler and his contact on the ground in Libya, and he described how he shot Hammarskjöld’s plane, which subsequently crashed.\nAs I testified, and as the Commission quoted in its report: “You will see from the correspondence that Culligan’s material was referred to an Attorney General, a Senator, and ultimately, the Senate investigation of the CIA’s activities at home and abroad that became known as the Church Committee after its leader, Senator Frank Church. Clearly, others in high places had reasons to believe Culligan’s assertions were worthy of further investigation.”\nCulligan’s claims fit neatly with a broadcast allegedly heard by Navy Cmdr. Charles Southall, another Commission witness. The morning before the crash, Charles Southall, a naval pilot and intelligence officer, was stationed at the NSA’s facility in Cyprus.\nAt about 9 p.m. that night, Southall reported he was called at home by the communications watch officer and told to get down to the listening post because “something interesting” was going to happen that night. Southall described hearing a recording shortly after midnight in which a cool pilot’s voice said, “I see a transport plane coming low. All the lights are on. I’m going to make a run on it. Yes, it’s the Transair DC6. It’s the plane.”\nSouthall heard what sounded like cannon fire, then: “I’ve hit it. There are flames. It’s going down. It’s crashing.” Given that Cyprus was in the same time zone as Ndola, the Commission concluded it was possible that Southall had indeed heard a recording from Ndola. Southall was certain that what he heard indicated a deliberate act.\nBullets\nSeveral witnesses described seeing bullet holes in the plane before it burnt. The report described one witness’s account that the fuselage was “’riddled with bullet-holes’ which appeared to have been made by a machine-gun.”\nThis account was disputed by AP journalist Errol Friedmann, however, who claimed no bullet holes were present. However, bullets were definitely found embedded in the bodies of several of the plane crash victims, which tends to give the former claim more credence.\nThe same journalist Friedmann also noted to a fellow journalist that the day after the crash, in a hotel, he had heard a couple of Belgian pilots who had perhaps had too much to drink discussing the crash. One of the pilots claimed he had been in contact with Hammarskjöld’s plane and had “buzzed” it, forcing the pilot of the Albertina to take evasive action. When the pilot buzzed the plane a second time, he forced it towards the ground.\nA third-party account allegedly from a Belgian pilot named Beukels was investigated with some skepticism by the Commission. Beukels allegedly gave an account to a French Diplomat named Claude de Kemoularia, who evidently first relayed Beukels’s account to UN diplomat George Ivan Smith in 1980 (not long after Culligan’s 1975 account, I would note).\nSmith’s source, however, appeared to be a transcript, about which the Commission noted “the literary quality of the narrative suggests an editorial hand, probably that of one or both of the two intermediaries.” Allegedly, Beukels fired what he meant to be warning shots which then hit the tail of the plane.\nWhile Beukels’s alleged narrative matched several known facts, the Commission wisely noted, “there was little in Beukels’s narrative, as reported, that could not have been ascertained from press coverage and the three inquiries, elaborated by his experience as a pilot.” The Commission wrote of other elements which invited skepticism of this account, but did concede it’s possible this account was self-serving, designed to excuse a deliberate shooting down by Beukels.\nThe Commission’s recommendation\nWhile the Commission had no desire to place blame for the crash, the report states: “There is persuasive evidence that the aircraft was subjected to some form of attack or threat as it circled to land at Ndola, which was by then widely known to be its destination,” adding “we consider that the possibility that the plane was in fact forced into its descent by some form of hostile action is supported by sufficient evidence to merit further inquiry.”\nThe key evidence that the Commission thinks could prove or disprove a deliberate act would be the Ndola airport’s radio traffic that night. The Commission reported “it is highly likely that the entirety of the local and regional Ndola radio traffic on the night of 17-18 September 1961 was tracked and recorded by the NSA, and possibly also by the CIA.”\nThe Commission filed a Freedom of Information request for any such evidence with the National Archives but did not appear hopeful that such records would be released unless pressure was brought to bear.\nIn its discussion of Culligan, the Commission felt there were no leads there that could be pursued. But if any of Culligan’s many conversations with his legal adviser was captured on tape, and if tapes of the radio traffic cited above could be obtained, a voice match could be sought.\nBased on its year-long investigation, the Commission stated that the UN “would be justified” in reopening its initial 1962 inquiry in light of the new evidence “about an event of global significance with deserves the attention both of history and of justice.”\n[Regarding President Eisenhower’s possibly role in ordering the assassination of Lumumba, Robert Johnson, a National Security Council staff member, told the Church Committee he heard Eisenhower give an order that Lumumba be killed. He remembered being shocked to hear this. Under questioning, however, Johnson allowed that may have been a mistaken impression, that perhaps Eisenhower was referring to Lumumba’s political, not physical, removal.]\nLisa Pease is a writer who has examined issues ranging from the Kennedy assassination to voting irregularities in recent U.S. elections.",
"Did Western agents assassinate the UN Secretary General in 1961?: Four theories - Telegraph\nAfrica and Indian Ocean\nDid Western agents assassinate the UN Secretary General in 1961?: Four theories\nAs the UN reopens its investigation into the plane crash that killed Dag Hammarskjold, its second secretary general, some are pointing fingers at the United States and Europe\nUN Secretary general Dag Hammarskjold is welcomed by Moïse Tshombe, leader of the Katanga province, at Elizabethville ( now Lubumbashi) Airport in Belgian Congo in 1960 Photo: AFP/GETTY\nBy Philip Sherwell , New York and David Lawler, Washington\n9:35PM GMT 17 Mar 2015\nFollow\nThe United Nations has ordered a new investigation into the mysterious 1961 African plane crash that claimed the life of its secretary general at a time of high international intrigue and intervention by outside powers as the post-colonial continent took shape.\nThe flight was carrying Dag Hammarskjold, the UN’s Swedish chief, on a high-stakes mission to negotiate with rebels in Katanga, a breakaway mineral-rich province of Congo that was backed by Belgian mercenaries and Western governments and business.\nPilot error was officially blamed after the DC6 plane carrying the UN’s second secretary general crashed into the bush, killing all 16 onboard, in the then British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia ).\nBut there were immediately competing theories that the plane had been shot down, possibly by American agents or European mercenaries, as Hammarskjold was believed to be about to broker a deal opposed by Western interests.\nA commission of retired international judges in 2013 called for a new investigation after hearing \"persuasive evidence\" that the plane was shot down.\nDag Hammarskjold\nThe UN has now announced that it is ordering a new review by an independent panel led Mohamed Othman, a Tanzanian jurist, and assisted by Kerryn Macaulay, an Australian aviation specialist, and Henrik Larsen, a Danish ballistics expert.\nThe team of experts is expected to travel to the crash scene. But for their mission to succeed, they will also need access to intelligence held by the US, Britain and other European states who have been urged to hand over the material.\nMore than five decades later, the new panel may be the last chance to determine what really happened to Mr Hammarskjold’s plane that night.\nTheory #1: Pilot error\nEvidence: The aircraft was flying overnight in central Africa at a low altitude. As John Mussell, the former Royal Rhodesian officer who coordinated the search for the plane, told the New York Times: “It doesn’t matter how fatigued you are or how experienced you are. If you are in Africa and going into unfamiliar territory, it’s not difficult to make a serious mistake.” There were three major enquiries after the crash, two were inconclusive and a third, by the Rhodesian government, blamed pilot error.\nCounterpoint: Even back in 1961, that conclusion sounded a bit too convenient given Hammarskjold's powerful foes. Former president Harry Truman's take? “He was on the point of getting something done when they killed him,\" said Truman. \"Notice that I said ‘when they killed him’.”\nUN troops arrive in Congo in 1960. Photo: AFP/Getty\nTheory #2: The Americans shot it down\nPossible motive: When turmoil over land and minerals engulfed Congo, Hammarskjold sent UN troops to support Patrice Lumumba, the prime minister. President John F Kennedy was known to regard Lumumba as a destabilising force and a possible Soviet ally.\nEvidence: Two American intelligence officials at stationed at listening posts on the night of the crash claim to have heard the plane taken down. One of them says he heard radio transmissions in which a voice said: \"The Americans shot down the UN plane.\" The other says he heard someone say: \"It's the plane.... I've hit it. It's going down.\"\nPhoto: AP\nTheory # 3: Mercenaries took down the plane on behalf of European industrialists (and perhaps with British help)\nMotive: Hammarskjold did not just anger the Americans with his intervention in Congo. Even more incensed were European industrialists who stood to lose control of the country's mines.\nA child digs for gold in a Congolese mine. Photo: Marcus Bleasdale\nEvidence: According to the Guardian, two top aides to Hammarskjold were convinced that mercenaries had been hired to take out the plane, and that the British government aided in the ensuing cover-up.\nTheory #4: A Belgian pilot shot the plane down 'by accident'\nEvidence: Susan Williams, a British academic who wrote an in-depth account of the crash, wrote that a \"Belgian pilot called Beukels\" claimed to have shot the plane down \"by accident\" after it had failed to divert to a different landing strip.",
"UN to probe whether iconic secretary-general Dag Hammarskjold was assassinated - U.S. - Stripes\nUN to probe whether iconic secretary-general Dag Hammarskjold was assassinated\nUnited Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold makes his way past reporters at Tokyo International Airport in November, 1959.\nStars and Stripes\n More\nBy Colum Lynch | Foreign Policy Magazine | Published: August 2, 2016\nU.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon will propose reopening an inquiry into allegations that Dag Hammarskjold, one of the most revered secretaries-general in the organization's history, was assassinated by an apartheid-era South African paramilitary organization that was backed by the CIA, British intelligence and a Belgian mining company, according to several officials familiar with the case.\nThe move follows the South African government's recent discovery of decades old intelligence documents detailing the alleged plot, dubbed Operation Celeste, that was designed to kill Hammarskjold. In a recent letter to the United Nations, South African authorities said the documents have been transferred to their Justice Ministry so U.N. officials could review them, according to diplomatic sources.\nThe South African Mission to the United Nations did not respond to a request for comment. The CIA has previously dismissed allegations that it was behind Hammarskjold's death as \"absurd and without foundation.\"\nThis new information (the discovery of which has not previously been reported) is surfacing more than a year after a U.N. panel of experts, chaired by Tanzanian Chief Justice Mohamed Chande Othman, wrapped up a wide-ranging review of fresh evidence that had emerged in the years following the mysterious 55-year-old air tragedy. The panel urged the secretary-general, who is already required by a 1962 General Assembly resolution to report on any new evidence shedding light on Hammarskjold's death, to keep pressing governments and their intelligence agencies to disclose or declassify information that could fill gaps in the evidence surrounding the tragedy.\nCopies of the South African documents describing Operation Celeste were first made public about 18 years ago, but South Africa was unable to locate the original documents, making it impossible to substantiate their authenticity by subjecting them to ink and paper testing. It remains unclear precisely which documents the South Africans have discovered. But officials familiar with the South African letter to the U.N. said Pretoria confirmed that it had located previously lost documents related to Operation Celeste. The discovery, however, raised hopes that the U.N. could verify whether the documents were in fact produced at the time of Hammarskjold's death.\nIn September 1961, Hammarskjold was flying on a peace mission from the Congolese capital of Léopoldville, now called Kinshasa, to the Ndola airfield in the British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia, renamed Zambia after independence. Hammarskjold's Douglas DC6B plane, called Albertina, crashed into the forest on its approach to the Ndola airfield. Hammarskjold was believed to have been tossed out of the plane upon impact, fatally crushing his chest, spine, and ribs. Fourteen other passengers and crew members died in the crash; a fifteenth, American Harold Julien, succumbed to his injuries a week later. Before his death, Julien told authorities that there had been an explosion in the plane before it went down.\nA Rhodesian commission of inquiry concluded in 1962 that the plane had crashed as a result of pilot error - a fatal miscalculation of the height of the forest tree line. A subsequent U.N. inquiry could not establish the cause of the crash, leaving open the possibility that Hammarskjold could have died either as a result of an accident or foul play. In the ensuing decades, Hammarskjold's death has spawned a dizzying array of conspiracy theories that claim he was variously shot down by a CIA contractor or American ground troops, shot in the head by a South African mercenary after surviving the plane crash, or killed by a Belgian pilot who claimed to have shot down the plane. The first U.N. official to identify his body swore that he had a bullet sized hole in his forehead. But the autopsy, including X-rays of Hammarskjold's body, undercut such claims.\nThe U.N. has also largely discarded a host of other claims, including an allegation that a South African mercenary supposedly named Swanepoel had once drunkenly boasted that he had participated in the assassination.\nThe new evidence is by no means conclusive, officials insisted, noting that it simply represents another piece in a much larger investigative puzzle that might never be solved. And some observers familiar with the investigation cautioned that even if the documents prove to be authentic there remains a possibility that they may have been produced as part of a disinformation campaign by any number of possible sources, from the Soviets to soldiers of fortune seeking to brandish their standing with South African intelligence by claiming responsibility for Hammarskjold's death.\nBut the U.N. chief felt that it is relevant enough to justify a fresh look at what has turned out to be the most notorious and perplexing cold case in the U.N.'s history. According to U.N. officials, the decision to press forward reflects the influence of Jan Eliasson, a former Swedish foreign minister who currently serves as the U.N.'s deputy secretary-general. But some senior diplomats have questioned whether the latest findings will simply lead the U.N. on a fruitless pursuit of any number of the conspiracy theories, many of them contradictory, associated with Hammarskjold's death.\nNext month, Ban will issue a five-page note describing the existence of the new evidence and asking the General Assembly to appoint an eminent person, most likely Othman, to examine the documents and see where they lead. Ban's deputy spokesman, Farhan Haq, declined to comment on the new evidence or the U.N. chief's recommendations. But he told Foreign Policy that \"the secretary-general remains personally committed to fulfilling the U.N.'s duty to the distinguished former secretary-general and those who accompanied him, to endeavor to establish the facts after so many years.\"\nThe Hammarskjold case gained new momentum in 2012, when a British scholar, Susan Williams, published a book entitled \"Who Killed Hammarskjöld? The UN, the Cold War and White Supremacy in Africa,\" which uncovered new evidence, including eyewitnesses accounts by locals who recalled seeing the plane go down in flames and the testimony of Charles Southall, a retired U.S. naval officer, who said he heard a recording of a pilot boasting about shooting down what appeared to be Hammarskjold's plane. Southall would later express some confusion over whether he had actually heard the radio intercept or read a transcript of it.\n\"'I see a transport plane coming low. All the lights are on,'\" Southall, who had been stationed at a NSA listening post in Cyprus, recalled the pilot saying. \"'I'm going to go down to make a run on it. Yes, it's the Transair DC6. It's the plane. I've hit it. There are flames. It's going down. It's crashing.'\"\nAnother American, Paul Abram, who claims to have been stationed at an NSA listening post in Iraklion, Greece, told the U.N. panel in May 2015 that he had also heard a radio intercept of an accented non-American on the night of Hammarskjold's death saying: \"The Americans just shot down a U.N. plane.\"\nWilliams' book spurred the establishment in 2012 of the Hammarskjold Commission, a voluntary body of four international jurists and lawyers, including the Rt. Hon. Stephen Sedley, a British judge; Richard Goldstone, a former chief prosecutor for the U.N. war crimes tribunals in Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia; Ambassador Hans Corell, a Swede who served as the U.N.'s top lawyer; and Wilhelmina Thomassen, a former Dutch Supreme Court judge.\nThe commission concluded in its final 2013 report that \"there is persuasive evidence that the aircraft was subjected to some form of attack or threat as it circled to land at Ndola.\" It also concluded that it \"is highly likely that the entirety of the local and regional Ndola radio traffic on the night of 17-18 September 1961 was tracked and recorded by the NSA, and possibly also by the CIA.\" Their findings prompted the U.N. secretary-general to assemble his own U.N. panel, headed by Othman, to revisit the Hammarskjold case in light of the new evidence.\nResearchers say many key players in the region, including white minority governments, had clashed with Hammarskjold, whose U.N peacekeepers had been battling Belgian-backed separatists in the mineral-rich Congolese province of Katanga. Days before Hammarskjold's death, the U.N. launched an offensive against Katanga's separatists as part of an effort to drive hundreds of Belgian officers and European mercenaries out of the country.\nThe U.N. leader was advocating for Congo's full independence, while Belgium, with some support from Britain, the United States and South Africa, wanted to ensure that Katanga's riches - which included the uranium ore used in the production of the atomic weapons dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki - remained in friendly hands and out of the reach of the Soviet Union. Several months earlier, the CIA had played a role in the assassination by Belgian officers and Katangese separatists of Congolese liberation leader Patrice Lumumba, who was suspected of moving too closely to the Soviet Union.\nHammarskjold, meanwhile, died while en route to discuss a cease-fire with Moise Tshombe, the Belgian-backed leader of Katanga's secession drive. His broader mission was to convince at Tshombe to ditch his foreign backers and make peace with Congo's pro-Western leaders. \"All those parties - the Belgians, the South Africans, the CIA - had a reason for opposing Dag Hammarskjold's mission,\" Goldstone told FP.\nThe possible existence of an alleged CIA-backed plot to kill Hammarskjold first emerged in 1998, when the South African National Intelligence Agency turned over a file to the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission related to the 1993 assassination of Chris Hani, the leader of the South African Communist Party. But the file also included copies of eight documents detailing internal correspondence among members of the South African Institute for Maritime Research, or SAIMR, an alleged front for a clandestine mercenary organization active in Congo in the early 1960s.\nThe documents, which contain an alleged exchange between SAIMR's \"commodore\" and \"captain,\" said Operation Celeste was meant to \"remove\" Hammarskjold, who had grown increasingly \"troublesome.\" One document, marked \"top secret\" describes a meeting including representatives of SAIMR and Britain's intelligence agencies, MI5, and the Special Operations Executive, an apparent reference to a British agency that was set up in World War II to carry out espionage and sabotage operations in German-occupied Europe.\nThe documents state that CIA director Allen Dulles concurs that \"Dag is becoming troublesome ... and should be removed.\" They also claim that Dulles pledged the support of his people on the ground.\nAccording to the papers, saboteurs were to place six pounds of TNT in the wheel well of Hammarskjold's plane before it departed from Léopoldville, Congo, for the Ndola airport.\nThe explosives were supposed to detonate when Hammarskjold's pilot retracted the landing wheels. A backup plan described in the papers called for detonating the bomb remotely as it began its descent into Ndola. There is no hard evidence that the plane ever blew up.\nThe Othman panel gave the theory little credence last year, and pieces of wreckage bore no solid evidence that a bomb brought down the plane. The allegation, according to the panel, was based on copies of the South African SAIMR documents that couldn't be authenticated.\nOne organization cited in one of the documents, the Special Operations Executive, was believed to have disbanded in the late 1940s. South African authorities could provide no record that a mercenary team existed using that name. The U.N. panel concluded that there was no way to even prove the documents were authentic without subjecting the original paper and ink to testing.\nThe copies, the panel concluded, have \"weak probative value\" as the U.N. was unable to verify their authenticity or to even establish whether the maritime institute existed. The theory that a bomb was planted in Hammarskjold's plane, the panel concluded, \"is weakly supported by the body of new information\" it obtained.\nThe Hammarskjold Commission was even more skeptical. Hans Corell, a Swedish lawyer who served on the Hammarskjold Commission, said the Operation Celeste documents seemed \"fishy. We were not impressed.\" He said the commission concluded that neither the documents, nor their contents, could be considered \"trustworthy.\"\nSusan Williams, who has studied SAIMR's activities for years, said it would be a mistake to dismiss the papers' authenticity out of hand. \"I certainly would not discount the documents, which is why I went to so much trouble to find them,\" she said. \"Some of them may be what they are purported to be and some of them may not be what they are purported to be.\"\nGoldstone told FP said he continues to have a \"strong feeling\" that Hammarskjold's death was not an accident. But the commission's hunches about the cause of death differed in one critical aspect from the South African account of Operation Celeste. \"Our view was that the bomb being placed in the plane was less likely than it having been shot down,\" Goldstone said.\nHe recalled interviewing four eyewitnesses, including three local workers, who said they saw the plane descend in flames. Some said they saw a second plane open fire on Hammarskjold's plane. Goldstone recalled that none of the locals had previously been interviewed by the Rhodesian commission or the U.N. \"The Rhodesians tended to dismiss black witnesses as being unreliable,\" he said. \"It was clearly a racist issue.\"\nOne of the key obstacles to finalizing the investigation is the reluctance of key powers, principally the United States and Britain, to release documents related to the case.\nWhile Corell was skeptical about the likelihood of the CIA-backed plot described in the Operation Celeste documents, he believes U.S. intelligence agencies are withholding vital evidence that could help resolve the mystery surrounding Hammarskjold's death. Corell said he is particularly troubled by the failure to obtain transcripts of air traffic reports on the night of the tragedy.\nThe Ndola airport did not record radio traffic on the night of Hammarskjold's death, even though it possessed the technical capability to do so. A British diplomat, Sir Brian Unwin, who was at the Ndola airport on the night of Hammarskjold's death, recalled that two American aircraft had been running their engines on the airfield throughout the night, fueling suspicion that they were monitoring radio traffic.\nThe United States claims it has no record of Hammarskjold's radio communications that night, despite Southall's claims to the contrary. In its own response to questions from the U.N., the U.S. Mission to the United Nations also said they hadn't found evidence that any American planes were on the tarmac at Ndola that night.\nBut Corell remains skeptical. \"We came to the conclusion that the Americans were listening to everything you could listen to in the air,\" Corell said. \"I'm still suspicious of this. I'm sure they made a transcript of the radio traffic.\"\nThe failure to close the books on the Hammarskjold case has gnawed at the victims' relatives. Hynrich Wieschhoff, whose father died alongside Hammarskjold, welcomes the U.N.'s renewed interest in the case. But he fears the latest focus on a Operation Celeste may lead to another dead end.\nMeanwhile, he is growing frustrated with what he sees as the U.N.'s piecemeal approach to the investigation; that is, limiting its investigation to pursuing new facts as they come to light. What is needed, he said, is \"a full-fledged investigation\" that reviews the complete body of evidence from past and current inquiries. He credited the the U.N. panel for doing a \"masterful job\" despite its limited resources and time; the panel was only given three months to carry out its work.\n\"The evidence is staler, memories are fading, and individuals are dying,\" he told Foreign Policy. \"Let's clear the tables, forget about politics, and get an answer.\"",
"Dag Hammarskjöld 1961 plane crash death may be probed by UN for US and British links\nBy Mary Papenfuss\nAugust 4, 2016 09:06 BST\nUN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon is reportedly about to order another probe into the mysterious plane crash that killed Dag Hammarskjöld Sean Gallup/Getty\nThe United Nations is reportedly preparing to open another probe into a possible plot backed by the CIA and British intelligence to kill former secretary-general Dag Hammarskjöld who died in a mysterious plane crash in 1961.\nUN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon plans to urge the appointment of an investigator to look into Hammarskjöld's death once again, even though previous investigations found no official evidence that Hammarskjöld was deliberately killed, reports Foreign Affairs.\nThe news follows South African government claims to have recently uncovered original secret documents in \"Operation Celeste,\" a plot to kill the Swedish diplomat, and has offered to make them available to the UN.\nPrevious documents quoted CIA director Allen Dulles as calling Hammarskjöld \"troublesome\" and saying he \"should be removed\". Hammarskjöld supported full independence for a united Congo, an unpopular position with the South Africans, the US and the UK.\nThe new probe will examine allegations that Hammarskjöld was assassinated by an apartheid-era South African paramilitary organisation that was backed by the CIA and MI5, and a Belgian mining company, several officials familiar with the case have told Foreign Affairs . The CIA has said that claims that it had anything to do with Hammarskjöld's death are \"absurd and without foundation.\"\nHammarskjöld's plane plunged from the sky over the former Northern Rhodesia as he flew to orchestrate a ceasefire between Congo's government and Katanga province separatists. A crash report the following year pointed to pilot error. But several unusual witness statements raised continuing questions about the crash.\nThe acting security chief on Hammarskjöld's plane - who died of his injuries a few days after the crash - reportedly told medical staff he had seen \"sparks in the sky\" outside of the plane. A Belgian pilot claimed he downed the plane by mistake after he fired warning shots at the plane's wing.\nOther witnesses insisted they saw the plane riddled with bullet holes and men in combat uniforms at the crash site.\nFormer president Harry Truman only deepened the mystery the day after the crash when he told reporters that Hammarskjöld \"was on the point of getting something done when they killed him,\" adding: \"Notice I said 'when they killed him.'\" He refused to elaborate.\nA number of countries wanted to thwart Hammarskjöld's attempts to reunite Congo and stop Katanga from seceding. Congo, which was receiving Soviet aid, had the world's richest uranium resources. Mining companies feared a loss of their operations if Katanga failed to become independent. The KGB, the CIA and British intelligence were all active in the country at the time.\nMore from IBTimes",
"United Nations News Centre\nUnited Nations News Centre\nPhoto stories: Dag Hammarskjöld Remembered\nUN News Centre looks back on the life of Dag Hammarskjöld\nFifty years ago this month, the United Nations’ second Secretary-General, Dag Hammarskjöld of Sweden, was killed in a plane crash while brokering a ceasefire. During his years as Secretary-General, from 1953-1961, he fought for the independence of the UN and guided the organization through some of the world’s most complex crises. (1 April 1953)\nThe General Assembly unanimously appointed Hammarskjold for the UN’s top job on the Security Council’s recommendation. “It was assumed by most in the Council who didn’t know him that they’d elected a nice, competent Swedish civil servant who wouldn’t rock the boat, and he actually turned out to be anything but that,” said Sir Brian Urquhart, who worked with him. Here, the Council's President announces its decision to the press. (31 March 1953)\nWhen he arrived in New York on 9 April, Hammarskjöld was met by Trygve Lie, the UN’s first Secretary-General, who welcomed him to \"the most impossible job in the world.\" The day after this photo was taken, he was sworn in before the General Assembly. “In my new official capacity the private man should disappear and the international public servant take his place,” he told the press in a statement. (9 April 1953)\nHammarskjöld’s tenure coincided with some of the most tense periods of the Cold War. But Urquhart said he was, “a person who was completely accepted as above the Cold War, who could tackle difficult situations which the Security Council simply couldn’t.” He defended the independence of international civil servants from national interests and political pressures. Here, he visits Moscow to meet with Soviet officials. (5 July 1956)\nHammarskjöld expanded the powers of the office. In 1955, a crisis loomed over the detention by the People’s Republic of China (PRC) of US soldiers serving in the Korean War. As PRC was not a member of the UN, he personally negotiated their release, describing it as “acting in his role as Secretary-General under the Charter of the UN and not as a representative of what was stated in the General Assembly resolution.\" (2 August 1955)\nUN peacekeeping was born at a time when Cold War rivalries often paralyzed the Security Council. It was primarily focussed on maintaining ceasefires and stabilizing situations on the ground, providing support for political efforts to resolve conflict by peaceful means. The earliest armed peacekeeping operation took place under Hammarskjöld – the UN Emergency Force to address the Suez Crisis. Here, he visits a UNEF base. (25 Dec. 1957)\nHammarskjöld’s tenure was marked by the wave of independence of former colonies, especially in Africa. In 1960 alone, 17 new countries joined the UN. Violence stemming from decolonization took up much of his time, particularly, stemming from the Republic of Congo's mineral-rich province of Katanga. Here, he is about to leave the Congo, following talks on the deployment of UN peacekeepers. (14 August 1960)\nWith the situation in the Republic of Congo worsening, Hammarskjöld devoted himself to securing a cessation of hostilities and achieving reconciliation among Congolese factions. Here, he arrives in Elizabethville for talks with the government. Five days afterwards, he and his team were killed in a plane crash en route to broker a cease-fire. (13 Sept. 1961)\n\"Hammarskjöld’s death left an aching void at the United Nations. He had been the life and soul of the institution,\" according to Urquhart, who also penned a biography of Hammarskjold. Here, at a memorial ceremony in the General Assembly Hall, tribute is paid to Hammarskjöld and those who died with him. At the event, the Philadelphia Orchestra performed and a speech he made on 24 October 1960 was played to a silent audience. (28 Sept. 1961)\nThe coffin with the body of the late Dag Hammarskjöld arrives in the cemetery of Uppsala, Sweden, followed by family members and dignitaries from around the globe. Urquhart said, \"He was a major defender of the peace, in a time when a regional conflict which had nothing to do with the Cold War could creep up like a brush-fire and suddenly produce an issue between the east and the west which could come to a nuclear confrontation.\" (29 Sept, 1961)\n‹ ›",
"Who Killed U.N. Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold? - The Daily Beast\nWho Killed U.N. Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold?\nA new report puts few conspiracy theories to rest on the 50-year-old mystery.\nNina Strochlic\n07.12.15 4:01 AM ET\nIt’s shortly after midnight on a still autumn night in 1961 over the forests of northern Rhodesia. Onlookers glance upwards to see two planes streak across the sky. One of them has fire lapping around its engine and wings and plummets to the ground.\nAcross the Mediterranean Sea, American NSA agents stationed in Europe intercept a congratulatory radio transmission. “The Americans just shot down a UN plane,” an accented voice says.\nThe next morning, civilians approach the wreck—some say they see a fuselage riddled with artillery and a man struggling for life. An investigator observing the bodies notes bullet wounds. The plane’s lone survivor stays alive just long enough to describe a series of explosions before the craft went down.\nThe plane’s passengers are Dag Hammarskjöld, the second-ever secretary-general of the United Nations, and his aides and security detail. Hammarskjöld was eight years into his role as Secretary-General, and heading for Rhodesia to negotiate a ceasefire with Moise Tshombe, the leader of Katanga province in the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo, where rebels had separated from the government soon after independence.\nIn the days after the crash, the Congolese capital buzzes with rumors. In Leopoldville, where hotel bars are bursting with diplomats, reporters, foreign agents and guns-for-hire, conversations are eavesdropped on and reported. An Associated Press reporter claims to hear two Belgian pilots boasting of their plane-downing deed; a United Nations officer cables rumors of KGB involvement in the crash; and the American ambassador claims it as the work of a rogue Belgian mercenary.\nWhat happened on the night of September 17, 1961, has propelled conspiracy theories and baffled experts. A half-century later, on this past Monday, the United Nations released its second official report on the crash. The panel, comprising a Tanzanian justice, an Australian aviation expert and a Danish ballistics expert, was appointed in March by decision of the General Assembly, and traveled to the crash area, in what’s now Zambia, to track down 12 surviving eyewitnesses. But rather than deal a conclusive blow to the conspiracies, the mystery of Hammarskjöld’s untimely death prevails.\nWere there really two planes in the sky? Was the aircraft already on fire when it hit the ground? Did Hammarskjöld survive only to be shot after the craft? Was the whole thing an elaborate multi-country spy conspiracy to kill the man integral to peace negotiations in a region of the world that was spiraling into East vs. West proxy battles?\nAlmost immediately, rumors about the real cause of the crash began to swirl. Chief among them was the belief that the plane had been purposefully either diverted or shot down, as the man inside was integral to the peace negotiations. Soon after Hammarskjöld’s death, former President Harry Truman reportedly told the press that Hammarskjöld “was on the point of getting something done when they killed him. Notice that I said ‘when they killed him.’”\nIn the most conspiracy-rife era of our time, when the Cold War was soliciting allegiances, perhaps nowhere was ther such fodder for a Graham Greene spy thriller than central Africa. In the recently decolonized Congo, wars for control were being puppeted from thousands of miles away.\nThe country had split into parts, and all sides were stocked with battalions of mercenaries, and overflowing with spies. Earlier that year, the CIA had secretly assisted in the assassination of Patrice Lumumba, the first democratically-elected prime minister, and would later install a dictator named Mobutu Sese Seko in his place.\nThe United Nations had its work cut out for it, and Hammarskjöld was the man on the ground striving for peace and unity. “He probably knows more state secrets than any man alive,” Parade said about him in a 1960 article. “He hides what he knows behind a cloud of diplomatic double-talk.” The year of Hammarskjöld’s death, he was awarded a posthumous Nobel Peace Prize, and he’s still the youngest person to hold the secretary-general post. But he wasn’t universally popular. Hammarskjöld’s decision to quash the rebellion in Katanga put him on the outs with the Europeans, whose mining interests in the mineral-rich province were aligned with rebel factions.\nThat night, far from what was then Rhodesia, strange tales were slipping out from official American agency stations. In two different National Security Agency outposts, employees reported seeing or hearing interceptions of radio transmissions that indicated an outside attack on a United Nations plane.\nU.S. Navy Commander Charles Southall was stationed at the NSA facility in Cyprus. In the years after the attack, he swore that he had either heard a recording or read a radio transmission transcript where a pilot reported shooting down an aircraft that night. According to Southall, this transmission had been collected by the CIA and passed to the NSA.\nAt another NSA listening post in nearby Greece, a U.S. Air Force officer was listening to the radio that night and reported strange transmissions. He said he believed he was listening to American ground troops on the radio, and at one point he heard an accented voice say “the Americans just shot down a UN plane.”\nHe recalled hearing the pilot radio in: “I see a transport plane coming low,” he claimed the voice said. “All the lights are on. I’m going to go down to make a run on it. Yes, it’s the Transair DC6. It’s the plane. I’ve hit it. There are flames. It’s going down. It’s crashing.” He was told it was a Belgian pilot known as the “Lone Ranger,” flying a craft used by forces in Katanga, the province where Hammarskjöld was attempting to broker peace.\nGet The Beast In Your Inbox!\nDaily DigestStart and finish your day with the top stories from The Daily Beast.\nCheat SheetA speedy, smart summary of all the news you need to know (and nothing you don't)."
],
"title": [
"Dag Hammarskjöld: evidence suggests UN chief's plane was ...",
"Dag Hammarskjold: Was his death a crash or a conspiracy ...",
"The Mysterious Death of a UN Hero – Consortiumnews",
"Did Western agents assassinate the UN Secretary General in ...",
"UN to probe whether iconic secretary-general Dag ...",
"Dag Hammarskjöld 1961 plane crash death may be probed by ...",
"United Nations News Centre",
"Who Killed U.N. Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold? - The ..."
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"url": [
"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/17/dag-hammarskjold-un-secretary-general-crash",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-14913456",
"https://consortiumnews.com/2013/09/16/the-mysterious-death-of-a-un-hero/",
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/11478291/Did-Western-agents-assassinate-the-UN-Secretary-General-in-1961-Four-theories.html",
"http://www.stripes.com/news/us/un-to-probe-whether-iconic-secretary-general-dag-hammarskjold-was-assassinated-1.422124",
"http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/un-may-probe-mi5-cia-link-mysterious-death-secretary-general-dag-hammarskjold-1574201",
"http://www.un.org/apps/news/photostories_detail.asp?PsID=72",
"http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/07/12/who-killed-u-n-secretary-general-dag-hammarskjold.html"
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What was the autobiography of the first president of non-Apartheid South Africa called?
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tc_863
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"filename": [
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"title": [
"Nelson Mandela"
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"Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist, who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black chief executive, and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid through tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial reconciliation. Politically an African nationalist and democratic socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.\n\n \nA Xhosa born to the Thembu royal family, Mandela attended the University of Fort Hare and the University of the Witwatersrand, where he studied law. Living in Johannesburg, he became involved in anti-colonial politics, joining the ANC and becoming a founding member of its Youth League. After the Afrikaner minority government of the National Party established apartheid – a system of racial segregation that privileged whites – in 1948 he rose to prominence in the ANC's 1952 anti-apartheid Defiance Campaign, was appointed President of the organisation's Transvaal branch, and co-organised the 1955 Congress of the People. Working as a lawyer, he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and, with the ANC leadership, was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the Treason Trial from 1956 to 1961. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the South African Communist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961, leading a sabotage campaign against the government. In 1962, he was arrested, convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the state, and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial.\n\nMandela served 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Island, and later in Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. Amid international pressure and growing fear of a racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk negotiated an end to apartheid and organised the 1994 multiracial elections, in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a broad coalition government, which promulgated a new constitution, Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses. While continuing with the former government's economic liberalism, his administration introduced measures to encourage land reform, combat poverty, and expand healthcare services. Internationally, he acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998–99. Declining a second presidential term, he was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder statesman, focusing on charitable work in combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the Nelson Mandela Foundation.\n\n \nMandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Critics on the right denounced him as a communist terrorist, while those on the radical left deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters. Conversely, he gained international acclaim for his activism, having received more than 250 honours, including the Nobel Peace Prize, the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the Soviet Lenin Peace Prize. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba, or as Tata (\"Father\"), and described as the \"Father of the Nation\".\n\nEarly life\n\nChildhood: 1918–34\n\nMandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, then a part of South Africa's Cape Province. Given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning \"troublemaker\", in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was king of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa's modern Eastern Cape province. One of Ngubengcuka's sons, named Mandela, became Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname. Because Mandela was only the king's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called \"Left-Hand House\", the descendants of his cadet branch of the royal family were morganatic, ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors. His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate. In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands. A devotee of the god Qamata, Gadla was a polygamist, having four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, who was daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa.\n\nLater stating that his early life was dominated by traditional Thembu custom and taboo, Mandela grew up with two sisters in his mother's kraal in the village of Qunu, where he tended herds as a cattle-boy, spending much time outside with other boys. Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a local Methodist school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of \"Nelson\" by his teacher. When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease. Feeling \"cut adrift\", he later said that he inherited his father's \"proud rebelliousness\" and \"stubborn sense of fairness\".\n\nMandela's mother took him to the \"Great Place\" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted under the guardianship of Thembu regent, Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their son, Justice, and daughter, Nomafu. As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life. He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, studying English, Xhosa, history and geography. He developed a love of African history, listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and became influenced by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of the visiting Chief Joyi. At the time he nevertheless considered the European colonialists not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa. Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the circumcision ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; the rite over, he was given the name Dalibunga.\n\nClarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1934–40\n\nIntending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu royal house, Mandela began his secondary education at Clarkebury Methodist High School, Engcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest school for black Africans in Thembuland. Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his \"stuck up\" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening. Completing his Junior Certificate in two years, in 1937 he moved to Healdtown, the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice. The headmaster emphasised the superiority of English culture and government, but Mandela became increasingly interested in native African culture, making his first non-Xhosa friend, a Sotho language-speaker, and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho. Spending much of his spare time long-distance running and boxing, in his second year Mandela became a prefect.\n\nWith Jongintaba's backing, Mandela began work on a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree at the University of Fort Hare, an elite black institution in Alice, Eastern Cape, with around 150 students. There he studied English, anthropology, politics, native administration, and Roman Dutch law in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department. Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, K. D. Matanzima, as well as Oliver Tambo, who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come. Continuing his interest in sport, Mandela took up ballroom dancing, performed in a drama society play about Abraham Lincoln, and gave Bible classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association. Although having friends connected to the African National Congress (ANC) and the anti-imperialist movement who wanted South Africa to be independent of the British Empire, Mandela avoided any involvement, and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort when the Second World War broke out. Helping found a first-year students' house committee which challenged the dominance of the second-years, at the end of his first year he became involved in a Students' Representative Council (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was temporarily suspended from the university; he left without receiving a degree.\n\nArriving in Johannesburg: 1941–43\n\nReturning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had arranged marriages for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to Johannesburg via Queenstown, arriving in April 1941. Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his \"first sight of South African capitalism in action\", but was fired when the induna (headman) discovered that he was a runaway. Staying with a cousin in George Goch Township, Mandela was introduced to realtor and ANC activist Walter Sisulu, who secured him a job as an articled clerk at law firm Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman. The company was run by a liberal Jew, Lazar Sidelsky, who was sympathetic to the ANC's cause. At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe, a Xhosa member of the ANC and Communist Party, as well as Nat Bregman, a Jewish communist who became his first white friend. Attending communist talks and parties, Mandela was impressed that Europeans, Africans, Indians and Coloureds were mixing as equals. He later stated that he did not join the Party because its atheism conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially-based rather than class warfare. Continuing his higher education, Mandela signed up to a University of South Africa correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.\n\nEarning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandra township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him. Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly courted a Swazi woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter. In order to save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association, living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the Queen Regent of Basutoland. In late 1941, Jongintaba visited, forgiving Mandela for running away. On returning to Thembuland, the regent died in winter 1942; Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral. After passing his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland. He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he \"simply found [himself] doing so, and could not do otherwise.\"\n\nRevolutionary activity\n\nLaw studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–49\n\nMandela began studying law at the University of the Witwatersrand, where he was the only black African student in the faculty. Although facing racism from some, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them Joe Slovo and Ruth First. Becoming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises. Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending much time with other activists at Sisulu's Orlando house, including old friend Oliver Tambo. In 1943, Mandela met Anton Lembede, an ANC member affiliated with the Africanist branch of African nationalism, which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists. Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination. Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President Alfred Bitini Xuma on the subject at his home in Sophiatown; the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the Bantu Men's Social Centre, with Lembede as President and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.\n\nAt Sisulu's house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, a trainee nurse and ANC activist from Engcobo, Transkei. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving in to a rented house in the township of Orlando in early 1946. Their first child, Madiba \"Thembi\" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of meningitis nine months later. Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him. In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.\n\nIn July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate Peter Mda, who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary. Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, in December 1947 supporting an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African. In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's Transvaal Province branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.\n\nIn the South African general election, 1948, in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel François Malan took power, soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form the National Party. Openly racialist, the party codified and expanded racial segregation with the new apartheid legislation. Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his cadres began advocating direct action against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a vote of no confidence, replaced by James Moroka and a more militant executive containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo, and Godfrey Pitje. Mandela later related that \"[he and his colleagues] had [...] guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path.\" Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.\n\nDefiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–54\n\nMandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950, and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL. In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian, and communist activists to call a May Day general strike in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950, affecting the actions of all protest groups. At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.\n\nThenceforth, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanist beliefs and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid. Influenced by friends like Moses Kotane and by the Soviet Union's support for wars of independence, his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by Marxists like Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Mao Zedong, eventually embracing the Marxist philosophy of dialectical materialism. Commenting on communism, he later stated that he \"found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal.\" In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist, although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.\n\nIn 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance Campaign against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of nonviolent resistance influenced by Mahatma Gandhi; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic. At a Durban rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000, initiating the campaign protests, for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison. The events of the campaign resulted in Mandela establishing himself as one of the best-known black political figures in South Africa. With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the Public Safety Act, 1953 to permit martial law. In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC President J. B. Marks from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected regional president in October.\n\nIn July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the Suppression of Communism Act and stood trial as one of the 21 accused – among them Moroka, Sisulu, and Yusuf Dadoo – in Johannesburg. Found guilty of \"statutory communism\", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' hard labour was suspended for two years. In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out. In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's \"No Easy Walk to Freedom\" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru, a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a cell structure with a more centralised leadership.\n\nMandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney. In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, Mandela and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved blacks, often dealing with cases of police brutality. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the Group Areas Act; as a result, their custom dwindled. As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite black middle-class, and accorded much respect as a result from the black community. Although a second daughter, Makaziwe Phumia, was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. Claims have emerged that he was having affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child. Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the Jehovah's Witnesses and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.\n\nCongress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–61\n\nAfter taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule. He advised Sisulu to request weaponry from the People's Republic of China, but though the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for guerilla warfare. With the involvement of the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured People's Congress, the South African Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of Democrats, the ANC planned a Congress of the People, calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a Freedom Charter was drafted by Rusty Bernstein, calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the nationalisation of major industry. When the charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown, attended by 3,000 delegates, police cracked down on the event, but it remained a key part of Mandela's ideology.\n\nFollowing the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to Transkei to discuss the implications of the Bantu Authorities Act, 1951 with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to Cape Town. In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it. Mandela's marriage broke down as Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for custody of their children. She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care. During the divorce proceedings, he began courting and politicising a social worker, Winnie Madikizela, whom he married in Bizana in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison. Together they had two children: Zenani, born in February 1959, and Zindziswa, born in December 1960.\n\nIn December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive, accused of \"high treason\" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail. The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer Vernon Berrangé, and continued until adjourning in September. In January 1958, Oswald Pirow was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was \"sufficient reason\" for the defendants to go on trial in the Transvaal Supreme Court. The formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges – all linked to the governing National Party – replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.\n\nIn April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the group's racially exclusionary views, describing them as \"immature\" and \"naïve\". Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned the passes that they were legally obliged to carry. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville massacre. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.\n\nResponding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring martial law and banning the ANC and PAC, while in March they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison. Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960. Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near Pietermaritzburg, Natal, in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic. On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, claiming that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of \"high treason\", for they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.\n\nMK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62\n\nDisguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the \"Black Pimpernel\" in the press – a reference to Emma Orczy's 1905 novel The Scarlet Pimpernel – a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police. Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's Poqo. He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader Albert Luthuli – who was morally opposed to violence – and allied activist groups of its necessity.\n\nInspired by the actions of Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement in the Cuban Revolution, in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu, and Slovo co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe (\"Spear of the Nation\", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from Marxist literature on guerilla warfare by Mao and Che Guevara as well as from the military theorist Carl von Clausewitz. Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, it later became widely recognised that MK was the party's armed wing. Most early MK members were white communists who were able to hide Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in Berea, Mandela moved to the communist-owned Liliesleaf Farm in Rivonia, there joined by Raymond Mhlaba, Slovo, and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution. Although in later life Mandela denied ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s. This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee, but later denied it for political reasons. \n\nOperating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary. Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane's Day (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.\n\nThe ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) meeting in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Leaving South Africa in secret via Bechuanaland, on his way Mandela visited Tanganyika and met with its president, Julius Nyerere. Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor Haile Selassie I, and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference. After the symposium, he travelled to Cairo, Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and then went to Tunis, Tunisia, where President Habib Bourguiba gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President William Tubman and Guinean President Ahmed Sékou Touré. Leaving Africa for London, England, he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters, and prominent politicians. Returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa.\n\nImprisonment\n\nArrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–64\n\nOn 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist Cecil Williams near Howick. Various rumours have circulated suggesting that the authorities were tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these little credence. One idea was that his location had been revealed to South African police by the United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which feared that Mandela was a communist; this claim later received support from an ex-U.S. diplomat who claimed involvement in the operation. Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase \"the ANC's moral opposition to racism\" while supporters demonstrated outside the court. Moved to Pretoria, where Winnie could visit him, in his cell he began correspondence studies for a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree from the University of London. His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional kaross, refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang \"Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika\".\n\nIn July 1963, police raided Liliesleaf Farm, arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The Rivonia Trial began at Pretoria Supreme Court in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was Percy Yutar. Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.\n\nAlthough four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the five other accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government. They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour \"I Am Prepared to Die\" speech. That speech – which was inspired by Castro's \"History Will Absolve Me\" – was widely reported in the press despite official censorship. The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the United Nations and World Peace Council, while the University of London Union voted Mandela to its presidency. On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the death sentence to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to life imprisonment.\n\nRobben Island: 1964–82\n\nMandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on Robben Island, remaining there for the next 18 years. Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring 8 ft by 7 ft, with a straw mat on which to sleep. Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight. At night, he worked on his LLB degree which he was obtaining from University of London through a correspondence course with Wolsey Hall, Oxford, but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in solitary confinement on several occasions for possessing smuggled news clippings. Initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.\n\nThe political prisoners took part in work and hunger strikes – the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela – to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle. ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man \"High Organ\" along with Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, and Raymond Mhlaba, and he involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC and Yu Chi Chan Club members. Initiating the \"University of Robben Island\", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.\n\nThough attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam. He also studied Afrikaans, hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause. Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party, who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison. In September 1970, he met British Labour Party MP Dennis Healey. South African Minister of Justice Jimmy Kruger visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get on. His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral. His wife was rarely able to visit, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975; Winnie got out of prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in Brandfort, still unable to visit him.\n\nFrom 1967, prison conditions improved; black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised. In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bureau of State Security (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape. In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned. He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.\n\nBy 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner, allowing greater numbers of visits and letters; he corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu. That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his study privileges were revoked for four years. Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until he resumed his LLB degree studies in 1980.\n\nBy the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the Soweto uprising of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island. Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists. Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday. He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in India in 1979, and the Freedom of the City of Glasgow, Scotland in 1981. In March 1980, the slogan \"Free Mandela!\" was developed by journalist Percy Qoboza, sparking an international campaign that led the UN Security Council to call for his release. Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its Cold War allies US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism and supported its suppression.\n\nPollsmoor Prison: 1982–88\n\nIn April 1982, Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Tokai, Cape Town along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada, and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island. Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island. Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a roof garden, and also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now permitted 52 letters a year. He was appointed patron of the multi-racial United Democratic Front (UDF), founded to combat reforms implemented by South African President P. W. Botha. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health, and housing, but black Africans were excluded from the system; like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.\n\nViolence across the country escalated, with many fearing civil war. Under pressure from an international lobby, multinational banks stopped investing in South Africa, resulting in economic stagnation. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela – then at the height of his international fame – to defuse the volatile situation. Although considering Mandela a dangerous \"arch-Marxist\", in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison on condition that he \"unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon\". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, \"What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts.\"\n\nIn 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor. He was met by \"seven eminent persons\", an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, in June calling a state of emergency and initiating a police crackdown on unrest. The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987. The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance, and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the Zulu nationalist movement Inkatha, which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC. Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987, having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on majority rule. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would only end its armed activities when the government renounced violence.\n\nMandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, notably with a tribute concert at London's Wembley Stadium that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers. Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a criminal gang, the \"Mandela United Football Club\", who had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents – including children – in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.\n\nVictor Verster Prison and release: 1988–90\n\nRecovering from tuberculosis exacerbated by the dank conditions in his cell, in December 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison near Paarl. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and used the time to complete his LLB degree. While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo. \n\nIn 1989, Botha suffered a stroke, retaining the state presidency but stepping down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by F. W. de Klerk. In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial. Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release. Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.\n\nLeaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and press; the event was broadcast live across the world. Driven to Cape Town's City Hall through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over, and would continue as \"a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid\". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that \"there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle\", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections.The text of Mandela's speech can be found at Staying at the home of Desmond Tutu, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's Soccer City.\n\nEnd of apartheid\n\nEarly negotiations: 1990–91\n\nMandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and then London, where he appeared at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium. Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, in France he was welcomed by President François Mitterrand, in Vatican City by Pope John Paul II, and in the United Kingdom by Thatcher. In the United States, he met President George H.W. Bush, addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the African-American community. In Cuba, he met President Castro, whom he had long admired, with the two becoming friends. He met President R. Venkataraman in India, President Suharto in Indonesia, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia, Prime Minister Bob Hawke in Australia, and visited Japan; he did not visit the Soviet Union, a longtime ANC supporter.\n\nIn May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the Groot Schuur Minute, in which the government lifted the state of emergency. In August, Mandela – recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage – offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists. He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected. At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted the party's faults and announced his aim to build a \"strong and well-oiled task force\" for securing majority rule. At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.\n\nMandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at Shell House, Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home. Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, but in June 1991 she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of Houghton. Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in \"black-on-black\" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu-Natal, which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a \"third force\" within the state intelligence services fuelling the \"slaughter of the people\" and openly blamed de Klerk – whom he increasingly distrusted – for the Sebokeng massacre. In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.\n\nCODESA talks: 1991–92\n\nThe Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Center, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure, and after de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, he took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the \"head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime\". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved. CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a unitary system governed by majority rule. Following the Boipatong massacre of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the Organisation of African Unity in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a UN peacekeeping force be stationed in South Africa to prevent \"state terrorism\". Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria. \n\nFollowing the Bisho massacre, in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two measures intended to prevent further Inkatha attacks; de Klerk reluctantly agreed. The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year coalition government of national unity and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism. The duo agreed on an interim constitution based on a liberal democratic model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a U.S.-style bill of rights; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own premier and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for federalism and Mandela's for unitary government.\n\nThe democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of far-right Afrikaner parties and black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha; in June 1993, the white supremacist Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre. Following the murder of ANC activist Chris Hani, Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke. In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US, independently meeting President Bill Clinton and each receiving the Liberty Medal. Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway. Influenced by Thabo Mbeki, Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he was encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switzerland.\n\nGeneral election: 1994\n\nWith the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country, at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among black South Africans. The ANC campaigned on a Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was \"a better life for all\", although it was not explained how this development would be funded. With the exception of the Weekly Mail and the New Nation, South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or Democratic Party. Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime. He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.\n\nConcerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the conflict in Bophuthatswana and the Shell House Massacre – incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively – Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading many to work within the democratic system, and with de Klerk convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession. As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to consider it a victory for Mandela. The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking another. Mandela voted at the Ohlange High School in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as President, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage. \n\nPresidency of South Africa: 1994–99\n\nThe newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by 4,000 guests, including world leaders from disparate backgrounds. Mandela headed a Government of National Unity dominated by the ANC – which alone had no experience of governance – but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of Deputy President. Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to organise policy details. Moving into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the Groote Schuur estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed \"Genadendal\", meaning \"Valley of Mercy\" in Afrikaans. Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.\n\nAged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely. He often entertained celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, and the Spice Girls, and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like Harry Oppenheimer of Anglo-American as well as Queen Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa, resulting in strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists. Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his R 552,000 annual income to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, which he had founded in 1995. Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of freedom of the press, and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too much on scaremongering around crime. Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day and after assuming the presidency he became so associated with Batik shirts that they came to be known as \"Madiba shirts\". \n\nIn December 1994, Mandela published Long Walk to Freedom, an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist Richard Stengel. In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in Bloemfontein, at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995. By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with Graça Machel, a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president Samora Machel. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.\n\nNational reconciliation\n\nPresiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency. Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in \"the Rainbow Nation\". Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC, he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Energy, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs. The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom – like Joe Modise, Alfred Nzo, Joe Slovo, Mac Maharaj and Dullah Omar – had long been comrades, although others, such as Tito Mboweni and Jeff Radebe, were much younger. Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president. In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence Magnus Malan when the latter was charged with murder.\n\nMandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including Hendrik Verwoerd's widow, Betsie Schoombie, and lawyer Percy Yutar, also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero Daniel Theron. Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that \"courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace.\" He encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the Springboks, as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. After the Springboks won a celebrated final against New Zealand, Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner, wearing a Springbok shirt with Pienaar's own number 6 on the back. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, \"Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans.\" Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of whites, but also drew criticism from more militant blacks. Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the black majority.\n\nMandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Desmond Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the Commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful. Mandela praised the Commission's work, stating that it \"had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future\".\n\nDomestic programmes\n\nMandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line. Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation. In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa's mixed economy but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of market economics and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a neo-liberal policy that did not undermine social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it. In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the \"Washington consensus\" advocated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.\n\nUnder Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99. The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups. In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996. By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.\n\nThe Land Restitution Act of 1994 enabled people who had lost their property as a result of the Natives Land Act, 1913 to claim back their land, leading to the settlement of tens of thousands of land claims. The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants who live and grow crops or graze livestock on farms. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65. Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry in South Africa, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding Armscor to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes. Under Mandela's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.\n\nCritics like Edwin Cameron accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with. Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime, with South Africa having one of the world's highest crime rates, and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country growing significantly throughout the decade. Mandela's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption. \n\nFurther problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes, and the impact of positive discrimination toward blacks in employment. This exodus resulted in a brain drain, with Mandela criticising those who left. At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of illegal migrants from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease-spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as \"brothers and sisters\".\n\nForeign affairs\n\nMandela expressed the view that \"South Africa's future foreign relations [should] be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations\". Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation. In September 1998, Mandela was appointed Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement, who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the \"narrow, chauvinistic interests\" of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the Kashmir conflict, for which he was criticised by both Israel and India. Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was scuppered by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. He attempted to overcome the 'Two China Problem' by extending diplomatic recognition to both the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and Taiwan, who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, in November 1996 he cut recognition of Taiwan, and in May 1999 paid an official visit to Beijing.\n\nMandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian President Suharto, whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged him to withdraw from the occupation of East Timor. He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government's trade links to Syria, Cuba, and Libya, and for his personal friendships with Fidel Castro and Muammar Gaddafi. Castro visited in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the Order of Good Hope. When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones, and stated that \"the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies.\" Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya, and the US and Britain, over bringing to trial the two Libyans, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by Scots law, the trial was held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty. \n\nMandela echoed Mbeki's calls for an \"African Renaissance\", and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent. He took a soft diplomatic approach to removing Sani Abacha's military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations. In 1996, he was appointed Chairman of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the First Congo War in Zaire. He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between Tutsi and Hutu political groups in the Burundian Civil War, helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence. In South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation, in September 1998 it ordered troops into Lesotho in order to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili after a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela's absence.\n\nWithdrawing from politics\n\nThe new Constitution of South Africa was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to check political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy. De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals. The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President. Inkatha remained part of the coalition, and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed \"Acting President\", marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela. Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as President, he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures. During a 1997 visit to London, he said that \"the ruler of South Africa, the de facto ruler, is Thabo Mbeki\" and that he was \"shifting everything to him\".\n\nMandela stepped down as ANC President at the party's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless. Replacing Mbeki as Deputy President, Mandela and the Executive supported the candidacy of Jacob Zuma, a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, but he was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party; Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.\n\nMandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was \"in love with a remarkable lady\", and under pressure from his friend Desmond Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year. The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries. Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five-year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior the 1999 general elections, after which he retired. Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.\n\nRetirement\n\nContinued activism and philanthropy: 1999–2004\n\nRetiring in June 1999, Mandela sought a quiet family life, to be divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. He set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled The Presidential Years, but it was abandoned before publication. Finding such seclusion difficult, he reverted to a busy public life with a daily programme of tasks, met with world leaders and celebrities, and, when in Johannesburg, worked with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS. Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as \"a war\" that had killed more than \"all previous wars\"; affiliating himself with the Treatment Action Campaign, he urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV-positive South Africans had access to anti-retrovirals. Mandela was successfully treated for prostate cancer in July 2001. \n\nIn 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was created at Rhodes House, University of Oxford, to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the 46664 campaign against HIV/AIDS. He gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Conference in Durban in 2000, and in 2004, spoke at the XV International AIDS Conference in Bangkok, Thailand, there urging for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV/AIDS. \n\nPublicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world. In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the US and UK to launch a war in Iraq, describing it as \"a tragedy\" and lambasting US President George W. Bush and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair for undermining the UN, saying, \"All that (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi oil\". He attacked the US more generally, asserting that it had committed more \"unspeakable atrocities\" across the world than any other nation, citing the atomic bombing of Japan; this attracted international controversy, although he later reconciled his relationship with Blair. Retaining an interest in Libyan-UK relations, he visited Megrahi in Barlinnie prison and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as \"psychological persecution\". \n\n\"Retiring from retirement\": 2004–13\n\nIn June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was \"retiring from retirement\" and retreating from public life, remarking, \"Don't call me, I will call you.\" Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the Foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.\n\nHe retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust, travelling to the U.S. to speak before the Brookings Institution and the NAACP on the need for economic assistance to Africa. He spoke with U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton and President George W. Bush and first met then-U.S. Senator Barack Obama. Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe to resign over growing human rights abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down \"with residual respect and a modicum of dignity.\" That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday. \n\nMandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu, and a concert in his honour in Hyde Park, London. In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help the poor across the world. Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor Jacob Zuma, although the Nelson Mandela Foundation were upset when his grandson, Mandla Mandela, flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.\n\nIn 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, declaring that there would be \"few better gifts for us\" in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid. Mandela emotionally raised the FIFA World Cup Trophy after South Africa was awarded host status. Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received a \"rapturous reception\". Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants. In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself. \n\nIllness and death: 2011–2013\n\nIn February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection, attracting international attention, before being re-hospitalised for a lung infection and gallstone removal in December 2012. After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013, his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria. In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was rehospitalised in Pretoria in a serious condition. Cape Town Archbishop Thabo Makgoba visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel, while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day. In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital, although his condition remained unstable. \n\nAfter suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20:50 local time (UTC+2) at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family. Zuma publicly announced his death on television, proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg's FNB Stadium on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body lay in state from 11 to 13 December at the Union Buildings in Pretoria and a state funeral was held on 15 December in Qunu. Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events. Images of and tributes to Mandela proliferated across social media. His $4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions. \n\nPolitical ideology\n\nMandela was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist. According to biographer Tom Lodge, \"for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends.\" Mandela identified as both an African nationalist, an ideological position he held since joining the ANC, and a democratic socialist. He advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society, with Sampson describing him as \"openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money\".\n\nMandela was influenced by Marxism, and during the revolution he advocated scientific socialism. During the Treason Trial, he denied being a communist, maintaining this stance when later talking to journalists. Conversely, biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela \"embraced communism and communists\" in the late 1950s and early 1960s, while historian Stephen Ellis found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party (SACP). This was confirmed after his death by the SACP and the ANC. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on the party's Central Committee.\n\nThe 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, believing this necessary to ensure equal distribution of wealth. Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time. It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a social democratic economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s. This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc during the early 1990s. In contrast, China was developing rapidly within a \"socialist market economy\" and Mandela began to quote Deng Xiaoping's aphorism, \"It doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white, so long as it catches mice.\" \n\nOver the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation. When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table.\n\nMandela took political ideas from other thinkers, among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African-American activists, and African nationalists like Nkrumah, and fitted them into the South African situation. At the same time he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists. He also synthesized both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from Afrikaner nationalism. Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, he was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them. His political thought nevertheless exhibited tensions between his support for liberal democracy and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making. He held a conviction that \"inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech\" were the fundamentals of democracy, and was driven by a belief in natural and human rights, pursuing not only racial equality but also promoting gay rights as part of the post-apartheid reforms. His political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through \"legal revolution\".\n\nPersonality and personal life\n\nMandela was widely considered a charismatic leader, with biographer Mary Benson describing him as having been \"a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people\". He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner. His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his \"charismatic power\". While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the \"African gentleman\", having \"the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech\" associated with such a position. In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became \"one of the first media politicians [...] embodying a glamour and a style that projected visually a brave new African world of modernity and freedom\". In the 1990s, he came to be associated closely with the highly coloured \"Madiba shirts\" that he began wearing. \n\nHis official biographer, Anthony Sampson, commented that he was a \"master of imagery and performance\", excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites. His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases. Although not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed \"his personal commitment, charm and humour\". In describing his life, Mandela stated, \"I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances.\"\n\nMandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people. Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as President made his own bed. Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour, he was known for being both stubborn and loyal, and at times exhibited a quick temper. He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents. Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants. He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities. In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others. He was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity, with the Methodist Church of Southern Africa claiming that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life. An analysis of his writings have led to him being described by theologian Dion Forster as a Christian humanist, who relied more upon Ubuntu than Christian theology. According to Sampson, Mandela however never had \"a strong religious faith\", while Boehmer stated that Mandela's religious belief was \"never robust\". He was fond of Indian cuisine, and had a lifelong interest in archaeology and boxing.\n\nMandela was heterosexual, with biographer Fatima Meer stating that he was \"easily tempted\" by women. Another biographer, Martin Meredith, characterised him as being \"by nature a romantic\", highlighting that he had relationships with various women. Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great-grandchildren. He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren. His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944; they divorced after 13 years in 1957 under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality. The couple had two sons whom Mandela survived, Madiba \"Thembi\" Thembekile (1945–1969) and Makgatho Mandela (1950–2005); his first son died in a car crash and his second son died of AIDS. The couple had two daughters, both named Makaziwe Mandela (born 1947 and 1954); the first died at the age of nine months, the second, known as \"Maki\", survived Mandela. Makgatho's son, Mandla Mandela, became chief of the Mvezo tribal council in 2007. Mandela's second wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, also came from the Transkei area, although they too met in Johannesburg, where she was the city's first black social worker. They had two daughters, Zenani and Zindzi. In 1995, he divorced Winnie, and married Graça Machel on his 80th birthday in 1998.\n\nReception and legacy\n\nBy the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both \"the father of the nation\" and \"the founding father of democracy\". Outside of South Africa, he was a \"global icon\", with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as \"one of the most revered figures of our time\". One biographer considered him \"a modern democratic hero\", while his popularity had resulted in a cult of personality building up around him. He is often cited alongside Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. as one of the 20th century's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders. Boehmer described him as \"a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy\" and \"a universal symbol of social justice\".\n\nMandela's international fame had emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world's most famous prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality. In 1986, Mandela biographer Mary Benson characterised him as \"the embodiment of the struggle for liberation\" in South Africa. Meredith stated that in becoming \"a potent symbol of resistance\" to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained \"mythical status\" internationally. Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become \"so powerful that it blurs the realities\", converting Mandela into \"a secular saint\". Within a decade of the end of his Presidency, Mandela's era was being widely thought of as \"a golden age of hope and harmony\", with much nostalgia being expressed for it. Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation, coming to be viewed as \"a moral authority\" with a great \"concern for truth\".\n\nMandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician, having detractors on both the radical left and right. Some voices in the ANC accused him of selling out for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government. Concerns were raised that the personal respect and authority he accrued were in contrast to the ideals of democracy that he promoted. His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and to promote an economic model that benefited South Africa's poor. During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence. Thatcher attracted international attention for describing the ANC as \"a typical terrorist organisation\" in 1987, although she later called on Botha to release Mandela. Mandela has also been criticised for his friendship with political leaders such as Castro, Gaddafi, and Suharto – deemed dictators by critics – as well as his refusal to condemn their human rights violations. \n\nOrders, decorations, and monuments\n\nOn 16 December 2013, the Day of Reconciliation, a nine-metre-high, bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at the Union Buildings by President Jacob Zuma. In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the Freedom of the City, and the Sandton Square shopping centre was renamed Nelson Mandela Square, after a Mandela statue was installed there. In 2008, another Mandela statue was unveiled at Drakenstein Correctional Centre, formerly Victor Verster Prison, near Cape Town, standing on the spot where Mandela was released from the prison. \n\nIn 1993, he received the joint Nobel Peace Prize with de Klerk. In November 2009, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as \"Mandela Day\", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement. \n\nAwarded the US Presidential Medal of Freedom and appointment to the Order of Canada, he was also the first living person to be made an honorary Canadian citizen. Mandela was the last recipient of the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize and the first recipient of the Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights. In 1990, he received the Bharat Ratna Award from the Government of India, and in 1992 received Pakistan's Nishan-e-Pakistan. The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time, but later accepted the award in 1999. Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St. John (upon the recommendation of the order's Honours and Awards Committee) and granted him membership in the Order of Merit (a personal gift of the monarch). \n\nBiographies and popular media\n\nThe first biography of Mandela was authored by Mary Benson, based on brief interviews with him that she had conducted in the 1960s. Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela. The first was Fatima Meer's Higher Than Hope, which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela's family. The second was Anthony Sampson's Mandela, published in 1999. Other biographies included Martin Meredith's Mandela, first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge's Mandela, brought out in 2006.\n\nSince the late 1980s, Mandela's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them \"photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t-shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more\", items that have been characterised as \"Mandela kitsch\". Following his death, there appeared many internet memes featuring images of Mandela with his inspirational quotes superimposed onto them.\n\nMany artists have dedicated songs to Mandela. One of the most popular was from The Special AKA who recorded the song \"Free Nelson Mandela\" in 1983, which Elvis Costello also recorded and had a hit with. Stevie Wonder dedicated his 1985 Oscar for the song \"I Just Called to Say I Love You\" to Mandela, resulting in his music being banned by the South African Broadcasting Corporation.\n\nMandela has been depicted in cinema and television on multiple occasions. He was portrayed by Danny Glover in the 1987 HBO television film Mandela. The 1997 film Mandela and de Klerk starred Sidney Poitier as Mandela, and Dennis Haysbert played him in Goodbye Bafana (2007). In the 2009 BBC telefilm Mrs Mandela, Mandela was portrayed by David Harewood, and Morgan Freeman portrayed him in Invictus (2009). Terrence Howard portrayed him in the 2011 film Winnie Mandela. He was portrayed by Idris Elba in the 2013 film Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom."
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"Nelson Mandela\nNelson Mandela\n(Created by Michelle L. Bolden, History 135, July 1998)\n \nAssignment\n \nWhat combination of policies and events caused the previously nonviolent Nelson Mandela to reverse his position in order to gain multi-racial democracy for South Africa?\n \nBackground\n \nNelson Rohihlahia (stirring up trouble) Mandela was born on 18 July 1918, near Umtata, in the Transkei region of South Africa. His father was Chief Henry Mandela of the Tembu Tribe. Mandela was trained to become the next chief to rule his tribe, but he was also a determined student and eventually joined an all black college, Fort Hare, where he was expelled for joining a student boycott. He later obtained an arts degree in Johannesburg and studied law at the University of Witwatersrand.\n \nBefore apartheid, South Africa had a long history of racial segregation. In 1910 parliamentary membership was limited to whites, and legislation was passed in 1913 to restrict ownership of land by blacks. The African National Congress (ANC) had been formed in 1910 to fight these policies. In 1944, the ANC President Alfred B. Xuma started recruiting younger and more outspoken members like Walter Sisulu, Oliver Tambo and Nelson Mandela, the first members of the ANC Youth League (ANCYL).\n \nIn 1949, the Programme of Action was written by the ANCYL and adopted by the ANC which advocated boycotts, strikes, civil disobedience and noncooperation to achieve its goals. Mandela also co-authored the \"ANCYL programme\", which called for full citizenship, direct parliamentary representation, land redistribution, trade union rights, education and cultural equality for all South Africans. This was followed by the Campaign for the Defiance of Unjust Laws in 1952, calling for mass disobedience starting with volunteers and involving more and more ordinary people. Mandela traveled the country organizing resistance to discriminatory legislation, often referred to as the \"Black Pimpernal\" by the press because of the disguises he used to avoid police. Mandela was arrested for these actions and convicted of contravening the Suppression of Communism Act. He was given a suspended sentence, prohibited from gatherings and confined to Johannesburg for six months. It was during this confinement that Mandela passed the attorney's admissions examination, and he and his long time friend, Oliver Tambo, opened the country's first black law partnership with the help of Walter Sisulu.\n \nApartheid had become the official political policy in 1948, which caused membership in the ANC to greatly increase. After the Sharpville massacre in 1960, when police killed 69 and wounded 180 unarmed African pass protesters, Mandela convinced the nonviolent ANC to form a military wing, known as Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), which soon launched a campaign of sabotage against the government. At the same time, the government banned all black political organizations to include the ANC and kept a close watch on Mandela. In 1962, Mandela left the country to train militarily. Upon his return, he was arrested for leaving the country and sentenced to 5 years imprisonment and two years later sentenced to life for treason and sabotage in the Rivonia Trial. (It has been alleged by many--though never conclusively proven--that the CIA tipped off the South African government about Mandela being out of the country and that this is how the government knew when and where to arrest him upon his return in 1962. The evidence includes London newspaper reports in The Guardian on 15 August 1986 and The Times on 4 August 1986.) By the end of the 1960s, opponents to apartheid were being arrested at the rate of 600,000 per year.\n \nNelson Mandela spent 1964 to 1982 incarcerated in the maximum security prison on Robben Island, then moved to Pollsmoor Prison in Cape Town and finally to Victor Verster Prison near Paarl. Mandela's reputation grew steadily during his prison years, and he was often looked up to by fellow inmates. The government often offered Mandela a pardon if he would settle down in Transkei, but P.W. Botha offered the pardon only if Mandela agreed to denounce violence. Mandela's steadfast refusal to compromise his political position to obtain freedom, made him a leading symbol of the anti-apartheid movement.\n \nThe ANC became an underground organization from the 1960s to the mid 1980s, while the government continued to implement a series of reforms to further oppress South Africans. These actions were criticized internationally and helped to win anti-apartheid favor around the world. By the late 1980s, the mass democratic movement pushed the white leaders of South Africa to engage in conversations with exhiled ANC leaders in 1988 and 1989. President F.W. de Klerk made the decision to release Nelson Mandela in February of 1990 after he had spent 27 years in prison. The ANC's consistent principle of non-racial democracy created a basis for trust, which led to further talks between political parties, black and white. A transitional constitution was then developed at the World Trade Center in Johannesburg from 1991 to 1993, and this led to a new Government of National Unity. Mandela and de Klerk were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 for their efforts in negotiating an end to apartheid. In 1994 multi-racial elections occurred, and Nelson Mandela became the first black President of South Africa.\n \nMandela dedicated his life to the struggle of ending apartheid policies in South Africa, never wavering from his position to seek equality for all races to include whites, and he has given more of himself in doing so than most activists. Yet, he remains a modest man who shows a total lack of bitterness or revenge for the years of lost freedom, his lost family and the loss of so much life. It is these qualities which make Nelson Mandela one of the great moral and political leaders of our time.\n \nTimeline\n1910, South Africa's parliamentary membership limited to whites.\n1912, the African National Congress (ANC), a nonviolent civil rights group promoting the interests of black Africans, was founded.\n18 July 1918, Nelson Mandela was born in Umtata, the Transkei region of South Africa.\n1944, Mandela joined the ANC Youth League.\n1948, Apartheid became the official political policy of South Africa. Laws classified people according to racial groups, determined where each group was to live, prohibited social contact between races and denied representation of non-whites in the national government. Nelson Mandela became actively engaged in apartheid activities.\n1949, ANC adopted a nonviolent Programme of Action.\n1952, Mandela opened the first black law partnership in South Africa.\n1952, Campaign for the Defiance of Unjust Laws launched by the ANC.\n1952, Mandela arrested, convicted for crimes against the Suppression of Communism Act and given a suspended sentence.\n14 June 1958, Mandela married his second wife, Winnie.\n1960, Sharpville massacre in which 69 killed and 180 wounded.\n1960, Military arm of the ANC, called the Umkhonto we Sizwe, formed.\n1960, ANC and all black political organizations are banned.\n5 August 1962, Mandela arrested and sentenced to 5 years of hard labor in prison.\n12 June 1964, While already in prison, Mandela further sentenced to life imprisonment for sabotage and treason.\n14 August 1989, P. W. Botha quit as president; 15 August De Klerk succeeded him.\nFebruary 1990, Mandela released from prison and assumed leadership of the ANC, leading negotiations with the government for a new constitution that ended apartheid.\n7 June 1990, South Africa lifted the emergency decrees.\n7 July 1991, the first national conference of the ANC held, and Nelson Mandela elected President, while his friend and colleague, Oliver Tambo, became the National Chairperson.\n1991 to 1993, a new constitution for the Government of National Unity was developed at the Johannesburg World Trade Center.\n1993, Nelson Mandela and South African President F. W. de Klerk share the Nobel Peace prize for their efforts in establishing democracy and racial harmony in South Africa.\n1994, After the country's first multiracial elections, Nelson Mandela became the first black President of South Africa.\nMay 1995, South Africa approved a new constitution which barred discrimination against minorities, to include whites.\nMarch 1996, Nelson Mandela formally divorced from Winnie Mandela.\n \nWWW sites\n \nThere are many sites devoted to Nelson Mandela, his life, his struggle to end apartheid and his current position as President of South Africa. Some of the best sites are: Facts on File and South Africa's Government of National Unity . Sites which offer commentary on and recognition of his achievements, include the Boston Globe for his Nobel Peace Prize , the Peace Prize lecture and the most complete list of honors awarded.\n \nThe African National Congress home page provides the most inclusive collection of information on the history of apartheid and the revolution which brought the ANC into power. Not only are major events of the apartheid era, such as the Rivonia Trial covered, but also the key persons and groups that contributed; Oliver Tambo , Walter Sisulu , Umkhonto we Sizwe , and many others. This site also contains the most comprehensive collection of speeches by Mandela. Two of his most important speeches include his speech on his Release From Jail (1990) and his Inaugural Address (10 May 1994). Another site which details the rise and fall of apartheid is the South Africa U.S. Embassy .\n \nRobben Island , which housed the majority of revolutionaries against apartheid, to include Mandela, has now been designated as a National Museum and cultural heritage site.\n \nRecommended Books\n \nFor a personal perspective of the trials and tribulations of his life, read Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela (1995). A less detailed accounting may be found in Mandela: An Illustrated Autobiography (1996). Nelson Mandela: The Struggle Is My Life (1992), is a collection of speeches and writings which explains Mandela's political beliefs. Mary Benson, Nelson Mandela, The Man and the Movement (1986) is a sympathetic biography and portrait of Mandela that relies, in part, on prison interviews.\n \nThe book Goodbye Bafana: Nelson Mandela, My Prisoner, My Friend is a touching tribute to Mandela from a former prison guard James Gregory, whose hatred for blacks was reversed after getting to know and becoming a friend of Mandela.",
"BBC - Primary History - Famous People - Nelson Mandela\nWhy is Nelson Mandela famous?\nA leader of his people\nNelson Mandela was the first black President of South Africa. He spent 27 years in prison for trying to overthrow the pro-apartheid government. After he left prison, he worked to achieve human rights and a better future for everyone in South Africa.\nWhen did he live?\nNelson Mandela was born in 1918. He was in prison from 1962 to 1990. He became President of South Africa in 1994, and retired in 1999. Nelson Mandela died on 5 December 2013 following a lung illness.\nWhy is he famous?\nNelson Mandela became famous for his long fight against bad government and racial prejudice . He became a hero to people all over the world. As South Africa's President, he was respected for his courage and wisdom in bringing people together to live in peace.\nThe young Mandela\nWhere was he born?\nRolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918. He was later given the name Nelson by a teacher at school.\nHe was born in the Transkei, part of South Africa. The Transkei has mountains, valleys and grasslands called savannas. On a map, you can find it in the southeast (bottom right) corner of South Africa.\nGrowing up\nMandela's father Henry was a chief of the Tembu people. His mother was Nosekeni Fanny. The Mandelas were related to the Tembu royal family.\nWhen Nelson was 9, his father died. He was looked after by Jongintaba Dalindyebo, who was regent (acting chief) of the Tembu.\nSchool and college\nNelson went to a mission school , and then to college. He was good at school work. He also enjoyed boxing and running. At Fort Hare University, he studied law. One of his friends there was Oliver Tambo. Nelson left the university in 1939, after student protests about the way it was run.\nWhat job did he choose?\nMandela's family had chosen a wife for him. But he did not want an arranged marriage . So he left for the city of Johannesburg. He went on with his studies, and became a lawyer in 1942.\nProblems in South Africa\nSouth Africa's history\nMost South Africans are black. There are also people of European and Asian backgrounds, and people of mixed race.\nDutch people set up the first white colony in South Africa in 1652. Later British settlers came. Dutch farmers called themselves 'Boers' , from a Dutch word meaning 'farmers'. They spoke a language called Afrikaans. Most other white settlers spoke English. Black people spoke Bantu languages such as isiNdebele and isiZulu.\nBritain and South Africa\nBritain took over the Dutch colony in 1815. South Africa became part of the British Empire . Gold was found in 1886. With gold and good farmland, the country was rich.\nBut it was not peaceful. Whites and blacks fought over the land. There were wars between the Boers and the British. The Boers wanted their own country.\nHow South Africa was ruled\nWhen Mandela was growing up, black people had little say in how South Africa was run. The government was whites-only. Most black people were poor. They worked as servants . They worked on farms, and in factories and gold mines.\nWhat was the ANC?\nIn 1944, Nelson Mandela joined the African National Congress or ANC. The ANC wanted black South Africans to have the same human rights as whites.\nIn 1948, the South African government made new laws to keep white people and black people apart. The new system was called 'apartheid'.\nStruggle for Freedom\nWhat was apartheid?\nApartheid (say A-PART-HITE) forced white and non-white people to live in separate areas. Non-white people meant black people, people from Asia and people of mixed race.\nA white person and a black person could not marry. Black people and white people could not share a table in a restaurant, or sit together on a bus. Black children and white children went to different schools. Sports teams were all-white or all-black, never mixed.\nMandela makes a stand\nMandela and Oliver Tambo set up South Africa's first black law firm. Poor people came to them for help.\nMandela led young people in the ANC. Many white people, as well as black people, spoke out against apartheid. Mandela admired Gandhi, who had used peaceful protest in India. Perhaps peaceful protest could get rid of apartheid, without fighting?\nBut to speak out was dangerous. In 1956, Mandela and 155 other people were arrested for treason . After a trial lasting five years, he was set free in 1961.\nWhat happened at Sharpeville?\nIn 1960, people held a demonstration against apartheid at Sharpeville, near Johannesburg. The police shot dead 69 black people. The government blamed the ANC, and banned it.\nMandela became leader of a secret army, known as Umkhonto we Sizwe or 'Spear of the Nation'. He was hunted by the police, and had to hide and use disguises. He travelled to other countries to ask for help.\nMandela goes to jail\nIn 1961 South Africa left the Commonwealth . Millions of people in other countries supported the anti-apartheid movement. Many nations stopped trade with South Africa. Sports teams and entertainers refused to go there.\nStill the government refused to change. In 1962, Nelson Mandela was arrested again. He was accused of sabotage and plotting to overthrow the government. In 1964, aged 46, he was given a life sentence .\nPresident Mandela\nRobben Island\nMandela was sent to the prison on Robben Island. Other ANC leaders in prison there included Walter Sisulu. Oliver Tambo had left South Africa to live abroad.\nMandela spent 18 years on Robben Island. He had to do hard labour . He was allowed one visitor every 6 months. He was later moved to another prison.\nFree Nelson Mandela!\nMandela became the most famous prisoner in the world. He did not give up. Even the prison guards admired him.\nAt last, in 1988, the South African government began to make changes. One change was to let black students into 'white' universities. From around the world, the calls got louder. Free Nelson Mandela!\nMandela leaves prison\nIn 1990, South Africa's new President FW de Klerk set Nelson Mandela free. Mandela and de Klerk agreed: no more fighting. Mandela called on all South Africans to work together in peace.\nMandela becomes President\nIn 1991, Mandela became leader of the ANC. In the 1994 elections, all black people in South Africa were able to vote for the first time. The ANC won the election. A new government took over. In May 1994, Nelson Mandela became South Africa's first black president.\nWorld Statesman\nThe rainbow nation\nAnother famous South African, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, called South Africa a 'rainbow nation'. Nelson Mandela also spoke of it this way. Its people were of all races and colours, working together.\nIn 1995, South Africa was host for the rugby World Cup. President Mandela wore a Springbok rugby shirt. The springbok antelope is South Africa's national animal. South Africa's rugby team, the Springboks, had been all-white. Mandela wore the shirt to help bring white and black together. Sport helped to do this.\nHonours and a book\nMandela was welcomed around the world as a great statesman (world leader). He was given many honours. In 1993, Nelson Mandela and FW de Klerk shared the Nobel Peace Prize .\nMandela wrote a book about his struggle called 'Long Walk to Freedom'.\nFamily life\nMandela married three times. His first marriage ended in 1957. He and his second wife, Winnie, divorced in 1996. At the age of 81, he married Grace Machel.\nAn inspiration to others\nNelson Mandela retired as President in 1999. From 2004, he gave up politics, to enjoy a quiet life with his family.\nNelson Mandela: an inspiration for people all over the world.",
"Nelson Mandela - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com\nGoogle\nNelson Mandela’s Childhood and Education\nNelson Mandela was born on July 18, 1918, into a royal family of the Xhosa-speaking Thembu tribe in the South African village of Mvezo, where his father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa (c. 1880-1928), served as chief. His mother, Nosekeni Fanny, was the third of Mphakanyiswa’s four wives, who together bore him nine daughters and four sons. After the death of his father in 1927, 9-year-old Mandela—then known by his birth name, Rolihlahla—was adopted by Jongintaba Dalindyebo, a high-ranking Thembu regent who began grooming his young ward for a role within the tribal leadership.\nDid You Know?\nAs a sign of respect, many South Africans referred to Nelson Mandela as Madiba, his Xhosa clan name.\nThe first in his family to receive a formal education, Mandela completed his primary studies at a local missionary school. There, a teacher dubbed him Nelson as part of a common practice of giving African students English names. He went on to attend the Clarkebury Boarding Institute and Healdtown, a Methodist secondary school, where he excelled in boxing and track as well as academics. In 1939 Mandela entered the elite University of Fort Hare, the only Western-style higher learning institute for South African blacks at the time. The following year, he and several other students, including his friend and future business partner Oliver Tambo (1917-1993), were sent home for participating in a boycott against university policies.\nAfter learning that his guardian had arranged a marriage for him, Mandela fled to Johannesburg and worked first as a night watchman and then as a law clerk while completing his bachelor’s degree by correspondence. He studied law at the University of Witwatersrand, where he became involved in the movement against racial discrimination and forged key relationships with black and white activists. In 1944, Mandela joined the African National Congress (ANC) and worked with fellow party members, including Oliver Tambo, to establish its youth league, the ANCYL. That same year, he met and married his first wife, Evelyn Ntoko Mase (1922-2004), with whom he had four children before their divorce in 1957.\nNelson Mandela and the African National Congress\nNelson Mandela’s commitment to politics and the ANC grew stronger after the 1948 election victory of the Afrikaner-dominated National Party, which introduced a formal system of racial classification and segregation—apartheid—that restricted nonwhites’ basic rights and barred them from government while maintaining white minority rule. The following year, the ANC adopted the ANCYL’s plan to achieve full citizenship for all South Africans through boycotts, strikes, civil disobedience and other nonviolent methods. Mandela helped lead the ANC’s 1952 Campaign for the Defiance of Unjust Laws, traveling across the country to organize protests against discriminatory policies, and promoted the manifesto known as the Freedom Charter, ratified by the Congress of the People in 1955. Also in 1952, Mandela and Tambo opened South Africa’s first black law firm, which offered free or low-cost legal counsel to those affected by apartheid legislation.\nOn December 5, 1956, Mandela and 155 other activists were arrested and went on trial for treason. All of the defendants were acquitted in 1961, but in the meantime tensions within the ANC escalated, with a militant faction splitting off in 1959 to form the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). The next year, police opened fire on peaceful black protesters in the township of Sharpeville, killing 69 people; as panic, anger and riots swept the country in the massacre’s aftermath, the apartheid government banned both the ANC and the PAC. Forced to go underground and wear disguises to evade detection, Mandela decided that the time had come for a more radical approach than passive resistance.\nNelson Mandela and the Armed Resistance Movement\nIn 1961, Nelson Mandela co-founded and became the first leader of Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”), also known as MK, a new armed wing of the ANC. Several years later, during the trial that would put him behind bars for nearly three decades, he described the reasoning for this radical departure from his party’s original tenets: “[I]t would be wrong and unrealistic for African leaders to continue preaching peace and nonviolence at a time when the government met our peaceful demands with force. It was only when all else had failed, when all channels of peaceful protest had been barred to us, that the decision was made to embark on violent forms of political struggle.”\nUnder Mandela’s leadership, MK launched a sabotage campaign against the government, which had recently declared South Africa a republic and withdrawn from the British Commonwealth. In January 1962, Mandela traveled abroad illegally to attend a conference of African nationalist leaders in Ethiopia, visit the exiled Oliver Tambo in London and undergo guerilla training in Algeria. On August 5, shortly after his return, he was arrested and subsequently sentenced to five years in prison for leaving the country and inciting a 1961 workers’ strike. The following July, police raided an ANC hideout in Rivonia, a suburb on the outskirts of Johannesburg, and arrested a racially diverse group of MK leaders who had gathered to debate the merits of a guerilla insurgency. Evidence was found implicating Mandela and other activists, who were brought to stand trial for sabotage, treason and violent conspiracy alongside their associates.\nMandela and seven other defendants narrowly escaped the gallows and were instead sentenced to life imprisonment during the so-called Rivonia Trial, which lasted eight months and attracted substantial international attention. In a stirring opening statement that sealed his iconic status around the world, Mandela admitted to some of the charges against him while defending the ANC’s actions and denouncing the injustices of apartheid. He ended with the following words: “I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”\nNelson Mandela’s Years Behind Bars\nNelson Mandela spent the first 18 of his 27 years in jail at the brutal Robben Island Prison, a former leper colony off the coast of Cape Town, where he was confined to a small cell without a bed or plumbing and compelled to do hard labor in a lime quarry. As a black political prisoner, he received scantier rations and fewer privileges than other inmates. He was only allowed to see his wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela (1936-), who he had married in 1958 and was the mother of his two young daughters, once every six months. Mandela and his fellow prisoners were routinely subjected to inhumane punishments for the slightest of offenses; among other atrocities, there were reports of guards burying inmates in the ground up to their necks and urinating on them.\nThese restrictions and conditions notwithstanding, while in confinement Mandela earned a bachelor of law degree from the University of London and served as a mentor to his fellow prisoners, encouraging them to seek better treatment through nonviolent resistance. He also smuggled out political statements and a draft of his autobiography, “Long Walk to Freedom,” published five years after his release.\nDespite his forced retreat from the spotlight, Mandela remained the symbolic leader of the antiapartheid movement. In 1980 Oliver Tambo introduced a “Free Nelson Mandela” campaign that made the jailed leader a household name and fueled the growing international outcry against South Africa’s racist regime. As pressure mounted, the government offered Mandela his freedom in exchange for various political compromises, including the renouncement of violence and recognition of the “independent” Transkei Bantustan, but he categorically rejected these deals.\nIn 1982 Mandela was moved to Pollsmoor Prison on the mainland, and in 1988 he was placed under house arrest on the grounds of a minimum-security correctional facility. The following year, newly elected president F. W. de Klerk (1936-) lifted the ban on the ANC and called for a nonracist South Africa, breaking with the conservatives in his party. On February 11, 1990, he ordered Mandela’s release.\nNelson Mandela as President of South Africa\nAfter attaining his freedom, Nelson Mandela led the ANC in its negotiations with the governing National Party and various other South African political organizations for an end to apartheid and the establishment of a multiracial government. Though fraught with tension and conducted against a backdrop of political instability, the talks earned Mandela and de Klerk the Nobel Peace Prize in December 1993. On April 26, 1994, more than 22 million South Africans turned out to cast ballots in the country’s first multiracial parliamentary elections in history. An overwhelming majority chose the ANC to lead the country, and on May 10 Mandela was sworn in as the first black president of South Africa, with de Klerk serving as his first deputy.\nAs president, Mandela established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate human rights and political violations committed by both supporters and opponents of apartheid between 1960 and 1994. He also introduced numerous social and economic programs designed to improve the living standards of South Africa’s black population. In 1996 Mandela presided over the enactment of a new South African constitution, which established a strong central government based on majority rule and prohibited discrimination against minorities, including whites.\nImproving race relations, discouraging blacks from retaliating against the white minority and building a new international image of a united South Africa were central to President Mandela’s agenda. To these ends, he formed a multiracial “Government of National Unity” and proclaimed the country a “rainbow nation at peace with itself and the world.” In a gesture seen as a major step toward reconciliation, he encouraged blacks and whites alike to rally around the predominantly Afrikaner national rugby team when South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup.\nOn his 80th birthday in 1998, Mandela wed the politician and humanitarian Graça Machel (1945-), widow of the former president of Mozambique. (His marriage to Winnie had ended in divorce in 1992.) The following year, he retired from politics at the end of his first term as president and was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki (1942-) of the ANC.\nNelson Mandela’s Later Years and Legacy\nAfter leaving office, Nelson Mandela remained a devoted champion for peace and social justice in his own country and around the world. He established a number of organizations, including the influential Nelson Mandela Foundation and The Elders, an independent group of public figures committed to addressing global problems and easing human suffering. In 2002, Mandela became a vocal advocate of AIDS awareness and treatment programs in a culture where the epidemic had been cloaked in stigma and ignorance. The disease later claimed the life of his son Makgatho (1950-2005) and is believed to affect more people in South Africa than in any other country.\nTreated for prostate cancer in 2001 and weakened by other health issues, Mandela grew increasingly frail in his later years and scaled back his schedule of public appearances. In 2009, the United Nations declared July 18 “Nelson Mandela International Day” in recognition of the South African leader’s contributions to democracy, freedom, peace and human rights around the world. Nelson Mandela died on December 5, 2013 from a recurring lung infection.\nTags"
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Which terrorist group murdered Italian Prime Minister Aldo Moro?
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"Aldo Romeo Luigi Moro (; 23 September 1916 – 9 May 1978) was an Italian statesman and politician, and a prominent member of the Christian Democracy party. He served as 38th Prime Minister of Italy, from 1963 to 1968, and then from 1974 to 1976. He was one of Italy's longest-serving post-war Prime Ministers, holding power for a combined total of more than six years.\n\nA leader of Christian Democracy (Democrazia Cristiana, DC), Moro was considered an intellectual and a patient mediator, especially in the internal life of his party. He was kidnapped on 16 March 1978 by the Red Brigades and killed after 55 days of captivity.\n\nEarly career\n\nMoro was born in Maglie, in the province of Lecce (Apulia), into a family from Ugento. At age 4, he moved with his family to Milan, but they soon moved back to Apulia, where he gained a classical high school degree at Archita lyceum in Taranto. Until 1939, he studied Law at the University of Bari, an institution where he was later to hold the post of ordinary professor (equivalent to a tenured, full professor in the U.S. academic system) of philosophy of Law and Colonial Policy (1941) and of Criminal Law (1942).\n\nIn 1935, he joined the Catholic university students' association (Federazione Universitaria Cattolica Italiana) of Bari. In 1939, under approval of Giovanni Battista Montini whom he had befriended, Moro was chosen as president of the association; he kept the post till 1942, succeeded by Giulio Andreotti. During his university years, Italy was under the Fascist government, and he took part in students competitions (Littoriali della cultura e dell'arte) organised by local fascist students' organisation (Gioventù Universitaria Fascista). He then founded the periodical La Rassegna, published in 1943–1945.\n\nIn 1945, he married Eleonora Chiavarelli (1915–2010), with whom he had four children: Maria Fida (born 1946), Agnese (1952), Anna, and Giovanni (1958).\n\nPolitical activities\n\nMoro developed his interest in politics between 1943 and 1945. Initially, he seemed to be very interested in the social-democratic component of the Italian Socialist Party, but then his Catholic faith moved him towards the newly constituted Democrazia Cristiana (DC). In the DC, he took part in the work of the leftist trend, headed by Giuseppe Dossetti. In 1945 he became director of the magazine Studium and president of the Graduated Movement of the Azione Cattolica.\n\nIn 1946, he was nominated vice-president of the Democrazia Cristiana and elected member of the Constitutional Assembly, where he took part in the work to redact the Italian Constitution. In 1948 he was elected to the Italian Parliament and nominated vice-minister of Foreign Affairs in the 5th De Gasperi cabinet (23 May 1948 – 27 January 1950).\n\nIn 1953 Moro, was re-elected to the Italian Chamber of Deputies, where he held the position of chairman of the DC parliamentary group. He was chosen as Minister of Grace and Justice in the Antonio Segni 1st cabinet in 1955.\n\nMinister of Education in the following Adone Zoli and Amintore Fanfani-II cabinets, he introduced civic education into the national curriculum. In 1959, at the 6th party's congress he gained the post of National Secretary of the DC.\n\nIn 1963, he was nominated Prime Minister of Italy for the first time. His government was unevenly supported by the DC, but also by the Italian Socialist Party, along with the minor Italian Republican Party and Italian Democratic Socialist Party. The centre-left coalition, a first for the Italian post-war political panorama, stayed in power until the 1968 general elections. His 3rd cabinet (1966–68) stayed in power for 833 days, a record for Italy's so-called \"First Republic\".\n\nIn the 1968 DC's congress, Moro yielded the Secretariat and passed to internal opposition, while serving as Foreign Minister between 1969 and 1974. From 1974 to 1976, he re-gained the post of Prime Minister, and concluded the Osimo Treaty with Yugoslavia, defining the official partition of the Free Territory of Trieste. In 1976 he was elected President of the DC National Council.\n\nA wide range of social reforms were carried out during Moro's periods as prime minister. The 1967 Ponte Law (Legge Ponte) introduced urgent housing provisions as part of an envisioned reform of the entire sector, such as the introduction of minimum standards for housing and environment. A law promulgated on 14 December 1963 introduced an annual allowance for university students with income below a given level. Another law, promulgated on 10 March 1968, introduced voluntary public pre-elementary education for children aged three to five years. A law promulgated on 21 July 1965 introduced new pension provisions under the general scheme. The legal minima was raised, all current pensions were revalued, seniority pensions (pensioni d’anzianità) were introduced (after 35 years of contributions workers could retire even before attaining pensionable age), and within the national social security institution (Istituto nazionale della previdenza sociale), a Social Fund (Fondo Sociale) was established, ensuring to all members pensioners a basic uniform pension largely financed by state, known as the social pension (not related to the later social pension introduced in 1968). A law of 22 July 1966 extended pension insurance to small traders. A law of 22 July 1966 extended health insurance to retired traders, and a law of 29 May 1967 extended compulsory health insurance to retired farmers, tenant farmers, and sharecroppers, and extended health insurance to the unemployed in receipt of unemployment benefits. A law of 18 March 1968 introduced the principle of earnings-related pensions within the general scheme, with the pension formula to equal 1.626% of average earnings in the last 3 years of work multiplied by the number of contribution years (maximum pension: 65% of previous earnings) up to 40. A law of 5 November 1968 extended family allowances to the unemployed in receipt of unemployment benefits. \n\nA law of 9 June 1975 increased the number of eligible occupational diseases and extended the duration of benefits. A law of 3 June 1975 introduced various benefit improvements for pensioners. The multiplying coefficient was raised to 2% and applied to average earnings of the best 3 years in the last 10 years of work, and automatic annual adjustment of minimum pensions to increase of the minimum contractual wage in the industrial sector (with a smaller adjustment made for pensions higher than the minima). A law of 27 December 1975 introduced ad hoc upgrading of cash benefits for certain diseases and of all flat-rate allowances. A law of 14 July 1967 extended family allowances to self-employed farmers, sharecroppers, and tenant farmers. On 29 April 1976, pension linkage to the industrial wage was extended to civil servants.\n\nHistoric compromise\n\nMoro was considered a very tenacious mediator, particularly skilled in coordinating the different internal trends of DC.\n\nAt the beginning of the 1960s, Moro was one of the most convinced supporters of an alliance between the DC and the Italian Socialist Party, in order to widen the majority and integrate the socialists in the government system. In the 1963 party congress in Naples, he was able to convince the whole party directive of the strategy. The same happened in 1978, when he supported a \"national solidarity\" government with the backing of the Italian Communist Party.\n\nMoro's main aim was to widen the democratic base of the government: the cabinets should have been able to represent a bigger number of voters and parties. He thought of the DC as the fulcrum of a coalition system, on the principles of consociative democracy.\n\nMoro faced big challenges, especially, the necessity to conciliate the Christian and popular mission of the Democrazia Cristiana with the rising laicist and liberal values of the Italian society in the 1960s, and the necessity to integrate new important social groups (youth, women, workers) in the democratic system. DC's mission, in Moro's vision, was intended to recover the popular class that supported Fascism and ferry them in the democratic system. The contradiction of Moro's political stance was in trying to reconcile the extreme mobility of social transformations with the continuity of the institutions of representative democracy, and the integration of the masses in the State, without falling into autocracy. \n\nFollowing the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, the Italian Socialist Party had taken a definitive distance from the Italian Communist Party, and Pietro Nenni had collaborated with the DC in the early 1960s. After the rise of the Italian Communist Party of Enrico Berlinguer at the 1976 general elections, when the Communists scored 34,4% of the votes, Moro conceived the idea of a \"national solidarity\" cabinet, whose parliamentary base should include the Italian Communist Party as well. Moro's idea was openly criticised, as such an \"Historic Compromise\" would have involved an Italian Communist Party which was still under direct influence from Moscow. Berlinguer openly defused the proposition.\n\nIn 1976–1977, Berlinguer's Italian Communist Party broke with Moscow, and convened with the Spanish and French parties to draw the lines of Eurocommunism. Such a move made an eventual collaboration more acceptable for DC voters, and the two parties began an intense parliamentary debate, in a moment of deep social crises.\n\nIn 1977, Moro was personally involved in international disputes. He strongly defended Mariano Rumor during the parliamentary debate on the Lockheed scandal, and some in the press reported that he might have been \"Antelope Cobbler\", an alleged bribe recipient. The accusation, aimed at politically destroying Moro and avoiding the risk of a \"Historic Compromise\" cabinet, failed when Moro was cleared on March 3, 1978, 13 days before his kidnapping. \n\nThe early-1978 proposition by Moro of a Christian Democracy-Italian Socialist Party cabinet supported also by the Italian Communist Party was strongly opposed by both super-powers. The United States feared that the collaboration of an Italian government with the Communists might have allowed these later to gain information on strategic NATO military plans and installations, and pass them to Soviet agents. Moreover, the participation in government of the Communists in a Western country would have represented a cultural failure for the USA. The Soviets considered potential participation by the Italian Communist Party in a cabinet a form of emancipation from Moscow and rapprochement to the Americans, therefore also opposing it.\n\nKidnapping and death\n\nKidnapping\n\nOn 16 March 1978, on Via Fani, a street in Rome, a unit of the militant Communist organisation known as the Red Brigades () blocked the two-car convoy transporting Moro and kidnapped him, murdering his five bodyguards. At the time, all of the founding members of the Red Brigades were in jail; therefore, the organisation led by Mario Moretti that kidnapped Moro is said to be the \"Second Red Brigades\".\n\nOn the day of his kidnapping, Moro was on his way to a session of the Chamber of Deputies, where a discussion was to take place regarding a vote of confidence for a new government led by Giulio Andreotti (DC) that would have, for the first time, the support of the Communist Party. It was to be the first implementation of Moro's strategic political vision as defined by the Compromesso storico (historic compromise).\n\nIn the following days, trade unions called for a general strike, while security forces made hundreds of raids in Rome, Milan, Turin, and other cities searching for Moro's location. Held for two months, he was allowed to send letters to his family and politicians. The government refused to negotiate, despite demands by family, friends and Pope Paul VI. In fact, Paul VI \"offered himself in exchange … for Aldo Moro …\" \n\nDuring the investigation of Moro's kidnapping, General Carlo Alberto Dalla Chiesa reportedly responded to a member of the security services who suggested torturing a suspected brigatista, \"Italy can survive the loss of Aldo Moro. It would not survive the introduction of torture.\" The Red Brigades initiated a secret trial where Moro was found guilty and sentenced to death. Then they sent demands to the Italian authorities, stating that unless 16 Red Guard prisoners were released, Moro would be killed. The Italian authorities responded with a large-scale manhunt. \n\nNegotiations\n\nThe Red Brigades proposed to exchange Moro's life for the freedom of several prisoners. There has been speculation that during his detention many knew where he was (in an apartment in Rome). When Moro was abducted, the government immediately took a hard line position: the \"State must not bend\" on 'terrorist demands'. Some contrasted this with the kidnapping of Ciro Cirillo in 1981, a minor political figure for whom the government negotiated. However, Cirillo was released for a monetary ransom, rather than the release of the imprisoned extremists.\n\nRomano Prodi, Mario Baldassarri, and Alberto Clò, of the faculty of the University of Bologna passed on a tip about a safe-house where the Red Brigades might have been holding Moro on 2 April. Prodi claimed he had been given the tip by the founders of the Christian Democrats, from beyond the grave in a séance and a Ouija board, which gave the names of Viterbo, Bolsena and Gradoli. \n\nCaptivity letters\n\nDuring this period, Moro wrote several letters to the leaders of the Christian Democrats and to Pope Paul VI, who later personally officiated in Moro's Funeral Mass. Those letters, at times very critical of Andreotti, were kept secret for more than a decade, and published only in the early 1990s. In his letters, Moro said that the state's primary objective should be saving lives, and that the government should comply with his kidnappers' demands. Most of the Christian Democrat leaders argued that the letters did not express Moro's genuine wishes, claiming they were written under duress, and thus refused all negotiation. This was in stark contrast to the requests of Moro's family. In his appeal to the terrorists, Pope Paul asked them to release Moro \"without conditions\". \n\nMurder\n\nWhen the Red Brigades decided to murder Moro, they placed him in a car and told him to cover himself with a blanket saying that they were going to transport him to another location. After Moro was covered they shot him ten times. According to the official reconstruction after a series of trials, the killer was Mario Moretti. Moro's body was left in the trunk of a red Renault 4 on Via Michelangelo Caetani towards the Tiber River near the Roman Ghetto. \n\nAfter the recovery of Moro's body, the Minister of the Interior Francesco Cossiga resigned.\n\nAntonio Negri's 1979 arrest and release\n\nOn 7 April 1979, Marxist philosopher Antonio Negri was arrested along with other leaders of Autonomia Operaia (Oreste Scalzone, E. Vesce, A. Del Re, L. Ferrari Bravo, Franco Piperno and others). Pietro Calogero, an attorney close to the Italian Communist Party, accused the Autonomia group of masterminding left-wing \"terrorism\" in Italy. Negri was charged with a number of offences including leadership of the Red Brigades, being behind Moro's kidnapping and murder, and plotting to overthrow the government. A year later, he was found innocent of Moro's assassination.\n\nIn 2003, Alexander Stille accused Negri of bearing moral but not legal responsibility for the crimes, citing Negri's words from one year later:\n\nand\n\nAlternative points of view about Moro's death\n\nLeft wing writers have accused the United States as responsible for Moro's death. The \"Gladio network\", directed by NATO, has also been accused. Historian Sergio Flamigni, a member of the Communist Refoundation Party, believes Moretti was used by Gladio in Italy to take over the Red Brigades and pursue a strategy of tension.\n\nIn Red Brigades member Alberto Franceschini's book, and finally acquitted by the Supreme Court of Cassation in 2003.\n\n\"Sacrifice Aldo Moro to maintain the stability of Italy\"\n\nSteve Pieczenik, a former member of the U.S. State Department sent by President Jimmy Carter as a \"psychological expert\" to integrate the Interior Minister Francesco Cossiga's \"crisis committee\", was interviewed by Emmanuel Amara in his 2006 documentary Les derniers jours d'Aldo Moro (\"The Last Days of Aldo Moro\"), in which he alleged that: \"We had to sacrifice Aldo Moro to maintain the stability of Italy.\"Emmanuel Amara, Les derniers jours d'Aldo Moro (The Last Days of Aldo Moro), [http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x4ajky_a-propos-de-la-mort-daldo-moro-12_politics Interview of Steve Pieczenik put on-line] by Rue 89Hubert Artus, [http://www.rue89.com/cabinet-de-lecture/pourquoi-le-pouvoir-italien-a-lache-aldo-moro-execute-en-1978 Pourquoi le pouvoir italien a lâché Aldo Moro, exécuté en 1978] (Why the Italian Power let go of Aldo Moro, executed in 1978), Rue 89, February 6, 2008 \n\nHe alleged that the U.S. had to \"instrumentalize the Red Brigades,\" and that the decision to have him killed was taken during the fourth week of Moro's detention, when he started revealing state secrets through his letters (allegedly the existence of Gladio). Francesco Cossiga also said the \"crisis committee\" also leaked a false statement, attributed to the Red Brigades, saying that Moro was dead.\n\nPossible beatification\n\nAccording to media reports on 26 September 2012, the Holy See has received a file on beatification for Moro. Beatification is the first step to becoming a saint in the Roman Catholic Church. Nicola Giampaolo serves as the postulator for the cause.\n\nIn April 2015, it was reported that controversies around Moro could cause the suspension or closing of the cause. The postulator has stated the cause will continue when the discrepancies are cleared up. The halting of proceedings was due to Antonio Mennini - the priest who heard his last confession - being allowed to provide a statement to a tribunal in regards to Moro's kidnapping and confession. The cause was able to resume its initial investigations following this.\n\nCinematic adaptations\n\nA number of films have portrayed the events of Moro's kidnapping and murder with varying degrees of fictionalization including the following:\n*Todo modo (1975), directed by Elio Petri, based on a novel by Leonardo Sciascia\n*Il caso Moro (1986), directed by Giuseppe Ferrara and starring Gian Maria Volontè as Moro\n*Year of the Gun (1991), directed by John Frankenheimer\n*Broken Dreams (Sogni infranti, 1995), a documentary directed by Marco Bellocchio\n*Five Moons Plaza (Piazza Delle Cinque Lune, 2003), directed by Renzo Martinelli and starring Donald Sutherland\n*Good Morning, Night (Buongiorno, notte, 2003), directed by Marco Bellocchio, portrays the kidnapping largely from the perspective of one of the kidnappers\n*Romanzo Criminale (2005), directed by Michele Placido, portrays the authorities finding Moro's body\n*Les derniers jours d'Aldo Moro (The Last Days of Aldo Moro, 2006)\n*Il Divo (2008): La Straordinaria vita di Giulio Andreotti, directed by Paolo Sorrentino, highlighting the responsibility of Giulio Andreotti\n*Piazza Fontana: The Italian Conspiracy (2012) (Romanzo di una strage) directed by Marco Tullio Giordana, Aldo Moro portrayed by actor Fabrizio Gifuni"
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"US envoy admits role in Aldo Moro killing - Telegraph\nWorld News\nUS envoy admits role in Aldo Moro killing\nAldo Moro, the former Italian prime minister, who was seized at gunpoint by the Red Brigades in 1978 \nBy Malcolm Moore in Rome\n12:01AM GMT 11 Mar 2008\nAn American envoy has claimed that he played a critical role in the fate of Aldo Moro, the former Italian prime minister who was murdered by terrorists in 1978.\nSteve Pieczenik, an international crisis manager and hostage negotiator in the State Department, said that Moro had been \"sacrificed\" for the \"stability\" of Italy.\nIn a new book called We Killed Aldo Moro, Mr Pieczenik said he was sent to Italy by President Jimmy Carter on the day that Moro was kidnapped by the Red Brigades, a far-Left terrorist group.\nMoro, who had been prime minister for a total of more than five years between 1963 and 1976, was snatched at gunpoint from his car in Rome.\nRelated Articles\nSting nets Moro kidnapper\n18 Jan 2004\nHe had been heading to parliament for a crucial vote on a ground-breaking alliance he had proposed between the Christian Democrat Party and the Italian Communist Party.\nThe alliance enraged both sides of the political spectrum in Italy, and also upset both Moscow and Washington.\nMoro's widow, Eleonora, later said Henry Kissinger had warned her husband against his strategy. \"You will pay dearly for it,\" he is alleged to have said.\nMr Pieczenik said he was part of a \"crisis committee\" headed by Francesco Cossiga, the interior minister.\nMoro was held for 54 days. Mr Pieczenik said the committee was jolted into action by the fear that Moro would reveal state secrets in an attempt to free himself.\nA false statement, attributed to the Red Brigades, was leaked saying that Moro was dead.\nMr Pieczenick said that this had a dual purpose; to prepare the Italian public for the worst, and to let the Red Brigades know that the state would not negotiate for Moro, and considered him already dead.\nThe following month, Moro was shot and placed in the back of a car in central Rome, midway between the headquarters of the Communist Party and the Christian Democrats.\nIn a documentary on French television last weekend, Mr Cossiga admitted the committee had taken the decision to release the false statement.",
"EuroNews - Interview - The truth about Aldo Moro's murder? - YouTube\nEuroNews - Interview - The truth about Aldo Moro's murder?\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on May 10, 2008\nThirty years ago this month, the extreme left terrorist group, the Red Brigades murdered former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro who they'd kidnapped and held for nearly two months. Moro was the head of the Christian Democratic Party, which was moving towards a parliamentary coalition with the Italian Communists, a move opposed by some in the far left and which worried western power, particularly the US. Italy's interior minister at the time was Francesco Cossiga, who took a hard line and refused to negotiate with the Red Brigades for Moro's release. In an interview with Cossiga, EuroNews has tried to get at the truth of an incredibly tangled tale involving allegations of CIA involvement and claims of vital clues sent via a Ouija board.\nCategory",
"The truth about Aldo Moro's murder? | Euronews\nThe truth about Aldo Moro's murder?\nNow Reading:\nThe truth about Aldo Moro's murder?\nToday's Top Stories\nlast updated: 09/05/2008\nEuronews\nThirty years ago this month, the extreme left terrorist group, the Red Brigades murdered former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro who they’d kidnapped and held for nearly two months. Moro was the head of the Christian Democratic Party, which was moving towards a parliamentary coalition with the Italian Communists, a move opposed by some in the far left and which worried western power, particularly the US. Italy’s interior minister at the time was Francesco Cossiga, who took a hard line and refused to negotiate with the Red Brigades for Moro’s release. In an interview with Cossiga, EuroNews has tried to get at the truth of an incredibly tangled tale involving allegations of CIA involvement and claims of vital clues sent via a Ouija board.\nEuroNews : “You’ve been accused of refusing to negotiate with the Red Brigades, because you actually wanted Moro to be killed.”\nFrancesco Cossiga: “Why would I have wanted Moro’s death? If I hadn’t refused to negotiate the state would have collapsed and we would have found ourselves in a crisis, which it would have been very difficult to get out of. And on top of that I was nothing compared to someone like Moro.\nEuroNews: “There are some who say that as long as Cossiga and Andreotti are alive, the truth about what really happened with Moro will never been known.”\nCossiga: “There are some who don’t want to accept this one thing: that Aldo Moro was killed by the Red Brigades. Some in the former Christian Democratic Party – who turned Moro into an icon, a left-winger, an enemy of the United States – they don’t want to accept that Moro was killed by people from the left. It must inevitably be that he was killed by the right, by the Americans, by the CIA. Otherwise, it just doesn’t work for them.”\nEuroNews: “You never believed Italian politician Romano Prodi’s explanation that he heard the name of the street where Moro was held at a seance. Why would Prodi lie about that?”\nCossiga: “He didn’t lie, he said that because he didn’t want to reveal his sources, especially at a time like that. But even now, if he revealed who told him, I don’t know how long his informant would remain alive. He and the others invented this story of a seance and words spelled out on Ouija board to be able to make the information public and protect their source.”\nEuroNews: “A US hostage negotiator, Steve Pieczenik, who you brought to Italy to advise on getting Moro released, has said that a statement – supposedly from the Red Brigades – that Moro’s body was in Lake Duchessa, 100 kilometres north of Rome was false and put out by the government. He implied that statement was intended to test what Italian public opinion would be to Moro’s death.”\nCossiga: “It’s important to note that after the Lake Duchessa message, the resistance to negotiating weakened considerably: it was then that the leaders of the Christian Democratic Party, including me – who had decided on this tough, no negotiation policy – changed their approach. It was then that the Socialists started negotiations. The Socialists did not trust us, and wanted to carry out the negotiations on their own. If they had talked to me about who they made contact with, we would probably have been able to find where Moro was being held.”\nEuroNews: “In France the so-called Mitterrand Doctrines, under which Italian far-left activists who fled to France were not extradited, seems no longer to be in place. Is France collaborating with Italy over the extradition of alleged terrorists?\nCossiga: “You want my opinion? So many years have passed. You know I’m the person who was branded a Nazi, and accused of being responsible for torture and ordering killings, and lots, lots worse. I always felt there should be a blanket amnesty, that we should draw a line under the whole period when it was almost like a civil war, rather than reviewing the individual cases.”\nEuroNews: “One of those France wouldn’t extradite was novelist Cesare Battisti, is he also a murderer?”\nCossiga: “He’s both. Being one doesn’t exclude being the other. It’s as if you’d asked me if Caravaggio was a major painter or a violent man, who killed someone in a bar fight : he’s one and the same.”\nEuroNews: “Outside Italy, Berlusconi’s election victory has been greeted with irony, scorn, even some embarrassment. Are those other countries being snobbish, or is Italy really an anomaly?”\nCossiga: “The first person to telephone him was Spain’s Prime Minister Zapatero. The second, who reacted enthusiastically, was Wilfried Martens, the President of the centre-right European People’s Party. Tony Blair, who was in Rome at the time, met with the left-wingers Massimo D’Alema, Walter Veltroni, and Francesco Rutelli, but who did he have dinner with? Mr Berlusconi. And it’s important to note that I didn’t vote for him. And you must keep in mind, I know the English: they are extremely snobbish.”\nEuroNews: “You’ve said that the exclusion of the radical left from Parliament could create the right conditions for terrorism to reappear. Are there any indications that could happen?”\nCossiga: “The radical left took the extreme left as its reference point. I remember a big rally in Genoa, in memory of Carlo Giuliani, the anti-G8 demonstrator shot dead by police in 2001, a gathering which was addressed by the Senate leader, Bertinotti. He gave a very rousing speech and was enthusiastically received. The police did not intervene and at the end Bertinotti said: ‘Now, everyone stay calm and go home’ and there was no trouble. But these days, who would say something like that to them? Veltroni or Rutelli? Veltroni who is known as an admirer of Kennedy, Bill Clinton and Obama, or Rutelli, who is the spokesman for the Italian Episcopal Conference? You think they’d listen to them? Dream on!”\nShare this article:",
"BBC ON THIS DAY | 16 | 1978: Aldo Moro snatched at gunpoint\n1978: Aldo Moro snatched at gunpoint\nFormer Italian prime minister Aldo Moro has been kidnapped in Rome.\nMr Moro's escort of five police bodyguards were killed when he was snatched at gunpoint from a car near a cafe in the morning rush-hour.\nChief police investigator Signor Moro said 12 gunmen took part in the attack on the former prime minister as he was being driven to parliament.\nPolice have set up dozens of roadblocks and all exits from the city are being watched. Helicopters are hovering overhead and anti-terrorist officers have been sent to the airport.\nThe extreme left-wing Red Brigade, in a telephone call to a Rome newspaper, has said it kidnapped the Christian Democratic leader, 61.\nWe kidnapped Aldo Moro\nRed Brigade spokesman\nA spokesman said: \"We kidnapped Aldo Moro. He is only our first victim. We shall hit at the heart of the state.\"\nThe man demanded that the Turin trial of Renato Curcio, who is suspected of leading the Red Brigade, and 14 others accused of membership of the group should be suspended.\nWitnesses reported seeing a white Fiat car move in front of Mr Moro's vehicle, along with a man on a motorbike. The Fiat braked hard and Mr Moro's car crashed into it.\nGunmen jumped out of the Fiat and others who had been waiting nearby raised pistols and sub-machine guns.\nTrade unions have called a 24-hour general strike and workers have left many shops and offices in the city in a shocked reaction to the kidnapping of the much-respected statesman.\nInvestigators are examining spent bullet cases at the scene of the crime and among guns seized they found \"a rarely used Soviet weapon\".\nPrime Minister Giulio Andreotti has condemned those who took Mr Moro, saying they were \"destroying the fabric of the nation and threatening to make it ungovernable\".",
"On This Day: Aldo Moro Kidnapped by the Italian Red Brigades\nAldo Moro in a photo released by the Red\nBrigades to the media on April 20, 1978.\nOn This Day: Aldo Moro Kidnapped by the Italian Red Brigades\nMarch 16, 2012 06:00 AM\nby findingDulcinea Staff\nOn March 16, 1978, former Italian Prime Minister Aldo Moro was kidnapped by a left-wing extremist group; he was killed 55 days later when the terrorists’ demands were not met. Many in Italy believe that domestic or international government forces were complicit in the murder of Moro, who was due to sign a controversial agreement with the Communist Party on the day of his kidnapping.\nMoro Kidnapped Before Compromise\nTwo-time former Prime Minister Aldo Moro, leader of the Christian Democratic Party, had negotiated an agreement to form a coalition government with the Italian Communist Party (PCI) . Known as the Historic Compromise, it alarmed both right wing parties and the extreme left, including the Red Brigades, a Marxist-Leninist paramilitary group.\n“The Red Brigades completely opposed this idea, as it interfered with the declared aim of spearheading an armed Marxist revolution in Italy, led by a ‘revolutionary proletariat,’” explains The Florentine.\nOn the morning on March 16, as Moro was en route to the House of Representatives to enact the compromise, a dozen members of Red Brigades launched an assault on his car. The extremists shot and killed five of Moro’s bodyguards and abducted him, taking him to a safe house.\nThe Red Brigades demanded the release of 13 leftist prisoners in exchange for Moro . Throughout his captivity, Moro was allowed to send letters to political allies and family members, in which he pled with the Italian government cooperate with the terrorists.\nIn one letter, Moro writes to Italian Interior Minister Francesco Cossiga : “Weigh your actions carefully in order to avoid further evil ... In the given circumstances, besides humanitarian reasons, what becomes apparent is the reason of state. Most of all this reason of state means that in my present condition I find myself under full and uncontrolled domination. There is the risk that I will be induced to talk in a manner that could be dangerous ... May God enlighten you for the best.”\nDespite pleas from his friends, family and Pope Paul VI, the Italian government, which had negotiated with the Red Brigades in previous situations, refused to negotiate for Moro . On May 9, Moro’s body was found in the trunk of a ca r, parked symbolically between the headquarters of the Christian Democrats and the Communist Party.\nThe BBC: Italy’s history of terror\nThere are many theories that the Italian government or foreign governments were involved in the kidnapping of Moro , or that they were willing to let Moro be killed for their own political gain.\nAt issue is the Historic Compromise, which never went through due to the kidnapping. Italy would have become the first post-war Western European country to include communists in the majority government.\nThere were many significant opponents to the compromise: right-wing and anti-communist politicians, along with some Christian Democrats, did not want to see the Communists given power. Both the United States and Soviet Union opposed the compromise, believing that it would destabilize East-West relations. The U.S. and NATO were concerned that the deal might threaten NATO’s position in Italy.\nA 1978 article by journalist Mino Pecorelli, who was murdered the following year, said that the kidnapping had “the hallmark of a lucid superpower.” Pecorelli suggested that the Gladio, a covert anti-communist network in NATO, aided the Red Brigades in the kidnapping.\nProponents of this theory point to the near-perfect execution of the kidnapping as evidence that the kidnappers were aided by elite forces. In particular, the fact that the kidnappers were able to kill the five bodyguards without harming Moro suggests that a professional shooter was involved.\nThere are also many people who believe that, even if the Red Brigades carried out the kidnapping without outside help, there were governmental figures who wanted Moro to be killed and obstructed efforts to save him .\nItalian authorities launched a nationwide manhunt for Moro, but ignored key leads that would have led them to the kidnappers. Furthermore, for a country known for being willing to negotiate with terrorists, it was unusual for the government to adopt a hardline stance.\nSteve Pieczenik, a hostage negotiator in the State Department, claimed in 2008 that Moro was “‘sacrificed’ for the ‘stability’ of Italy.” According to his book, “We Killed Aldo Moro,” the U.S. and Italian governments instructed Pieczenik to write and deliver a false statement attributed to the Red Brigades, announcing Moro’s death. Pieczenik said the statement was presented as a means of communicating to the Red Brigades that the Italian government already considered Moro dead, thereby removing the authority they leveraged through his captivity.\nRichard Drake, author of “The Aldo Moro Case,” rejects the conspiracy theories that have emerged surrounding Moro’s murder . He argues that the killing more aptly represents the threats of a country captivated by Marxist-Leninist ideology: “For all those under the beguiling spell of the revolutionary mystique, the prescriptions of Marx and Lenin transformed the most bestial acts of inhumanity into thrilling deeds on behalf of the proletariat. The Moro kidnapping was just such an act.”\nMunich Massacre\nThe Brigate Rosse, known as the Red Brigades, was created in 1970s by radical Marxist-Leninist students who wished to see the overthrow off the capitalist system. The most active of Italy’s paramilitary groups during the “Year of Lead,” the Red Brigades became famous for the kidnapping of prominent Italian officials and industrialists .\nFollowing the murder of Moro, the Italian government cracked down on the Red Brigades and the extreme left . More than 10,000 leftist leaders were arrested in 1980, while many of the Red Brigades’ leaders “disavowed their political doctrine and turned their comrades into the police,” reports The Florentine.\nDue to the crackdown, Red Brigades fissured around the mid-1980s, splitting off into The New Red Brigades/Communist Combatant Party and the Union of Combatant Communists. The New Brigades inherited the militancy of the original Red Brigades . The New Red Brigades claimed responsibility for the assassinations of labor minister advisor Massimo D’Antona in 1999, professor Marco Biagi in 2002 and a police officer in 2003.",
"Illuminati News: Was The Assassination Of The Former Italian Prime Minister, Ordered By Henry Kissinger\nBettino Craxi (1934-2000)\n \n\"America's \"nobility\" were doing their share to destroy the Republic of Italy, a notable contribution having come from Richard Gardner even while in his official capacity as President Carter's ambassador to Rome. At that time Gardner was operating under the direct control of Bettino Craxi , an important member of the Club of Rome and a key man in NATO. Craxi was the leading edge of the conspirators' attempts to destroy the Italian Republic. As we shall see, Craxi was almost successful in ruining Italy, and as the conspirators hierarchy's leading player, was able to get divorce and abortion pushed through the Italian Parliament, resulting in the most far-reaching and destructive religious and social changes ever to strike at the Catholic Church, and consequently, the morals of the Italian nation.\n \n\"After President Ronald Reagan was elected, an important meeting was held in Washington D.C. in December 1980 under the auspices of the Club of Rome and the Socialist International. Both these organizations are directly responsible to the Committee of 300. The main agenda was to formulate ways and means of how to neutralize the Reagan presidency. A group plan was adopted and, as we look back, it is perfectly clear that the plan the conspirators agreed to follow has been very successful.\"\n \nLooking back at the explosive testimony by Guerzoni linking Kissinger to the Moro assassination, it is interesting to note it was covered extensively by the Italian media, but not a peep was heard in the U.S. as the big from the wire services and the Post and Time suppressed every word of the Guerzoni testimony to the American public. The mainstream media further suppressed key testimony by several Red Brigades members about how Moro was brutally shot to death and how they knew of high-level U.S. involvement in the plot to kill Moro.\n \nDuring the years following the Moro killing, I saw up close and personal how the U.S. was orchestrating terrorism in Italy, working undercover with the P2 Masonic Lodge and the Vatican, in the very same manner terrorism and a propaganda-based media is being orchestrated today in America.\n \nAnd to put icing on the cake, leading to a journalistic hiatus near the Adriatic Sea, came the shocking discovery that Black Ops CIA money was also controlling the English language newspaper in Rome and all the other news coming out of the American wire services. \n \nAlthough the news outlets were shut off, Dr. Coleman provided a behind the scenes look at really happened to Moro even though his writings found a long and hard road, never really reaching the mainstream.\n \n\"In June and July of 1982, the wife of Aldo Moro testified in open court that her husband's murder came about as a result of serious threats against his life, made by what she called \"a high ranking United States political figure,\" writes Dr. Coleman. \"Mrs. Eleanora Moro repeated the precise phrase reportedly used by Kissinger in the sworn testimony of Guerzoni: \"Either you stop your political line or you will pay dearly for it.\"\n \n\"Recalled by the judge, Guerzoni was asked if he could identify the person Mrs. Moro was talking about. Guerzoni replied that it was indeed Henry Kissinger as he had previously intimated.\n \nGuerzoni went on to explain to the court that Kissinger had made his threats in Moro's hotel room during the Italian leaders official visit to the U.S. Moro-then Prime Minister and Foreign Minister of Italy, a NATO member-country-was a man of high rank, one who should never have been subjected to Mafia-like pressures and threats.\n \nAdam Weishaupt (1748-1830)\n \n\"Moro was accompanied on his American visit by the President of Italy in his official capacity. Kissinger was then, and still is, an important agent in the service of the Royal Institute for International Affairs, a member of the Club of Rome and the Council on Foreign Relations.\n \n\"In my 1982 expose of this heinous crime, I demonstrated that Aldo Moro, a loyal member of the Christian Democrat Party, was murdered by assassins controlled by P2 Masonry with the object of bringing Italy into line with Club of Rome orders to de-industrialize the country and considerably reduce its population.\n \n\"Moro's plans to stabilize Italy through full employment and industrial and political peace would have strengthened Catholic opposition to Communism and made the destabilization of the Middle East-a prime goal-that much harder.\n \n\"From the foregoing it becomes clear just how far ahead the conspirators plan. They do not think in terms of a Five Year Plan. One needs to go back to Weishaupt's statements about the early Catholic Church to understand what was involved in the murder of Aldo Moro. Moro's death removed the roadblocks to the plans to destabilize Italy, and as we now know, enabled conspiracy plans for the Middle East to be carried out in the Gulf War 14 years later.\"\n \n \n For more informative articles, go to www.arcticbeacon.com\nGreg Szymanski Greg also has his own daily show on the Republic Broadcast Network. Go to www.rbnlive.com Greg Szymanski is an independent investigative journalist and his articles can been seen at www.LewisNews.com. He also writes for American Free Press and has his own site www.arcticbeacon.com\nListen to my Radio Broadcast live Monday night at 8pm Pacific time on LewisNews, returning Jan. 1 2006 Radio http://webs.lewisnews.com/radio/index.htm . Greg is also regular on Rense.com the first Thursday of every month at 9-10 pm pacific time.\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -\nSource: http://arcticbeacon.com/30-June-2006.html\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - This page may contain copyrighted material, the use of which has not always been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. I am making such material available in my efforts to advance understanding of environmental, political, human rights, economic, democracy, scientific, and social justice issues, etc. I believe this constitutes a 'fair use' of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law. In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. 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"Former Italian PM Aldo Moro, From Murder Victim To Sainthood?\nFormer Italian PM Aldo Moro, From Murder Victim To Sainthood?\n09/27/12 AT 10:18 AM\nClose\nAldo Moro, the forner Italian prime minister who was murdered by the Communist Red Brigades in 1978, may become beatified, the first step toward sainthood, according to the Rome Diocese.\nIn one of the most traumatic events of post-war Italian history, Moro, who had served as prime minister for the Christian Democratic party in two separate terms, was abducted in Rome on March 16, 1978, by the Red Brigades, who killed five of his bodyguards in the most brazen terrorist attack in Italy's bloody 1970s. \nThe kidnappers demanded the release of 16 of their comrades in prison.\n[[nid:796513]]\nDuring his disappearance, the abductors held a mock \"trial\" for Moro and \"sentenced\" him to death.\nPope Paul VI pleaded publicly for Moro’s release. The pope even offered himself to the kidnappers in exchange for Moro’s freedom.\nMoro’s body was found in the trunk of a car almost two months later -- symbolically, the car was parked halfway between the Rome headquarters of the Christian Democrat Party and the Communist Party.\nAccording to French and Italian media reports, Moro might now be considered a “martyr to the faith” since he was murdered by people with a deep hostility toward the Catholic Church. Moreover, during his 55 days as a hostage, Moro reportedly asked for a Bible and also expressed the Christian act of forgiving his kidnappers.\nMoro, who came from the more progressive wing of the Christian Democrats, first became prime minister of Italy in 1963, with support from the Italian Socialist Party, and remained in power until 1968. After serving as foreign minister from 1969 to 1974, he regained the job of prime minister, which he held until 1976.\nIn 1976, when the Italian Communist Party gained more than one-third of the votes in a national elections Moro (now as president of the Christian Democratic party) sought to include Communists in the cabinet -- a move that was opposed by right-wing members of the Christian Democrat party, as well as by some foreign powers, including the U.S.\nDuring his two months of captivity, Moro was permitted to write letters to friends and family, while security forces aggressively conducted a huge manhunt across the country to find him. The government (led by Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti, a fellow Chridtian Democrat but of a different faction) refused to negotiate with the kidnappers.\nMario Moretti, the leader of the Red Brigades, who admitted to organizing the kidnapping and murder of Moro, was eventually sentenced to six life terms in prison. However, he was paroled in the 1990s and is allowed to work outside of prison by day, while returning at night. \nThe murder of Moro elicited outrage not only from Italian lawmakers and security forces, but also from other left-wing militant figures, including even Alberto Franceschini, one of the founders of the Brigades, who had already been arrested by the time Moro was kidnapped.\nIn the wake of Moro’s disappearance and killing, conspiracy theories have abounded, some even suggesting that the Red Brigades were not the real culprits, but rather the patsies of reactionaries who wanted Moro’s removal from Italy’s body politic.\nSome conspiracy theorists have proposed that the shadowy “Gladio network” (under the direction of NATO) orchestrated Moro’s abduction and murder over fears that he was too friendly with Communists. In fact, both Franceschini and a Communist scholar named Sergio Flamigni believed Mario Moretti was a spy who secretly worked on behalf of Gladio. Some have speculated that the United States government may also have been involved. Reportedly, one month before his kidnapping, Moro met with former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, who warned him against bringing Communists into the Italian cabinet.\nSteve Pieczenik, a former member of the U.S. State Department, said in a 2006 documentary on Moro, \"We had to sacrifice Aldo Moro to maintain the stability of Italy.\"\nHowever, as with the mystery surrounding the 1963 assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy, the theories behind Moro’s murder are numerous, but the matter may never be solved.",
"Aldo Moro found dead - May 09, 1978 - HISTORY.com\nAldo Moro found dead\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nOn May 9, 1978, the body of former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro is found, riddled by bullets, in the back of a car in the center of historic Rome. He was kidnapped by Red Brigade terrorists on March 16 after a bloody shoot-out near his suburban home. The Italian government refused to negotiate with the extreme left-wing group, which, after numerous threats, executed Moro on May 9. He was a five-time prime minister of Italy and considered a front-runner for the presidency of Italy in elections due in December.\nAldo Moro was regarded by many as Italy’s most capable post-World War II politician. A centrist leader of the Christian Democratic Party, he served five times as prime minister in the 1960s and 1970s and promoted cooperation between Italy’s disparate political parties. When he formed his first cabinet in 1963, he included some Socialists, who were thus participating in the Italian government for the first time in 16 years. Moro last served as prime minister in 1976, and in October 1976 became president of the Christian Democrats.\nOn March 11, 1978, he helped end a government crisis when he worked out a parliamentary coalition between the Communist Party and the dominant Christian Democrats. Just five days later, Mr. Moro’s car was attacked by a dozen armed Red Brigade terrorists. His five guards were killed, and Moro was abducted and taken to a secret location. On March 18, the Red Brigade issued a communique claiming responsibility for the kidnapping and stating that Moro would undergo a “people’s trial.”\nThe Red Brigade, established in 1970 by Italian Renato Curcio, employed bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, and bank robberies as a means of promoting communist revolution in Italy. The Italian Communist Party, which supported democracy and participated in Parliament, condemned the terrorist Red Brigade, and the Red Brigade accused the Communist Party of being a pawn of the bourgeoisie. Renato Curcio and 12 other Red Brigade members were on trial in Turin when Moro was kidnapped, and legal proceedings were only briefly halted after his abduction.\nThe Italian government declined to negotiate with the kidnappers, claiming that such an action would undermine the state and throw Italy into chaos. Some critics accused the Christian Democrats of yielding to pressure from the Communist Party, whose leaders were even more strongly opposed to a dialogue with the Red Brigade. Police and the army arrested hundreds of suspected terrorists and scoured the country looking for the “people’s prison” where Moro was being held but failed to find any solid clues.\nOn March 19 and April 4, letters apparently freely written by Moro were delivered pleading with the government to negotiate. The government attempted secret talks, but on April 15 the Red Brigade rejected these negotiations and announced that Moro had been found guilty in the people’s trial and sentenced to death. Threats to execute him led nowhere, and on April 24 the terrorists demanded the release of 13 Red Brigade members held in Turin in exchange for Moro’s life. On May 7, Moro sent a farewell letter to his wife, saying, “They have told me that they are going to kill me in a little while, I kiss you for the last time.” Two days later, his body was found on Via Caetani, within 300 yards of the headquarters of the Christian Democrats and 200 yards from the Communist Party headquarters.\nAccording to a wish expressed by Moro during his abduction, no Italian politicians were invited to his funeral. During the next decade, many Red Brigade leaders and members were arrested, and the organization was greatly weakened.\nRelated Videos",
"Red Brigade Terrorist Group\nTweet\nThe Red Brigades was a Marxist-Leninist left wing terrorist group active in Italy in the 1970s and early 1980s. Known as ‘Brigate Rosse’ in Italian and sometimes shortened to BR, their main aim was to force Italy to leave the NATO alliance. They are most famous for the kidnap and murder of former Italian Prime Minister Aldo Moro in 1978. During their long history of political and at times somewhat random violence they carried out approximately 14,000 acts of violence.\nAs with many Cold War European terrorist groups they were founded by radical students, in the case of the Red Brigades by Renato Curcio, Alberto Franceschini and Mara Cagol in 1970. In the beginning there were two main groups, that of the Trento Group with strong ties to the sociology Department of a catholic university and the Reggio Emilia group headed by Franceschini which recruited mainly from the Communist youth movement. At first the groups’ areas of operations were around the University and in the industrial factories of Milan, both areas a rich source of recruits. Operations were fairly low level, mainly factory sabotage and burglary but did include a brief kidnapping in 1972. This was about to change when the Red Brigades began to get direct aid for the Soviet block via Czechoslovakia. By 1974 the Red Brigades had committed their first murder and become a totally covert terrorist organisation, although an earlier lethal petrol bombing was mistaken blamed on the Red Brigade.\nIn September 1974 an Italian secret service agent infiltrated the organisation and his information lead to the arrest of Curcio and Franceschini who were both sentenced to 18 years. Curcio was briefly rescued but soon re captured. Kidnapping now became the organisation’s modus operandi with the taking of several industrialists and politicians, mainly to gain ransom money to fund the organisation. The organisation was supported during its heyday by Soviet small arms and explosives provided by Czechoslovakia often via the PLO and smuggling routes for heroin, as well as training for members in Syrian camps and in Prague. (See state sponsored terrorism ). This support lead to friction between the Italian communist party and the KGB who refused to cut off support to the Red Brigades. As the Brigades became more radical and violent they also expanded into other regions of Italy striking against big industry and corporations. In 1975 a police attempt to rescue a hostage lead to a violent gun battle which left two police officers and Mara Cagol dead. This led to a campaign against Police and magistrates especially those who had been involved in the conviction of Red Brigade members.\nThe most famous crime committed by the Red Brigades was in 1978, when they kidnapped and 56 days later murdered the politician Aldo Moro. The attack was well organised with members using stolen Alitalia plane company uniforms, and carrying out an ambush which left five of Moro’s bodyguards dead and him a prisoner of the Red Brigade. The Brigade wanted a semi official status as ‘insurgents’ but the Government refused to negotiate despite various pleading letters from Moro to his family , friends and even the Pope. The terrorists started to fear discovery and had lost faith with the chance of getting what they wanted so shot Moro more than ten times and as a final insult to the police dumped his body in a car near the Christian Democratic Party headquarters in Rome, despite the city being under tight surveillance. The murder was counter productive, Aldo Moro had been a popular figure to people from both ends of the political spectrum, and the Italian left wing condemned the murder as did some of the imprisoned Brigade leaders. A further blow to the Brigade’s popularity came in 1979 when they shot and killed Guido Rossa, a popular trade Union official who had reported Brigade members for distributing propaganda. This killing lost the organisation much of the support from the factory workers.\nOn the back of this loss in support the police made large inroads against the organisation arresting thousands of activists and forcing many others to flee to France or South America. Many those captured turned evidence and provided information to help capture other members in order to reduce their own prison sentences. Despite this decline in influence the Red Brigades were far from finished - on December 17th 1981 a small group kidnapped US Army Brigadier General Dozier who was at that time Deputy Chief of Staff for NATO Southern Land forces. 42 days later the General was rescued by Italian Special Forces from the apartment where he was being held. Despite this alarming swansong the organisation was in its death throes and in 1984 it split into two factions and many of its former leaders renounced the idea of armed struggle while the support from the Soviet Block dried up.\nIsolated killings continued with the murders of the US Sinai Multinational Force commander Leamon Hunt in 1984, the ex-mayor of Florence Lando Conti in February 1986, General Licio Giorgieri in 1987, and Senator Roberto Ruffilli in 1988. Police operations in response led to many arrests and the Red Brigades had virtually ceased to exist as a meaningful entity by the end of 1988. A remnant of the group still exists, possibly a new group with very little connection to the old Red Brigades. It briefly resurfaced in the 1990s and early 2000s murdering several government advisors and some police in gunfights. On October 23rd 2003 police raids in several areas of Italy, including Rome and Sardinia led to the arrest of several members of this group, four of whom were sentenced to life imprisonment in June 2005. It is possible other isolated cells remain and the Red Brigades were certainly a long time in dying even after Soviet support was cut off at the end of the Cold War, but any threat they still pose is more one of criminal activity than any meaningful political action.\nHow to cite this article: Dugdale-Pointon, T. (19 November 2007), The Red Brigade Terrorist Group, http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_red_brigades.html",
"Red Brigades | Mapping Militant Organizations\nMapping Militant Organizations\n1984\nFirst Attack\nSeptember 17, 1970: The Red Brigades set fire to the car of a factory manager in Milan. (0 killed) [1]\nLast Attack\nApril 16, 1988: The Red Brigades kidnapped a chemical engineer in Mestre. (No reported casualties) [2]\nUpdated\nJune 27, 2012\nNarrative Summary\nThe Red Brigades was Italy's largest, longest lasting, and most broadly diffused left-wing terrorist group. At its peak the organization had thousands of active members and supporters, with its strongest presence in the industrial cities of Northern Italy. [3] It sought to overthrow the democratic Italian state and replace it with a dictatorship of the proletariat. Its primary targets were symbols of capitalism and the Italian state. These included politicians, especially those of the center-right Christian Democratic party, law enforcement, and factories. The organization cast its armed activities as acts of self-defense, undertaken on behalf of workers facing repression from factory bosses and police. [4] \nThe first pamphlet signed by the Red Brigades – then using the singular \"Red Brigade,\" or \"Brigata Rossa\" – appeared at a Sit-Siemens plant in Milan in 1970 [5] , but the roots of the organization extend back to the late 1960s, as student and worker demonstrations spread throughout Italy and protestors increasingly clashed violently with the police. The fall of 1968, known as the \"autunno caldo\" or \"hot autumn,\" marked a high point in such violence as well as an organizational turning point as workers began to form collectives as alternatives to existing trade unions. The Red Brigades' founders are believed to have decided to take up arms during a November 28, 1969 meeting of the Metropolitan Political Collective (Collettivo Politico Metropolitano), a coordinating group of leftist student and worker movements, in Chiavari in the province of Genoa. [6] \nSome two weeks later, a bomb exploded in Milan's Piazza Fontana, killing 16 and wounding 87. At roughly the same time, two other bombs exploded in Rome, wounding 16. Suspicion for the day's carnage initially fell on the far left, members of which insisted that right-wing groups, likely aided by elements of state intelligence, had planned the attack as a provocation. [7] What later came to be known as the \"Piazza Fontana Massacre\" was seen on the left as the inauguration of a \"strategy of tension\" pursued by the right in cooperation with the state. [8] \nMembers of the Red Brigades attacked property rather than people until 1972; arson against factory managers' cars was particularly common, as were raids against the offices of right-wing organizations. [9] Beginning with the 1974 kidnapping of a Genoa magistrate, the Red Brigades expanded their attacks to include politicians and employees of the state. An April 1975 BR document outlining the organization's \"Strategic Direction\" identified Italy's long-dominant Christian Democratic party \"the principal enemy.\" [10] The number of BR-directed attacks, including kidnappings and shootings, spiked between 1977 and 1979. The organization's best-known attack of the period was the kidnapping and killing of Christian Democratic leader and former prime minister Aldo Moro in 1978. \nThe Red Brigades' activities began to decline in 1980. Members began being arrested at higher rates, and those arrested began increasingly to cooperate with authorities, leading to the capture of more members. The group split numerous times over the period.\nThe Red Brigades ceased to exist as a unified organization around 1981. Its core successor, the Red Brigades Fighting Communist Party (BR-PCC) continued to stage high-profile attacks throughout the decade. The Red Brigades' original leaders, many of them in jail, continued to guide the BR-PCC until formally declaring the armed struggle finished in 1988. [11]\nAttacks have been carried out in Italy under the name \"Red Brigades\" as late as 2002, though the attackers are likely not formally connected to the original organization. [12]\nLeadership\nAntonio Savasta (Unknown to 1982): Savasta was the leader of the Venice branch of the Red Brigades. He was arrested in 1982. [13]\nMargherita Cagol (1970 to 1975): One of the founders of the Red Brigades, Cagol was Curcio's wife. She was killed in a shootout with police in June 1975. [14]\nMario Moretti (1970 to 1981): Moretti was a founding member of the Red Brigades and confessed to having personally fired the shots that killed Christian Democratic Leader Aldo Moro. He was arrested in 1981 and freed in 1998. [15]\nRenato Curcio (1970 to 1984): Police arrested Curcio, along with co-founder Franceschini, with the help of an informant in September 1974. Curcio remained in prison for about four months until a BR squad directed by his wife and co-founder Margherita Cagol freed him and several others from prison in February 1975. Following his release, Curcio was among the authors of an April 1975 document outlining the BR's \"Strategic Direction\" and identifying Italy's long-dominant Christian Democratic party \"the principal enemy\" and \"the political and organizational center of reaction and terrorism.\" Curcio was recaptured in Milan in January 1976. He is believed to have continued to guide the organization from prison. [16]\nAlberto Franceschini (1970 to 1984): Franceschini was arrested along with Curcio in 1974. He is believed to have continued to guide the organization from prison.\nIdeology & Goals\nCommunist revolutionary\nMarxist\nThe Red Brigades sought to seize political power in Italy with a strategy combining elements of the Maoist cultural revolution in China and the Leninist Bolshevik revolution in Russia. The \"dictatorship of the proletariat\" would be achieved in three phases; first, a period of \"armed propaganda,\" followed by an attack on the \"heart of the state,\" followed by a state of \"generalized civil war\" which would end with the overthrow of the state. [17]\nSize Estimates\n1970: 50 (Terrorism and Security : the Italian Experience.) [18]\n1979: 1,000 \"militants\" and \"some 2,000 external support (Terrorism and Security: The Italian Experience.) [19]\n1983: 100 \"militants\" and \"200 external supporters.\" (Terrorism and Security: the Italian Experience.) [20]\nDesignated/Listed\nN/A. [21]\nResources\nThe Red Brigades got some revenue from kidnappings for ransom and from theft, which is also how they often acquired weapons. In absorbing smaller militant groups, the Red Brigades also took on their material assets, including those of the Gruppi di Azione Partigiana (GAP), which was financed by millionaire publisher Giangiacomo Feltrinelli until his death in 1972. [22] The group Soccorso Rosso (Red Aid) provided free legal services to left-wing operatives. By October 31, 1982, Italian police had discovered and dismantled some 200 bases belonging to the BR. [23]\nExternal Influences\nThe Red Brigades were influenced in their ideology and methods by leftist and militant movements all over the world. As elements of the Italian left moved toward a strategy of political violence in 1967 and 1968, Uruguay's Tupamaros provided a model of urban guerilla warfare at the same time that Palestinian nationalist terrorism became more prominent in the wake of the Six-Day war of 1967. [24] Philosophically, the BR borrowed from Lenin and Mao. \nMore formally, members of the Red Brigades had contact with other Western European militant movements extant in the 1970s, especially Germany's Red Army Faction (RAF), whose 1977 kidnapping of business leader Hans Schleyer was the model for the Aldo Moro kidnapping a year later. [25] The BR are also believed to have had some connection with France's Actione Direct (AD) and have allegedly provided training for them. [26] \nFormer Red Brigades members have told authorities that the BR acquired weapons from the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), with Libya acting as intermediary, beginning in 1978 or before. [27] BR founders Renato Curcio and Margherita Cagol visited Cuba. [28] There is disputed evidence that the Red Brigades may have received funding from \"Eastern bloc\" communist countries including Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria. [29] One former brigadier has denied these contacts, saying \"The RB was formally prohibited from having contact, making liaison, or receiving assistance from the Eastern Bloc.\" [30] A training camp outside of Benghazi, Libya was allegedly used by Italian terrorists. Former members of the Red Brigades have denied press accounts of training abroad, however, saying that the BR instead used abandoned mines in Italy's mountains as training sites. [31]\nGeographical Locations\nItalian terrorist organizations of both the left and right were active primarily in the northwest and center of Italy. Left-wing groups concentrated on Milan, Turin, and Rome, whereas the militant right was most active in Milan and Rome. The BR was the only one of these groups with a strong presence in Genoa. [32] The merger with NAP gave the Red Brigades a foothold in Naples and elsewhere in the more-agrarian south, but the Red Brigades had difficulty sustaining formal \"columns\" there, particularly after NAP dissolved. [33] Though the BR had its strongest presence in the cities listed above, the organization was active in at least 16 of Italy's 20 regions over its lifespan. [34]\nTargets & Tactics\nThe Red Brigades typically attacked factories and the offices of right-wing targets such as political parties or certain trade unions. In its first few years such attacks were only against property and most often took the form of office raids and car arson. Early Red Brigades communiqués describe such attacks as punishments for specific \"anti-worker\" actions, such as the firing of a coworker: \"For every comrade they hit, one of them must pay,\" or, more generally, \"for every eye, two eyes; for every tooth, an entire face.\" Thus, when in late 1970 \"first the bosses, then the unions\" of Milan's Pirelli plant fired a 50-year-old mechanic, \"one of them, precisely the 'first on the list' (as suggested by many of the factory workers), found his car destroyed.\" [35] \nThe Red Brigades' 1971 \"self-interview\" describes such methods as a form of \"armed propaganda,\" which served both to recruit new members and to demonstrate \"the conniving between power groups and/or apparently separate institutions.\" [36] \nThe Red Brigades claimed its first attack against an individual on March 3, 1972, with the kidnapping of a Sit-Siemens plant manager. They released him the same day. After 1972, the Red Brigades carried out targeted killings and kidnappings of factory managers, magistrates, and political figures, particularly members of the Christian Democratic party. \nThe BR was one of few left-wing terrorist groups to engage in kidnappings, and conducted by far the most of any left-wing terrorist group, 18 of 24 attributed to the entire terrorist left. [37] Most of the BR's kidnappings were political, whereas other Italian leftist terrorist groups typically kidnapped to raise funds through ransom. [38] \nThe BR adopted the practice of mass leg-shootings, also called \"kneecapping,\" in 1980, months after another leftist group, Front Line (PL), pioneered the tactic. [39] \nThe Red Brigades did not carry out mass-casualty explosive attacks. There were four such attacks in Italy between 1969 and 1980, all attributed to right-wing terrorists. [40]\nPolitical Activities\nThe Red Brigades abandoned overt political activity after a wave of arrests in 1972. [41]\nMajor Attacks\nApril 18, 1974: Kidnapping of Genoa Assistant State Attorney Mario Sossi. Sossi was the sixth person, and the first state employee, kidnapped by the Red Brigades. In its claim of responsibility, the BR called the kidnapping an attack \"on the heart of the state.\" The group released him on May 23 in exchange for a court order, later blocked, to release eight BR-affiliated prisoners. (). [42]\nJune 17, 1974: The BR killed two members of the right-wing party Italian Social Movement (MSI). (2 killed). [43]\nNovember 16, 1977: BR operatives shot Carlo Casalegno, deputy editor of La Stampa newspaper, on a street in Turin in broad daylight. Casalegno died of his wounds on November 29. (1 killed). [44]\nMarch 16, 1978: The BR kidnapped Aldo Moro, president of the Christian Democratic party and a former prime minister. In the attack, members of the Red Brigades killed five of Moro's bodyguards. On April 15, a BR communiqué announced that a \"People's Tribunal\" (Tribunale del Popolo) had tried Moro and had condemned him to death for his role in the \"counter-revolutionary function of the [Christian Democrats].\" Until May, however, BR communiqués offered to exchange Moro for 13 imprisoned BR members, including founders Franceschini and Curcio. The Italian government refused. Police found Moro's body in a car on May 9, 1978. (1 killed). [45]\nMay 20, 1981: The Red Brigades kidnapped a chemical engineer in Mestre. It was the last attack claimed with the name \"Red Brigades\" as the organization split into factions. (0). [46]\nRelationships with Other Groups\nThe Red Brigades was the largest left-wing terrorist organization in Italy, and most other left-wing Italian terrorist groups had some relationship to it as either rivals or allies. Other organizations later split off from the BR or were absorbed by it.\nThe BR's most important ideological rival was Front Line (PL), the second-largest left-wing terrorist group in Italy. Several of the PL's founders were dissident members of the BR who left the group because of its strict hierarchy and the centrality of the armed struggle to its political agenda. The PL viewed the hierarchy as counterproductive, and the armed struggle as merely a tactic in a larger political program. The Red Brigades may have begun to cooperate with the PL in the late 1970s as the smaller organization declined and began calling for a unified proletarian force. The BR's symbol, a five-pointed star, appeared on the PL's claim of responsibility for a 1979 attack on a Turin school. [47] \nThe BR formed an alliance with Naples-based Armed Proletarian Nuclei (NAP) in 1976. The BR had had difficulty extending its reach into agrarian southern Italy due to its focus on the class struggle in factories, which were concentrated in the industrial north. [48] Most of NAP's leadership was arrested shortly after that, and the BR absorbed the remainder of the group's assets and members. [49] \nThe BR absorbed several other smaller groups as well, including Partisan Action Groups (GAP), which merged with the Red Brigades in 1970 after itself absorbing the October XXII Circle. [50] \nThe BR itself began to decline with the arrest of many of its leaders in the early 1980s. The group split; its main successors were the Red Brigades Walter Alasia Column (BR-WA), the Red Brigades Guerrila Party (BR-PG), and the Red Brigades Fighting Communist Party (BR-PCC).\nCommunity Relationships\nLeftist extraparliamentary organizations represented a recruitment pool and a source of logistical and public relations support for the BR, especially Workers' Autonomy (Autonomia Operaia, AUTOP) and Workers' Power (Potere Operaiao, POTOP or PO). [51] This latter group formally dissolved in 1973, though prosecutors investigating the case argued that the \"dissolution\" was a cover for members' deciding to take up arms with the Red Brigades and others. [52]\nReferences\n^ Barbato, Tullio. Il Terrorismo In Italia Negli Anni Settanta : Cronaca E Documentazione. Milano: Bibliografica, 1980. p. 52\n^ Brigaterosse.org. \"Breve storia delle Brigate Rosse (1970-1987), Parte III.\" Last updated March 15, 2007. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://www.brigaterosse.org/brigaterosse/storia/storia3.htm .\n^ Della Porta, Donatella. Il Terrorismo Di Sinistra. Bologna: Il mulino, 1990. p. 92.\n^ Brigate Rosse, \"Prima intervista a se stessi,\" 1971. Available: http://www.brigaterosse.org/brigaterosse/documenti/archivio/doc0001.htm\n^ Barbato, Tullio. Il Terrorismo In Italia Negli Anni Settanta : Cronaca E Documentazione. Milano: Bibliografica, 1980."
],
"title": [
"US envoy admits role in Aldo Moro killing - Telegraph",
"EuroNews - Interview - The truth about Aldo Moro's murder ...",
"The truth about Aldo Moro's murder? - euronews",
"BBC ON THIS DAY | 16 | 1978: Aldo Moro snatched at gunpoint",
"On This Day: Aldo Moro Kidnapped by the Italian Red Brigades",
"Illuminati News: Was The Assassination Of The Former ...",
"Former Italian PM Aldo Moro, From Murder Victim To Sainthood?",
"Aldo Moro found dead - May 09, 1978 - HISTORY.com",
"The Red Brigade Terrorist Group - Military History",
"Red Brigades | Mapping Militant Organizations"
],
"url": [
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1581425/US-envoy-admits-role-in-Aldo-Moro-killing.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ntB_VoBkwuE",
"http://www.euronews.com/2008/05/09/the-truth-about-aldo-moro-s-murder",
"http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/16/newsid_4232000/4232691.stm",
"http://www.findingdulcinea.com/news/on-this-day/March-April-08/On-this-Day--Aldo-Moro-Kidnapped-by-the-Italian-Red-Brigades.html",
"http://illuminati-news.com/070106a.htm",
"http://www.ibtimes.com/former-italian-pm-aldo-moro-murder-victim-sainthood-796517",
"http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/aldo-moro-found-dead",
"http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_red_brigades.html",
"http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/77"
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General Boris Gromov was the last Soviet soldier to leave where in 1989?
|
tc_865
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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{
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"TagMe",
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"Red_Army.txt"
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"title": [
"Boris Gromov",
"Red Army"
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"Boris Vsevolodovich Gromov (; born 7 November 1943 in Saratov, Russia) is a prominent Russian military and political figure. From 2000 to 2012, he was the Governor of Moscow Oblast.\n\nBiography\n\nHe graduated from a Suvorov military cadet school, the Leningrad Military Commanders School and later from the Frunze Military Academy in Moscow, as well as the General Staff Academy.\n\nDuring the Soviet war in Afghanistan, Gromov did three tours of duty (1980–1982, 1985–1986, 1987–1989), and was best known for the two years as the last Commander of the 40th Army in Afghanistan. Gromov was the last Soviet soldier to leave Afghanistan, crossing on foot the Friendship Bridge spanning the Amu-Daria river on 15 February 1989, the day the Soviet pullout from Afghanistan was completed. He received the highest military award – the golden star of the Hero of the Soviet Union after Operation Magistral had lifted the siege of the city of Khost in eastern Afghanistan.\n\nAfter the Afghan war, he was chosen as a candidate for Vice President by the Communist Party in the Russian presidential election of 1991 (the candidate for President was former Premier Nikolai Ryzhkov). He served as First Deputy Defence Minister of the Russian Federation. In 1994 Gromov retired from the Russian Military Forces, and was soon appointed deputy Interior Minister. He was elected in 1995 to the State Duma, lower house of Russian parliament. In January 2000 he was elected governor of the Moscow region and re-elected in December 2003.\n\nHonours and awards\n\n* Order of Merit for the Fatherland;\n**2nd class (6 November 2003) - for outstanding contribution to strengthening Russian statehood, and socio-economic development of the region\n**3rd class\n**4th class (7 November 2008) - for outstanding contribution to the socio-economic development of the Moscow region and many years of fruitful work\n* Order of Lenin\n* Order of the Red Banner, twice\n* Order of the Red Star\n* Order for Service to the Homeland in the Armed Forces of the USSR, 3rd class\n* Medal for Combat Service\n* Hero of the Soviet Union\n* Medal \"For merits in perpetuating the memory of the fallen defenders of the Fatherland\" (Russian Ministry of Defence, 2008) - for his great personal contribution to the commemoration of the fallen defenders of the Fatherland, the establishment of names of the dead and the fate of missing servicemen, displaying high moral and business qualities, diligence and intelligent initiative, to assist in the task of perpetuating the memory of the fallen defenders of the Fatherland\n* Medal \"For Impeccable Service\" 1st, 2nd and 3rd classes\n* Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 5th class (Ukraine, 7 November 2003)\n* Medal \"10 Years of the Armed Forces of Ukraine\"\n* Order of Friendship of Peoples (Belarus) (22 November 2005) - for his significant contribution to the development of economic, scientific-technological and cultural ties between Belarus and Moscow Oblast of the Russian Federation\n* Medal \"In memory of the 10th anniversary of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan\" (Belarus, 13 February 2003) - for his great personal contribution to the development and strengthening of cooperation between movements of Afghan War Veterans of the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation [56] [57]\n* Medal \"Fidelity\" (Afghanistan, 17 November 1988)\n* Order of St. Prince Vladimir Equal, 1st class (Russian Orthodox Church, 2008) - in consideration of special services for the Moscow diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church and the 65th anniversary of the birth\n* Order of the Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow, 1st class\n* Order of St. Sergius\n* Order of Saint Blessed Grand Prince Dmitry Donskoy, 1st class\n* Jubilee Medal \"In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary since the Birth of Vladimir Il'ich Lenin\"\n* Jubilee Medal \"Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945\"\n* Jubilee Medal \"50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR\"\n* Jubilee Medal \"60 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR\"\n* Jubilee Medal \"70 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR\"\n* Order of the Red Banner (Afghanistan)",
"The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (: RKKA, frequently shortened in Russian to ; KA, in English: Red Army) was the army and the air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and after 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The army was established immediately after the 1917 October Revolution (Red October or Bolshevik Revolution). The Bolsheviks raised an army to oppose the military confederations (especially the various groups collectively known as the White Army) of their adversaries during the Russian Civil War. Beginning in February 1946, the Red Army, along with the Soviet Navy, embodied the main component of the Soviet Armed Forces; taking the official name of \"Soviet Army\" (), until its dissolution in December 1991.\n\nThe Red Army is credited as being the decisive land force in the Allied victory in the European theatre of World War II. During operations on the Eastern Front, it fought 75%–80% of the German land forces (Wehrmacht Heer and Waffen-SS) deployed in the war. \n\nOrigins\n\nIn September 1917, Vladimir Lenin wrote: \"There is only one way to prevent the restoration of the police, and that is to create a people's militia and to fuse it with the army (the standing army to be replaced by the arming of the entire people).\" At the time, the Imperial Russian Army had started to collapse. Approximately 23% (about 19 million) of the male population of the Russian Empire were mobilized; however, most of them were not equipped with any weapons and had support roles such as maintaining the lines of communication and the base areas. The Tsarist general Nikolay Dukhonin estimated that there had been 2 million deserters, 1.8 million dead, 5 million wounded and 2 million prisoners. He estimated the remaining troops as numbering 10 million. \n\nWhile the Imperial Russian Army was being taken apart, \"it became apparent that the rag-tag Red Guard units and elements of the imperial army who had gone over the side of the Bolsheviks were quite inadequate to the task of defending the new government against external foes.\" Therefore, the Council of People's Commissars decided to form the Red Army on 28 January 1918. They envisioned a body \"formed from the class-conscious and best elements of the working classes.\" All citizens of the Russian republic aged 18 or older were eligible. Its role being the defense \"of the Soviet authority, the creation of a basis for the transformation of the standing army into a force deriving its strength from a nation in arms, and, furthermore, the creation of a basis for the support of the coming Socialist Revolution in Europe.\" Enlistment was conditional upon \"guarantees being given by a military or civil committee functioning within the territory of the Soviet Power, or by party or trade union committees or, in extreme cases, by two persons belonging to one of the above organizations.\" In the event of an entire unit wanting to join the Red Army, a \"collective guarantee and the affirmative vote of all its members would be necessary.\" . Because the Red Army was composed mainly of peasants, the families of those who served were guaranteed rations and assistance with farm work. Some peasants who remained at home yearned to join the Army; men, along with some women, flooded the recruitment centres. If they were turned away they would collect scrap metal and prepare care-packages. In some cases the money they earned would go towards tanks for the Army. \n\nThe Council of People's Commissars appointed itself the supreme head of the Red Army, delegating command and administration of the army to the Commissariat for Military Affairs and the Special All-Russian College within this commissariat. Nikolai Krylenko was the supreme commander-in-chief, with Aleksandr Myasnikyan as deputy. Nikolai Podvoisky became the commissar for war, Pavel Dybenko, commissar for the fleet. Proshyan, Samoisky, Steinberg were also specified as people's commissars as well as Vladimir Bonch-Bruyevich from the Bureau of Commissars. At a joint meeting of Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, held on 22 February 1918, Krylenko remarked: \"We have no army. The demoralized soldiers are fleeing, panic-stricken, as soon as they see a German helmet appear on the horizon, abandoning their artillery, convoys and all war material to the triumphantly advancing enemy. The Red Guard units are brushed aside like flies. We have no power to stay the enemy; only an immediate signing of the peace treaty will save us from destruction.\"\n\nHistory\n\nRussian Civil War\n\nThe Russian Civil War (1917–1923) occurred in three periods:\n\n# October 1917 – November 1918, from the Bolshevik Revolution to the First World War Armistice, developed from the Bolshevik government's November 1917 nationalization of traditional Cossack lands. This provoked the insurrection of General Alexey Maximovich Kaledin's Volunteer Army in the River Don region. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918) aggravated Russian internal politics. The situation encouraged direct Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, in which twelve foreign countries supported anti-Bolshevik militias. A series of engagements resulted, involving, amongst others, the Czechoslovak Legion, the Polish 5th Rifle Division, and the pro-Bolshevik Red Latvian Riflemen.\n# January 1919–November 1919 initially saw the White armies successfully advancing: from the south, under General Anton Denikin; from the east, under Admiral Aleksandr Vasilevich Kolchak; and from the northwest, under General Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich. The Whites defeated the Red Army on each front. Leon Trotsky reformed and counterattacked: the Red Army repelled Admiral Kolchak's army in June; and the armies of General Denikin and General Yudenich in October.. By mid-November the White armies were all almost completely exhausted. In January 1920, Budenny's First Cavalry Army entered Rostov-on-Don.\n# 1919 to 1923\n\nAt the war's start, the Red Army consisted of 299 infantry regiments. Civil war intensified after Lenin dissolved the Russian Constituent Assembly (5–6 January 1918) and the Soviet government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918), removing Russia from the Great War. Free from international war, the Red Army confronted an internecine war against a loose alliance of anti-Communist forces, comprising the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine, the \"Black Army\" led by Nestor Makhno, the anti-White and anti-Red Green armies, and others. 23 February 1918, \"Red Army Day\", has a two-fold historical significance: the first day of drafting recruits (in Petrograd and Moscow); and the first day of combat against the occupying Imperial German Army. \n\nOn 6 September 1918 the Bolshevik militias consolidated under the supreme command of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic – . The first Chairman was Leon Trotsky. The first commander-in-chief was Jukums Vācietis from the Latvian Riflemen; in July 1919 he was replaced by Sergey Kamenev. Soon afterwards Trotsky established the GRU (military intelligence) to provide political and military intelligence to Red Army commanders. Trotsky founded the Red Army with an initial Red Guard organization, and a core soldiery of Red Guard militiamen and Chekist secret police. Conscription began in June 1918, and opposition to it was violently suppressed. To control the multi-ethnic and multi-cultural Red Army soldiery, the Cheka operated special punitive brigades which suppressed anti-communists, deserters, and \"enemies of the state\".. Wartime pragmatism allowed the recruitment of ex-Tsarist officers and sergeants (non-commissioned officers, NCOs) into the Red Army. Lev Glezarov's special commission recruited and screened them. By mid-August 1920 the Red Army's former Tsarist personnel included 48,000 officers, 10,300 administrators, and 214,000 NCOs. At the civil war's start, ex-Tsarists made up 75% of the Red Army officer-corps, who were employed as military specialists (voenspetsy, :ru:Военный советник). The Bolsheviks occasionally enforced the loyalty of such recruits by holding their families as hostages. At war's end in 1922, ex-Tsarists constituted 83% of the Red Army's divisional and corps commanders.\n\nThe Red Army used special regiments for ethnic minorities, like the Dungan Cavalry Regiment commanded by the Dungan Magaza Masanchi. \nThe Red Army also co-operated with armed Bolshevik Party-oriented volunteer units, the Части особого назначения – ЧОН (special task units – chasti osobogo naznacheniya – or ChON) from 1919 to 1925. \n\nThe slogan \"exhortation, organization, and reprisals\" expressed the discipline and motivation which ensured the Red Army's tactical and strategic success. On campaign, the attached Cheka Special Punitive Brigades conducted summary field courts-martial and executions of deserters and slackers. Under Commissar Jānis K. Bērziņš the Special Punitive Brigades took hostages from the villages of deserters to compel their surrender; one in ten of those returning was executed. The same tactic also suppressed peasant rebellions in areas controlled by the Red Army. The Soviets enforced the loyalty of the various political, ethnic, and national groups in the Red Army through political commissars attached at the brigade and regimental levels. The commissars also had the task of spying on commanders for political incorrectness. Political commissars whose Chekist detachments retreated or broke in the face of the enemy earned the death penalty. In August 1918, Trotsky authorized General Mikhail Tukhachevsky to place blocking units behind politically unreliable Red Army units, to shoot anyone who retreated without permission. In 1942, during the Great Patriotic War (1941–1945), Joseph Stalin reintroduced the blocking policy, using penal battalions.\n\nPolish–Soviet War and prelude\n\nThe Soviet westward offensive of 1918–19 occurred at the same time as the general Soviet move into the areas abandoned by the Ober Ost garrisons. This merged into the 1919–1921 Polish–Soviet War, in which the Red Army reached central Poland in 1920, but then suffered a defeat there, which put an end to the war. During the Polish Campaign the Red Army numbered some 6.5 million men, many of whom the Army had difficulty supporting, around 581,000 in the two operational fronts, western and southwestern. Around 2.5 million men and women were immobilized in the interior as part of reserve armies.\n\nReorganization\n\nThe XI Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RCP (b)) adopted a resolution on the strengthening of the Red Army. It decided to establish strictly organized military, educational and economic conditions in the army. However, it was recognized that an army of 1,600,000 would be burdensome. By the end of 1922, after the Congress, the Party Central Committee decided to reduce the Red Army to 800,000. This reduction necessitated the reorganization of the Red Army's structure. The supreme military unit became corps of two or three divisions. Divisions consisted of three regiments. Brigades as independent units were abolished. The formation of departments' rifle corps began.\n\nDoctrinal development in the 1920s and 1930s\n\nAfter four years of warfare, the Red Army's defeat of Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel in the south allowed the foundation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. Historian John Erickson dates 1 February 1924, when Mikhail Frunze became head of the Red Army staff, as the ascent of the general staff, which dominated Soviet military planning and operations. By 1 October 1924 the Red Army's strength diminished to 530,000. List of Soviet Union divisions 1917–1945 details the formations of the Red Army in that time.\n\nIn the late 1920s and throughout the 1930s, Soviet military theoreticians led by Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky developed the deep operations doctrine, a direct consequence of their Polish-Soviet War and Russian Civil War experiences. To achieve victory, deep operations envisage simultaneous corps- and army-size unit maneuvers of simultaneous parallel attacks throughout the depth of the enemy's ground forces, inducing catastrophic defensive failure. The deep battle doctrine relies upon aviation and armor advances in the hope that maneuver warfare offers quick, efficient, and decisive victory. Marshal Tukhachevsky said that aerial warfare must be \"employed against targets beyond the range of infantry, artillery, and other arms. For maximum tactical effect aircraft should be employed en masse, concentrated in time and space, against targets of the highest tactical importance.\"\n\nRed Army deep operations were first formally expressed in the 1929 Field Regulations, and codified in the 1936 Provisional Field Regulations (PU-36). The Great Purge of 1937–1939 and the Purge of 1940–1942 removed many leading officers from the Red Army, including Tukhachevsky and many of his followers, and the doctrine was abandoned. Thus at the Battle of Lake Khasan, in 1938, and the Battle of Khalkhin Gol, in 1939, major border clashes with the Imperial Japanese Army, the doctrine was not used. It was not until the Second World War that deep operations were to be reused.\n\nChinese–Soviet conflicts\n\nThe Red army was involved in armed conflicts in The Republic of China during the Sino-Soviet conflict (1929), the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang (1934), when it was assisted by White Russian forces, and the Xinjiang rebellion (1937). The Red Army achieved its objectives; it maintained effective control over the Manchurian Chinese Eastern Railway, and successfully installed a pro-Soviet regime in Xinjiang. \n\nWinter War with Finland\n\nThe Winter War (, , ) was a war between the Soviet Union and Finland. It began with a Soviet offensive on 30 November 1939—three months after the start of World War II and the Soviet invasion of Poland, and ended on 13 March 1940 with the Moscow Peace Treaty. The League of Nations deemed the attack illegal and expelled the Soviet Union on 14 December 1939. \n\nThe Soviet forces had three times as many soldiers as the Finns, thirty times as many aircraft, and a hundred times as many tanks. The Red Army, however, had been crippled by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's Great Purge of 1937, reducing the army's morale and efficiency shortly before the outbreak of the fighting. With over 30,000 of its army officers executed or imprisoned, most of whom were from the highest ranks, the Red Army in 1939 had many inexperienced senior officers. Because of these factors, and high commitment and morale in the Finnish forces, Finland was able to resist the Soviet invasion for much longer than the Soviets expected. Finnish forces inflicted stunning losses on the Red Army for the first three months of the war while suffering very few losses themselves.\n\nHostilities ceased in March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty. Finland ceded 11% of its pre-war territory and 30% of its economic assets to the Soviet Union. Soviet losses on the front were heavy, and the country's international reputation suffered. The Soviet forces did not accomplish their objective of the total conquest of Finland but conquered significant territory along Lake Ladoga, Petsamo and Salla. The Finns retained their sovereignty and improved their international reputation, which bolstered their morale in the Continuation War.\n\nSecond World War (\"The Great Patriotic War\")\n\nIn accordance with the Soviet-Nazi Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 23 August 1939, the Red Army invaded Poland on 17 September 1939, after the Nazi invasion on 1 September 1939. On 30 November the Red Army also attacked Finland, in the Winter War of 1939–1940. By autumn 1940, after conquering its portion of Poland, the Third Reich shared an extensive border with USSR, with whom it remained neutrally bound by their non-aggression pact and trade agreements. Another consequence of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, carried out by the Southern Front in June–July 1940. This conquest also added to the border the Soviet Union shared with Nazi-controlled areas. For Adolf Hitler, the circumstance was no dilemma, because the Drang nach Osten (\"Drive towards the East\") policy secretly remained in force, culminating on 18 December 1940 with Directive No. 21, Operation Barbarossa, approved on 3 February 1941, and scheduled for mid-May 1941.\n\nWhen Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, in Operation Barbarossa, the Red Army's ground forces had 303 divisions and 22 separate brigades (6.8 million soldiers), including 166 divisions and 9 brigades (3.2 million soldiers) garrisoned in the western military districts. The Axis forces deployed on the Eastern Front consisted of 181 divisions and 18 brigades (3 million soldiers). Three Fronts, the Northwestern, Western, and Southwestern conducted the defense of the western borders of the USSR. In the first weeks of the Great Patriotic War the Wehrmacht defeated many Red Army units. The Red Army lost millions of men as prisoners and lost much of its pre-war matériel. Stalin increased mobilization, and by 1 August 1941, despite 46 divisions lost in combat, the Red Army's strength was 401 divisions.\n\nThe unprepared Soviet forces suffered much damage in the field because of mediocre officers, partial mobilization, and an incomplete reorganization. The hasty pre-war forces expansion and the over-promotion of inexperienced officers (owing to the purging of experienced officers) favored the Wehrmacht in combat. The Axis's numeric superiority rendered the combatants' divisional strength approximately equal. A generation of Soviet commanders (notably Georgy Zhukov) learned from the defeats, and Soviet victories in the Battle of Moscow, at Stalingrad, Kursk and later in Operation Bagration proved decisive.\n\nIn 1941, the Soviet government raised the bloodied Red Army's esprit de corps with propaganda stressing the defense of Motherland and nation, employing historic exemplars of Russian courage and bravery against foreign aggressors. The anti-Nazi Great Patriotic War was conflated with the Patriotic War of 1812 against Napoleon, and historical Russian military heroes, such as Alexander Nevski and Mikhail Kutuzov, appeared. Repression of the Russian Orthodox Church temporarily ceased, and priests revived the tradition of blessing arms before battle.\n\nTo encourage the initiative of Red Army commanders, the CPSU temporarily abolished political commissars, reintroduced formal military ranks and decorations, and introduced the Guards unit concept. Exceptionally heroic or high-performing units earned the Guards title (for example 1st Guards Special Rifle Corps, 6th Guards Tank Army), an elite designation denoting superior training, materiel, and pay. Punishment also was used; slackers, malingerers, those avoiding combat with self-inflicted wounds cowards, thieves, and deserters were disciplined with beatings, demotions, undesirable/dangerous duties, and summary execution by NKVD punitive detachments.\n\nAt the same time, the osobist (NKVD military counter-intelligence officers) became a key Red Army figure with the power to condemn to death and to spare the life of any soldier and (almost any) officer of the unit to which he was attached. In 1942, Stalin established the penal battalions composed of gulag inmates, Soviet PoWs, disgraced soldiers, and deserters, for hazardous front-line duty as tramplers clearing Nazi minefields, et cetera. Given the dangers, the maximum sentence was three months. Likewise, the Soviet treatment of Red Army personnel captured by the Wehrmacht was especially harsh. A 1941 Stalin directive ordered the suicide of every Red Army officer and soldier rather than surrender; Soviet law regarded all captured Red Army soldiers as traitors.. Soviet PoWs whom the Red Army liberated from enemy captivity usually were sentenced to penal battalions.\n\nDuring the Great Patriotic War, the Red Army conscripted 29,574,900 men in addition to the 4,826,907 in service at the beginning of the war. Of this total of 34,401,807 it lost 6,329,600 killed in action (KIA), 555,400 deaths by disease and 4,559,000 missing in action (MIA) (most captured). Of these 11,444,000, however, 939,700 rejoined the ranks in the subsequently liberated Soviet territory, and a further 1,836,000 returned from German captivity. Thus the grand total of losses amounted to 8,668,400. This is the official total dead, but other estimates give the number of total dead up to almost 11 million men, including 7.7 million killed or missing in action and 2.6 million POW dead (out of 5.2 million total POWs), plus 400,000 paramilitary and Soviet partisan losses. The majority of the losses, excluding POWs, were ethnic Russians (5,756,000), followed by ethnic Ukrainians (1,377,400). However, as many as 8 million of the 34 million mobilized were non-Slavic minority soldiers, and around 45 divisions formed from national minorities served from 1941 to 1943.\n\nThe German losses on the Eastern Front consisted of an estimated 3,604,800 KIA/MIA within the 1937 borders plus 900,000 ethnic Germans and Austrians outside the 1937 border (included in these numbers are men listed as missing in action or unaccounted for after the war) and 3,576,300 men reported captured (total 8,081,100); the losses of the German satellites on the Eastern Front approximated 668,163 KIA/MIA and 799,982 captured (total 1,468,145). Of these 9,549,245, the Soviets released 3,572,600 from captivity after the war, thus the grand total of the Axis losses came to an estimated 5,976,645. Regarding prisoners of war, both sides captured large numbers and had many die in captivity – one recent British From the fall of East Prussia, Soviet soldiers carried out large-scale rapes in Germany, especially noted in Berlin until the beginning of May 1945. \n\nShortcomings\n\nIn 1941 the rapid progress of the initial German air and land attacks into the Soviet Union made Red Army logistical support difficult, because many depots, and most of the USSR's industrial manufacturing base, lay in the country's invaded western areas, obliging their re-establishment east of the Ural Mountains. Until then the Red Army was often required to improvise or go without weapons, vehicles, and other equipment. The 1941 decision to physically move their manufacturing capacity east of the Ural mountains kept the main Soviet support system out of German reach. In the later stages of the war, the Red Army fielded some excellent weaponry, especially artillery and tanks. The Red Army's heavy KV-1 and medium T-34 tanks outclassed most Wehrmacht armor, but in 1941 most Soviet tank units used older and inferior models. \n\nAdministration\n\nMilitary administration after the October Revolution was taken over by the People's Commissariat of war and marine affairs headed by a collective committee of Vladimir Antonov-Ovseyenko, Pavel Dybenko, and Nikolai Krylenko. At the same time, Nikolay Dukhonin was acting as the Supreme Commander-in-Chief after Alexander Kerensky fled from Russia. On 12 November 1917 the Soviet government appointed Krylenko as the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, and because of an \"accident\" during the forceful displacement of the commander-in-chief, Dukhonin was killed on 20 November 1917. Nikolai Podvoisky was appointed as the Narkom of War Affairs, leaving Dybenko in charge of the Narkom of Marine Affairs and Ovseyenko – the expeditionary forces to the Southern Russia on 28 November 1917. The Bolsheviks also sent out their own representatives to replace front commanders of the Russian Imperial Army.\n\nAfter the signing of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918, a major reshuffling took place in the Soviet military administration. On 13 March 1918 the Soviet government accepted the official resignation of Krylenko and the post of Supreme Commander-in-Chief was liquidated. On 14 March 1918 Leon Trotsky replaced Podvoisky as the Narkom of War Affairs. On 16 March 1918 Pavel Dybenko was relieved from the office of Narkom of Marine Affairs. On 8 May 1918 the All-Russian Chief Headquarters was created, headed by Nikolai Stogov and later Alexander Svechin.\n\nOn 2 September 1918 the Revolutionary Military Council (RMC) was established as the main military administration under Leon Trotsky, the Narkom of War Affairs. On 6 September 1918 alongside the chief headquarters the Field Headquarters of RMC was created, initially headed by Nikolai Rattel. On the same day the office of the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces was created, and initially assigned to Jukums Vācietis (and from July 1919 to Sergey Kamenev). The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces existed until April 1924, the end of Russian Civil War.\n\nIn November 1923, after the establishment of the Soviet Union, the Russian Narkom of War Affairs was transformed into the Soviet Narkom of War and Marine Affairs.\n\nOrganization\n\nAt the beginning of its existence, the Red Army functioned as a voluntary formation, without ranks or insignia. Democratic elections selected the officers. However, a decree of 29 May 1918 imposed obligatory military service for men of ages 18 to 40. To service the massive draft, the Bolsheviks formed regional military commissariats (voyennyy komissariat, abbr. voyenkomat), which as of 2006 still exist in Russia in this function and under this name. Military commissariats, however, should not be confused with the institution of military political commissars.\n\nIn the mid-1920s the territorial principle of manning the Red Army was introduced. In each region able-bodied men were called up for a limited period of active duty in territorial units, which constituted about half the army's strength, each year, for five years. The first call-up period was for three months, with one month a year thereafter. A regular cadre provided a stable nucleus. By 1925 this system provided 46 of the 77 infantry divisions and one of the eleven cavalry divisions. The remainder consisted of regular officers and enlisted personnel serving two-year terms. The territorial system was finally abolished, with all remaining formations converted to the other cadre divisions, in 1937–1938.\n\nMechanization\n\nThe Soviet military received ample funding and was innovative in its technology. An American journalist wrote in 1941: \n\nUnder Stalin's campaign for mechanization, the army formed its first mechanized unit in 1930. The 1st Mechanized Brigade consisted of a tank regiment, a motorized infantry regiment, as well as reconnaissance and artillery battalions. From this humble beginning, the Soviets would go on to create the first operational-level armored formations in history, the 11th and 45th Mechanized Corps, in 1932. These were tank-heavy formations with combat support forces included so they could survive while operating in enemy rear areas without support from a parent front.\n\nImpressed by the German campaign of 1940 against France, the Soviet People's Commissariat of Defence (Defence Ministry, Russian abbreviation NKO) ordered the creation of nine mechanized corps on 6 July 1940. Between February and March 1941 the NKO ordered another twenty to be created. All of these formations were larger than those theorized by Tukhachevsky. Even though the Red Army's 29 mechanized corps had an authorized strength of no less than 29,899 tanks by 1941, they proved to be a paper tiger. There were actually only 17,000 tanks available at the time, meaning several of the new mechanized corps were badly under strength. The pressure placed on factories and military planners to show production numbers also led to a situation where the majority of armored vehicles were obsolescent models, critically lacking in spare parts and support equipment, and nearly three quarters were overdue for major maintenance. By 22 June 1941 there were only 1,475 of the modern T-34s and KV series tanks available to the Red Army, and these were too dispersed along the front to provide enough mass for even local success. To illustrate this, the 3rd Mechanized Corps in Lithuania was formed up of a total of 460 tanks; 109 of these were newer KV-1s and T-34s. This corps would prove to be one of the lucky few with a substantial number of newer tanks. However, the 4th Army was composed of 520 tanks, all of which were the obsolete T-26, as opposed to the authorized strength of 1,031 newer medium tanks. This problem was universal throughout the Red Army, and would play a crucial role in the initial defeats of the Red Army in 1941 at the hands of the German armed forces.\n\nWartime\n\nWar experience prompted changes to the way frontline forces were organized. After six months of combat against the Germans, the Stavka abolished the rifle corps which was intermediate between the army and division level because, while useful in theory, in the state of the Red Army in 1941, they proved ineffective in practice. Following the decisive victory in the Battle of Moscow in January 1942, the high command began to reintroduce rifle corps into its more experienced formations. The total number of rifle corps started at 62 on 22 June 1941, dropped to six by 1 January 1942, but then increased to 34 by February 1943, and 161 by New Year's Day 1944. Actual strengths of front-line rifle divisions, authorized to contain 11,000 men in July 1941, were mostly no more than 50% of establishment strengths during 1941, and divisions were often worn down on continuous operations to hundreds of men or even less.\n\nOn the outbreak of war the Red Army deployed mechanized corps and tank divisions whose development has been described above. The initial German attack destroyed many, and in the course of 1941 virtually all (barring two in the Transbaikal Military District) of them. The remnants were disbanded. It was much easier to coordinate smaller forces, and separate tank brigades and battalions were substituted. It was late 1942 and early 1943 before larger tank formations of corps size were fielded to employ armor in mass again. By mid-1943 these corps were being grouped together into tank armies whose strength by the end of the war could be up to 700 tanks and 50,000 men.\n\nPersonnel\n\nThe Bolshevik authorities assigned to every unit of the Red Army a political commissar, or politruk, who had the authority to override unit commanders' decisions if they ran counter to the principles of the Communist Party. Although this sometimes resulted in inefficient command according to some American historians, the Party leadership considered political control over the military absolutely necessary, as the army relied more and more on officers from the pre-revolutionary Imperial period and understandably feared a military coup. This system was abolished in 1925, as there were by that time enough trained Communist officers that the counter-signing of all orders was no longer necessary.\n\nRanks and titles\n\nThe early Red Army abandoned the institution of a professional officer corps as a \"heritage of tsarism\" in the course of the Revolution. In particular, the Bolsheviks condemned the use of the word officer and used the word commander instead. The Red Army abandoned epaulettes and ranks, using purely functional titles such as \"Division Commander\", \"Corps Commander\" and similar titles. Insignia for these functional titles existed, consisting of triangles, squares and rhombuses (so-called \"diamonds\").\n\nIn 1924 (2 October) \"personal\" or \"service\" categories were introduced, from K1 (section leader, assistant squad leader, senior rifleman, etc.) to K14 (field commander, army commander, military district commander, army commissar and equivalent). Service category insignia again consisted of triangles, squares and rhombuses, but also rectangles (1 – 3, for categories from K7 to K9).\n\nOn 22 September 1935 the Red Army abandoned service categories and introduced personal ranks. These ranks, however, used a unique mix of functional titles and traditional ranks. For example, the ranks included \"Lieutenant\" and \"Comdiv\" (Комдив, Division Commander). Further complications ensued from the functional and categorical ranks for political officers (e.g., \"brigade commissar\", \"army commissar 2nd rank\"), for technical corps (e.g., \"engineer 3rd rank,\" \"division engineer\"), and for administrative, medical and other non-combatant branches.\n\nThe Marshal of the Soviet Union (Маршал Советского Союза) rank was introduced on 22 September 1935. On 7 May 1940 further modifications to rationalise the system of ranks were made on the proposal by Marshal Voroshilov: the ranks of \"General\" and \"Admiral\" replaced the senior functional ranks of Combrig, Comdiv, Comcor, Comandarm in the RKKA and Flagman 1st rank etc. in the Red Navy; the other senior functional ranks (\"division commissar,\" \"division engineer,\" etc.) remained unaffected. The arm or service distinctions remained (e.g. general of cavalry, marshal of armoured troops). For the most part the new system restored that used by the Imperial Russian Army at the conclusion of its participation in World War I.\n\nIn early 1943 a unification of the system saw the abolition of all the remaining functional ranks. The word \"officer\" became officially endorsed, together with the use of epaulettes, which superseded the previous rank insignia. The ranks and insignia of 1943 did not change much until the last days of the USSR; the contemporary Russian Army uses largely the same system.\n\nMilitary education\n\nDuring the Civil War the commander cadres were trained at the Nicholas General Staff Academy of the Russian Empire, which became the Frunze Military Academy in the 1920s. Senior and supreme commanders were trained at the Higher Military Academic Courses, renamed the Advanced Courses for Supreme Command in 1925. The 1931 establishment of an Operations Faculty at the Frunze Military Academy supplemented these courses. The General Staff Academy was reinstated on 2 April 1936, and became the principal military school for the senior and supreme commanders of the Red Army. \n\nPurges\n\nThe late 1930s saw purges of the Red Army leadership which occurred concurrently with Stalin's Great Purge of Soviet society. In 1936 and 1937, at the orders of Stalin, thousands of Red Army senior officers were dismissed from their commands. The purges had the objective of cleansing the Red Army of the \"politically unreliable elements,\" mainly among higher-ranking officers. This inevitably provided a convenient pretext for the settling of personal vendettas or to eliminate competition by officers seeking the same command. Many army, corps, and divisional commanders were sacked: most were imprisoned or sent to labor camps; others were executed. Among the victims was the Red Army's primary military theorist, Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky, perceived by Stalin as a potential political rival. Officers who remained soon found all of their decisions being closely examined by political officers, even in mundane matters such as record-keeping and field training exercises. An atmosphere of fear and unwillingness to take the initiative soon pervaded the Red Army; suicide rates among junior officers rose to record levels. The purges significantly impaired the combat capabilities of the Red Army. Hoyt concludes \"the Soviet defense system was damaged to the point of incompetence\" and stresses \"the fear in which high officers lived.\" Clark says, \" Stalin not only cut the heart out of the army, he also gave it brain damage.\" Lewin identifies three serious results: the loss of experienced and well-trained senior officers; the distrust it caused among potential allies especially France; and the encouragement it gave Germany. \n\nRecently declassified data indicate that in 1937, at the height of the Purges, the Red Army had 114,300 officers, of whom 11,034 were dismissed. In 1938, the Red Army had 179,000 officers, 56% more than in 1937, of whom a further 6,742 were sacked. In the highest echelons of the Red Army the Purges removed 3 of 5 marshals, 13 of 15 army generals, 8 of 9 admirals, 50 of 57 army corps generals, 154 out of 186 division generals, all 16 army commissars, and 25 of 28 army corps commissars. \n\nThe result was that the Red Army officer corps in 1941 had many inexperienced senior officers. While 60% of regimental commanders had two years or more of command experience in June 1941, and almost 80% of rifle division commanders, only 20% of corps commanders, and 5% or fewer army and military district commanders, had the same level of experience.\n\nThe significant growth of the Red Army during the high point of the purges may have worsened matters. In 1937, the Red Army numbered around 1.3 million, increasing to almost three times that number by June 1941. The rapid growth of the army necessitated in turn the rapid promotion of officers regardless of experience or training. Junior officers were appointed to fill the ranks of the senior leadership, many of whom lacked broad experience. This action in turn resulted in many openings at the lower level of the officer corps, which were filled by new graduates from the service academies. In 1937, the entire junior class of one academy was graduated a year early to fill vacancies in the Red Army. Hamstrung by inexperience and fear of reprisals, many of these new officers failed to impress the large numbers of incoming draftees to the ranks; complaints of insubordination rose to the top of offenses punished in 1941, and may have exacerbated instances of Red Army soldiers deserting their units during the initial phases of the German offensive of that year.\n\nBy 1940, Stalin began to relent, restoring approximately one-third of previously dismissed officers to duty. However, the effect of the purges would soon manifest itself in the Winter War of 1940, where Red Army forces generally performed poorly against the much smaller Finnish Army, and later during the German invasion of 1941, in which the German were able to rout the Russians defenders partially due to inexperience amongst the Russian officers.\n\nWeapons and equipment\n\nThe Soviet Union expanded its indigenous arms industry as part of Stalin's industrialization program in the 1920s and 1930s.\n\nNotes"
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"Last Soviet Soldiers Leave Afghanistan\nLast Soviet Soldiers Leave Afghanistan\nBy BILL KELLER, SPECIAL TO THE NEW YORK TIMES\nOSCOW -- The last Soviet soldier came home from Afghanistan this morning, the Soviet Union announced, leaving behind a war that had become a domestic burden and an international embarrassment for Moscow.\nThe final Soviet departure came on the day set as a deadline by the Geneva accords last April. It left two heavily armed adversaries, the Kremlin-backed Government of President Najibullah and a fractious but powerful array of Muslim insurgents, backed by the United States and Pakistan, to conclude their civil war on their own.\nLieut. Gen. Boris V. Gromov, the commander of the Soviet forces in Afghanistan, walked across the steel Friendship Bridge to the border city of Termez, in Uzbekistan, at 11:55 A.M. local time (1:55 A.M., Eastern time), 9 years and 50 days after Soviet troops intervened to support a coup by a Marxist ally. 'Our Stay Ends'\n\"There is not a single Soviet soldier or officer left behind me,\" General Gromov told a Soviet television reporter waiting on the bridge. \"Our nine-year stay ends with this.\"\nToday's final departure is the end of a steady process of withdrawal since last spring, when Moscow says, there were 100,300 Soviet troops in Afghanistan. At the height of the Soviet commitment, according to Western intelligence estimates, there were 115,000 troops deployed.\nThis morning, as the last armored troop carriers rumbled home across the border, a Soviet newspaper carried the first report of atrocities committed in the war by the nation's military forces. Massacre and Cover-Up\nThe weekly Literaturnaya Gazeta described the killing of a carload of Afghan civilians, including women and children, and the order by a commander to cover it up.\nThe article was a foretaste of recriminations expected in the months ahead.\nThe war cost the Soviet Union roughly 15,000 lives and undisclosed billions of rubles. It scarred a generation of young people and undermined the cherished image of an invincible Soviet Army. Moscow's involvement in Afghanistan was often compared to the American experience in the Vietnam War, in which more than 58,000 Americans died.\nThe Soviet intervention, which received international condemnation, cast a pall over relations with China, the Muslim world and the West. It led to an American trade embargo and a Western boycott of the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow.\nWestern reporters flown to Termez to witness the finale said the ceremony at the border was one of festive relief at the homecoming. Today, there were no obvious second thoughts expressed about the venture.\n\"The day that millions of Soviet people have waited for has come,\" General Gromov said to an army rally in Termez, Reuters reported. \"In spite of our sacrifices and losses, we have totally fulfilled our internationalist duty.\" Token of Official Esteem\nThe official press agency Tass said the Defense Ministry presented all of the returning soldiers with wristwatches.\nYet in contrast with the joy at leaving Afghanistan, Soviet press reports told of insurgents massing outside Kabul, the Afghan capital, and other major cities, and of Afghan Army regulars deserting in droves. The reports seemed intended to brace the public for the possibility that defeat would follow retreat.\nVadim Perfilyev, a Soviet Foreign Ministry spokesman, described the situation in Kabul today as \"relatively calm\" but said the guerrillas continued to gather reinforcements around the main cities and along the highway to the Soviet Union.\nPerfilyev said 160 trucks bearing food and fuel reached Kabul safely on Tuesday to relieve shortages in time for an expected siege. He added that aircraft were still ferrying supplies into airports at Kabul, Kandahar and Mazar-i-Sharif. A Few Advisers and Guards\nAn estimated 250 Soviet civilians were believed to have stayed on at the Soviet Embassy in Kabul after the troops left. Perfilyev said he did know how many military advisers, \"if any,\" were still in Afghanistan.\nThe official who negotiated the Geneva accords, Diego Cordovez of Ecuador, said at the United Nations today that he believed that fewer than 10 Soviet military advisers would remain in Afghanistan after the withdrawal, principally as embassy guards.\nWestern diplomats and Soviet journalists speculate that the guerrillas will attempt a quick victory, perhaps in the vulnerable eastern city of Jalalabad, to break the Government's morale. This would be accompanied by a slow-death blockade of Kabul.\nBut Soviet officials and some recent Western visitors say they believe that Najibullah's forces may prove sturdier than expected. They control vast arsenals of Soviet-supplied weapons, and are motivated by the fear of rebel reprisals if they lose.\nA Government statement on the troop withdrawal said the responsibility for a blood bath in Afghanistan now would largely rest on the guerrillas' suppliers. Onus for Further Conflict\n\"Whether the Afghan situation will develop along the lines of national accord and the creation of a broadly based coalition government,\" the statement said, \"or along the lines of escalating war and tension in and around the country, depends to a large degree on those who have, over all these years, aided and abetted the armed opposition, supplying it with sophisticated weapons.\"\nThe Soviet Government renewed its appeal to Pakistan and the United States to join in a cutoff of military aid to the warring parties. The United States, which a year ago was pressing such an arrangement on the reluctant Soviets, now argues that it is too late.\nThe rebels insist that they will not take part in a coalition that retains Najibullah or his Communist political grouping, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. But their own efforts to coalesce have faltered over issues of ideology and power sharing.\nAt home, the Soviet Government now faces a period of reckoning with the roots and consequences of the war.\nIn Pravda, the authoritative Communist Party newspaper, a commentator insisted today that the intervention was carried out with the best intentions -including maintaining the security of the Soviet Union's southern border. But he said that the war was characterized by the mistakes and misjudgments of previous leaders.\n\"One can question the Brezhnev leadership's assessment of the military threat,\" the commentary said. \"One can say that in the future such vital issues as the use of troops must not be decided in secrecy, without the approval of the country's Parliament.\" What Has Been Learned? Other commentators, who have been constrained while Soviet soldiers were still fighting on Afghan territory, can now be expected to question more pointedly how the Soviet Union got into Afghanistan, what it did there, why it stayed so long and what lessons it has learned.\nThe account today in Literaturnaya Gazeta, a dark essay on the corrupting power of the war, was a sample of the gloves-off analysis that is likely to find its way into the press.\nThe article, by Gennadi Bocharov, who has written extensively from Afghanistan since 1979, told of Soviet troops firing on a carload of civilians after they refused to stop at a border checkpoint and ignored a warning shot.\nThe troops then opened fire on the vehicle, killing a young woman and wounding three others. An old woman and two children were not hurt.\nWhen the soldiers radioed to their commander to ask for further intructions, he replied according to the account, \"I don't need captives.\"\nThe commander, who was identified only as Rudykh, told them to eliminate the evidence.\n\"So they did,\" Bocharov reported. \"The passenger car was smashed by an armored vehicle and buried in the earth.\"\nThe commander was reportedly sentenced to six years' imprisonment, but freed almost immediately in an amnesty. History of the Struggle\nThe first Soviet troops parachuted into Kabul on Dec. 27, 1979, to assist Babrak Karmal, who had become President in a coup within the Communist leadership.\nThe Soviets have always insisted that they came in response to a plea for help from a legitimately constituted Karmal Government. However, most Western analysts say the Soviets engineered the coup as a pretext to replace the Afghan leader who had lost their trust, Hafizullah Amin.\nThe next day, four motorized rifle divisions crossed the Amu Darya River on pontoon bridges, and Moscow announced that its \"limited military contingent\" would stay as long as necessary to repel outside aggression.\nThis they did for years; along the way, in 1986, Najibullah, the former chief of the Afghan secret police, replaced mr. Karmal in a purge.\nThe Soviet-backed Kabul Government has generally kept a firm grip on the cities, but throughout the war has been unable to rout the rebels in the countryside, where the conservative populace was antagonized at the outset by changes in social and land policies that offended Muslim tradition.\nAfter 1986, the Soviet Air Force was rendered largely useless by advanced Stinger antiaircraft missiles supplied by the United States to the rebels. Overture From East Bloc\nPeace talks moderated by the United Nations bore little fruit until early last year, when Gorbachev and Najibullah offered a nine-month withdrawal timetable if Pakistan and the United States agreed to curtail their aid to the guerrillas.\nThe arms embargo never materialized, because President Reagan demanded that Moscow stop supplying Najibullah as part of the bargain, and the Soviets refused.\nIn the end, Moscow's withdrawal was in effect unilateral.\nThe Geneva accords introduced United Nations observers to watch the troops depart, but the agreements' other painstakingly negotiated provisions, promising an end to all outside intervention in Afghanistan, were generally ignored.\nThe Bush Administration has indicated that it plans to continue arming the rebels after the Soviet withdrawal.",
"Afghan Pullout: Last Soviet Soldiers Leave - latimes\nAfghan Pullout: Last Soviet Soldiers Leave\nFebruary 15, 1989 |From Times Wire Services\nKABUL, Afghanistan — Lt. Gen. Boris Gromov, commander of Soviet forces in Afghanistan, became the last Soviet soldier to leave the embattled country when he crossed into the Soviet border town of Termez at 9:55 a.m Moscow time today, the official Soviet news agency Tass reported.\nToday was the deadline for troop withdrawal under a U.N.-sponsored accord designed to end the nine-year Soviet intervention in Afghanistan.\nEarlier, Soviet officials said the last Red Army soldiers in Kabul, the capital, climbed aboard giant military transport planes and flew home Tuesday night.\nThe airlift apparently left Afghan armed forces to defend the capital alone for the first time in nine years.\nJust hours before, Muslim guerrillas fired five rockets into Kabul, killing four children and an adult, according to official reports. The airport also was hit for the first time in several weeks.\nKabul Radio said the fatalities occurred after one of the rockets exploded in a bazaar where dozens of people were lining up to buy bread in a city desperately short of supplies.\nAt the airport, reporters watched as at least 80 Soviet soldiers boarded Il-76 transport planes. Earlier, it had been thought that only about 40 Soviet troops remained in Kabul on the day preceding today's pullout deadline.\nLt. Col. Pytor Sardarchuk declined to say exactly how many troops were leaving. \"All those who are left\" were going, he said. Then he turned to watching reporters, shook their hands and said \"Goodby.\"\nEnvoys to Remain\nAbout 140 Soviet diplomats and five Soviet journalists planned to stay behind in the capital.\nAbout 5,000 Soviet soldiers had remained on Afghan soil on Tuesday, according to the official Tass news agency, out of an estimated 115,000 during the height of Soviet intervention.\nMany of those troops were crossing the 1,056-yard-long Friendship Bridge over the Amu Darya River during the day into Termez, Tass said, after rolling north along the Salang Highway.\nThe departure of the troops complied with the Feb. 15 withdrawal deadline set by the U.N.-mediated accords signed by Afghanistan and Pakistan in April.\nA ceremony was planned in Termez to mark the end of a war that began with the Soviet intervention in December, 1979, to stabilize a Communist government besieged by Muslim rebels and internal political conflicts.\nGromov, 47, who supervised the withdrawal by land, had vowed to be the last soldier out of the country, where at least 1 million Soviet soldiers in all have been involved and 15,000 killed. Today, he walked alone across the Friendship Bridge linking the Afghan town of Khairaton to Termez.\nWarning Letters\nIn Kabul, it was generally quiet, but residents said letters--unsigned and delivered the past few nights--warned people to stay off the streets today.\nMany residents believed the letters came from the guerrilla forces believed bearing down on the city, but some foreign diplomats suggested that the letters might be the work of the Najibullah government's secret police.\nWritten in the local Dari language, the letters warn residents to stay off the streets, close their shops and keep away from the airport.\nMORE:",
"1989: Last Soviet Soldiers Leave Afghanistan | History.info\n1989: Last Soviet Soldiers Leave Afghanistan\nPhoto Credit To https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/RIAN_archive_58833_Withdrawal_of_Soviet_troops_from_Afghanistan.jpg/438px-RIAN_archive_58833_Withdrawal_of_Soviet_troops_from_Afghanistan.jpg\nOn this day in 1989 the process of withdrawing Soviet military forces from Afghanistan was officially declared complete.\nThe Soviets had held Afghanistan since 1979 (towards the end of that year they conducted an invasion of Afghanistan, killed the Afghan president and captured his palace).\nAt the peak of the occupation, the USSR deployed over 100,000 soldiers to Afghanistan. Seeing the situation is untenable, the Soviets started withdrawing from the country in May 1988. The complete withdrawal of around 100,000 people took around 10 months.\nOn this day in 1989 Soviet general Boris Gromov became the last to symbolically cross the bridge on the border between Afghanistan and the USSR. Specifically, the bridge is located on the Amu-Darya river, today the border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan (the latter was once part of the USSR).\nOver 14,400 Soviet soldiers died during the occupation of Afghanistan, and over 53,000 were wounded.\nFacebook Comments",
"MAN IN THE NEWS - Boris V. Gromov - Afghanistan - Last Man Out - NYTimes.com\nMAN IN THE NEWS: Boris V. Gromov; Afghanistan: Last Man Out\nBy BILL KELLER, Special to the New York Times\nPublished: February 16, 1989\nMOSCOW, Feb. 15— Soviet officials had repeatedly vowed that their men would not leave Afghanistan in disarray, like the last Americans clambering onto helicopters from the roof of their embassy as Saigon fell around them.\nThis morning, at least, Lieut. Gen. Boris V. Gromov did not disappoint them. The trim 45-year-old commander of Soviet forces in Afghanistan hopped off his armored personnel carrier and strode calmly across the bridge to Soviet territory, where he was met by a Soviet television crew.\nGeneral Gromov has probably enhanced an already meteoric career by neatly executing one of the most difficult, though not the most satisfying, of military maneuvers: retreat.\nHe extricated more than 100,000 soldiers from a costly and unsuccessful nine-year venture in Afghanistan with the kind of self-confident flare much admired in the Kremlin of Mikhail S. Gorbachev. To Head Military District\nBacktracking gracefully is a skill likely to be much in demand in a military that has entered a period of retrenchment.\nThe official press agency Tass reported today that after more than five years in Afghanistan General Gromov would assume command of the Kiev military district, one of 16 regional subdivisions of the Soviet armed forces.\nIn the face of growing domestic criticism of the war, General Gromov has steadfastly maintained that the military fulfilled its duty completely, while acknowledging that Afghanistan exposed major inadequacies in the Soviet Army, especially training in countering guerrilla tactics.\nAt a news conference in Kabul last May, as the first stage of the withdrawal was beginning, the general bristled at a suggestion that the return home meant failure. Withdrawal 'Not a Defeat'\n''The troop withdrawal is not a defeat; it is the completion of an internationalist mission and the fulfillment of the Geneva accords,'' he said. ''None of our units, even the smallest one, have ever retreated. That is why there is no talk of a military defeat.''\nHe has never publicly judged the political decision to send the troops into Afghanistan in December 1979.\n''He seemed to be a no-nonsense guy with a good head for the political significance of his command,'' said a Bush Administration official who follows Afghan affairs closely.\nWhile Soviet diplomats tried to create suspense about the Soviets' intentions, hoping this would put pressure on the guerrillas to settle, this official observed, General Gromov was never coy about plans to meet the withdrawal deadlines. Father Killed in World War II\nRecently the general vowed that the Soviet Union would not send bombers from Soviet air bases to help the Afghan Army after the withdrawal, and although other officials have since obscured the issue, American officials are inclined to believe General Gromov.\nBoris Vsevelodovich Gromov was born on Nov. 7, 1943, to a working-class family in the city of Saratov, on the Volga River. His father was killed a few months later fighting Nazi invaders on the Dnieper River.\nHe entered the Suvorov Military Academy in 1962 and was a company commander by the age of 24. After attending the Frunze Military Academy, he went on to a variety of command and staff appointments, including a tour as a colonel in Afghanistan in 1980.\nA rapid series of promotions made him a major general at the age of 39. Back to Afghanistan\nAfter studying at the Voroshilov General Staff Academy, he returned to Afghanistan in 1984 as the commander of forces there, Tass reported.\nHe was awarded the highest military honor, Hero of the Soviet Union, for commanding an operation to end the siege of the eastern garrison town of Khost in January 1988. He is credited with developing tactics for use against guerrillas.\nGeneral Gromov told Tass that his wife died in a 1985 air crash in the Carpathian Mountains. He has two sons, one of whom, Maksim, 14, greeted him with an emotional embrace and a fistful of carnations today at the bridge home from Afghanistan.",
"Boris Gromov | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nSoviet war in Afghanistan\nAwards\nBoris Vsevolodovich Gromov (Russian: Бори́с Все́володович Гро́мов; born 7 November 1943 in Saratov, Russia) is a prominent Russian military and political figure. From 2000 to 2012, he was the Governor of Moscow Oblast.\nBiography\nEdit\nHe graduated from a Suvorov military cadet school, the Leningrad Military Commanders School and later from the Frunze Military Academy in Moscow, as well as the General Staff Academy .\nDuring the Soviet war in Afghanistan , Gromov did three tours of duty (1980–1982, 1985–1986, 1987–1989), and was best known for the two years as the last Commander of the 40th Army in Afghanistan. Gromov was the last Soviet soldier to leave Afghanistan, crossing on foot the Friendship Bridge spanning the Amu-Daria river on 15 February 1989, the day the Soviet pullout from Afghanistan was completed. He received the highest military award – the golden star of the Hero of the Soviet Union after Operation Magistral had lifted the siege of the city of Khost in eastern Afghanistan.\nAfter the Afghan war, he was chosen as a candidate for Vice President by the Communist Party in the Russian presidential election of 1991 (the candidate for President was former Premier Nikolai Ryzhkov ). He served as First Deputy Defence Minister of the Russian Federation. In 1994 Gromov retired from the Russian Military Forces, and was soon appointed deputy Interior Minister. He was elected in 1995 to the State Duma, lower house of Russian parliament. In January 2000 he was elected governor of the Moscow region and re-elected in December 2003.\nHonours and awards\n2nd class (6 November 2003) - for outstanding contribution to strengthening Russian statehood, and socio-economic development of the region\n3rd class\n4th class (7 November 2008) - for outstanding contribution to the socio-economic development of the Moscow region and many years of fruitful work\nHero of the Soviet Union\nMedal \"For merits in perpetuating the memory of the fallen defenders of the Fatherland\" (Russian Ministry of Defence, 2008) - for his great personal contribution to the commemoration of the fallen defenders of the Fatherland, the establishment of names of the dead and the fate of missing servicemen, displaying high moral and business qualities, diligence and intelligent initiative, to assist in the task of perpetuating the memory of the fallen defenders of the Fatherland\nOrder of Prince Yaroslav the Wise , 5th class (Ukraine, 7 November 2003)\nMedal \"10 Years of the Armed Forces of Ukraine\"\nOrder of Friendship of Peoples (Belarus) (22 November 2005) - for his significant contribution to the development of economic, scientific-technological and cultural ties between Belarus and Moscow Oblast of the Russian Federation\nMedal \"In memory of the 10th anniversary of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan\" (Belarus, 13 February 2003) - for his great personal contribution to the development and strengthening of cooperation between movements of Afghan War Veterans of the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation [56] [57]\nMedal \"Fidelity\" (Afghanistan, 17 November 1988)\nOrder of St. Prince Vladimir Equal , 1st class (Russian Orthodox Church, 2008) - in consideration of special services for the Moscow diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church and the 65th anniversary of the birth",
"Afghanistan: Lessons from Soviet Withdrawal\nAfghanistan: Lessons from Soviet Withdrawal\nNovember 02, 2009 11:31 AM\nShare\nEmail to a Friend\nPrint\nTwenty years have passed since the Soviet Union ended its disastrous military venture in Afghanistan. Some Soviet veterans were traumatized by the war and refuse to talk about it, others reflect on the experience and draw lessons they say apply to NATO forces that have been fighting Afghan rebels since 2001.\nOn February 15, 1989, Commanding General Boris Gromov was the last Soviet soldier to leave Afghanistan, walking across the Friendship Bridge that connected that war-torn country with what was then Soviet Uzbekistan.\nNearly 15,000 soldiers, advisors, and other Soviet officials died during the war that Moscow launched in December 1979. Today, Gromov is convinced there are no military solutions to political problems in Afghanistan. He spoke at a recent Moscow news conference.\nGromov says force will accomplish nothing in Afghanistan, and notes that increasing or decreasing troop strength will only bring a negative result. The general says the best way to deal with Afghans is to reach an agreement with them.\nGeneral Gromov says the mission of Soviet forces in Afghanistan was never to achieve a military victory, but to help that country's pro-Soviet leaders fight drug trafficking and to defend Afghan pipelines, roads and cities against terrorist attacks.\nIt is a justification rejected by the United States and much of the international community, which saw the invasion as aggressive attempt to expand Moscow's influence. And independent observers note the Afghanistan's drug trade did not affect the USSR, nor did the country have any pipelines that needed protection in 1979.\nAnti-Soviet Afghan rebels, known as the Mujahedeen, received some of their weapons from the United States. The irony that some of those rebels joined the Taliban and now fight against U.S. forces is not lost on General Gromov, who especially condemns America's Stinger missile. The Mujahedeen used this shoulder-fired weapon to devastating effect against Soviet aviation.\nIndependent Russian military analyst Pavel Felgenhauer notes that unlike the Mujahedeen, the Taliban today are not supplied by any foreign government, which could have a bearing on NATO's chances to reach an agreement with their enemy.\nFelgenhauer says the Mujahedeen fielded the fighters, but were backed by China, Saudi Arabia and primarily the United States, which supplied them with modern weapons. The Taliban, he says, are not supported by any major country, but rather by certain non-state elements in Pakistan and by al-Qaida.\nHe notes that General Gromov fought on a Cold War military front, which precluded victory or an agreement with his Afghan enemy. Felgenhauer says agreement is now possible, but warns it will not necessarily happen.\nA complicating factor today, he says, is Afghanistan's burgeoning drug trade, which is funding the Taliban. This, he says, forces NATO to fight opium farmers and increases popular opposition to the alliance.\nDmitri Popov fought during the last two years of the Afghan War, beginning as a private and ending as a master sergeant. Today, he heads an Afghan veterans group in Moscow. He says that despite excellent armaments and troop morale, Soviet forces could not overcome the psychology of ordinary Afghans.\nPopov says Afghans had a different mission - to defend their liberty against all others. The Afghans, he says, think, \"We have lived here for ages; many have tried to conquer us, to impose their faith or culture on us - but we do not need that. We want to live the way we have lived. We want to plow with oxen. We do not need technology or tractors.\"\nDmitri Popov and General Gromov are skeptical of NATO success in that country. The general says it would be better if Russia, the United States and other countries cooperated on a peaceful solution to Afghanistan.\nGromov says good relations with Afghanistan should be developed by an entire coalition of countries, including the United States. He says that together, all sides can pursue relations in Afghanistan that would end military fighting and give the country a chance to develop.\nBut analyst Pavel Felgenhauer says Moscow's offer comes at a price.\nFelgenhauer says Russia is prepared to help Americans, but only its own terms, in other words, the United States would need to recognize Moscow's sphere of influence in the post-Soviet region.\nThe analyst says this would include a Russian veto on Ukrainian and Georgian NATO membership, and would require Moscow's approval for developing Western military infrastructure in Romania and the Baltics or deploying a U.S. missile defense system in Central Europe.\nU.S. Vice President Joe Biden told the Munich Security Conference on February 7th the United States would not recognize any Russian sphere of influence. At the same time, Biden noted that Russia warned long ago about the rising threat from the Taliban and al-Qaida in Afghanistan. He added that NATO and Russia can and should cooperate to defeat this common enemy.\nMeanwhile, U.S. President Barack Obama says the United States will continue to work for a stable Afghanistan that is not a haven for terrorists. He plans to increase U.S. troop strength in Afghanistan and has ordered a strategic review to make sure American goals in that country are clear and achievable. Among those goals is a broader policy that does not focus solely on the military aspect.",
"Afghanistan: Lessons from Soviet Withdrawal\nAfghanistan: Lessons from Soviet Withdrawal\nBy Peter Fedynsky\nMoscow\n11 February 2009\nTwenty years have passed since the Soviet Union ended its disastrous military venture in Afghanistan. Some Soviet veterans were traumatized by the war and refuse to talk about it, others reflect on the experience and draw lessons they say apply to NATO forces that have been fighting Afghan rebels since 2001.\nOn February 15, 1989, Commanding General Boris Gromov was the last Soviet soldier to leave Afghanistan, walking across the Friendship Bridge that connected that war-torn country with what was then Soviet Uzbekistan.\nNearly 15,000 soldiers, advisors, and other Soviet officials died during the war that Moscow launched in December 1979. Today, Gromov is convinced there are no military solutions to political problems in Afghanistan. He spoke at a recent Moscow news conference.\nGromov says force will accomplish nothing in Afghanistan, and notes that increasing or decreasing troop strength will only bring a negative result. The general says the best way to deal with Afghans is to reach an agreement with them.\nGeneral Gromov says the mission of Soviet forces in Afghanistan was never to achieve a military victory, but to help that country's pro-Soviet leaders fight drug trafficking and to defend Afghan pipelines, roads and cities against terrorist attacks.\nIt is a justification rejected by the United States and much of the international community, which saw the invasion as aggressive attempt to expand Moscow's influence. And independent observers note the Afghanistan's drug trade did not affect the USSR, nor did the country have any pipelines that needed protection in 1979.\nAnti-Soviet Afghan rebels, known as the Mujahedeen, received some of their weapons from the United States. The irony that some of those rebels joined the Taliban and now fight against U.S. forces is not lost on General Gromov, who especially condemns America's Stinger missile. The Mujahedeen used this shoulder-fired weapon to devastating effect against Soviet aviation.\nIndependent Russian military analyst Pavel Felgenhauer notes that unlike the Mujahedeen, the Taliban today are not supplied by any foreign government, which could have a bearing on NATO's chances to reach an agreement with their enemy.\nFelgenhauer says the Mujahedeen fielded the fighters, but were backed by China, Saudi Arabia and primarily the United States, which supplied them with modern weapons. The Taliban, he says, are not supported by any major country, but rather by certain non-state elements in Pakistan and by al-Qaida.\nHe notes that General Gromov fought on a Cold War military front, which precluded victory or an agreement with his Afghan enemy. Felgenhauer says agreement is now possible, but warns it will not necessarily happen.\nA complicating factor today, he says, is Afghanistan's burgeoning drug trade, which is funding the Taliban. This, he says, forces NATO to fight opium farmers and increases popular opposition to the alliance.\nDmitri Popov fought during the last two years of the Afghan War, beginning as a private and ending as a master sergeant. Today, he heads an Afghan veterans group in Moscow. He says that despite excellent armaments and troop morale, Soviet forces could not overcome the psychology of ordinary Afghans.\nPopov says Afghans had a different mission - to defend their liberty against all others. The Afghans, he says, think, \"We have lived here for ages; many have tried to conquer us, to impose their faith or culture on us - but we do not need that. We want to live the way we have lived. We want to plow with oxen. We do not need technology or tractors.\"\nDmitri Popov and General Gromov are skeptical of NATO success in that country. The general says it would be better if Russia, the United States and other countries cooperated on a peaceful solution to Afghanistan.\nGromov says good relations with Afghanistan should be developed by an entire coalition of countries, including the United States. He says that together, all sides can pursue relations in Afghanistan that would end military fighting and give the country a chance to develop.\nBut analyst Pavel Felgenhauer says Moscow's offer comes at a price.\nFelgenhauer says Russia is prepared to help Americans, but only its own terms, in other words, the United States would need to recognize Moscow's sphere of influence in the post-Soviet region.\nThe analyst says this would include a Russian veto on Ukrainian and Georgian NATO membership, and would require Moscow's approval for developing Western military infrastructure in Romania and the Baltics or deploying a U.S. missile defense system in Central Europe.\nU.S. Vice President Joe Biden told the Munich Security Conference on February 7th the United States would not recognize any Russian sphere of influence. At the same time, Biden noted that Russia warned long ago about the rising threat from the Taliban and al-Qaida in Afghanistan. He added that NATO and Russia can and should cooperate to defeat this common enemy.\nMeanwhile, U.S. President Barack Obama says the United States will continue to work for a stable Afghanistan that is not a haven for terrorists. He plans to increase U.S. troop strength in Afghanistan and has ordered a strategic review to make sure American goals in that country are clear and achievable. Among those goals is a broader policy that does not focus solely on the military aspect.\nNEWSLETTER",
"Afghanistan: Lessons from Soviet Withdrawal - Wikisource, the free online library\nAfghanistan: Lessons from Soviet Withdrawal\nFrom Wikisource\nhttp://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2009-02-11-voa29-68767707.html\n1041658Afghanistan: Lessons from Soviet WithdrawalVoice of America2009\nTwenty years have passed since the Soviet Union ended its disastrous military venture in Afghanistan. Some Soviet veterans were traumatized by the war and refuse to talk about it, others reflect on the experience and draw lessons they say apply to NATO forces that have been fighting Afghan rebels since 2001.\nOn February 15, 1989, Commanding General Boris Gromov was the last Soviet soldier to leave Afghanistan, walking across the Friendship Bridge that connected that war-torn country with what was then Soviet Uzbekistan.\nNearly 15,000 soldiers, advisors, and other Soviet officials died during the war that Moscow launched in December 1979. Today, Gromov is convinced there are no military solutions to political problems in Afghanistan. He spoke at a recent Moscow news conference.\nGromov says force will accomplish nothing in Afghanistan, and notes that increasing or decreasing troop strength will only bring a negative result. The general says the best way to deal with Afghans is to reach an agreement with them.\nGeneral Gromov says the mission of Soviet forces in Afghanistan was never to achieve a military victory, but to help that country's pro-Soviet leaders fight drug trafficking and to defend Afghan pipelines, roads and cities against terrorist attacks.\nIt is a justification rejected by the United States and much of the international community, which saw the invasion as aggressive attempt to expand Moscow's influence. And independent observers note the Afghanistan's drug trade did not affect the USSR, nor did the country have any pipelines that needed protection in 1979.\nAnti-Soviet Afghan rebels, known as the Mujahedeen, received some of their weapons from the United States. The irony that some of those rebels joined the Taliban and now fight against U.S. forces is not lost on General Gromov, who especially condemns America's Stinger missile. The Mujahedeen used this shoulder-fired weapon to devastating effect against Soviet aviation.\nIndependent Russian military analyst Pavel Felgenhauer notes that unlike the Mujahedeen, the Taliban today are not supplied by any foreign government, which could have a bearing on NATO's chances to reach an agreement with their enemy.\nFelgenhauer says the Mujahedeen fielded the fighters, but were backed by China, Saudi Arabia and primarily the United States, which supplied them with modern weapons. The Taliban, he says, are not supported by any major country, but rather by certain non-state elements in Pakistan and by al-Qaida.\nHe notes that General Gromov fought on a Cold War military front, which precluded victory or an agreement with his Afghan enemy. Felgenhauer says agreement is now possible, but warns it will not necessarily happen.\nA complicating factor today, he says, is Afghanistan's burgeoning drug trade, which is funding the Taliban. This, he says, forces NATO to fight opium farmers and increases popular opposition to the alliance.\nDmitri Popov fought during the last two years of the Afghan War, beginning as a private and ending as a master sergeant. Today, he heads an Afghan veterans group in Moscow. He says that despite excellent armaments and troop morale, Soviet forces could not overcome the psychology of ordinary Afghans.\nPopov says Afghans had a different mission - to defend their liberty against all others. The Afghans, he says, think, \"We have lived here for ages; many have tried to conquer us, to impose their faith or culture on us - but we do not need that. We want to live the way we have lived. We want to plow with oxen. We do not need technology or tractors.\"\nDmitri Popov and General Gromov are skeptical of NATO success in that country. The general says it would be better if Russia, the United States and other countries cooperated on a peaceful solution to Afghanistan.\nGromov says good relations with Afghanistan should be developed by an entire coalition of countries, including the United States. He says that together, all sides can pursue relations in Afghanistan that would end military fighting and give the country a chance to develop.\nBut analyst Pavel Felgenhauer says Moscow's offer comes at a price.\nFelgenhauer says Russia is prepared to help Americans, but only its own terms, in other words, the United States would need to recognize Moscow's sphere of influence in the post-Soviet region.\nThe analyst says this would include a Russian veto on Ukrainian and Georgian NATO membership, and would require Moscow's approval for developing Western military infrastructure in Romania and the Baltics or deploying a U.S. missile defense system in Central Europe.\nU.S. Vice President Joe Biden told the Munich Security Conference on February 7th the United States would not recognize any Russian sphere of influence. At the same time, Biden noted that Russia warned long ago about the rising threat from the Taliban and al-Qaida in Afghanistan. He added that NATO and Russia can and should cooperate to defeat this common enemy.\nMeanwhile, U.S. President Barack Obama says the United States will continue to work for a stable Afghanistan that is not a haven for terrorists. He plans to increase U.S. troop strength in Afghanistan and has ordered a strategic review to make sure American goals in that country are clear and achievable. Among those goals is a broader policy that does not focus solely on the military aspect.",
"Former Soviets Left Behind in Afghanistan | Far Outliers\nFormer Soviets Left Behind in Afghanistan\nThe Argus links to a poignant story on IWPR about Soviet soldiers who remained behind in Afghanistan.\nOn February 15, 1989, General Boris Gromov was officially the last Soviet soldier to stand on Afghan soil before he crossed the Termez bridge into the USSR, drawing a close to the long and brutal campaign that Russian politicians were later to call “a tragic mistake”.\nBut Gennady, and more like him, were still there. As Russians, Ukrainians and the rest began shutting off from the Afghan war as a nightmare best forgotten, those who were left behind faded from memory, too.\nMany would find it hard to go back – some were deserters, while others converted to Islam after being captured and held by the mujahedin. In the interim, the Soviet Union they had known collapsed into 15 different countries.\nA few achieved some fame – notably the two Russian citizens known as Mohammadi and Islamuddin who served as bodyguards to the famous commander Ahmad Shah Massoud. As late as 1996, they were rumoured to be at the front line, fighting with Massoud’s Northern Alliance against the Taleban.\nSince then the two men are said to have left Afghanistan, going back home to Russia. But others remain.\nDuring a recent trip to Kunduz, a taxi driver tipped me off about someone called Ahmad, a former Soviet soldier now living as an Afghan.\nThis was far more than a rumour – I was given the address of the building where he rents a small room with his family.\nOnly half an hour later, I was sitting in a local store talking to a man in the typical flat “pakol” hat, with all the mannerisms and dialects of a native Afghan – but still looking like a Russian.\nHe looked so intimidating that I didn’t dare speak to him in Russian, switching over only after an initial conversation in Dari.\nWhen I asked him what name his parents had given him, his face remained immobile as he whispered an Islamic invocation.\nBut after a long conversation in the dark, mud-walled room, Ahmad relaxed, and gradually revealed some of the characteristics of the young man he had once been – Private Alexander Levenets. The incongruousness of the situation was accentuated by the music he put on – Alexander Rosenbaum’s Soviet-era ballads of army life.\nThe 19-year-old Alexander, from the Ukrainian village of Melovadka, joined the Soviet army in April 1983. He thought his troubles were over, that he had a ticket out of a hard life of providing for his blind widowed mother and an elder brother with diabetes.\nAt first army life was good, as his unit was transferred around the USSR and eventually deployed at an airbase in Kunduz.\nBut things took a turn for the worse as – like many Soviet conscripts – he was subjected to beatings and other forms of humiliation by other, more senior soldiers in his unit. Eventually he could bear it no longer, and deserted.\nOne cold October night in 1984, Alexander fled into the night. His life was saved by a kindly old Afghan, who took pity on him and allowed him to hide at his house.\nThe man introduced the deserter to some mujahedin, who fortunately for him belonged to one of the more moderate factions. They listened sympathetically to his story, and treated him with a respect he had not had from his countrymen.\n“I stayed in the group,” he said. “And after a month, I accepted Islam.”\nSo Alexander became Ahmad, serving under guerrilla commander Omir Ghulam – but not expected to take up arms against the army he had once served in. The Afghans’ acceptance of him grew into respect as he became a more observant Muslim than most of them.\nShare this:"
],
"title": [
"Last Soviet Soldiers Leave Afghanistan - The New York Times",
"Afghan Pullout: Last Soviet Soldiers Leave - latimes",
"1989: Last Soviet Soldiers Leave Afghanistan - History.info",
"MAN IN THE NEWS - Boris V. Gromov - Afghanistan - Last Man ...",
"Boris Gromov - Military Wiki - Wikia",
"Afghanistan: Lessons from Soviet Withdrawal - VOA",
"Afghanistan: Lessons from Soviet Withdrawal",
"Afghanistan: Lessons from Soviet Withdrawal - Wikisource ...",
"Former Soviets Left Behind in Afghanistan | Far Outliers"
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"http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/021689afghan-laden.html",
"http://articles.latimes.com/1989-02-15/news/mn-2449_1_soviet-soldiers",
"http://history.info/on-this-day/1989-soviet-soldiers-leave-afghanistan/",
"http://www.nytimes.com/1989/02/16/world/man-in-the-news-boris-v-gromov-afghanistan-last-man-out.html",
"http://military.wikia.com/wiki/Boris_Gromov",
"http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2009-02-11-voa29-68767707/410740.html",
"http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2009/02/mil-090211-voa09.htm",
"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Afghanistan:_Lessons_from_Soviet_Withdrawal",
"https://faroutliers.wordpress.com/2004/02/20/former-soviets-left-behind-in-afghanistan/"
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Which politician's wife was acquitted in 1990 of defrauding US banks?
|
tc_867
|
http://www.triviacountry.com/
|
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"description": [
"Headliners; Ambling Along Published: ... was acquitted by a Federal court jury in ... Though the charges against her included defrauding American banks, ...",
"... (Ferdinand Marcos, who died in 1989, his wife Imelda Marcos ... 103 million and defrauding US banks of ... New York but acquitted ..."
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"Headliners - Ambling Along - NYTimes.com\nHeadliners; Ambling Along\nPublished: July 8, 1990\nImelda Marcos had the shoes; now she has walked. In a case that began four years ago, Mrs. Marcos, the widow of former Philippine President Ferdinand E. Marcos, was acquitted by a Federal court jury in Manhattan last week of helping her husband loot $200 million from the Philippine treasury and then investing the proceeds in art, jewelry and prime New York City real estate. Though the charges against her included defrauding American banks, jurors said afterward that they questioned whether Federal prosecutors had the right to charge her with other offenses that she and her husband were said to have committed in the Philippines. When the Marcoses fled to Hawaii in 1986, she was seen as the free-spending wife - thousands of pairs of shoes were found in her Manila palace closets - of a corrupt despot. But after Mr. Marcos died last year, there seemed much less interest in punishing his spouse. Said one juror, ''Just because she was married to him doesn't make her guilty.''\nPhoto: Imelda Marcos (Reuters)",
"assetrecovery.pdf - DocDroid\ndocdroid\nIntermediate Training Programme on Asset Tracing, Recovery and Repatriation, Jakarta, September 2007 \n \nEfforts to Recover Assets Looted by Ferdinand \nMarcos of the Philippines \nSample of overview observations made by commentators \n•\n \nThe Marcos family case clearly illustrates how difficult it is for the successor government of a kleptocrat \nregime to regain ownership of stolen assets. \n•\n \nHaving unrestricted access to the assets enables the accused to fend off legal proceedings for decades and to \ndeplete the funds by enjoying a lavish lifestyle. The Marcos family (Ferdinand Marcos, who died in 1989, his \nwife Imelda Marcos, who remains alive and contests all claims to this day, and their children) have skillfully \ndeployed their assets (allegedly between USD 5 and 10 billion) with the aid of attorneys while still living lives \nof great privilege. \n•\n \nIn the opinion of the Government of the Philippines, it faced a difficult task in recovering the assets on \naccount of the highly intricate and secretive nature of the Marcos network of accounts. It was lucky to have \nthe so-called Malacañang documents\n to guide it to at least a part of the stolen Marcos assets. The Swiss \nGovernment decided in principle to block Marcos' assets. It mandated the Swiss Banking Commission (EBK) \nto ask the banks what Marcos assets they were holding. This led to a precise overview of Marcos \nfunds/accounts. When the international mutual legal assistance request arrived, the relevant accounts were \neffectively blocked. They could then be compared with the information supplied by the EBK. \n•\n \nThe Philippine Government's efforts were hampered by the fact that the Philippine Presidential Commission \non Good Government (PCGG), the agency established to recover the Marcos assets, was new to the task and \ncould not draw upon established tools and procedures. \n•\n \nNewly introduced was also the Swiss Federal Act on International Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Act \non International Criminal Assistance, IMAC): the Swiss lawyers Salvioni, Fontanet and Leuenberger, who had \nbeen appointed by the PCGG in March 1986, had to apply a new Swiss law, in force as from January 1, 1983, \nwith no guidelines, no case law, and no special instructions. It helped in this situation that the Federal \nDepartment of Justice offered much assistance and that the Swiss Federal Supreme Court confirmed, in most \ncases, the decisions of the lower courts in favour of the Philippines. \n•\n \nAdditional difficulties arose from the fact that there was continued political support for the Marcos family after \nthey fled the Philippines and from various individuals of the Philippines elite who had benefited from their \ncorrupt system and who therefore remained loyal to them. The fact that Imelda Marcos was elected \ncongresswoman, and Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos' son, Ferdinand Jr., was elected congressman, illustrates \nthe support they still had in the Philippines. \n•\n \nConflicts of interest arose both within the class of plaintiffs that won damages for human rights abuses from \nthe Marcos family in the USA, concerning how best to actually receive the money, as well as between the \n \n1\n \nThis chronology is work in progress and continues to be open to inputs from experts and other involved and concerned parties."
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"title": [
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"assetrecovery.pdf - DocDroid"
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"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/08/weekinreview/headliners-ambling-along.html",
"https://www.docdroid.net/7B9XPQA/assetrecovery.pdf.html"
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|
In what year did Saddam Hussein become President of Iraq?
|
tc_868
|
http://www.triviacountry.com/
|
{
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"Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (Arabic: '; 28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. A leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, and later, the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organization the Iraqi Ba'ath Party—which espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and socialism—Saddam played a key role in the 1968 coup (later referred to as the 17 July Revolution) that brought the party to power in Iraq.\n\nAs vice president under the ailing General Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, and at a time when many groups were considered capable of overthrowing the government, Saddam created security forces through which he tightly controlled conflict between the government and the armed forces. In the early 1970s, Saddam nationalized oil and other industries. The state-owned banks were put under his control, leaving the system eventually insolvent mostly due to the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War, and UN sanctions. Through the 1970s, Saddam cemented his authority over the apparatuses of government as oil money helped Iraq's economy to grow at a rapid pace. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population.\n\nSaddam formally rose to power in 1979, although he had been the de facto head of Iraq for several years prior. He suppressed several movements, particularly Shi'a and Kurdish movements, seeking to overthrow the government or gain independence, and maintained power during the Iran–Iraq War and the Gulf War. Whereas some in the Arab world lauded Saddam for his opposition to the United States and for attacking Israel —he was widely condemned for the brutality of his dictatorship. The total number of Iraqis killed by the security services of Saddam's government in various purges and genocides is unknown, but the lowest estimate is 250,000.\n\nIn 2003, a coalition led by the U.S. invaded Iraq to depose Saddam, in which U.S. President George W. Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair accused him of possessing weapons of mass destruction and having ties to al-Qaeda. Saddam's Ba'ath party was disbanded and elections were held. Following his capture on 13 December 2003, the trial of Saddam took place under the Iraqi Interim Government. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted of charges of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 killing of 148 Iraqi Shi'ites, and was sentenced to death by hanging. His execution was carried out on 30 December 2006. \n\nYouth\n\nSaddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was born in the town of Al-Awja, 13 km (8 mi) from the Iraqi town of Tikrit, to a family of shepherds from the al-Begat clan group, a sub-group of the Al-Bu Nasir (البو ناصر) tribe. His mother, Subha Tulfah al-Mussallat, named her newborn son Saddam, which in Arabic means \"One who confronts\". He is always referred to by this personal name, which may be followed by the patronymic and other elements. He never knew his father, Hussein 'Abid al-Majid, who disappeared six months before Saddam was born. Shortly afterward, Saddam's 13-year-old brother died of cancer. The infant Saddam was sent to the family of his maternal uncle Khairallah Talfah until he was three. \n\nHis mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return. At about age 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in Baghdad with his uncle Kharaillah Talfah. Talfah, the father of Saddam's future wife, was a devout Sunni Muslim and a veteran of the 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War between Iraqi nationalists and the United Kingdom, which remained a major colonial power in the region. \n\nLater in his life relatives from his native Tikrit became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under the guidance of his uncle he attended a nationalistic high school in Baghdad. After secondary school Saddam studied at an Iraqi law school for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab Ba'ath Party, of which his uncle was a supporter. During this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher. \n\nRevolutionary sentiment was characteristic of the era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East. In Iraq progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites (colonial era bureaucrats and landowners, wealthy merchants and tribal chiefs, and monarchists). Moreover, the pan-Arab nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Ba'athists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout the Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq, Egypt, and Libya. Nasser inspired nationalists throughout the Middle East by fighting the British and the French during the Suez Crisis of 1956, modernizing Egypt, and uniting the Arab world politically. \n\nIn 1958, a year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew Faisal II of Iraq in the 14 July Revolution.\n\nRise to power\n\nOf the 16 members of Qasim's cabinet, 12 were Ba'ath Party members; however, the party turned against Qasim due to his refusal to join Gamal Abdel Nasser's United Arab Republic. To strengthen his own position within the government, Qasim created an alliance with the Iraqi Communist Party, which was opposed to any notion of pan-Arabism. Later that year, the Ba'ath Party leadership was planning to assassinate Qasim. Saddam was a leading member of the operation. At the time, the Ba'ath Party was more of an ideological experiment than a strong anti-government fighting machine. The majority of its members were either educated professionals or students, and Saddam fit the bill. The choice of Saddam was, according to historian Con Coughlin, \"hardly surprising\". The idea of assassinating Qasim may have been Nasser's, and there is speculation that some of those who participated in the operation received training in Damascus, which was then part of the UAR. \n\nThe assassins planned to ambush Qasim at Al-Rashid Street on 7 October 1959: one man was to kill those sitting at the back of the car, the rest killing those in front. During the ambush it is claimed that Saddam began shooting prematurely, which disorganised the whole operation. Qasim's chauffeur was killed, and Qasim was hit in the arm and shoulder. The assassins believed they had killed him and quickly retreated to their headquarters, but Qasim survived. At the time of the attack the Ba'ath Party had less than 1,000 members. \n\nSome of the plotters quickly managed to leave the country for Syria, the spiritual home of Ba'athist ideology. There Saddam was given full-membership in the party by Michel Aflaq. Some members of the operation were arrested and taken into custody by the Iraqi government. At the show trial, six of the defendants were given the death sentence; for unknown reasons the sentences were not carried out. Aflaq, the leader of the Ba'athist movement, organised the expulsion of leading Iraqi Ba'athist members, such as Fuad al-Rikabi, on the grounds that the party should not have initiated the attempt on Qasim's life. At the same time, Aflaq managed to secure seats in the Iraqi Ba'ath leadership for his supporters, one them being Saddam. Saddam fled to Egypt in 1959, and he continued to live there until 1963.\n\nArmy officers with ties to the Ba'ath Party overthrew Qasim in the Ramadan Revolution coup of 1963. Ba'athist leaders were appointed to the cabinet and Abdul Salam Arif became president. Arif dismissed and arrested the Ba'athist leaders later that year in the November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état.\n\nArif died in a plane crash in 1966, in what may have been an act of sabotage by Ba'athist elements in the Iraqi military. Abd ar-Rahman al-Bazzaz became acting president for three days, and a power struggle for the presidency occurred. In the first meeting of the Defense Council and cabinet to elect a president, Al-Bazzaz needed a two-thirds majority to win the presidency. Al-Bazzaz was unsuccessful, and Abdul Rahman Arif was elected president. He was viewed by army officers as weaker and easier to manipulate than his brother. \n\nSaddam returned to Iraq, but was imprisoned in 1964. In 1966, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr appointed him Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command. Saddam escaped from prison in 1967. Saddam, who would prove to be a skilled organiser, revitalised the party. He was elected to the Regional Command, as the story goes, with help from Michel Aflaq—the founder of Ba'athist thought. \n\nIn 1968, Saddam participated in a bloodless coup led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr that overthrew Abdul Rahman Arif. Saddam and Salah Omar al-Ali contacted Ba'athists in the military and helped lead them on the ground. Arif was given refuge in London and then Istanbul. Al-Bakr was named president and Saddam was named his deputy, and deputy chairman of the Ba'athist Revolutionary Command Council. According to biographers, Saddam never forgot the tensions within the first Ba'athist government, which formed the basis for his measures to promote Ba'ath party unity as well as his resolve to maintain power and programs to ensure social stability. Although Saddam was al-Bakr's deputy, he was a strong behind-the-scenes party politician. Al-Bakr was the older and more prestigious of the two, but by 1969 Saddam clearly had become the moving force behind the party.\n\nPolitical program\n\nIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, as vice chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally al-Bakr's second-in-command, Saddam built a reputation as a progressive, effective politician. At this time, Saddam moved up the ranks in the new government by aiding attempts to strengthen and unify the Ba'ath party and taking a leading role in addressing the country's major domestic problems and expanding the party's following.\n\nAfter the Ba'athists took power in 1968, Saddam focused on attaining stability in a nation riddled with profound tensions. Long before Saddam, Iraq had been split along social, ethnic, religious, and economic fault lines: Sunni versus Shi'ite, Arab versus Kurd, tribal chief versus urban merchant, nomad versus peasant. The desire for stable rule in a country rife with factionalism led Saddam to pursue both massive repression and the improvement of living standards.\n\nSaddam actively fostered the modernization of the Iraqi economy along with the creation of a strong security apparatus to prevent coups within the power structure and insurrections apart from it. Ever concerned with broadening his base of support among the diverse elements of Iraqi society and mobilizing mass support, he closely followed the administration of state welfare and development programs.\n\nAt the center of this strategy was Iraq's oil. On 1 June 1972, Saddam oversaw the seizure of international oil interests, which, at the time, dominated the country's oil sector. A year later, world oil prices rose dramatically as a result of the 1973 energy crisis, and skyrocketing revenues enabled Saddam to expand his agenda.\n\nWithin just a few years, Iraq was providing social services that were unprecedented among Middle Eastern countries. Saddam established and controlled the \"National Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy\" and the campaign for \"Compulsory Free Education in Iraq,\" and largely under his auspices, the government established universal free schooling up to the highest education levels; hundreds of thousands learned to read in the years following the initiation of the program. The government also supported families of soldiers, granted free hospitalization to everyone, and gave subsidies to farmers. Iraq created one of the most modernized public-health systems in the Middle East, earning Saddam an award from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). \n\nWith the help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based Iraqi economy. Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries. The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries. Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas. Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in the countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants. This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion.\n\nThe oil revenue benefitted Saddam politically. According to The Economist, \"Much as Adolf Hitler won early praise for galvanising German industry, ending mass unemployment and building autobahns, Saddam earned admiration abroad for his deeds. He had a good instinct for what the \"Arab street\" demanded, following the decline in Egyptian leadership brought about by the trauma of Israel's six-day victory in the 1967 war, the death of the pan-Arabist hero, Gamal Abdul Nasser, in 1970, and the \"traitorous\" drive by his successor, Anwar Sadat, to sue for peace with the Jewish state. Saddam's self-aggrandising propaganda, with himself posing as the defender of Arabism against Jewish or Persian intruders, was heavy-handed, but consistent as a drumbeat. It helped, of course, that his mukhabarat (secret police) put dozens of Arab news editors, writers and artists on the payroll.\"\n\nIn 1972, Saddam signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union. According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp, the Ba'athist coup of 1968 upset \"the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States.\" From 1973-5, the CIA colluded with Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran to finance and arm Kurdish rebels in the Second Kurdish–Iraqi War in an attempt to weaken al-Bakr. When Iran and Iraq signed the Algiers Agreement in 1975, the support ceased.\n\nSaddam focused on fostering loyalty to the Ba'athists in the rural areas. After nationalizing foreign oil interests, Saddam supervised the modernization of the countryside, mechanizing agriculture on a large scale, and distributing land to peasant farmers. The Ba'athists established farm cooperatives and the government also doubled expenditures for agricultural development in 1974–1975. Saddam's welfare programs were part of a combination of \"carrot and stick\" tactics to enhance support for Saddam. The state-owned banks were put under his thumb. Lending was based on cronyism. Development went forward at such a fevered pitch that two million people from other Arab countries and even Yugoslavia worked in Iraq to meet the growing demand for labor.\n\nSuccession\n\nIn 1976, Saddam rose to the position of general in the Iraqi armed forces, and rapidly became the strongman of the government. As the ailing, elderly al-Bakr became unable to execute his duties, Saddam took on an increasingly prominent role as the face of the government both internally and externally. He soon became the architect of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations. He was the de facto leader of Iraq some years before he formally came to power in 1979. He slowly began to consolidate his power over Iraq's government and the Ba'ath party. Relationships with fellow party members were carefully cultivated, and Saddam soon accumulated a powerful circle of support within the party.\n\nIn 1979 al-Bakr started to make treaties with Syria, also under Ba'athist leadership, that would lead to unification between the two countries. Syrian President Hafez al-Assad would become deputy leader in a union, and this would drive Saddam to obscurity. Saddam acted to secure his grip on power. He forced the ailing al-Bakr to resign on 16 July 1979, and formally assumed the presidency.\n\nShortly afterwards, he convened an assembly of Ba'ath party leaders on 22 July 1979. During the assembly, which he ordered videotaped, Saddam claimed to have found a fifth column within the Ba'ath Party and directed Muhyi Abdel-Hussein to read out a confession and the names of 68 alleged co-conspirators. These members were labelled \"disloyal\" and were removed from the room one by one and taken into custody. After the list was read, Saddam congratulated those still seated in the room for their past and future loyalty. The 68 people arrested at the meeting were subsequently tried together and found guilty of treason. 22 were sentenced to execution. Other high-ranking members of the party formed the firing squad. By 1 August 1979, hundreds of high-ranking Ba'ath party members had been executed. \n\nParamilitary and police organizations\n\nIraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (Dawa and SCIRI) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favoured independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background. However, repressive measures were taken against its opponents. \n\nThe major instruments for accomplishing this control were the paramilitary and police organizations. Beginning in 1974, Taha Yassin Ramadan (himself a Kurdish Ba'athist), a close associate of Saddam, commanded the People's Army, which had responsibility for internal security. As the Ba'ath Party's paramilitary, the People's Army acted as a counterweight against any coup attempts by the regular armed forces. In addition to the People's Army, the Department of General Intelligence was the most notorious arm of the state-security system, feared for its use of torture and assassination. Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, Saddam's younger half-brother, commanded Mukhabarat. Foreign observers believed that from 1982 this department operated both at home and abroad in its mission to seek out and eliminate Saddam's perceived opponents.\n\nSaddam was notable for using terror against his own people. The Economist described Saddam as \"one of the last of the 20th century's great dictators, but not the least in terms of egotism, or cruelty, or morbid will to power\". Saddam's regime brought about the deaths of at least 250,000 Iraqis \nand committed war crimes in Iran, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International issued regular reports of widespread imprisonment and torture.\n\nPolitical and cultural image\n\nAs a sign of his consolidation of power, Saddam's personality cult pervaded Iraqi society. He had thousands of portraits, posters, statues and murals erected in his honor all over Iraq. His face could be seen on the sides of office buildings, schools, airports, and shops, as well as on Iraqi currency. Saddam's personality cult reflected his efforts to appeal to the various elements in Iraqi society. This was seen in his variety of apparel: he appeared in the costumes of the Bedouin, the traditional clothes of the Iraqi peasant (which he essentially wore during his childhood), and even Kurdish clothing, but also appeared in Western suits fitted by his favorite tailor, projecting the image of an urbane and modern leader. Sometimes he would also be portrayed as a devout Muslim, wearing full headdress and robe, praying toward Mecca.\n\nHe also conducted two show elections, in 1995 and 2002. In the 1995 referendum, conducted on 15 October, he reportedly received 99.96% of the votes in a 99.47% turnout, getting only 3052 negative votes among an electorate of 8.4 million. In the October 15, 2002 referendum he officially achieved 100% of approval votes and 100% turnout, as the electoral commission reported the next day that every one of the 11,445,638 eligible voters cast a \"Yes\" vote for the president. \n\nHe erected statues around the country, which Iraqis toppled after his fall. \n\nForeign affairs\n\nIraq's relations with the Arab world have been extremely varied. Relations between Iraq and Egypt violently ruptured in 1977, when the two nations broke relations with each other following Iraq's criticism of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's peace initiatives with Israel. In 1978, Baghdad hosted an Arab League summit that condemned and ostracized Egypt for accepting the Camp David Accords. However, Egypt's strong material and diplomatic support for Iraq in the war with Iran led to warmer relations and numerous contacts between senior officials, despite the continued absence of ambassadorial-level representation. Since 1983, Iraq has repeatedly called for restoration of Egypt's \"natural role\" among Arab countries.\n\nSaddam developed a reputation for liking expensive goods, such as his diamond-coated Rolex wristwatch, and sent copies of them to his friends around the world. To his ally Kenneth Kaunda Saddam once sent a Boeing 747 full of presents – rugs, televisions, ornaments. Kaunda sent back his own personal magician. \n\nSaddam enjoyed a close relationship with Russian intelligence agent Yevgeny Primakov that dated back to the 1960s; Primakov may have helped Saddam to stay in power in 1991. \n\nSaddam's only visit to a Western country took place in September 1975 when he met with his friend, Prime Minister Jacques Chirac in Paris, France.\n\nSeveral Iraqi leaders, Lebanese arms merchant Sarkis Soghanalian and others have told that Saddam financed Chirac's party. In 1991 Saddam threatened to expose those who had taken largesse from him: \"From Mr. Chirac to Mr. Chevènement, politicians and economic leaders were in open competition to spend time with us and flatter us. We have now grasped the reality of the situation. If the trickery continues, we will be forced to unmask them, all of them, before the French public.\" France armed Saddam and it was Iraq's largest trade partner throughout Saddam's rule. Seized documents show how French officials and businessmen close to Chirac, including Charles Pasqua, his former interior minister, personally benefitted from the deals with Saddam.\n\nBecause Saddam Hussein rarely left Iraq, Tariq Aziz, one of Saddam's aides, traveled abroad extensively and represented Iraq at many diplomatic meetings. In foreign affairs, Saddam sought to have Iraq play a leading role in the Middle East. Iraq signed an aid pact with the Soviet Union in 1972, and arms were sent along with several thousand advisers. However, the 1978 crackdown on Iraqi Communists and a shift of trade toward the West strained Iraqi relations with the Soviet Union; Iraq then took on a more Western orientation until the Gulf War in 1991. \n\nAfter the oil crisis of 1973, France had changed to a more pro-Arab policy and was accordingly rewarded by Saddam with closer ties. He made a state visit to France in 1975, cementing close ties with some French business and ruling political circles. In 1975 Saddam negotiated an accord with Iran that contained Iraqi concessions on border disputes. In return, Iran agreed to stop supporting opposition Kurds in Iraq. Saddam led Arab opposition to the Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel (1979).\n\nSaddam initiated Iraq's nuclear enrichment project in the 1980s, with French assistance. The first Iraqi nuclear reactor was named by the French \"Osirak\". Osirak was destroyed on 7 June 1981 by an Israeli air strike (Operation Opera).\n\nNearly from its founding as a modern state in 1920, Iraq has had to deal with Kurdish separatists in the northern part of the country. Saddam did negotiate an agreement in 1970 with separatist Kurdish leaders, giving them autonomy, but the agreement broke down. The result was brutal fighting between the government and Kurdish groups and even Iraqi bombing of Kurdish villages in Iran, which caused Iraqi relations with Iran to deteriorate. However, after Saddam had negotiated the 1975 treaty with Iran, the Shah withdrew support for the Kurds, who suffered a total defeat.\n\nIran–Iraq War\n\nIn early 1979, Iran's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown by the Islamic Revolution, thus giving way to an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The influence of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam grew apace in the region, particularly in countries with large Shi'ite populations, especially Iraq. Saddam feared that radical Islamic ideas—hostile to his secular rule—were rapidly spreading inside his country among the majority Shi'ite population.\n\nThere had also been bitter enmity between Saddam and Khomeini since the 1970s. Khomeini, having been exiled from Iran in 1964, took up residence in Iraq, at the Shi'ite holy city of An Najaf. There he involved himself with Iraqi Shi'ites and developed a strong, worldwide religious and political following against the Iranian Government, whom Saddam tolerated. However, when Khomeini began to urge the Shi'ites there to overthrow Saddam and under pressure from the Shah, who had agreed to a rapprochement between Iraq and Iran in 1975, Saddam agreed to expel Khomeini in 1978 to France. However this turned out to be an imminent failure and a political catalyst, for Khomeini had access to more media connections and also collaborated with a much larger Iranian community under his support whom he used to his advantage.\n\nAfter Khomeini gained power, skirmishes between Iraq and revolutionary Iran occurred for ten months over the sovereignty of the disputed Shatt al-Arab waterway, which divides the two countries. During this period, Saddam Hussein publicly maintained that it was in Iraq's interest not to engage with Iran, and that it was in the interests of both nations to maintain peaceful relations. However, in a private meeting with Salah Omar al-Ali, Iraq's permanent ambassador to the United Nations, he revealed that he intended to invade and occupy a large part of Iran within months. Later (probably to appeal for support from the United States and most Western nations), he would make toppling the Islamic government one of his intentions as well. \n\nIraq invaded Iran, first attacking Mehrabad Airport of Tehran and then entering the oil-rich Iranian land of Khuzestan, which also has a sizable Arab minority, on 22 September 1980 and declared it a new province of Iraq. With the support of the Arab states, the United States, and Europe, and heavily financed by the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Saddam Hussein had become \"the defender of the Arab world\" against a revolutionary Iran. The only exception was the Soviet Union, who initially refused to supply Iraq on the basis of neutrality in the conflict, although in his memoirs, Mikhail Gorbachev claimed that Leonid Brezhnev refused to aid Saddam over infuriation of Saddam's treatment of Iraqi communists. Consequently, many viewed Iraq as \"an agent of the civilized world\". The blatant disregard of international law and violations of international borders were ignored. Instead Iraq received economic and military support from its allies, who conveniently overlooked Saddam's use of chemical warfare against the Kurds and the Iranians and Iraq's efforts to develop nuclear weapons.\n\nIn the first days of the war, there was heavy ground fighting around strategic ports as Iraq launched an attack on Khuzestan. After making some initial gains, Iraq's troops began to suffer losses from human wave attacks by Iran. By 1982, Iraq was on the defensive and looking for ways to end the war.\n\nAt this point, Saddam asked his ministers for candid advice. Health Minister Dr. Riyadh Ibrahim suggested that Saddam temporarily step down to promote peace negotiations. Initially, Saddam Hussein appeared to take in this opinion as part of his cabinet democracy. A few weeks later, Dr. Ibrahim was sacked when held responsible for a fatal incident in an Iraqi hospital where a patient died from intravenous administration of the wrong concentration of potassium supplement.\n\nDr. Ibrahim was arrested a few days after he started his new life as a sacked Minister. He was known to have publicly declared before that arrest that he was \"glad that he got away alive.\" Pieces of Ibrahim's dismembered body were delivered to his wife the next day. \n\nIraq quickly found itself bogged down in one of the longest and most destructive wars of attrition of the 20th century. During the war, Iraq used chemical weapons against Iranian forces fighting on the southern front and Kurdish separatists who were attempting to open up a northern front in Iraq with the help of Iran. These chemical weapons were developed by Iraq from materials and technology supplied primarily by West German companies as well as as using dual-use technology imported following the Reagan administration's lifting of export restrictions. The United States also supplied Iraq with \"satellite photos showing Iranian deployments\". In a US bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Ostensibly, this was because of improvement in the regime's record, although former United States Assistant Secretary of Defense Noel Koch later stated, \"No one had any doubts about [the Iraqis'] continued involvement in terrorism... The real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran.\" The Soviet Union, France, and China together accounted for over 90% of the value of Iraq's arms imports between 1980 and 1988. \n\nSaddam reached out to other Arab governments for cash and political support during the war, particularly after Iraq's oil industry severely suffered at the hands of the Iranian navy in the Persian Gulf. Iraq successfully gained some military and financial aid, as well as diplomatic and moral support, from the Soviet Union, China, France, and the United States, which together feared the prospects of the expansion of revolutionary Iran's influence in the region. The Iranians, demanding that the international community should force Iraq to pay war reparations to Iran, refused any suggestions for a cease-fire. Despite several calls for a ceasefire by the United Nations Security Council, hostilities continued until 20 August 1988.\n\nOn 16 March 1988, the Kurdish town of Halabja was attacked with a mix of mustard gas and nerve agents, killing 5,000 civilians, and maiming, disfiguring, or seriously debilitating 10,000 more. (see Halabja poison gas attack) The attack occurred in conjunction with the 1988 al-Anfal Campaign designed to reassert central control of the mostly Kurdish population of areas of northern Iraq and defeat the Kurdish peshmerga rebel forces. The United States now maintains that Saddam ordered the attack to terrorize the Kurdish population in northern Iraq, but Saddam's regime claimed at the time that Iran was responsible for the attack which some including the U.S. supported until several years later.\n\nThe bloody eight-year war ended in a stalemate. There were hundreds of thousands of casualties with estimates of up to one million dead. Neither side had achieved what they had originally desired and at the borders were left nearly unchanged. The southern, oil rich and prosperous Khuzestan and Basra area (the main focus of the war, and the primary source of their economies) were almost completely destroyed and were left at the pre 1979 border, while Iran managed to make some small gains on its borders in the Northern Kurdish area. Both economies, previously healthy and expanding, were left in ruins.\n\nSaddam borrowed tens of billions of dollars from other Arab states and a few billions from elsewhere during the 1980s to fight Iran, mainly to prevent the expansion of Shiite radicalism. However, this had proven to completely backfire both on Iraq and on the part of the Arab states, for Khomeini was widely perceived as a hero for managing to defend Iran and maintain the war with little foreign support against the heavily backed Iraq and only managed to boost Islamic radicalism not only within the Arab states, but within Iraq itself, creating new tensions between the Sunni Ba'ath Party and the majority Shiite population. Faced with rebuilding Iraq's infrastructure and internal resistance, Saddam desperately re-sought cash, this time for postwar reconstruction.\n\nAl-Anfal Campaign\n\nThe Al-Anfal Campaign was a genocidal campaign against the Kurdish people (and many others) in Kurdish regions of Iraq led by the government of Saddam Hussein and headed by Ali Hassan al-Majid. The campaign takes its name from Surat al-Anfal in the Qur'an, which was used as a code name by the former Iraqi Ba'athist administration for a series of attacks against the peshmerga rebels and the mostly Kurdish civilian population of rural Northern Iraq, conducted between 1986 and 1989 culminating in 1988. This campaign also targeted Shabaks and Yazidis, Assyrians, Turkoman people and Mandeans and many villages belonging to these ethnic groups were also destroyed. Human Rights Watch estimates that between 50,000 and 100,000 people were killed. Some Kurdish sources put the number higher, estimating that 182,000 Kurds were killed. \n\nTensions with Kuwait\n\nThe end of the war with Iran served to deepen latent tensions between Iraq and its wealthy neighbor Kuwait. Saddam urged the Kuwaitis to forgive the Iraqi debt accumulated in the war, some $30 billion, but they refused. \n\nSaddam pushed oil-exporting countries to raise oil prices by cutting back production; Kuwait refused, however. In addition to refusing the request, Kuwait spearheaded the opposition in OPEC to the cuts that Saddam had requested. Kuwait was pumping large amounts of oil, and thus keeping prices low, when Iraq needed to sell high-priced oil from its wells to pay off a huge debt.\n\nSaddam had always argued that Kuwait was historically an integral part of Iraq, and that Kuwait had only come into being through the maneuverings of British imperialism; this echoed a belief that Iraqi nationalists had voiced for the past 50 years. This belief was one of the few articles of faith uniting the political scene in a nation rife with sharp social, ethnic, religious, and ideological divides.\n\nThe extent of Kuwaiti oil reserves also intensified tensions in the region. The oil reserves of Kuwait (with a population of 2 million next to Iraq's 25) were roughly equal to those of Iraq. Taken together, Iraq and Kuwait sat on top of some 20 percent of the world's known oil reserves; as an article of comparison, Saudi Arabia holds 25 percent.\n\nSaddam complained to the U.S. State Department that Kuwait had slant drilled oil out of wells that Iraq considered to be within its disputed border with Kuwait. Saddam still had an experienced and well-equipped army, which he used to influence regional affairs. He later ordered troops to the Iraq–Kuwait border.\n\nAs Iraq-Kuwait relations rapidly deteriorated, Saddam was receiving conflicting information about how the U.S. would respond to the prospects of an invasion. For one, Washington had been taking measures to cultivate a constructive relationship with Iraq for roughly a decade. The Reagan administration gave Iraq roughly $4 billion in agricultural credits to bolster it against Iran. Saddam's Iraq became \"the third-largest recipient of U.S. assistance\". \n\nReacting to western criticism in April 1990 Saddam threatened to destroy half of Israel with chemical weapons if it moved against Iraq. In May 1990 he criticized U.S. support for Israel warning that \"the United States cannot maintain such a policy while professing friendship towards the Arabs.\" In July 1990 he threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE saying \"The policies of some Arab rulers are American... They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security.\" The U.S. sent aerial planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats. \n\nU.S. ambassador to Iraq April Glaspie met with Saddam in an emergency meeting on 25 July 1990, where the Iraqi leader attacked American policy with regards to Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates:\n\n\"So what can it mean when America says it will now protect its friends? It can only mean prejudice against Iraq. This stance plus maneuvers and statements which have been made has encouraged the UAE and Kuwait to disregard Iraqi rights. ... If you use pressure, we will deploy pressure and force. We know that you can harm us although we do not threaten you. But we too can harm you. Everyone can cause harm according to their ability and their size. We cannot come all the way to you in the United States, but individual Arabs may reach you. ... We do not place America among the enemies. We place it where we want our friends to be and we try to be friends. But repeated American statements last year made it apparent that America did not regard us as friends.\" \n\nGlaspie replied:\n\n\"I know you need funds. We understand that and our opinion is that you should have the opportunity to rebuild your country. But we have no opinion on the Arab-Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait. ... Frankly, we can only see that you have deployed massive troops in the south. Normally that would not be any of our business. But when this happens in the context of what you said on your national day, then when we read the details in the two letters of the Foreign Minister, then when we see the Iraqi point of view that the measures taken by the U.A.E. and Kuwait is, in the final analysis, parallel to military aggression against Iraq, then it would be reasonable for me to be concerned.\"\n\nSaddam stated that he would attempt last-ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq \"would not accept death\".\n\nU.S. officials attempted to maintain a conciliatory line with Iraq, indicating that while George H. W. Bush and James Baker did not want force used, they would not take any position on the Iraq–Kuwait boundary dispute and did not want to become involved. \n\nLater, Iraq and Kuwait met for a final negotiation session, which failed. Saddam then sent his troops into Kuwait. As tensions between Washington and Saddam began to escalate, the Soviet Union, under Mikhail Gorbachev, strengthened its military relationship with the Iraqi leader, providing him military advisers, arms and aid. \n\nGulf War\n\nOn 2 August 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, initially claiming assistance to \"Kuwaiti revolutionaries,\" thus sparking an international crisis. On 4 August an Iraqi-backed \"Provisional Government of Free Kuwait\" was proclaimed, but a total lack of legitimacy and support for it led to an 8 August announcement of a \"merger\" of the two countries. On 28 August Kuwait formally became the 19th Governorate of Iraq. Just two years after the 1988 Iraq and Iran truce, \"Saddam Hussein did what his Gulf patrons had earlier paid him to prevent.\" Having removed the threat of Iranian fundamentalism he \"overran Kuwait and confronted his Gulf neighbors in the name of Arab nationalism and Islam.\"\n\nWhen later asked why he invaded Kuwait, Saddam first claimed that it was because Kuwait was rightfully Iraq's 19th province and then said \"When I get something into my head I act. That's just the way I am.\" After Saddam's seizure of Kuwait in August 1990, a UN coalition led by the United States drove Iraq's troops from Kuwait in February 1991. The ability for Saddam Hussein to pursue such military aggression was from a \"military machine paid for in large part by the tens of billions of dollars Kuwait and the Gulf states had poured into Iraq and the weapons and technology provided by the Soviet Union, Germany, and France.\"\n\nShortly before he invaded Kuwait, he shipped 100 new Mercedes 200 Series cars to top editors in Egypt and Jordan. Two days before the first attacks, Saddam reportedly offered Egypt's Hosni Mubarak 50 million dollars in cash, \"ostensibly for grain\". \n\nU.S. President George H. W. Bush responded cautiously for the first several days. On one hand, Kuwait, prior to this point, had been a virulent enemy of Israel and was the Persian Gulf monarchy that had the most friendly relations with the Soviets. On the other hand, Washington foreign policymakers, along with Middle East experts, military critics, and firms heavily invested in the region, were extremely concerned with stability in this region. The invasion immediately triggered fears that the world's price of oil, and therefore control of the world economy, was at stake. Britain profited heavily from billions of dollars of Kuwaiti investments and bank deposits. Bush was perhaps swayed while meeting with British prime minister Margaret Thatcher, who happened to be in the U.S. at the time. \n\nCooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union made possible the passage of resolutions in the United Nations Security Council giving Iraq a deadline to leave Kuwait and approving the use of force if Saddam did not comply with the timetable. U.S. officials feared Iraqi retaliation against oil-rich Saudi Arabia, since the 1940s a close ally of Washington, for the Saudis' opposition to the invasion of Kuwait. Accordingly, the U.S. and a group of allies, including countries as diverse as Egypt, Syria and Czechoslovakia, deployed a massive amount of troops along the Saudi border with Kuwait and Iraq in order to encircle the Iraqi army, the largest in the Middle East.\n\nSaddam's officers looted Kuwait, stripping even the marble from its palaces to move it to Saddam's own palace.\n\nDuring the period of negotiations and threats following the invasion, Saddam focused renewed attention on the Palestinian problem by promising to withdraw his forces from Kuwait if Israel would relinquish the occupied territories in the West Bank, the Golan Heights, and the Gaza Strip. Saddam's proposal further split the Arab world, pitting U.S.- and Western-supported Arab states against the Palestinians. The allies ultimately rejected any linkage between the Kuwait crisis and Palestinian issues.\n\nSaddam ignored the Security Council deadline. Backed by the Security Council, a U.S.-led coalition launched round-the-clock missile and aerial attacks on Iraq, beginning 16 January 1991. Israel, though subjected to attack by Iraqi missiles, refrained from retaliating in order not to provoke Arab states into leaving the coalition. A ground force consisting largely of U.S. and British armoured and infantry divisions ejected Saddam's army from Kuwait in February 1991 and occupied the southern portion of Iraq as far as the Euphrates.\n\nOn 6 March 1991, Bush announced \"What is at stake is more than one small country, it is a big idea—a new world order, where diverse nations are drawn together in common cause to achieve the universal aspirations of mankind: peace and security, freedom, and the rule of law.\"\n\nIn the end, the out-numbered and under-equipped Iraqi army proved unable to compete on the battlefield with the highly mobile coalition land forces and their overpowering air support. Some 175,000 Iraqis were taken prisoner and casualties were estimated at over 85,000. As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to scrap all poison gas and germ weapons and allow UN observers to inspect the sites. UN trade sanctions would remain in effect until Iraq complied with all terms. Saddam publicly claimed victory at the end of the war.\n\nPostwar period\n\nIraq's ethnic and religious divisions, together with the brutality of the conflict that this had engendered, laid the groundwork for postwar rebellions. In the aftermath of the fighting, social and ethnic unrest among Shi'ite Muslims, Kurds, and dissident military units threatened the stability of Saddam's government. Uprisings erupted in the Kurdish north and Shi'a southern and central parts of Iraq, but were ruthlessly repressed.\n\nThe United States, which had urged Iraqis to rise up against Saddam, did nothing to assist the rebellions. The Iranians, despite the widespread Shi'ite rebellions, had no interest in provoking another war, while Turkey opposed any prospect of Kurdish independence, and the Saudis and other conservative Arab states feared an Iran-style Shi'ite revolution. Saddam, having survived the immediate crisis in the wake of defeat, was left firmly in control of Iraq, although the country never recovered either economically or militarily from the Gulf War.\n\nSaddam routinely cited his survival as \"proof\" that Iraq had in fact won the war against the U.S. This message earned Saddam a great deal of popularity in many sectors of the Arab world. John Esposito, however, claims that \"Arabs and Muslims were pulled in two directions. That they rallied not so much to Saddam Hussein as to the bipolar nature of the confrontation (the West versus the Arab Muslim world) and the issues that Saddam proclaimed: Arab unity, self-sufficiency, and social justice.\" As a result, Saddam Hussein appealed to many people for the same reasons that attracted more and more followers to Islamic revivalism and also for the same reasons that fueled anti-Western feelings.\n\nAs one U.S. Muslim observer noted: \"People forgot about Saddam's record and concentrated on America ... Saddam Hussein might be wrong, but it is not America who should correct him.\" A shift was, therefore, clearly visible among many Islamic movements in the post war period \"from an initial Islamic ideological rejection of Saddam Hussein, the secular persecutor of Islamic movements, and his invasion of Kuwait to a more populist Arab nationalist, anti-imperialist support for Saddam (or more precisely those issues he represented or championed) and the condemnation of foreign intervention and occupation.\"\n\nSaddam, therefore, increasingly portrayed himself as a devout Muslim, in an effort to co-opt the conservative religious segments of society. Some elements of Sharia law were re-introduced, and the ritual phrase \"Allahu Akbar\" (\"God is great\"), in Saddam's handwriting, was added to the national flag. Saddam also commissioned the production of a \"Blood Qur'an\", written using 27 litres of his own blood, to thank God for saving him from various dangers and conspiracies. \n\nRelations between the United States and Iraq remained tense following the Gulf War. The U.S. launched a missile attack aimed at Iraq's intelligence headquarters in Baghdad 26 June 1993, citing evidence of repeated Iraqi violations of the \"no fly zones\" imposed after the Gulf War and for incursions into Kuwait.\n\nFormer CIA case officer Robert Baer reports that he \"tried to assassinate\" Saddam in 1995 amid \"a decade-long effort to encourage a military coup in Iraq.\" \n\nThe United Nations sanctions placed upon Iraq when it invaded Kuwait were not lifted, blocking Iraqi oil exports. During the late 1990s, the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions. On 9 December 1996, Saddam's government accepted the Oil-for-Food Programme that the UN had first offered in 1992.\n\nU.S. officials continued to accuse Saddam of violating the terms of the Gulf War's cease fire, by developing weapons of mass destruction and other banned weaponry, and violating the UN-imposed sanctions. Also during the 1990s, President Bill Clinton maintained sanctions and ordered air strikes in the \"Iraqi no-fly zones\" (Operation Desert Fox), in the hope that Saddam would be overthrown by political enemies inside Iraq. Western charges of Iraqi resistance to UN access to suspected weapons were the pretext for crises between 1997 and 1998, culminating in intensive U.S. and British missile strikes on Iraq, 16–19 December 1998. After two years of intermittent activity, U.S. and British warplanes struck harder at sites near Baghdad in February 2001.\n\nSaddam's support base of Tikriti tribesmen, family members, and other supporters was divided after the war. Domestic repression inside Iraq increased, and Saddam's sons, Uday and Qusay Hussein, became increasingly powerful.\n\nIraqi co-operation with UN weapons inspection teams was intermittent throughout the 1990s.\n\nSaddam continued involvement in politics abroad. Video tapes retrieved after show his intelligence chiefs meeting with Arab journalists, including a meeting with the former managing director of Al-Jazeera, Mohammed Jassem al-Ali, in 2000. In the video Saddam's son Uday advised al-Ali about hires in Al-Jazeera: \"During your last visit here along with your colleagues we talked about a number of issues, and it does appear that you indeed were listening to what I was saying since changes took place and new faces came on board such as that lad, Mansour.\" He was later sacked by Al-Jazeera. \n\nIn 2002, Austrian prosecutors investigated Saddam government's transactions with Fritz Edlinger that possibly violated Austrian money laundering and embargo regulations. Fritz Edlinger, president of the General Secretary of the Society for Austro-Arab relations (GÖAB) and a former member of Socialist International's Middle East Committee, was an outspoken supporter of Saddam Hussein. In 2005, an Austrian journalist revealed that Fritz Edlinger's GÖAB had received $100,000 from an Iraqi front company as well as donations from Austrian companies soliciting business in Iraq. \n\nIn 2002, a resolution sponsored by the European Union was adopted by the Commission for Human Rights, which stated that there had been no improvement in the human rights crisis in Iraq. The statement condemned President Saddam Hussein's government for its \"systematic, widespread and extremely grave violations of human rights and international humanitarian law\". The resolution demanded that Iraq immediately put an end to its \"summary and arbitrary executions ... the use of rape as a political tool and all enforced and involuntary disappearances\". \n\nOil vouchers\n\nIn the United Nations Oil-for-Food Programme, Saddam was supposed to trade oil for food. In practice, the program benefitted political parties, politicians, journalists, companies, and individuals around the world.\n\nThe Russian state was the largest beneficiary. \n\nInvasion of Iraq in 2003\n\nThe international community, especially the U.S., continued to view Saddam as a bellicose tyrant who was a threat to the stability of the region. After the September 11 attacks, Vladimir Putin began to tell the United States that Iraq was preparing terrorist attacks against the United States. In his January 2002 state of the union address to Congress, President George W. Bush spoke of an \"axis of evil\" consisting of Iran, North Korea, and Iraq. Moreover, Bush announced that he would possibly take action to topple the Iraqi government, because of the threat of its weapons of mass destruction. Bush stated that \"The Iraqi regime has plotted to develop anthrax, and nerve gas, and nuclear weapons for over a decade ... Iraq continues to flaunt its hostility toward America and to support terror.\" \n\nAfter the passing of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1441, which demanded that Iraq give \"immediate, unconditional and active cooperation\" with UN and IAEA inspections, Saddam allowed U.N. weapons inspectors led by Hans Blix to return to Iraq. During the renewed inspections beginning in November 2002, Blix found no stockpiles of WMD and noted the \"proactive\" but not always \"immediate\" Iraqi cooperation as called for by UN Security Council Resolution 1441. \n\nWith war still looming on 24 February 2003, Saddam Hussein took part in an interview with CBS News reporter Dan Rather. Talking for more than three hours, he denied possessing any weapons of mass destruction, or any other weapons prohibited by UN guidelines. He also expressed a wish to have a live televised debate with George W. Bush, which was declined. It was his first interview with a U.S. reporter in over a decade. CBS aired the taped interview later that week. Saddam Hussein later told an FBI interviewer that he once left open the possibility that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction in order to appear strong against Iran. \n\nThe Iraqi government and military collapsed within three weeks of the beginning of the U.S.-led 2003 invasion of Iraq on 20 March. By the beginning of April, U.S.-led forces occupied much of Iraq. The resistance of the much-weakened Iraqi Army either crumbled or shifted to guerrilla tactics, and it appeared that Saddam had lost control of Iraq. He was last seen in a video which purported to show him in the Baghdad suburbs surrounded by supporters. When Baghdad fell to U.S.-led forces on 9 April, marked symbolically by the toppling of his statue by iconoclasts, Saddam was nowhere to be found.\n\nIncarceration and trial\n\nCapture and incarceration\n\nIn April 2003, Saddam's whereabouts remained in question during the weeks following the fall of Baghdad and the conclusion of the major fighting of the war. Various sightings of Saddam were reported in the weeks following the war, but none was authenticated. At various times Saddam released audio tapes promoting popular resistance to his ousting.\n\nSaddam was placed at the top of the \"U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis\". In July 2003, his sons Uday and Qusay and 14-year-old grandson Mustapha were killed in a three-hour gunfight with U.S. forces.\n\nOn 13 December 2003, Saddam Hussein was captured by American forces at a farmhouse in ad-Dawr near Tikrit in a hole in Operation Red Dawn. Following his capture, Saddam was transported to a U.S. base near Tikrit, and later taken to the American base near Baghdad. On 14 December, U.S. administrator in Iraq L. Paul Bremer confirmed that Saddam Hussein had indeed been captured at a farmhouse in ad-Dawr near Tikrit. Bremer presented video footage of Saddam in custody.\n\nSaddam was shown with a full beard and hair longer than his familiar appearance. He was described by U.S. officials as being in good health. Bremer reported plans to put Saddam on trial, but claimed that the details of such a trial had not yet been determined. Iraqis and Americans who spoke with Saddam after his capture generally reported that he remained self-assured, describing himself as a \"firm, but just leader.\" \n\nBritish tabloid newspaper The Sun posted a picture of Saddam wearing white briefs on the front cover of a newspaper. Other photographs inside the paper show Saddam washing his trousers, shuffling, and sleeping. The United States government stated that it considered the release of the pictures a violation of the Geneva Convention, and that it would investigate the photographs. During this period Saddam was interrogated by FBI agent George Piro. \n\nThe guards at the Baghdad detention facility called their prisoner \"Vic,\" and let him plant a small garden near his cell. The nickname and the garden are among the details about the former Iraqi leader that emerged during a 27 March 2008 tour of prison of the Baghdad cell where Saddam slept, bathed, and kept a journal in the final days before his execution. \n\nTrial\n\nOn 30 June 2004, Saddam Hussein, held in custody by U.S. forces at the U.S. base \"Camp Cropper\", along with 11 other senior Ba'athist leaders, were handed over legally (though not physically) to the interim Iraqi government to stand trial for crimes against humanity and other offences.\n\nA few weeks later, he was charged by the Iraqi Special Tribunal with crimes committed against residents of Dujail in 1982, following a failed assassination attempt against him. Specific charges included the murder of 148 people, torture of women and children and the illegal arrest of 399 others.393 members of the pro Iranian Dawa Party (a banned organisation) were arrested as suspects of which 148, including ten children, confessed to taking part in the plot. It is believed more than 40 suspects died during interrogation or while in detention. Those arrested who were found not guilty were either exiled if relatives of the convicted or released and returned to Dujail. Only 96 of the 148 condemned were actually executed, two of the condemned were accidentally released while a third was mistakenly transferred to another prison and survived. The 96 executed included four men mistakenly executed after having been found not guilty and ordered released. The ten children were originally believed to have been among the 96 executed, but they had in fact been imprisoned near the city of Samawah. \nAmong the many challenges of the trial were:\n* Saddam and his lawyers' contesting the court's authority and maintaining that he was still the President of Iraq. \n* The assassinations and attempts on the lives of several of Saddam's lawyers.\n* The replacement of the chief presiding judge, midway through the trial.\n\nOn 5 November 2006, Saddam Hussein was found guilty of crimes against humanity and sentenced to death by hanging. Saddam's half brother, Barzan Ibrahim, and Awad Hamed al-Bandar, head of Iraq's Revolutionary Court in 1982, were convicted of similar charges. The verdict and sentencing were both appealed, but subsequently affirmed by Iraq's Supreme Court of Appeals. On 30 December 2006, Saddam was hanged.\n\nExecution\n\nSaddam was hanged on the first day of Eid ul-Adha, 30 December 2006, despite his wish to be shot (which he felt would be more dignified). The execution was carried out at Camp Justice, an Iraqi army base in Kadhimiya, a neighborhood of northeast Baghdad.\n\nVideo of the execution was recorded on a mobile phone and his captors could be heard insulting Saddam. The video was leaked to electronic media and posted on the Internet within hours, becoming the subject of global controversy. It was later claimed by the head guard at the tomb where his remains lay that Saddam's body had been stabbed six times after the execution. \n\nNot long before the execution, Saddam's lawyers released his last letter. The following includes several excerpts:\n\nTo the great nation, to the people of our country, and humanity,\n\nMany of you have known the writer of this letter to be faithful, honest, caring for others, wise, of sound judgment, just, decisive, careful with the wealth of the people and the state ... and that his heart is big enough to embrace all without discrimination.\n\nYou have known your brother and leader very well and he never bowed to the despots and, in accordance with the wishes of those who loved him, remained a sword and a banner.\n\nThis is how you want your brother, son or leader to be ... and those who will lead you (in the future) should have the same qualifications.\n\nHere, I offer my soul to God as a sacrifice, and if He wants, He will send it to heaven with the martyrs, or, He will postpone that ... so let us be patient and depend on Him against the unjust nations.\n\nRemember that God has enabled you to become an example of love, forgiveness and brotherly coexistence ... I call on you not to hate, because hate does not leave a space for a person to be fair and it makes you blind and closes all doors of thinking and keeps away one from balanced thinking and making the right choice.\n\nI also call on you not to hate the peoples of the other countries that attacked us and differentiate between the decision-makers and peoples. Anyone who repents – whether in Iraq or abroad – you must forgive him.\n\nYou should know that among the aggressors, there are people who support your struggle against the invaders, and some of them volunteered for the legal defence of prisoners, including Saddam\nHussein ... some of these people wept profusely when they said goodbye to me.\n\nDear faithful people, I say goodbye to you, but I will be with the merciful God who helps those who take refuge in him and who will never disappoint any faithful, honest believer ... God is Great ... God is great ... Long live our nation ... Long live our great struggling people ... Long live Iraq, long live Iraq ... Long live Palestine ... Long live jihad and the mujahedeen.\n\nSaddam Hussein\nPresident and Commander in Chief of the Iraqi Mujahed Armed Forces\n\nAdditional clarification note:\n\nI have written this letter, because the lawyers told me that the so-called criminal court — established and named by the invaders — will allow the so-called defendants the chance for a last word. But that court and its chief judge did not give us the chance to say a word, and issued its verdict without explanation and read out the sentence — dictated by the invaders — without presenting the evidence. I wanted the people to know this. \n\nA second unofficial video, apparently showing Saddam's body on a trolley, emerged several days later. It sparked speculation that the execution was carried out incorrectly as Saddam Hussein had a gaping hole in his neck. \n\nSaddam was buried at his birthplace of Al-Awja in Tikrit, Iraq, 3 km (2 mi) from his sons Uday and Qusay Hussein, on 31 December 2006. His tomb was reported to have been destroyed in March 2015. Before it was destroyed, a Sunni tribal group reportedly removed his body to a secret location, fearful to what may happen. \n\nMarriage and family relationships\n\n* Saddam married his first wife and cousin Sajida Talfah (or Tulfah/Tilfah) in 1958 in an arranged marriage. Sajida is the daughter of Khairallah Talfah, Saddam's uncle and mentor. Their marriage was arranged for Saddam at age five when Sajida was seven. They were married in Egypt during his exile. The couple had five children.\n** Uday Hussein (18 June 1964 – 22 July 2003), was Saddam's oldest son, who ran the Iraqi Football Association, Fedayeen Saddam, and several media corporations in Iraq including Iraqi TV and the newspaper Babel. Uday, while originally Saddam's favorite son and raised to succeed him he eventually fell out of favour with his father due to his erratic behavior; he was responsible for many car crashes and rapes around Baghdad, constant feuds with other members of his family, and killing his father's favorite valet and food taster Kamel Hana Gegeo at a party in Egypt honoring Egyptian first lady Suzanne Mubarak. He became well known in the west for his involvement in looting Kuwait during the Gulf War, allegedly taking millions of dollars worth of gold, cars, and medical supplies (which were in short supply at the time) for himself and close supporters. He was widely known for his paranoia and his obsession with torturing people who disappointed him in any way, which included tardy girlfriends, friends who disagreed with him and, most notoriously, Iraqi athletes who performed poorly. He was briefly married to Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri's daughter, but later divorced her. The couple had no children.\n** Qusay Hussein (17 May 1966 – 22 July 2003), was Saddam's second – and, after the mid-1990s, his favorite – son. Qusay was believed to have been Saddam's later intended successor, as he was less erratic than his older brother and kept a low profile. He was second in command of the military (behind his father) and ran the elite Iraqi Republican Guard and the SSO. He was believed to have ordered the army to kill thousands of rebelling Marsh Arabs and was instrumental in suppressing Shi'ite rebellions in the mid-1990s. He was married once and had three children.\n** Raghad Hussein (born 2 September 1968) is Saddam's oldest daughter. After the war, Raghad fled to Amman, Jordan where she received sanctuary from the royal family. She is currently wanted by the Iraqi Government for allegedly financing and supporting the insurgency and the now banned Iraqi Ba'ath Party. The Jordanian royal family refused to hand her over.\n** Rana Hussein (born c. 1969), is Saddam's second daughter. She, like her sister, fled to Jordan and has stood up for her father's rights. She was married to Saddam Kamel and has had four children from this marriage.\n** Hala Hussein (born c. 1972), is Saddam's third and youngest daughter. Very little information is known about her. Her father arranged for her to marry General Kamal Mustafa Abdallah Sultan al-Tikriti in 1998. She fled with her children and sisters to Jordan.\n* Saddam married his second wife, Samira Shahbandar, in 1986. She was originally the wife of an Iraqi Airways executive, but later became the mistress of Saddam. Eventually, Saddam forced Samira's husband to divorce her so he could marry her. After the war, Samira fled to Beirut, Lebanon. She is believed to have mothered Saddam's sixth child. Members of Saddam's family have denied this.\n* Saddam had allegedly married a third wife, Nidal al-Hamdani, the general manager of the Solar Energy Research Center in the Council of Scientific Research. \n* Wafa el-Mullah al-Howeish is rumoured to have married Saddam as his fourth wife in 2002. There is no firm evidence for this marriage. Wafa is the daughter of Abdul Tawab el-Mullah Howeish, a former minister of military industry in Iraq and Saddam's last deputy Prime Minister.\n\nIn August 1995, Raghad and her husband Hussein Kamel al-Majid and Rana and her husband, Saddam Kamel al-Majid, defected to Jordan, taking their children with them. They returned to Iraq when they received assurances that Saddam would pardon them. Within three days of their return in February 1996, both of the Kamel brothers were attacked and killed in a gunfight with other clan members who considered them traitors.\n\nIn August 2003, Saddam's daughters Raghad and Rana received sanctuary in Amman, Jordan, where they are currently staying with their nine children. That month, they spoke with CNN and the Arab satellite station Al-Arabiya in Amman. When asked about her father, Raghad told CNN, \"He was a very good father, loving, has a big heart.\" Asked if she wanted to give a message to her father, she said: \"I love you and I miss you.\" Her sister Rana also remarked, \"He had so many feelings and he was very tender with all of us.\" \n\nPhilanthropic connection to the city of Detroit, Michigan\n\nIn 1979, Rev. Jacob Yasso of Chaldean Sacred Heart Church congratulated Saddam Hussein on his presidency. In return, Rev. Yasso said that Saddam Hussein donated US$250,000 to his church, which is made up of at least 1,200 families of Middle Eastern descent. In 1980, Detroit Mayor Coleman Young allowed Rev. Yasso to present the key to the city of Detroit to Saddam Hussein. At the time, Saddam then asked Rev. Yasso, \"I heard there was a debt on your church. How much is it?\" After the inquiry, Saddam then donated another $200,000 to Chaldean Sacred Heart Church. Rev. Yasso said that Saddam made donations to Chaldean churches all over the world, and even went on record as saying \"He's very kind to Christians.\" \n\nList of government and party positions held\n\n* Head of Iraqi Intelligence Service (1963)\n* Vice President of the Republic of Iraq (1968–1979)\n* President of the Republic of Iraq (1979–2003)\n* Prime Minister of the Republic of Iraq (1979–1991 and 1994–2003)\n* Head of the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council (1979–2003)\n* Secretary of the Regional Command (1979–2006)\n* Secretary General of the National Command (1989–2006)\n* Assistant Secretary of the Regional Command (1966–1979)\n* Assistant Secretary General of the National Command (1979–1989)"
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"Saddam Hussein | Biography & Facts | Britannica.com\nSaddam Hussein, also spelled Ṣaddām Ḥusayn, in full Saddam Hussein al-Tikriti (born April 28, 1937, Al-ʿAwjah, Iraq—died December 30, 2006, Baghdad), president of Iraq (1979–2003) whose brutal rule was marked by costly and unsuccessful wars against neighbouring countries.\nSaddam Hussein appearing in a courtroom after his capture, Baghdad, Iraq.\nKaren Ballard/AP\nEarly life\nSaddam, the son of peasants, was born in a village near the city of Tikrīt in northern Iraq. The area was one of the poorest in the country, and Saddam himself grew up in poverty. His father died before he was born, and he went at an early age to live with an uncle in Baghdad .\nHe joined the Baʿth Party in 1957. In 1959 he participated in an unsuccessful attempt by Baʿthists to assassinate the Iraqi prime minister , ʿAbd al-Karīm Qāsim ; Saddam was wounded in the attempt and escaped first to Syria and then to Egypt. He attended Cairo Law School (1962–63) and continued his studies at Baghdad Law College after the Baʿthists took power in Iraq in 1963. The Baʿthists were overthrown that same year, however, and Saddam spent several years in prison in Iraq. He escaped, becoming a leader of the Baʿth Party, and was instrumental in the coup that brought the party back to power in 1968. Saddam effectively held power in Iraq along with the head of state , Pres. Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr , and in 1972 he directed the nationalization of Iraq’s oil industry.\nPresidency\nIraq: Iraq under Ṣaddām Ḥussein\nSaddam began to assert open control of the government in 1979 and became president upon Bakr’s resignation. He then became chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council and prime minister, among other positions. He used an extensive secret-police establishment to suppress any internal opposition to his rule, and he made himself the object of an extensive personality cult among the Iraqi public. His goals as president were to supplant Egypt as leader of the Arab world and to achieve hegemony over the Persian Gulf .\nSaddam launched an invasion of Iran’s oil fields in September 1980, but the campaign bogged down in a war of attrition . The cost of the war and the interruption of Iraq’s oil exports caused Saddam to scale down his ambitious programs for economic development. The Iran-Iraq War dragged on in a stalemate until 1988, when both countries accepted a cease-fire that ended the fighting. Despite the large foreign debt with which Iraq found itself saddled by war’s end, Saddam continued to build up his armed forces.\nSaddam Hussein, 1983.\nEU Considers Rules For Robots\nIn August 1990 the Iraqi army overran neighbouring Kuwait . Saddam apparently intended to use that nation’s vast oil revenues to bolster Iraq’s economy, but his occupation of Kuwait quickly triggered a worldwide trade embargo against Iraq. He ignored appeals to withdraw his forces from Kuwait, despite the buildup of a large U.S.-led military force in Saudi Arabia and the passage of United Nations (UN) resolutions condemning the occupation and authorizing the use of force to end it. The Persian Gulf War began on January 16, 1991, and ended six weeks later when the allied military coalition drove Iraq’s armies out of Kuwait. Iraq’s crushing defeat triggered internal rebellions by both Shīʿites and Kurds , but Saddam suppressed their uprisings, causing thousands to flee to refugee camps along the country’s northern border. Untold thousands more were murdered, many simply disappearing into the regime’s prisons.\nAs part of the cease-fire agreement with the UN, Iraq was prohibited from producing or possessing chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons. Numerous sanctions were leveled on the country pending compliance , and those caused severe disruption of the economy. Saddam’s continued refusal to cooperate with UN arms inspectors led to a four-day air strike by the United States and Great Britain in late 1998 (Operation Desert Fox). Both countries announced that they would support efforts of the Iraqi opposition to unseat Saddam, whose regime had grown increasingly brutal under UN sanctions, but the Iraqi leader barred UN weapons inspectors from entering his country. In the interim it became clear that Saddam was grooming one of his sons— Uday or Qusay—to succeed him. Both were elevated to senior positions, and both mirrored the brutality of their father. Moreover, Saddam continued to solidify his control at home, while he struck a profoundly defiant and anti-American stance in his rhetoric . Though increasingly feared at home, Saddam was viewed by many in the Arab world as the only regional leader willing to stand up to what they saw as American aggression.\nThirty-foot- (9-metre-) tall bronze sculptures of former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, on the …\nJim Gordon, CIV/U.S. Department of Defense\nBritannica Lists & Quizzes\nEditor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies\nIn the wake of the September 11 attacks in the United States in 2001, the U.S. government, asserting that Saddam might provide terrorist groups with chemical or biological weapons, sought to renew the disarmament process. Though Saddam allowed UN weapons inspectors to return to Iraq in November 2002, his failure to cooperate fully with the investigations frustrated the United States and Great Britain and led them to declare an end to diplomacy. On March 17, 2003, U.S. Pres. George W. Bush ordered Saddam to step down from office and leave Iraq within 48 hours or face war; he also indicated that, even if Saddam left the country, U.S. forces might be needed to stabilize the new government and search for weapons of mass destruction. When Saddam refused to leave, U.S. and allied forces launched an attack on Iraq on March 20.\nStructures of Government: Fact or Fiction?\nThe opening salvo of the Iraq War was an assault by U.S. aircraft on a bunker complex in which Saddam was thought to be meeting with subordinates. Although the attack failed to kill the Iraqi leader, subsequent attacks directed against Saddam made it clear that eliminating him was a major goal of the invasion. Always obstinate in his tone, Saddam exhorted Iraqis to lay down their lives to stop U.S. and British forces, but resistance to the invasion soon crumbled, and on April 9, the day Baghdad fell to U.S. soldiers, Saddam fled into hiding. He took with him the bulk of the national treasury and was initially able to evade capture by U.S. troops. His sons, Uday and Qusay, were cornered and killed in Mosul on July 22, but it was not until December 13 that Saddam was finally captured. The once dapper leader was pulled, disheveled and dirty, from a small underground hiding place near a farmhouse in the vicinity of Tikrīt . Although he was armed, Saddam surrendered to U.S. soldiers without firing a shot.\nSaddam Hussein following his capture by U.S. forces in Tikrīt, Iraq, December 14, 2003.\nU.S. Department of Defense\nFacebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest\nIn October 2005 Saddam went on trial before the Iraqi High Tribunal, a panel court established to try officials of the former Iraqi government. He and several codefendants were charged with the killing of 148 townspeople in Al-Dujayl, a mainly Shīʿite town, in 1982. Throughout the nine-month trial, Saddam interrupted the proceedings with angry outbursts, claiming that the tribunal was a sham and that U.S. interests were behind it. The tribunal finally adjourned in July 2006 and handed down its verdicts in November. Saddam was convicted of crimes against humanity—including willful killing, illegal imprisonment, deportation, and torture—and was sentenced to death by hanging . Saddam’s half brother (an intelligence officer) and Iraq’s former chief judge were also sentenced to death. Days after an Iraqi court upheld his sentence in December 2006, Saddam was executed.\nSaddam Hussein appearing in a Baghdad courtroom, 2004.\nU.S. Department of Defense",
"Saddam Hussein - Biography of the Iraqi Dictator\nSaddam Hussein\nSaddam Hussein\nDictator of Iraq From 1979 to 2003\nIraqi President Saddam Hussein smiles January 1, 2001 while attending a military show in Baghdad, Iraq. (Photo by Newsmakers/Getty Images)\nUpdated July 01, 2016.\nWho Was Saddam Hussein?\nSaddam Hussein was the ruthless dictator of Iraq from 1979 until 2003. He was the adversary of the United States during the Persian Gulf War and found himself once again at odds with the U.S. in 2003 during the Iraq War. Captured by U.S. troops, Saddam Hussein was put on trial for crimes against humanity (he killed thousands of his own people) and was ultimately executed on December 30, 2006.\nDates: April 28, 1937 -- December 30, 2006\nChildhood of Saddam Hussein\nSaddam, which means \"he who confronts,\" was born in a village called al-Auja, outside of Tikrit in northern Iraq. Either just before or just after his birth, his father disappeared from his life. Some accounts say that his father was killed; others say he abandoned his family.\nSaddam's mother soon remarried a man who was illiterate, immoral, and brutal. Saddam hated living with his stepfather and as soon as his uncle Khairullah Tulfah (his mother's brother) was released from prison in 1947, Saddam insisted that he go and live with his uncle.\ncontinue reading below our video\nOverview of the Iraq War\nSaddam didn't start primary school until he moved in with his uncle at age 10. At age 18, Saddam graduated from primary school and applied to military school. Joining the military had been Saddam's dream and when he wasn't able to pass the entrance exam he was devastated. (Though Saddam was never in the military, he frequently wore military-style outfits later in life.)\nSaddam then moved to Baghdad and started high school, but he found school boring and enjoyed politics more.\nSaddam Hussein Enters Politics\nSaddam's uncle, an ardent Arab nationalist, introduced him to the world of politics. Iraq, which had been a British colony from the end of World War I until 1932, was bubbling with internal power struggles. One of the groups vying for power was the Baath Party, to which Saddam's uncle was a member.\nIn 1957, at age 20, Saddam joined the Baath Party. He started out as a low-ranking member of the Party responsible for leading his schoolmates in rioting. However, in 1959, he was chosen to be a member of an assassination squad. On October 7, 1959, Saddam and others attempted, but failed, to assassinate the prime minister. Wanted by the Iraqi government, Saddam was forced to flee. He lived in exile in Syria for three months and then moved to Egypt where he lived for three years.\nIn 1963, the Baath Party successfully overthrew the government and took power which allowed Saddam to return to Iraq from exile. While home, he married his cousin, Sajida Tulfah. However, the Baath Party was overthrown after only nine months in power and Saddam was arrested in 1964 after another coup attempt. He spent 18 months in prison, where he was tortured, before he escaped in July 1966.\nDuring the next two years Saddam became an important leader within the Baath Party. In July 1968, when the Baath Party again gained power, Saddam was made vice-president.\nOver the next decade, Saddam became increasingly powerful. On July 16, 1979, the president of Iraq resigned and Saddam officially took the position.\nThe Dictator of Iraq\nSaddam Hussein ruled Iraq with a brutal hand. He used fear and terror to stay in power.\nFrom 1980 to 1988, Saddam led Iraq in a war against Iran which ended in a stalemate. Also during the 1980s, Saddam used chemical weapons against Kurds within Iraq, including gassing the Kurdish town of Halabja which killed 5,000 in March 1988.\nIn 1990, Saddam ordered Iraqi troops to take the country of Kuwait. In response, the United States defended Kuwait in the Persian Gulf War .\nOn March 19, 2003, the United States attacked Iraq. During the fighting, Saddam fled Baghdad. On December 13, 2003, U.S. forces found Saddam Hussein hiding in a hole in al-Dwar, near Tikrit.\nTrial and Execution of Saddam Hussein\nAfter a trial, Saddam Hussein was sentenced to death for his crimes . On December 30, 2006, Saddam Hussein was executed by hanging.",
"Saddam Hussein Biography - life, family, childhood, children, story, history, wife, school, mother, young\nSaddam Hussein Biography\nCity vs City: Compare cities in the U.S. by population, crime, education and other data.\nCompare:\nApril 28, 1937 • Tikrit, Iraq\nFormer president of Iraq\nHussein, Saddam.\nAP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission.\nBeginning in the 1970s, Saddam Hussein ruled the Republic of Iraq with a tight grip. His supporters maintained that through his many social and economic programs he effectively brought the country into the modern age. His many critics, however, claimed that Saddam was a ruthless dictator who would stop at nothing in his endless push for power. Regardless, the charismatic leader retained control of his country during countless military conflicts, including an eight-year war against Iran in the 1980s and the Persian Gulf War in 1991. He also survived a slew of assassination attempts throughout the course of his presidency, and at times he seemed almost invincible. But in March of 2003, U.S.-led forces invaded Iraq and deposed the defiant leader. Saddam escaped capture, but after a nine-month manhunt, he was caught, imprisoned, and faced multiple charges relating to war crimes and human rights abuses. Many speculated that the once-invincible ruler would ultimately face the death penalty.\nA troubled beginning\nThe ex-president of Iraq had a troubled childhood. Saddam Hussein was born on April 28, 1937, in the village of Al-Awja, near Tikrit, a town just north of the city of Baghdad, in central Iraq. His father, Hussein 'Abd al-Majid, was a peasant sheepherder who by various accounts either died or disappeared before his son's birth. His older brother, who was twelve, died of cancer shortly thereafter. The combined tragedies had a devastating effect on Saddam's mother, Subha Tulfah al-Mussallat, who became extremely depressed during her last months of pregnancy. After her new son was born, she named him Saddam, which means \"one who confronts\" or \"the stubborn one.\" Because of her depression, however, she was unable to care for him, and young Saddam was sent to live in Baghdad with his uncle, Khairallah Talfah, a retired army officer and Arab nationalist.\n\"We are ready to sacrifice our souls, our children, and our families so as not to give up Iraq. We say this so no one will think that America is capable of breaking the will of the Iraqis with its weapons.\"\nWhen he was three years old Saddam returned to live with his mother, but she had remarried and family life was not pleasant. His new stepfather was abusive and treated him harshly over the next several years. As a result, when he was ten years old Saddam ran away to the safety of his uncle's home. Khairallah Talfah served as a role model for his nephew, especially influencing his political beliefs. After Saddam graduated from the al-Karh Secondary School in Baghdad, he officially joined his uncle's political party, the Arab Baa'th Socialist Party, which had been formed in Syria in 1947 with the goal of promoting unity among the various Arab states in the Middle East. In Iraq and neighboring countries the Baa'th Party had become an underground revolutionary force.\nIn 1959, when Saddam was just twenty-two years old, he played a major part in the assassination attempt of Iraqi Prime Minister Abdul Karim Qassim by the Baa'th Party. He was shot in the leg but managed to escape, first to Syria and then to Cairo, Egypt. While in Egypt he studied law at the University of Cairo. In 1963, after a military overthrow of Qassim's government, Saddam was allowed to return to Iraq. That same year he married his first wife, Sajida, the daughter of his mentor, Khairallah Talfah. His return was short-lived, however, since internal squabbling within the new Baa'th regime led to its downfall. Once again Saddam was forced into hiding, but he was caught in 1964 and imprisoned for the next two years. Although in jail, he remained involved in party politics. Escaping from prison in 1966, Saddam became a rising star in the Baa'th organization, forming close ties with key party officials who were planning a second attempt at taking control of Iraq.\nIn July of 1968 the Baa'ths organized a successful takeover of the Iraqi government. Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, a retired general and prominent party spokesman who was a distant relative of Saddam, assumed the role of chairman of the Baa'th Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) as well as the presidency of Iraq. Saddam, who had become an integral part of the organization, was named vice president.\nSecond in command\nAlthough Ahmed Hassan was officially the president of Iraq from 1969 through 1979, it was Saddam Hussein who truly held the reins. And thanks to Saddam, the country enjoyed its most stable and productive period in recent history. After oil prices soared in the 1970s (oil is Iraq's primary natural resource and export), he used the revenues to institute a major system of economic reform and launched an array of wide-ranging social programs. Roads were paved, hospitals and schools were built, and various types of industry, such as mining, were expanded. In particular, Saddam focused attention on the rural areas, where roughly two-thirds of the population lived. Land was brought under the control of the Iraqi government, which meant that large properties were broken up and parcels distributed to small farmers. Saddam also funneled revenues into modernizing the country's agriculture industry. For example, he brought electricity into even some of the most remote communities.\nSaddam's social programs benefited both rural and city dwellers. In an effort to wipe out illiteracy, he established free schooling for children through high school and made it a government requirement that all children attend school. Saddam's government also provided free hospitalization to all Iraqis and gave full economic support to families of Iraqi soldiers. Such large-scale social programs were unheard of in any other Middle Eastern country.\nWhen he created his massive reforms, Saddam may have had the benefit of his people in mind, but he was also a shrewd politician. In order to maintain a stable government and to assure that his party would remain in power, it was necessary to gather as much support as possible. By the late 1970s the Baa'th regime enjoyed a widespread following among the working classes, and the party was firmly unified around its second-in-command. Saddam also served as the outward face of the Iraqi government, representing the nation on both the domestic and international fronts. On July 22, 1979, when an ailing Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr decided to step down as president, it came as no surprise that Saddam Hussein stepped into his shoes.\nThe cult of Saddam Hussein\nSupport for Saddam Hussein was not universal. The conservative followers of Islam (the national religion of Iraq) did not agree with many of Saddam's innovations, which they felt were directly opposed to Islamic law. This included legislation that gave women more freedoms and the fact that a Western-style legal system had been installed. As a result, Iraq became the only Arab country not ruled by the laws of Islam. Major opposition also came from the Kurds who occupied the northern region of the country. The Kurds are a nomadic people who are concentrated in areas of Turkey, Iran, and Iraq. They are Muslim but not Arabic, and they strongly disagreed with the Baa'thist push for a united Arab front.\nSaddam even faced resistance within his own party, and he made it a policy to weed out anyone he viewed as a threat. On July 22, 1979, just days after taking over the presidency, he organized an assembly of Baa'th leaders and read aloud the names of suspected spies; these people were taken from the room and publicly executed by firing squad. A few years later, in 1982, he ordered the execution of\nTiled portrait of Saddam Hussein in Tikrit, Iraq. Many such images and statues of Hussein appeared in cities throughout Iraq.\n© Shepard Sherbell/Corbis.\nat least three hundred officers who had supposedly questioned his military tactics. Once in control, Saddam surrounded himself with a tightly-knit group of family and friends who assumed high levels of responsibility within the government. These individuals, however, were not necessarily immune to Saddam's paranoia. At one point, Adnan Talfah, Saddam's brother-in-law and childhood friend, was killed in a \"mysterious\" helicopter crash. And in 1996 Saddam had his sons-in-law murdered for being disloyal.\nAlthough he ruled with an iron fist, Saddam also was preoccupied with winning the devotion of the Iraqi people. He promoted himself as a hero of the nation who was dedicated to making Iraq the leader of the Arab world. Images of Saddam were plastered throughout the country. Some of them depicted the ruler as a dedicated Muslim wearing traditional robes and headdress; others featured Saddam in a Western-style business suit, wearing sunglasses and holding a rifle over his head. All were efforts to make a connection at every level of society and to solidify his role as an all-powerful president. Such tactics, however, also solidified his reputation as an insecure and unstable leader. He became known for his paranoia, which was not unjustified, considering he had survived at least seven assassination attempts. As a result he rarely appeared in public. He also slept only a few hours a night, at secret locations, and all of his food was carefully prepared and inspected by official food tasters.\nConflicts with Iran and Kuwait\nOutside of Iraq, especially in the West, Saddam was seen as a dictator whose quest for dominance in the Middle East was viewed with particular concern. In 1980 Saddam proved that such fears were founded when he attacked Iran, an invasion that led to an eight-year bloody conflict. Relations between Iran and Iraq had been deteriorating for years, and came to a head in 1979 when the Ayatollah Khomeini (c. 1900–1989) overthrew the government of Iran during an Islamic uprising. Saddam worried that Khomeini would set his sites on spreading his radical religious rule to the secular (nonreligious) state of Iraq. Disputes over territorial boundaries led to skirmishes throughout late 1979 and into 1980, and on September 22, 1980, Iraqi forces crossed the Iranian border and officially declared war.\nOver the next eight years, both countries suffered almost irreparable damage, and the healthy economy that Saddam had created during the 1970s was in ruins. Billions of dollars were borrowed from countries such as the United States, Kuwait, the U.S.S.R., and France, to support the war effort. The United States alone gave the Iraqi government nearly $40 billion in food supplies and arms. And both sides suffered a tremendous loss of human life. It is estimated that approximately 1.7 million people were killed during the conflict. In one battle on March 16, 1988, Iraqi troops attacked the Kurdish town of Halabja, using poison nerve gas. Nearly five thousand people died, most of whom were women and children. Various reports claimed that chemical weapons were used by both Iran and Iraq, but these tactics continued to raise the alarm that Saddam Hussein was a military threat who could not be trusted.\nIn 1989 the war ended in a stalemate, with no side claiming a real victory. Conflicts between Saddam and other nations, however, were just beginning. Faced with the prospect of rebuilding his country, Saddam tried to pressure the neighboring country of Kuwait to forgive the $30 billion loan he had been given. The reason he gave was that the war with Iran had effectively protected Kuwait from an Iranian invasion. Tensions were also sparked between the two countries over territorial boundaries that were especially important because they involved the control of oil reserves in the area. When negotiations failed, Saddam invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990.\nThe unprovoked attack was denounced by governments throughout the world, especially the United States. The administration of Ronald Reagan (1911–2004) in the 1980s may have seen Saddam as a potential ally, but after the invasion of Kuwait, President George H. W. Bush (1924–) essentially severed all ties between the United States and Saddam Hussein. As a result, when the Iraqi leader refused to leave Kuwait, a combined force of U.S. and United Nations (UN) troops stepped in. Fighting lasted a mere six weeks, but after the Persian Gulf War came to an end, casualties topped over eighty-five thousand. Saddam was successfully evicted from Kuwait, but the tensions were not over. Bush ordered U.S. troops to protect Kuwaiti borders, and in his March of 1991 State of the Union address he told the American people, \"We all realize that our responsibility to be the catalyst for peace in the region does not end with the successful conclusion of this war.\" He called Saddam a brutal dictator \"who will do anything, will use any weapon, will commit any outrage, no matter how many innocents suffer.\"\nThe United States versus Iraq\nIn an effort to control Saddam, the cease-fire agreement drawn up between the United Nations and Iraq required the country to destroy all of its chemical, nuclear, and biological weapons. The agreement also stipulated that Saddam had to let UN inspectors oversee the efforts. If Iraq did not comply with the agreement, economic sanctions would be imposed, meaning that all trade with the country would be cut off. Throughout the 1990s the Iraqi leader reportedly concealed the manufacture of weapons from inspectors, and the sanctions continued. Cut off from the world, the people of Iraq suffered. Unemployment rose, agricultural production declined, and the majority of the population suffered from severe malnutrition and lack of medical care. There was increased unrest among the many factions in the country, which prompted Saddam to increase his tactics of repression.\nWhen George W. Bush became president of the United States in 2001, one of his first acts upon taking office was an attempt to reinstate economic sanctions, which had been lifted by the United Nations in the late 1990s. World opinion opposed the effort as inhumane; the Iraqi people had suffered far too much. Anti-Saddam sentiment only escalated, however, after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Although the attacks were never linked to Saddam Hussein, Bush insisted that terrorists armed with Iraqi weapons could at any time target the United States. In his State of the Union address in January of 2002, the U.S. president called Iraq part of an \"axis of evil,\" and claimed that the country \"continue[d] to flaunt its hostility toward America and to support terror.\"\nTime and again Bush publicly accused Saddam of concealing weapons, and by 2002 he threatened to invade Iraq if UN inspectors were not allowed back into the country. Saddam countered that there were no weapons, and opened his doors. Although UN inspectors found nothing, Bush maintained that inspectors had simply not found the well-hidden weapons yet. By early 2003, war with Iraq was looming. In January of 2003 Bush gave Saddam an ultimatum: either totally disarm his country or voluntarily leave Iraq. If neither step was taken, the United States would attack.\nIn February of 2003, in an unprecedented move, Saddam Hussein appeared on television, having agreed to be interviewed by CBS newsman Dan Rather (1931–). The interview was broadcast worldwide, even in Iraq, which meant that the Iraqi people were given a rare glimpse of their reclusive leader who was rarely seen in person. Saddam accused the Bush administration of being part of a \"bandwagon of evil,\" and continued to insist that Iraq did not have concealed weapons and that it had nothing to do with the September 11 attacks. He also explained that he would not leave Iraq and that Iraqis would fight to protect their country if provoked. \"We will die here in Iraq,\" he told Rather. \"We will die in this country and we will maintain our honor.\"\nThe Saddam regime is toppled\nDespite massive international opposition, hundreds of thousands of U.S. and British troops stormed Iraq on March 20, 2003. Several air strikes specifically aimed at assassinating Saddam Hussein were unsuccessful, and ground troops pushed through the country, heading toward Baghdad, the capital of Iraq. In early April, just three weeks after the invasion, the Saddam regime was toppled. When Baghdad fell, however, the Iraqi president was nowhere to be found. Saddam managed to elude capture throughout the remainder of the year. Reports of Saddam sightings popped up occasionally, but proved to be false. In addition, audiotapes by the ousted leader were released to Arab television networks. Whether they were truly from Saddam remained in question.\nHigh-ranking members of the Iraqi government were caught one by one, but Saddam remained at the top of the most-wanted list. In July of 2003 his two sons and political heirs, Uday and Qusay, were killed by U.S. forces. It was thought that perhaps Saddam's capture would be imminent, but the elusive leader remained on the run for the next five months. Finally, on December 13, 2003, Saddam Hussein was located just nine miles outside of his hometown of Tikrit, hiding in an underground cavern known as a \"spider hole.\" Disheveled and dirty, with a graying beard and matted hair, he surrendered without resisting. According to commander of U.S. forces Lt. Gen. Ricardo Sanchez, as quoted on CNN.com, \"He was a tired man. Also, I think, a man resigned to his fate.\"\nThe deposed leader was taken into custody by U.S. forces and held in Baghdad until June 30, 2004, when he was officially handed over to acting Iraqi government officials. On July 1 he faced his first legal hearing before an Iraqi Special Tribunal. During the twenty-six minute hearing he was charged with multiple crimes, including the 1988 attack on the Kurdish village of Halabja, the 1991 invasion of Kuwait, and the killings of political and religious leaders during his thirty years in command. Throughout the accusations Saddam remained defiant, claiming that the tribunal was a farce. He also maintained that he was still the true leader of Iraq. \"I am Saddam Hussein al-Majid, the President of the Republic of Iraq,\" he announced, as quoted in England's Guardian. \"I am still the president of the republic and the occupation cannot take that away.\"\nFollowing the hearing Saddam remained in custody, where he reportedly spent time writing poetry, reading the Koran (the sacred writings of Islam), and tending to a small garden within the walls of his Baghdad prison. There were also reports that the sixty-seven-year-old former president was in poor health and that perhaps he had suffered a stroke. Such reports were denied by doctors. It seemed that Saddam would be well enough to face his accusers in a trial set to begin in January of 2005. Many speculated on the trial's outcome, but people in Iraq voiced their clear expectations. Shortly after U.S. forces turned Saddam Hussein over to Iraqi officials, the Iraqi government reinstated the death penalty, which had been temporarily suspended under U.S. occupation. Hamid al-Bayati, the deputy foreign minister of Iraq, was quoted in the Guardian as saying, \"Everyone who lost loved ones to Saddam will want to see this.\"\nFor More Information\n\"Saddam Hussein.\" In Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2nd ed. Detroit, MI: Gale Research, 1998.\nWeb Sites\nMcCallester, Matthew. \"A Day in the Life of Saddam Hussein.\" Indian Express (July 27, 2004). http://www.indianexpress.com/full_story.php?content_id=51826 (accessed on August 3, 2004).\nMcCarthy, Rory. \"I am Saddam Hussein, the President of Iraq.\" Guardian (England) (July 2, 2004). http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,1252291,00.html (accessed on August 3, 2004).\n\"President George H. W. Bush's Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union, January 29, 1991.\" CSPAN. http://www.c-span.org/executive/transcript.asp?cat=current_event&code=bush_admin&year=1991 (accessed on Augst 3, 2004).\n\"President George W. Bush's State of the Union Address to the Joint Session of Congress, January 29, 2002.\" CSPAN Web site. http://www.c-span.org/executive/transcript.asp?cat=current_event&code=bush_admin&year=2002 (accessed on August 3, 2003).\nRather, Dan. \"Interview with Saddam Hussein.\" CBS News (February 24, 2003). http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/02/24/eveningnews/main541817.shtml (accessed on August 3, 2004).\n\"The Rise and Fall of a Dictator.\" CNN.com: World (December 14, 2003). http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/12/14/sprj.irq.saddam.profile/index.html (accessed on August 2, 2004).\n\"Saddam Caught Like a Rat in a Hole.\" CNN.com: World (December 15, 2003). http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/12/14/sprj.irq.saddam.operation (accessed on August 2, 2003).\nUser Contributions:",
"Saddam Hussein\nSaddam Hussein\n(Created by Ben Andrews, History 135, December 2002)\n \nShould the United States or the United Nations have tried to oust Saddam Hussein?\n \nBackground\n Saddam Hussein was born in 1937 in the village of Tikrit, Iraq. His father died around the time of his birth. His mother remarried and his stepfather is said to have savagely beat Hussein as a child. In 1958 Hussein participated in a coup that overthrew the monarchy of Iraq and made Abdul Karim Qasim prime minister. In 1959 he was involved in a failed assassination attempt on Qasim and had to flee Iraq. In 1963, after Qasim was murdered, Hussein returned to Iraq and was named assistant secretary general of the Ba'ath party. Within a few months the Ba’ath party was overthrown. Hussein was sent to prison but escaped after two years.\n In 1968 the Ba’ath party regained control in a coup that Hussein helped lead. Hussein was named the vice chairman of the ruling Revolutionary Command Council and vice president under General Ahmed Hassan Bakr. In 1979 Hussein became president. Subsequently, he executed hundreds of high ranking party members and army officers who he suspected of being disloyal, beginning a long rein of crimes as Iraq's dictator. Hussein’s brutality and willingness to torture and murder anyone he sees as a threat has earned him the moniker, Butcher of Baghdad.\n In 1980 Hussein invaded neighboring Iran starting an eight-year war that ended in a stalemate and left Iraq with a 75 million dollar war debt. In the 1980’s Hussein launched attacks against the Kurds in Northern Iraq. During the campaign Hussein used chemical weapons killing thousands. He also carried out mass summary executions. Tens of thousands of noncombatants disappeared. In 1990 Hussein invaded Kuwait in an attempt to gain control of Kuwait’s oil revenues. The invasion triggered a worldwide trade embargo and Iraq was forced out of Kuwait by United Nations (UN) Coalition forces in the six-week long Gulf War.\n As a result of the invasion and the Gulf War, the UN passed resolutions including Security Council Resolution 687 that requires the \"destruction, removal, or rendering harmless\" of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction and long range ballistic missiles. The resolution called for this to be done under international monitoring and supervision. This monitoring is commonly referred to as weapons inspections.\n From 1991 to 1998 Hussein's regime was uncooperative with the weapons inspections. Inspectors were barred from many sites and items were removed from some sites prior to inspectors being allowed admittance. In one incident in June of 1991, UN inspectors tried to intercept Iraqi vehicles carrying nuclear related equipment. Iraqi personnel fired warning shots in the air to prevent the inspectors from approaching the vehicles. The equipment was later seized and destroyed under international supervision. Finally, in 1998 Hussein suspended all inspections and the UN inspectors left the country.\n Since that time Hussein has continued manufacturing chemical and biological weapons and has been trying to develop nuclear weapons. Under the threat of a preemptive attack by the United States, Hussein has accepted the terms of a new UN resolution reinitiating the weapons inspections.\nRecommended Books\nI Was Saddam's Son (1997) by Latif Yahia\nFor years Yahia was a double for Saddam Hussein’s son, Uday. From that position he witnessed torture and depravity. His book tells the story.\nOut of the Ashes: The Resurrection of Saddam Hussein (1999) by Andrew Cockburn & Patrick Cockburn\nThis gives the story of Saddam’s rise to power and how he managed to stay in power despite great efforts to oust him.\nSaddam Hussein: The Politics of Revenge (1999) by Said K. Aburish\nThis is a biography of Saddam. The author was a journalist in Iraq and an Iraqi government consultant.\nSaddam's Bombmaker: The Terrifying Inside Story of the Iraqi Nuclear and Biological Weapons Agenda (2000) by Khidhir Hamzah\nAbout Iraq’s nuclear and biological weapons agenda by a scientist who worked for Saddam.\nThe Saddam Hussein Reader (2002) by Turi Munthe (Editor)\nThis is a collection of articles and excerpts from books about events over the last few years.\nThe History of Iraq (2002) by Charles Tripp\nThe author analyzes the roots of Islamic law, the negative effects of British imperialism and the emergence of the Ba'ath Party and dictatorship of Saddam Hussein.",
"Secrets Of His Life And Leadership - Interview With Said K. Aburish | The Survival Of Saddam | FRONTLINE | PBS\nWATCH SCHEDULE TOPICS ABOUT FRONTLINE SHOP TEACHER CENTER\nWhy did you decide to spend so many years writing this book about Saddam Hussein?\nSaddam Hussein is the most methodical Arab leader of the 20th century. He's organized. He's a daydreamer. And also, he had the following. He was popular. But Saddam Hussein is a planner. And he has affected the Middle East so considerably that we need to understand him.\nWhat insights can you give us into understanding him?\nWell, the first thing to remember is that Saddam Hussein spent 20 years creating a personality, an image for himself. And since the Gulf War, his opponents have done the same -- created a completely different personality, of course. So you have to sift through what Saddam created and what his opponents created to reach the real person. The real person has no ideology whatsoever. That is the most important thing to remember about Saddam Hussein. Saddam Hussein is into realpolitik. He wanted to take Iraq into the 20th century. But if that meant eliminating 50 percent of the population of Iraq, he was willing to do it.\nAnd he had to be the one in charge?\nWithout any doubt. You know during the war with Iran, I remember telling someone Khomeini isn't the only person who talks to God. Saddam Hussein thinks he talks to God. He has a message -- he has to lead Iraq, make it a model for the Arab countries and then attract the rest of the Arab countries and become the sole Arab leader of modern times.\nExtraordinary willpower?\nWithout any doubt. Considering his humble background, amazing willpower, amazing focus. Amazing ability to achieve his dreams. There is no stopping the man. He always has things in focus. He never misses a beat. In terms of what the country's all about, and in terms of where his country fits in the whole world.\nOne of the re-occurring things in your book is the idea that he's imposed Stalinism on a tribal society. What do you actually mean by that?\nSaddam Hussein borrowed from Stalinism. He had his security people trained in Eastern Europe, particularly East Germany. Then he brought them back to Iraq and he taught them how to use the tribal linkage to eliminate people. So whereas they used Stalinist methods to discover people who were opposed to the regime, after that came the tribal factor, when Saddam said \"Don't get rid of Abdullah, get rid of his whole family, because one member of his family might assassinate us.\" And that made it a perfect system for Iraq. It is practically foolproof.\nDo we know whether or not Saddam has actually studied Stalin's tactics?\nThere is absolutely no doubt in my mind that Saddam studied Stalin. Stalin is his hero. Stalin came from a humble background. Stalin was brought up by his mother. Stalin used thugs. Stalin used the security service. Stalin hated his army. And so does Saddam Hussein. Saddam Hussein models himself after Stalin more than any other man in history.\nHe has a full library of books about Stalin. He reads about him, and when he was a young man -- even before he attained any measure of power -- he used to wander around the offices of the Ba'ath Party telling people \"Wait until I take over this country. I will make a Stalinist state out of it yet.\" People used to laugh him off. They shouldn't have. It was a very serious proposition indeed.\nBriefly, what is his background?\nHe was from a very poor family, in a village called Al Awja, which is next to the town of Tikrit. As a young boy he had to steal so his family could eat. He stole eggs, and he stole chicken, things like that. He was illiterate until the age of 10. He heard that his cousin could read and write and demanded that he be afforded the same opportunity.\nAfter that he became a gunman, a thug for the Ba'ath Party and he participated in the assassination attempt on the country's strong man, Gen. Kassem, in 1959. Then he went into exile in Cairo. Came back after the Ba'ath took power and proceeded to organize the party and give it supremacy over the army, which was a very important development.\nWhatever Saddam Hussein is he is above all an organizer, in a part of the world which hasn't seen much of that. And this is why he -- to use a word that does not fit him -- he actually shines when you compare him with other Arab leaders.\nFor people who don't understand Iraq, how important are family and tribal connections in that society?\nFamily and tribal connections are supreme. They come ahead of ideology. They come ahead of commitment to the nation-state, they come ahead of all commitments. Saddam Hussein realizes that. This is why, at a certain point, he transferred power from the Ba'ath Party, which put him in power, to his family, because he decided that the family can be trusted, but the party cannot be trusted.\nHe weakened the party and strengthened the family, and that is the situation in the country now. His second son is the head of the dreaded security system. His first son, who was a psychopath, runs all types of committees in the country. His brother is on the security system, his cousins are in key positions in the army. The people who come from Al Awja are in other positions in the army. The people who come from Tikrit, the town near Al Awja, are in other positions. It's a pyramid of relationships, tribal and familial. And this is what he depends on. And, those people are loyal to him, because they believe that if Saddam goes, they will go as well.\nDuring the time of that assassination attempt in 1959, when Saddam first leaves the country and goes to Damascus, goes to Cairo, what was the great game being played in the Middle East at that time?\nThe great game played in the Middle East in 1959 was Arab nationalism under Nasser. Nasser wanted to unite the Arab countries into one great one, capable of being completely independent. Most of the Western powers were opposed to that. The Ba'ath Party, to which Saddam belonged, believed in Arab unity as well. The man who ran Iraq, the man Saddam tried to assassinate, Gen. Abdel Karim Kassem, did not believe in that. And this is why Saddam and his crew tried to kill him. And that is also why once Saddam escaped after the assassination attempt, he found refuge in Cairo, under Nasser's patronage. That was the situation: The Arabs trying to unite; the West, the United States and Britain in particular, were opposed to this unity.\nWhile he was in Cairo, there's some belief that he may have had contact with Americans, with the CIA. What can you tell us about that?\nThere is very good reason to believe that Saddam Hussein was in contact with the American embassy in Cairo when he was in exile. This is not strange, because alliances of convenience were taking place every day, and the United States was afraid that Iraq, under Kassem, might be going communist. So was the Ba'ath Party. So they had a common enemy, a common target -- the possibility of a communist take-over of Iraq.\nSo there is a record of Saddam visiting the American embassy frequently, and there is a record of the Egyptian security people telling him not to do that. However, one must remember that at that time, Saddam was a minor official of the Ba'ath Party. He was not terribly important. And he was really following in the footsteps of other people who are much more important.\nAnd what would be the idea behind all this?\nThe visits to the American embassy by Saddam Hussein and other members of the Ba'ath Party had one purpose, and one purpose only: to cooperate with the Americans towards the overthrow of General Kassem in Iraq. Kassem was slightly pro-communist and the Americans wanted to get rid of that danger. Allen Dulles described Iraq as the most dangerous part of the earth in front of a congressional committee. The Ba'ath thought Kassem was their enemy, so there was a mutuality there. And whether a conspiracy transpired or not, the evidence is actually in favor of it having taken place. But the conspiracy was for the duration of getting rid of Kassem. It was not an alliance of permanent nature.\nThere was a coup in Iraq in 1963. What do we know about the U.S. involvement in that coup?\nThe U.S. involvement in the coup against Kassem in Iraq in 1963 was substantial. There is evidence that CIA agents were in touch with army officers who were involved in the coup. There is evidence that an electronic command center was set up in Kuwait to guide the forces who were fighting Kassem. There is evidence that they supplied the conspirators with lists of people who had to be eliminated immediately in order to ensure success. The relationship between the Americans and the Ba'ath Party at that moment in time was very close indeed. And that continued for some time after the coup. And there was an exchange of information between the two sides. For example it was one of the first times that the United States was able to get certain models of Mig fighters and certain tanks made in the Soviet Union. That was the bribe. That was what the Ba'ath had to offer the United States in return for their help in eliminating Kassem.\nDo we know to what extent Saddam Hussein was involved in the killings when he came back from Cairo?\nI have documented over 700 people who were eliminated, mostly on an individual basis, after the 1963 coup. And they were eliminated based on lists supplied by the CIA to the Ba'ath Party. So the CIA and the Ba'ath were in the business of eliminating communists and leftists who were dangerous to the Ba'ath's takeover.\nThe coup took place in April, Saddam Hussein did not return to Iraq until May. But he went to work immediately. He became an interrogator in the Fellaheen and Muthaqafeen detention camps. They are camps where they kept communists and fellow travellers, after they took power. And in interrogating people in those camps, he used torture, and undoubtedly like everybody else involved in this activity, eliminated people. In 1963 he was still one of the party's toughs, one of the party's thugs, if you wish.\nJumping forward a few years to 1967 and the Arab-Israeli conflict, we've heard that the Soviets then looked to Baghdad in terms of gaining influence in the Middle East. And the Ba'ath Party also wants to get back into power. Describe in the run-up to the 1968 coup, the Cold War dynamics of what was going on in the Middle East, and in particular Iraq, and how the Ba'ath Party was able to use those dynamics to help them get back into power.\nIn 1968, Iraq had a weak president who was beholden to Nasser, a follower of Nasser. But the defeat of [the Arabs by Israel] in 1967 meant that whatever government was in power when that defeat took place had to go. So the Ba'ath saw an opportunity in this and they thought the time has come for them to take over the country again. The background was extremely interesting. There were two things happening within Iraq at that time. They were developing their own oil and very close to giving the concessions for huge new oil fields, to the USSR and France. And the price of sulpher had shot up so greatly that they were about to mine the sulpher mines in the north and sell it in the world market.\nThe United States didn't want either to happen. The United States wanted the oil for American oil companies; they wanted the sulpher for themselves. They thought that if Iraq went to the Soviet Union or France, Iraq would be lost to them. In this they were joined by the Ba'ath Party. The Party used the concessions for oil and sulpher as a bargaining point to endear itself once again to America. And they arrived once again at some kind of an agreement of collaboration between the two sides. On the American side negotiating for both the oil and sulpher was a well-known personality, Robert Anderson, the former secretary of treasury under Eisenhower. He met secretly with the Ba'ath and they agreed that if they took over power these concessions will be given to the United States.\nAnd so once again the United States was in the business of supporting the Ba'ath office for the government of Iraq. The Ba'ath was successful. This time Saddam Hussein played a key role. He was one of the people who donned a military uniform -- though he's not a military man -- and attacked the presidential palace and occupied it. The president, being weak, surrendered immediately. Two weeks after they took over power on the 17th of July 1968, there was what they call \"the correction movement.\" That meant getting rid of the non-Ba'ath elements in the coup, and Saddam was prominent in that. As a matter of fact he held a gun to the head of the prime minister and said, \"You're going with me to the airport because you're leaving this country.\" And the guy pleaded with him, said, \"I have family, I have a wife and kids.\" And Saddam said, \"Well as long as you behave, they'll be fine.\" He took him to the airport, he put him in a plane, he deported him, and of course years after, he assassinated him in front of the Intercontinental Hotel in London. The man couldn't escape him in the long run.\nHowever, the communists are hardly thrown out and not long after, they turn to Saddam, and he personally leads a delegation to Moscow, and there's a development of a relationship between the two. What game was he playing?\nWell, alliances of convenience don't last very long. The Ba'ath Party was committed to certain things which American foreign policy could not tolerate. In this particular case it lasted a very short time, really a matter of two weeks. And Saddam got rid of all of the pro-American elements in the government and he asserted his authority on the country. He was not the president. He was the second man, after a relation of his from Tikrit, President Ahmed Bakr. But what happened immediately after that is the things they needed, they couldn't get from the United States anymore. They needed help economically. They needed arms. And the United States were not in the business of openly supplying arms to Arab countries to re-equip themselves for another round of fighting. That was the major issue between the two sides. Saddam knew he could get the arms from Russia and he journeyed to Russia -- this was his first trip outside Iraq, outside of exile of course -- and he got what he wanted. And the alliance of convenience disintegrated as they always do.\nSo, there was a new alliance, this time with the Soviets.\nIn 1972, Iraq and the Soviet Union signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation. They wanted to seal the cooperation taking place between them in a formal alliance. The reason Saddam signed that treaty of friendship and cooperation was because that obligated the local communist party, which was very strong, to cooperate with the Ba'ath Party, which was not so strong at that time.\nOf course the Russians loved an opportunity to have a hold on Iraq and they signed the treaty and told the local communist party to join the Iraqi government. That alliance internally did not last very long. But the external one was on and off for a very long time. And the Soviet Union at one point thought Iraq was a more important ally than Egypt. Its army always acquitted itself better than the Egyptian army. It was a wealthy country that didn't need a lot of aid, like Egypt. And it was the gateway to the Gulf, to oil. It represented a more immediate threat to the West's lifeline than Egypt did.\nSo Saddam in the early '70s is Iraq's vice president. Could you describe how he's already setting up a Stalinist system with control of the government.\nIn the early '70s, Saddam started out controlling one small department called the Peasants Department; at that time the Ba'ath regime, for a very brief period of time, was committed to installing a democratic system in Iraq. It was a bit of a dream. Came the time for them to assign the job of head of the security system, and no one from the inner circle wanted the job. Everybody says, \"This is a dirty job. I don't want it.\" Young Saddam Hussein raised his hand, and said, \"I want the job. I'll take over the security system.\"\nHe took over the security system, called it the Department of General Relations and proceeded to expand it. This was his first step towards attaining power.\nThe president at the time, Ahmed Bakr had been a general, and a very nice man. Quite a religious man too. Saddam was a relation of his. He surrendered everything to Saddam, because Saddam worked an 18-hour day. In no time at all, Saddam was head of security, he was head of the Peasants Department, he was head of relations with the Kurds, he was head of the committee that controlled the oil. He was head of the committee that controlled relations with the Arab countries. He was head of the workers syndicate.\nThere was a conflict between all these departments that Saddam controlled so tightly and the armed forces -- because the armed forces is the one organization capable of overthrowing government. Saddam proceeded to emasculate the army and place his professional soldier relations from Tikrit in key positions. For example, his brother-in-law became chief of staff of the army. And of course soon enough, like all people who are dictators, who are jealous of the army, he appointed himself general and eventually like Stalin he became field marshal.\nSo much of what you just described certainly has Stalinist overtones.\nWithout any doubt everything Saddam did had Stalinist overtones. In particular, the reliance on the security system rather than the armed forces, the jealousy of the generals in the armed forces, the use of criminal elements within the country, and, incorporating them into the security system. And those people were sort of semi-literate thugs whose loyalty was to Saddam, without whom, they were nothing. And so he brought them in, he depended on them, and they did him service. Anybody he wanted to get rid of he got rid of. And the door was wide open.\nHe had two qualities that put him ahead of his colleagues. His ability to work an 18-hour day. Endlessly. And a sense of organization. You didn't see Saddam at three o'clock and miss that appointment by five minutes. Because Saddam would ask you why you are five minutes late, or five minutes early. If you had an appointment with Saddam at three, you showed up at three. That was that. He is that organized. He is that methodical.\nAnd perhaps another comparison to Stalin is his relationship with Bakr and, Stalin's relationship with Lenin.\nWithout any doubt there are similarities in the careers of Stalin and Saddam. Among other things, the major one is Stalin played second fiddle to Lenin for a long time. And it was then Lenin became very suspicious of Stalin. Saddam did the same thing with Ahmed Hassan Bakr and towards the end, Ahmed Hassan Bakr became very suspicious of Saddam and wanted to get rid of him. But it was too late. By then Saddam was in control of the whole country. And Bakr was shoved aside and replaced. Saddam became president. That is one similarity.\nThe use of criminal elements is key in this. Both of them used them, both of them rotated the heads of the security system because they knew this was the system that controlled the country. So no one could stay in that position for a long time. The longest serving head of security was Saddam's half-brother who was there for eight years. And he eventually was moved into another job by Saddam because he became too powerful.\nLet's talk about your own personal involvement in the early '70s. You mentioned Saddam wanted certain things from the Soviet Union, but perhaps he wasn't getting them. Arms -- he wasn't happy with what he was getting. He looked to the West and there was a directive that came out, asking if Iraq was working with the best companies. Could you tell us that story?\nI became involved with the regime working through a Palestinian group which had set up a consulting company in Beirut. I worked with its successor, Arab Resources Management. And we were in the business of helping the Iraqis realize the huge economic development plans which came very fast as a result of the first oil shock in 1973. In 1976, I received this very short memorandum. It was not addressed to me, it was addressed to one of my colleagues in Beirut and it says -- addressing him by his first name -- \"Are the best companies in the world working in Iraq? And if the answer is no, why not?\"\nSo my colleague gave me this and he said, \"You're a word man, answer him.\" Of course I prepared an answer, 12 pages long, not as short as his question. And I said basically no, the best companies in the world were not working in Iraq. The reasons were changes of priorities, bureaucracy, this that, many reasons. But the last reason was that they put politics ahead of competence. They awarded the contracts to companies on the basis of the country's political outlook, rather than because they're the best companies in the world.\nThe memorandum came back from Saddam saying \"I agree with everything except this -- everyone in the world does this. But now, your job is to get me the best companies in the world to work in Iraq.\" And we proceeded to do that. And everybody wanted to work in Iraq. Iraq had oil. Iraq had a population unlike some of the sparsely populated oil producing countries. Iraq had first class technocrats. Iraq had a functioning bureaucracy and Iraq had the plans to develop their country. And he went into developing the country in a very big way.\nDown-streaming the oil business came first. Reclaiming land for agriculture came after that. Building railroads, building roads. Mining phosphate, mining sulpher. Building even factories to make stone windows. Nothing escaped Saddam Hussein's attention. And he never forgot a thing. And he got the best companies in the world. We got them for him, and he worked with them, and he worked with them very very successfully. Iraq, soon enough, because of the pace of development in the country, needed labor and they imported 2 million Arab workers from other Arab countries. And through being generous to the Arab workers who came and worked without work permit, went on social security without needing it, and things like that, Saddam was making his first bid towards Arab leadership. That was his first move towards assuming the leadership of the Arab people. Through the workers who came to work in Iraq through during the heydays of OPEC.\nWhy were you working for the regime of Saddam?\nThere is a whole generation of people like me. We are about the same age as Saddam -- I'm two years older actually -- who believe that is where the Arab dream was -- in Iraq. Iraq had wealth, it had population, it had prospects, it had a strong army. They were not backward -- and I will use the word \"backward\" -- like some of the oil-producing countries. They offered us a future. And we took that chance. We were enamored with what Saddam was doing. Make no mistake about it. Anybody who tells you otherwise didn't know what Saddam was about. He's not telling the truth.\nWe knew Saddam was tough. But the balance was completely different then. He was also delivering. The Iraqi people were getting a great deal of things that they needed and wanted and he was popular. He eliminated people here and there. With time, as with all dictators, the balance switched. And all we saw of Saddam was elimination and very little benefit to the people.\nYou became aware that he was actually looking to acquire a nuclear capability for a bomb?\nSaddam started a program to acquire unconventional weapons in 1974 when he was vice president. He formed a committee and called it the Committee for Strategic Development. It was a three-person committee with Saddam as chair. His brother-in-law and chief of staff of the Iraqi army, as a member, and his deputy, Adnan Hamdani, as another member. This committee operated secretly. Even the president didn't know what they were doing. They skimmed off 5 percent of the oil income and used it to acquire unconventional weapon. It was the only thing this committee was doing.\nNow, to achieve his aim, he needed two things in Iraq. One, money. And there was a great deal of money -- we had the first oil shock and Iraq was getting more money than it was spending. So 5 percent of the oil income was a great deal of money. He had the money. Then, you needed the human factor -- the scientists and engineers -- and Iraq had a great many of them. But to show you Saddam's brilliance, he added to that by starting a repatriation program of Arab scientists and engineers from all over the world. And I mean Arab, not Iraqi. I'm talking about Egyptians, Palestinians, Moroccans, you name it. He brought them over and he integrated them into his program.\nWith these two things in place and the will to acquire unconventional weapons, there was only one way to stop Saddam. That would have been for the supplier countries who made the equipment, or made the atomic reactors, not to sell them. That did not happen. And to put it in the vernacular -- after that, he was off and running.\nAnd you saw up close the willingness of some of these countries and companies to work with him and the willingness of their governments to approve these various exports?\nMost of Saddam's requests to Western governments were positively received. If there was the occasional no by a government, he went to another place and he got what he wanted. There were no constraints on getting what he wanted. He got it in time. Time was the only limit to what Saddam was capable of achieving. He got blueprints to help make chemical warfare plans from the United States. Everybody accused the Europeans of that. It was actually an American company and writers in New York would supply him with this blueprints. The U.S. government knew about it.\nHe got offers for fighter bombers from both the U.K. and France. For helicopters, for an atomic reactor from France. For suits against atomic biological and chemical warfare from the U.K. All of these things took place. Nobody basically said no. Saddam was not stopped through any denial of equipment he needed. He was occasionally stopped through policy. But that didn't last long.\nAnd what gave the whole program of acquiring unconventional weapons an impetus was in the 1970s. The main aim of the West was to pry Saddam away from Russia. And in order to do that, they were bribing him. They were giving him everything he wanted. In the 1980s, the reasons changed [for helping Saddam]. ... Khomeini appeared on the scene and the West decided that Saddam was the lesser of two evils. And they continued to support him and give him what he wanted. In this case, including credit.\nThe third phase of this relationship was immediately after the cessation of hostilities in the Iran-Iraq war, when Saddam seemingly came out victorious. All of a sudden he was sitting on top of a million-man tested army, unconventional weapons and he was broke, and restless. He became dangerous. He had to do something in order to survive. This was followed by a series of incidents which led to a crisis, the discovery of the supergun, the discovery of the atomic triggers, Saddam threatening the American fleet in the Gulf, things like that. And the whole thing, of course, culminated in his invasion of Kuwait and we know what followed that.\nRegarding the building of weapons of mass destruction, when it came to an atomic weapon, why did you still believe that that was okay?\nI don't think there was any Arab in the '70s who did not want Saddam Hussein to have an atomic weapon. They wanted him to have military parity. Israel had atomic weapons. The Arabs wanted an Arab country to have atomic weapons. Iraq was the head of the pack and therefore all Arabs supported Saddam Hussein. I have news for you: I don't think there are many Arabs at this moment in time -- you can exclude me out of this statement at this moment in time -- who do not want Saddam Hussein to have an atomic weapon now. They don't look at it as weapons of mass destruction. They look at it as transfer of technology. That the Arabs have done it, the Arabs have joined the modern world. That's the way they see it. And that pleases them. The fact that Saddam Hussein eliminates people, kills innocent men, uses a chemical weapon against his own people, is actually in a way secondary to this image. The Iraqi people are concerned with the latter. They suffer because of the latter. But the Arab people outside of Iraq do not suffer because Saddam Hussein eliminates people, because he doesn't eliminate them. He eliminates Iraqis.\nSo there is a division between the vision of Saddam Hussein that the Iraqis have and the vision of Saddam Hussein the rest of the Arabs have. To the rest of the Arabs, he is the man standing up to West. To the Iraqis, he is the man who dragged us into this state of misery. Unwillingly.\nAfter the revolution Saddam was still vice president and in July of 1979, he makes a visit to Amman. And, at the same time, he meets with CIA agents there. What is he doing? And what are the consequences of this trip?\nBefore starting the war with Iran, Saddam Hussein went on a tour of several Arab countries. His first stop was Amman in Jordan. And there he had two things he did not have in other places: an indirect line to the Americans through King Hussein, who has always been a friend of America, and, the possibility of meeting three senior CIA agents who were there, not to spy on Jordan, but to use Jordan as a listening post for the rest of the Middle East.\nThere is absolutely no doubt that Saddam discussed his plans to invade Iran with King Hussein. There is considerable evidence that he discussed his plans to invade Iran with the CIA agents that King Hussein prevailed on him to meet with. After that he flew to Saudi Arabia and there is a record of him telling King Fahd that he is going to invade Iran, and then after that, I think he had a stop-over in Kuwait and he did the same thing. What the trips did was to guarantee him American support in invading Iran. Financial support from the oil producing countries after their invasion and a channel to buy arms.\nOne of the great unknowns or perhaps unthought of elements in the war between Iran and Iraq was the people who fronted for them in purchasing arms. Saddam had acceptable countries who fronted for him. Jordan bought arms for Saddam. Jordan is acceptable in the West. Egypt bought arms for Saddam. Egypt was acceptable. Saudi Arabia bought arms for Saddam. Saudi Arabia was acceptable. Iran did not have that advantage. Iran had Syria and Libya to front for it, and neither country was acceptable. So the flow of arms to Iraq was at the much higher scale. And they were more sophisticated stuff. They got more sophisticated pieces of armament than the Iranians. And this is why they prevailed in the end.\nSo you can look at this picture as having begun with this tour that Saddam took immediately before he invaded Iran. He was protecting his back with conservative regimes, with pro-West regimes. He was not protecting his back with the USSR. As a matter of fact the USSR cut off the flow of arms to Iraq once it invaded Iran and Saddam had to rely exclusively on Western armaments for three years until the USSR changed its mind and start selling him again. They saw that they were losing out in Iraq because the West was willing to give him everything he wanted."
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"Saddam Hussein | president of Iraq | Britannica.com",
"Saddam Hussein - Biography of the Iraqi Dictator",
"Saddam Hussein Biography - life, family, childhood ...",
"Saddam Hussein - Northern Virginia Community College ...",
"frontline: the survival of saddam: secrets of his life and ..."
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Who became chair of Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1989?
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"The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) is a body of senior uniformed leaders in the United States Department of Defense who advise the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council, the National Security Council and the President of the United States on military matters. The composition of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is defined by statute and consists of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS), Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (VCJCS), and the Military Service Chiefs from the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, and the Chief of the National Guard Bureau, all appointed by the President following Senate confirmation. Each of the individual Military Service Chiefs, outside of their Joint Chiefs of Staff obligations, works directly for the Secretary of the Military Department concerned, i.e., Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy, and the Secretary of the Air Force. \n\nFollowing the Goldwater–Nichols Act in 1986, the Joint Chiefs of Staff do not have operational command authority, neither individually nor collectively, as the chain of command goes from the President to the Secretary of Defense, and from the Secretary of Defense to the Commanders of the Combatant Commands. Goldwater–Nichols also created the office of Vice Chairman, and the Chairman is now designated as the principal military adviser to the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council, the National Security Council and the President. \n\nThe Joint Staff (JS) is a headquarters staff in the Pentagon, composed of personnel from each of the four Department of Defense armed services, that assists the Chairman and the Vice Chairman in discharging their responsibilities and is managed by the Director of the Joint Staff (DJS) who is a lieutenant general or Navy vice admiral. \n\nRole and responsibilities\n\nAfter the 1986 reorganization of the military undertaken by the Goldwater-Nichols Act, the Joint Chiefs of Staff does not have operational command of U.S. military forces. Responsibility for conducting military operations goes from the President to the Secretary of Defense directly to the commanders of the Unified Combatant Commands and thus bypasses the Joint Chiefs of Staff completely.\n\nToday, their primary responsibility is to ensure the personnel readiness, policy, planning and training of their respective military services for the combatant commanders to utilize. The Joint Chiefs of Staff also act in a military advisory capacity for the President of the United States and the Secretary of Defense. In addition, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff acts as the chief military advisor to the President and the Secretary of Defense. In this strictly advisory role, the Joint Chiefs constitute the second-highest deliberatory body for military policy, after the National Security Council and the Homeland Security Council, which includes the President and other officials besides the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs.\n\nWhile serving as chairman or Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Chief of Staff of the Army, Commandant of the Marine Corps, Chief of Naval Operations, Chief of Staff of the Air Force, or Commandant of the Coast Guard, the salary is $20,263.50 a month, regardless of cumulative years of service completed under section 205 of title 37, United States Code.\n\nCurrent members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff\n\nNotes:\n* The Joint Chiefs do not include the Commandant of the Coast Guard because the Coast Guard is normally under the Department of Homeland Security, where the other four branches are under the Department of Defense. However, the Coast Guard is always a military service (14 United States Code, section 1) and may operate under the Department of the Navy during wartime. The commandant of the Coast Guard is however, occasionally invited by the chairman to attend meetings of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. \n\nHistory\n\nJoint Board\n\nAs the military of the United States grew in size following the American Civil War, joint military action between the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy became increasingly difficult. The Army and Navy were unsupportive of each other at either the planning or operational level and were constrained by disagreements during the Spanish–American War in the Caribbean campaigns. The Joint Army and Navy Board was established in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt, comprising representatives from the military heads and chief planners of both the Navy's General Board and the Army's General Staff. The Joint Board acting as an \"advisory committee\" was created to plan joint operations and resolve problems of common rivalry between the two services.\n\nYet, the Joint Board accomplished little as its charter gave it no authority to enforce its decisions. The Joint Board also lacked the ability to originate its own opinions and was thus limited to commenting only on the problems submitted to it by the Secretaries of War and Navy. As a result, the Joint Board had little to no impact on the manner the United States conducted World War I.\n\nAfter World War I, in 1919 the two Secretaries agreed to reestablish and revitalize the Joint Board. The mission of the General staff was to develop plans for mobilization for the next war; the US was always designated \"Blue\" and potential enemies were assigned various other colors. \n\nThis time, the Joint Board's membership would include the Chiefs of Staff, their deputies, and the Chief of War Plans Division for the Army and Director of Plans Division for the Navy. Under the Joint Board would be a staff called the Joint Planning Committee to serve the Board. Along with new membership, the Joint Board could initiate recommendations on its own initiative. However, the Joint Board still did not possess the legal authority to enforce its decisions.\n\nWorld War II\n\nPresident of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill established the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) during the 1942 Arcadia Conference. The CCS would serve as the supreme military body for strategic direction of the combined US-British Empire war effort.\n\nThe UK portion of the CCS would be composed of the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, but the United States had no equivalent body. The Joint Board's lack of authority made it of little use to the CCS, although its 1935 publication, Joint Action of the Army and Navy, did give some guidance for the joint operations during World War II. The Joint Board had little influence during the war and was ultimately disbanded in 1947.\n\nAs a counterpart to the UK's Chiefs of Staff Committee in the CCS, and to provide better coordinated effort and coordinated staff work for America's military effort, Admiral William D. Leahy proposed a \"unified high command\" in what would come to be called the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Modeled on the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, the JCS' first formal meeting was held on 9 February 1942, to coordinate U.S. military operations between War and Navy Departments. On 20 July 1942, Admiral Leahy became the Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy (\"Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States\" is the military title of the U.S. President, per Article II, § 2, of the Constitution), with the chiefs of staff of the services serving under his leadership.\n\nThe first members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff were: \n\nAs the table indicates, each of the members of the original Joint Chiefs was a four-star flag officer in his respective service branch. By the end of the war, however, each had been promoted: Leahy and King to Fleet Admiral; Marshall and Arnold to General of the Army. Arnold was later appointed to the grade of General of the Air Force.\n\nOne of the Joint Chiefs of Staff's committees was the Joint Strategic Survey Committee (JSSC). The JSSC was an extraordinary JCS committee that existed from 1942 until 1947. It was \"one of the most influential planning agencies in the wartime armed forces.\" Members included Lieutenant General Stanley D. Embick, U.S. Army, chairman, 1942–, Vice Admiral Russell Willson, U.S. Navy, 1942–1945, Vice Admiral Theodore Stark Wilkinson, U.S. Navy, 1946, and Major General Muir S. Fairchild, U.S. Army Air Force, 1942–.\n\nNational Security Act of 1947\n\nWith the end of World War II, the Joint Chiefs of Staff was officially established under the National Security Act of 1947. Per the National Security Act, the JCS consisted of a chairman, the Chief of Staff of the Army, the Chief of Staff of the Air Force (which was established as a separate service by the same Act), and the Chief of Naval Operations. The Commandant of the Marine Corps was to be consulted on matters concerning the Corps, but was not a regular member; General Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr., Commandant in 1952–55, was the first to sit as an occasional member. The law was amended during the term of General Louis H. Wilson, Jr. (1975–79), making the Commandant a full-time JCS member in parity with the other three DoD services.\n\nThe position of vice-chairman was created by the Goldwater–Nichols Act of 1986 to complement the CJCS, as well as to delegate some of the chairman's responsibilities, particularly resource allocation through the Joint Requirements Oversight Council (JROC).\n\nGeneral Colin L. Powell (1989–93) was the first and, as of 2011, the only African American to serve on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. General Peter Pace (Vice chairman 2001–05; Chairman, 2005–07) was the first Marine to serve in either position. No woman has ever served on the Joint Chiefs of Staff.\n\nNational Defense Authorization Act of 2012\n\nA provision in the 2012 National Defense Authorization Act added the Chief of the National Guard Bureau to the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Guard historians called it the \"most significant development\" for the National Guard since the Militia Act of 1903.\n\nOrganization and leadership positions\n\nChairman\n\nThe Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is, by law, the highest-ranking military officer of the United States Armed Forces, and the principal military adviser to the President of the United States. He leads the meetings and coordinates the efforts of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, comprising the chairman, the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, the Commandant of the United States Marine Corps, the Chief of Naval Operations, United States Air Force, and the Chief of the National Guard Bureau. The Joint Chiefs of Staff have offices in The Pentagon. The chairman outranks all respective heads of each service branch, but does not have command authority over them, their service branches or the Unified Combatant Commands. All combatant commanders receive operational orders directly from the Secretary of Defense. \n\nThe current chairman is General Joseph Dunford, USMC, who began his term on October 1, 2015.\n\nOn 20 July 1942, Navy Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy became the Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy (20 July 1942 – 21 March 1949). He was not technically the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Leahy's office was the precursor to the post of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. That post was established and first held by General of the Army Omar Bradley in 1949.\n\nVice Chairman\n\nThe position of Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff was created by the Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986. The vice-chairman is a four-star-general or admiral and, by law, is the second highest-ranking member of the U.S. Armed Forces (after the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff). In the absence of the chairman, the vice-chairman presides over the meetings of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He may also perform such duties as the chairman may prescribe. It was not until the National Defense Authorization Act in 1992 that the position was made a full voting member of the JCS. \n\nThe current vice-chairman is General Paul J. Selva, USAF.\n\nSenior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman\n\nThe Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (SEAC) advises on all matters concerning joint and combined total force integration, utilization, development, and helps develop noncommissioned officers related joint professional education, enhance utilization of senior NCOs on joint battle staffs, and support the chairman’s responsibilities as directed.\n\nCommand Sergeant Major William Gainey, U.S. Army, was the first SEAC, serving from October 1, 2005. The current SEAC is Command Sergeant Major John W. Troxell, U.S. Army, who was sworn in by Joint Chiefs Chairman General Joseph Dunford on December 11, 2015, replacing Sergeant Major Bryan B. Battaglia, USMC.\n\nThe Joint Staff\n\nThe Joint Staff (JS) is a military headquarters staff based at the Pentagon, composed of personnel from all the four DoD services, assisting the Chairman and the Vice Chairman in discharging their responsibilities. They work closely with the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), the Military Department staffs, and the Combatant Command Staffs.\n\nThe Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is assisted by the Director of the Joint Staff, a three-star officer who assists the chairman with the management of the Joint Staff, an organization composed of approximately equal numbers of officers contributed by the Army, the Navy and Marine Corps, and the Air Force, who have been assigned to assist the chairman in providing to the Secretary of Defense unified strategic direction, operation, and integration of the combatant land, naval, and air forces.\n\nDirectorates of the Joint Staff\n\nThe Joint Staff includes the following departments where all the planning, policies, intelligence, manpower, communications and logistics functions are translated into action. \n* Joint Staff Information Management Division (United States)\n* DOM – Directorate of Management\n* J1 – Personnel and Manpower\n* J2 – Intelligence\n** The National Military Joint Intelligence Center (NMJIC) is part of the J2 directorate\n* J3 – Operations\n** The National Military Command Center (NMCC) is part of the J3 directorate\n* J4 – Logistics\n* J5 – Strategic Plans and Policy\n* J6 – Command, Control, Communications and Computers/Cyber – \n** The J-6 directorate is one of a group of agencies that administer the SIPRNet. Other administrators include: National Security Agency, Defense Intelligence Agency, and Defense Information Systems Agency. The J-6 chairs the DOD's Military Communications-Electronic Board, which works in conjunction with the multinational Combined Communications Electronic Board.\n** The J-6 Joint Deployable Analysis Team (JDAT) conducts assessments in conjunction with Combatant Command exercises, experiments, and test and evaluation events. \n* J7 – Operational Plans and Joint Force Development\n* J8 – Force Structure, Resources, and Assessment\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff: Civilian Awards\n\nThe Joint Chiefs may recognize private citizens, organizations or career civilian government employees for significant achievements provided to the joint community with one of the following decorations / awards. \n* CJCS Award for Distinguished Public Service (DPS)\n* CJCS Award for Outstanding Public Service (OPS)\n* CJCS Joint Distinguished Civilian Service Award\n* CJCS Joint Meritorious Civilian Service Award\n* Joint Civilian Service Commendation Award (JCSCA)\n* Joint Civilian Service Achievement Award (JCSAA)\n\nCoast Guard\n\nAlthough the Coast Guard is one of the five armed services of the United States, the Commandant of the Coast Guard is not a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Commandant is, however, entitled to the same supplemental pay as the Joint Chiefs, per 37 U.S.C. § 414(a)(5) ($4,000 per annum in 2009), and is accorded privilege of the floor under Senate Rule XXIII(1) as a de facto JCS member during Presidential addresses. In contrast to the Joint Chiefs—who are not in the military's operational chain of command—the Commandant of the Coast Guard commands his service. Coast Guard officers are legally eligible to be appointed as CJCS and VCJCS, per 10 U.S.C. 152(a)(1) & 154(a)(1) respectively—which use the collective term \"armed forces\" rather than listing the eligible services—but none has been appointed to either position as of 2016."
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"... the pinnacle of his profession when he was appointed chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff by President ... 1989 : Powell becomes Joint Chiefs’ chairman.",
"General Colin Powell was the First African American chairman of the Joint ... chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff ... 1989, to Sept. 30, 1993. At age 52, he became ...",
"American Army officer Colin Luther Powell ... to serve as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989 ... became chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff ...",
"Colin L. Powell (1937 - ) By Thomson ... Appointed Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff. In 1989, ... Powell has become an American success story, ...",
"... high resolution news photos at Getty Images. ... 1980-1989,African-American ... the first African-American to become Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.",
"Colin L. Powell was appointed Secretary of State ... Security Advisor from 1987 until 1989. ... of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In the four ..."
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"Powell becomes Joint Chiefs’ chairman - Sep 21, 1989 - HISTORY.com\nPowell becomes Joint Chiefs’ chairman\nShare this:\nPowell becomes Joint Chiefs’ chairman\nAuthor\nPowell becomes Joint Chiefs’ chairman\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nThe Senate Armed Forces Committee unanimously confirms President George H. Bush’s nomination of Army General Colin Powell as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Powell was the first African American to achieve the United States’ highest military post.\nPowell was born in 1937 in Harlem, New York, to Jamaican immigrant parents. Joining the U.S. Army after college, he served two tours in Vietnam before holding several high-level military posts during the 1970s and 1980s. From 1987 to 1989, he was national security adviser to President Ronald Reagan and in 1989 reached the pinnacle of his profession when he was appointed chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff by President George Bush. As chairman, General Powell’s greatest achievement was planning the swift U.S. victory over Iraq in 1991’s Persian Gulf War. In 1993, he retired as chairman.\nTwo years later, he embarked on a national tour to promote his autobiography, My American Journey, fueling speculation that he was testing the waters for a possible presidential campaign. By the fall of 1995, public enthusiasm over the possibility of his running for president had reached a feverish pitch. Regarded as a moderate Republican, opinion polls showed Powell trailing close behind Republican favorite Bob Dole and favored over Democratic incumbent Bill Clinton. However, in November 1995, he announced that he would not run for president in the next election, citing concerns for his family’s well-being and a lack of passion for the rigors of political life.\nFrom 1997, he served as chairman of “America’s Promise–The Alliance for Youth,” a national nonprofit organization dedicated to building the character and competence of young people. In December 2000, Powell was appointed the first African American U.S. secretary of state by President-elect George W. Bush. Unanimously confirmed by the U.S. Senate, he was sworn in on January 20, 2001 and held that position until January 26, 2005. He was succeeded by Condoleezza Rice.\nRelated Videos",
"September 21, 1989 : Powell becomes Joint Chiefs’ chairman\nIntroduction\nThe Senate Armed Forces Committee unanimously confirms President George H. Bush’s nomination of Army General Colin Powell as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Powell was the first African American to achieve the United States’ highest military post.\nPowell was born in 1937 in Harlem, New York, to Jamaican immigrant parents. Joining the U.S. Army after college, he served two tours in Vietnam before holding several high-level military posts during the 1970s and 1980s. From 1987 to 1989, he was national security adviser to President Ronald Reagan and in 1989 reached the pinnacle of his profession when he was appointed chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff by President George Bush. As chairman, General Powell’s greatest achievement was planning the swift U.S. victory over Iraq in 1991’s Persian Gulf War. In 1993, he retired as chairman.\nTwo years later, he embarked on a national tour to promote his autobiography, My American Journey, fueling speculation that he was testing the waters for a possible presidential campaign. By the fall of 1995, public enthusiasm over the possibility of his running for president had reached a feverish pitch. Regarded as a moderate Republican, opinion polls showed Powell trailing close behind Republican favorite Bob Dole and favored over Democratic incumbent Bill Clinton. However, in November 1995, he announced that he would not run for president in the next election, citing concerns for his family’s well-being and a lack of passion for the rigors of political life.\nFrom 1997, he served as chairman of “America’s Promise–The Alliance for Youth,” a national nonprofit organization dedicated to building the character and competence of young people. In December 2000, Powell was appointed the first African American U.S. secretary of state by President-elect George W. Bush. Unanimously confirmed by the U.S. Senate, he was sworn in on January 20, 2001 and held that position until January 26, 2005. He was succeeded by Condoleezza Rice.\nArticle Details:\nSeptember 21, 1989 : Powell becomes Joint Chiefs’ chairman\nAuthor\nSeptember 21, 1989 : Powell becomes Joint Chiefs’ chairman\nURL",
"General Colin Powell was the First African American chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in the U.S. Army\nGen. Colin L. Powell\n1989: First black chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff\nPowell made history by becoming the 12th chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff-the highest military position in the Department of Defense, Oct. 1, 1989, to Sept. 30, 1993. At age 52, he became the youngest officer to serve in this position. Powell made history again when he became the first appointed black secretary of state, Jan. 20, 2001.",
"Colin Luther Powell facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Colin Luther Powell\nSources\nAlready highly regarded by political and military leaders in the White House, Congress, and the Pentagon, U.S. Army General Colin Powell achieved national and international prominence in 1990 and 1991 as one of the key leaders of Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, the military campaigns to protect Saudi Arabia and liberate Kuwait from Iraqi control. Powell, as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, heads up the Pentagon and serves as the president’s top military adviser, placing him among the most powerful policy makers in the world.\nDuring the Persian Gulf War, he was credited with skillfully balancing the political objectives of President George Bush and the strategy needs of General Norman Schwarzkopf and other military commanders in the field. Because of his leadership during the war and his experience as an insider in the Washington bureaucracy, Powell has been suggested by analysts as a promising candidate for future political office, either as vice-president or president.\nColin Luther Powell was born in 1937 in Harlem, the son of Jamaican immigrants who had both gone to work In New York City’s garment district. The young Powell grew up in the South Bronx, where he enjoyed a secure childhood, looked after by a closely knit family and a multi-ethnic community. He graduated from Morris High School In 1954 and received his B.A. in geology from the City College of New York in 1958. He was undistinguished as a student, but he excelled in the college’s Reserve Officer’s Training Corps (ROTC), leading the precision drill team and attaining the top rank offered by the corps, cadet colonel. He was not West Point trained, but his achievements in the ROTC won him a commission as second lieutenant in the U.S. Army.\nHis first assignment for the U.S. Army was at the Fulda Gap in West Germany, where American and allied troops stood as an obstacle on the Soviet bloc’s most likely invasion route of Western Europe. In the 1960s, Powell served two tours of duty in South Vietnam . As an adviser to South Vietnamese troops, he was wounded in 1963 when he fell victim to a Vietcong booby trap. His second tour, from 1968 to 1969, as an Army Infantry officer, also ended when Powell was injured, this time in a helicopter crash from which he rescued two of his\nAt a Glance…\nFull name, Colin Luther Powell; born April 5, 1937, in Harlem, NY; son of Luther (a shipping clerk) and Maud Ariel (a seamstress; maiden name, McKoy) Powell; married Alma Vivian Johnson (a speech pathologist), August 25, 1962; children: Michael, Linda, Annemarie. Education: City College of the City University of New York, B.S., 1958; George Washington University, M.B.A., 1971; graduate of the National War College, 1976. Religion: Episcopalian.\nU.S. Army career officer, 1958—; commissioned second lieutenant, 1958, promoted to general, 1989. Served in West Germany, beginning 1958, and in the U.S.; served in Vietnam as a military adviser, 1962-63, and as battalion executive officer and division operations officer, 1968-69, and in South Korea as battalion commander, 1973; commander of the Second Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division, Fort Campbell, KY, 1976-77; assistant commander of the Fourth Infantry Division, Fort Carson, CO, 1981-83; deputy commander of Fort Leavenworth, KS, 1983; commanding general of the Fifth Corps, Frankfurt, West Germany, 1986-87; commander-in-chief of the U.S. Forces Command at Fort McPherson, GA, 1989—; chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington, D.C., 1989—.\nAssistant to the deputy director of the Office of Management and Budget, 1972-73; executive assistant to the secretary of energy, 1979; senior military assistant to the deputy secretary of defense, 1979-81; military assistant to the secretary of defense, 1983-86; deputy assistant for the assistant to the President for national security affairs, 1987; assistant to the President for national security affairs, 1987-89.\nAwards: Military honors, including the Purple Heart and Bronze Star, both 1963, and the Legion of Merit, 1972.\nAddresses: Home —Fort Myers, VA. Office —Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, The Pentagon, Room 2E-857, Washington, DC 20318.\nfellow soldiers. For his valor in Vietnam, he received two Purple Hearts, a Bronze Star, a Soldier’s Medal, and the Legion of Merit.\nGained Political Experience\nBack on the home front, Powell pursued an M.B.A. at George Washington University. After completing his graduate studies in 1971, he was awarded a prestigious White House fellowship, which gave him the opportunity to get his first taste of politics. From 1972 to 1973, he worked for Frank Carlucci, then Deputy Director of the Office of Management and Budget under Caspar Weinberger. It was the beginning of Powell’s education in the dynamics of the Washington bureaucracy. Over the next 15 years he returned to the political arena from time to time to continue that education.\nFrom 1979 to 1981, Powell served the Carter administration as an executive assistant to Charles Duncan, Jr., the Secretary of Energy, and as senior military assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense. When the Reagan administration came to Washington, Powell worked with Carlucci on the Defense Department’s transition team, and then from 1983 to 1986 he joined Weinberger again, this time as military assistant to the Defense Secretary. While there, Powell contributed to the department’s involvement in the invasion of Grenada and the bombing raid on Libya .\nBetween stints in the political arena, Powell continued to advance his military career. In 1973, he travelled to South Korea to take command of a battalion and then a year later he returned to Washington as a staff officer at the Pentagon. He completed his military education at the National War College in 1976 and took command of the Second Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky , that same year. In the early 1980s, he completed assignments as the assistant commander of the Fourth Infantry Division at Fort Carson, Colorado , and as the deputy director at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas . He was in West Germany again in 1987, this time as commanding general of the Fifth Corps in Frankfurt, when he was called back to Washington to work again with Frank Carlucci, the new National Security Adviser.\nCarlucci had been chosen to head the troubled National Security Council in the aftermath of the Iran -Contra scandal. Powell was not a stranger to the NSC’s dealings under Admiral John Poindexter and Oliver North; he had first confronted the issue of arms sales to Iran while working under Weinberger at the Defense Department. Yet, even though he had been aware of the covert activities, he was able to remain above reproach because he had always acted according to law and had not become involved until after presidential approval had been given.\nTogether Carlucci and Powell reorganized the NSC to reduce the possibility for free lance foreign policy. When in 1987 Carlucci took over as Secretary of Defense for the departing Weinberger, Powell was called upon to take over leadership of the NSC. The move earned widespread approval in Washington because, as Fred Barnes wrote in the New Republic, Powell is “a national security adviser strong enough to settle policy disputes but without a personal agenda.”\nDuring his tenure at the NSC, Powell did speak out on a number of issues he felt were important to national security, including economic strength, control of technology exchanges, protection of the environment, a stable defense budget, free trade and foreign investment, research and development, and education. He also expressed his opposition to plans for the overthrow of Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega and to heavy spending on the Strategic Defense Initiative (“Star Wars”). Even so, as he told Barnes, “I' principally a broker. I have strong views on things, but my job is to make sure the president gets the best information available to make an informed decision.”\nNamed Chairman of Joint Chiefs\nIn 1989, President Bush rewarded Powell for the knowledge and skills he had acquired in the military and political arenas by naming him to the military’s top post, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the youngest man and first black to hold that position. Said the president of Powell: “As we face the challenges of the 90s, it is most important that the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff be a person of breadth, judgment, experience, and total integrity. Colin Powell has all those qualities and more.” In peacetime, the chairman’s responsibilities have included overseeing the prioritization of Pentagon spending and keeping the channels of communication open between the military and the White House. They have also included drawing up plans for military action, first in Panama and then in the Middle East .\nBecause of a 1986 law redefining his role and because George Bush has the utmost trust in Powell, the general has more influence than any Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff since World War II . The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, obliged Powell to exercise that authority. The day after the invasion, Powell advised the president that a number of options were open, including economic and diplomatic sanctions, as well as the use of military force; the Bush administration decided that decisive force was the necessary response. Operation Desert Shield, requiring the massive movement of troops and supplies to Saudi Arabia, was soon initiated as a show of force and to serve as a deterrent to further Iraqi aggression. After touring the Middle East, the general recommended increasing the number of troops to assure the success of an isolate and destroy strategy if it proved necessary. He told U.S. News and World Report: “You in win, and you go in to win decisively.”\nOversaw War in the Middle East\nIn the early stages of the operation, Powell again demonstrated his ability to manage people and bureaucracies. As European and Middle Eastern troops joined in a coalition against Iraq , Powell directed the quick integration of communications, operations, and authority into a command network under the direction of General Norman Schwarzkopf. During the planning of the air and land campaigns, he aided the president in making political decisions and kept him informed of military plans, but he also convinced the Washington warriors to leave the commanders in Saudi Arabia the space needed to carry out their missions.\nHe, too, avoided involvement in the minute details of day-to-day operations, exerting his authority only on major issues. He oversaw bombing missions on Baghdad only after the destruction of a suburban Baghdad bunker killed 400 civilians. He rejected Marine requests to launch a true amphibious assault on Kuwait instead of the feint scheduled to aid Schwarzkopf’s encirclement of Kuwait by an end run through Iraq. He also convinced President Bush to respond to the February 21 Iraqi peace proposal with an ultimatum: the Iraqis must pull out of Kuwait by noon Washington time, February 23. When the deadline passed, the coalition began its land campaign later that night as scheduled.\nWith the success of Operation Desert Storm, Powell has been placed in the spotlight of media and public attention. Criticism of him by black leaders who label him a servant of the white Establishment and by peace activists who see him as a trigger-happy hawk has been tempered by praise of him as a positive role model for young blacks and as a committed defender of liberty.\nFuture Plans\nPowell has met with Vice-President Dan Quayle to assure him that the general has no designs on the nation’s number two executive post. He has also requested a second tour as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Bruce B. Auster reported in U.S. News and World Report: “Powell is able to transfer his unquestioned personal integrity to the institution he leads in part because, while he wields more power than almost any of his Pentagon predecessors, he is not addicted to it.”\nAs a black military leader, Powell has demonstrated his commitment to helping young black men and women succeed in the armed services. He has long contended that the military should not be criticized for putting a disproportionate number of young black men and women in harm’s way, but rather praised and imitated for its history of providing opportunities to minorities. Marshall Brown quotes Powell in a profile in Black Enterprise: “What we are dealing with now is a changing of hearts, changing of perspectives and of minds. We need to start to erase the cultural filter with respect to minorities.”\nAs a soldier, Powell has demonstrated a firm commitment to protecting his country and securing a world where democratic values can flourish. He said in a March 1990 speech before the Town Hall of California : “I believe that as long as America leads the Free World, there will be no dominating state or region…. And the proper safeguards are the same safeguards that have secured the Free World’s liberties for over four decades—our strong values, our resilient democracies, our vibrant market economics, our strong alliances, and, yes, our proud and ready armed forces.”\nNew York , New York\nAfrican American soldier, military official, and secretary of state\nDuring Colin Powell's long and impressive military and government career, he has served in some of the country's highest positions, including chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. When President George W. Bush (1946–) chose Powell for the job of secretary of state, he became the first African American to ever serve in this position.\nA young soldier\nColin Luther Powell was born in the Harlem neighborhood of New York, New York, on April 5, 1937. His parents were immigrants from Jamaica. He spent most of his childhood in the South Bronx neighborhood of New York City, which was then regarded as a step up from Harlem. The neighborhood included white, African American, and Puerto Rican residents. Powell has said that he never thought of himself as a \"minority\" while a child.\nDespite his parents' urgings that he should \"strive for a good education\" in order to \"make something\" of his life, Powell remained an ordinary student throughout high school. At City College of New York, however, Powell discovered his leadership skills after joining the army's Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). He graduated from the program in 1958 and was made a second lieutenant (an army officer who is below all other officers) in the U.S. Army. He was then assigned to duty in West Germany. In 1962 he met and married Alma Vivian Johnson, with whom he eventually had three children.\nPowell's next overseas assignment was in South Vietnam . At the time the United States was involved in the Vietnam War (1955–75; a civil war in which anti-Communist forces in South Vietnam, supported by the United States, were fighting against a takeover by Communist forces in North Vietnam). During his first tour of duty in Vietnam (1962–63), Powell was wounded in action. He returned for a second tour (1968–69) and received the Soldier's Medal for pulling several men from a burning helicopter.\nWorking in Washington\nAfter his second tour in Vietnam, Powell returned to the United States and studied for a master's degree in business administration at George Washington University in Washington, D.C. He received the degree in 1971, then went to work at the Pentagon, the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense and military services. He then moved on to a position in the Office of Management and Budget under the director, Caspar Weinberger (1917–), and his deputy, Frank Carlucci (1930–). These two men were to have a major influence on Powell's career.\nIn the late 1970s, Powell attained the rank of major general (an army officer who is above a brigadier general) and held positions in the Pentagon and Department of Energy. In 1983 he became a military assistant to Weinberger, who was then the secretary of defense under President Ronald Reagan (1911–). While Powell was assisting Weinberger, his advice was sought by the National Security Council (NSC), the agency within the executive branch that advises the president on affairs relating to national security. The NSC wanted to make a secret sale of weapons to Iran in the belief that it would help to free American hostages that were being held in Lebanon by terrorist groups supporting Iran. Powell advised the NSC that the sale was illegal. His opposition helped to establish a reputation for having strong moral character that later served him well and that kept him from being harmed when the NSC's illegal arms deal was eventually exposed.\nIn 1986 Powell was asked by President Reagan to become Frank Carlucci's deputy on the NSC. He replaced Carlucci as national security adviser (head of the NSC) in 1987 and held the post for the rest of the Reagan administration. Arms control and attempts to overthrow the socialist government of Nicaragua were high priorities for Powell and other policy-makers during this period.\nHeading the Joint Chiefs of Staff\nWhen President-elect George Bush (1924–) told Powell that he wished to name a new national security adviser, Powell could have chosen to leave the army to earn a substantial income giving lectures or consulting in the business world. However, Powell did not retire. Instead, having been promoted to full general (an army officer who is above a lieutenant general), he took over the army's Forces Command. In this position he was responsible for overseeing the readiness of over a million regular, reserve, and National Guard personnel in the United States. Powell took on more responsibility when he was nominated by President Bush in 1989 to become chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS; the group that is responsible for giving military information and advice to the president, the secretary of defense, and the National Security Council). Powell was the first black officer to hold this post.\nAs chairman of the JCS, Powell played a key role in the December 1989 American military invasion of Panama to unseat that country's military leader, Manuel Noriega (1938–). Earlier in 1989, Noriega, who had been in control of the Panamanian government since 1983, had cancelled presidential elections. Noriega was also involved in the buying and selling of illegal drugs and other unlawful activities. The U.S. government overthrew Noriega in an effort to bring the leader to the United States to be tried on drug charges, to protect Americans, and to give the Panamanian people back their freedom. Television appearances in which Powell explained the purpose of the operation brought him to the favorable attention of the American public.\nPowell was also highly visible during Operation Desert Shield. This was a joint effort by the United States and several other nations to pressure Saddam Hussein (1937–), the president of the Middle Eastern nation Iraq , into removing his forces from the neighboring country of Kuwait . Iraq had occupied Kuwait in August 1990. It soon became apparent that this operation, unlike the one in Panama, would take months to decide and involved the risk of high casualties (deaths of soldiers) if war broke out between the Iraqis and the international forces.\nOperation Desert Shield turned into Operation Desert Storm on January 16, 1991, beginning the six-week conflict that was known as the Persian Gulf War. Powell again demonstrated his leadership during this time, and the Iraqi army was swiftly crushed. For his part in this war, Powell was awarded a Congressional gold medal.\nSecretary of State\nAfter Powell retired from the military in 1993, he was often mentioned as a potential candidate for president. While many hoped that he would run for president in 1996, he announced in 1995 that he would not do so. Instead, Powell supported George W. Bush in the campaign that led to Bush's election in 2000. On December 16, 2000, Bush announced that he would name Powell as his secretary of state, the nation's top foreign policy position. Powell was the first African American named to this post.\nOn September 11, 2001, anti-American terrorists crashed jet planes into the Pentagon and into the two towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. The attack killed thousands and led Bush to declare that the United States would pursue a \"war on terrorism.\" The Bush administration's efforts concentrated initially on targets in Afghanistan , and Powell's greatest challenge was to build support for the American \"war\" among Arab and Muslim governments. As the effort to stamp out terrorism continued, Powell was perceived as a force for moderation in the Bush government, pushing for the building of alliances and for restraint when others argued for more aggressive military action.\nFor More Information\nBanta, Melissa. Colin Powell. New York: Chelsea House, 1995.\nFinlayson, Reggie. Colin Powell. Minneapolis : Lerner Publications, 1997.\nHughes, Libby. Colin Powell: A Man of Quality. Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996.\nPowell, Colin L., with Joseph E. Persico. My American Journey. New York: Random House, 1995.\nSchraff, Anne. Colin Powell: Soldier and Patriot. Springfield, NJ: Enslow, 1997.\nWheeler, Jill C. Colin Powell. Edina, MN: Abdo Pub., 2002.\nCite this article\nSources\nAlready highly regarded by political and military leaders in the White House, Congress, and the Pentagon, U.S. Army General Colin Powell first achieved national and international prominence in 1990 and 1991. Powell, as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was one of the key leaders of Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, the military campaigns to protect Saudi Arabia and liberate Kuwait from Iraqi control. During the Persian Gulf War, he was credited with skillfully balancing the political objectives of President George Bush and the strategy needs of General Norman Schwarzkopf and other military commanders in the field.\nAfter the war in the Gulf, Powell was considered for the vice-presidency or even the presidency, but he resisted suggestions that he should run for America’s highest office. However, when George W. Bush was elected president in 2000, Powell did not decline Bush’s request that the retired general take on the position of Secretary of State. So, when the Bush administration took office in January of 2001, Powell became the first African-American Secretary of State in U.S. history.\nColin Luther Powell was born in 1937 in Harlem, the son of Jamaican immigrants who had both gone to work in New York City’s garment district. The young Powell grew up in the South Bronx, where he enjoyed a secure childhood, looked after by a closely knit family and a multi-ethnic community. He graduated from Morris High School in 1954 and received his B.A. in geology from the City College of New York in 1958. He was undistinguished as a student, but he excelled in the college’s Reserve Officer’s Training Corps (ROTC), leading the precision drill team and attaining the top rank offered by the corps—cadet colonel. He was not West Point trained, but his achievements in the ROTC won him a commission as second lieutenant in the U.S. Army.\nServed in Vietnam\nHis first assignment was at the Fulda Gap in West Germany, where American and allied troops stood as an obstacle on the Soviet Union’s most likely invasion route of Western Europe. In the 1960s, Powell served two tours of duty in South Vietnam. As an adviser to South Vietnamese troops, he was wounded in 1963 when he fell victim to a Vietcong booby trap. His second tour, from 1968 to 1969, as an Army Infantry\nAt a Glance…\nBorn April 5, 1937, In Harlem, NY; son of Luther (a shipping clerk) and Maud Ariel (a seamstress) Powell; married Alma Vivian Johnson (a speech pathologist), August 25, 1962; children: Michael, Linda, Annemarie. Education: City College of the City University of New York, B.S., 1958; George Washington University, M.B.A., 1971; National War College, 1976. Religion: Episcopalian.\nCareen U.S. Army career officer, 1958-; commissioned second lieutenant, 1958; served in West Germany, beginning 1958, and in the United States at Fort Benning, GA and Fort Owens, MA; served in South Vietnam, as a military adviser, 1962-63, as a battalion executive officer and division operations officer, 1968-69; served in South Korea as a battalion commander, 1973; commander of the Second Brigade of the 101 st Airborne Division, Fort Campbell, KY, 1976-77; assistant commander of the Fourth infantry Division, Fort Carson, CO, 1981-83; deputy commander, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 1983; commanding general of the Fifth Corps, Frankfurt, West Germany, 1986-87; promoted to the rank of general, 1989; commander-in-chief of the U.S. Forces Command, Fort McPherson, GA, 1989; chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Pentagon, Washington, D.C., 1989-93; political appointments. Assistant to the Deputy Director, Office of Management and Budget, 1972-73; executive assistant to the Secretary of Energy, 1979; senior military assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense, 1979-81; military assistant to the Secretary of Defense, 1983-86; deputy assistant for the Assistant to the President, National Security Affairs, 1987; Assistant to the President, National Security Affairs, 1987-89; Secretary of State, 2001-.\nAwards: Several military honors, including Purple Heart, 1963, Bronze Star, 1963, Soldier’s Medal, 1969, and Legion of Merit, 1972; White House fellow, 1972-73; Secretary’s Award, 1988.\nAddresses: Home —Fort Myers VA. Office— Secretary of State, White House, 1600 Pennsylvania Ave., Washington, D,C., 20500.\nofficer, also ended when Powell was injured, this time in a helicopter crash from which he rescued two of his fellow soldiers. For his valor in Vietnam, he received two Purple Hearts, a Bronze Star, a Soldier’s Medal, and the Legion of Merit.\nBack on the home front, Powell pursued an M.B.A. at George Washington University. After completing his graduate studies in 1971, he was awarded a prestigious White House fellowship, which gave him the opportunity to get his first taste of politics. From 1972 to 1973, he worked for Frank Carlucci, then-Deputy Director of the Office of Management and Budget under Caspar Weinberger. It was the beginning of Powell’s education in the dynamics of the Washington bureaucracy. Over the next 15 years he returned to the political arena from time to time to continue that education.\nFrom 1979 to 1981, Powell served the Carter administration as an executive assistant to Charles Duncan, Jr., the Secretary of Energy, and as senior military assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense. When the Reagan administration came to Washington, Powell worked with Carlucci on the Defense Department’s transition team, and then from 1983 to 1986 he joined Weinberger again, this time as military assistant to the Defense Secretary. While there, Powell contributed to the department’s involvement in the invasion of Grenada and the bombing raid on Libya.\nBetween stints in the political arena, Powell continued to advance his military career. In 1973, he traveled to South Korea to take command of a battalion and then a year later he returned to Washington as a staff officer at the Pentagon. He completed his military education at the National War College in 1976 and took command of the Second Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky that same year. In the early 1980s, he completed assignments as the assistant commander of the Fourth Infantry Division at Fort Carson, Colorado, and as the deputy director at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He was in West Germany again in 1987, this time as commanding general of the Fifth Corps in Frankfurt, when he was called back to Washington to work again with Frank Carlucci, the new National Security Adviser.\nBegan Working for National Security Council\nCarlucci had been chosen to head the troubled National Security Council (NSC) in the aftermath of the Iran-Contra scandal. Powell was not a stranger to the NSC’s dealings under Admiral John Poindexter and Oliver North; he had first confronted the issue of arms sales to Iran while working under Weinberger at the Defense Department. Yet, even though he had been aware of the covert activities, he remained above reproach because he had always acted according to law and had not become involved until after presidential approval had been given.\nTogether Carlucci and Powell reorganized the NSC to reduce the possibility for free-lance foreign policy. When in 1987 Carlucci took over as Secretary of Defense for the departing Weinberger, Powell was called upon to take over leadership of the NSC. The move earned widespread approval in Washington because, as Fred Barnes wrote in the New Republic, Powell is “a national security adviser strong enough to settle policy disputes but without a personal agenda.”\nDuring his tenure at the NSC, Powell did speak out on a number of issues he felt were important to national security, including economic strength, control of technology exchanges, protection of the environment, a stable defense budget, free trade and foreign investment, research and development, and education. He also expressed his opposition to plans for the overthrow of Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega and to heavy spending on the Strategic Defense Initiative (“Star Wars”). Even so, as he told Barnes, “I’m principally a broker. I have strong views on things, but my job is to make sure the president gets the best information available to make an informed decision.”\nAppointed Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff\nIn 1989, President George H.W. Bush rewarded Powell for the knowledge and skills he had acquired in the military and political arenas by naming him to the military’s top post—Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Powell was the youngest man and first black to hold that position. In peacetime, the chairman’s responsibilities have included overseeing the prioritization of Pentagon spending and keeping the channels of communication open between the military and the White House. They have also included drawing up plans for military action, first in Panama and then in the Middle East.\nBecause of a 1986 law redefining his role, the general had more influence than any Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff since World War II. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, obliged Powell to exercise that authority. The day after the invasion, Powell advised the president that a number of options were open, including economic and diplomatic sanctions, as well as the use of military force; the Bush administration decided that decisive force was the necessary response. Operation Desert Shield, requiring the massive movement of troops and supplies to Saudi Arabia, was soon initiated as a show of force and to serve as a deterrent to further Iraqi aggression. After touring the Middle East, the general recommended increasing the number of troops to assure the success of an isolate and destroy strategy if it proved necessary. He told U.S. News and World Report: “You go in to win, and you go in to win decisively.”\nIn the early stages of the operation, Powell again demonstrated his ability to manage people and bureaucracies. As European and Middle Eastern troops joined in a coalition against Iraq, Powell directed the quick integration of communications, operations, and authority into a command network under the direction of General Norman Schwarzkopf. During the planning of the air and land campaigns, he aided the president in making political decisions and kept him informed of military plans, but he also convinced the Washington warriors to give the commanders in Saudi Arabia the space needed to earn, out their missions.\nHe, too, avoided invclvement in the minute details of day-to-day operations, exerting his authority only on major issues. He oversaw bombing missions on Baghdad only after the destruction of a suburban Baghdad bunker killed 400 civil: ans. He rejected Marine requests to launch a true amphibious assault on Kuwait instead of the feint scheduled to aid Schwarzkopf’s encirclement of Kuwait by an end run through Iraq. He also convinced President Bush to respond to the February 21, 1991 Iraqi peace proposal with an ultimatum: the Iraqis must pull out of Kuwait by noon Washington time, February 23. When the deadline passed, the coalition began its land campaign later that night as scheduled.\nThrown Into the Spotlight\nWith the success of Operation Desert Storm, Powell was hurled into the spotlight of media and public attention. Powell found himself the target of public scrutiny and criticism. Some black leaders labeled him a servant of the white establishment and peace activists considered him a trigger-happy hawk. Such criticisms, however, were tempered by praise of him as a positive role model for your g African Americans and as a committed defender of liberty.\nBecause of his leadership during the war effort and his experience as an insider in the Washington bureaucracy, Powell political analysts suggested him as a promising candidate for future political office, either as vice-president or president. But Powell shied away from such notions, end met with Vice-President Dan Quayle to assure him that the general had no designs on the nation’s number two executive post. Powell also requested a second tour as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Bruce B. Auster reported in U.S. News and World Report: “Powell is able to transfer his unquestioned personal integrity to the institution he leads in part because, while he wields more power than almost any of his Pentagon predecessors, he is not addicted to it.”\nAs a black military leader, Powell has demonstrated his commitment to helping young black men and women succeed in the armed services. He has long contended that the military should not be criticized for putting a disproportionate number of young black men and women in harm’s way, but rather praised for its history of providing opportunities to minorities. Powell was quoted in Black Enterprise as saying, “What we are dealing with now is a changing of hearts, changing of perspectives and of minds. We need to start to erase the cultural filter with respect to minorities.”\nAmerica’s Promise\nAfter his retirement from his position as chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1993, Powell shied from politics and pressure to run for high office, directing his energies instead toward helping America’s youth. In 1997, Powell, along with Presidents Bill Clinton, Jimmy Carer, and Gerald Ford, attended the President’s Summit for America’s Future. The Summit, which took place in Philadelphia, called upon Americans to make youth a national priority and challenged citizens to dedicate their time to volunteer efforts that would improve the lives of America’s 15 million impoverished children. Inspired by the Summit, Powell founded America’s Promise, an organization which acts to mobilize the nation to provide America’s children with five fundamental resources, or Five Promises. These Five Promises, according to the America’s Promise website include: “ongoing relationships with caring adults—parents, mentors, tutors, or coaches; safe places with structured activities during nonschool hours; healthy start and future; marketable skills through effective education; and opportunities to give back through community service.”\nAlthough the organization focuses heavily on promoting volunteerism, Powell often preferred to emphasize the importance of youth development. In 1997, he spoke about the unparalleled importance of a loving adult in a child’s life, saying that the only alternative, as quoted by U.S. News & World Report, is to “keep building more jails.” The organization has a presence in over 500 communities and in all 50 states. Powell, as quoted on the America’s Promise website, said, “America’s Promise is pulling together the might of this nation to strengthen the character and competence of youth. And it’s working.”\nSecretary of State\nIn 2000, after nearly seven years out of the political arena, Powell found himself again solicited to serve a President Bush. But this time it was George Bush’s son, George W. Bush, who, after being elected to the nation’s highest office, called upon Powell to join his Cabinet of advisors. Bush asked Powell to become his Secretary of State. Powell agreed, and became the first African American ever to hold the office. Powell settled into his new job quickly. When Powell reported to work, State Department employees lined up just to shake hands with him. Some of them even wept for joy when they met the new Secretary.\nColin Powell has dedicated his life to the service of his country. As a soldier, Powell demonstrated a firm commitment to protecting his country and securing a world where democratic values can flourish. Although he has preferred to avoid limelight of high office, Powell has become a prominent figure in U.S. politics, advising several American presidents. He has also dedicated himself to America’s future—her children. Powell has become an American success story, but unlike the typical rags-to-riches story, Powell’s success stems, not from monetary accumulation, but rather, from all that he has given in service to his fellow Americans.\nLos Angeles Times, February 17, 1991.\nNation’s Cities Weekly, June 5, 2000.\nNew Republic, May 30, 1988.\nNewsweek, August 21, 1989; March 18, 1990, May 24, 1999; March 5, 2001.\nNew York Times, October 15, 1987; September 16, 1988; December 2, 1988; August 15, 1989.\nTime, November 16, 1987; August 21, 1989.\nU.S. News and World Report, April 25, 1988; December 24, 1990; February 4, 1991; March 18, 1991; December 8, 1997.\nWashington Post, March 23, 1987; August 7, 1988; August 10, 1989; August 11, 1989.\nOther\nAdditional material was obtained online at the America’s Promise website, http://www.americaspromise.org .\n—Bryan Ryan and Jennifer M. York\nCite this article",
"Colin L. Powell (1937 - ) < Black History | CBN.com\nColin L. Powell\nBy Thomson Gale\nCBN.com Already highly regarded by political and military leaders in the White House, Congress, and the Pentagon, U.S. Army General Colin Powell first achieved national and international prominence in 1990 and 1991. Powell, as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was one of the key leaders of Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, the military campaigns to protect Saudi Arabia and liberate Kuwait from Iraqi control. During the Persian Gulf War, he was credited with skillfully balancing the political objectives of President George Bush and the strategy needs of General Norman Schwarzkopf and other military commanders in the field.\nAfter the war in the Gulf, Powell was considered for the vice-presidency or even the presidency, but he resisted suggestions that he should run for America's highest office. However, when George W. Bush was elected president in 2000, Powell did not decline Bush's request that the retired general take on the position of Secretary of State. So, when the Bush administration took office in January of 2001, Powell became the first African American Secretary of State in U.S. history.\nColin Luther Powell was born in 1937 in Harlem, the son of Jamaican immigrants who had both gone to work in New York City's garment district. The young Powell grew up in the South Bronx, where he enjoyed a secure childhood, looked after by a closely knit family and a multi-ethnic community. He graduated from Morris High School in 1954 and received his B.A. in geology from the City College of New York in 1958. He was undistinguished as a student, but he excelled in the college's Reserve Officer's Training Corps (ROTC), leading the precision drill team and attaining the top rank offered by the corps—cadet colonel. He was not West Point trained, but his achievements in the ROTC won him a commission as second lieutenant in the U.S. Army.\nServed in Vietnam\nHis first assignment was at the Fulda Gap in West Germany, where American and allied troops stood as an obstacle on the Soviet Union's most likely invasion route of Western Europe. In the 1960s, Powell served two tours of duty in South Vietnam. As an adviser to South Vietnamese troops, he was wounded in 1963 when he fell victim to a Vietcong booby trap. His second tour, from 1968 to 1969, as an Army Infantry officer, also ended when Powell was injured, this time in a helicopter crash from which he rescued two of his fellow soldiers. For his valor in Vietnam, he received two Purple Hearts, a Bronze Star, a Soldier's Medal, and the Legion of Merit.\nBack on the home front, Powell pursued an M.B.A. at George Washington University. After completing his graduate studies in 1971, he was awarded a prestigious White House fellowship, which gave him the opportunity to get his first taste of politics. From 1972 to 1973, he worked for Frank Carlucci, then-Deputy Director of the Office of Management and Budget under Caspar Weinberger. It was the beginning of Powell's education in the dynamics of the Washington bureaucracy. Over the next 15 years he returned to the political arena from time to time to continue that education.\nFrom 1979 to 1981, Powell served the Carter administration as an executive assistant to Charles Duncan, Jr., the Secretary of Energy, and as senior military assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense. When the Reagan administration came to Washington, Powell worked with Carlucci on the Defense Department's transition team, and then from 1983 to 1986 he joined Weinberger again, this time as military assistant to the Defense Secretary. While there, Powell contributed to the department's involvement in the invasion of Grenada and the bombing raid on Libya.\nBetween stints in the political arena, Powell continued to advance his military career. In 1973, he traveled to South Korea to take command of a battalion and then a year later he returned to Washington as a staff officer at the Pentagon. He completed his military education at the National War College in 1976 and took command of the Second Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky that same year. In the early 1980s, he completed assignments as the assistant commander of the Fourth Infantry Division at Fort Carson, Colorado, and as the deputy director at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He was in West Germany again in 1987, this time as commanding general of the Fifth Corps in Frankfurt, when he was called back to Washington to work again with Frank Carlucci, the new National Security Adviser.\nBegan Working for National Security Council\nCarlucci had been chosen to head the troubled National Security Council (NSC) in the aftermath of the Iran-Contra scandal. Powell was not a stranger to the NSC's dealings under Admiral John Poindexter and Oliver North; he had first confronted the issue of arms sales to Iran while working under Weinberger at the Defense Department. Yet, even though he had been aware of the covert activities, he remained above reproach because he had always acted according to law and had not become involved until after presidential approval had been given.\nTogether Carlucci and Powell reorganized the NSC to reduce the possibility for free-lance foreign policy. When in 1987 Carlucci took over as Secretary of Defense for the departing Weinberger, Powell was called upon to take over leadership of the NSC. The move earned widespread approval in Washington because, as Fred Barnes wrote in the New Republic, Powell is \"a national security adviser strong enough to settle policy disputes but without a personal agenda.\"\nDuring his tenure at the NSC, Powell did speak out on a number of issues he felt were important to national security, including economic strength, control of technology exchanges, protection of the environment, a stable defense budget, free trade and foreign investment, research and development, and education. He also expressed his opposition to plans for the overthrow of Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega and to heavy spending on the Strategic Defense Initiative (\"Star Wars\"). Even so, as he told Barnes, \"I'm principally a broker. I have strong views on things, but my job is to make sure the president gets the best information available to make an informed decision.\"\nAppointed Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff\nIn 1989, President George H.W. Bush rewarded Powell for the knowledge and skills he had acquired in the military and political arenas by naming him to the military's top post—Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Powell was the youngest man and first black to hold that position. In peacetime, the chairman's responsibilities have included overseeing the prioritization of Pentagon spending and keeping the channels of communication open between the military and the White House. They have also included drawing up plans for military action, first in Panama and then in the Middle East.\nBecause of a 1986 law redefining his role, the general had more influence than any Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff since World War II. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, obliged Powell to exercise that authority. The day after the invasion, Powell advised the president that a number of options were open, including economic and diplomatic sanctions, as well as the use of military force; the Bush administration decided that decisive force was the necessary response. Operation Desert Shield, requiring the massive movement of troops and supplies to Saudi Arabia, was soon initiated as a show of force and to serve as a deterrent to further Iraqi aggression. After touring the Middle East, the general recommended increasing the number of troops to assure the success of an isolate and destroy strategy if it proved necessary. He told U.S. News and World Report: \"You go in to win, and you go in to win decisively.\"\nIn the early stages of the operation, Powell again demonstrated his ability to manage people and bureaucracies. As European and Middle Eastern troops joined in a coalition against Iraq, Powell directed the quick integration of communications, operations, and authority into a command network under the direction of General Norman Schwarzkopf. During the planning of the air and land campaigns, he aided the president in making political decisions and kept him informed of military plans, but he also convinced the Washington warriors to leave the commanders in Saudi Arabia the space needed to carry out their missions.\nHe, too, avoided involvement in the minute details of day-to-day operations, exerting his authority only on major issues. He oversaw bombing missions on Baghdad only after the destruction of a suburban Baghdad bunker killed 400 civilians. He rejected Marine requests to launch a true amphibious assault on Kuwait instead of the feint scheduled to aid Schwarzkopf's encirclement of Kuwait by an end run through Iraq. He also convinced President Bush to respond to the February 21, 1991 Iraqi peace proposal with an ultimatum: the Iraqis must pull out of Kuwait by noon Washington time, February 23. When the deadline passed, the coalition began its land campaign later that night as scheduled.\nThrown Into the Spotlight\nWith the success of Operation Desert Storm, Powell was hurled into the spotlight of media and public attention. Powell found himself the target of public scrutiny and criticism. Some black leaders labeled him a servant of the white establishment and peace activists considered him a trigger-happy hawk. Such criticisms, however, were tempered by praise of him as a positive role model for young African Americans and as a committed defender of liberty.\nBecause of his leadership during the war effort and his experience as an insider in the Washington bureaucracy, Powell political analysts suggested him as a promising candidate for future political office, either as vice-president or president. But Powell shied away from such notions, and met with Vice-President Dan Quayle to assure him that the general had no designs on the nation's number two executive post. Powell also requested a second tour as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Bruce B. Auster reported in U.S. News and World Report: \"Powell is able to transfer his unquestioned personal integrity to the institution he leads in part because, while he wields more power than almost any of his Pentagon predecessors, he is not addicted to it.\"\nAs a black military leader, Powell has demonstrated his commitment to helping young black men and women succeed in the armed services. He has long contended that the military should not be criticized for putting a disproportionate number of young black men and women in harm's way, but rather praised for its history of providing opportunities to minorities. Powell was quoted in Black Enterprise as saying, \"What we are dealing with now is a changing of hearts, changing of perspectives and of minds. We need to start to erase the cultural filter with respect to minorities.\"\nAmerica's Promise\nAfter his retirement from his position as chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1993, Powell shied from politics and pressure to run for high office, directing his energies instead toward helping America's youth. In 1997, Powell, along with Presidents Bill Clinton, Jimmy Carer, and Gerald Ford, attended the President's Summit for America's Future. The Summit, which took place in Philadelphia, called upon Americans to make youth a national priority and challenged citizens to dedicate their time to volunteer efforts that would improve the lives of America's 15 million impoverished children. Inspired by the Summit, Powell founded America's Promise, an organization which acts to mobilize the nation to provide America's children with five fundamental resources, or Five Promises. These Five Promises, according to the America's Promise website include: \"ongoing relationships with caring adults—parents, mentors, tutors, or coaches; safe places with structured activities during nonschool hours; healthy start and future; marketable skills through effective education; and opportunities to give back through community service.\"\nAlthough the organization focuses heavily on promoting volunteerism, Powell often preferred to emphasize the importance of youth development. In 1997, he spoke about the unparalleled importance of a loving adult in a child's life, saying that the only alternative, as quoted by U.S. News & World Report, is to \"keep building more jails.\" The organization has a presence in over 500 communities and in all 50 states. Powell, as quoted on the America's Promise website, said, \"America's Promise is pulling together the might of this nation to strengthen the character and competence of youth. And it's working.\"\nSecretary of State\nIn 2000, after nearly 7 years out of the political arena, Powell found himself again solicited to serve a President Bush. But this time it was George Bush's son, George W. Bush, who, after being elected to the nation's highest office, called upon Powell to join his Cabinet of advisors. Bush asked Powell to become his Secretary of State. Powell agreed, and became the first African American ever to hold the office. Powell settled into his new job quickly. When Powell reported to work, State Department employees lined up just to shake hands with him. Some of them even wept for joy when they met the new Secretary.\nColin Powell has dedicated his life to the service his country. As a soldier, Powell demonstrated a firm commitment to protecting his country and securing a world where democratic values can flourish. Although he has preferred to avoid limelight of high office, Powell has become a prominent figure in U.S. politics, advising several American presidents. He has also dedicated himself to America's future—her children. Powell has become an American success story, but unlike the typical rags-to-riches story, Powell's success stems, not from monetary accumulation, but rather, from all that he has given in service to his fellow Americans.\nAugust 22, 2003: Powell asked Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat to enlist security forces under Arafat's control to help crush Hamas and other groups held responsible for a Jerusalem bus bombing. Source: New York Times, www.nytimes.com, September 14, 2003.\nSeptember 26, 2003: Powell announced that the United States set a deadline of six months for Iraqi leaders working under United States-led occupation to produce a new constitution for Iraq. Source: New York Times, www.nytimes.com, October 6, 2003.\nOctober 26, 2003: Powell conceded that the Bush administration had not expected armed resistance in Iraq to continue as long as it had at so high a level. He also denied that the administration was trying to minimize the seriousness of problems there or to mislead the public. Source: New York Times, www.nytimes.com, October 30, 2003.\nDecember 2, 2003: Powell embarked on a five-nation, four-day tour, hoping to mend fences with Europeans upset by the United States strategy in Iraq and to strengthen the resolve of North African nations rattled by terror attacks to continue to fight Islamic militants. Source: New York Times, www.nytimes.com, December 4, 2003.\nJanuary 9, 2004: Powell conceded that despite his assertions to United Nations in 2003, he has no \"smoking gun\" proof of a link between former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's government and Al Qaeda terrorists. Source: New York Times, www.nytimes.com, January 19, 2004.\nFebruary 26, 2004: Powell told Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide to do what was best for his people and resign. Source: CNN.com, www.cnn.com, February 27, 2004.\nMarch 17, 2004: Powell visited Afghan leaders in Kabul after Pakistani forces killed 24 suspected militants near the Afghanistan border. Source: CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/asiapcf/03/17/afghanistan.conflict/index.html, March 17, 2004.\nMarch 19, 2004: Powell, in an unscheduled visit to Baghdad, marked the one-year anniversary of the invasion of Iraq by praising that country's progress toward democracy. Source: CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/03/19/iraq.main/index.html, March 20, 2004.\nApril 2, 2004: Powell said his prewar testimony to the United Nations Security Council about Iraq's alleged mobile, biological weapons labs, in February of 2003, was based on information that apparently was not \"solid.\" Source: CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/04/03/powell.iraq/index.html, April 3, 2004.\nApril 19, 2004: Powell disputed portions of journalist Bob Woodward's book on the prelude to the war in Iraq, but confirmed that the White House told Bush administration officials to cooperate with the writing of Woodward's Plan of Attack. Source: CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/04/20/woodward.book/index.html, April 20, 2004.\nJune 13, 2004: Powell said a State Department report that incorrectly showed a decline in worldwide terrorism in 2003 was a \"big mistake.\" Source: CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/06/13/powell.terror.ap/index.html, June 13, 2004.\nJuly 27, 2004: Powell, visiting Budapest, praised Hungary as \"steadfast\" in its commitment to the coalition in Iraq. Source: CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/07/26/powell.hungary/index.html, July 27, 2004.\nJuly 30, 2004: Powell said a wave of kidnappings throughout Iraq deters countries from participating in that country's reconstruction. Source: CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/07/30/iraq.main/index.html, July 30, 2004.\nSeptember 26, 2004: Powell said the United States will enter insurgent-heavy \"no-go zones\" in Iraq to clear the way for legitimate elections in January. Source: CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/09/26/iraq.main/index.html, September 26, 2004.\nNovember 15, 2004: Powell announced his resignation as U.S. Secretary of State. Source: CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/11/15/powell/index.html, November 15, 2004.\nFurther Reading",
"05 Apr Colin Powell Former US Secretary of State Turns 70 Photos and Images | Getty Images\n05 Apr Colin Powell Former US Secretary of State Turns 70\nJanuary 04, 2005 License\nUS Secretary of State Colin Powell walks past boards displaying photos of the...US Secretary of State Colin Powell walks past boards displaying photos of the missing tsunami victims during a stop at the Tsunami Co-Ordination and Relief centre at Phuket Town Hall, January 4, 2005 in Phuket, Thailand. Phuket was the first stop on Powell and Bush's three nation tsunami assessment tour and will conclude in Jakarta, Indonesia where they will attend an international tsunami conference. LessMore",
"Colin Luther Powell - People - Department History - Office of the Historian\nColin Luther Powell - People - Department History\nBiographies of the Secretaries of State: Colin Luther Powell (1937–)\nIntroduction\nColin L. Powell was appointed Secretary of State by George W. Bush on January 20, 2001, after being unanimously confirmed by the U.S. Senate. He served for four years, leaving the position on January 26, 2005. He was the first African-American to serve as Secretary of State.\nColin Luther Powell, 65th Secretary of State\nRise to Prominence\nPowell was born on April 5, 1937, in the New York City neighborhood of Harlem. The son of two Jamaican immigrants, he was raised in the South Bronx. He attended City College of New York, and it was there that he began his military service, joining the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC). After his graduation in 1958, Powell was commissioned a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army. During his 35 years in the Army he served two tours in Vietnam, was stationed in West Germany and South Korea, and acted as President Ronald Reagan's National Security Advisor from 1987 until 1989. In 1989 he was promoted to the rank of general, and was appointed by President George H.W. Bush to the position of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In the four years Powell served in that capacity, he oversaw 28 crises, including Operation Desert Storm in 1991. After his retirement in 1993, he founded America's Promise, an organization which helps at-risk children. He was nominated for Secretary of State by President George W. Bush on December 16, 2000.\nInfluence on U.S. Diplomacy\nAt the beginning of his term, Powell placed an emphasis on reaffirming diplomatic alliances throughout the world, supporting a national missile defense system, working towards peace in the Middle East, and prioritizing sanctions instead of force in potential hot spots such as Iraq. He also focused on reinvigorating U.S. diplomacy through reforms in the Department of State’s organizational culture and an infusion of resources for personnel, information technology, security, and facilities.\nPowell's term, however, was soon dominated by the challenges the Bush Administration faced after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Powell was one of the foremost supporters of taking swift military action against al-Qaeda and demanded immediate cooperation from Afghanistan and Pakistan in the U.S. search for those who were complicit in the attacks.\nWhen the Administration's attention shifted to Iraq and the possibility that Saddam Hussein was manufacturing weapons of mass destruction (WMD), Powell pressed to have UN inspectors investigate. In February 2003, Powell presented intelligence to the UN that supported the claim that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction and could produce more. Subsequently, the Administration moved quickly toward preemptive military action against Iraq, despite Powell’s advice that war should not begin until a large coalition of allies and a long-term occupation plan were in place. In 2004, some of the intelligence that Powell had brought before the UN in 2003 was found to be erroneous.\nAlthough Afghanistan and Iraq demanded a great deal of Powell’s attention during his tenure, he pursued other important U.S. foreign policy initiatives and grappled with various crises that arose between 2001 and 2005. After initially difficult Administration interactions with Russia and China, Powell worked to improve both bilateral relationships. Prominent among these efforts were management of U.S. withdrawal from the U.S.-Russian Anti-Ballistic Missile treaty and the signing of the Moscow Treaty on Strategic Offensive Reductions in May 2002.\nIn the area of foreign aid, Powell pushed the Administration to increase its commitment to the international fight against AIDS, and oversaw a doubling of development assistance funding. He also pressed for international cooperation to halt the nuclear weapons programs of North Korea and Iran, and the Administration achieved an important nonproliferation success when Libya agreed to give up its weapons programs in 2003.\nPowell confronted a variety of international crises as well, including a near war between nuclear powers India and Pakistan in 2001-2002, domestic turmoil in Liberia (2003) and Haiti (2004), and the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004. His continued belief that Middle East stability required a resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict led him to advocate the 2002 “Road Map” that aimed at creating an independent Palestinian state at peace with Israel. Although President Bush endorsed the plan, Powell was not able to persuade the Administration to make a strong commitment to its implementation.\nOn November 15, 2004, Powell announced his resignation. After stepping down as Secretary of State, he returned to a busy life in the private sector continuing his work with America's Promise Alliance. He serves on the Boards of Directors of the Council on Foreign Relations, the Eisenhower Fellowship Program, and the Powell Center at the City College of New York.\nBorn 1937\nEntry on Duty: January 20, 2001\nTermination of Appointment: January 25, 2005"
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Who became leader of the Bosnian Serbs in 1992?
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"The Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina () are one of the three constitutive nations of the country, predominantly residing in the political-territorial entity of Republika Srpska. In the other entity Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbs mostly live in Drvar, Glamoč, Bosansko Grahovo and Bosanski Petrovac. They are frequently referred to as Bosnian Serbs () in English, regardless of whether they are from Bosnia or Herzegovina. They are also known by regional names such as Krajišnici (\"frontiersmen\" of Bosanska Krajina), Semberci (Semberians), Bosanci (Bosnians), Hercegovci (Herzegovinians).\n\nDemographics\n\nThe 1991 population census registered 1,366,104 Serbs or 31.2% of the total population of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Census was held in October 2013 with ethnicity data yet to be published. Bosnian Serbs are the most territorially widespread nation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The vast majority live on the territory of the Republika Srpska, where they constitute around 88% of population. The majority of Bosnian Serbs are adherents of the Serbian Orthodox Church, while some are atheists. The Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina speak the Serbian language in its Ijekavian accent, similar to that of Serbs of Montenegro and Croatia, and also to the language of Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats.\n\nHistory \n\nMiddle Ages\n\nSlavs (Sclaveni) settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. According to De Administrando Imperio (ca. 960), the Serbs had settled what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina. They inhabited and ruled \"Serbia\", which included \"Bosnia\" (with two inhabited cities; Kotor and Desnik), and the maritime principalities of Travunija, Zahumlje and Paganija, the first two having been divided roughly at the Neretva river (including what is today Herzegovina). Serbia was at the time ruled by the Vlastimirović dynasty. During the rule of Mutimir (r. 851-891), the Serbs were Christianized. The Serbs were important Byzantine allies; the fleets of Zahumlje, Travunia and Konavli (Serbian \"Pomorje\") were sent to fight the Saracens who attacked the town of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) in 869, on the immediate request of Basil I, who was asked by the Ragusans for help. Prince Petar (r. 892-917), defeated Tišemir in Bosnia, annexing the valley of Bosna. Petar took over the Neretva, after which he seems to have come into conflict with Michael, a Bulgarian vassal ruling Zahumlje (with Travunia and Duklja). Prince Časlav Klonimirović (r. 927-960) managed to unite all mentioned Serb territories and established a state that encompassed the shores of the Adriatic Sea, the Sava river and the Morava valley as well as today's northern Albania. Časlav defeated the Magyars on the Drina river banks when protecting Bosnia, however, he was later captured and drowned in the Sava. After his death, Duklja emerged as the most powerful Serb polity, ruled by the Vojislavljević dynasty. Constantine Bodin (r. 1081–1101) installed his relative Stefan as Ban of Bosnia. Next, the Nemanjić dynasty acquired the rule of the Serbian lands. With the establishment of the autocephalous Serbian Church, Archbishop Sava founded the Metropolitanate of Zahumlje (1217–19).\n\nOttoman rule\n\nWith the Ottoman conquest of medieval Serbia, there were large migrations towards Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n\nThe Serb Uprising of 1596–97 was suppressed at Gacko.\n\nIn 1809, Jančić's Revolt broke out in Gradiška. In 1834, Priest Jovica's Revolt broke out in Gradiška. In 1858, Pecija's First Revolt broke out in Knešpolje. In 1875, the Herzegovina Uprising broke out in the Bosnia Vilayet. On July 2, 1876, Golub Babić and his 71 commanders signed the \"Proclamation of the Unification of Bosnia with Serbia\".\n\nAustro-Hungarian rule\n\nIn 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina became a protectorate of Austria-Hungary, which the Serbs strongly opposed. On June 28, 1914, Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip made international headlines after assassinating Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo. This sparked World War I leading to Austria-Hungary's defeat and the incorporation of Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.\n\nWorld War II\n\nDuring the World War II, Bosnian Serbs were put under the rule of the fascist Ustaša regime in the Independent State of Croatia. Under Ustaša rule Serbs along with Jews and Roma people, were subjected to systematic genocide where hundreds of thousands of civilian Serbs were murdered. According to the US Holocaust Museum, 320,000-340,000 Serbs were murdered under Ustasha rule. According to Yad Vashem Holocaust Museum and Research Center,\"More than 500,000 Serbs were murdered in horribly sadistic ways, 250,000 were expelled, and another 200,000 were forced to convert\" during WWII in the Independent State of Croatia (modern-day Croatia and Bosnia).\n\nThe May 1941 Sanski Most revolt against the Ustaša was suppressed in two days, and the June 1941 uprising in eastern Herzegovina was suppressed after two weeks.\n\nBetween 1945 and 1948, following World War II, approximately 70,000 Serbs migrated from the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Vojvodina after the Germans had left.\n\nBosnian War\n\nAfter the government of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence, which was not accepted by the federal Serb controlled government of Yugoslavia, the Serbian Autonomous Area of the Bosnian Frontier was formed in the western Bosnian Frontier region of Bosnia and Herzegovina with its capital in Banja Luka, which was not recognised by the central government. SAO Bosnian Frontier made attempts to unite with the Autonomous Region of the Serbian Frontier in Croatia. The Serb political leadership martialled its own force assisted by the Yugoslav People's Army and declared independence from Bosnia and Herzegovina in late 1992. During this period there was notable support for the idea of a Greater Serbia being made reality, both within Bosnia and in Serbia proper. This ideology advocated the joining of Serb-populated regions into a contiguous territory. BiH's Bosniak and Bosnian Croat dominated government did not recognize the new Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose president was Radovan Karadžić seated in Banja Luka. The Serb side accepted the proposed ethnic cantonization of Bosnia and Herzegovina (the Carrington-Cutileiro peace plan), as did the Bosniak and Bosnian Croat sides in Lisbon in 1992, in the hope that war would not break out. The Bosniak political leadership under President Alija Izetbegović of Bosnia and Herzegovina subsequently revoked the agreement refusing to decentralize the newly created country based on ethnic lines. The Bosnian War began.\n\nThroughout most of the war the Serbs fought against both the Bosniaks and the Bosnian Croats. During Bosniak-Croat hostilities the Serbs co-operated largely with the Croats. There were exceptions to this, however, as Serb forces were also allied with the pro-Yugoslav Bosniaks of the Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia under Fikret Abdić. Serb forces also carried out ethnic cleansing operations against non-Serbs living within their territory, the most formidable was the Srebrenica massacre in July 1995. During most of the war, the Serb Republic comprised around 70% of Bosnia and Herzegovina's soil. During the entire length of war the Army of the Serb Republic maintained the Siege of Sarajevo, allegedly in order to tie down the Bosnian Muslim (Bosniak) forces and resources in what was the capital of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian state. Serb Republic maintained close ties with the Republic of the Serb Frontier and received volunteers and supplies from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the war. The Serb Republic received a large number of Serb refugees from other Yugoslav hotzones, particularly non-Serb held areas in Sarajevo, Herzeg-Bosnia and Croatia. In 1993, the Owen-Stoltenberg peace treaty was suggested that would give 52% of BiH to the Serb side. It was refused by the Bosniak side as too large of a concession.\n\nIn 1994, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia imposed sanctions after the National Assembly of the Serb Republic refused the Vance-Owen peace plan. In 1995, Operation Storm eliminated the Republic of the Serb Frontier. The Croatian Army continued the offensive into the Serb Republic under General Ante Gotovina. Some 250,000 Serbs fled to the Serb Republic and Serbia from Croatia, as the Serb side continued a full retreat of Serbs from the Una to the Sana river. The Croatian Army, supported by the forces of the Muslim-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina came within 20 km of the de facto Bosnian Serb capital, Banja Luka. The war was halted with the Dayton Peace Agreement which recognized Republika Srpska, comprising 49% of the soil of BiH, as one of the two territorial entities of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serb side suffered a total 30,700 victims - 16,700 civilians and 14,000 military personnel, according to the Demographic Unit at the ICTY. Although exact numbers are disputed, it is generally agreed that the Bosnian War claimed the lives of about 200,000 people - Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs. More reliable numbers place the number of deceased during the war at around 100,000-104,000 (ICTY, 2011).See: Casualties of the Bosnian War\n\nCulture\n\nThe Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina speak the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect of Serbian language. They founded the first printing house in this territory, Goražde printing house.\n\nReligion\n\nThe Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina are predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christians, belonging to the Serbian Orthodox Church. Serbian orthodox church in Bosnia and Herzegovina is organized in five subdivisions, one metropolitanate (Dabar and Bosnia), and four eparchies (Bihać and Petrovac, Banja Luka, Zvornik and Tuzla, and Zahumlje and Herzegovina). Eparchy of Zahumlje and Herzegovina, earlier The Metropolitanate of Zahumlje was originally founded in 1219, by Archbishop Sava, the same year the Serbian Orthodox Church acquired its autocephaly status from Constantinople. Thus, it was one of the original Serbian Orthodox bishoprics.\n\nBosnian Serb, Makarije Sokolović was the first patriarch of the restored Serbian Patriarchate, after its lapse in 1463 that resulted from the Ottoman conquest of Serbia. He is celebrated as saint. Several Bosnian Serbs are beatified in Serbian ortohodox church of which one of the most famous is Basil of Ostrog.\n\nThe first Serbian high school opened in Bosnia and Herzegovina was Sarajevo orthodox seminary in 1882. On the grounds of this seminary was founded the Theological Faculty in Foča, as part of the University of East Sarajevo.\n\nThere are many Serbian churches and monastery across the Bosnia and Herzegovina hailing from different periods. Each of subdivisions has it's cathedral church and Bishop's palace.\n\nTraditional clothing\n\nThe dresses of Bosnia are divided into two groups; the Dinaric and Pannonian styles. In Eastern Herzegovina, the folk costumes are closely related to those of Old Herzegovina.\n\nEnsemble \"Kolo\", Đurđevdan customs from Podgrmeč.jpg|Serb costumes from Podgrmeč, Bosanska Krajina.\nFolk attire of Herzegovina and Bosnia in 1875.jpg|Dresses from East Herzegovina (left) urban Bosnia (right) 1875.\nZmijanje embroidery in BL store 2.jpg|Zmijanje embroidery, UNESCO World Heritage Site\nEnsemble \"Kolo\" dancing Old Silent dance from Glamoč.jpg|Ensemble \"Kolo\" dancing Old Silent dance from Glamoč\n\nSport\n\nSerbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina have contributed significantly to the Yugoslav and Serbian sport.\n\nFirst Serbian Sokol societies on the present territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina were founded in the late 19th century by intellectuals. Stevan Žakula, Croatian Serb, is remembered as a prominent worker in opening and maintaining sokol and gymnastic clubs. Žakula was the initiator of the establishment of Serbian gymnastics society \"Obilić\" in Mostar and Sports and gymnastic society \"Serbian soko\" in Tuzla. Sokol societies were also established in another cities across the Bosnia and Herzegovina. \n\nFootball is the most popular sport among the Bosnian Serbs. The oldest Serbian Club in Bosnia and Herzegovina is Slavia Istočno Sarajevo, founded in 1908, while one of the most popular is Borac Banja Luka winner of Mitropa Cup and Yugoslav Cup. Serbian clubs participate in Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina and First League of the Republika Srpska which is run by Football Association of Republika Srpska. Notable players that represented Yugoslavia and Serbia include Branko Stanković, Milan Galić, Velimir Sombolac, Dušan Bajević, Boško Antić, Ilija Pantelić, Savo Milošević, Mladen Krstajić, Neven Subotić, etc. Zvjezdan Misimović served as captain of the Bosnia and Herzegovina national team from 2007 to 2012 while Ljupko Petrović led Red Star Belgrade to the Champions League trophy in 1991.\n\nThe second most popular sport among Bosnian Serbs is basketball. Aleksandar Nikolić, is often referred to as, The Father of Yugoslav Basketball. He was voted two times European Coach of the Year winning three Euroleagues and two times FIBA Intercontinental Cup. Second of four fathers of Yugoslav basketball is Borislav Stanković, former general secretatary of FIBA and IOC member. Some of the players that successfully competed at the biggest world competitions are Ratko Radovanović, Dražen Dalipagić, Zoran Savić, Predrag Danilović, Vladimir Radmanović, Jelica Komnenović, Slađana Golić, Saša Čađo... KK Igokea currently plays in regional ABA League.\n\nHandball club Borac Banja Luka is the most successful Serbian handball club in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It won EHF Champions League in 1976 and was runner up in 1975. Svetlana Kitić was voted the best female handball player ever by the International Handball Federation. Other accomplished players include Milorad Karalić, Nebojša Popović, Zlatan Arnautović, Radmila Drljača, Vesna Radović, Nebojša Golić, Mladen Bojinović, Danijel Šarić...\n\nThe most famous Serbian volleyball family, Grbić family, hails from Trebinje in Eastern Herzegovina. Father Miloš was the captain of the team that won first Yugoslav medal at European championship while sons Vanja and Nikola became Olympic champions with Serbian team. Other players that represented Serbia with success are Đorđe Đurić, Brankica Mihajlović, Tijana Bošković and Sanja and Saša Starović.\n\nBesides team sports, Bosnian Serbs achieved success and in individual sports such as Slobodan and Tadija Kačar in boxing, Radomir Kovačević in judo, Velimir Stjepanović in swimming, Andrea Arsović in shooting, Andrea Petkovic in tennis, Draženko Mitrović in paralympic athletics, etc.\n\nNotable people",
"The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. Following a number of violent incidents in early 1992, the war is commonly viewed as having started on 6 April 1992. The war ended on 14 December 1995. The main belligerents were the forces of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and those of the self-proclaimed Bosnian Serb and Bosnian Croat entities within Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republika Srpska and Herzeg-Bosnia, who were led and supplied by Serbia and Croatia respectively. \n\nThe war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia. Following the Slovenian and Croatian secessions from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1991, the multi-ethnic Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was inhabited by mainly Muslim Bosniaks (44 percent), as well as mainly Orthodox Serbs (32.5 percent) and mainly Catholic Croats (17 percent), passed a referendum for independence on 29 February 1992.\n\nThis was rejected by the political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs, who had boycotted the referendum and established their own republic. Following Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of independence (which gained international recognition), the Bosnian Serbs, led by Radovan Karadžić and supported by the Serbian government of Slobodan Milošević and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), mobilised their forces inside the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to secure Serb territory, then war soon spread across the country, accompanied by the ethnic cleansing of the Bosniak and Croat population, especially in eastern Bosnia and throughout the Republika Srpska. \n\nIt was principally a territorial conflict, initially between the Serb forces mainly organised in the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) on the one side, and the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) which was largely composed of Bosniaks, and the Croat forces in the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) on the other side. The Croats also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian. The Serb and Croat political leadership had agreed on a partition of Bosnia with the Karađorđevo and Graz agreements, resulting in the Croat forces turning against the ARBiH and the Croat–Bosniak war.Silber, L (1997), Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation. Penguin Books, p. 185 The Bosnian War was characterised by bitter fighting, indiscriminate shelling of cities and towns, ethnic cleansing and systematic mass rape, mainly perpetrated by Serb, and to a lesser extent, Croat and Bosniak forces. Events such as the Siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre later became iconic of the conflict.\n\nThe Serbs, although initially militarily superior due to the weapons and resources provided by the JNA, eventually lost momentum as the Bosniaks and Croats allied themselves against the Republika Srpska in 1994 with the creation of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina following the Washington agreement. After the Srebrenica and Markale massacres, NATO intervened in 1995 with Operation Deliberate Force targeting the positions of the Army of the Republika Srpska, which proved key in ending the war. The war was brought to an end after the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina in Paris on 14 December 1995. Peace negotiations were held in Dayton, Ohio and were finalised on 21 November 1995. According to a report compiled by the UN, and chaired by M. Cherif Bassiouni, while all sides committed war crimes during the conflict, Serbian forces were responsible for ninety percent of them, whereas Croatian forces were responsible for six percent, and Bosniak forces four percent. The report echoed conclusions published by a Central Intelligence Agency estimate in 1995.[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\n990CE0DA163CF93AA35750C0A963958260&sec&spon\n&pagewanted=all \"C.I.A. Report on Bosnia Blames Serbs for 90% of the War Crimes\"] by Roger Cohen, The New York Times, 9 March 1995.\n\nBy early 2008, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia had convicted 45 Serbs, 12 Croats and 4 Bosniaks of war crimes in connection with the war in Bosnia.[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/30/world/europe/30serbia.html \"Karadzic Sent to Hague for Trial Despite Violent Protest by Loyalists\"], New York Times, 30 July 2008. The most recent estimates suggest that around 100,000 people were killed during the war. Over 2.2 million people were displaced, making it the most devastating conflict in Europe since the end of World War II. In addition, an estimated 12–20,000 women were raped, most of them Bosniak. \n\nChronology \n\nThere is debate over the start date of the Bosnian War. Klejda Mulaj notes that clashes between Bosnian Muslims, Serbs and Croats started in late February 1992, and that \"full-scale hostilities had broken out by 6 April\". It was the same day that the United States and European Union recognised Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mulaj reports that Misha Glenny gives a date of 22 March, Tom Gallagher gives 2 April, while Mary Kaldor and Laura Silber and Allan Little give 6 April. Philip Hammond noted that \"Bosnian Serbs argue that it started on 1 March 1992, with the shooting of a guest at a Serbian wedding\", but that \"others maintain that it began with the recognition by the European Community (EC) of Bosnia-Herzegovina as an independent state, on 6 April\", claiming that the most common view is that the war started on 6 April 1992.\n\nSome Bosniaks consider the first casualties of the war to be Suada Dilberović and Olga Sučić, both shot during a peace march on 5 April at a hotel under the control of the Serbian Democratic Party. Serbs consider Nikola Gardović, a groom's father killed at a wedding procession on the second day of the Bosnian independence referendum, 1 March 1992, in Baščaršija, to have been the first victim of the war. \n\nThe war was brought to an end by the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, negotiated at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio between 1 and 21 November 1995 and signed in Paris on 14 December 1995. \n\nBackground \n\nBreakup of Yugoslavia \n\nThe war in Bosnia and Herzegovina came about as a result of the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia as a result of the weakening of the confederational system at the end of the Cold War. In Yugoslavia, the national communist party, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, was losing its ideological potency. Meanwhile, ethnic nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s, after violence broke out in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to the federalisation and the decentralisation of the state.\n\nBosnia and Herzegovina, a former Ottoman province, has historically been a multi-ethnic state. According to the 1991 census, 44% of the population considered themselves Muslim (Bosniak), 32.5% Serb and 17% Croat, with 6% describing themselves as Yugoslav.\n\nIn March 1989, the crisis in Yugoslavia deepened after the adoption of amendments to the Serbian Constitution which allowed the government of Serbia to dominate the provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. Until then, Kosovo and Vojvodina's decision-making had been independent and both autonomous provinces also had a vote at the Yugoslav federal level. Serbia, under newly elected President Slobodan Milošević, thus gained control over three out of eight votes in the Yugoslav presidency. With additional votes from Montenegro, Serbia was thus able to heavily influence the decisions of the federal government. This situation led to objections from the other republics and calls for the reform of the Yugoslav Federation. At the 14th Extraordinary Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, on 20 January 1990, the delegations of the republics could not agree on the main issues facing the Yugoslav federation. As a result, the Slovene and Croatian delegates left the Congress. The Slovene delegation, headed by Milan Kučan demanded democratic changes and a looser federation, while the Serbian delegation, headed by Milošević, opposed it.\n\nIn the first multi-party election, in November 1990, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, votes were cast largely according to ethnicity, leading to the success of the Bosniak Party of Democratic Action, the Serbian Democratic Party and the Croatian Democratic Union. \n\nParties divided power along ethnic lines so that the President of the Presidency of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was a Bosniak, the president of the Parliament was a Serb and the prime minister a Croat. Separatist nationalist parties attained power in other republics, including Croatia and Slovenia.[https://books.google.ie/books?id_fvFAAAAQBAJ&pg\nPA79&lpgPA79&dq\n1990+elections+slovenia+croatia&sourcebl&ots\nPvKNUATDzX&sigmjzU7y31awtcHFoqsVXoMGwyLec&hl\nen&saX&ved\n0ahUKEwiJv-fdgM_KAhUF1BoKHXYbCaYQ6AEINzAF#vonepage&q\n1990%20elections%20slovenia%20croatia&f=false Ethnic Conflict and International Politics: Explaining Diffusion and Escalation - S. Lobell, P. Mauceri - Google Books]\n\nBeginning of the Yugoslav Wars \n\nIn March 1991, discussions between Franjo Tuđman and Slobodan Milošević, which became known as the Karađorđevo agreement, reportedly included \"...the partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Serbia and Croatia.\" On 25 June 1991, both Slovenia and Croatia declared independence, which led to a short armed conflict in Slovenia called the Ten-Day War, and an all-out war in Croatia in the Croatian War of Independence in areas with a substantial ethnic Serb population. In the second half of 1991, the war was intensifying in Croatia. The Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) also attacked Croatia from Bosnia-Herzegovina.\n\nSAO Bosanska Krajina, SAO Herzegovina, SAO North-Eastern Bosnia, and SAO Romanija were self-declared Serbian Autonomous Oblasts formed in mid-1991 on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In September 1991, the European Economic Community hosted a conference in an attempt to prevent Bosnia and Herzegovina sliding into war. It resulted in the Lisbon Agreement, also known as the Carrington-Cutileiro plan, named for its creators Lord Carrington and Portuguese Ambassador José Cutileiro. They proposed ethnic power-sharing on all administrative levels and the devolution of central government to local ethnic communities. The plan envisaged that all Bosnia and Herzegovina's districts would be classified as Bosniak, Serb or Croat, even where no ethnicity had a majority.\n\nOn 25 September 1991, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 713, imposing an arms embargo on all of the former Yugoslav territories. The embargo hurt the Army of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina the most because the Republic of Serbia inherited the lion's share of the Yugoslav People Army's arsenal and the Croatian Army could smuggle weapons through its coast. Over 55% of the armories and barracks of the former Yugoslavia were located in Bosnia, owing to its mountainous terrain in anticipation of a guerrilla war had Yugoslavia been invaded, but many of those factories (such as the UNIS PRETIS factory in Vogošća) were under Serb control, and others were inoperable due to a lack of electricity and raw materials.\n\nOn 19 September 1991, the JNA moved extra troops to the area around the city of Mostar, which was publicly protested by the local government. On 20 September 1991, the JNA transferred troops to the front at Vukovar via the Višegrad region of northeastern Bosnia. In response, local Croats and Bosniaks set up barricades and machine-gun posts. They halted a column of 60 JNA tanks but were dispersed by force the following day. More than 1,000 people had to flee the area. This action, nearly seven months before the start of the Bosnian War, caused the first casualties of the Yugoslav Wars in Bosnia.\n\nFive days later, the JNA attacked the Croat village of Ravno in eastern Herzegovina on their way to attack Dubrovnik, and in the first days of October it leveled it, killing eight Croat civilians. The objectives of the nationalists in Croatia were shared by Croat nationalists in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), organised and controlled the branch of the party in Bosnia and Herzegovina. By the latter part of 1991, the more extreme elements of the party, under the leadership of Mate Boban, Dario Kordić, Jadranko Prlić, Ignac Koštroman, as well as local leaders such as Anto Valenta, and with the support of Franjo Tuđman and Gojko Šušak, had taken effective control of the party. This coincided with the peak of the Croatian War of Independence. On 6 October 1991, Bosnian president Alija Izetbegović gave a televised proclamation of neutrality that included the statement:Remember, this is not our war. Let those who want it to have it. We do not want that war.\n\nMassacres continued, and over the next few days the JNA leveled another 21 Croat villages in eastern Herzegovina. On 13 October 1991, Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić expressed his view about the future of Bosnia and Bosnian Muslims: \"In just a couple of days, Sarajevo will be gone and there will be five hundred thousand dead, in one month Muslims will be annihilated in Bosnia and Herzegovina\". \n\nIn the meantime, president Alija Izetbegović made the following statement before the Bosnian parliament on October 14 with regard to the JNA:Do not do anything against the Army. (…) the presence of the Army is a stabilizing factor to us, and we need that Army (…). Until now we did not have problems with the Army, and we will not have problems later. \n\nFinal political crisis \n\nOn 15 October 1991, the parliament of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo passed a \"Memorandum on the Sovereignty of Bosnia-Herzegovina\" by a simple majority. The Memorandum was hotly contested by the Bosnian Serb members of parliament, arguing that Amendment LXX of the Constitution required procedural safeguards and a 2/3 majority for such issues. The Memorandum was debated anyway, leading to a boycott of the parliament by the Bosnian Serbs, and during the boycott the legislation was passed. \n\nThe Serb members of parliament, consisting mainly of the Serb Democratic Party (SDS) members, but also including some other party representatives (which would form the \"Independent Members of Parliament Caucus\"), abandoned the central parliament in Sarajevo, and formed the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 24 October 1991, marking the end of the tri-ethnic coalition that had governed after the elections in 1990. \n\nOn 18 November 1991, the Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina established the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia, and its founding document said: \"The Community shall respect the democratically elected government of the Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina as long as Bosnia-Herzegovina remains an independent state in relation to former or any future Yugoslavia.\" Herzeg-Bosnia was not the only Croat community on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Croatian Community of Bosanska Posavina was established to \"unify all political activities in the defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina and to strengthen the Croatian population in it\". \n\nOn 7 January 1992, the Serb members of the Prijedor Municipal Assembly and the presidents of the local Municipal Boards of the SDS proclaimed the Assembly of the Serbian People of the Municipality of Prijedor and implemented secret instructions that were issued earlier on 19 December 1991. The Organisation and Activity of Organs of the Serbian People in Bosnia and Herzegovina in Extraordinary Circumstances provided a plan for the SDS take-over of municipalities in BiH and included plans for the creation of Crisis Staffs. Milomir Stakić, later convicted by ICTY of mass crimes against humanity against Bosniak and Croat civilians, was elected President of this Assembly.\n\nOn 9 January 1992, the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted a declaration proclaiming the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (\"SR BiH\", later Republika Srpska). The Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia in its 11 January 1992 Opinion No. 4 on Bosnia and Herzegovina stated that the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina should not be recognised because the country had not yet held a referendum on independence. \n\nOn 17 January 1992, the Prijedor Serb Assembly endorsed joining the Serbian territories of the Municipality of Prijedor to the Autonomous Region of Bosnian Krajina in order to create a separate Serbian state in ethnic Serb territories. \n\nOn 25 January 1992, an hour after the session of parliament was adjourned, the parliament called for a referendum on independence on 29 February and 1 March. The Croatian War of Independence would result in United Nations Security Council Resolution 743 on 21 February 1992, which created the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) in accordance with the Secretary-General's report S/23592 of 15 February 1992. On 28 February 1992, the Constitution of the SR BiH declared that the territory of that Republic included \"the territories of the Serbian Autonomous Regions and Districts and of other Serbian ethnic entities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, including the regions in which the Serbian people remained in the minority due to the genocide conducted against it in World War II\", and it was declared to be a part of Yugoslavia.\n\nThe Bosnian Serb assembly members advised Serbs to boycott the referendums held on 29 February and 1 March 1992. The turnout to the referendums was reported as 63.7%, with 92.7% of voters voting in favour of independence (implying that Bosnian Serbs, which made up approximately 34% of the population, largely boycotted the referendum). The Serb political leadership used the referenda as a pretext to set up roadblocks in protest. Independence was formally declared by the Bosnian parliament on 3 March 1992.\n\nOn 18 March 1992, all three sides signed the Lisbon Agreement: Alija Izetbegović for the Bosniaks, Radovan Karadžić for the Serbs and Mate Boban for the Croats. However, on 28 March 1992, Izetbegović, after meeting with the then-US ambassador to Yugoslavia Warren Zimmermann in Sarajevo, withdrew his signature and declared his opposition to any type of ethnic division of Bosnia.What was said and by whom remains unclear. Zimmerman denies that he told Izetbegovic that if he withdrew his signature, the United States would grant recognition to Bosnia as an independent state. What is indisputable is that Izetbegovic, that same day, withdrew his signature and renounced the agreement. \n\nIn late March 1992, there was fighting between Serbs and combined Croat and Bosniak forces in and near Bosanski Brod, resulting in the killing of Serb villagers in Sijekovac. Serb paramilitaries committed the Bijeljina massacre, most of the victims of which were Bosniaks, on 1–2 April 1992. \n\nWarring factions \n\nBosnia and Herzegovina received international recognition on 6 April 1992. \n\nThe Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was admitted as a member State of the United Nations on 22 May 1992. On 12 August 1992, the name of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was changed to Republika Srpska (RS). \n\nThe Bosnian government lobbied to have the arms embargo lifted, but that was opposed by the United Kingdom, France and Russia. U.S. proposals to pursue this policy were known as lift and strike. The US congress passed two resolutions calling for the embargo to be lifted but both were vetoed by President Bill Clinton for fear of creating a rift between the US and the aforementioned countries. Nonetheless, the United States used both \"black\" C-130 transports and back channels, including Islamist groups, to smuggle weapons to Bosnian-Muslim forces, as well as allowed Iranian-supplied arms to transit through Croatia to Bosnia. However, in light of widespread NATO opposition to American (and possibly Turkish) endeavors in coordinating the \"black flights of Tuzla\", the United Kingdom and Norway expressed disapproval of these measures and their counterproductive effects on NATO enforcement of the arms embargo. Inter Services Intelligence also played an active role during 1992–1995 and secretly supplied the Muslim fighters with arms, ammunition and guided anti tank missiles to give them a fighting chance against the aggression.\n\nFollowing the declaration of independence of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbs from B&H with support from Serbia, attacked different parts of the country. The state administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina effectively ceased to function having lost control over the entire territory. The Serbs wanted all lands where Serbs had a majority, eastern and western Bosnia. The Croats and their leader Franjo Tuđman also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian. The policies of the Republic of Croatia and its leader Tuđman towards Bosnia and Herzegovina were never totally transparent and always included Tuđman's ultimate aim of expanding Croatia's borders. The Bosnian government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for war. \n\nThe Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) officially left Bosnia and Herzegovina on 12 May 1992 shortly after independence was declared in April 1992. However, most of the command chain, weaponry, and higher-ranked military personnel, including General Ratko Mladić, remained in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Army of Republika Srpska (', VRS) as the armed forces of the newly created Bosnian Serb republic. The Croats organised a defensive military formation of their own called the Croatian Defense Council (', HVO) as the armed forces of Herzeg-Bosnia. The Bosniaks mainly organised into the Army of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (', ARBiH) as the armed forces of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Initially, 25% of the ARBiH was composed of non-Bosniaks, especially in the 1st Corps in Sarajevo. Sefer Halilović, Chief of Staff of the Bosnian Territorial Defense, claimed in June 1992 that his forces were 70% Muslim, 18% Croat and 12% Serb.\n\nThe percentage of Serb and Croat soldiers in the Bosnian Army was particularly high in Sarajevo, Mostar and Tuzla. The deputy commander of the Bosnian Army's Headquarters, was general Jovan Divjak, the highest-ranking ethnic Serb in the Bosnian Army. General Stjepan Šiber, an ethnic Croat was the second deputy commander. President Izetbegović also appointed colonel Blaž Kraljević, commander of the Croatian Defence Forces in Herzegovina, to be a member of Bosnian Army's Headquarters, seven days before Kraljević's assassination, in order to assemble a multi-ethnic pro-Bosnian defense front. This diversity was to reduce over the course of the war.\n\nVarious paramilitary units were operated during the Bosnian War: the Serb \"White Eagles\" (Beli Orlovi), Arkan's \"Tigers\", \"Serbian Volunteer Guard\" (Srpska Dobrovoljačka Garda), Bosnians \"Patriotic League\" (Patriotska Liga) and \"Green Berets\" (Zelene Beretke), and Croatian \"Croatian Defence Forces\" (Hrvatske Obrambene Snage), etc. The Serb and Croat paramilitaries involved volunteers from Serbia and Croatia, and were supported by nationalist political parties in those countries. \n\nForces of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina were divided into 5 Corps. 1st Corps operated in the region of Sarajevo and Gorazde while a stronger 5th Corps was positioned in the western Bosanska Krajina pocket, which cooperated with HVO units in and around Bihać. The Serbs received support from Christian Slavic fighters from various countries in Eastern Europe. Greek volunteers of the Greek Volunteer Guard were reported to have taken part in the Srebrenica Massacre, with the Greek flag being hoisted in Srebrenica when the town fell to the Serbs. \n\nSome individuals from other European countries, volunteered to fight for the Croat side, including Neo-Nazis, such as Jackie Arklöv, who was charged with war crimes upon his return to Sweden. Later he confessed he committed war crimes on Bosnian Muslim civilians in the Heliodrom and Dretelj camps as a member of Croatian forces. \n\nThe Bosnians received support from Muslim groups. According to some US NGO reports, there were also several hundred Iranian Revolutionary Guards assisting the Bosnian government during the war. Other foreign Muslim fighters also joined the ranks of the Bosnian Muslims, including from the Lebanese guerrilla organization Hezbollah. These were reserved for duties requiring close combat engagements, simply because their skill and experience was too valuable to be wasted in other less complicated duties.\n\nIn his book The Clinton Tapes: Wrestling History with the President from 2009, historian and author Taylor Branch, a friend of U.S. President Bill Clinton, made public more than 70 recorded sessions with the president during his presidency from 1993 through 2001. According to a session taped on 14 October 1993, it is stated that:\n\nCourse of the war \n\n1992 \n\nAt the outset of the Bosnian war, Serb forces attacked the Bosnian Muslim civilian population in eastern Bosnia. Once towns and villages were securely in their hands, the Serb forces – military, police, the paramilitaries and, sometimes, even Serb villagers – applied the same pattern: houses and apartments were systematically ransacked or burnt down, civilians were rounded up or captured, and sometimes beaten or killed in the process. Men and women were separated, with many of the men massacred or detained in camps. Women and children were kept in various detention centres where they had to live in intolerably unhygienic conditions, where they were mistreated in many ways including being raped repeatedly. Serb soldiers or policemen would come to these detention centres, select one or more women or girls, take them out and rape them. Serbs had the upper hand due to heavier weaponry (though lower manpower) that was given to them by the Yugoslav People's Army and established control over most areas where Serbs were the majority but also in areas where they were a significant minority in both rural and urban regions except the larger towns of Sarajevo and Mostar.\n\nThe Siege of Sarajevo started in early April 1992. Most of the capital Sarajevo was held by the Bosniaks. In the 44 months of the siege, terror against Sarajevo residents varied in intensity, but the purpose remained the same: inflict suffering on civilians to force the Bosnian authorities to accept Serb demands. The VRS surrounded it (alternatively, the Serb forces situated themselves in the areas surrounding Sarajevo the so-called Ring around Sarajevo), deploying troops and artillery in the surrounding hills in what would become the longest siege in the history of modern warfare lasting nearly four years. \n\nIn May 1992, the 1992 Yugoslav People's Army column incident in Sarajevo happened. During April–May 1992 fierce attacks raged in eastern Bosnia as well as the northwestern part of the country. In April attacks by the SDS leaders, together with field officers of the Second Military Command of former JNA, were conducted in eastern part of the country with the objective to take strategically relevant positions and carry out a communication and information blockade. Attacks carried out resulted in a large number of dead and wounded civilians.[http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/333378630589b6d680256674005bc280?Opendocument \"Bosnia and Herzegovina Report\"] , unhchr.ch], 30 October 1992.\n\nBy June 1992, the number of refugees and internally displaced persons had reached 2.6 million. \n\nThe Graz agreement was signed between the Bosnian Serb and Bosnian Croat leaders in early May 1992. The Croat-Bosniak War began in June 1992. By September 1992, Croatia had accepted 335,985 refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly Bosniak civilians (excluding men of drafting age). The large number of refugees significantly strained the Croatian economy and infrastructure. \n\nThen-U.S. Ambassador to Croatia, Peter Galbraith, tried to put the number of Muslim refugees in Croatia into a proper perspective in an interview on 8 November 1993. He said the situation would be the equivalent of the United States taking in 30,000,000 refugees. The number of Bosnian refugees in Croatia was at the time surpassed only by the number of the internally displaced persons within Bosnia and Herzegovina itself, at 588,000. Serbia took in 252,130 refugees from Bosnia, while other former Yugoslav republics received a total of 148,657 people.\n\nIn June 1992, the Bosnian Serbs started Operation Vrbas '92 and Operation Koridor. The reported deaths of twelve newborn babies in Banja Luka hospital due to a shortage of bottled oxygen for incubators was cited as an immediate cause for the action, but the veracity of these deaths has since been questioned. Borisav Jović, a contemporary high-ranking Serbian official and member of the Yugoslav Presidency, has claimed that the report was just wartime propaganda, stating that Banja Luka had two bottled oxygen production plants in its immediate vicinity and was virtually self-reliant in that respect.\n\nIn June 1992, the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) originally deployed in Croatia had its mandate extended into Bosnia and Herzegovina, initially to protect the Sarajevo International Airport. In September, the role of UNPROFOR was expanded to protect humanitarian aid and assist relief delivery in the whole Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as to help protect civilian refugees when required by the Red Cross.\n\n1992 ethnic cleansing campaign in eastern Bosnia \n\nInitially, the Serb forces attacked the non-Serb civilian population in eastern Bosnia. Once towns and villages were securely in their hands, the Serb forces – military, police, the paramilitaries and, sometimes, even Serb villagers – applied the same pattern: Bosniak houses and apartments were systematically ransacked or burnt down, Bosniak civilians were rounded up or captured, and sometimes beaten or killed in the process. Men and women were separated, with many of the men detained in the camps.\n\nPrijedor region \n\nOn 23 April 1992, the SDS decided inter alia that all Serb units would immediately prepare to take over the Prijedor municipality in co-ordination with the JNA. By the end of April 1992, a number of clandestine Serb police stations were created in the municipality and more than 1,500 armed Serbs were ready to take part in the takeover.\n\nA declaration on the takeover prepared by the Serb politicians from the SDS was read out on Radio Prijedor the day after the takeover and was repeated throughout the day. During the night of 29–30 April 1992, the takeover took place. Employees of the public security stations and reserve police gathered in Cirkin Polje, part of the town of Prijedor. Only Serbs were present and some of them were wearing military uniforms. The people there were given the task of taking over power in the municipality and were broadly divided into five groups. Each group of about twenty had a leader and each was ordered to gain control of certain buildings. One group was responsible for the Assembly building, one for the main police building, one for the courts, one for the bank and the last for the post-office.\n\nSerb authorities set up concentration camps and determined who should be responsible for the running of those camps. The Keraterm factory was set up as a camp on or around 23–24 May 1992. The Omarska mine complex was located about 20 km from the town of Prijedor. The first detainees were taken to the camp sometime in late May 1992 (between 26 and 30 May). According to Serb authorities' documents from Prijedor, 3,334 persons were held in the camp from 27 May to 16 August 1992. 3,197 of them were Bosniaks (i.e. Bosnian Muslims), and 125 were Croats. The Trnoplje camp was set up in the village of Trnoplje on 24 May 1992. The camp was guarded on all sides by the Serb army. There were machine gun nests and well-armed posts pointing their guns towards the camp. There were several thousand people detained in the camp. The vast majority of them were Bosnian Muslims; some were Croats.\n\nThe ICTY concluded that the Serb takeover was as an illegal coup d'état, which was planned and coordinated a long time in advance with the ultimate aim of creating a pure Serbian municipality. These plans were never hidden and they were implemented in a coordinated action by the Serb police, army and politicians. One of the leading figures was Milomir Stakić, who came to play the dominant role in the political life of the Municipality.\n\nJNA troops under control of Serbia took over at least 60 percent of Prijedor try before the official withdrawal on 19 May of all non-Bosnian soldiers. Much of this was due to their being much better armed and organised than the Bosniak and Bosnian Croat forces. They attacked areas of mixed ethnic composition. Doboj, Foča, Rogatica, Vlasenica, Bratunac, Zvornik, Prijedor, Sanski Most, Ključ, Brčko, Derventa, Modriča, Bosanska Krupa, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Novi, Glamoč, Bosanski Petrovac, Čajniče, Bijeljina, Višegrad, Donji Vakuf, and parts of Sarajevo are areas where Serbs established control and expelled Bosniaks and Croats. More ethnically homogeneous areas were spared major fighting such as Banja Luka, Bosanska Dubica, Bosanska Gradiška, Bileća, Gacko, Han Pijesak, Kalinovik, Nevesinje, Trebinje, and Rudo and their non-Serb populations expelled. The regions of central Bosnia and Herzegovina (Sarajevo, Zenica, Maglaj, Zavidovići, Bugojno, Mostar, Konjic, etc.) saw the flight of ethnic Serbs, migrating to Serb-held areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n\nThe Croat Defence Council take-overs in central Bosnia \n\nPressured and contained by heavily armed Serb forces in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia, the major Croat force – the HVO (Croatian Defence Council) shifted their focus from defending their parts of Bosnia from Serbs to trying to capture remaining territory held by Bosnian Army. To accomplish this, HVO forces would have to both quell dissent from the moderate Croatian Defence Forces (HOS) armed group and defeat the Bosnian Army, as the territory the HVO wanted was under the control of the Bosnian government. The HVO, with great support from the Croatian military, attacked Bosniak civilian population in Herzegovina and in central Bosnia starting an ethnic cleansing of Bosniak populated territories.\n\nThe Graz agreement of May 1992 caused deep division inside the Croat community and strengthened the separation group, which led to the conflict with Bosniaks. One of the primary pro-union Croat leaders was Blaž Kraljević, leader of the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS) armed group, which also had a Croatian nationalist agenda but, unlike HVO, it fully supported cooperation with the Bosniaks. In June 1992 the focus switched to Novi Travnik and Gornji Vakuf where the Croat Defence Council (HVO) efforts to gain control were resisted. On 18 June 1992 the Bosnian Territorial Defence in Novi Travnik received an ultimatum from the HVO that included demands to abolish existing Bosnia and Herzegovina institutions, establish the authority of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia and pledge allegiance to it, subordinate the Territorial Defense to the HVO and expel Muslim refugees, all within 24 hours. The attack was launched on 19 June. The elementary school and the Post Office were attacked and damaged. \n\nVastly underequipped Bosnian forces, fighting on two fronts, were able to repel Croats and gain territory against them on every front. At this time, due to its geographic position, Bosnia was surrounded by Croat and Serb forces from all sides. There was no way to import weapons or food. What saved Bosnia at this time was its vast heavy industrial complex that was able to switch to military hardware production. In August 1992, HOS leader Blaž Kraljević was killed by HVO soldiers, severely weakening the moderate group which had hoped to keep the alliance between Bosniaks and Croats alive.Sarajevo, i poslije, Erich Rathfelder, München 1998 [http://www.hsp1861.hr/vijesti/201129erra.htm], hsp1861.hr; accessed 25 April 2015. \n\nIn October 1992, Croat forces attacked Bosniaks in Prozor, killing civilians and burning homes. According to the ICTY indictment of Jadranko Prlić, HVO forces cleansed most Muslims from the town of Prozor and several surrounding villages.\n\n1993 \n\nOn 8 January 1993 the Serbs killed the deputy prime minister of the RBiH Hakija Turajlić after stopping the UN convoy taking him from the airport. \n\nNumerous cease-fire agreements were signed, and breached again when one of the sides felt it was to their advantage. The UN repeatedly, but unsuccessfully attempted to stop the war and the much-touted Vance-Owen Peace Plan in the first half of 1993 made little impact. Much of 1993 was dominated by the Croat-Bosniak War. In January 1993, Croat forces attacked Gornji Vakuf, to separate Herzegovina from Bosnia.\n\nOn 22 February 1993, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 808 that decided \"that an international tribunal shall be established for the prosecution of persons responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law\". On 15–16 May, 96% of Serbs voted to reject the Vance-Owen peace plan. After the failure of this plan, which would have resulted in the division of the country into three ethnic entities, an armed conflict sprang up between Bosniaks and Croats over the 30 percent of Bosnia the latter held. The peace plan was one of the factors leading to the escalation of the conflict, as Lord Owen avoided moderate Croat authorities (pro-unified Bosnia) and negotiated directly with more extreme elements (who were in favour of separation). \n\nOn 25 May 1993 the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was formally established by Resolution 827 of the United Nations Security Council. In April 1993, the United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 816, calling on member states to enforce a no-fly zone over Bosnia-Herzegovina. On 12 April 1993, NATO commenced Operation Deny Flight to enforce this no-fly zone.\n\nGornji Vakuf shelling \n\nGornji Vakuf is a town to the south of the Lašva Valley and of strategic importance at a crossroads en route to Central Bosnia. It is 48 kilometres from Novi Travnik and about one hour's drive from Vitez in an armoured vehicle. For Croats it was a very important connection between the Lašva Valley and Herzegovina, two territories included in the self-proclaimed Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia. The Croat forces shelling reduced much of the historical oriental centre of the town of Gornji Vakuf to rubble.\n\nOn 10 January 1993, just before the outbreak of hostilities in Gornji Vakuf, the Croat Defence Council (HVO) commander Luka Šekerija, sent a \"Military – Top Secret\" request to Colonel Tihomir Blaškić and Dario Kordić (the latter convicted by ICTY of war crimes and crimes against humanity i.e. ethnic cleansing), for rounds of mortar shells available at the ammunition factory in Vitez. Fighting then broke out in Gornji Vakuf on 11 January 1993, sparked by a bomb Croats placed in a Bosniak-owned hotel used as a military headquarters. A general outbreak of fighting followed, and there was heavy shelling of the town that night by Croat artillery.\n\nDuring cease-fire negotiations at the Britbat HQ in Gornji Vakuf, Colonel Andrić, representing the HVO, demanded that the ARBiH forces lay down their arms and accept HVO control of the town, threatening that if they did not agree he would flatten Gornji Vakuf to the ground. The HVO demands were not accepted by the ARBiH and the attack continued, followed by massacres of Bosnian Muslim civilians in neighbouring villages such as Bistrica, Uzričje, Duša, Ždrimci and Hrasnica. \n\nDuring the Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing, the area was surrounded by the Croatian Army and the HVO for seven months and attacked with heavy artillery and other weapons (tanks and snipers). Although Croats often cited it as a major reason for the attack on Gornji Vakuf, the commander of the British Britbat company claimed that there were no Muslim holy warriors in Gornji Vakuf (commonly known as Bosnian mujahideen, and who, according to Richard Holbrooke, were actually Al-Qaeda)[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/22/AR2008042202522.html Richard Holbrooke - Lessons From Dayton for Iraq]| and that his soldiers did not see any. The shelling campaign and the attacks during the war resulted in hundreds of injured and killed, mainly Bosnian Muslim civilians.\n\nLašva Valley ethnic cleansing \n\nThe Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing campaign against Bosniak civilians was planned by the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia's political and military leadership from May 1992 to March 1993. Fighting by the HVO which erupted the following April, was meant to implement objectives set forth by Croat nationalists in November 1991. The Lašva Valley's Bosniaks were subjected to persecution on political, and religious grounds, deliberately discriminated against in the context of a widespread attack on the region's civilian population and suffered mass murder, rape, imprisonment in camps, as well as the destruction of cultural sites and private property. This was often followed by anti-Bosniak propaganda, particularly in the municipalities of Vitez, Busovača, Novi Travnik and Kiseljak. Ahmići massacre in April 1993, was the culmination of the Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing, resulting in mass killing of Bosnian Muslim civilians just in a few hours. The youngest was a three-month-old baby, shot to death in his crib, and the oldest was an 81-year-old woman. It was the worst massacre committed during the conflict between Croats and the Bosniak-dominated government.\n\nThe International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has ruled that these crimes amounted to crimes against humanity in numerous verdicts against Croat political and military leaders and soldiers, most notably Dario Kordić. Based upon the evidence of numerous HVO attacks at that time, the ICTY Trial Chamber concluded in the Kordić and Čerkez case that by April 1993 the Croat leadership had a common design or plan conceived and executed to ethnically cleanse Bosniaks from the Lašva Valley. Dario Kordić, as the local political leader, was found to be the planner and instigator of this plan. According to the Sarajevo-based Research and Documentation Center (IDC), around 2,000 Bosniaks from the Lašva Valley are missing or were killed during this period. \n\nWar in Herzegovina \n\nThe Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia took control of many municipal governments and services in Herzegovina as well, removing or marginalising local Bosniak leaders. Herzeg-Bosnia took control of the media and imposed Croatian ideas and propaganda. Croatian symbols and currency were introduced, and Croatian curricula and the Croatian language were introduced in schools. Many Bosniaks and Serbs were removed from positions in government and private business; humanitarian aid was managed and distributed to the Bosniaks' and Serbs' disadvantage; and Bosniaks in general were increasingly harassed. Many of them were deported into concentration camps: Heliodrom, Dretelj, Gabela, Vojno and Šunje.\n\nAccording to the ICTY judgement in Naletilić-Martinović, HVO forces attacked the villages of Sovici and Doljani, about 50 kilometers north of Mostar in the morning on 17 April 1993. The attack was part of a larger HVO offensive aimed at taking Jablanica, the main Bosnian Muslim dominated town in the area. The HVO commanders had calculated that they needed two days to take Jablanica. The location of Sovici was of strategic significance for the HVO as it was on the way to Jablanica. For the ARBiH it was a gateway to the plateau of Risovac, which could create conditions for further progression towards the Adriatic coast. The larger HVO offensive on Jablanica had already started on 15 April 1993. The artillery destroyed the upper part of Sovici. The Bosnian Army was fighting back, but at about five p.m. the Bosnian Army commander in Sovici, surrendered. Approximately 70 to 75 soldiers surrendered. In total, at least 400 Bosnian Muslim civilians were detained. The HVO advance towards Jablanica was halted after a cease-fire agreement had been negotiated.\n\nSiege of Mostar \n\nThe Eastern part of Mostar was surrounded by HVO forces for nine months, and much of its historic city was severely damaged in shelling including the famous Stari Most bridge. Mostar was divided into a Western part, which was dominated by the HVO forces and an Eastern part where the ARBiH was largely concentrated. However, the Bosnian Army had its headquarters in West Mostar in the basement of a building complex referred to as Vranica. In the early hours of 9 May 1993, the Croatian Defence Council attacked Mostar using artillery, mortars, heavy weapons and small arms. The HVO controlled all roads leading into Mostar and international organisations were denied access. Radio Mostar announced that all Bosniaks should hang out a white flag from their windows. The HVO attack had been well prepared and planned.\n\nThe HVO took over the west side of the city and expelled thousands of Bosniaks to the east side. The HVO shelling reduced much of the east side of Mostar to rubble. The JNA demolished Carinski Bridge, Titov Bridge and Lucki Bridge over the river excluding the Stari Most. HVO forces (and its smaller divisions) engaged in a mass execution, ethnic cleansing and rape on the Bosniak people of the West Mostar and its surroundings and a fierce siege and shelling campaign on the Bosnian Government run East Mostar. HVO campaign resulted in thousands of injured and killed.\n\nThe ARBiH launched an operation known as Operation Neretva '93 against the HVO and the Croatian Army in September 1993 to end the siege of Mostar, and recapture areas of Herzegovina included in the self-proclaimed Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia. The operation was stopped by Bosnian authorities after it received information about the massacre against Croat civilians and POWs in the villages of Grabovica and Uzdol. The HVO leadership (Jadranko Prlić, Bruno Stojić, Milivoj Petković, Valentin Ćorić and Berislav Pušić) and the Croatian Army officer Slobodan Praljak went on trial at the ICTY on charges including crimes against humanity, grave breaches of the Geneva conventions and violations of the laws or customs of war. Dario Kordić, political leader of Croats in Central Bosnia was convicted of the crimes against humanity in Central Bosnia, i.e. ethnic cleansing and sentenced to 25 years in prison. ARBiH commander Sefer Halilović was charged with one count of violation of the laws and customs of war on the basis of superior criminal responsibility of the incidents during Operation Neretva '93, and acquitted.\n\nUN Safe Areas \n\nIn an attempt to protect the civilians, UNPROFOR's role was further extended in May 1993 to protect the \"safe havens\" that United Nations Security Council had declared around Sarajevo, Goražde, Srebrenica, Tuzla, Žepa and Bihać in Resolution [http://web.archive.org/web/20120726222207/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N93/262/07/IMG/N9326207.pdf?OpenElement 824] of 6 May 1993. On 4 June 1993 the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 836 authorised the use of force by UNPROFOR in the protection of the safe zones. On 15 June 1993, Operation Sharp Guard, a naval blockade in the Adriatic Sea by NATO and the Western European Union, began but was lifted on 18 June 1996 on termination of the UN arms embargo.\n\nThe Croatian Defence Council (HVO) and Army of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) did continue to fight side by side against the superior forces of the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) in some areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Even though armed confrontation in central Bosnia strained the relationship between the HVO and ARBiH, the Croat-Bosniak alliance held in Bihać pocket (northwest Bosnia) and the Bosanska Posavina (north), where both were heavily outmatched by Serb forces.\n\n1994 \n\nThe forced deportations of Bosniaks from Serb-held territories and the resulting refugee crisis continued to escalate. Thousands of people were being bused out of Bosnia each month, threatened on religious grounds. In turn, in mid-1994, Croatia was strained by 500,000 refugees, and the Croatian authorities forbade entry to a group of 462 refugees fleeing northern Bosnia, and forcing UNPROFOR to improvise shelter for them. \n\nMarkale massacre \n\nOn 5 February 1994 Sarajevo suffered its deadliest single attack during the entire siege with the first Markale massacre, when a 120 millimeter mortar shell landed in the centre of the crowded marketplace, killing 68 people and wounding another 144. On 6 February, UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali formally requested NATO to confirm that future requests for air strikes would be carried out immediately. \n\nOn 9 February 1994, NATO authorised the Commander of Allied Forces Southern Europe (CINCSOUTH), US Admiral Jeremy Boorda, to launch air strikes—at the request of the UN—against artillery and mortar positions in or around Sarajevo determined by UNPROFOR to be responsible for attacks against civilian targets in that city. Only Greece failed to support the use of air strikes, but did not veto the proposal.\n\nNATO also issued an ultimatum to the Bosnian Serbs demanding the removal of heavy weapons around Sarajevo by midnight of 20–21 February, or face air strikes. On 12 February, Sarajevo enjoyed its first casualty free day since April 1992; the war is widely considered to have begun on 6 April 1992. The large-scale removal of Bosnian-Serb heavy weapons began on 17 February 1994.\n\nWashington Agreement \n\nThe Croat-Bosniak war officially ended on 23 February 1994 when the Commander of HVO, general Ante Roso, and commander of Bosnian Army, general Rasim Delić, signed a ceasefire agreement in Zagreb. On 18 March 1994 a peace agreement—the Washington Agreement—mediated by the USA between the warring Croats (represented by the Republic of Croatia) and the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was signed in Washington and Vienna. \n\nThe Washington Agreement ended the war between Croats and Bosniaks and divided the combined territory held by Croat and Bosnian government forces into ten autonomous cantons, establishing the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This reduced the warring parties to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina composed of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) and the Croatian Defence Council (HVO), and the Republika Srpska in the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS).\n\nUNPROFOR and NATO \n\nNATO became actively involved, when its jets shot down four Serb aircraft over central Bosnia on 28 February 1994 for violating the UN no-fly zone.Economides, Spyros & Taylor, Paul (2007). \"Former Yugoslavia\" Mats Berdal & Spyro Economides (eds), United Nations Interventionism, 1991–2004, p. 89. New York: Cambridge University Press.\n\nOn 12 March 1994, the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) made its first request for NATO air support, but close air support was not deployed, owing to a number of delays associated with the approval process. \n\nOn 20 March an aid convoy with medical supplies and doctors reached Maglaj, a city of 100,000 people, which had been under siege since May 1993 and had been surviving off food supplies dropped by US aircraft. A second convoy on 23 March was hijacked and looted.\n\nOn 10–11 April 1994, UNPROFOR called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area, resulting in the bombing of a Serbian military command outpost near Goražde by 2 US F-16 jets. This was the first time in NATO's history it had ever done so. This resulted in the taking of 150 U.N. personnel hostage on 14 April. On 16 April a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Serb forces. On 15 April the Bosnian government lines around Goražde broke.\n\nAround 29 April 1994, a Danish contingent (Nordbat 2) on peacekeeping duty in Bosnia, as part of UNPROFOR's Nordic battalion located in Tuzla, was ambushed when trying to relieve a Swedish observation post (Tango 2) that was under heavy artillery fire by the Bosnian Serb Šekovići brigade at the village of Kalesija. The ambush was dispersed when the UN forces retaliated with heavy fire in what would be known as Operation Bøllebank.\n\nOn 12 May, the US Senate adopted from Sen. Bob Dole to unilaterally lift the arms embargo against the Bosnians, but it was repudiated by President Clinton. was signed by the President on 5 October 1994 and stated that if the Bosnian Serbs had not accepted the Contact Group proposal by 15 October the President should introduce a UN Security Council proposal to end the arms embargo and that if it was not passed by 15 November only funds required by all UN members under Resolution 713 could be used to enforce the embargo, effectively ending the arms embargo. \n\nOn 5 August, at the request of UNPROFOR, NATO aircraft attacked a target within the Sarajevo Exclusion Zone after weapons were seized by Bosnian Serbs from a weapons collection site near Sarajevo. On 22 September 1994 NATO aircraft carried out an air strike against a Bosnian Serb tank at the request of UNPROFOR.\n\nOn 12–13 November, the US unilaterally lifted the arms embargo against the government of Bosnia. \n\nOperation Amanda was an UNPROFOR mission led by Danish peacekeeping troops, with the aim of recovering an observation post near Gradačac, Bosnia and Herzegovina, on 25 October 1994.[http://www.milhist.dk/post45/boellebank/boellebank_uk.htm \"Danish Tanks at War\"], milhist.dk; accessed 25 April 2015.\n\nOn 19 November 1994, the North Atlantic Council approved the extension of Close Air Support to Croatia for the protection of UN forces in that country. NATO aircraft attacked the Udbina airfield in Serb-held Croatia on 21 November, in response to attacks launched from that airfield against targets in the Bihac area of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 23 November, after attacks launched from a surface-to-air missile site south of Otoka (north-west Bosnia and Herzegovina) on two NATO aircraft, air strikes were conducted against air defence radars in that area.\n\n1995 \n\nThe war continued until November 1995. In July 1995 Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) forces under general Ratko Mladić occupied the UN \"safe area\" of Srebrenica in eastern Bosnia where around 8,000 men were killed in the Srebrenica massacre (most women were expelled to Bosniak-held territory, where some were raped and killed). The United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR), represented on the ground by a 400-strong contingent of Dutch peacekeepers, Dutchbat, failed to prevent the town's capture by the VRS and the subsequent massacre. \n\nThe ICTY ruled this event as genocide in the Krstić case. In line with the Croat-Bosniak Split Agreement, Croatian forces operated in western Bosnia in Operation Summer '95 and in early August launched Operation Storm, taking over the Serb Krajina in Croatia. With this, the Bosniak-Croat alliance gained the initiative in the war, taking much of western Bosnia from the VRS in several operations, including: Operation Mistral 2 and Operation Sana. VRS forces committed several major massacres during 1995: the Tuzla massacre on 25 May, the Srebrenica massacre and the second Markale massacre on 28 August. On 30 August, the Secretary General of NATO announced the start of in Operation Deliberate Force, widespread airstrikes against Bosnian Serb positions supported by UNPROFOR rapid reaction force artillery attacks. \n\nOn 14 September 1995, the NATO air strikes were suspended to allow the implementation of an agreement with Bosnian Serbs for the withdrawal of heavy weapons from around Sarajevo. Twelve days later, on 26 September, an agreement of further basic principles for a peace accord was reached in New York City between the foreign ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and the FRY. A 60-day ceasefire came into effect on 12 October, and on 1 November peace talks began in Dayton, Ohio. The war ended with the Dayton Peace Agreement signed on 21 November 1995; the final version of the peace agreement was signed 14 December 1995 in Paris.\n\nFollowing the Dayton Agreement, a NATO led Implementation Force (IFOR) was deployed to Bosnia-Herzegovina. This 80,000 strong unit, heavily armed and mandated to fire at will when necessary for the successful implementation of the operation, was deployed in order to enforce the peace, as well as other tasks such as providing support for humanitarian and political aid, reconstruction, providing support for displaced civilians to return to their homes, collection of arms, and mine and unexploded ordnance (uxo) clearing of the affected areas.\n\nImpact of the war \n\nCasualties \n\nCalculating the number of deaths resulting from the conflict has been subject to considerable, highly politicised debate sometimes \"fused with narratives about victimhood\", from the political elites of various groups. Estimates of the total number of casualties have ranged from 25,000 to 329,000. The variations are partly the result of the use of inconsistent definitions of who can be considered victims of the war, as some research calculated only direct casualties of military activity while other research included those who died from hunger, cold, disease or other war conditions. Early overcounts were also the result of many victims being entered in both civilian and military lists because little systematic coordination of those lists took place in wartime conditions. The death toll was originally estimated in 1994 at around 200,000 by Cherif Bassiouni, head of the UN expert commission investigating war crimes.[http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/utenriks/4260912.html \"102.000 drept i Bosnia\"], NRK News, 14 November 2004. \n\nProf. Steven L. Burg and Prof. Paul S. Shoup, writing in 1999, observed about early high figures:\n\nRDC figures \n\nIn June 2007, the Sarajevo-based Research and Documentation Center published extensive research on Bosnia-Herzegovina's war deaths, (also called The Bosnian Book of the Dead ), a database that initially revealed a minimum of 97,207 names of Bosnia and Herzegovina's citizens confirmed as killed or missing during the 1992–1995 war. The head of the UN war crimes tribunal's Demographic Unit, Ewa Tabeau, has called it \"the largest existing database on Bosnian war victims\" and it is considered the most authoritative account of human losses in the Bosnian war. More than 240,000 pieces of data were collected, checked, compared and evaluated by an international team of experts in order to produce the 2007 list of 97,207 victims' names.\n\nThe RDC 2007 figures stated that these were confirmed figures and that several thousand cases were still being examined. All of the RDC figures are believed to be a slight undercount as their methodology is dependent on a family member having survived to report the missing relative, though the undercount is not thought to be statistically significant. At least 30 percent of the 2007 confirmed Bosniak civilian victims were women and children.\n\nThe RDC published periodic updates of its figures until June 2012, when it published its final report. The 2012 figures recorded a total of 101,040 dead or disappeared, of whom 61.4 percent were Bosniaks, 24.7 percent were Serbs, 8.3 percent were Croats and less than 1 percent were of other ethnicities, with a further 5 percent whose ethnicity was unstated. \n\nCivilian deaths were established as 38,239, which represented 37.9 percent of total deaths. Bosniaks accounted for 81.3 percent of those civilian deaths, compared to Serbs 10.9 percent and Croats 6.5 percent. The proportion of civilian victims is, moreover, an absolute minimum because the status of 5,100 victims was unestablished and because relatives had registered their dead loved ones as military victims in order to obtain veteran's financial benefits or for 'honour' reasons. \n\nBoth the RDC and the ICTY's demographic unit applied statistical techniques to identify possible duplication caused by a given victim being recorded in multiple primary lists, the original documents being then hand-checked to assess duplication. \n\nSome 30 categories of information existed within the database for each individual record, apart from basic personal information, these included place and date of death and (in the case of soldiers), the military unit to which the individual belonged. This has allowed the database to present deaths by gender, military unit, year and region of death, in addition to ethnicity and 'status in war' (civilian or soldier). The information category intended to describe which military formation caused the death of each victim, was the most incomplete and was deemed unusable.\n\nICTY figures \n\n2010 research for the Office of the Prosecutors at the Hague Tribunal, headed by Ewa Tabeau, pointed to errors in earlier figures and calculated the minimum number of victims as 89,186, with a probable figure of around 104,732. Tabeau noted the numbers should not be confused with \"who killed who\", because, for example, many Serbs were killed by the Serb army during the shelling of Sarajevo, Tuzla and other multi-ethnic cities. The authors of this report said that the actual death toll may be slightly higher. \n\nThese figures were not based solely on 'battle deaths', but included accidental deaths taking place in battle conditions and acts of mass violence. Specifically excluded were \"non-violent mortality increases\" and \"criminal and unorganised violence increases”. Similarly 'military deaths' included both combat and non-combat deaths.\n\nOther statistics \n\nThere are no statistics dealing specifically with the casualties of the Croat-Bosniak conflict along ethnic lines. However, according to The RDC's data on human losses in the regions, in Central Bosnia 62 percent of the 10,448 documented deaths were Bosniaks, while Croats constituted 24 percent and Serbs 13 percent. The municipalities of Gornji Vakuf and Bugojno are geographically located in Central Bosnia (known as Gornje Povrbasje region), but the 1,337 region's documented deaths are included in Vrbas regional statistics. Approximately 70–80 percent of the casualties from Gornje Povrbasje were Bosniaks. In the region of Neretva river, of 6,717 casualties, 54 percent were Bosniaks, 24 percent Serbs and 21 percent Croats. The casualties in those regions were mainly, but not exclusively, the consequence of Croat-Bosniak conflict.\n\nAccording to the UN, there were 167 fatalities amongst UNPROFOR personnel during the course of the force's mandate, from February 1992 to March 1995. Of those who died, three were military observers, 159 were other military personnel, one was a member of the civilian police, two were international civilian staff and two were local staff. \n\nIn a statement in September 2008 to the United Nations General Assembly, Dr Haris Silajdžić, said that \"According to the ICRC data, 200,000 people were killed, 12,000 of them children, up to 50,000 women were raped, and 2.2 million were forced to flee their homes. This was a veritable genocide and sociocide\". However, Silajdžić and others have been criticised for inflating the number of fatalities to attract international support. An ICRC book published in 2010 cites the total number killed in all of the Balkan Wars in the 1990s as \"about 140,000 people\". \n\nMany of the 34,700 people who were reported missing during the Bosnian war remain unaccounted for. In 2012 Amnesty reported that the fate of an estimated 10,500 people, most of whom were Bosnian Muslims, remained unknown. Bodies of victims are still being unearthed two decades later. In July 2014 the remains of 284 victims, unearthed from the Tomasica mass grave near the town of Prijedor, were laid to rest in a mass ceremony in the northwestern town of Kozarac, attended by relatives. \n\nThe UNCHR stated that the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina forced more than 2.2 million people to flee their homes, making it the largest displacement of people in Europe since the end of World War II.\n\nWar crimes \n\nEthnic cleansing \n\n Ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon in the war. This entailed intimidation, forced expulsion, or killing of the unwanted ethnic group as well as the destruction of the places of worship, cemeteries and cultural and historical buildings of that ethnic group. Academics Matjaž Klemenčič and Mitja Žagar argue that: \"Ideas of nationalistic ethnic politicians that Bosnia and Herzegovina be reorganised into homogenous national territories inevitably required the division of ethnically mixed territories into their Serb, Croat, and Muslim parts\".\n\nAccording to numerous ICTY verdicts and indictments, Serb and Croat forces performed ethnic cleansing of their territories planned by their political leadership to create ethnically pure states (Republika Srpska and Herzeg-Bosnia). Serb forces carried out the atrocities known as the \"Srebrenica genocide\" at the end of the war. The Central Intelligence Agency claimed, in a 1995 report, that Bosnian Serb forces were responsible for 90 percent of the ethnic cleansing committed during the conflict.\n\nBased on the evidence of numerous HVO attacks, the ICTY Trial Chamber concluded in the Kordić and Čerkez case that by April 1993 Croat leadership had a common design or plan conceived and executed to ethnically cleanse Bosniaks from the Lašva Valley in Central Bosnia. Dario Kordić, as the local political leader, was found to be the planner and instigator of this plan.\n\nThough comparatively rare, there were also cases of pro-Bosniak forces having 'forced other ethnic groups to flee' during the war.\n\nGenocide \n\nA trial took place before the International Court of Justice, following a 1993 suit by Bosnia and Herzegovina against Serbia and Montenegro alleging genocide. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruling of 26 February 2007 indirectly determined the war's nature to be international, though clearing Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by the forces of Republika Srpska. The ICJ concluded, however, that Serbia failed to prevent genocide committed by Serb forces and failed to punish those responsible, and bring them to justice. A telegram sent to the White House on 8 February 1994 and penned by U.S. Ambassador to Croatia, Peter W. Galbraith, stated that genocide was occurring. The telegram cited \"constant and indiscriminate shelling and gunfire\" of Sarajevo by Karadzic's Yugoslav People Army; the harassment of minority groups in Northern Bosnia \"in an attempt to force them to leave\"; and the use of detainees \"to do dangerous work on the front lines\" as evidence that genocide was being committed. In 2005, the United States Congress passed a resolution declaring that \"the Serbian policies of aggression and ethnic cleansing meet the terms defining genocide\". \n\nDespite the evidence of many kinds of war crimes conducted simultaneously by different Serb forces in different parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially in Bijeljina, Sarajevo, Prijedor, Zvornik, Banja Luka, Višegrad and Foča, the judges ruled that the criteria for genocide with the specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy Bosnian Muslims were met only in Srebrenica or Eastern Bosnia in 1995.\n\nThe court concluded the crimes committed during the 1992–1995 war, may amount to crimes against humanity according to the international law, but that these acts did not, in themselves, constitute genocide per se. The Court further decided that, following Montenegro's declaration of independence in May 2006, Serbia was the only respondent party in the case, but that \"any responsibility for past events involved at the relevant time the composite State of Serbia and Montenegro\". \n\nMass rape and psychological oppression \n\nThe ethno-religious warfare in Bosnia and Herzegovina led to a widespread implementation of rape as a systematic instrument of war. Estimates of the number of women and girls raped range from 20,000 to 50,000, overwhelmingly Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim). This has been referred to as \"Mass rape\"\n and occasionally \"Genocidal rape\", particularly with regard to the coordinated use of rape as a weapon of war by Serb armed forces. For the first time in judicial history, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) declared that \"systematic rape\", and \"sexual enslavement\" in time of war was a crime against humanity, second only to the war crime of genocide.\n\nCommon complications among surviving women and girls include psychological, gynaecological and other physical disorders, as well as unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. The survivors often feel uncomfortable or sickened with men, sex and relationships; ultimately affecting the growth and development of a population or society as such (thus constituting a slow genocide according to some). In accordance with the norms of Muslim society, most of the unmarried girls were virgins at the time of rape. Mass rapes were the most systematic in Eastern Bosnia (e.g. during the Foča and Višegrad massacres), and in Grbavica during the Siege of Sarajevo. Women and girls were kept in various detention centres where they had to live in intolerably unhygienic conditions and were mistreated in many ways including being repeatedly raped. Serb soldiers or policemen would come to these detention centres, select one or more women, take them out and rape them. All this was done in full view, in complete knowledge and sometimes with the direct involvement of the Serb local authorities, particularly the police forces. The head of Foča police forces, Dragan Gagović, was personally identified as one of the men who came to these detention centres to take women out and rape them. There were numerous rape camps in Foča. \"Karaman's house\" was one of the most notable rape camps. While kept in this house, the girls were constantly raped. Among the women held in \"Karaman's house\" there were minors as young as 12 and 14 years of age. \n\nGirls and women selected by convicted war criminal Dragoljub Kunarac or his men, were systematically taken to the soldiers' base, a house in Osmana Đikić Street #16, where girls and women, whom Kunarac knew were civilians, were raped by his men or by the convicted himself. Serb soldiers demonstrated a total disregard for Bosniaks in general, and Bosniak women in particular. Serb soldiers removed many Bosniak girls from various detention centres and kept some of them for various periods of time, for him or his soldiers to rape.\n\nThe other example include Radomir Kovač, also convicted by the ICTY. While four girls were kept in his apartment, the convicted Radomir Kovač abused them and raped three of them many times, thereby perpetuating the attack upon the Bosniak civilian population. Kovač would also invite his friends to his apartment, and he sometimes allowed them to rape one of the girls. Kovač also sold three of the girls. Prior to their being sold, Kovač had given two of these girls to other Bosnian Serb soldiers who abused them for more than three weeks before taking them back to Kovač, who proceeded to sell one and give the other away to acquaintances of his.\n\nProsecutions and legal proceedings \n\nThe International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established in 1993 as a body of the UN to prosecute war crimes committed during the wars in the former Yugoslavia, and to try their perpetrators. The tribunal is an ad hoc court which is located in The Hague, the Netherlands. \n\nAccording to legal experts, as of early 2008, 45 Serbs, 12 Croats and 4 Bosniaks were convicted of war crimes by the ICTY in connection with the Balkan wars of the 1990s. Both Serbs and Croats were indicted and convicted of systematic war crimes (joint criminal enterprise), while Bosniaks were indicted and convicted of individual ones. Most of the Bosnian Serb wartime leadership Biljana Plavšić, Momčilo Krajišnik, Radoslav Brđanin, and Duško Tadić were indicted and judged guilty for war crimes and ethnic cleansing.\n\nThe former president of Republika Srpska Radovan Karadžić is currently under trial, as is Ratko Mladić, on trial by the ICTY, charged with crimes in connection with the siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre. Paramilitary leader Vojislav Šešelj has been on trial since 2007 accused of being a part of a joint criminal enterprise to ethnically cleanse large areas of Bosnia-Herzegovina of non-Serbs. The Serbian president Slobodan Milošević was charged with war crimes in connection with the war in Bosnia, including grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions, crimes against humanity and genocide, but died in 2006 before the trial could finish. \n\nAfter the death of Alija Izetbegović, The Hague revealed that he was under investigation for war crimes; however the prosecutor did not find sufficient evidence in Izetbegović's lifetime to issue an indictment. Other Bosniaks who were convicted of or are under trial for war crimes include Rasim Delić, chief of staff of the Army of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who was sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment on 15 September 2008 for his failure to prevent the Bosnian mujahideen members of the Bosnian army from committing crimes against captured civilians and enemy combatants (murder, rape, torture). Enver Hadžihasanović, a general of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, was sentenced to 3.5 years for authority over acts of murder and wanton destruction in Central Bosnia. Hazim Delić was the Bosniak Deputy Commander of the Čelebići prison camp, which detained Serb civilians. He was sentenced to 18 years by the ICTY Appeals Chamber on 8 April 2003 for murder and torture of the prisoners and for raping two Serbian women. Serbs have accused Sarajevo authorities of practicing selective justice by actively prosecuting Serbs while ignoring or downplaying Bosniak war crimes. \n\nGenocide at Srebrenica is the most serious war crime that any Serbs were convicted of. Crimes against humanity (i.e. ethnic cleansing), a charge second in gravity only to genocide, is the most serious war crime that any Croats were convicted of. Breaches of the Geneva Conventions is the most serious war crime that Bosniaks were convicted of. \n\nReconciliation \n\nOn 6 December 2004, Serbian president Boris Tadić made an apology in Bosnia and Herzegovina to all those who suffered crimes committed in the name of the Serb people. \n\nCroatia's president Ivo Josipović apologised in April 2010 for his country's role in the Bosnian War. Bosnia and Herzegovina's then-president Haris Silajdžić in turn praised relations with Croatia, remarks that starkly contrasted with his harsh criticism of Serbia the day before. \"I'm deeply sorry that the Republic of Croatia has contributed to the suffering of people and divisions which still burden us today\", Josipović told Bosnia and Herzegovina's parliament. \n\nOn 31 March 2010, the Serbian parliament adopted a declaration \"condemning in strongest terms the crime committed in July 1995 against Bosniak population of Srebrenica\" and apologizing to the families of the victims, the first of its kind in the region. The initiative to pass a resolution came from President Boris Tadić, who pushed for it even though the issue was politically controversial. In the past, only human rights groups and non-nationalistic parties had supported such a measure. \n\nCivil war or a war of aggression \n\nDue to the involvement of Croatia and Serbia, there has been a long-standing debate as to whether the conflict was a civil war or a war of aggression on Bosnia by neighbouring states. Academics Steven Burg and Paul Shoup argue that:\n\nOn the one hand, the war could be viewed as \"a clear-cut case of civil war – that is, of internal war among groups unable to agree on arrangements for sharing power\".\n\nDavid Campbell is critical of narratives about \"civil war\", which he argues often involve what he terms \"moral levelling\", in which all sides are \"said to be equally guilty of atrocities\", and \"emphasise credible Serb fears as a rationale for their actions\".\n\nBosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats enjoyed substantial political and military backing from Serbia and Croatia, and the decision to grant Bosnia diplomatic recognition also had implications for the international interpretation of the conflict. As Burg and Shoup state:\n\nSumantra Bose, meanwhile, argues that it is possible to characterise the Bosnian War as a civil war, without necessarily agreeing with the narrative of Serb and Croat nationalists. He states that while \"all episodes of severe violence have been sparked by 'external' events and forces, local society too has been deeply implicated in that violence\" and therefore argues that \"it makes relatively more sense to regard the 1992–95 conflict in Bosnia as a 'civil war' – albeit obviously with a vital dimension that is territorially external to Bosnia\". \n\nIn 2010, Bosnian Commander Ejup Ganić was detained in London on a Serbian extradition request for alleged war crimes. Judge Timothy Workman decided that Ganić should be released after ruling that Serbia's request was \"politically motivated\". In his decision, he characterised the Bosnian War to have been an international armed conflict as Bosnia had declared independence on 3 March 1992. \n\nAcademic Mary Kaldor argues that the Bosnian War is an example of what she terms new wars, which are neither civil nor inter-state, but rather combine elements of both. \n\nIn popular culture \n\nFilm \n\nThe Bosnian War has been depicted in a number of films including Hollywood films such as The Hunting Party, starring Richard Gere as journalist Simon Hunt in his bid to apprehend suspected war criminal and former Bosnian Serb president Radovan Karadžić; Behind Enemy Lines, loosely based on the Mrkonjić Grad incident, tells about a downed US Navy pilot who uncovers a massacre while on the run from Serb troops who want him dead; The Peacemaker, starring George Clooney and Nicole Kidman, is a story about a US Army colonel and a White House nuclear expert investigating stolen Russian nuclear weapons obtained by a revenge-fueled Yugoslav diplomat, Dušan Gavrić.\n\nIn the Land of Blood and Honey, is a 2011 American film written, produced and directed by Angelina Jolie; the film was Jolie's directorial debut and it depicts a love story set against the mass rape of Muslim women in the Bosnian War. The Spanish/Italian 2013 film Twice Born, starring Penélope Cruz, based on a book by Margaret Mazzantini. It tells the story of a mother who brings her teenage son to Sarajevo, where his father died in the Bosnian conflict years ago.\n\nBritish films include Welcome to Sarajevo, about the life of Sarajevans during the siege. The Bosnian-British film Beautiful People directed by Jasmin Dizdar portrays the encounter between English families and arriving Bosnian refugees at the height of the Bosnian War. The film was awarded the Un Certain Regard at the 1999 Cannes Festival. The Spanish film Territorio Comanche shows the story of a Spanish TV crew during the siege of Sarajevo. The Polish film Demons of War (1998), set during the Bosnian conflict, portrays a Polish group of IFOR soldiers who come to help a pair of journalists tracked by a local warlord whose crimes they had taped.\n\nBosnian director Danis Tanović's No Man's Land won the Best Foreign Language Film awards at the 2001 Academy Awards and the 2002 Golden Globes. The Bosnian film Grbavica, about the life of a single mother in contemporary Sarajevo in the aftermath of systematic rape of Bosniak women by Serbian troops during the war, won the Golden Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival.\n\nThe film The Perfect Circle, directed by Bosnian filmmaker Ademir Kenović, tells the story of two boys during the Siege of Sarajevo and was awarded with the François Chalais Prize at the 1997 Cannes Festival.\n\nThe Serbian-American film Savior, directed by Predrag Antonijević, tells the story of an American mercenary fighting on the side of the Bosnian Serb Army during the war. Pretty Village, Pretty Flame directed by Serbian filmmaker Srđan Dragojević, presents a bleak yet darkly humorous account of the Bosnian War. The Serbian film Life Is a Miracle, produced by Emir Kusturica, depicts the romance of a pacific Serb station caretaker and a Muslim Bosniak young woman entrusted to him as a hostage in the context of Bosniak-Serb border clashes; it was nominated at the 2004 Cannes Festival.\n\nShort films such as In the Name of the Son, about a father who murders his son during the Bosnian War, and 10 Minutes, which contrasts 10 minutes of life of a Japanese tourist in Rome with a Bosnian family during the war, received acclaim for their depiction of the war.\n\nA number of Western films made the Bosnian conflict the background of their stories – some of those include Avenger, based on Frederick Forsyth's novel in which a mercenary tracks down a Serbian warlord responsible for war crimes, and The Peacemaker, in which a Yugoslav man emotionally devastated by the losses of war plots to take revenge on the United Nations by exploding a nuclear bomb in New York. The Whistleblower tells the true story of Kathryn Bolkovac, a UN peacekeeper that uncovered a human-trafficking scandal involving the United Nations in post-war Bosnia. Shot Through the Heart is a 1998 TV film, directed by David Attwood, shown on BBC and HBO in 1998, which covers the Siege of Sarajevo during the Bosnian War from the perspective of two Olympic-level Yugoslavian marksmen, one whom becomes a sniper.\n\nDrama series \n\nThe award-winning British television series, Warriors, aired on BBC One in 1999. It tells the story of a group of British peacekeepers during the Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing. Many of the war's events were depicted in the Pakistani drama series, Alpha Bravo Charlie, written and directed by Shoaib Mansoor in 1998. Produced by the Inter-Services Public Relations (ISPR), the series showed several active battlefield events and the involvement of Pakistan military personnel in the UN peacekeeping missions. Alpha Bravo Charlie was presented on Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV).\n\nIn 2014, in Poland, a computer game, \"This War of Mine\", was invented, based on the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, focused on the civilian population that survives in the besieged city. \n\nDocumentaries \n\nThe BBC documentary series, The Death of Yugoslavia, covers the collapse of Yugoslavia from the roots of the conflict in the 1980s, to the subsequent wars and peace accords, a BBC book was issued with the same title. Other documentaries include Bernard-Henri Lévy's Bosna! about Bosnian resistance against well equipped Serbian troops at the beginning of the war; the Slovenian documentary Tunel upanja (A Tunnel of Hope) about the Sarajevo Tunnel constructed by the besieged citizens of Sarajevo to link Sarajevo, with Bosnian government territory; the British documentary A Cry from the Grave about the Srebrenica massacre. Portuguese director Joaquim Sapinho's documental film diary Bosnia Diaries, generated much controversy, being an unengaged European look over the Bosnian conflict in the first person.[http://www.rosafilmes.pt/ Infos at rosafilmes.pt]: click on \"ENG\", then on \"DIRECTORS\", then on \"JOAQUIM SAPINHO\" [http://silverbulletfilms.com/ Silverbullet Films] worked on a documentary, [http://villageofforgottenwidows.com/ Village of the Forgotten Widows], which depicts the suffering of women affected by the Srebrenica massacre. A Town Betrayed is a documentary made in 2011 by Norwegian director and independent journalists Ola Flyum and David Hebditch, which talks about the events in Srebrenica and surrounding villages from 1992 to 1995.[http://www.sott.net/article/298812-Srebrenica-A-Town-Betrayed-Documentary Srebrenica: A Town Betrayed (Documentary) - Secret History - Sott.net] Watchers of the Sky is a 2014 documentary about the life of Raphael Lemkin and his efforts to establish genocide as a legal concept in international law. The film discusses the events in Srebrenica and General Mladić's involvement in the killings.\n\nBooks \n\nSemezdin Mehmedinović's Sarajevo Blues and Miljenko Jergović's Sarajevo Marlboro are among the best known books written during the war in Bosnia. Zlata's Diary is a published diary kept by a young girl, Zlata Filipović, which chronicles her life in Sarajevo from 1991 to 1993. Because of the diary, she is sometimes referred to as \"The Anne Frank of Sarajevo\". The Bosnia List by Kenan Trebincevic and Susan Shapiro chronicles the war through the eyes of a Bosnian refugee returning home for the first time after 18 years in New York.\n\nWorks about the war include:\n* Necessary Targets (by Eve Ensler)\n* Winter Warriors – Across Bosnia with the PBI by Les Howard, a factual account by a British Territorial infantryman who volunteered to serve as a UN Peacekeeper in the latter stages of the war, and during the first stages of the NATO led Dayton Peace Accord. \n* Pretty Birds, by Scott Simon, depicts a teenage girl in Sarajevo, once a basketball player on her high school team, who becomes a sniper.\n* The Cellist of Sarajevo, by Steven Galloway, is a novel following the stories of four people living in Sarajevo during the war.\n* Life's Too Short to Forgive, written in 2005 by Len Biser, follows the efforts of three people who unite to assassinate Karadzic to stop Serb atrocities.\n* Fools Rush In, written by Bill Carter, tells a story of a man who helped bring U2 to a landmark Sarajevo concert.\n* Evil Doesn't Live Here, by Daoud Sarhandi and Alina Boboc, presents 180 posters created by Bosnian artist which plastered walls during the war.\n* The Avenger by Frederick Forsyth.\n* Hotel Sarajevo by Jack Kersh.\n* Top je bio vreo by Vladimir Kecmanović, a story of a Bosnian Serb boy in the part of Sarajevo held by Bosnian Muslim forces during the Siege of Sarajevo.\n* I Bog je zaplakao nad Bosnom (And God cried over Bosnia), written by Momir Krsmanović, is a depiction of war that mainly focuses on the crimes committed by Muslim people.\n* The war in eastern Bosnia is a subject of Joe Sacco's graphic novel Safe Area Goražde.\n* Dampyr is an Italian comic book, created by Mauro Boselli and Maurizio Colombo and published in Italy by Sergio Bonelli Editore about Harlan Draka, half human, half vampire, who wages war on the multifaceted forces of Evil. The first two episodes are located in Bosnia and Herzegovina (#1 Il figlio del Diavolo) i.e. Sarajevo (#2 La stirpe della note) during the Bosnian War.\n* Blasted by playwright Sarah Kane, is in part about the Bosnian War.\n* Goodbye Sarajevo – A True Story of Courage, Love and Survival by Atka Reid and Hana Schofield and published in 2011, is the story of two sisters from Sarajevo and their separate experiences of the war.\n* Love Thy Neighbor: A Story of War (by Peter Maas), published in 1997 is his account as a reporter at the height of the Bosnian War.\n* My War Gone By, I Miss It So by Anthony Loyd is a memoir of Loyd's time spent covering the conflict as a photojournalist and writer. \n*\"Safe Area Gorazde\" by Joe Sacco\n\nMusic \n\nU2's \"Miss Sarajevo\" is among the best known pieces of music about the war in Bosnia. The song features Bono and Luciano Pavarotti, and is a song that Bono cites as his favourite. Other songs include \"Bosnia\" by The Cranberries and \"Sarajevo\" by UHF."
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"The History Place - Genocide in the 20th Century: Bosnia-Herzegovina 1992-95\nIn the Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina, conflict between the three main ethnic groups, the Serbs, Croats, and Muslims, resulted in genocide committed by the Serbs against the Muslims in Bosnia.\nBosnia is one of several small countries that emerged from the break-up of Yugoslavia, a multicultural country created after World War I by the victorious Western Allies. Yugoslavia was composed of ethnic and religious groups that had been historical rivals, even bitter enemies, including the Serbs (Orthodox Christians), Croats (Catholics) and ethnic Albanians (Muslims).\nRelated Maps\nFormer Yugoslavia\nEthnic Groups\nDuring World War II, Yugoslavia was invaded by Nazi Germany and was partitioned. A fierce resistance movement sprang up led by Josip Tito. Following Germany's defeat, Tito reunified Yugoslavia under the slogan \"Brotherhood and Unity,\" merging together Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, along with two self-governing provinces, Kosovo and Vojvodina.\nTito, a Communist, was a strong leader who maintained ties with the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War, playing one superpower against the other while obtaining financial assistance and other aid from both. After his death in 1980 and without his strong leadership, Yugoslavia quickly plunged into political and economic chaos.\nA new leader arose by the late 1980s, a Serbian named Slobodan Milosevic, a former Communist who had turned to nationalism and religious hatred to gain power. He began by inflaming long-standing tensions between Serbs and Muslims in the independent provence of Kosovo. Orthodox Christian Serbs in Kosovo were in the minority and claimed they were being mistreated by the Albanian Muslim majority. Serbian-backed political unrest in Kosovo eventually led to its loss of independence and domination by Milosevic.\nIn June 1991, Slovenia and Croatia both declared their independence from Yugoslavia soon resulting in civil war. The national army of Yugoslavia, now made up of Serbs controlled by Milosevic, stormed into Slovenia but failed to subdue the separatists there and withdrew after only ten days of fighting.\nMilosevic quickly lost interest in Slovenia, a country with almost no Serbs. Instead, he turned his attention to Croatia, a Catholic country where Orthodox Serbs made up 12 percent of the population.\nDuring World War II, Croatia had been a pro-Nazi state led by Ante Pavelic and his fascist Ustasha Party. Serbs living in Croatia as well as Jews had been the targets of widespread Ustasha massacres. In the concentration camp at Jasenovac, they had been slaughtered by the tens of thousands.\nIn 1991, the new Croat government, led by Franjo Tudjman, seemed to be reviving fascism, even using the old Ustasha flag, and also enacted discriminatory laws targeting Orthodox Serbs.\nAided by Serbian guerrillas in Croatia, Milosevic's forces invaded in July 1991 to 'protect' the Serbian minority. In the city of Vukovar, they bombarded the outgunned Croats for 86 consecutive days and reduced it to rubble. After Vukovar fell, the Serbs began the first mass executions of the conflict, killing hundreds of Croat men and burying them in mass graves.\nThe response of the international community was limited. The U.S. under President George Bush chose not to get involved militarily, but instead recognized the independence of both Slovenia and Croatia. An arms embargo was imposed for all of the former Yugoslavia by the United Nations. However, the Serbs under Milosevic were already the best armed force and thus maintained a big military advantage.\nBy the end of 1991, a U.S.-sponsored cease-fire agreement was brokered between the Serbs and Croats fighting in Croatia.\nIn April 1992, the U.S. and European Community chose to recognize the independence of Bosnia, a mostly Muslim country where the Serb minority made up 32 percent of the population. Milosevic responded to Bosnia's declaration of independence by attacking Sarajevo, its capital city, best known for hosting the 1984 Winter Olympics. Sarajevo soon became known as the city where Serb snipers continually shot down helpless civilians in the streets, including eventually over 3,500 children.\nBosnian Muslims were hopelessly outgunned. As the Serbs gained ground, they began to systematically roundup local Muslims in scenes eerily similar to those that had occurred under the Nazis during World War II, including mass shootings, forced repopulation of entire towns, and confinement in make-shift concentration camps for men and boys. The Serbs also terrorized Muslim families into fleeing their villages by using rape as a weapon against women and girls.\nThe actions of the Serbs were labeled as 'ethnic cleansing,' a name which quickly took hold among the international media.\nDespite media reports of the secret camps, the mass killings, as well as the destruction of Muslim mosques and historic architecture in Bosnia, the world community remained mostly indifferent. The U.N. responded by imposing economic sanctions on Serbia and also deployed its troops to protect the distribution of food and medicine to dispossessed Muslims. But the U.N. strictly prohibited its troops from interfering militarily against the Serbs. Thus they remained steadfastly neutral no matter how bad the situation became.\nThroughout 1993, confident that the U.N., United States and the European Community would not take militarily action, Serbs in Bosnia freely committed genocide against Muslims. Bosnian Serbs operated under the local leadership of Radovan Karadzic, president of the illegitimate Bosnian Serb Republic. Karadzic had once told a group of journalists, \"Serbs and Muslims are like cats and dogs. They cannot live together in peace. It is impossible.\"\nWhen Karadzic was confronted by reporters about ongoing atrocities, he bluntly denied involvement of his soldiers or special police units.\nOn February 6, 1994, the world's attention turned completely to Bosnia as a marketplace in Sarajevo was struck by a Serb mortar shell killing 68 persons and wounding nearly 200. Sights and sounds of the bloody carnage were broadcast globally by the international news media and soon resulted in calls for military intervention against the Serbs.\nThe U.S. under its new President, Bill Clinton, who had promised during his election campaign in 1992 to stop the ethnic cleansing in Bosnia, now issued an ultimatum through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) demanding that the Serbs withdraw their artillery from Sarajevo. The Serbs quickly complied and a NATO-imposed cease-fire in Sarajevo was declared.\nThe U.S. then launched diplomatic efforts aimed at unifying Bosnian Muslims and the Croats against the Serbs. However, this new Muslim-Croat alliance failed to stop the Serbs from attacking Muslim towns in Bosnia which had been declared Safe Havens by the U.N. A total of six Muslim towns had been established as Safe Havens in May 1993 under the supervision of U.N. peacekeepers.\nBosnian Serbs not only attacked the Safe Havens but also attacked the U.N. peacekeepers as well. NATO forces responded by launching limited air strikes against Serb ground positions. The Serbs retaliated by taking hundreds of U.N. peacekeepers as hostages and turning them into human shields, chained to military targets such as ammo supply dumps.\nAt this point, some of the worst genocidal activities of the four-year-old conflict occurred. In Srebrenica, a Safe Haven, U.N. peacekeepers stood by helplessly as the Serbs under the command of General Ratko Mladic systematically selected and then slaughtered nearly 8,000 men and boys between the ages of twelve and sixty - the worst mass murder in Europe since World War II. In addition, the Serbs continued to engage in mass rapes of Muslim females.\nOn August 30, 1995, effective military intervention finally began as the U.S. led a massive NATO bombing campaign in response to the killings at Srebrenica, targeting Serbian artillery positions throughout Bosnia. The bombardment continued into October. Serb forces also lost ground to Bosnian Muslims who had received arms shipments from the Islamic world. As a result, half of Bosnia was eventually retaken by Muslim-Croat troops.\nFaced with the heavy NATO bombardment and a string of ground losses to the Muslim-Croat alliance, Serb leader Milosevic was now ready to talk peace. On November 1, 1995, leaders of the warring factions including Milosevic and Tudjman traveled to the U.S. for peace talks at Wright-Patterson Air Force base in Ohio.\nAfter three weeks of negotiations, a peace accord was declared. Terms of the agreement included partitioning Bosnia into two main portions known as the Bosnian Serb Republic and the Muslim-Croat Federation. The agreement also called for democratic elections and stipulated that war criminals would be handed over for prosecution. 60,000 NATO soldiers were deployed to preserve the cease-fire.\nBy now, over 200,000 Muslim civilians had been systematically murdered. More than 20,000 were missing and feared dead, while 2,000,000 had become refugees. It was, according to U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Richard Holbrooke, \"the greatest failure of the West since the 1930s.\"\nCopyright © 1999 The History Place All Rights Reserved",
"Bosnia Civil War 1992-1995\nThe Bosnian Civil War 1992-1995\n[ 1992 - 1995 ]\nBeginning several months later than fighting in the republics of Slovenia and Croatia, the Bosnian civil war was the most brutal chapter in the breakup of Yugoslavia. On February 29, 1992, the multi-ethnic republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, where Catholic Croats, Orthodox Serbs, and Muslim Slavs lived side by side, passed a referendum for independence -- but not all Bosnian Serbs agreed. Under the guise of protecting the Serb minority in Bosnia, Serbian leaders like Slobodan Milosevic (1941-) channeled arms and military support to them. In spring 1992, for example, the federal army, dominated by Serbs, shelled Croats and Muslims in Sarajevo, the Bosnian capital. Foreign governments responded with sanctions (not always tightly enforced) to keep fuel and weapons from Serbia, which had (in April 1992) joined the republic of Montenegro in a newer, smaller Yugoslavia. Bosnian Serb guerrillas carried out deadly campaigns of \"ethnic cleansing,\" massacring members of other ethnic groups or expelling them from their homes to create exclusively Serb areas. Attacks on civilians and international relief workers disrupted supplies of food and other necessities just when such aid was most crucial: in what became the worst refugee crisis in Europe since World War II, millions of Bosnians (and Croatians) had been driven from their homes by July 1992. Alarmed by ethnic cleansing and other human rights abuses (which Croats and Muslims also engaged in, though to a lesser extent than did the Serbs), the United Nations resolved to punish such war crimes. In early 1994 the fierce three-way fighting became a war between two sides. In February and March the Muslims and Croats in Bosnia called a truce and formed a confederation, which in August agreed to a plan (developed by the United States, Russia, Britain, France and Germany) for a 51-49 split of Bosnia, with the Serbs getting the lesser percentage. Despite the Muslim-Croat alliance, the peace proposal, and an ongoing arms embargo against all combatants (an embargo criticized abroad for maintaining Bosnian Serb dominance in weaponry), the fighting did not stop. In 1994 and 1995 Bosnian Serbs massacred residents in Sarajevo, Srebenica, and other cities that the United Nations had in May 1993 deemed \"safe havens\" for Muslim civilians. Neither NATO air strikes (beginning in April 1994) nor the cutoff of supplies from Serbia (as of August 1994) nor the cutoff of supplies from Serbia (as of August 1994) deterred the Bosnian Serbs, who blocked convoys of humanitarian aid and detained some of the 24,000 UN troops intended to stop hostilities. Like their allies in Serbia, the Bosnian Serbs wanted to unite all Serb-held lands of the former Yugoslavia. By September 1995, however, the Muslim-Croat alliance's conquests had reduced Serb-held territory in Bosnia from over two-thirds to just under one-half -- the percentage allocated in the peace plan for the Serb autonomous region. On December 14, 1995, the leaders of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia signed the Dayton peace accords, officially ending the wars in Bosnia and Croatia after about 250,000 people had died and more than 3 million others became refugees. NATO troops numbering 60,000 entered Bosnia to enforce the accords. In early 1998 about 30,000 NATO peacekeepers were still in Bosnia, which remained scarred by war and divided between the Muslim-Croat confederation and the Bosnian Serb region. Dozens of suspected war criminals had been indicted by the UN tribunal, including Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic (1945-) (who had resigned in June 1996), although many had not been arrested or tried.",
"Bosnian Genocide - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com\nGoogle\nBackground\nIn the aftermath of the Second World War, the Balkan states of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia and Macedonia became part of the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia. After the death of longtime Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito in 1980, growing nationalism among the different Yugoslav republics threatened to split their union apart. This process intensified after the mid-1980s with the rise of the Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic, who helped foment discontent between Serbians in Bosnia and Croatia and their Croatian, Bosniak and Albanian neighbors. In 1991, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia declared their independence; during the war in Croatia that followed, the Serb-dominated Yugoslav army supported Serbian separatists there in their brutal clashes with Croatian forces.\nDid You Know?\nIn 2001, Serbian General Radislav Krstic, who played a major role in the Srebrenica massacre was convicted of genocide and sentenced to 46 years in prison.\nIn Bosnia, Muslims represented the largest single population group by 1971. More Serbs and Croats emigrated over the next two decades, and in a 1991 census Bosnia’s population of some 4 million was 44 percent Bosniak, 31 percent Serb, and 17 percent Croatian. Elections held in late 1990 resulted in a coalition government split between parties representing the three ethnicities (in rough proportion to their populations) and led by the Bosniak Alija Izetbegovic. As tensions built inside and outside the country, the Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic and his Serbian Democratic Party withdrew from government and set up their own “Serbian National Assembly.” On March 3, 1992, after a referendum vote (which Karadzic’s party blocked in many Serb-populated areas), President Izetbegovic proclaimed Bosnia’s independence.\nStruggle for Control in Bosnia\nFar from seeking independence for Bosnia, Bosnian Serbs wanted to be part of a dominant Serbian state in the Balkans–the “Greater Serbia” that Serbian separatists had long envisioned. In early May 1992, two days after the United States and the European Community (precursor to the European Union) recognized Bosnia’s independence, Bosnian Serb forces with the backing of Milosevic and the Serb-dominated Yugoslav army launched their offensive with a bombardment of Bosnia’s capital, Sarajevo. They attacked Bosniak-dominated town in eastern Bosnia, including Zvornik, Foca, and Visegrad, forcibly expelling Bosniak civilians from the region in a brutal process that later was identified as “ethnic cleansing.” (Ethnic cleansing differs from genocide in that its primary goal is the expulsion of a group of people from a geographical area and not the actual physical destruction of that group, even though the same methods–including murder, rape, torture and forcible displacement–may be used.)\nThough Bosnian government forces tried to defend the territory, sometimes with the help of the Croatian army, Bosnian Serb forces were in control of nearly three-quarters of the country by the end of 1993, and Karadzic’s party had set up their own Republika Srpska in the east. Most of the Bosnian Croats had left the country, while a significant Bosniak population remained only in smaller towns. Several peace proposals between a Croatian-Bosniak federation and Bosnian Serbs failed when the Serbs refused to give up any territory. The United Nations (U.N.) refused to intervene in the conflict in Bosnia, but a campaign spearheaded by its High Commissioner for Refugees provided humanitarian aid to its many displaced, malnourished and injured victims.\nAttack on Srebrenica: July 1995\nBy the summer of 1995, three towns in eastern Bosnia–Srebrenica, Zepa and Gorazde–remained under control of the Bosnian government. The U.N. had declared these enclaves “safe havens” in 1993, to be disarmed and protected by international peacekeeping forces. On July 11, however, Bosnian Serb forces advanced on Srebrenica, overwhelming a battalion of Dutch peacekeeping forces stationed there. Serbian forces subsequently separated the Bosniak civilians at Srebrenica, putting the women and girls on buses and sending them to Bosnian-held territory. Some of the women were raped or sexually assaulted, while the men and boys who remained behind were killed immediately or bussed to mass killing sites. Estimates of Bosniaks killed by Serb forces at Srebrenica range from around 7,000 to more than 8,000.\nAfter Bosnian Serb forces captured Zepa that same month and exploded a bomb in a crowded Sarajevo market, the international community began to respond more forcefully to the ongoing conflict and its ever-growing civilian death toll. In August 1995, after the Serbs refused to comply with a U.N. ultimatum, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) joined efforts with Bosnian and Croatian forces for three weeks of bombing Bosnian Serb positions and a ground offensive. With Serbia’s economy crippled by U.N. trade sanctions and its military forces under assault in Bosnia after three years of warfare, Milosevic agreed to enter negotiations that October. The U.S.-sponsored peace talks in Dayton, Ohio in November 1995 (which included Izetbegovic, Milosevic and Croatian President Franjo Tudjman) resulted in the creation of a federalized Bosnia divided between a Croat-Bosniak federation and a Serb republic.\nInternational Response\nThough the international community did little to prevent the systematic atrocities committed against Bosniaks and Croats in Bosnia while they were occurring, it did actively seek justice against those who committed them. In May 1993, the U.N. Security Council created the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) at The Hague, Netherlands. It was the first international tribunal since the Nuremberg Trials in 1945-46 and the first to prosecute genocide, among other war crimes. Radovan Karadzic and the Bosnian Serb military commander, General Ratko Mladic, were among those indicted by the ICTY for genocide and other crimes against humanity.\nOver the better part of the next two decades, the ICTY charged more than 160 individuals of crimes committed during conflict in the former Yugoslavia. Brought before the tribunal in 2002 on charges of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes, Slobodan Milosevic served as his own defense lawyer; his poor health led to long delays in the trial until he was found dead in his prison cell in 2006. In 2007, the International Court of Justice issued its ruling in a historic civil lawsuit brought by Bosnia against Serbia. Though the court called the massacre at Srebrenica genocide and said that Serbia “could and should” have prevented it and punished those who committed it, it stopped short of declaring Serbia guilty of the genocide itself.\nTags",
"Bosnia-Herzegovina country profile - BBC News\nBosnia-Herzegovina country profile\nRead more about sharing.\nClose share panel\nBosnia-Herzegovina is recovering from a devastating three-year war which accompanied the break-up of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s.\nThe 1992-1995 conflict centred on whether Bosnia should stay in the Yugoslav Federation, or whether it should become independent.\nIt is now an independent state, but under international administration. Its three main ethnic groups are Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), Croats and Serbs. The war left Bosnia's infrastructure and economy in tatters. Around two million people - about half the population - were displaced.\nThe 1995 Dayton peace agreement set up two separate entities; a Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Hercegovina, and the Bosnian Serb Republic, or Republika Srpska, each with its own president, government, parliament, police and other bodies. Overarching these entities is a central Bosnian government and rotating presidency.\nIn February 2016 the country formally requested to join the European Union.\nArea 51,129 sq km (19,741 sq miles)\nMajor languages Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian\nMajor religions Christianity, Islam\nLife expectancy 73 years (men), 78 years (women)\nCurrency convertible marka\nGetty Images\nLEADERS\nPresident: The presidency rotates every eight months between a Serb, a Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) and a Croat.\nThe responsibilities of the presidency lie largely in international affairs.\nIn addition, the Muslim-Croat entity and the Bosnian Serb Republic each have their own presidents.\nPrime minister: Denis Zvizdic\nImage copyright AFP/Getty Images\nDenis Zvizdic of the Muslim Party of Democratic Action became federal prime minister in February 2015, after the party won the most votes in the October 2014 elections.\nA former architecture teacher, born in 1964, Mr Zvizdic set himself the goal of pressing ahead with Bosnia's aim of joining the European Union, and made significant progress in March when EU foreign ministers approved a long-delayed Stabilisation and Association Agreement.\nThe prime minister is a long-standing member of the Party of Democratic Action, and served as prime minister of Sarajevo Canton in 2003-2006.\nMEDIA\nImage copyright AFP/Getty Images\nDuring the Bosnian war, most media became propaganda tools of the authorities, armies and factions. Since then, efforts have been made - with limited success - to develop media which bridge ethnic boundaries.\nTV is the chief news source. The most influential broadcasters are the public radio and TV stations operated by the Bosniak-Croat and Serb entities.\nThe Office of the High Representative (OHR), the leading international civilian agency in Bosnia, oversaw the development of national public broadcasting. The OHR wanted to create a non-nationalist, civic media.\nThere are more than 200 commercial radio and TV stations. There is free access to local and global information sources. But media outlets and journalists are prone to pressure from state bodies and political parties in both the Bosniak-Croat and Serb entities.\nSome key dates in the history of Bosnia-Herzegovina:\n1908 - Bosnia-Herzegovina annexed to Austria-Hungary.\n1914 - A Bosnian Serb student, Gavrilo Princip, assassinates the Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. This precipitates the First World War.\nImage copyright AFP/Getty Images\nImage caption The Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia on their fateful visit to Sarajevo in June 1914\n1918 - Austria-Hungary collapses at the end of the war. Bosnia-Herzegovina becomes part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.\n1941 - Bosnia-Herzegovina annexed by pro-Hitler Croatian puppet state. Thousands of Serbs, Jews and Gypsies are sent to the death camps.\n1945 - Bosnia-Herzegovina liberated following campaign by partisans under Tito.\n1945-1991- Bosnia is part of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.\nImage copyright AFP/Getty Images\nImage caption Civilians and Bosnian troops under Serbian sniper fire during the siege of Sarajevo in 1992\n1991 - Following collapse of communism, nationalists win first multi-party elections and form coalition.\n1992 - Croat and Muslim nationalists form tactical alliance and outvote Serbs at independence referendum. War breaks out and Serbs quickly assume control of over half the republic.\n1992-1995 - Bitter ethnically-rooted civil war involving Bosnian Muslims, Serbs, and Croats. Dayton peace accord signed in 1995 creates two entities of roughly equal size, one for Bosnian Muslims and Croats, the other for Serbs. An international peacekeeping force is deployed.\n1996 - The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia begins work in the Hague.\n2016 - Former Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic is convicted of genocide and war crimes for his role in the 1992-1995 war.",
"Untitled Document\nBosnia's Official Webpage Bosnian War Center for Balkan Development Timeline of the Bosnian War Dayton Accords (US State Dept) Bosnian Genocide Case\nMajor Causes of the War\nEssentially, the Bosnian war was fought because Serbs and Croats living in Bosnia wanted to annex Bosnian territory for Serbia and Croatia respectively. There were several mitigating factors in addition to ethnic tensions. The Nationalist leader of Serbia, Slobodan Milosevic, was pushing for what he called a \"Greater Serbia\". The Bosnian Croats and Muslims, fearing that Milosevic would try to take their land if they were still under Yugoslavian control, called for Bosnian independence.\nJust before the war began, Radovan Karadzic created a renegade army within Bosnia with the support of Milosevic in Belgrade. In 1992, under Karadzic's leadership, Bosnian Serbs began a policy of \"cleansing\" large areas of Bosnia of non-Serbs. After the war, a tribunal declared that the \"cleansing\" was actaully genocide, and convicted Karadzic and his military commander of war crimes.\nOn April 6, 1992, the Bosnian Serbs began their siege of Sarajevo. Muslim, Croat, and Serb residents opposed to a Greater Serbia were cut off from food, utilities, and communication. For three years, food was scarce and the average weight loss per person was more than 30 pounds. More than 12,000 residents of Sarajevo were killed during the 43 months of siege. Throughout Bosnia, Bosnian Serb nationalists and the JNA began a program of ethnic cleansing in order to create a \"pure\" Serbian territory.. Entire villages were destroyedand thousands of Bosnians were driven from their homes, held in detention camps, raped, tortured, deported, or killed. Rape was a military tactic to destroy the bonds of families and communities. An international arms embargo was in effect throughout the war, preventing the Bosnian government from obtaining the heavy artillery and arms that it needed to fight the more sophisticated arsenals of the Serbian and Croatian armies.\n(Above: Ethnica Majorities in Bosnia by area. Yellow: Croat; Green: Muslim; Red: Serb; Taupe: No Majority present)",
"GENOCIDE - BOSNIA\nBOSNIA\nbefore the genocide\nBosnia-Herzegovina is a mountainous country about a third the size of England. It lies next to the Adriatic Sea, to the south of Croatia and west of Serbia. Its population is less than half that of London. Bosnia was part of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire until 1878 and then of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the First World War. After the war it was united with other Slav territories to form Yugoslavia, essentially ruled and run by Serbs from the Serbian capital, Belgrade. By 1980 the population of Bosnia consisted of 1.3m Bosnian Serbs (Orthodox Catholic Christians), over 1m Bosniaks (Sunni Muslim), and 0.7m Bosnian Croats (Roman Catholic Christians), all with strong historical and local claims to a homeland there.\nIn 1980 Yugoslavia's communist president Tito died. His rule had held the federation together. Now Croats and Bosniaks began to look for independence, and Serbian nationalism, never dead, took on a new lease of life from 1987 when Slobodan Milosevic became Serbia's leader (and thus effectively Yugoslavia's as well). He encouraged Serb nationalism not only at home but also in the other republics where there were large Serb communities.\nElections in 1990 brought nationalists to power in Croatia and Slovenia, which, together with Macedonia, declared independence in 1991 and were all recognised internationally. Alija Izetbegovic, the leader of Bosnia's multi-ethnic government, called for independence for Bosnia, too; it was recognised as independent by the USA and the EU in 1992.\nBosnia's Serbs, however, weren't happy: they saw themselves and the land they lived on as part of Milosevic's 'Greater Serbia'. The Yugoslav Army (mainly Serb) had just ended a year's fierce conflict with Croatia in an attempt to hang on to Serb communities there. Now it turned its attention to Bosnia, whose forces were restricted by an arms embargo because of recent violence in Bosnian Croatian territory. By the end of 1993 the Serbs (led by Radovan Karadzic) had set up their own Republika Srpska in the east and a Bosnian Serb army (under Ratko Mladic) was in control of nearly three quarters of the country; the Bosnian Croats had been mostly driven out, though a small force continued fighting for its Bosnian territory until 1994; the Bosniaks were hanging on only in the towns.\nThe European Union (EU) tried mediation, without success. The UN refused to intervene, apart from providing some troop convoys for humanitarian aid. Later its peace-keeping force, UNProFor, undertook to protect 6 'safe areas', mainly Muslim and including Sarajevo (the Bosniak capital) and Srebrenica; it failed. Each so-called safe area, except Sarajevo, fell to the Serbs and was 'ethnically cleansed'. This was the Serbian term accepted by the USA and other members of the UN Security Council to avoid any reference to 'genocide', which would by international law demand their intervention. It had become clear that what was happening in Bosnia was no longer a civil war fuelled by 'ancient feuds', if it ever had been. Bosnia was the victim of one group's determined wish for political domination, which it was prepared to achieve by isolating ethnic groups and if necessary exterminating them.",
"Ratko Mladic | Bosnian Serb military leader | Britannica.com\nBosnian Serb military leader\nSir Michael Rose\nRatko Mladić, (born March 12, 1942, Božinovići, Yugoslavia [now in Bosnia and Herzegovina]), Bosnian Serb military leader who commanded the Bosnian Serb army during the Bosnian conflict (1992–95) and who was widely believed to have masterminded the Srebrenica massacre , the worst episode of mass murder within Europe since World War II .\nRatko Mladić, 1993.\n© Northfoto/Shutterstock.com\nMladić was born in an isolated village in Bosnia during World War II. His father, a Partisan leader, was killed in fighting with the Ustaša , the Croatian fascist movement that controlled the government of the Independent State of Croatia (the puppet state created by the invading Axis powers ). Mladić grew up in Josip Broz Tito ’s federated Yugoslavia . After joining the Yugoslav People’s Army, Mladić rose quickly through the officer ranks. When Yugoslavia splintered in 1991, Mladić was sent to Knin, Croatia, where he eventually took command of the Yugoslav army’s 9th Corps against Croatian forces. He was then assigned to Sarajevo to take charge of the army’s Second Military District in May 1992.\nOnly days after Mladić’s arrival in Sarajevo, the assembly of the self-declared autonomous Republika Srpska (Bosnian Serb Republic) appointed him commander of the Bosnian Serb army, which—with a few changes in personnel and nomenclature—the forces of the Second Military District effectively became. In that capacity, Mladić played a major role in the three-and-a-half-year siege of Sarajevo, during which Bosnian Serb forces rained artillery, mortar, machine-gun, and rifle fire on the terrorized citizenry, indiscriminately killing and wounding thousands. In March 1995 the Bosnian Serb president, Radovan Karadžić , ordered that the military “create an unbearable situation of total insecurity with no hope of further survival or life for the inhabitants of Srebrenica.” Mladić is widely believed to have overseen the subsequent Srebrenica massacre , in which at least 7,000 Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) men and boys were killed.\nAfter the Bosnian conflict, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) concluded that the killings at Srebrenica , along with the mass expulsion of Bosniak civilians, constituted genocide . The ICTY charged Mladić with genocide and crimes against humanity, stating that he “was a member of a joint criminal enterprise whose objective was the elimination or permanent removal of Bosnian Muslim, Bosnian Croat, or other non-Serb inhabitants from large areas of [Bosnia and Herzegovina].” Mladić fled to Belgrade , where he lived openly under the protection of Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević . When Milošević (having been indicted in 1999) was extradited to The Hague in 2001, Mladić disappeared.\nBritannica Stories",
"Radovan Karadzic Begins Genocide Defense at Hague - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nEurope |Former Bosnian Leader Begins His Defense at Genocide Trial\nSearch\nContinue reading the main story\nPARIS — He was once known for his virulent speeches throughout Bosnia , but on Tuesday as Radovan Karadzic began his defense in a new phase of his genocide trial, he told international judges that he was a “mild and tolerant man” and that instead of standing accused, he should be “rewarded for all the good things I have done.”\nIt was Mr. Karadzic’s turn to have his say, after prosecutors had presented him as the architect of a brutal three-year war.\n“Everybody who knows me knows I am not an autocrat, I am not aggressive, I am not intolerant,” Mr. Karadzic, 67, a former psychiatrist who became the Bosnian Serb wartime leader, told the court. “On the contrary, I am a mild man, a tolerant man with great capacity to understand others.” He said he wrote children’s poetry, did not hate Bosnian Muslims — he added that he had a Muslim barber — and did “everything in his power to reduce the war.”\nFrom the public gallery at the United Nations war crimes tribunal in The Hague, there were noisy cries of “He’s lying!” Other angry survivors of the war gathered outside.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nAmong the close to 70 trials held at the tribunal, Mr. Karadzic’s case involves perhaps its most famous chameleon. Indicted on charges of war crimes, he went into hiding in 1996, emerging 13 years later in the guise of a new-age healer, bearded and longhaired. These days, Mr. Karadzic spends long hours in the dock in a business suit, politely conducting his own defense.\nThe list of charges against him include some of the worst episodes of violence in Europe since World War II . Prosecutors, who called more than 200 witnesses, said he bore responsibility for the campaign to drive the Croat and Muslim population from parts of Bosnia, for the bloody three-year siege of Sarajevo and for his role in the mass murder of captive prisoners in Srebrenica.\nPhoto\nRadovan Karadzic, the former Bosnian Serb leader, began his defense against war crime charges at the International Criminal Tribunal in The Hague, the Netherlands, on Tuesday. Credit Pool photo by Robin Van Lonkhuijsen\nActing as his own lawyer, while assisted by a court-financed team of lawyers and clerks, Mr. Karadzic said he would call 300 witnesses to prove his innocence and has demanded more time.\nThe court has reminded him that while prosecutors used 300 court hours to make their case and present lead witnesses, Mr. Karadzic used more than 700 hours to cross-examine them during that period.\nHe has long denied the charge of genocide, stemming from the massacre of about 8,000 Muslim men and boys who were captives in Srebrenica in 1995. Peter Robinson, an experienced American defense lawyer on the Karadzic team, said that Mr. Karadzic would argue that the mass executions could not be his responsibility because there was no such policy. In court on Tuesday, Mr. Karadzic went further: “There is no indication that anyone was killed by us at Srebrenica.”\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nRatko Mladic , the Bosnian Serb commander accused of masterminding the Srebrenica massacre, is on trial in separate proceedings at the same tribunal. Mr. Mladic, who was under Mr. Karadzic’s command, has often said he was following the politicians’ orders. The two men, who were often at odds during the latter part of the 1992-95 Bosnian war, face similar charges, and as their trials unfold they increasingly seem to blame each other.\nDuring the 90 minutes that Mr. Karadzic was given to lay out his defense, he presented himself on Tuesday as a deeply wronged man, who was detached from the persecution campaign against civilians and from the notorious concentration camps for non-Serbs. He said he “did more than any side to avoid the war” and “succeeded in reducing the number of victims.” By most accounts, 100,000 people died in the Bosnian war and millions were displaced.\nIn another courtroom on Tuesday, the tribunal’s last trial began, signaling that it is finally winding up its cases from the wars that broke up Yugoslavia. Goran Hadzic, the defendant, is a former leader of a Serbian rebellion in Croatia. He stands accused in the killing of hundreds of Croats and the expulsion of thousands from their homes as Serbian troops seized their lands. He managed to evade arrest in Serbia for seven years, but he finally landed in tribunal custody in July of last year.\nProsecutors on Tuesday said that he was the point man of the former Serbian president, Slobodan Milosevic, in Croatia, entrusted to occupy lands for Serbs only. They said that Mr. Milosevic, who died in 2006 while on trial, made sure that Mr. Hadzic was provided with the weapons and money needed for his campaign.\nA version of this article appears in print on October 17, 2012, on Page A8 of the New York edition with the headline: Bosnian Serb Defiantly Begins His Defense at Genocide Trial. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe",
"Genocide Charge Reinstated Against Wartime Leader of the Bosnian Serbs - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nEurope |Genocide Charge Reinstated Against Wartime Leader of the Bosnian Serbs\nSearch\nContinue reading the main story\nPhoto\nA Bosnian woman on Thursday at a coffin containing the remains of a relative, one of the victims of the Srebrenica massacre in 1995. Credit Amel Emric/Associated Press\nPARIS — Appeals judges at a United Nations war crimes tribunal in The Hague on Thursday reinstated a genocide charge against the wartime leader of the Bosnian Serbs, Radovan Karadzic , reversing a decision by a lower court last year.\nThursday’s ruling means that Mr. Karadzic will once again be facing two genocide charges for much of the brutal campaign across large parts of Bosnia during the 1992-1995 war that aimed to create lands for Serbs only.\nThe lower court that is now trying Mr. Karadzic has said the entire campaign was clearly criminal, but last year it said that it found no evidence of genocide, except during the notorious Srebrenica massacre in 1995.\nThe appeals ruling, read out at a public session of the court, appeared specifically timed to coincide with the day’s events in Bosnia. Tens of thousands gathered in Srebrenica on Thursday to commemorate the fall of the United Nations-protected enclave there on July 11, 1995, and the subsequent execution of more than 7,000 captured men and boys.\nPart of the day’s ceremonies included the reburial of 409 bodies at a special cemetery where remains from multiple mass graves are reinterred as they are identified.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nBy scheduling the hearing on what has become a sacred date for Bosnian Muslims, the presiding judge, Theodor Meron, seemed to want to send a message to the war’s survivors as he recited an usually long and gruesome list of atrocities committed against Muslim civilians and prisoners of war.\nThe tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, with Judge Meron as its president, had recently drawn sharp criticism from Bosnian victims, legal experts and even judges for acquittals of senior Serbian commanders. Those commanders, while based in neighboring Serbia, held crucial positions during the Bosnian war that was largely planned, financed and supplied by Serbia. The acquittals have turned even longtime supporters in the Balkans against the tribunal.\nPhoto\nRadovan Karadzic appeared before a war crimes tribunal on Thursday in The Hague to learn the outcome of an appeal. Credit Michael Kooren/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images\nAs he read the summary of the judges’ decision, Judge Meron said the trial chamber had erred in dropping the second genocide charge because there was enough evidence to suggest that Mr. Karadzic had genocidal intentions during a 1992 campaign aimed at expelling Muslims and Croats from areas claimed by Serbs.\nFor example, the judge said, evidence presented during the trial showed that “in meetings with Karadzic ‘it had been decided that one-third of Muslims would be killed, one-third would be converted to the Orthodox religion and a third will leave on their own’ and thus all Muslims would disappear from Bosnia.” The judge was quoting from the trial proceedings.\nPeter Robinson, an American lawyer who is the chief legal adviser to Mr. Karadzic, said by telephone from The Hague that his client was “disappointed with the result, and we will double our efforts to show there was no genocide across Bosnia.” Mr. Robinson said that Mr. Karadzic, who represents himself in court, will ask for additional time to call more witnesses to defend himself against the genocide charges.\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nThe trial began in late 2009, and the prosecution has rested its case. Mr. Karadzic and his team are now halfway through their allotted time of 300 hours. Mr. Robinson said the defense team had called 161 witnesses so far, all of whom had been cross-examined by Mr. Karadzic himself. He said the defense wanted to call a total of 300 people.\nThe appeals ruling carries great symbolic importance for survivors and victims of the campaign during which Serbian forces and extremist gangs — from both Bosnia and Serbia — systematically occupied multiethnic villages and towns, drove non-Serbs from their homes, incinerated dwellings, churches and mosques and mistreated and starved thousands in improvised camps.\nIn 1992, the height of the campaign, about 44,000 people were killed, almost half of the total of 100,000 people who died in the Bosnian war.\nThe tribunal found evidence of atrocities in 20 municipalities, comprising many towns and villages, but Thursday’s ruling suggested that the violence could meet the definition of genocide in seven municipalities.\nThe ruling addresses a question long debated by legal experts and human rights groups: Why was the large-scale killing of Muslims in one part of Bosnia — in and around Srebrenica — considered genocide, while the actions in other parts of Bosnia, where even larger numbers of civilians were deported, raped, persecuted and killed, were not?\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nA verdict in Mr. Karadzic’s trial is not expected before 2015.\nA version of this article appears in print on July 12, 2013, on Page A6 of the New York edition with the headline: Genocide Charge Reinstated Against Wartime Leader of the Bosnian Serbs. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe",
"The Genocide - Bosnian Genocide\nBosnian Genocide\nThe 5 W's\nWho were the victims?\nThe (Bosniaks) Bosnian Muslims, mostly men and boys, were targeted by the Bosnian Serbs, as well as the Bosnian Croats, who were driven out of Bosnia by Serbian & Yugoslavian forces. Many people were deported or exiled from the country and flead to neighboring states.\nWhen did it take place & over what time period?\nThe attack on the Bosniak population started in 1991 and ended in 1996. The campaign for ethnic cleansing started in 1992 following the seperation & independance of Serbia.\nHow was it accomplished?\nBosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic (at the time) rallied Bosnian Serb forces and pushed for radical ultranationalist changes to Bosnia. Bosniak populated villages were constantly bombarded by Bosnian Serb forces; prior to the Genocide. Many people were displaced. Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito died in 1980. Slobodan Milosevic, who became Serbia’s leader in 1987, also became the leader of Yugoslavia. With the power that Milosevic had, he encouraged Serb ultranationalism in other states such as Bosnia. This resulted in ethnic cleansing, mass killings, as well as destruction of Muslim mosques and religious buildings. Despite attention from the media, the world remained indifferent.\n Ratko Mladic(left) and Radovan Karadzic(right)\nWhat types of things were done?\n Each attack had a similar method. The Serbs would enter the small villages, and drive out or kill any Bosniaks living in the area, who offered no resistance to their forces. This resulted in a large number of refugees and many casualties. In the seige of many towns and villages, atrocities occured. Many women and girls were sexual abused, among other things. Many men were murdered in cold blood by Bosnian Serbs. Effort was made to capture all Bosniak men of military age. In fact, those captured included many boys well below that age and elderly men several years above that age. A Bosnian Serb commission's final report on the 1995 Srebrenica massacre acknowledged that the mass murder of the men and boys was planned. Mass killings occured. Unspeakable methods of execution were committed. People were rounded up by the thousands to be exported or executed. When executed, the bodies were thrown into mass graves and buried. The Serbs went to great effort to hide the evidence.\nThe Citizens: reaction to Genocide\n For many, by the time it had already happened, it was too late. Many Bosniaks lost friends and family to the massacre, aswell as the deportation of Bosniak citizens displacing many people. The Bosniaks were scared of the attrocities that were taking place against their people. Unfathomable acts of inhumane treatment had caused fear amongst all ethnic muslims and croats in Bosnia. The Bosnian Serb representatives later claimed that what had happened was infact not a genocide, saying that many people died as casualities of battle, and not as prisoners of Serb forces.\nIE: Tomislav Nikolić, President of Serbia, stated on\n2 June 2012 that \"there was no genocide in Srebrenica. In Srebrenica, grave war\ncrimes were committed by some Serbs who should be found, prosecuted and\npunished. It is very difficult to indict someone and prove before a court\nthat an event qualifies as genocide.\"\nFormer Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic are both on trial on two counts of\ngenocide and other war crimes committed in Srebrenica, Kljuc, Prijedor, and\nother parts of Bosnia.\nThe Worlds reaction to genocide.\n The international community showed little to no interest in what was happening in Bosnia. They supplied them with several UN safe cities, guarded by lightly armed UN peacekeepers. Nothing was done to stop the genocide until NATO ordered air strikes on advancing Serb forces in August 1995. This was then suspended to oversee a peace agreement. \nWhat was done to stop it?\n Almost nothing; the small amounts of input from the international community did not make a significant impact, especially for many of the displaced Bosniaks and Croats. As the safe zones they established deteriorated, attention to the situation grew more urgent as NATO troops receded and headed back to Europe. NATO's later bombings assisted with ending the genocide, however their assistance of Bosniak troops was fargone by the end of the genocide.\nWhat has been done to Prevent it from Happening Again?\n Several peace agreements were put into place, along with 80,000 heavily armed NATO troops to ensure the agreements were followed through. Many of the military leaders and major political players (at the time) that pushed for ethnic cleansing and raids against Bosniak Muslims have been or are currently being tried for genocide and war crimes, even a decade after the massacre. \nCreate a free website"
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"Bosnia Civil War 1992-1995 - OnWar.com",
"Bosnian Genocide - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com",
"Bosnia-Herzegovina country profile - BBC News",
"The Bosnian War - Mount Holyoke College",
"GENOCIDE - BOSNIA - GreenNet",
"Ratko Mladic | Bosnian Serb military leader | Britannica.com",
"Former Bosnian Leader Begins His Defense at Genocide Trial",
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"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17211415",
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Who was deputy commander of the 1983 US invasion of Grenada?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"The Invasion of Grenada was a 1983 United States–led invasion of the Caribbean island nation of Grenada, with a population of about 91,000 located 160 km north of Venezuela, that resulted in a U.S. victory within a matter of weeks. Codenamed Operation Urgent Fury, it was triggered by the house arrest on 12 October 1983 and murder of the leader (19 October 1983) of the coup which had brought a revolutionary government to power for the preceding four years. The invasion resulted in the appointment of an interim government, followed by democratic elections in 1984.\n\nGrenada gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. The leftist New Jewel Movement seized power in a coup in 1979, suspending the constitution. After a 1983 internal power struggle ended with the deposition and murder of revolutionary prime minister Maurice Bishop, the invasion began early on 25 October 1983.\n\nThe U.S. Army's Rapid Deployment Force (1st, 2nd Ranger Battalions and 82nd Airborne Division Paratroopers), U.S. Marines, U.S. Army Delta Force, and U.S. Navy SEALs and other combined forces constituted the 7,600 troops from the United States, Jamaica, and members of the Regional Security System (RSS) defeated Grenadian resistance after a low-altitude airborne assault by the 75th Rangers on Point Salines Airport on the southern end of the island, and a Marine helicopter and amphibious landing occurred on the northern end at Pearl's Airfield shortly afterward. The military government of Hudson Austin was deposed and replaced by a government appointed by Governor-General Paul Scoon until elections were held in 1984.\n\nThe invasion was highly criticized by a number of prominent countries including the United Kingdom and Canada, as well as the United Nations General Assembly, which on 2 November 1983 with a vote of 108 to 9 condemned it as \"a flagrant violation of international law\". Conversely, it was reported to have enjoyed broad public support in the United States as well as some sectors in Grenada from local groups who viewed the 4 year post-coup regime as illegitimate. The U.S. awarded more than 5,000 medals for merit and valor. \n\nThe date of the invasion is now a national holiday in Grenada, called Thanksgiving Day. For many Grenadians, the Grenada Revolution died with Bishop and so they gave thanks when the US rescued them from the faction which killed Bishop. The Point Salines International Airport was renamed in honor of Prime Minister Maurice Bishop on the 65th anniversary of his birth on 29 May 2009. Hundreds of Grenadians turned out to commemorate the historical event. Prime Minister of St Vincent and the Grenadines and close friend of Bishop gave the key note speech and referred to the renaming as an act of the Grenadian people coming home to themselves. He also hoped that it will help bring closure to a chapter of denial in Grenada's history. The invasion also highlighted problematic issues with communication and coordination between the different branches of the United States military when operating together as a joint force, contributing to investigations and sweeping changes in the form of the Goldwater-Nichols Act and other reorganizations.\n\nBackground\n\nSir Eric Gairy had led Grenada to independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. His term in office coincided with civil strife in Grenada. The political environment was highly charged and although Gairy—head of the Grenada United Labour Party—claimed victory in the general election of 1976, the opposition did not accept the result as legitimate. The civil strife took the form of street violence between Gairy's private army, the Mongoose Gang, and gangs organized by the New Jewel Movement (NJM). In the late 1970s the NJM began planning to overthrow the government. Party members began to receive military training outside of Grenada. On 13 March 1979, while Gairy was out of the country, the NJM—led by Maurice Bishop—launched an armed revolution and overthrew the government, establishing the People's Revolutionary Government.\n\nOn 16 October 1983, a party faction led by Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard seized power. Bishop was placed under house arrest. Mass protests against the action led to Bishop's escaping detention and reasserting his authority as the head of the government. Bishop was eventually captured and murdered along with several government officials loyal to him. The army under Hudson Austin then stepped in and formed a military council to rule the country. The governor-general, Paul Scoon, was placed under house arrest. The army announced a four-day total curfew where anyone seen on the streets would be subject to summary execution.\n\nThe Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), as well as the nations of Barbados and Jamaica, appealed to the United States for assistance. It was later announced that Grenada's governor-general, Paul Scoon, had actually requested the invasion through secret diplomatic channels and for his safety it had not been made public. Scoon was well within his rights to take this action under the reserve powers vested in the Crown. On Saturday 22 October 1983, the Deputy High Commissioner in Bridgetown, Barbados visited Grenada and reported that Sir Paul Scoon was well and \"did not request military intervention, either directly or indirectly\". \n\nOn 25 October, Grenada was invaded by the combined forces of the United States and the Regional Security System (RSS) based in Barbados, in an operation codenamed Operation Urgent Fury. The U.S. stated this was done at the request of the prime ministers of Barbados and Dominica, Tom Adams and Dame Eugenia Charles, respectively. Nonetheless, the invasion was highly criticized by the governments in Canada, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United Kingdom. The United Nations General Assembly condemned it as \"a flagrant violation of international law\" by a vote of 108 in favour to 9, with 27 abstentions. The United Nations Security Council considered a similar resolution, which failed to pass when vetoed by the United States.\n\nAirport\n\nThe Bishop government began constructing the Point Salines International Airport with the help of Britain, Cuba, Libya, Algeria, and other nations. The airport had been first proposed by the British government in 1954, when Grenada was still a British colony. It had been designed by Canadians, underwritten by the British government, and partly built by a London firm. The U.S. government accused Grenada of constructing facilities to aid a Soviet-Cuban military buildup in the Caribbean based upon the 9,000-foot length runway, which could accommodate the largest Soviet aircraft like the An-12, An-22, and the An-124, which would enhance the Soviet and Cuban transportation of weapons to Central American insurgents and expand Soviet regional influence. Bishop's government claimed that the airport was built to accommodate commercial aircraft carrying tourists, pointing out that such jets could not land at Pearl's Airstrip on the island's north end (5,200 feet) and could not be expanded because its runway abutted a mountain at one end and the ocean at the other.\n\nIn 1983, then-member of the United States House of Representatives Ron Dellums (D, California), traveled to Grenada on a fact-finding mission, having been invited by the country's prime minister. Dellums described his findings before Congress:\n... based on my personal observations, discussion and analysis of the new international airport under construction in Grenada, it is my conclusion that this project is specifically now and has always been for the purpose of economic development and is not for military use. ... It is my thought that it is absurd, patronizing, and totally unwarranted for the United States government to charge that this airport poses a military threat to the United States' national security.\n\nIn March 1983, President Ronald Reagan began issuing warnings about the threat posed to the United States and the Caribbean by the \"Soviet-Cuban militarization\" of the Caribbean as evidenced by the excessively long airplane runway being built, as well as intelligence sources indicating increased Soviet interest in the island. He said that the 9000 ft runway and the numerous fuel storage tanks were unnecessary for commercial flights, and that evidence pointed that the airport was to become a Cuban-Soviet forward military airbase. \n\nOn 29 May 2009 the Point Salines International Airport was officially renamed the Maurice Bishop International Airport, in honour of the slain pre-coup leader Maurice Bishop by the Government of Grenada. \n\nFirst day of the invasion\n\nThe invasion commenced at 05:00 on 25 October 1983. American forces refuelled and departed from the Grantley Adams International Airport on the nearby Caribbean island of Barbados before daybreak en route to Grenada. It was the first major operation conducted by the U.S. military since the Vietnam War. Vice Admiral Joseph Metcalf, III, Commander Second Fleet, was the overall commander of U.S. forces, designated Joint Task Force 120, which included elements of each military service and multiple special operations units. Fighting continued for several days and the total number of U.S. troops reached some 7,000 along with 300 troops from the OAS. The invading forces encountered about 1,500 Grenadian soldiers and about 700 Cubans. The Grenada forces includes eight BTR-60PB APCs, two BRDM-2 scout cars, twelve ZU-23 23mm and additional quad DShK 12.7mm anti-craft guns, and a limited number of 82mm mortars and rocket propelled grenade launchers.\n\nThe main objectives on the first day of the invasion were the capture of the Point Salines International Airport by the 75th Ranger Regiment, to permit the 82nd Airborne Division to land reinforcements on the island; the capture of Pearls Airport by the 8th Marine Regiment; and the rescue of the U.S. students at the True Blue Campus of St. George's University. In addition, a number of special operations missions were undertaken to obtain intelligence and secure key individuals and equipment. In general, many of these mission were plagued by inadequate intelligence, planning, and accurate maps of any kind (the American forces mostly relied upon tourist maps).\n\nCuban forces in Grenada\n\nThe nature of the Cuban military presence in Grenada was more complex than initially suggested. As in Angola, Ethiopia, and other nations with large contingents of Cuban troops, the line between civilians and military personnel was blurred. For example, Fidel Castro often described Cuban construction crews deployed overseas as \"workers and soldiers at the same time\"; the duality of their role being consistent with Havana's 'citizen soldier' tradition. According to journalist Bob Woodward in his book Veil, captured \"military advisers\" from the aforementioned countries were actually accredited diplomats and included their dependents. None took any actual part in the fighting. Other historians have asserted that most of the supposed civil technicians on Grenada were Cuban special forces and combat engineers. \n\nNavy SEAL reconnaissance missions\n\nU.S. Special operations were deployed to Grenada starting on October 23, before the invasion on October 25. U.S. Navy Seals from SEAL Team 6 were airdropped at sea with inflatable boats to perform a reconnaissance mission on Point Salines, but stormy weather caused 4 of them to drown upon landing. The motor on the boat used by the survivors flooded while evading a patrol boat, causing the mission to be aborted. A SEAL mission on the 24th also was made unsuccessful due to harsh weather, resulting in little intelligence being gathered on the focal point of the impending U.S. intervention. \n\nAir-Landing at Point Salines\n\nAt midnight on October 24, the A and B companies of the 1st Battalion of the 75th Ranger Regiment embarked on C-130s at Hunter Army Airfield to perform an air assault landing on Point Salines International Airport. Initially intending to land at the airport and then disembark, the Rangers had to switch abruptly to a parachute landing when it was learned mid-flight that the runway was obstructed. The air drop began at 5:30 AM on the 25th in the face of moderate resistance from ZU-23 anti-aircraft guns and several BTR-60 APCs, the latter of which were knocked out by 90mm recoilless rifles. AC-130 gunships also provided support for the landing. Cuban construction vehicles were commandeered to help clear the airfield, and one was even used to provide mobile cover for the Rangers as they moved to seize the heights surrounding the airfield.\n\nBy 10 AM, the air strip had been cleared of obstructions and transport planes were able to land directly and unload additional reinforcements, including M151 Jeeps and elements of the Caribbean Peace Force, which were assigned to guard the perimeter and detainees. Starting at 2 PM, units from the 82nd Airborne Division began landing at Point Salines, including battalions of the 325th Infantry Regiment. At 3:30 PM, a counterattack by 3 BTR-60s of the Grenadian Army Motorized Company was destroyed with fire from recoilless rifles and an AC-130.\n\nThe Rangers proceeded to fan out and secure the surrounding area, including negotiating the surrender of over a hundred Cubans in an aviation hangar. However, a jeep-mounted Ranger patrol became lost searching for True Blue Campus and was ambushed, suffering 4 KIA. The Rangers eventually secured True Blue campus and its students, where they were shocked to discover only 140 students, and were told that more were located at another campus in Anse. In all, the Rangers lost 5 men on the first day, but succeeded in securing the Point Salines and the surrounding area.\n\nCapture of Pearls Airport\n\nClose to midnight on October 24, SEAL Team 4 under Lieutenant Mike Walsh approached the beach near Pearls Airport, evading patrol boats and overcoming stormy weather, and determined that the beach was undefended but unsuitable for an amphibious landing. The 2nd Battalion of the 8th Marine Regiment then landed south of Pearls Airport using CH-46 Sea Knight and CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters at 5:30 AM on the 25th. They proceeded to capture Pearl Airport, encountering only light resistance, including a DShK machine gun which was destroyed by a Marine AH-1 Cobra.\n\nRaid on Radio Free Grenada\n\nOn the early morning of the 25th, another team from SEAL Team 6 was inserted by UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters to capture Radio Free Grenada, in order to use it for PsyOps purposes. Although the station was captured unopposed, a counter-attack including BTR-40 armored cars forced the lightly-armed SEALs to retreat in the jungle, destroying the radio transmitter as they left.\n\nRaids on Fort Rupert and Richmond Hill Prison\n\nOn the October 25, raids were undertaken by Delta Force and C Company of the 75th Ranger Regiment, embarked upon MH-60 and MH-6 Little Bird helicopters of Task Force 160 to capture Fort Ruppert, where the leadership of the Revolutionary Council was believed to reside, and Richmond Hill Prison, where many political prisoners were being held. The raid on Richmond Hill Prison lacked vital intelligence, including the fact that multiple anti-aircraft guns were located around and above the prison, and that the prison was located on a steep hill without room for a helicopter to land. Withering anti-craft fire wounded passengers and crew, and forced one MH-60 helicopter to crash land, causing another helicopter to land next to it to protect the survivors. One pilot was killed, and the Delta force operators had to be relieved by a separate force of Rangers. The raid on Fort Rupert, however, was successful in capturing several leaders of the People's Revolutionary Government.\n\nMission to rescue Governor General Scoon\n\nThe last major special operation was a mission to rescue and evacuate Governor General Paul Scoon from his mansion in Saint George, Grenada. The mission departed late at 5:30 AM on October 25 from Barbados, resulting in the Grenadian forces being already aware of the U.S. invasion when it landed and secured Governor Scoon. Although the SEAL team's entry into the mansion went unopposed, a large local counterattack including BTR-60 APCs trapped the SEALs and the governor inside. AC-130 gunships, A-7 Corsair strike planes, and AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters were called in to support the besieged SEALs, but the SEALs remained trapped for the next 24 hours.\n\nAt 7 PM on October 25, 250 U.S. Marines from G Company of the 22nd Marine Assault Unit equipped with Amphibious Assault Vehicles and four M60 Patton tanks landed at Grand Mal Bay, and relieved the Navy SEALs the following morning on October 26, allowing Governor Scoon, his wife and nine aides to be safely evacuated at 10 AM that day. G Company then proceeded to capture Fort Frederick.\n\nAirstrikes\n\nAirstrikes were undertaken by U.S. Navy A-7 Corsairs as well as U.S. Marine AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters against Fort Rupert and Fort Frederick. An A-7 raid on Fort Frederick targeting anti-aircraft guns hit a nearby mental hospital, killing 18 civilians. Two Marine AH-1T Cobras and a UH-60 Blackhawk were shot down in a raid against Fort Frederick, resulting in five KIA.\n\nSecond day of the invasion\n\nOn the second day, U.S. Commander on the ground, General Trobaugh of the 82nd Airborne Division, had two goals: securing the perimeter around Salines Airport and rescuing the U.S. students they had learned were at the campus in Anse. Because of the lack of undamaged helicopters after the losses on the first day, the Army had to delay pursuing the second objective until it made contact with Marine forces.\n\nAttack on the Cuban compound\n\nEarly in the morning of the 26th, a patrol from the 2nd Battalion of the 325th Infantry Regiment was ambushed by Cuban forces near the village of Calliste, suffering six wounded and two killed in the ensuing firefight including the commander of Company B. Following that, U.S. Navy air strikes and an artillery bombardment by 105mm howitzers targeting the main Cuban encampment eventually lead to their surrender at 8:30. US forces pushed on into the village of Frequente, where they discovered a Cuban weapon cache supposedly sufficient to equip \"six battalions.\" There, a reconnaissance platoon mounted of gun-jeeps was ambushed by Cuban forces, but return fire from the jeeps, and mortars from a nearby infantry unit inflicted four casualties on the ambushers at no U.S. loss. Cuban resistance largely ended after these engagements.\n\n'Rescue' at Grand Anse\n\nIn the afternoon of the 26, US Rangers of the 2nd Battalion of the Ranger Regiment mounted U.S. Marine CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters to launch an air assault on the Anse campus. The campus guards offered light resistance before fleeing, wounding one Ranger, but one of the helicopters crashed on the approach after its blade hit a palm tree. The 233 U.S. students present were successfully evacuated into CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters, but informed the U.S. commanders that there was a third campus with U.S. students at Prickly Bay. A squad of 11 Rangers was accidentally left behind, ultimately egressing on a rubber raft which was picked up by the USS Caron at 11 PM.\n\nThird day of the invasion and after\n\nBy October 27, organized resistance was rapidly diminishing, but the American forces did not yet realize this. The Marine 22nd MAU and 8th Regiment continued advancing along the coast and capturing additional towns, meeting little resistance, although a Jeep patrol did bump into a BTR-60 during the night and knocked it out with a LAW. The 325th Infantry Regiment advanced toward Saint George, capturing Grand Anse (where they discovered 20 U.S. students they had missed the first day), the town of Ruth Howard, and the capital of Saint George, meeting only scattered resistance. An A-7 airstrike called by an Air-Naval Gunfire Liaison team accidentally hit the command post of the 2nd Brigade, wounding 17 troops, one of whom died of wounds.\n\nThe Army had reports that PRA forces were amassing at the Calivigny barracks, only five kilometers miles away from the Point Salines airfield. They therefore organized an air assault by the 2nd Battalion of the 75th Ranger Regiment which would be preceded by a heavy preparatory bombardment by field howitzers (which mostly missed, their shells falling into ocean), A-7 Corsairs, AC-130s, and the USS Caron. However, when the Blackhawk helicopters began dropping off troops near the barracks, they approached at too high a speed, and one of them crash-landed and the two behind it collided into it, killing three and wounding four. Ironically, the barracks were deserted.\n\nIn the following days, resistance ended entirely and the Army and Marines spread across the island, arresting PRA officials, seizing caches of weapons, and seeing to the repatriation of Cuban engineers.\n\nOn November 1, two companies from the 22nd Marine Amphibious Unit made a combined sea and helicopter landing on the island of Carriacou 17 miles (27 km) to the northeast of Grenada. The nineteen Grenadan soldiers defending the island surrendered without a fight. This was the last military action of the campaign. \n\nOutcome\n\nOfficial U.S. sources state that some of their opponents were well prepared and well positioned and put up stubborn resistance, to the extent that the U.S. called in two battalions of reinforcements on the evening of 26 October. The total naval and air superiority of the coalition forces—including helicopter gunships and naval gunfire support as well as members of reserve Navy SEALs, had overwhelmed the defenders.\n\nNearly 8,000 soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines had participated in Operation Urgent Fury along with 353 Caribbean allies of the Caribbean Peace Forces. U.S. forces sustained 19 killed and 116 wounded; Cuban forces sustained 25 killed, 59 wounded, and 638 combatants captured. Grenadian forces casualties were 45 killed and 358 wounded; at least 24 civilians were killed, 18 of whom were killed in the accidental bombing of a Grenadian mental hospital.\n\nReaction in the United States\n\nA month after the invasion, Time magazine described it as having \"broad popular support.\" A congressional study group concluded that the invasion had been justified, as most members felt that U.S. students at the university near a contested runway could have been taken hostage as U.S. diplomats in Iran had been four years previously. The group's report caused House Speaker Tip O'Neill to change his position on the issue from opposition to support.\n\n However, some members of the study group dissented from its findings. Congressman Louis Stokes, D-Ohio, stated: \"Not a single American child nor single American national was in any way placed in danger or placed in a hostage situation prior to the invasion.\" The Congressional Black Caucus denounced the invasion and seven Democratic congressmen, led by Ted Weiss, introduced an unsuccessful resolution to impeach Ronald Reagan.\n\nIn the evening of 25 October 1983 by telephone, on the newscast Nightline, anchor Ted Koppel spoke to medical students on Grenada who stated that they were safe and did not feel their lives were in danger. The next evening, again by telephone, medical students told Koppel how grateful they were for the invasion and the Army Rangers, which probably saved their lives. State Department officials had assured the medical students that they would be able to complete their medical school education in the United States.[http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID656934 Nightline – 25 Oct 1983 – ABC – TV news: Vanderbilt Television News Archive][http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/diglib-fulldisplay.pl?SID\n20100809760314941&codetvn&RC\n656937&Row=341 Television News Archive: Nightline]\n\nInternational reaction\n\nOn 2 November 1983 by a vote of 108 in favour to 9 (Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, El Salvador, Israel, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and the United States) voting against, with 27 abstentions, the United Nations General Assembly adopted General Assembly Resolution 38/7, which \"deeply deplores the armed intervention in Grenada, which constitutes a flagrant violation of international law and of the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of that State.\" It went on to deplore “the death of innocent civilians” the “killing of the prime Minister and other prominent Grenadians” and called for an “immediate cessation of the armed intervention” and demanded “that free elections be organized”.\n\nThe USSR government said that Grenada had for a long time been the object of United States threats, that the invasion violated international law, and that no small nation not to the liking of the United States would find itself safe if the aggression against Grenada was not rebuffed. The governments of some countries stated that the United States intervention was a return to the era of barbarism. The governments of other countries said the United States by its invasion had violated several treaties and conventions to which it was a party. \n\nA similar resolution was discussed in the United Nations Security Council and although receiving widespread support it was ultimately vetoed by the United States. \nPresident of the United States Ronald Reagan, when asked if he was concerned by the lopsided 108–9 vote in the UN General Assembly said \"it didn't upset my breakfast at all.\" \n\nGrenada is part of the Commonwealth of Nations and, following the invasion, it requested help from other Commonwealth members. The invasion was opposed by the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago, and Canada, among others. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher personally opposed the U.S. invasion, and the British Foreign Secretary, Geoffrey Howe, announced to the British House of Commons on the day before the invasion that he had no knowledge of any possible U.S. intervention. At 12:30 am Tuesday 25 October, on the morning of the invasion, Thatcher sent a message to Reagan:\n\nWhen she telephoned Reagan twenty minutes later, he assured Thatcher that an invasion was not contemplated. Reagan later said, \"She was very adamant and continued to insist that we cancel our landings on Grenada. I couldn't tell her that it had already begun.\" \n\nIn November 2014, a recorded telephone conversation between Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher was published, which captured an apologetic Reagan discussing the invasion with Margaret Thatcher. (This recording has inaudible cuts; for an uncut, longer version, see the previous footnote's link.) In this conversation, Reagan expressed regret over any embarrassment caused due to US actions. He also cited lack of time and concerns regarding leaks as the reason for not informing her of the invasion sooner. Thatcher expressed her comprehension for the secrecy and why he had not been more open with her, saying she had been subject to similar restrictions at the time of the Falklands invasion. The publishing of this, and other, recordings also confirmed that later Presidents continued the practice of recording White House conversations after Nixon's Watergate scandal, albeit for the purpose of later assistance in transcription.\n\nAftermath\n\nFollowing the U.S. victory, the American and Caribbean governments quickly reaffirmed Queen Elizabeth II as Grenada's lawful ruler, and recognized Scoon as her only lawful representative in Grenada. In accordance with Commonwealth constitutional practice, Scoon assumed power as interim head of government, and formed an advisory council which named Nicholas Brathwaite as chairman pending new elections. Democratic elections held in December 1984 were won by the Grenada National Party and a government was formed led by Prime Minister Herbert Blaize.\n\nU.S. forces remained in Grenada after combat operations finished in December as part of Operation Island Breeze. Elements remaining, including military police, special forces, and a specialized intelligence detachment, performed security missions and assisted members of the Caribbean Peacekeeping Force and the Royal Grenadian Police Force. \n\nUnited States\n\nThe invasion showed problems with the U.S. government's \"information apparatus,\" which Time described as still being in \"some disarray\" three weeks after the invasion. For example, the U.S. State Department falsely claimed that a mass grave had been discovered that held 100 bodies of islanders who had been killed by Communist forces. Major General Norman Schwarzkopf, deputy commander of the invasion force, said that 160 Grenadian soldiers and 71 Cubans had been killed during the invasion; the Pentagon had given a much lower count of 59 Cuban and Grenadian deaths. Ronald H. Cole's report for the Joint Chiefs of Staff showed an even lower count.\n\nAlso of concern were the problems that the invasion showed with the military. There was a lack of intelligence about Grenada, which exacerbated the difficulties faced by the quickly assembled invasion force. For example, it was not known that the students were actually at two different campuses and there was a thirty-hour delay in reaching students at the second campus. Maps provided to soldiers on the ground were tourist maps on which military grid reference lines were drawn by hand to report locations of units and request artillery and aircraft fire support. They also did not show topography and were not marked with crucial positions. U.S. Navy ships providing naval gunfire and U.S. Marine, U.S. Air Force and Navy fighter/bomber support aircraft providing close air support mistakenly fired upon and killed U.S. ground forces due to differences in charts and location coordinates, data, and methods of calling for fire support. Communications between services were also noted as not being compatible and hindered the coordination of operations. The landing strip was drawn-in by hand on the map given to some members of the invasion force.\n\nA heavily fictionalized account of the invasion from a U.S. military perspective is shown in the 1986 Clint Eastwood motion picture Heartbreak Ridge, in which Marines replaced the actual roles of U.S. Army units. Due to the movie's portrayal of several incompetent officers and NCOs, the Army opted out its military support of the movie.\n\nGoldwater-Nichols Act\n\nAnalysis by the U.S. Department of Defense showed a need for improved communications and coordination between the branches of the U.S. forces. U.S. Congressional investigations of many of the reported problems resulted in the most important legislative change affecting the U.S. military organization, doctrine, career progression, and operating procedures since the end of World War II – the Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 (Pub. L.99–433).\n\nThe Goldwater-Nichols Act reworked the command structure of the United States military, thereby making the most sweeping changes to the United States Department of Defense since the department was established in the National Security Act of 1947. It increased the powers of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and created the concept of a truly unified joint U.S. forces (i.e., Army, Air Force, Marines, and Navy forces organized under one command). One of the first reorganizations resulting from both the Department of Defense analysis and the legislation was the formation of the U.S. Special Operations Command in 1987.\n\nOther\n\nOctober 25 is a national holiday in Grenada, called Thanksgiving Day, to commemorate the invasion.\n\nSt. George's University built a monument on its True Blue Campus to memorialize the U.S. servicemen killed during the invasion, and marks the day with an annual memorial ceremony.\n\nIn 2008, the Government of Grenada announced a move to build a monument to honour the Cubans killed during the invasion. At the time of the announcement the Cuban and Grenadian governments are still seeking to locate a suitable site for the monument. \n\nOrder of battle\n\nLeading joint forces, Vice Admiral Joseph Metcalf, III, COMSECONDFLT, became Commander, Joint Task Force 120 (CJTF 120), and commanded units from the Air Force, Army, Navy, and the Marine Corps from the Flag Spaces aboard the aircraft carrier USS Independence. Vice Admiral Metcalf assigned to the amphibious force (on MARG flagship – USS Guam) during combat operations), designated Task Force 124, the mission of seizing the Pearls Airport and the port of Grenville, and of neutralizing any opposing forces in the area. Simultaneously, Army Rangers (Task Force 121) – together with elements of the 82d Airborne Division (Task Force 123) – would secure points at the southern end of the island, including the nearly completed jet airfield under construction near Point Salines. Task Group 20.5, a carrier battle group built around , and Air Force elements would support the ground forces.\n\n \n\nUS ground forces\n\n* US Army 1st and 2nd Ranger Battalions 75th Infantry Regiment conducted a low-level parachute assault to secure Point Salines Airport. Hunter Army Airfield, GA and Ft. Lewis, WA\n* US Army 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment – Delta (AKA Delta Force) Fort Bragg, NC\n* US Army 82nd Airborne Division – 2nd Brigade Task Force (325th Airborne Infantry Regiment plus supporting units) and 3rd Brigade Task Force (1st and 2nd Battalions of the 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment, plus supporting units) 82nd MP General Support Platoon HHC. Fort Bragg, NC\n* US Army Co E (Scout), 60th Infantry Regiment, 9th Infantry Division (inactivated in 1984 and assets used to form: [https://www.facebook.com/pages/E-Company-LRSC-109th-MI-BN-Airborne/109609252401437 Co E (Long Range Surveillance) 109th MI Battalion], 9th Infantry Division (Motorized)), Fort Lewis, WA.\n* US Army 27th Engineer Battalion of the 20th Engineer Brigade (Airborne), Fort Bragg, NC\n* US Army 548th Engineer Battalion Ft Bragg, NC\n* US Army 160th Aviation Battalion Ft Campbell, KY\n* US Army 18th Aviation Company, 269th Aviation Battalion Ft. Bragg, NC\n* 1st and 2nd 82nd Combat Aviation Battalion, Fort Bragg N.C.\n* 1 SQN 17 Air Cavalry Airborne, Fort Bragg N.C.\n* US Army 65th MP Company (Airborne), 118th MP Company (Airborne), and HHD, 503rd MP Battalion (Airborne) of the 16th Military Police Brigade (Airborne), XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Bragg, NC\n* US Army 411th MP Company of the 89th Military Police Brigade, III Corps, Ft. Hood, Texas\n* US Army 35th Signal Brigade, Ft. Bragg, NC\n* US Army 50th Signal Battalion, 35th Signal Brigade, Ft. Bragg, NC\n* US Army 319th Military Intelligence Battalion and 519th Military Intelligence Battalion, 525th Military Intelligence Brigade, Fort Bragg, NC\n* US Army 9th Psychological Operations Battalion (Airborne) of the 4th Psychological Operations Group (Airborne) – provided loudspeaker support and dissemination of informational pamphlets. Fort Bragg, NC\n* US Army 1st Corps Support Command COSCOM, 7th Trans Battalion, 546th LMT Fort Bragg, NC\n* US Army 44th Medical Brigade – Personnel from the 44th Medical Brigade and operational units including the 5th MASH were deployed. Fort Bragg, NC\n* US Army 82nd Finance Company MPT\n* US Marine Corps 22nd Marine Amphibious Unit Camp Lejeune, NC\n* US Navy SEAL Team 4 Little Creek, VA and US Navy SEAL Team 6 Virginia Beach, VA\n* US Air Force Detachment 1, 507th Tactical Air Control Wing (Fort Bragg, NC) – jump qualified TACPs who were attached to and deployed with the 82d Airborne, Fort Bragg, NC (now the 14th ASOS, part of the 18th Air Support Operations Group)\n* US Air Force 21st Tactical Air Support Squadron (Shaw AFB, SC) – jump qualified FACs who were attached to and deployed with Detachment 1, 507th Tac Air Control Wg and the 82d Airborne, Fort Bragg, NC\n* US Air Force 5th Weather Squadron, 5th Weather Wing (MAC) Fort Bragg, NC – jump qualified Combat Weathermen who are attached and deployed with the 82nd, now in AFSOC\n\nU.S. Air Force\n\n* 136th Tactical Airlift Wing, Texas Air National Guard – provided C-130 Hercules combat airlift support, cargo and supplies\n* Various Air National Guard tactical fighter wings and squadrons – provided A-7D Corsair II ground-attack aircraft for close air support\n* 23rd Tactical Fighter Wing – provided close air support for allied forces with A-10 Warthogs\n* 26th Air Defense Squadron NORAD – provided air support for F-15 Eagles \n* 33rd Tactical Fighter Wing – provided air superiority cover for allied forces with F-15 Eagles\n* 437th Military Airlift Wing – provided airlift support with C-141 Starlifters\n* 16th Special Operations Wing – flew AC-130H Spectre gunships\n* 317th Military Airlift Wing – provided airlift support with C-130 Hercules from Pope AFB / Fort Bragg, NC complex to Grenada\n* 63d Military Airlift Wing – Provided airlift support with C-141 Starlifteraircraft in the air landing of Airborne troops, 63rd Security Police Squadron provided airfield security support – (Norton AFB CA)\n* 443rd Military Airlift Wing, 443rd Security Police Squadron (Altus AFB, OK) – provided a 44-man Airbase Ground Defense flight (Oct–Nov 1983)\n* 19th Air Refueling Wing – provided aerial refueling support for all other aircraft\n* 507th Tactical Air Control Wing (elements of the 21st TASS at Shaw AFB, SC and Detachment 1, Fort Bragg, NC) – provided Tactical Air Control Parties (TACPs) in support of the 82nd Airborne Division\n* 552nd Air Control Wing, providing air control support with E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft\n* 62nd Security Police Group (Provisional) Multi Squadron Law Enforcement & Security Forces – Prisoner detaining and transport attached to 82nd Airborne\n* 60th Military Airlift Wing's 60th Security Police Squadron (Travis AFB, CA) provided airfield security in Grenada as well as Barbados.\n\nU.S. Navy\n\nTwo formations of U.S. warships took part in the invasion. carrier battle group; and Marine Amphibious Readiness Group, flagship , , , , and . Carrier Group Four was allocated the designation Task Group 20.5 for the operation.\n\nIn addition, the following ships supported naval operations:\n\n, , , , , , , , , , , , , and .\n\nU.S. Coast Guard\n\nUSCGC Cape York (WPB - 95332)"
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"Joseph Metcalf; admiral led Grenada invasion - The Boston Globe\nObituaries\nJoseph Metcalf; admiral led Grenada invasion\nAdmiral Joseph Metcalf III, commander of all forces on Grenada, pointing to the Marine positions on the island. (upi file/1983)\nBy Matt Schudel, Washington Post | March 12, 2007\nWASHINGTON -- Joseph Metcalf III, the Navy vice admiral who led the US invasion of the Caribbean nation of Grenada in 1983, which produced lasting lessons for military preparation and media relations, died March 2 at his home after a series of strokes. A native of Holyoke, Mass., he was 79 and had a progressive neurological disorder.\nAdmiral Metcalf, described by The\nWashington Post\nas a \"colorful and pugnacious commander,\" was given the assignment to lead the invasion only 39 hours before it was to take place, Oct. 25, 1983. Six days earlier, a Marxist faction had seized control of Grenada's government and executed Prime Minister Maurice Bishop and 15 of his supporters.\nThe United States and several Caribbean nations feared that Grenada could take a sudden turn toward violent revolution, fueled by the presence of several hundred Cuban advisers. About 650 Americans attended medical school in Grenada at the time and there was concern for their safety.\nAdmiral Metcalf, who was commander of the Atlantic 2d Fleet, led an invasion force of about 6,000 troops from all four branches of the military in the attack, code-named Operation Urgent Fury, which began at 5 a.m. It was the first US combat operation since the Vietnam War. His deputy commander was Army General Norman Schwarzkopf, who commanded the Desert Storm operation in 1990-91.\nSupplemented by about 300 troops from several Caribbean countries, US forces took control of the 133-square-mile island nation within three days and captured the leader of the rebellion, Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard, who remains in prison. In the sporadic fighting, 19 Americans and at least 45 Grenadans were killed. All the American medical students were unharmed.\nThe anniversary of the invasion he led, Oct. 25, is now celebrated as Grenada's Thanksgiving Day.\nAt first, little could be learned about the invasion because Admiral Metcalf enforced a strict media blackout, which ignited a battle over the freedom of the press. Several reporters in a chartered fishing boat were turned back by the threatening maneuvers of US military jets.\nAdmiral Metcalf said the orders to restrict the media came from above him. But in 2002, Margaret Belknap, an Army lieutenant colonel and faculty member at the US Military Academy, wrote in Parameters, the US Army War College Quarterly, that \"President [Ronald] Reagan left the decision for media access to the military, and ultimately it rested with . . . Metcalf.\"\nAccording to Belknap, \"Admiral Metcalf personally ordered shots fired across the bow of the media's vessel, forcing them to return to Barbados.\"\nConsidered a successful military engagement on the whole, the Grenada operation did expose communication and coordination problems among the military branches, prompting the Pentagon to streamline its planning of multiforce operations.\nIn 1985, Admiral Metcalf landed in more hot water when it was discovered that he and his staff attempted to bring back 24 AK-47 automatic rifles from Grenada as souvenirs. US Customs agents seized the weapons as a violation of federal gun laws and Admiral Metcalf received an official \"caution.\"\nAt the same time, seven Marines and soldiers were court-martialed and sentenced to jail for smuggling weapons from Grenada, prompting criticism of what some saw as lenient treatment of Admiral Metcalf. The House and Senate launched inquiries, but it was later revealed that 300 other service members in the Grenada action had been granted amnesty for turning in weapons seized as spoils of war.\n\"Admiral Metcalf didn't try to hide or smuggle any weapons -- he requisitioned them,\" said Navy Secretary John F. Lehman Jr. in 1985. \"The enlisted people who did what Metcalf did were given amnesty. I've never seen so much bounce from so little substance.\"\nAdmiral Metcalf joined the Navy in 1946 as an enlisted man. A year later, he enrolled in the US Naval Academy, graduating in 1951.\nHe commanded one of the Navy's first ships equipped with cruise missiles and in 1966 commanded a ship in the first amphibious landing of the Vietnam War. As the United States withdrew from Vietnam in 1975, Admiral Metcalf was in charge of evacuating all surface ships.\nAfter Grenada, he became deputy chief of staff of Naval Operations for Surface Warfare. Not long before his retirement in 1987, he devised the concept of \"revolution at sea,\" in which he recommended that Navy ships be made of composite materials and designed to conceal communications equipment and weapons.\nAdmiral Metcalf's decorations included four awards of the Distinguished Service Medal, the Defense Superior Service Medal, three awards of the Legion of Merit, and two Bronze Stars.\nHe leaves his wife of 56 years, Ruth; three children; a brother; and 11 grandchildren.\n© Copyright 2007 Globe Newspaper Company.\nMore:",
"United States PSYOP in Grenada - Operation Urgent Fury\nUNITED STATES PSYOP IN GRENADA\nThis article on Grenada was selected by Military Colleges Online as one of the 99 Crucial Sites on 20th Century American Military History.\n\nThe invasion of the island-nation of Grenada is important because it was an early extension of American power that showed several weaknesses within the American military establishment. The problems and the confusion that occurred during the occupation of this tiny island led to changes in command and communication that was to benefit the United States Military in future campaigns.\nDeputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard\nMaurice Bishop with Fidel Castro\nThe Grenada story began on 13 March 1979 when Maurice Bishop overthrew the legitimate government and established a communist society. The New Joint Endeavor for Welfare, Education, and Liberation (New Jewel Movement) ousted Sir Eric Gairy, Grenada's first Prime Minister, and established a people's revolutionary government. Grenada began construction of a 10,000 foot international airport with the help of Cuba. There was speculation that this airfield could be used to land military fighters and transports, threatening South America and the southern United States. President Ronald Reagan accused Grenada of constructing facilities to aid a Soviet and Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean. There was also worry about the large number of weapons flowing into Grenada. One shipment in 1979 contained 3400 rifles and 3 million rounds of ammunition. In addition, there were about 600 American medical students studying in Grenada and another 400 foreign citizens. The safety of these Americans became a factor when Maurice Bishop and several members of his cabinet were murdered by elements of the people's revolutionary army on 13 October 1983. The even more reactionary and violent Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard who led a Marxist-influenced group within the Grenadian Army replaced Bishop. President Reagan called the leaders of the new government \"a brutal group of leftist thugs.\"\nSGT Barton of the 82nd Airborne Division stacks his\nC-rations near a pile of captured Cuban weapons.\nThe United States reacted to the bloody coup in Grenada within two weeks. On 25 October 1983 American troops landed on the beaches of Grenada. They were assisted in part by members of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), specifically Barbados, Jamaica, Antigua, Dominica, St Lucia and St Vincent. They were opposed by Grenadian and Cuban military units and military advisors from the Soviet Union, North Korea, East Germany, Bulgaria, and Libya.\n \nAlmost everything that could go wrong did go wrong during this operation. A Navy SEAL reconnaissance mission floundered in heavy seas and four of the SEALs drowned after a night combat equipment water jump in the ocean about 40 kilometers off the north-northwest tip of Port Salinas, Grenada. They were dropped into the teeth of a squall along with a \nBoston\nWhaler from an Air Force C-130 and immediately went under. Navy SEALs John Butcher, Kevin Lundbergh, Stephen Morris and Robert Schamberger drowned during the drop. Later investigation found that the SEALs had never attempted the night drop of a team and a boat before.\nThere were navigation problems with the lead C-130 and the pilot could not guarantee finding the targeted drop zones. Ranger units could not communicate with each other directly and had to be transmitted through Air Force communications. The intelligence was faulty and the location of the medical students and enemy anti-aircraft weapons was incorrect. The mission got off late and the UH-60 helicopters that were supposed to reach\nGrenada\nin darkness arrived after dawn, eliminating all hope of surprise. When the helicopters attempted to test fire their machine guns they discovered that the ammunition was regular link instead of mini-gun ammunition, which caused the weapons to jam. When the 82nd Airborne was asked for an artillery barrage their shells fell short because the cannoneers had left their aiming circles behind and were unable to communicate with the supported force to adjust fire. Army helicopters flying wounded to the Navy ship\nGuam\ncould not find it at first and did not have the frequencies to talk to the Navy and determine where the ship was located. Worse, as the Army helicopters ran out of fuel and were forced to land on the decks of Navy ships, they were refused fuel because a Navy Controller in Washington found that no payment arrangements had been worked out between the sister services. This order was of course, countermanded by the Navy Admiral in charge.\n \nA 2nd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment Death Card\nWe dont know if the Rangers actually brought this card to Grenada but it was prepared for the invasion and copies were found in the headquarters of the Ranger Regiment. It tells the government troops that the Rangers are in their rear area and cannot be stopped.\nThe Rangers originally expected to land at Salines airfield. When it was discovered that the enemy had set up runway obstacles, a decision was made to have them parachute (in some cases with double loads) from 500 feet altitude. Since the men had removed their gear, they had to refit in the aircraft. The aircraft were out of assigned order and the runway clearing team would not be the first on the field. The Air Force refused to conduct a mass parachute drop requested by the Rangers. There was an alleged problem with the prompt evacuation of the wounded because Army helicopter pilots were not qualified to land on Navy ships. This requirement was quickly waived. As an example of further interservice rivalry, Norman Schwarzkopf adds in It Doesnt take a Hero, Bantam Books, 1992, that he had to give a Marine Colonel a direct order and threat of court-martial to fly Army Rangers in Marine helicopters. The 82nd Airborne had serious dehydration problems and this led directly to the introduction of light-weight BDUs shortly after the operation.\nThe Grenada Radio Fiasco\nPerhaps the most famous of the fiascoes was depicted in the Clint Eastwood movie Heartbreak Ridge. Enemy machine-guns pinned down navy SEALs assaulting the Governor-Generals mansion. Two American gunships flew overhead but the men on the ground were unable to communicate directly with them. There were major problems with the radios of the various services and communication was curtailed. As a result, one pinned-down American actually used his personal credit card to send a collect call from the mansion to Fort Bragg N.C to request a fire mission. The message was forwarded from North Carolina to the naval ships off shore and the fire order was carried out. Despite all this, the casualty rate for United States forces were only 19 dead and 116 wounded. The Grenada military suffered 49 dead and 358 wounded. The Cuban count was 29 dead and over a hundred wounded.\nColonel John T. Carney Jr. talks about the problems in No Room for Error: The Covert Operations of Americas Special Tactics Units from Iran to Afghanistan, Ballantine, N.Y., 2002:\nWe achieved our mission, but took heavy casualties. Nineteen men were killed in action and 123 wounded. The enemy was a hastily organized force of about 50 Cuban military advisers, over 700 Cuban construction workers, and one thousand two hundred members of\nGrenada\ns Peoples Revolutionary Army. Many of the casualties were from friendly fire.\nTo this day, I doubt that any one person knows how ineptly Urgent Fury was planned and executed
Operation Urgent Fury became the military equivalent of a Japanese Kabuki dance created by three or four choreographers speaking different languages, all working independently of each other.\nIn the long run, however, the operation proved a defining moment for special operations, for it led directly to the creation, by Congressional mandate, three years later, of the\nU.S.\nSpecial Operations Command
\nBritish Major Mark Adkin, Commanding Officer of the Caribbean Peace-keeping Force (CPF), mentions the problems in Urgent Fury: The Battle for Grenada (Issues in Low Intensity Conflict), Lexington Books, 1989. He says that the U.S. armed forces came extremely close to a major political defeat due to poor planning on the part of senior officers. The Americans did not have topographical maps of the island and used old British touring maps. The location and strength of the enemy forces were almost completely unknown. This led directly to the loss of several helicopters and caused Delta Force to abort two missions. There was no fully integrated communications system. The Americans lacked precise data on the location of the medical students they were to rescue. More than a thousand American medical students were spread out over three locations instead of only at the True Blue campus in the southern tip of the island.\nMajor General H. Norman Schwarzkopf, the task force's deputy commander, and never one to pull a punch commented on the operation:\nEven though higher headquarters screws it up every way you can possibly screw it up, it is the initiative and valor of the small units, the small-unit leadership, and the Soldiers on the ground that will win for you every time.\nDuring the entire operation from 25 October through 15 December 1983, 7,355 troops took part in Operation Urgent Fury. The Americans overcame poor planning and overwhelmed the defenders with mass, speed and firepower.\nIn all, this campaign went almost as badly as the ill-fated 1980 hostage rescue in Iran (Operation Eagleclaw). However, like that operation, the United States military studied the problems, published the lessons learned, and came away with a leaner and more efficient Special Operations force. The doctrine of the Special Operations groups for Low Intensity conflict was written to deal with military incursions such as Grenada and Panama. The confusion and inability to communicate that was Urgent Fury led directly to the improvements that would guarantee victory in future American military operations.\nOn the positive side, the cameras were rolling as the medical students were rescued. The entire world saw young men and women hugging and kissing\nU. S.\ntroops. It was a genuine act of emotion and gratitude that could not be faked. One soldier who took part in the operation told me:\nThe best American PSYOP of\nGrenada\nwas inadvertent. When the rescued students kissed\nU. S.\nSoil on national news, the political impact was enormous.\nThe battle for Grenada was the first combined-service campaign of the U.S. military in years. Afterwards, such operations would be practiced constantly resulting in the near flawless invasion of Panama in 1989, and perhaps the greatest military victory in American history, Operation Desert Storm, a year later.\nSome aspects of the PSYOP campaign were carried out by the Army, Navy, Air Force, Reserve and National Guard. For instance, according to Retired Colonel Alfred H. Paddock, writing in an article entitled PSYOP: A Historical Perspective, for Perspectives, Volume 22, Number 5 & 6, 2012:\nWorking with the 4th Group, the Navys Reserve Audiovisual Unit (NARU 186) produced a cassette tape of PSYOP messages and music which the Pennsylvania Air National Guards 193d Special Operations Group (then Coronet Solo) broadcast over radio to the Grenadian people concurrent with the landing of U.S. Marines and Army Rangers. The Navy deployed its mobile 10 kilowatt radio station (AN/ULT-3) which, together with Coronet Solo, provided coverage of the island until the Armys 50 kilowatt set could be installed
The Joint Psychological Operations Task Force electronically transmitted its initial leaflet with directions for its production and dissemination to the aircraft carrier USS Guam. After printing on the Guam, Marine helicopters distributed 50,000 leaflets as Marine forces landed in Grenada. Permanent presses at the 4th Groups headquarters at Fort Bragg, NC, printed and packaged leaflets targeting both the Grenadian population and Cubans on the island. Air force MC-130 aircraft dropped 300,000 of these in the St. Georges area and along the western coast on the second day of hostilities. Between 25 October and 8 December the PSYOP task force produced and disseminated more than 900,000 leaflets, handbills, and posters.\nIn regard to PSYOP in Grenada, Stanley Sandler says in Cease Resistance: It's Good for You: A history of U.S. Army Combat Psychological Operations, 1999:\n4th PSYOP Group loudspeaker teams attached to the 82nd Airborne Division, in addition to persuading significant numbers of frightened Peoples Revolutionary Army (PRA) troops to turn themselves in, confirmed the enemy's low morale as well as the desire of even some of the Cuban \"Construction Battalions\" to remain on the island with their Grenadian wives and families.\nRegarding leaflets, Sandler says:\nBut other, more specialized leaflets, emphasized that this was a combined operation with other Caribbean nations as well as the United States acting against a foreign threat. Something new was added when U.S. PSYOP troops photographed captured Grenadian Communist leaders in captivity, thus reassuring citizens that they could now go about their business unmolested by a cabal whom most genuinely feared. One such leaflet, headlined \"These hoodlums are now in custody,\" displayed most unflattering photos of the subjects while another showed the two chiefs of the Marxist clique, Bernard Coard and Hudson Austin, in safe custody on a U.S. Navy ship with the message \"Former PRA members: Your corrupt leaders have surrendered. Knowing resistance is useless...Join your countrymen now in rebuilding a truly democratic Grenada.\nSandler says in an article printed in Mindbenders, Vol. 9, No.3, 1995:\nThe 4th PSYOP Group distributed leaflets giving the Grenadian population guidance and information, and a newly-deployed 50-kilowatt transmitter, \"Spice Island Radio,\" broadcast news and entertainment throughout the island.\nThe\nGrenada Radio Station antenna with wires cut by the U. S. Navy Seals.\nRadio Free Grenada was one of the first targets of American bombs. To replace Radio Free Grenada, the U.S. set up Spice Island Radio, under the overall control of the Psychological Operations Section of the Army. A twelve-man team of Navy journalists immediately flew in from Norfolk, recruited some local announcers, and Spice Island Radio was on the air. Their first broadcast called on Grenadians to lay down their arms. The head of the Navy team, Lt. Richard Ezzel, told Reuters, \"We wanted to save lives.\nThe Cuban-Built Air Strip Still under Construction\nAn expert on radio PSYOP added:\nOne of the first objectives was the islands commercial AM transmitter. The\nSoviet Union\nhad provided it. The control panel of the transmitter gave control functions in Russian. The locals had put labels in English below those controls. The\nUS\nNavy sent in a Seal Team to quiet the transmitter just prior to the invasion. While the building exterior received a lot of light weapons damage, the transmitter was reasonably unscathed. The Navy cut the feed lines to the antenna to disable the transmitter. The US Navys PSYOP 10KW broadcast transmitter aboard ship off the coast of\nGrenada\nbegan broadcasting using a tethered balloon antenna. The 4th PSYOP Group brought in the TRT-22 and after several days of being bounced around from site to site, finally set up near the new airport at Port Salines. It was there several months.\nDonald R Wooldridge told me about putting up the antenna. He was part of a 9-man team from Fort Huachuca, Arizona that installed the 250 foot TRT-22 antenna for the 4th PSYOP Group. He said:\nEverything turned out well because of our leadership. We had a lot of problems with the supported unit and ended up sleeping outside of the building and got rained on every single day. We installed it in four days with a team that had seven members who just graduated from school.\nFM 33-1-1, Psychological Operations Techniques and Procedures mentions the antenna in Appendix K: The PSYOP Dissemination Battalion Operational Procedures. It says in part:\nThe AN/TRT-22 system is a radio production and broadcast system. The 50-kw AM transmitter can broadcast on any frequency from 535 KHz to 1620 KHz to a range of approximately 120 to 150 kilometers. The system is manned by one 8-man broadcast team from the radio platoon. The 256-foot antenna tower requires a special team to erect with an installation time of 5 to 7 days. This antenna erection team, which consists of one NCOIC and five enlisted personnel from the signal/communications support element at Fort Huachuca, AZ, must be deployed from other units; the PSYOP Dissemination Battalion does not have organic capability to erect this antenna.\nThe complete AN/TRT-22 system consists of nine S-280 shelters with dolly sets, two 200-kw generators, a large heliax cable spool, and a prime mover (M35A2). The system requires one C-5 for air transport. The AN/TRT-22 has limited mobility in that it is designed to be deployed to one location. The 50,000-watt transmitter requires two 200-kw generators working alternately for 24 hours of broadcast power consuming 568 to 605 liters of fuel per 24 hours.\nDepartment of the Army FM 33-1, Psychological Operations, July 1987, mentions the Grenada PSYOP campaign.\nThe 1983 Grenada operation included PSYOP elements from all the services. These elements provided the commander with the primary means of mass communication with both the enemy and local populace. The communication capability was especially important during the initial phases of the operation.\nLeaflets directing the populace to remain indoors and tune their radios to a specific frequency were designed by the Army and printed aboard Navy ships. Other leaflets, produced both at Ft. Bragg and on the island, were effectively used during the consolidation operations to encourage Grenadian civilians to report information concerning Peoples Revolutionary Army (PRA) and Cuban soldiers. An Air Force airborne transmitter station was used by PSYOP elements to broadcast information after the Grenada radio station was rendered inoperative during the first day of operation. By the third day, a small land-based PSYOP station commenced operations. Later, Army PSYOP elements deployed a large 50KW transmitter capable of broadcasting to the entire island. Eventually, PSYOP personnel were broadcasting 11 hours per day.\nPSYOP Loudspeaker Team\nVehicle-mounted loudspeakers were also used for psychological consolidation activities.\n8th Special Operations Squadron\nThe 8th Special Operations Squadron is the second longest continuously operational active duty squadron in the U.S. Air Force. Since its inception in 1917, the 8th SOS has flown 17 different types of aircraft. This list includes DH-4s, B-26s, B-57s, A-37s, MC-130Hs and the MC-130E Combat Talon I currently flown by the 8th.\nThe squadron was called on again in October 1983 to lead the way in the rescue of American students endangered on the island of Grenada. After long hours of flight, the aircrew members faced intense ground fire to airdrop U.S. Army Rangers to Point Salinas Airfield in the opening moments of Operation Urgent Fury. They subsequently followed up with three psychological operations leaflet drops designed to encourage the Cubans to discontinue the conflict.\nNavy Sea King Helicopters\nThe Navy also took part in the PSYOP campaign. SH-3H Sea King helicopters from Squadron HS-15 based on the Aircraft Carrier Independence dropped leaflets over Central Grenada.\nEC-130 Commando Solo\nThe website of the 193d Special Operations Wing of the Pennsylvania Air National Guard adds:\nThe EC-130 was also used over Grenada, originally modified using the mission electronic equipment from the EC-121, known at the time as the Coronet Solo. Soon after the 193rd SOW received its EC-130s, the unit participated in the rescue of US citizens in Operation Urgent Fury, acting as an airborne radio station informing those people on Grenada of the US military action.\nThe Commando Solo's airborne radio station played an initial pre-invasion \"warning\" broadcast tape to the people of Grenada on 25 October, the first day of the American invasion. The tape was produced two days earlier on 23 October at the request of Army Lieutenant Colonel George Coburn, the PSYOP Plans officer of the Atlantic Command (LANTCOM) J58. A Naval Reserve PSYOP element, Naval Reserve Atlantic Fleet (LANTFLT) PSYOPS AVU 0286, drilling at Naval Air Reserve Norfolk assisted with the project.\nThe tape was produced by Television Production Specialist W. B. Church, also the reserve unit's Program Manager. A number of the citizens of Grenada were interviewed some years later who vividly recalled that broadcast. To a man, each credited it with reducing initial hostilities and resistance.\nThe revised Radio Free Grenada began broadcasts within days of the invasion. Major General George Crist selected a group of local radio announcers to operate the station even before the new pro-American interim government was formed. Resistance was moderate and security was ensured on the island, opening the doors for a multilateral peacekeeping force with American and Caribbean troops to rebuild peace and stability on Grenada.\nU. S. Army Blackhawk helicopters on Grenada\nSergeant Jim Peterson, who served with A Company, 2nd Battalion of the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 82nd Airborne Division, vividly remembers returning to Salinas Airport with his unit when a UH-60 Blackhawk slowly flew overhead playing Wagner's Ride of the Valkyries from what appeared to be a loudspeaker above the wheels.\nThis was one aircraft loudspeaker broadcast that, contrary to what some may have thought, was not a sanctioned psyop broadcast, but rather the actions of an individual UH-60 Blackhawk pilot. The unknown pilot was apparently motivated by the classic scene from the Vietnam War movie Apocalypse Now where Air Cavalry Troop Commander Lieutenant Colonel Kilgore says:\nWe'll come in low, out of the rising sun, and about a mile out, we'll put on the music...\nYeah, I use Wagner -- scares the hell out of the slopes! My boys love it !\nPut on psych-war operations, make it loud.\nI can't say what effect, if any, that selection of music had on the Cuban soldiers, but according to Jim Peterson the musical display was well received by the US Army and Air Force personnel in the area, and boosted their spirits.\nThere were very few PSYOP leaflets disseminated over Grenada during the few days of armed struggle. At first we only knew of three. They are all plain text and none contain pictures or photographs.\nThe first is found in both a light and dark green text and border. The text is:\nPeople of Grenada. Your Caribbean neighbors with U.S. support have come to Grenada to restore democracy and insure your safety.\nText on the back is:\nRemain indoors, avoid conflicts and no harm will come to you. Further emergency information will follow.\nThe second has purple text and border. The text on the front is:\nCITIZENS OF GRENADA Take every precaution to insure your safety. Help us avoid accidentally injuring you or members of your families by taking the steps on the reverse side. Please remain calm and no harm will come to you.\nText on back explains:\nCITIZENS OF RENADA. Take every precaution to insure your safety. Help us avoid accidentally injuring you or your families by taking the following steps: Do not leave your home. Avoid confrontations and do not interfere with U.S./Caribbean Forces. If fighting starts in your area, stay in your homes and on the floor. Stay off roads and highways. Further emergency information will follow. PLEASE REMAIN CALM AND NO HARM WILL COME TO YOU.\nThe third leaflet comes in two slightly different varieties (dark blue and light blue text and border) and is written in English and Spanish. It has the same message on both sides. The English message is:\nCUBAN NATIONALS. Your Caribbean neighbors and U.S. Forces have come to Grenada to restore Democracy and evacuate U.S. Citizens. Stay out of the conflict. Remain in your compound or home. Avoid confrontations and do not interfere with on going operations. If you remain out of the way you will not be harmed. (Spanish translation on the other side).\nThe fourth leaflet showed up a bit later. I never heard of it being dropped during the invasion, but it was depicted in the book Grenada - Revolution, Invasion and Aftermath, Hugh O'Shaughnessy, Sphere Books, London, 1984. He describes it as:\nSafe conduct pass in the form of a Cuban 5 peso banknote bearing the picture of Antonio Maceo, black hero of Cuban independence (Authors note: Antonio Maceo y Grajales, 1845-1896). Distributed by U.S. troops for use by Cubans during the October invasion.\nBy some coincidence I was at Ft. Bragg shortly after the war and while visiting one of the librarians at the Special Forces Library noticed the banknote leaflet under a piece of glass on his desk. I did some fast talking and was able to trade one of my articles on PSYOP for the leaflet.\nGenuine Cuban 5 Peso banknote\nI later wrote this leaflet up in the International Banknote Society Journal, Volume 30, No. 4, 1991. The banknote leaflet parodied the Cuban 5 peso note of 1961-1965. The genuine Cuban note is green, but the propaganda note is crudely drawn in bright pink-violet.\nThe text on the front in both English and Spanish is:\nSAFE CONDUCT PASS. To those who are resisting the Caribbean Peace Force. You will be taken to a safe place where your needs will be met. Food, clothing, shelter and medical treatment is available.\nThe back of the banknote leaflet has \"SAFE CONDUCT\" at the top and bottom of the note in English and Spanish. Sandler points out that:\nThe use of a Cuban rather than a Grenadian note showed that planners were understandably more concerned with resistance from the Cuban construction battalions than any from the rag-tag Grenadian local defense forces.\nEsto O Esto\nOther leaflets are known but it is unclear if they were dropped during the invasion or afterwards as part of the consolidation campaign.\nO'Shaughnessy says:\nA more gruesome poster carried a drawing of a bleeding corpse and a relieved group of soldiers surrendering with the caption \"Esto - o esto\" (\"This - or this\").\nThe text on the back is: \nYour defeat is inevitable. You are facing thousands of troops from six different countries. Cease resistance and return to Cuba with honor where your family await you.\nI have also seen a leaflet with text:\nStop Communistic Designs on Grenada NOW. Expose former PRA & Cuban renegades and their arms caches. Support a Democratic Grenada.\nAnother leaflet shows the four horsemen of the apocalypse. Three of them are leaders of the communist government, the fourth is death. The text is:\nWhat did the PRA produce? Death and Destruction. Support a New Beginning. Brightness out of Darkness.\nColonel Paddock adds:\nThere was a very successful PSYOP amnesty program. It used radio, loudspeaker, and face-to-face media to announce the governor generals three-day amnesty program. During this period, more than 1,000 members of the Peoples Revolutionary Army over half of the main force turned themselves in.\nSafe Conduct Pass\nThis pass says on back:\nPresent this pass to any member of the Caribbean peace keeping force. You will be taken to a safe place where your needs will be met. Food, Medical treatment, shelter, clothing is available.\nWeapons Rewards Poster\nThe U.S. also prepared reward posters for weapons. One shows an AK-47 in the center covered by a red \"prohibited\" symbol. The text is:\nWANTED By Authorities. Functional Rifles SEC 264.00. Functional Pistols SEC 264.00. Cubans Still Hiding Out SEC 1320.00. Caches will be determined by amount of weapons, ammo, and/or explosives. REWARDS are being offered for helping authorities find functional weapons, ammunition and Cubans still hiding out. INFORMATION WILL BE KEPT SECRET and rewards will be given for providing the location of the weapons, ammunition or Cubans. Contact the Caribbean Peacekeeping Force, U.S. Forces, or the Army Claims Office in St. George's. You can also call on the newly established telephone HOTLINE 3206.\nIn regard to rewards Paddock points out:\nThis successful program offered rewards for weapons, ammunition, or information leading to the capture of Cubans. Conducted over an eight-week period, this campaign employed face-to-face communication, radio, loudspeakers, posters, handbills and leaflets dropped by helicopters. By mid-January 1984 more than 196 weapons, 400 grenades, 13,500 rounds of ammo, and a Soviet BTR-60 armored personnel carrier were turned in.\nUnexploded Ordnance Warning\nU.S.\nleaflet-poster depicts skulls at the upper left and right. The text is:\nDANGER! Unexploded ammunition, booby trapped weapons, and equipment in area. DO NOT TOUCH! Large quantities of weapons and equipment were left behind or unexploded. Do not touch anything, it may be booby trapped. Do not risk severe injury or death. Report this equipment to:\nCaribbean\nSecurity Forces. Danger!\nThere are certainly dozens of such consolidation leaflets that were prepared during the occupation and before the installation of a new government in Grenada.\nDignity Card\nThe last item we will mention and illustrate is what might be called a \"dignity card.\" One of the most handsome paper products produced by the 4th PSYOP Group was a card produced for the American troops.\nThe text and illustrations are in a dark blue on bright white cardboard. The title at the top front of the card is \"REPRESENT YOUR NATION AND UNIT WITH DIGNITY AND HONOR.\" The three symbols are military patches, all topped with an \"Airborne\" tab. The patch at the far left is of the 82nd Airborne Division, the one in the center is the 18th Airborne Corps, and the one at the far right represents Special Forces.\nText on the back of the card is:\nPROTECT YOURSELF AND YOUR FELLOW SOLDIERS BY KEEPING THE CIVILIAN POPULATION FRIENDLY TO YOU. FOLLOW THESE DO'S AND DON'TS.\nDO\n1. Do avoid any unnecessary bloodshed.\n2. Do avoid making any cultural, racial, and ethnic insults or comments. Be polite and respectful to local population.\n3. Do avoid the destruction of monuments, archives, health and religious facilities or other institutions which might directly aggravate the Grenadian or world population. Treat religious centers with respect.\n4. Do permit the peaceful operations of farms and businesses operated by the indigenous population. Treat religious centers with respect.\n5. Do provide humanitarian assistance when required.\n6. Do avoid confusion with the local civil population and minimize damage to their personal property.\n7. Do treat refugees or civilian detainees as you would want your own family treated in a similar situation.\n8. Do always maintain proper military bearing as you are the direct representative of the President of the U.S. and will be looked upon as such by all who come in contact with you.\nDON'T\n1. Don't fraternize with local women or make flirtatious or degrading comments toward them.\n2. Don't make derogatory remarks about local customs or the daily activities of the people.\n3. Don't display arrogance or intimidate the civilian population.\n4. Don't enter into discussions involving politics, religion or economics.\n5. Don't take any unauthorized transfer of equipment or goods brought to Grenada.\n6. Don't treat the Grenadian as inferior. Many of the people you meet will think and feel differently about things than you do.\n7. Don't talk to the press. Refer all media personnel to your commander or authorized spokesman.\"\nAuthors note: The dignity card asks that the American troops keep the civilian population friendly. No one is friendlier toward children than the American soldier. In the above photograph Grenadian children climb all over an American jeep. Hopefully that M-60 machinegun is not primed and ready to fire. \nThe Best PSYOP\nHeadquarters and Headquarters Company, 2 Battalion, 508th Infantry Regiment of the 82nd Airborne Division members Specialist 4 Ricky Brown,Timothy Gibson and David North make friends with Grenadian students from a local Catholic school\nSP4 Rick Brown said that all the locals he encountered were very glad that the Americans had landed, and said that the Cubans had forced them to attend meetings on the glory of Communism twice a day. They would sound sirens across the island to tell the people that it was time for political instruction.\nRick recalls the dislike of the Grenadian for the Cubans. He told me:\nA couple of us were tasked to walk some Cuban prisoners up a jungle trail to the tactical operations center and we were accosted by a rather large Grenadian man with a big knife in his hand. He was crying and said the Cubans had raped both his daughters. We had to protect the Cubans and push him back with our weapons at port arms position. He said he had been in prison and prayed every night for the Americans to come.\nMany of the Grenadian troops took off their uniforms and ran away while others assisted us by telling us where the Cubans were hiding.\nPSYOP Mistakes\nWhat may be a minor PSYOP mistake is mentioned in Review of Psychological Operations Lessons Learned from Recent Operational Experience, Christopher J. Lamb, National Defense University Press, Washington, D.C., September 2005. The author mentions a\nUS\nposter that the enemy used to attack the American government:\nPSYOP often lacks an organized red-teaming effort to improve product quality and assist with damage limitation when effects go awry. PSYOP products can produce untoward effects among the target audiences but also may produce unintended blowback from domestic or international audiences. Operation Urgent Fury in\nGrenada\nprovides a classic example of a product that was effective in a local target audience but had unintended blowback elsewhere. In this operation, a photograph of a black New Jewel leader seated naked on a chair with only a towel draped across his lap and a white PSYOP soldier standing over him was disseminated as a poster across Grenada to demonstrate to the populace that they should no longer fear their former leaders. Although the photograph generated little negative reaction from the\nGrenada\n RESCUED FROM RAPE AND TORTURE\nThere is a rumor of an American black operation during the invasion of\nGrenada\n. According to the rumor, the Central Intelligence Agency prepared and airdropped a pro-American anti-Communist comic book over the\nIsland\nin an attempt to explain why the Americans had come. The following is what has been implied about this operation.\nA private comic book entrepreneur named Malcolm Ater founded Malcolm Ater Productions in\nNew York City\nin July 1946. By 1950, Malcolm Ater Productions was called Commercial Comics Inc., now based in\nWashington\n. Ater seems to have specialized in political comics, producing them for Senator Scott Lucas,\nConnecticut\nGovernor\nChester\nBowles, Senator Brien McMahon, Congressman Al Loveland and Arkansas Governor Sid McMath. Perhaps because of his independent stature and his location in the nations capitol, the CIA is alleged to have used him to produce a 14-page comic book for\nGrenada\n. Because this was a black operation, neither the CIA nor Commercial Comics appears anywhere in the book. It is alleged that Ater was paid $35,000 by the CIA for his work on the project.\nThe cover of the comic depicts Grenadians being murdered by communists, and then freed by Americans, and finally the joyous celebration of the Grenadian people for the American troops. The inside front cover states that the comic is a product of the Victims of International Communist Emissaries (V.O.I.C.E.) and the introduction is signed by A. C. Langdon, 1984. The story tells of Grenadian citizens held hostage in their own homes and later freed by the Americans, and features Antonio Langdon who was held a prisoner in a communist prison for four and one-half years. Langdon tells American reporters how the communists took over power in\nGrenada\n. The book ends with the American rescue and gives an address where Langdon can be reached.\nThe problem with this being a black CIA operation is that the invasion was in 1983 and the book clearly is dated 1984. In addition, it depicts the end of the invasion when that could not be known if the book was dropped during the invasion. It appears that this is clearly a privately produced post-invasion booklet. There seems no way this could be a black operation, but if anyone found these comic books on Grenada during or shortly after the invasion I would like to hear from them.\nA West Indian bibliography says:\nA\nGrenada\n; claims to have been shot and tortured by the communist forces.\nSo, perhaps the comic book was partially paid for by the CIA a year after the attack to explain the\nU.S.\ninvasion to Grenadians after the fact.\nEnemy Propaganda\nAnti-American Poster\nPSYOP was not only an American prerogative. The Soviets broadcast and published anti-American propaganda during the Grenada invasion. They wished to protect and defend their Cuban allies, busy building and protecting the big air field on Grenada. Colonel Frank L. Goldstein says in Psychological Operations, Air University Press, Maxwell AFB, AL, 1996:\nIn late 1983, the Soviet newspaper Izvestiya not only attacked the United states for invading Grenada but also accused US forces of using chemical weapons to poison some 2000 Grenadians, including women and children, and of recording their suffering and deaths on film. The gruesome fabrication, which was read by millions of Soviet citizens, further stated that the bodies were shipped back to the United States for additional study.\nThe author of that article was A. Kuvshinnikov. For a long time I tried to discover who A. Kuvshinnikov was or is, or whether it was a pseudonym. Then another article by A. Kuvshinnikov appeared in Izuestiya on 21 August 1987. This article was said to be from the\nUS\ncampuses.\n \nThey awoke to the sounds of airplanes flying overhead. When they went outside to see what was causing the commotion they noticed soldiers dug into the hills around their house. They heard gunfire and assumed that the American military was invading. Radio Free Grenada was broadcasting and telling the Grenadian people to fight to the death and protect their shores from the invaders. As the American troops were landing the Grenadian soldiers surrounded the student's house and an anti-aircraft gun was placed in the front yard.\nAfter some hours together, and the liberal sharing of a few bottles of Clarke's Court Rum and friendly conversation, the medical students convinced the soldiers to let them go to a neighbor's house in the dead of night.\nDr. Siegel found the young Grenadian soldiers to be very courteous and kind and believes that they were as terrified as the students were. The students heard some Spanish spoken, but do not know if there were Cubans among the soldiers. Upon returning to their house a day later they found discarded military uniforms and AK-47 rifles on the living room floor. Their luggage had been looted and it was clear that the deserting soldiers had decided that it was safer to be in civilian clothing.\nMedical Students with their Lockheed C-141 Starlifter\nRescue Aircraft\nOn the third day of the invasion the medical students located a patrol of American Airborne Rangers and were immediately escorted on foot to the\nSt. George's"
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What was Mother Teresa's real first name?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Mother Teresa (born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu; 26 August 1910 – 5 September 1997) also known as Blessed Teresa of Calcutta, MC,\"Blessed Mother Teresa\". (2007). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 July 2010. was an Albanian Roman Catholic nun and missionary. She was born in Skopje (modern Republic of Macedonia), then part of the Kosovo Vilayet in the Ottoman Empire. After having lived in Macedonia for eighteen years, she moved to Ireland and then to India, where she lived for most of her life.\n\nMother Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic religious congregation, which in 2012 consisted of over 4,500 sisters and was active in 133 countries. They run hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis; soup kitchens; dispensaries and mobile clinics; children's and family counselling programmes; orphanages; and schools. Members must adhere to the vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, as well as a fourth vow, to give \"wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor\". \n\nMother Teresa was the recipient of numerous honours, including the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. On 19 October 2003, she was beatified as \"Blessed Teresa of Calcutta\". A second miracle was credited to her intercession by Pope Francis, in December 2015, paving the way for her to be recognised as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church. Her canonisation is scheduled for 4 September 2016.\n\nA controversial figure both during her life and after her death, Mother Teresa was widely admired by many for her charitable works. She was both praised and criticised for her anti-abortion views. She also received criticism for conditions in the hospices she ran. Loudon, Mary. (1996)The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice, Book Review, BMJ vol. 312, no. 7022, 6 January 2006, pp.64–5. Retrieved 2 August 2007. See also Her authorised biography was written by Indian civil servant Navin Chawla and published in 1992.\n\nEarly life\n\nMother Teresa was born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu (; gonxhe meaning \"rosebud\" or \"little flower\" in Albanian) on 26 August 1910 into a Kosovar Albanian family. She considered 27 August, the day she was baptised, to be her \"true birthday\".(2002) \"Mother Teresa of Calcutta (1910–1997)\". Vatican News Service. Retrieved 30 May 2007. Her birthplace of Skopje, now capital of the Republic of Macedonia, was part of the Ottoman Empire at the time of her birth in 1910. \n\nShe was the youngest of the children of Nikollë and Dranafile Bojaxhiu (Bernai). Her father, who was involved in the politics of the Albanian community in Macedonia, died in 1919 when she was eight years old. Her father may have been from Prizren, Kosovo, while her mother may have been from a village near Gjakova. \n\nAccording to a biography written by Joan Graff Clucas, in her early years Agnes was fascinated by stories of the lives of missionaries and their service in Bengal, and by age 12 had become convinced that she should commit herself to a religious life. Her final resolution was taken on 15 August 1928, while praying at the shrine of the Black Madonna of Vitina-Letnice, where she often went on pilgrimage. \n\nAgnes left home in 1928 at the age of 18 to join the Sisters of Loreto at Loreto Abbey in Rathfarnham, Ireland to learn English, with a view to becoming a missionary. English was the language the Sisters of Loreto used to teach schoolchildren in India. She never again saw her mother or her sister. Her family continued to live in Skopje until 1934, when they moved to Tirana in Albania. \n\nShe arrived in India in 1929, and began her novitiate in Darjeeling, near the Himalayan mountains, where she learnt Bengali and taught at St. Teresa's School, a schoolhouse close to her convent. She took her first religious vows as a nun on 24 May 1931. At that time she chose to be named after Thérèse de Lisieux, the patron saint of missionaries, but because one nun in the convent had already chosen that name, Agnes opted for the Spanish spelling of Teresa. \n\nShe took her solemn vows on 14 May 1937, while serving as a teacher at the Loreto convent school in Entally, eastern Calcutta. Teresa served there for almost twenty years and in 1944 was appointed headmistress. \n\nAlthough Teresa enjoyed teaching at the school, she was increasingly disturbed by the poverty surrounding her in Calcutta. \nThe Bengal famine of 1943 brought misery and death to the city; and the outbreak of Hindu/Muslim violence in August 1946 plunged the city into despair and horror. \n\nMissionaries of Charity\n\nOn 10 September 1946, Teresa experienced what she later described as \"the call within the call\" while travelling by train to the Loreto convent in Darjeeling from Calcutta for her annual retreat. \"I was to leave the convent and help the poor while living among them. It was an order. To fail would have been to break the faith.\" One author later observed, \"Though no one knew it at the time, Sister Teresa had just become Mother Teresa\". \n\nShe began her missionary work with the poor in 1948, replacing her traditional Loreto habit with a simple white cotton sari decorated with a blue border. Mother Teresa adopted Indian citizenship, spent a few months in Patna to receive a basic medical training in the Holy Family Hospital and then ventured out into the slums. Initially, she started a school in Motijhil (Calcutta); soon she started tending to the needs of the destitute and starving. In the beginning of 1949, she was joined in her effort by a group of young women and laid the foundations of a new religious community helping the \"poorest among the poor\".\n\nHer efforts quickly caught the attention of Indian officials, including the prime minister, who expressed his appreciation. \n\nTeresa wrote in her diary that her first year was fraught with difficulties. She had no income and had to resort to begging for food and supplies. Teresa experienced doubt, loneliness and the temptation to return to the comfort of convent life during these early months. She wrote in her diary:\n\nTeresa received Vatican permission on 7 October 1950 to start the diocesan congregation that would become the Missionaries of Charity. Its mission was to care for, in her own words, \"the hungry, the naked, the homeless, the crippled, the blind, the lepers, all those people who feel unwanted, unloved, uncared for throughout society, people that have become a burden to the society and are shunned by everyone.\"\n\nIt began as a small congregation with 13 members in Calcutta; by 1997 it had grown to more than 4,000 sisters running orphanages, AIDS hospices and charity centres worldwide, and caring for refugees, the blind, disabled, aged, alcoholics, the poor and homeless, and victims of floods, epidemics, and famine. \n\nIn 1952, Mother Teresa opened the first Home for the Dying in space made available by the city of Calcutta. With the help of Indian officials she converted an abandoned Hindu temple into the Kalighat Home for the Dying, a free hospice for the poor. She renamed it Kalighat, the Home of the Pure Heart (Nirmal Hriday). Those brought to the home received medical attention and were afforded the opportunity to die with dignity, according to the rituals of their faith; Muslims were read the Quran, Hindus received water from the Ganges, and Catholics received the Last Rites.Spink, Kathryn (1997). Mother Teresa: A Complete Authorized Biography. New York. HarperCollins, p.55. ISBN 0-06-250825-3. \"A beautiful death,\" she said, \"is for people who lived like animals to die like angels—loved and wanted.\"\n\nMother Teresa soon opened a home for those suffering from Hansen's disease, commonly known as leprosy, and called the hospice Shanti Nagar (City of Peace). The Missionaries of Charity also established several leprosy outreach clinics throughout Calcutta, providing medication, bandages and food. \n\nAs the Missionaries of Charity took in increasing numbers of lost children, Mother Teresa felt the need to create a home for them. In 1955 she opened the Nirmala Shishu Bhavan, the Children's Home of the Immaculate Heart, as a haven for orphans and homeless youth. \n\nThe congregation soon began to attract both recruits and charitable donations, and by the 1960s had opened hospices, orphanages and leper houses all over India. Mother Teresa then expanded the congregation throughout the globe. Its first house outside India opened in Venezuela in 1965 with five sisters. Others followed in Rome, Tanzania, and Austria in 1968; during the 1970s the congregation opened houses and foundations in dozens of countries in Asia, Africa, Europe and the United States. \n\nThe Missionaries of Charity Brothers was founded in 1963, and a contemplative branch of the Sisters followed in 1976. Lay Catholics and non-Catholics were enrolled in the Co-Workers of Mother Teresa, the Sick and Suffering Co-Workers, and the Lay Missionaries of Charity. In answer to the requests of many priests, in 1981 Mother Teresa also began the Corpus Christi Movement for Priests, and in 1984 founded with Fr. Joseph Langford the Missionaries of Charity Fathers to combine the vocational aims of the Missionaries of Charity with the resources of the ministerial priesthood. By 2007 the Missionaries of Charity numbered approximately 450 brothers and 5,000 sisters worldwide, operating 600 missions, schools and shelters in 120 countries. \n\nInternational charity\n\nMother Teresa said \"By blood, I am Albanian. By citizenship, an Indian. By faith, I am a Catholic nun. As to my calling, I belong to the world. As to my heart, I belong entirely to the Heart of Jesus.\"\n\nIn 1982, at the height of the Siege of Beirut, Mother Teresa rescued 37 children trapped in a front line hospital by brokering a temporary cease-fire between the Israeli army and Palestinian guerrillas. Accompanied by Red Cross workers, she travelled through the war zone to the devastated hospital to evacuate the young patients. \n\nWhen Eastern Europe experienced increased openness in the late 1980s, she expanded her efforts to Communist countries that had previously rejected the Missionaries of Charity, embarking on dozens of projects. She was undeterred by criticism about her firm stand against abortion and divorce stating, \"No matter who says what, you should accept it with a smile and do your own work.\" She visited the Soviet republic of Armenia following the 1988 earthquake, and met with Nikolai Ryzhkov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers. \n\nMother Teresa travelled to assist and minister to the hungry in Ethiopia, radiation victims at Chernobyl, and earthquake victims in Armenia. In 1991, Mother Teresa returned for the first time to her homeland and opened a Missionaries of Charity Brothers home in Tirana, Albania.\n\nBy 1996, Mother Teresa was operating 517 missions in more than 100 countries. Over the years, Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity grew from twelve to thousands serving the \"poorest of the poor\" in 450 centres around the world. The first Missionaries of Charity home in the United States was established in the South Bronx, New York; by 1984 the congregation operated 19 establishments throughout the country. Mother Teresa was fluent in five languages: Bengali, Albanian, Serbian, English, and Hindi. \n\nDeclining health and death\n\nMother Teresa suffered a heart attack in Rome in 1983 while visiting Pope John Paul II. After a second attack in 1989, she received an artificial pacemaker. In 1991, after having pneumonia while in Mexico, she suffered further heart problems. She offered to resign her position as head of the Missionaries of Charity, but the sisters of the congregation, in a secret ballot, voted for her to stay. Mother Teresa agreed to continue her work as head of the congregation. \n\nIn April 1996, Mother Teresa fell and broke her collar bone. In August she suffered from malaria and failure of the left heart ventricle. She had heart surgery but it was clear that her health was declining. The Archbishop of Calcutta, Henry Sebastian D'Souza, said he ordered a priest to perform an exorcism on Mother Teresa with her permission when she was first hospitalised with cardiac problems because he thought she may be under attack by the devil. \n\nChristopher Hitchens accused her of hypocrisy for opting to receive advanced treatment for her heart condition. \n\nOn 13 March 1997, she stepped down from the head of Missionaries of Charity. She died on 5 September 1997. \n\nAt the time of her death, Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity had over 4,000 sisters, and an associated brotherhood of 300 members, operating 610 missions in 123 countries. These included hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis, soup kitchens, children's and family counselling programmes, personal helpers, orphanages and schools. The Missionaries of Charity were also aided by co-workers, who numbered over 1 million by the 1990s. \n\nMother Teresa lay in repose in St Thomas, Calcutta, for one week prior to her funeral in September 1997. She was granted a state funeral by the Indian government in gratitude for her services to the poor of all religions in India. Her death was mourned in both secular and religious communities. In tribute, Nawaz Sharif, the Prime Minister of Pakistan, said that she was \"a rare and unique individual who lived long for higher purposes. Her life-long devotion to the care of the poor, the sick, and the disadvantaged was one of the highest examples of service to our humanity.\" A former U.N. Secretary-General, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, said that \"She is the United Nations. She is peace in the world.\"[http://www.christianmemorials.com/tributes/mother-teresa-of-calcutta/ Online Memorial Tribute to Mother Teresa]\n\nRecognition and reception\n\nIn India\n\nMother Teresa had first been recognised by the Indian government more than a third of a century earlier when she was awarded the Padma Shri in 1962 and the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in 1969. She continued to receive major Indian awards in subsequent years, including India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna, in 1980. Her official biography was written by an Indian civil servant, Navin Chawla, and published in 1992. \n\nOn 28 August 2010, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of her birth, the government of India issued a special 5 Rupee coin, being the sum she first arrived in India with. President Pratibha Patil said of Mother Teresa, \"Clad in a white sari with a blue border, she and the sisters of Missionaries of Charity became a symbol of hope to many – the aged, the destitute, the unemployed, the diseased, the terminally ill, and those abandoned by their families.\" \n\nIndian views on Mother Teresa were not uniformly favourable. Aroup Chatterjee, who was born and raised in Calcutta but lived in London, reports that \"she was not a significant entity in Calcutta in her lifetime\". Chatterjee blames Mother Teresa for promoting a negative image of Calcutta, exaggerating the work done by her Mission, and misusing the funds and privileges at her disposal.Chatterjee, Aroup, Introduction to The Final Verdict\n\nHer presence and profile grated in parts of the Indian political world, as she often opposed the Hindu Right. The Bharatiya Janata Party clashed with her over the Christian Dalits (\"untouchables\"), but praised her in death, sending a representative to her funeral. The Vishwa Hindu Parishad, on the other hand, opposed the government's decision to grant her a state funeral. Its secretary Giriraj Kishore said that \"her first duty was to the Church and social service was incidental\" and accused her of favouring Christians and conducting \"secret baptisms\" of the dying. In its front page tribute, the Indian fortnightly Frontline dismissed these charges as \"patently false\" and said that they had \"made no impact on the public perception of her work, especially in Calcutta\". Although praising her \"selfless caring\", energy and bravery, the author of the tribute was critical of Mother Teresa's public campaigning against abortion and that she claimed to be non-political when doing so.Parvathi Menon Cover story: A life of selfless caring, Frontline, Vol.14 :: No. 19 :: 20 September–3 October 1997\n\nIn February 2015, Mohan Bhagwat, leader of the Hindu right-wing organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, said that her objective was \"to convert the person, who was being served, into a Christian\" Former RSS spokesperson MG Vaidhya backed Bhagwat's remarks. The party accused the media of \"distorting facts about Bhagwat's remarks\". Trinamool Congress MP Derek O'Brien, CPI leader Atul Anjan and Delhi's chief minister Arvind Kejriwal protested against the remarks. \n\nIn the rest of the world\n\nIn 1962, Mother Teresa received the Philippines-based Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding, given for work in South or East Asia. The citation said that \"the Board of Trustees recognises her merciful cognisance of the abject poor of a foreign land, in whose service she has led a new congregation\". By the early 1970s, Mother Teresa had become an international celebrity. Her fame can be in large part attributed to the 1969 documentary Something Beautiful for God, which was filmed by Malcolm Muggeridge and his 1971 book of the same title. Muggeridge was undergoing a spiritual journey of his own at the time. During the filming of the documentary, footage taken in poor lighting conditions, particularly the Home for the Dying, was thought unlikely to be of usable quality by the crew. After returning from India, however, the footage was found to be extremely well lit. Muggeridge claimed this was a miracle of \"divine light\" from Mother Teresa herself. Others in the crew said it was due to a new type of ultra-sensitive Kodak film. Muggeridge later converted to Catholicism.\n\nAround this time, the Catholic world began to honour Mother Teresa publicly. In 1971, Paul VI awarded her the first Pope John XXIII Peace Prize, commending her for her work with the poor, display of Christian charity and efforts for peace. She later received the Pacem in Terris Award (1976). Since her death, Mother Teresa has progressed rapidly along the steps towards sainthood, currently having reached the stage of having been beatified.\n\nMother Teresa was honoured by both governments and civilian organisations. She was appointed an honorary Companion of the Order of Australia in 1982, \"for service to the community of Australia and humanity at large.\" The United Kingdom and the United States each repeatedly granted awards, culminating in the Order of Merit in 1983, and honorary citizenship of the United States received on 16 November 1996. Mother Teresa's Albanian homeland granted her the Golden Honour of the Nation in 1994. Her acceptance of this and the Haitian Legion of Honour proved controversial. Mother Teresa attracted criticism from a number of people for implicitly giving support to the Duvaliers and to corrupt businessmen such as Charles Keating and Robert Maxwell. In Keating's case she wrote to the judge of his trial asking for clemency to be shown.\n\nUniversities in both the West and in India granted her honorary degrees. Other civilian awards include the Balzan Prize for promoting humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples (1978), and the Albert Schweitzer International Prize (1975). In April 1976, Mother Teresa visited the University of Scranton in northeastern Pennsylvania where she was awarded the La Storta Medal for Human Service by the university’s president, William Byron, S.J. While there, she also addressed a crowd of 4,500 people. In her speech, she called the audience to \"know poor people in your own home and local neighborhood\", whether it meant feeding others or simply spreading joy and love. She continued, stating that \"the poor will help us grow in sanctity, for they are Christ in the guise of distress,\" calling the students and residents of the city of Scranton to give to suffering members in their community. Again, in August 1987, Mother Teresa visited the University of Scranton and was awarded an honorary doctor of social science degree in recognition of her selfless service and her ministry to help the destitute and sick. She also spoke to the students as well as members of the Diocese of Scranton, numbering over 4000 individuals, telling them about her service to the \"poorest of the poor\" and instructing them to \"do small things with great love.\" \n\nIn 1979, Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, \"for work undertaken in the struggle to overcome poverty and distress, which also constitutes a threat to peace.\" She refused the conventional ceremonial banquet given to laureates, and asked that the $192,000 funds be given to the poor in India, stating that earthly rewards were important only if they helped her help the world's needy. When Mother Teresa received the prize, she was asked, \"What can we do to promote world peace?\" She answered \"Go home and love your family.\" Building on this theme in her Nobel Lecture, she said: \"Around the world, not only in the poor countries, but I found the poverty of the West so much more difficult to remove. When I pick up a person from the street, hungry, I give him a plate of rice, a piece of bread, I have satisfied. I have removed that hunger. But a person that is shut out, that feels unwanted, unloved, terrified, the person that has been thrown out from society—that poverty is so hurtable [sic] and so much, and I find that very difficult.\" She also singled out abortion as \"the greatest destroyer of peace today. Because if a mother can kill her own child – what is left for me to kill you and you kill me – there is nothing between.\" \n\nAfter the award of the Nobel Peace Prize Teresa was criticised for promoting the Catholic Church's moral teachings on abortion and contraception, which some felt diverted funds from more effective methods of solving India's problems. At the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, Teresa stated \"Yet we can destroy this gift of motherhood, especially by the evil of abortion, but also by thinking that other things like jobs or positions are more important than loving.\" \n\nDuring her life, Mother Teresa was named 18 times in the yearly Gallup's most admired man and woman poll as one of the 10 women around the world who Americans admired most, finishing first several times in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1999, a poll of Americans ranked her first in Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. In that survey, she out-polled all other volunteered answers by a wide margin, and was in first place in all major demographic categories except the very young. \n\nCriticism \n\nSuffering \n\nMother Teresa believed suffering – even when caused by poverty, medical problems, or starvation – was a gift from God. As a result, while her clinics received millions of dollars in donations, their conditions drew criticism from people disturbed by the shortage of medical care, systematic diagnosis, and necessary nutrition, as well as the scarcity of analgesics for those in pain. Some have argued that the additional money could have had transformative effects on the health of the poor by creating advanced palliative care facilities in the city. Pro-choice groups criticised her stance on abortion, while pro-life advocates praised her support of fetal rights. \n\nChristopher Hitchens \n\nOne of Mother Teresa's most outspoken critics was the English journalist and literary critic Christopher Hitchens, who wrote the extended essay The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice (1995) and wrote in a 2003 article, \"This returns us to the medieval corruption of the church, which sold indulgences to the rich while preaching hellfire and continence to the poor. [Mother Teresa] was not a friend of the poor. She was a friend of poverty. She said that suffering was a gift from God. She spent her life opposing the only known cure for poverty, which is the empowerment of women and the emancipation of them from a livestock version of compulsory reproduction.\" \n\nSpiritual life\n\nAnalysing her deeds and achievements, John Paul II asked: \"Where did Mother Teresa find the strength and perseverance to place herself completely at the service of others? She found it in prayer and in the silent contemplation of Jesus Christ, his Holy Face, his Sacred Heart.\" Privately, Mother Teresa experienced doubts and struggles over her religious beliefs which lasted nearly 50 years until the end of her life, during which \"she felt no presence of God whatsoever\", \"neither in her heart or in the eucharist\" as put by her postulator, the Rev. Brian Kolodiejchuk. Mother Teresa expressed grave doubts about God's existence and pain over her lack of faith: \n\nWith reference to the above words, the Rev. Brian Kolodiejchuk, her postulator (the official responsible for gathering the evidence for her sanctification) said he thought that some might misinterpret her meaning, but her faith that God was working through her remained undiminished, and that while she pined for the lost sentiment of closeness with God, she did not question his existence.[http://www.beliefnet.com/story/223/story_22353_1.html New Book Reveals Mother Teresa's Struggle with Faith] Beliefnet, AP 2007 and that she may have experienced something similar to what is believed of Jesus Christ when crucified who was heard to say \"Eli Eli lama sabachthani?\" which is translated to \"My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?\" Brian Kolodiejchuk, drew comparisons to the 16th century mystic St. John of the Cross, who coined the term the \"Dark Night of the Soul\". Many other saints had similar experiences of spiritual dryness, or what Catholics believe to be spiritual tests (\"passive purifications\"), such as Mother Teresa's namesake, St. Therese of Lisieux, who called it a \"night of nothingness.\" The Rev. James Langford said these doubts were typical and would not be an impediment to canonisation.\n\nMother Teresa described, after ten years of doubt, a short period of renewed faith. At the time of the death of Pope Pius XII in 1958, praying for him at a Requiem Mass, she said she had been relieved of \"the long darkness: that strange suffering.\" However, five weeks later, she described returning to her difficulties in believing.\n\nMother Teresa wrote many letters to her confessors and superiors over a 66-year period, most notably to Calcutta Archbishop Ferdinand Perier and a Jesuit priest, Celeste van Exem, who had been her spiritual advisor since the formation of the Missionaries of Charity. She had asked that her letters be destroyed, concerned that \"people will think more of me—less of Jesus.\" \nDespite this request, the correspondences have been compiled in Mother Teresa: Come Be My Light (Doubleday). In one publicly released letter to a spiritual confidant, the Rev. Michael van der Peet, she wrote, \"Jesus has a very special love for you. [But] as for me, the silence and the emptiness is so great, that I look and do not see,—Listen and do not hear—the tongue moves [in prayer] but does not speak ... I want you to pray for me—that I let Him have [a] free hand.\"\n\nIn his first encyclical Deus caritas est, Benedict XVI mentioned Teresa of Calcutta three times and he also used her life to clarify one of his main points of the encyclical. \"In the example of Blessed Teresa of Calcutta we have a clear illustration of the fact that time devoted to God in prayer not only does not detract from effective and loving service to our neighbour but is in fact the inexhaustible source of that service.\" Mother Teresa specified that \"It is only by mental prayer and spiritual reading that we can cultivate the gift of prayer.\" \n\nAlthough there was no direct connection between Mother Teresa's order and the Franciscan orders, she was known as a great admirer of St. Francis of Assisi.\"Mother Teresa of Calcutta Pays Tribute to St. Francis of Assisi\" on the American Catholic website. Retrieved 30 May 2007. Accordingly, her influence and life show influences of Franciscan spirituality. The Sisters of Charity recite the peace prayer of St. Francis every morning during thanksgiving after Communion and many of the vows and emphasis of her ministry are similar. St. Francis emphasised poverty, chastity, obedience and submission to Christ. He also devoted much of his own life to service of the poor, especially lepers in the area where he lived.\n\nSainthood\n\nMiracle and beatification\n\nAfter Mother Teresa's death in 1997, the Holy See began the process of beatification, the third step toward possible canonisation. This process requires the documentation of a miracle performed from the intercession of Mother Teresa. \n\nIn 2002, the Vatican recognised as a miracle the healing of a tumour in the abdomen of an Indian woman, Monica Besra, after the application of a locket containing Mother Teresa's picture. Besra said that a beam of light emanated from the picture, curing the cancerous tumour. Some of Besra's medical staff and Besra's husband said that conventional medical treatment had eradicated the tumour. Dr. Ranjan Mustafi, who told The New York Times he had treated Besra, said that the cyst was not cancer at all but a cyst caused by tuberculosis. He said, \"It was not a miracle.... She took medicines for nine months to one year.\" According to Besra's husband, \"My wife was cured by the doctors and not by any miracle.\" Besra's medical records contain sonograms, prescriptions, and physicians' notes and could provide evidence on whether the cure was a miracle or not. Besra has claimed that Sister Betta of the Missionaries of Charity is withholding them. The officials at the Balurghat Hospital where Besra was seeking medical treatment have claimed that they are being pressured by the Catholic order to declare the cure a miracle.\n\nChristopher Hitchens was the only witness as far as he knew, called by the Vatican to give evidence against Mother Teresa's beatification and canonisation process,[http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section\nlibrary&pagehitchens_24_2 \"Less than Miraculous\"] by Christopher Hitchens, Free Inquiry 24(2), February/March 2004. because the Vatican had abolished the traditional \"devil's advocate\" role, which fulfilled a similar purpose.Hitchens, Christopher (6 January 1996). \"Less than Miraculous\". Free Inquiry Magazine. Volume 24, Number 2. Hitchens has argued that \"her intention was not to help people,\" and he alleged that she lied to donors about the use of their contributions. \"It was by talking to her that I discovered, and she assured me, that she wasn't working to alleviate poverty,\" says Hitchens. \"She was working to expand the number of Catholics. She said, 'I'm not a social worker. I don't do it for this reason. I do it for Christ. I do it for the church.'\" \n\nIn the process of examining Teresa's suitability for beatification and canonisation, the Roman Curia (the Vatican) studied a great deal of published and unpublished criticism of her life and work. Concerning allegations raised by journalist Christopher Hitchens, Vatican officials have responded by saying that these have been investigated by the agency charged with such matters, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints, and that they found no obstacle to Mother Teresa's beatification. Because of the attacks she has received, some Catholic writers have called her a sign of contradiction. Mother Teresa was beatified 19 October 2003, thereby bestowing on her the title \"Blessed.\" \n\nCanonisation\n\nOn 17 December 2015, the Vatican confirmed that Pope Francis recognised a second miracle attributed to her involving the healing of a Brazilian man with multiple brain tumors. The Vatican has scheduled 4 September 2016 as the canonisation date for Teresa.\n\nLegacy and depictions in popular culture\n\nCommemoration\n\nMother Teresa inspired a variety of commemorations. She has been memorialised through museums, been named patroness of various churches, and had various structures and roads named after her, including Albania's international airport. Mother Teresa Day (Dita e Nënë Terezës) on 19 October is a public holiday in Albania. In 2009 the Memorial House of Mother Teresa was opened in her hometown Skopje, in Macedonia. The Roman Catholic cathedral in Pristina is also dedicated in her honour. Its construction sparked controversy in Muslim circles in 2011; local Muslim leaders claimed that the cathedral was too large for Pristina's small Catholic community and complained that most Muslim places of worship in the city were far smaller. An initiative to erect a monument to Mother Teresa in the town of Peć that same year was also protested by some Albanian Muslims. A youth group calling itself the Muslim Youth Forum started a petition demanding that a monument to Albanian veterans of the Kosovo War be erected instead, and collected some 2,000 signatures by May 2011. The Muslim Youth Forum claimed that the building of a Mother Teresa monument would represent an insult to the town's Muslim community, which makes up about 98 percent of the population. Noli Zhita, the group's spokesperson, claimed that Mother Teresa was not an Albanian but a Vlach from Macedonia. He described the monument's planned construction as part of a plot to \"Christianise\" Kosovo. The Mayor of Peć, Ali Berisha, voiced support for the monument's construction and indicated that the head of the Islamic community in the town had not raised any objections. \n\nMother Teresa Women's University, Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, has been established in 1984 as a public university by government of Tamil Nadu, India.\n\nMother Theresa Post Graduate and Research Institute of Health Sciences, Pondicherry has been established in 1999 by Government of Puducherry, India.\n\nThe charitable organisation Sevalaya runs the Mother Teresa Girls Home, named in her honour and designed to provide poor and orphan girls children in the vicinity of the underserved Kasuva village in Tamil Nadu with free food, clothing, shelter, and education. \n\nVarious tributes have been published in Indian newspapers and magazines written by her biographer, Navin Chawla. \n\nIndian Railways introduced a new train, \"Mother Express\", named after Mother Teresa, on 26 August 2010 to mark her birth centenary. \n\nThe Tamil Nadu State government organised centenary celebrations of Mother Teresa on 4 December 2010 in Chennai, headed by Tamil Nadu chief minister M Karunanidhi. \n\nBeginning 5 September 2013, the anniversary of her death has been designated as the International Day of Charity by the United Nations General Assembly. \n\nFilm and literature\n\nDocumentaries\n\n* Mother Teresa is the subject of the 1969 documentary film and 1972 book Something Beautiful for God by Malcolm Muggeridge. This film is often credited with having called the Western world's attention to Mother Teresa.\n* Christopher Hitchens' 1994 documentary about her, Hell's Angel, claims that she urged the poor to accept their fate, while the rich are portrayed as being favoured by God. It had a tie-in book entitled The Missionary Position : Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice.\n\nDrama films or television\n\n* Actress Geraldine Chaplin played Mother Teresa in Mother Teresa: In the Name of God's Poor which won an 1997 Art Film Festival award. \n* Mother Teresa was played by Olivia Hussey in a 2003 Italian television miniseries titled Mother Teresa of Calcutta. This was re-released in 2007 and received a CAMIE award.\n* Mother Teresa was played by Juliet Stevenson in the 2014 film The Letters which is heavily based on her letters to Vatican priest Celeste van Exem.\n\nSatire\n\n* In a satirical film-within-a-film, Teresa was portrayed by Megan Fox in the 2007 movie How to Lose Friends & Alienate People."
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"Mother Teresa - The Saint of the Gutters\nMother Teresa\nA Biography About Mother Teresa, the Saint of the Gutters\nKeystone / Staff / Hulton Archive / Getty Images\nUpdated February 17, 2016.\nWho Was Mother Teresa?\nMother Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity, a Catholic order of nuns dedicated to helping the poor. Begun in Calcutta, India, the Missionaries of Charity grew to help the poor, the dying, orphans, lepers, and AIDS sufferers in over 100 countries. Mother Teresa's selfless effort to help those in need has caused many to regard her as a model humanitarian.\nDates: August 26, 1910 -- September 5, 1997\nMother Teresa Also Known As: Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu (birth name), \"the Saint of the Gutters\"\nOverview of Mother Teresa\nMother Teresa's task was overwhelming. She started out as just one woman, with no money and no supplies, trying to help the millions of poor, starving, and dying that lived on the streets of India. Despite others' misgivings, Mother Teresa was confident that God would provide.\nBirth and Childhood\nAgnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu, now known as Mother Teresa, was the third and final child born to her Albanian Catholic parents, Nikola and Dranafile Bojaxhiu, in the city of Skopje (a predominantly Muslim city in the Balkans).\ncontinue reading below our video\nTest Your General Science Knowledge\nNikola was a self-made, successful businessman and Dranafile stayed home to take care of the children.\nWhen Mother Teresa was about eight years old, her father died unexpectedly. The Bojaxhiu family was devastated. After a period of intense grief, Dranafile, suddenly a single mother of three children, sold textiles and hand-made embroidery to bring in some income.\nThe Call\nBoth before Nikola's death and especially after it, the Bojaxhiu family held tightly to their religious beliefs. The family prayed daily and went on pilgrimages annually.\nWhen Mother Teresa was 12 years old, she began to feel called to serve God as a nun. Deciding to become a nun was a very difficult decision. Becoming a nun not only meant giving up the chance to marry and have children, it also meant giving up all her worldly possessions and her family, perhaps forever.\nFor five years, Mother Teresa thought hard about whether or not to become a nun. During this time, she sang in the church choir, helped her mother organize church events, and went on walks with her mother to hand out food and supplies to the poor.\nWhen Mother Teresa was 17, she made the difficult decision to become a nun. Having read many articles about the work Catholic missionaries were doing in India, Mother Teresa was determined to go there. Mother Teresa applied to the Loreto order of nuns, based in Ireland but with missions in India.\nIn September 1928, 18-year-old Mother Teresa said goodbye to her family to travel to Ireland and then on to India. She never saw her mother or sister again.\nBecoming a Nun\nIt took more than two years to become a Loreto nun. After spending six weeks in Ireland learning the history of the Loreto order and to study English, Mother Teresa then traveled to India, where she arrived on January 6, 1929.\nAfter two years as a novice, Mother Teresa took her first vows as a Loreto nun on May 24, 1931.\nAs a new Loreto nun, Mother Teresa (known then only as Sister Teresa, a name she chose after St. Teresa of Lisieux) settled in to the Loreto Entally convent in Kolkata (previously called Calcutta ) and began teaching history and geography at the convent schools.\nUsually, Loreto nuns were not allowed to leave the convent; however, in 1935, 25-year-old Mother Teresa was given a special exemption to teach at a school outside of the convent, St. Teresa's. After two years at St. Teresa's, Mother Teresa took her final vows on May 24, 1937 and officially became \"Mother Teresa.\"\nAlmost immediately after taking her final vows, Mother Teresa became the principal of St. Mary's, one of the convent schools and was once again restricted to live within the convent's walls.\n\"A Call Within a Call\"\nFor nine years, Mother Teresa continued as the principal of St. Mary's. Then on September 10, 1946, a day now annually celebrated as \"Inspiration Day,\" Mother Teresa received what she described as a \"call within a call.\"\nShe had been traveling on a train to Darjeeling when she received an \"inspiration,\" a message that told her to leave the convent and help the poor by living among them.\nFor two years Mother Teresa patiently petitioned her superiors for permission to leave the convent in order to follow her call. It was a long and frustrating process.\nTo her superiors, it seemed dangerous and futile to send a single woman out into the slums of Kolkata. However, in the end, Mother Teresa was granted permission to leave the convent for one year to help the poorest of the poor.\nIn preparation for leaving the convent, Mother Teresa purchased three cheap, white, cotton saris, each one lined with three blue stripes along its edge. (This later became the uniform for the nuns at Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity.)\nAfter 20 years with the Loreto order, Mother Teresa left the convent on August 16, 1948.\nRather than going directly to the slums, Mother Teresa first spent several weeks in Patna with the Medical Mission Sisters to obtain some basic medical knowledge. Having learned the basics, 38-year-old Mother Teresa felt ready to venture out into the slums of Calcutta, India in December of 1948.\nFounding the Missionaries of Charity\nMother Teresa started with what she knew. After walking around the slums for a while, she found some small children and began to teach them. She had no classroom, no desks, no chalkboard, and no paper, so she picked up a stick and began drawing letters in the dirt. Class had begun.\nSoon after, Mother Teresa found a small hut that she rented and turned it into a classroom. Mother Teresa also visited the children's families and others in the area, offering a smile and limited medical help. As people began to hear about her work, they gave donations.\nIn March 1949, Mother Teresa was joined by her first helper, a former pupil from Loreto. Soon she had ten former pupils helping her.\nAt the end of Mother Teresa's provisionary year, she petitioned to form her own order of nuns, the Missionaries of Charity. Her request was granted by Pope Pius XII ; the Missionaries of Charity was established on October 7, 1950.\nHelping the Sick, the Dying, the Orphaned, and the Lepers\nThere were literally millions of people in need in India. Droughts, the caste system , India's independence, and partition all contributed to the masses of people that lived on the streets. India's government was trying, but they could not handle the overwhelming multitudes that needed help.\nWhile the hospitals were overflowing with patients that had a chance to survive, Mother Teresa opened a home for the dying, called Nirmal Hriday (\"Place of the Immaculate Heart\"), on August 22, 1952.\nEach day, nuns would walk through the streets and bring people who were dying to Nirmal Hriday, located in a building donated by the city of Kolkata. The nuns would bathe and feed these people and then place them in a cot. These people were given the opportunity to die with dignity, with the rituals of their faith.\nIn 1955, the Missionaries of Charity opened their first children's home (Shishu Bhavan), which cared for orphans. These children were housed and fed and given medical aid. When possible, the children were adopted out. Those not adopted were given an education, learned a trade skill, and found marriages.\nIn India's slums, huge numbers of people were infected with leprosy , a disease that can lead to major disfiguration. At the time, lepers (people infected with leprosy) were ostracized, often abandoned by their families. Because of the widespread fear of lepers, Mother Teresa struggled to find a way to help these neglected people.\nMother Teresa eventually created a Leprosy Fund and a Leprosy Day to help educate the public about the disease and established a number of mobile leper clinics (the first opened in September 1957) to provide lepers with medicine and bandages near their homes.\nBy the mid-1960s, Mother Teresa had established a leper colony called Shanti Nagar (\"The Place of Peace\") where lepers could live and work.\nInternational Recognition\nJust before the Missionaries of Charity celebrated its 10th anniversary, they were given permission to establish houses outside of Calcutta, but still within India. Almost immediately, houses were established in Delhi, Ranchi, and Jhansi; more soon followed.\nFor their 15th anniversary, the Missionaries of Charity was given permission to establish houses outside of India. The first house was established in Venezuela in 1965. Soon there were Missionaries of Charity houses all around the world.\nAs Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity expanded at an amazing rate, so did international recognition for her work. Although Mother Teresa was awarded numerous honors, including the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 , she never took personal credit for her accomplishments. She said it was God's work and that she was just the tool used to facilitate it.\nControversy\nWith international recognition also came critique. Some people complained that the houses for the sick and dying were not sanitary, that those treating the sick were not properly trained in medicine, that Mother Teresa was more interested in helping the dying go to God than in potentially helping cure them. Others claimed that she helped people just so she could convert them to Christianity.\nMother Teresa also caused much controversy when she openly spoke against abortion and birth control. Others critiqued her because they believed that with her new celebrity status, she could have worked to end the poverty rather than soften its symptoms.\nOld and Frail\nDespite the controversy, Mother Teresa continued to be an advocate for those in need. In the 1980s, Mother Teresa, already in her 70s, opened Gift of Love homes in New York, San Francisco, Denver, and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia for AIDS sufferers.\nThroughout the 1980s and into the 1990s, Mother Teresa's health deteriorated, but she still traveled the world, spreading her message.\nWhen Mother Teresa, age 87, died of heart failure on September 5, 1997 (just five days after Princess Diana ), the world mourned her passing. Hundreds of thousands of people lined the streets to see her body, while millions more watched her state funeral on television.\nAfter the funeral, Mother Teresa's body was laid to rest at the Mother House of the Missionaries of Charity in Kolkata.\nWhen Mother Teresa passed away, she left behind over 4,000 Missionary of Charity Sisters, in 610 centers in 123 countries.\nMother Teresa Becomes a Saint\nAfter Mother Teresa's death, the Vatican began the lengthy process of canonization. After an Indian woman was cured of her tumor after praying to Mother Teresa, a miracle was declared and the third of the four steps to sainthood was completed on October 19, 2003 when the Pope approved Mother Teresa's beatification , awarding Mother Teresa the title \"Blessed.\"\nThe final stage required to become a saint involves a second miracle. On December 17, 2015, Pope Francis recognized the medically inexplicable waking (and healing) of an extremely ill Brazilian man from a coma on December 9, 2008 just minutes before he was to undergo emergency brain surgery as being caused by the intervention of Mother Teresa.\nIt is expected that Mother Teresa will be canonized (pronounced a saint) in September 2016.",
"Life History of Mother Teresa\nBlessed Mother Teresa will be canonized on September 4, 2016 and called Saint Mother Teresa.\nHoly Mass and Canonization of Blessed Mother Theresa of Calcutta at St. Peter's Square, Vatican City State, Rome.\nThe Vatican announced that Pope Francis has signed off on the miracle needed to make Mother Teresa a saint of the Catholic Church.\nLife History of Mother Teresa\nMother Teresa was born on August 26, 1910 in Skopje, Macedonia. Mother Teresa's original name was Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu. The youngest of the children born to Nikola and Drane Bojaxhiu. Her father was a successful merchant and she was youngest of the three siblings. She received her First Communion at the age of five and a half and was confirmed in November 1916. From the day of her First Holy Communion, a love for souls was within her. Her father’s sudden death when Gonxha was about eight years old left in the family in financial straits. Drane raised her children firmly and lovingly, greatly influencing her daughter’s character and vocation. Gonxha’s religious formation was further assisted by the vibrant Jesuit parish of the Sacred Heart in which she was much involved. At the age of 12, she decided that she wanted to be a missionary and spread the love of Christ. At the age of 18 she left her parental home in Skopje and joined the Sisters of Loreto, an Irish community of nuns with missions in India. There she received the name Sister Mary Teresa after St. Thérèse of Lisieux. After a few months of training at the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Dublin Mother Teresa came to India on 6 January 1929. On May 24, 1931, she took her initial vows as a nun. From 1931 to 1948, Mother Teresa taught geography and catechism at St. Mary's High School in Calcutta. On 24 May 1937, Sister Teresa made her Final Profession of Vows, becoming, as she said, the “spouse of Jesus” for “all eternity.” From that time on she was called Mother Teresa. She continued teaching at St. Mary’s and in 1944 became the school’s principal. A person of profound prayer and deep love for her religious sisters and her students, Mother Teresa’s twenty years in Loreto were filled with profound happiness. Noted for her charity, unselfishness and courage, her capacity for hard work and a natural talent for organization, she lived out her consecration to Jesus, in the midst of her companions, with fidelity and joy.\nMother Teresa's words are “By blood, I am Albanian. By citizenship, an Indian. By faith, I am a Catholic nun. As to my calling, I belong to the world. As to my heart, I belong entirely to the Heart of Jesus. ”Small of stature, rocklike in faith, Mother Teresa of Calcutta was entrusted with the mission of proclaiming God’s thirsting love for humanity, especially for the poorest of the poor. “God still loves the world and He sends you and me to be His love and His compassion to the poor.” She was a soul filled with the light of Christ, on fire with love for Him and burning with one desire: “to quench His thirst for love and for souls.” On 10 September 1946 during the train ride from Calcutta to Darjeeling for her annual retreat, Mother Teresa received her “inspiration,” her “call within a call.” On that day, in a way she would never explain, Jesus’ thirst for love and for souls took hold of her heart and the desire to satiate His thirst became the driving force of her life. Over the course of the next weeks and months, by means of interior locutions and visions, Jesus revealed to her the desire of His heart for “victims of love” who would “radiate His love on souls.” “Come be My light,” He begged her. “I cannot go alone.” He revealed His pain at the neglect of the poor, His sorrow at their ignorance of Him and His longing for their love. He asked Mother Teresa to establish a religious community, Missionaries of Charity, dedicated to the service of the poorest of the poor. However, the prevailing poverty in Calcutta had a deep impact on Mother Teresa's mind and in 1948, she received permission from her superiors to leave the convent school and devote herself to working among the poorest of the poor in the slums of Calcutta . On August 17, 1948, she dressed for the first time in a white, blue-bordered sari and passed through the gates of her beloved Loreto convent to enter the world of the poor.\nAdvertisement\nAfter a short course with the Medical Mission Sisters in Patna, she returned to Calcutta and found temporary lodging with the Little Sisters of the Poor. She started an open-air school for homeless children. Soon she was joined by voluntary helpers, and she received financial support from church organizations and the municipal authorities. On 21 December she went for the first time to the slums. On October 7, 1950, Mother Teresa received permission from the Vatican to start her own order. Vatican originally labeled the order as the Diocesan Congregation of the Calcutta Diocese, and it later came to known as the \"Missionaries of Charity\". The primary task of the Missionaries of Charity was to take care of those persons who nobody was prepared to look after.\nMother TeresaShe visited families, washed the sores of some children, cared for an old man lying sick on the road and nursed a woman dying of hunger and TB. She started each day in communion with Jesus in the Eucharist and then went out, rosary in her hand, to find and serve Him in “the unwanted, the unloved, the uncared for.” After some months, she was joined, one by one, by her former students. By the early 1960s, Mother Teresa began to send her Sisters to other parts of India. The Decree of Praise granted to the Congregation by Pope Paul VI in February 1965 encouraged her to open a house in Venezuela. It was soon followed by foundations in Rome and Tanzania and, eventually, on every continent. Starting in 1980 and continuing through the 1990s, Mother Teresa opened houses in almost all of the communist countries, including the former Soviet Union, Albania and Cuba. The physical and spiritual needs of the poor, Mother Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity Brothers in 1963, in 1976 the contemplative branch of the Sisters, in 1979 the Contemplative Brothers, and in 1984 the Missionaries of Charity Fathers. She formed the Co-Workers of Mother Teresa and the Sick and Suffering Co-Workers, people of many faiths and nationalities with whom she shared her spirit of prayer, simplicity, sacrifice and her apostolate of humble works of love. This spirit later inspired the\nLay Missionaries of Charity. In answer to the requests of many priests, in 1981 Mother Teresa also began the Corpus Christi Movement for Priests as a “little way of holiness” for those who desire to share in her charism and spirit. She has received a number of awards and distinctions Numerous awards, beginning with the Indian Padmashri Award in 1962 and notably the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979, honoured her work, while an increasingly interested media began to follow her activities. She received both prizes and attention “for the glory of God and in the name of the poor.” These include the Pope John XXIII Peace Prize (1971), Nehru Prize for Promotion of International Peace & Understanding (1972), Balzan Prize (1978), Nobel Peace Prize (1979) and Bharat Ratna (1980). The whole of Mother Teresa’s life and labour bore witness to the joy of loving, the greatness and dignity of every human person, the value of little things done faithfully and with love, and the surpassing worth of friendship with God. On March 13, 1997, Mother Teresa stepped down from the head of Missionaries of Charity. On 5 September Mother Teresa’s earthly life came to an end. She died on September 5, 1997, just 9 days after her 87th birthday. She was given the honour of a state funeral by the Government of India and her body was buried in the Mother House of the Missionaries of Charity. Her tomb quickly became a place of pilgrimage and prayer for people of all faiths, rich and poor alike. Mother Teresa left a testament of unshakable faith, invincible hope and extraordinary charity. Her response to Jesus’ plea, “Come be My light,” made her a Missionary of Charity, a “mother to the poor,” a symbol of compassion to the world, and a living witness to the thirsting love of God. Following Mother Teresa's death, the Holy See began the process of beatification, the second step towards possible canonization, or sainthood.\nLess than two years after her death, in view of Mother Teresa’s widespread reputation of holiness and the favours being reported, Pope John Paul II permitted the opening of her Cause of Canonization. On 20 December 2002 he approved the decrees of her heroic virtues and miracles.\nBook/Products availabe on amazon for sale.\nCopyright @ 2016. Kurusady.com",
"Mother Teresa :: Angel of Mercy :: Real Life Story and Achievements ::\nAngel Mother Teresa\nAngel Mother Teresa:\n(CNN) -- \"The other day I dreamed that I was at the gates of heaven....And St. Peter said, 'Go back to Earth, there are no slums up here.'\" \nThese words, once spoken by Mother Teresa, vividly recall the life of the late Roman Catholic nun and missionary known as \"the Saint of the Gutters.\" For Mother Teresa, who devoted her life to the succor of the sick and the outcast, earthly sufferers were nothing less than Christ in \"distressing disguise.\" \nFrom an early age, the girl who would become Mother Teresa felt the call to help others. Born August 26, 1910, in Skopje (now in Macedonia), Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu was the daughter of Albanian parents -- a grocer and his wife. As a public school student she developed a special interest in overseas missions and, by age 12, realized her vocation was aiding the poor. \nShe was inspired to work in India by reports sent home from Jesuit missionaries in Bengal. And at 18, she left home to join a community of Irish nuns with a mission in Calcutta. Here, she took the name \"Sister Teresa,\" after Saint Teresa of Lisieux, the patroness of missionaries. She spent 17 years teaching and being principal of St. Mary's high school in Calcutta. However, in 1946, her life changed forever. \nAfter taking a medical training course to prepare for her new mission, she went into the slums of Calcutta to start a school for children. They called her \"Mother Teresa.\" \nThrough the years, Mother Teresa's fame grew, as did the magnitude of her deeds ... \nHighlights of Mother Teresa's life\n1910: Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu born August 27 in Skopje, in what is now Macedonia, the youngest of three children of an Albanian builder. \n1928: Becomes novitiate in Loretto order, which ran mission schools in India, and takes name Sister Teresa. \n1929: Arrives in Calcutta to teach at St. Mary's High School. \n1937: Takes final vows as a nun. \n1946: While riding a train to the mountain town of Darjeeling to recover from suspected tuberculosis, she said she received a calling from God \"to serve him among the poorest of the poor.\" \n1947: Permitted to leave her order and moves to Calcutta's slums to set up her first school. \n1950: Founds the order of Missionaries of Charity. \n1952: Opens Nirmal Hriday, or \"Pure Heart,\" a home for the dying, followed next year by her first orphanage. \n1962: Wins her first prize for her humanitarian work: the Padma Shri award for distinguished service. Over the years, she uses the money from such prizes to found dozens of new homes. \n1979: Wins Nobel Peace Prize. \n1982: Persuades Israelis and Palestinians to stop shooting long enough to rescue 37 retarded children from a hospital in besieged Beirut. \n1983: Has a heart attack while in Rome visiting Pope John Paul II. \n1985: Awarded Medal of Freedom, the highest U.S. civilian award. \n1989: Has a second and nearly fatal attack. Doctors implant a pacemaker. \n1990: Announces her intention to resign, and a conclave of sisters is called to choose successor. In a secret ballot, Mother Teresa is re-elected with only one dissenting vote -- her own -- and withdraws request to step down. \n1991: Suffers pneumonia in Tijuana, Mexico, leading to congestive heart failure, and is hospitalized in La Jolla, California. \n1993: Breaks three ribs in fall in May in Rome; hospitalized for malaria in August in New Delhi; undergoes surgery to clear blocked blood vessel in Calcutta in September. \n1996: November 16, receives honorary U.S. citizenship. \n1996: Falls and breaks collarbone in April; suffers malarial fever and failure of the left heart ventricle in August; treated for a chest infection and recurring heart problems in September. Readmitted to hospital with chest pains and breathing problems November 22. \n1997: March 13, steps down as head of her order.\nAmong the 124 Awards Received some were:\nPadmashree Award (from the President of India) August 1962 \nPope John XXIII Peace Prize January 1971 \nJohn F. Kennedy International Award September 1971 \nJawahalal Nehru Award for International Understanding November 1972 \nTempleton Prize for \"Progress in Religion\" April 1973 \nNobel Peace Prize December 1979 \nBharat Ratna (Jewel of India) March 1980 \nOrder of Merit (from Queen Elizabeth) November 1983 \nGold Medal of the Soviet Peace Committee August 1987 \nUnited States Congressional Gold Medal June 1997\nAt the time of Mother Teresa's death, The Sisters of the Missionaries of Charity numbered 3,914 members, and were established in 594 communities in 123 countries of the world. Her work continues under the guidance of Sister Nirmala, Superior General of the Missionaries of Charity Sisters. The order has grown over 4,000 members in 697 foundations in 131 countries of the world.\nDied: Mother Teresa on September 5, 1997 in Kolkata, India"
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Which famous daughter was made chief designer at Chloe in 1997?
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"... floating shapes that he created defined the bohemian spirit of the seventies and made Chloe one ... of Chloe, the young British designer ... and chief executive ...",
"Find the most iconic and influential fashion designers to date on the Best of Fashion Designers. Just ... Chief Designer of her ... of Chloe in Paris in 1997.",
"Official profile of London based fashion designer Stella McCartney ... the daughter of Paul ... In 1997 McCartney was appointed chief designer at Paris ...",
"While some may think that being the daughter of one of the world's most famous, ... designer Stella McCartney might ... show with Chloe, in the fall of 1997, ..."
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"Stella McCartney - Biography - IMDb\nStella McCartney\nJump to: Overview (4) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (1) | Trivia (31) | Personal Quotes (3)\nOverview (4)\n5' 5\" (1.65 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nStella Nina McCartney was born in London, England in 1971 to ex-Beatle Paul McCartney and famed rocker photographer, Linda McCartney . Stella's birth almost ended in disaster where both mother and child almost died - the traumatic event led her father to pray she be born \"on the wings of an angel\", thus inspiring the name of her parent's band \"Wings\". McCartney admits she had a \"normal\" childhood, despite her famous parents - though she did travel the globe with them and their group, the whole family lived in a two-bedroom while she was growing up. Stella was on her own and independent by the time she was in college, making her own money (and sometimes having to clean dishes at a near-by restaurant to do so.) At age 15 she had the opportunity to work with Christian Lacroix on his first couture collection and in 1995, she graduated from London's Central St Martins College of Art & Design, showcasing at her collection of clothes modeled by good celebrity friends Naomi Campbell and Kate Moss . In 1997, with two collections under her belt, McCartney was appointed chief designer at Paris fashion house Chloé, but resigned four years later to enter in a joint venture with the Gucci Group. The line opened three stores and later Stella expanded her brand to include perfume. In 2000, she was presented VH1/Vogue Designer of the Year award by her father. Most recently, McCartney designed a line of clothing and accessories for H&M, helping sales to skyrocket with her designer name and in August of 2003, married publisher Alasdhair Willis.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: ratisfatter@yahoo,com\nSpouse (1)\n( 30 August 2003 - present) (4 children)\nTrivia (31)\nDesigned Madonna 's wedding dress. [2000]\nFor her graduation fashion from St. Martin's, Stella featured a song by her father, \"Stella May Day\", and her clothes were modeled by friends Kate Moss , Yasmin Le Bon and Naomi Campbell .\nIs an active member of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals [PETA].\nShe is the daughter of former Beatle Paul McCartney and the late Linda McCartney .\nWas the head designer for Chloé.\nStudied at Central St. Martin's College of Art and Design.\nHer traumatic birth compelled her famous father to pray that she be born \"on the wings of an angel\". This quote inspired Paul to name his upcoming band - \"Wings\".\nMarried publisher boyfriend Alasdhair Willis in Scotland on August 30, 2003.\nYounger half-sister of pottery designer Heather McCartney\nDesigns for her own label, under the umbrella of Gucci Group.\nOlder half-sister of Beatrice Milly McCartney\nFormer stepdaughter of Heather Mills .\nIs a vegetarian, like her parents.\nHas four children with her husband Alasdhair Willis. son, Miller Alasdhair James Willis, born on February 25, 2005, weighing 7lbs 7ozs, daughter, Bailey Linda Olwyn, born on December 8, 2006, weighing, 7lbs 14oz, son, Beckett Robert Lee, born on January 8, 2009 and daughter Reily Dilys Stella, born on November 23, 2010, weighing 8 lbs.\nLaunched a range of affordable clothing with H&M in 2005, following in the footsteps of Karl Lagerfeld - for the second time, as he was head designer of Chloe before she took the title.",
"Chloe - Fashion Brand | Brands | The FMD\nChloe\nA word from the EIC\nPartnerships / Cooperations\nBecome a fashion editor on FMD\nContent / Usage Questions\nWhy am I listed on FMD?\nHow can I submit content?\nCredifair (credit for your work)\nDMCA + Content MGMT\nthe pure fashion news agency\nDecember 28th\nLara Stone presents winter looks for Net-a-Porters 'The Edit'\nSupermodels pay tribute to George Michael\nTwin Models Ruth and May Bell star in Dior's Newest Campaign\nStella Maxwell Fronts Roberto Cavalli Spring 2017 Campaign\n54 Rue Du Faubourg St Honore\nParis, 75008\n+33 01 44 94 33 33 Fax +33 01 47 42 60 50\nWebsite\nJacques Lenoir and Gaby Aghion\nbelongs to\nRichemont Group\nabout\n2002 will mark the fiftieth anniversary of the house of Chloe. In the half-century since it was founded, the prestigious French label has stayed true to the concept of romantic, feminine fashion. Today, the houses newest Creative Director, Phoebe Philo, will bring her unique vision to this label at a moment when Chloe is enjoying unprecedented success. After fifty years, Chloe continues to connect with a new generation of stylish women.\nThe house of Chloe was founded in 1952 by two Parisians, Jacques Lenoir and Gaby Aghion. In a rapidly modernising post-war world, old traditions were giving way to new ideas, and their proposition was a radical one: they would make luxury pret--porter, delivering the kind of exceptional fashion off the rack that, until then, had only been available as couture.\nThe romantic, fluid clothes that they created marked a bold departure from the stiff formality of womens fashion in the early fifties. Chic, sensual, and unmistakably French, Chloe immediately established itself as a house that celebrated a softer aesthetic. In 1963, the houses founders appointed Karl Lagerfeld as head designer. Under Lagerfelds direction, the Chloe label produced iconic fashion: the gauzy floral prints and fluid, floating shapes that he created defined the bohemian spirit of the seventies and made Chloe one of the most popular labels of the period.\nThis era also saw the launch of the Chloe fragrance. Chloe, introduced in 1974, was an immediate commercial success, and continues to be one of the worlds best selling fragrances today.\nIn 1985, the Swiss-based luxury group Richemont Group bought the house from Aghion and Lenoir, and setting the company up for expansion on the international market. In the late eighties, Martine Sitbon helmed the house, bringing her uniquely modern vision of womens fashion to the label.\nLagerfeld returned to the house in 1992, and for the next five years he consistently reinvented the Chloe woman, dressing her in delicately torn neo-classical dresses, and bright hippie-inspired lace.\nIn the last five years, the house has undergone a dramatic period of growth. In 1997, the then twenty-six year old Stella McCartney took over as Creative Director. In a period that saw a new generation of customers embracing luxury fashion, McCartneys youthful, spirited sensibility re-energized Chloe and made it highly desirable once again. Infusing Chloes classic soft, romantic spirit with the pulse of the street, McCartney effortlessly mixed delicately feminine pieces with structured tailoring, putting flirtatious camisoles under skinny, tailored suits and pairing revealing blouses with low-riding jeans and stiletto heels. This vision of the new Chloe woman hit a chord with young women around the world, and proved hugely successful.\nMcCartney announced her departure from Chlo� in early 2001, naming 27-year-old Phoebe Philo as her successor. The move left most in the fashion industry baffled, as Philo was a relative unknown. She had attended Central St. Martins a year behind McCartney and worked under her for only four years, but did not have the credentials typical of designers at any other major house. Planted firmly at the intersection of casual street chic and whimsical femininity, Philo�s first collection forged an image that the company calls \"luxurious, romantic and quinessentially French.\" Philo also created several \"it bags\" during her time at Chlo�, including the Paddington bag, which became a smash hit in 2004 and spawned many knockoffs. On January 6, 2006, Philo announced that she was stepping down as creative director for the fashion house in order to spend more time with her young daughter.\nHaving played a pivotal role in the reinvention of Chloe, the young British designer will continue to grow the brand, launching new categories of merchandise such as accessories and swimwear, and developing the secondary line, See by Chloe.\nChlo� announced in October 2006 that Paulo Melim Andersson, a Swede who worked for Marni for seven years, would take over as creative director. �His mission is to find the new direction for the Chlo� brand,� Chlo� chairman and chief executive Ralph Toledano told WWD. �He will be given, like his predecessors, a lot of freedom to find his own way.�\nAndersson has shown three collections for Chloe each exemplifying an edgier, abstract quirkiness to a line which has long been associated with romantic, girly Parisian notions. Andersson latest fall 2008 collection fulfilled elements of Chloe's charm like tea dresses and ruffled edges, however, the collection was met with mixed reviews.\nPaula Melim Andersson is an example of a designer with a tremendous amount of talent, however, not the right fit for Chloe despite a 9% increase in Chloe sales during his 2006-2007 year.\nHannah MacGibbon who worked under Phoebe Philo for 5 years prior to Andersson has been neamed the new creative director.\nAlas, Chloe is back in a woman's hands.\nThe Look\nStyle, modernity, and a strong sense of femininity have been the key elements of Chlo� since its inception. Maintaining a quiet confidence among the Parisian ready-to-wear houses, Chlo� has relyied on the abilities of various already-established designers to produce fresh and vibrant clothing which reflected and, in the high points of its history under Martine Sitbon, Karl Lagerfeld, and upstart Stella McCartney defined the zeitgeist of Chlo� �lan.\nWho Wears It\nHalle Barry, Carmen Electra, Kate Bosworth, Mary Kate Olsen, Claudia Schiffer, Kylie Minogue, Megan Fox, Jessica Alba, Rossellini Wiedemann, Alicia Silverstone, Sarah Michelle Gellar, Blake Lively, Maria Sharapova, Maria Sharapova, Emily Mortimer, Michelle Williams, Heidi Montag, Mischa Barton, Kristen Dunst, Paris Hilto, Olivia Chantecaille, Mischa Barton,\nPerfumes",
"Best Fashion Designers, Luxury Fashion Designers, Couture Fashion Designers\nBest Fashion Designers\nZac Posen\nAs a high school sophomore, Posen interned with Nicole Miller, at 18 was accepted to London's prestigious Central Saint Martin's College of Art and Design, and debuted his first runway show by 21. Growing up in Manhattan's trendy Soho neighborhood, Posen was a fashion fiend from a young age and parlayed his passion into a successful career, producing couture gowns along with the more afforable Z Spoke line for Saks Fifth Avenue and a collection for Target.\nBest Fashion Designers\nTom Ford\nAmerican designer Tom Ford graduated from Parsons The New School for Design with a degree in architecture, but soon realized his love for fashion while interning at Chloe's press office. He has gone on to work for Perry Ellis, completely transform the Gucci brand, and become Creative Director for Yves Saint Laurent. In 2005 he announced the creation of the TOM FORD brand and its first flagship store opened two years later on Madison Avenue in NYC.\nBest Fashion Designers\nKarl Lagerfeld\nChloe, Fendi, and Chanel have all notably been touched by the hands and soul of the notorious Karl Lagerfeld. He was born in Germany in the 30s (he remains very secretive about the actual year of his birth), moved to Paris at 14 to work as a draftsman, by 17 was working for Pierre Balmain, and Valentino soon to follow. Vogue has called Lagerfeld the \"unparalleled interpreter of the mood of the moment,\" and today his many ventures include designing everything from shoes to wedding dresses to crystal art collections.\nBest Fashion Designers\nPhoebe Philo\nBorn in Paris and educated in London, fashion designer Phoebe Philo has been adding clean and chic silhouettes to the French luxury brand, Celine for years now. Creating her minimalist mark at the fashion house, Philo's collections for Celine are modern, sophisticated, and most importantly wearable. Designing signature and instantly recognizable color-blocked coats and bags have won Philo an incredibly dedicated fan following. In June 2011, Philo was awarded the title of \"International Designer of the Year\" by the CFDA and her loyal fans have even been dubbed the \"Philophiles\" by the fashion press.\nBest Fashion Designers\nMarc Jacobs\nWith a number of prestigious awards under his belt from the Parsons School of Design, Jacobs moved onto working for Perry Ellis, but was let go from the label after infamously designing a \"grunge\" collection. By 1994 he had produced his first full collection of menswear and in 1997 was made Creative Director of Louis Vuitton, where he remains today as well as Head Designer for his own label.\nBest Fashion Designers\nStella McCartney\nConfidence, sexy femininity and precise tailoring encompassed McCartney's first runway collection and soon became her signature style. After producing only two collections, she was named the Creative Director of Chloe in Paris in 1997. In 2001, she launched her own fashion house with the Gucci Group (now PPR Luxury Group). Growing up in the English countryside and being a lifelong vegetarian, you will never find fur or leather used in her clothing, accessories or lingerie.\nBest Fashion Designers\nCoco Chanel\nGabriell \"Coco\" Chanel was born in 1883 in France and spent her childhood in an orphanage where she was taught to sew by nuns. At 20 she opened her first shop in Paris and sold hats, was soon after making clothing, and by the 1920s launched Chanel No. 5 - the first perfume to feature a designer's name. In 1925, she introduced the now legendary collarless suit jacket and fitted skirt. She remained Chief Designer of her line until her death in 1971.\nBest Fashion Designers\nGiorgio Armani\nFew brands can quite pull off the distinctive yet subdued, sensual yet European kind of simplicity?except, of course, Giorgio Armani. Born in Piacenza, Italy in 1936 Giorgio Armani had a variety of different careers growing up, from photography to medicine. After working for the fashion house Nino Cerruti, Giorgio decided it was high time he branched out, debuting his first women's wear collection in 1974. Said to be always influenced by menswear, Giorgio brought immaculate tailoring and clean cuts to his ladies ensembles. Elegant and fresh, he is famous for his sophisticated pieces that are not only wearable but altogether timeless. Today, owning an Armani suit and separates is a status symbol for both men and women.\nBest Fashion Designers\nOlivier Rousteing\nOlivier Rousteing is a French fashion designer. At age 24 as a relatively unknown designer, Rousteing took over as creative director of Balmain. Since his induction in 2011, the label has skyrocketed to stardom due to its association with Kardashian clan.\nBest Fashion Designers\nAlexander Wang\nAlexander Wang has shifted the conversation regarding the American urban wear space. His near-perfect tailoring, penchant for black, and signature style has influenced up and comers like Hood by Air's Shayne Oliver. After establishing his own label, as well as the diffusion line \"T by Alexander Wang\", Wang took on the role of creative director at famed fashion house Balenciaga.\nBest Fashion Designers\nDiane von F�rstenberg\nDiane von F�rstenberg began designing women's clothing in 1970 and three years later introduced her iconic knit jersey wrap dress, for which she is most widely known today. Due to its influence on women's fashion, one of her wrap dresses sits proudly in a collection at the Costume Institute of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In 2005, she was given a lifetime achievement award by the Council of Fashion Designers of America and named their president.\nBest Fashion Designers\nStefano and Domenico\nWhen inspiration for your first collection comes from Sophia Loren, you know you have something special. Not afraid to celebrate the curvaceous female form, the masterminds behind Dolce & Gabbana. Stefano and Domenico have created signature styles including corset dresses, gangster pinstripes and sexy black suits. The company was started by Italian designers Domenico Dolce (born 13 August 1958 in Polizzi Generosa, Sicily) and Stefano Gabbana (born 14 November 1962 in Milan). By 2005 their turnover was ?597 million.[2] The two met in Milan in 1980 and worked for the same fashion house. In 1982 they established a designer consulting studio; in time it grew to become ?Dolce & Gabbana?. While they have produced menswear collections, they will always be known for their desire to make a woman look and feel \"fantastically sexy,\" and stand out as Hollywood's number one choice of designer.\nBest Fashion Designers\nValentino\nLike Cher or Madonna, Valentino Garavani is better known simply as Valentino. Born in northern Italy in 1932, Valentino was infatuated with fashion at an early age, gaining apprenticeships and training with many local designers. After a stint in Paris working under notable fashion designers Valentino started moved to Rome where his signature scarlet dresses that have since became his trademark was born. Then in the sixties, Valentino took a risk that ultimately catapulted him into stardom: he sent Jacqueline Kennedy a series of his pieces. The First Lady was enamored by the designs and even chose to wear one of his dresses when she married her second husband. While currently retired and residing in Rome, he remains a significant figure in the fashion world for his timeless designs and truly inspired taste.\nBest Fashion Designers\nRiccardo Tisci\nRelatively new in the fashion world, Italian-born Riccardo Tisci is already making quite the impact. Having graduated from London's Central Saint Martins Academy in 1999, he was soon picked up as Creative Director for Givenchy womenswear and haute couture. After success in this position, he was also named as menswear and accessories designer of the Givenchy men's division in 2008. Adding street style (and a touch of Goth) to luxury garments has drawn new attention and fans to the Givenchy Brand. With youthful energy that is at times melancholic, Riccardo Tisci has made this respected French fashion house his own, and there is certainly more to come.\nBest Fashion Designers\nDonatella Versace\nDonatella Versace, younger sister of Gianni Versace, is the current Vice-President and chief designer of the Versace Group. In the 70s she followed Gianni to Florence on his pursuit of knitwear design. Instead of doing public relations for him, she ended up serving better as his \"muse and critic.\" After Gianni's death in 1997, Donatella went on to spread the Versace name throughout Europe and the U.S., making her A-list celebrity friends the image and persona of the brand.\nBest Fashion Designers\nOscar de la Renta\nBorn in 1932 and trained by the famous Cristobal Balenciaga and Antonio Castillo, Oscar de la Renta (or Oscar Aristides de la Renta Fiallo) first gained international acclaim after he become one of the couturiers to dress First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy in the 1960's. Combining his Latin American passion and adoration for bright and festive colors and an exquisite eye for luxury fabrics and embellishments, Oscar de la Renta has a truly innate ability to design beautifully feminine garments. Perhaps most well-known for his red-carpet gowns, Oscar's eponymous fashion house continues to dress some of the most notable celebrities and leading women of our time",
"Stella McCartney - Fashion Designer | Designers | The FMD\nStella McCartney\nA word from the EIC\nPartnerships / Cooperations\nBecome a fashion editor on FMD\nContent / Usage Questions\nWhy am I listed on FMD?\nHow can I submit content?\nCredifair (credit for your work)\nDMCA + Content MGMT\nthe pure fashion news agency\nJanuary 19th\nAre Gigi Hadid and Zayn Malik engaged?\nRalph Lauren and Karl Lagerfeld to dress Melania Trump?\nASAP Rocky and Boy George Star in Dior Homme's New Campaign\nIrina Shayk Lands Two Vogue Brazil Covers\nAbout\nthe designers\nStella McCartney was born on September 13, 1971, the daughter of Paul McCartney, member of the Beatles singing group. She is a British fashion designer. Stella has always been fascinated by fashion. As a teenager, she was always mixing up bits and pieces for antique clothing markets with Cerruti or Lacoste, or whatever she could find in her mother's cupboards.\nAt the age of 13, Stella constructed her first jacket. At 15, she was apprenticing at Christian Lacroix and soon after was awarded a place at St. Martins. She was almost instantly successful, with her graduation collection being sported at the graduation show by supermodels Kate Moss and Naomi Campbell. The show made front-page news, and the entire collecton was sold to Tokio, a London boutique. After graduating from Central St. Martins, London, she did a short, unofficial, apprenticeship with Edward Sexton, a Savile Row tailor.\nIn 1997 McCartney was appointed chief designer at Paris fashion house Chloe, following in the footsteps of Karl Lagerfeld. She started with the Autumn/Winter 1997 collection, and has been an astounding success. A Chloe boutique has opened in London, though it is hoped that Stella can have more control on the London end than she does on the Paris end. The rather elderly staff at Paris Chloe are pretty rigid about underclothes on the models, and see-through dresses (they are against them). Stella McCartney is a strict vegetarian and PETA supporter like her mother Linda, who died in 2000. She had a contract with Chloe that she need never work with fur or leather. All the shoes are made of vinyl or plastics, all the bags and belts of fabric or raffia. Her soft romantic clothes have been very successful at Chloe. For the Spring 2000 collection, she has created several designs with cut-work rhinestone necklines and bodices.\nIn the year 2000, Stella McCartney was approached by Tom Ford of Gucci, with an offer of financial support so that she could set up her own label. She agreed to this, and left Chloe. Her assistant at Chloe, Phoebe Philo, took over the designing at Chloe. Stella was looking for an artist to illustrate her new venture. She saw a 1972 sketch made by British artist David Remfry, and after seeing his work, decided that he was the one. In 2002 Remfry prepared the McCartnery adverts which appeared in all the leading fashion magazines. The sketches were so eye-catching and sexy that they blew the whole industry away.\nIn August 2003, Stella married her long-time love publisher Alasdhair Willis. The setting was a castle on the island of Bute, in the river Clyde, in Scotland, loaned to them by the Marquis of Bute (racing driver Johnny Dumfries). Stella's father, former Beatle Paul McCartney paid around 2 million pounds, as father of the bride. Stella designed her own wedding gown, using as inspiration the one worn by her mother when she married in 1969. In February 2005, the couple had a baby boy just before Stella will be presenting her Fall/Winter 2005 collection in Paris. They have called him Miller Alisdhair James Willis. Stella took time out from preparations for her Spring/Summer 2004 collection in Paris, to fly over to the United States for the opening of her new Los Angeles store.\nIn September 2004, it was announced that Stella has formed a collaboration with Adidas to design a new collection of stylish, high-tech gym wear after working with experts for ideas for runners, swimmers and athletes.\nHigh Street fashion giant H&M announced in May 2005 that Stella McCartney would design a 40 piece collection for them in the Autumn. They find her designs modern, cool, classic and wearable. In September H & M started selling the McCartney range, with great success. She has selected one or two things from her own label collections, but of course the cost is much lower in the High Street. This should lead to Stella's clothes finding a much wider market. Margareta van den Bosch, head of design at H & M said that the company was thrilled to collaborate with Stella.\nthe label\nStella launched her new house with the Spring 2002 collection, presenting clothes emblazoned with rhyming Cockney slang, that had the punchy tang of a hit from the word go. She got her label off to a snappy start in front of Domenico de Sole, the boss of the Gucci group, and McCartney's partner. Her brand new 4000 sq ft store in Manhattan opened in September 2002, housing her ready-to-wear, shoe and accessories collections. It has an inlaid pool running the length of the store and walls of hand-painted fabric. There was a fabulous party to celebrate the opening. The financial results for Stella's new company for the first year of operation, were not very good. It suffered losses of 2.7 million pounds. However GUCCI, who own her label, have absolute faith in her and said that they have high hopes for her future. In late November, Stella's owners GUCCI appointed a new CEO for Stella McCartney. He is Marco Bizzari (born 1962) a well-experienced financial and managerial man. He is expected to push the profits up even higher.\nWho Wears It\nAnnie Lennox, Gwyneth Paltrow, Pamela Anderson\nPerfumes\n2006 Stella In Two (W)\nProfile",
"Stella McCartney facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Stella McCartney\nSeptember 13, 1971 • London, England\nFashion designer\nWhile some may think that being the daughter of one of the world's most famous, respected, and wealthy rock stars would lead to plentiful advantages when building a career, British designer Stella McCartney might not completely agree. McCartney, daughter of Sir Paul—who happens to be a former member of the Beatles, perhaps the most popular and influential rock band ever—has talent and ambition to spare, but her fame-by-association has caused many to speculate that it is her family connections rather than her design collections that have propelled her career. Being a McCartney has its advantages—through family acquaintances, a teenaged Stella made important connections in the design world—but had she been lacking in talent and business sense, such connections would have been meaningless. Instead, McCartney proved that her combination of creativity, sense of style, and understanding of the fashion industry could make her a powerful force in fashion regardless of her parentage.\nIn 1997, less than two years after graduating from college, McCartney made headlines when she was hired as the creative director for Chloe, a respected design house in Paris , France . She spent four years at Chloe, helping to redefine the company's image and increasing the company's sales by appealing to young, hip consumers. In 2001 McCartney left Chloe to start her own company in partnership with the celebrated Gucci Group. She spent the following years issuing new collections, opening boutiques in New York , London, and Los Angeles , and, in 2003, launching a new fragrance line called Stella.\n\"I have a vision for the way I want a woman to dress, perhaps because I'm a woman and know what I like to wear.... It's not about what it looks like in the studio or on the runway. It's what it looks like on a real person that matters.\"\nDown on the farm\nMcCartney was born in London in 1971, not long after the breakup of the Beatles. Her father, a musician of exceptional talent, went on to form the band Wings, in which her mother, Linda, played keyboards and sang backup. Linda McCartney also became known for her skilled photographic portraits of musicians and other subjects, and was an outspoken advocate for animal rights as well as an accomplished vegetarian cook and cookbook writer. While the McCartneys led an unconventional life, traveling around the world on tour with the band with their children in tow, they were determined that their home base would be a tranquil refuge from the rock-and-roll lifestyle. The family, including Stella, her half-sister Heather (from Linda McCartney's first marriage), sister Mary, and brother James, moved to a farm by the time Stella was ten years old. Living in a modest farmhouse, the family raised sheep, rode horses, and grew organic produce. Stella was heavily influenced by the family's back-to-nature lifestyle and her parents' values, becoming a vegetarian herself as well as a committed animal rights activist.\nNext-Generation Jagger\nJade Jagger, jewelry designer and famous offspring, has encountered much of the same skepticism that Stella McCartney has faced. As the daughter of Mick Jagger (1943–), lead singer of the Rolling Stones, and Bianca Jagger, a symbol of high fashion, Jade has struggled to establish an identity separate from that of her world-famous parents. Even as she has forged a successful design career, she still has critics suggesting that her professional accomplishments are due to her fame as a Jagger rather than her own talent.\nBorn in 1972, Jagger certainly had an unconventional upbringing as the daughter of one of rock music's most notorious bad boys. Her father has provided material for tabloid newspapers for most of his adult life, with one high-profile and stormy relationship after another (Mick and Bianca divorced around 1980). As a teenager Jade acquired a reputation for being a bit wild herself. She made headlines in 1988 when she was expelled from a prestigious private school in England for sneaking out to meet her boyfriend. And she was known for throwing, and attending, great parties. Jagger's lifestyle mellowed a bit when she became a mother in the early 1990s; she now has two daughters, Assisi and Amba.\nJagger has done some modeling and has long been a part of the fashion scene, but her vocation is designing jewelry. Jagger started her own company, Jade Inc., in 1998, creating and selling fine jewelry with a modern twist. In 2002 Jagger was hired as the creative director for the upscale British jewelry company Garrard. Once the Crown Jewelers—those responsible for crowns, tiaras, and other decorative items worn by British royalty—Garrard is a long-established traditional company that was formerly known as Asprey & Garrard. When those controlling the company split the brands into two separate firms, it was decided that Garrard, while remaining a provider of expensive luxury items, would also try to reach out to a younger and more informal crowd. Jagger was seen as the right person to navigate the company through this new territory.\nIn a 2002 article in WWD, Samantha Conti wrote that Jagger's goal at Garrard was to \"blend the classic and the avant-garde, which means that blue diamond tiaras sell alongside funky gold dog tags, the rocks on some rings roll—literally—in a see-saw motion, and pendants are inspired by hip-hop and heraldry.\" Jagger designed a line of jewelry that playfully incorporated royal symbols such as crowns and family crests. While Jagger will never completely escape associations with her famous dad, she has forged a successful career independent of her family connections, earning praise for her funky and fashionable creations.\nMcCartney had known ever since her early teen years that she wanted to be a fashion designer; she was designing and making clothes by age thirteen. At age fifteen she had a brief internship in Paris with acclaimed designer Christian LaCroix. Later, during her university years, McCartney became an apprentice to tailor Edward Sexton, learning the finer points of tailoring on London's famed Savile Row, home to numerous traditional and highly respected custom clothing companies. She briefly worked at the French company Patou, makers of expensive custom-made clothes, but left the company in objection to their use of fur in some of their products.\nMcCartney attended Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design in London. Along with her fellow design students, McCartney designed a line of clothing to be displayed in a student fashion show as part of a graduation project. Like many of the other students, McCartney enlisted some friends to model her clothing during the show. Unlike her peers, however, McCartney's friends were supermodels Naomi Campbell and Kate Moss. Her models' fame, as well as her own celebrity stemming from her family ties (and the presence of her famous parents in the audience), attracted hordes of reporters and photographers from all over the world to the student show. Many of the other students resented the circus atmosphere and the fact that the press left the show immediately after McCartney's clothes had been shown. Some in the media and the fashion industry speculated that the extraordinary attention the young designer received had everything to do with her last name and little to do with her talent as a designer. But buyers for a number of upscale department stores, including Bergdorf Goodman and Neiman Marcus, disagreed, buying McCartney's line for sale in their stores.\nA rapid rise\nAfter her 1995 college graduation, McCartney opened her own boutique in London to sell her designs. Her designs featured a mix of crisp tailoring with lacy, romantic pieces, a combination that conveyed a sense of strong femininity. Her specialties were slip dresses and luxurious swishy silk skirts. \"My mom always collected thrift-shop stuff—especially Italian slips,\" McCartney related to Time magazine's Ginia Bellafante. \"I've always loved underwear and antique fabrics and lace for all their soft texture.\" Her designs were snapped up by fashion-conscious shoppers, including models, actresses, and musicians. In December of 1996, a man came into McCartney's boutique describing himself as the owner of a clothing store in Rome , Italy. He asked extensive questions about her collection and her ideas on how to sell fashions to women of all ages, and was impressed by McCartney's thorough understanding of quality clothing as well as the marketing of such items. He later introduced himself as Mounir Moufarrige, president of the long-admired Parisian design firm Chloe. Moufarrige, eager to revive his struggling company by appealing to consumers younger and hipper than Chloe's traditional customers, had traveled to McCartney's shop to meet the woman who had been generating so much buzz.\nWeeks later, Moufarrige offered the twenty-five-year-old designer a job as creative director of Chloe. Many in the fashion industry, including esteemed designer Karl Lagerfeld, who had previously held McCartney's position at Chloe, felt outraged that Moufarrige had hired a young and untested designer for such a significant position. McCartney soon silenced her critics, however, by bringing tremendous visibility and success to Chloe. Beginning with her first successful show with Chloe, in the fall of 1997, McCartney displayed her signature style of clean lines combined with delicate and sexy pieces. Critics acknowledged that her designs were not terribly bold or innovative, but they held tremendous appeal for consumers. McCartney not only improved the fortunes of Chloe, she also helped usher in a new trend in women's clothing that favored romantic, flirtatious styles over the plainer, nofrills look popular in the early 1990s. Just two years after she joined Chloe, Robin Givhan wrote in the Washington Post that under McCartney's direction, \"Chloe has not just gotten substantially better. It has been transformed.\" McCartney's professional success, however, was tempered by personal tragedy during this period. In 1998 her mother died after a three-year battle with breast cancer.\nIn 2000 McCartney won the VH1/Vogue Fashion and Music Designer of the Year Award. During that same year, she designed a bridal gown for one of the most high-profile weddings in the celebrity world—that of pop superstar (and McCartney pal) Madonna to filmmaker Guy Ritchie. During 2001 McCartney led Chloe in a new direction, overseeing the introduction of a more casual, less expensive clothing line called See. Her success at Chloe and increasing name recognition as a designer to watch generated numerous rumors that McCartney would not stay at the Paris company much longer. Her rapid rise through the ranks of the fashion industry led many to believe that she would soon strike out on her own and, after four years with the Paris firm, McCartney did in fact leave. She had struck a deal with the renowned Gucci Group to start her own design house.\nThe ups and downs of independence\nMcCartney wasted no time creating the first line for her new company, which bears her name and is half owned by Gucci. Just a few months after striking out on her own in the fall of 2001, she showed her first collection. The reception was not exactly favorable. McCartney deviated from her signature style, as reported by Lisa Armstrong at New York Metro.com: \"McCartney, who'd become a reliable source of lovely, easy-on-the-eye garments, chose this moment to replace her stock-in-trade flirtiness with something more hard-core.\" Armstrong pointed out that the timing of the show did not help matters; it took place one month after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, in New York City and Washington, D.C., a time when people sought comfort, not confrontation. Fashion journalists wrote harsh reviews of the show, with McCartney's critics reiterating their opinion that the designer was famous simply because of her name. With her next few collections, however, McCartney once again proved her critics wrong. She returned to her roots, focusing on designing clothes that made women feel and look good.\nIn the fall of 2002 McCartney opened her first store, in New York City, to feature her new company's designs. Her second store opened the following spring in London, with a third opening in the Los Angeles area in the fall of 2003. In the stores, which are called simply \"Stella McCartney,\" she sells her clothing as well as shoes, bags, and other accessories, including her own perfume, a scent called Stella. All of her products reflect McCartney's dedication to animal rights and other causes. In her clothing designs she emphasizes cottons and silks. Not one of her products, including shoes and bags, is made out of leather or fur. The company manufacturing her fragrance is prohibited from using genetically modified materials—that is, plants that have been altered by humans—and will not accept plants that were harvested by children or that are on any endangered species list. McCartney attributes her socially conscious attitude to the earthy styles of her parents, particularly her mother. She has also credited her mother with informing her fashion sensibility: the confidence to wear clothes she loves rather than following trends, a combination of vintage and modern looks, and the choice of a natural look over a highly polished one. Describing her mother's naturalness to Shane Watson of Harper's Bazaar, McCartney noted: \"You look at people in her position now, and they're all manicured and their hair's straightened, and she was so not that, ever. She never waxed her legs, never dyed her hair, and that is so rare.... I mean, my mum really was the coolest chick in the world.\"\nWhile the loss of her mother was devastating, McCartney has also experienced much personal and professional happiness in recent years. In August of 2003 she wed magazine publisher Alasdhair Willis in a small but elaborate ceremony. Taking place on a three-hundred-acre estate on the Scottish island of Bute, the wedding featured truck-loads of white roses imported from the Netherlands , a bagpipe band, and a fireworks display. Guests—including such celebrity pals as Gwyneth Paltrow, Liv Tyler, and Madonna—were transported in carriages pulled by Clydesdale horses. A large team of security guards kept the press at bay, ensuring a calm and private affair. On the professional front, McCartney has achieved increasing success with each new collection. Tom Ford, the former creative director of Gucci, told Armstrong why he has so much confidence in McCartney: \"She has everything it takes to be successful—the drive, the will, and the intelligence. She has great style, great taste.\"\nFor More Information\nPeriodicals\n\"And I Love Her.\" People (September 15, 2003): p. 66.\nBellafante, Ginia. \"Tired of Chic Simple? Welcome to the New Romance.\" Time (April 6, 1998): p. 66.\nConti, Samantha. \"Jagger's New Jewels.\" WWD (September 16, 2002): p. 17.\nDiamond, Kerry. \"Stella's Sexy New Scent.\" Harper's Bazaar (September 2003): p. 248.\nFallon, James. \"Life with Gucci.\" WWD (July 3, 2001): p. 1.\nGivhan, Robin. Washington Post (January 29, 1999): p. C1.\nWatson, Shane. \"Twenty-four Hours with Stella McCartney.\" Harper's Bazaar (September 2002): p. 426.\nWeb Sites\nArmstrong, Lisa. \"Stella Nova.\" New York Metro.com. http://www.newyorkmetro.com/shopping/articles/02/fallfashion/stellanova/ (accessed on July 14, 2004).\nStella McCartney. http://www.stellamccartney.com/ (accessed on July 14, 2004).\n\"Who's Who: Stella McCartney.\" Vogue.com. http://www.vogue.co.uk/whos_who/Stella_McCartney/default.html# (accessed on July 14, 2004).\nCite this article\nPick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography.\nMLA"
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Which supermodel was married to Rod Stewart?
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"Rod Stewart was born on January 10 ... England as Roderick David Stewart. He has been married to Penny ... A lifelong collector of model trains, Stewart maintains an ...",
"Former Supermodel Rachel Hunter looking less ... doesn’t run into former flame Rod Stewart. The one-time supermodel was recently snapped in ... Stewart married in ...",
"Rod bares all about losing 'beautiful' Rachel. ... a supermodel with a TV fitness video ... Stewart has been married three times: ...",
"Rachel Hunter, Self: Ford Supermodel of the World. ... She was previously married to Rod Stewart. See full bio » Born: September 9, 1969 in ...",
"Rachel Hunter Remains in Rod Stewart's Heart, ... Not-So-Hot Rod. ... New Zealand-born model Rachel Hunter, ...",
"... they recorded Stewart's acclaimed solo debut, The Rod Stewart Album . ... he married model Alana Hamilton; they went on to have two children, ...",
"Rod Stewart's ex-wife Rachel ... The internet goes wild for Bill Clinton's 'crazy hot' model nephew ... Hunter eventually plucked up the courage to leave Stewart.",
"Rod Stewart admits that his ex-wife Rachel Hunter broke his heart; ... who has been married three times, ... Rod, who married the New Zealand born model in 1990, ..."
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"Rod Stewart - Biography - IMDb\nRod Stewart\nBiography\nShowing all 82 items\nJump to: Overview (4) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (3) | Trade Mark (2) | Trivia (38) | Personal Quotes (34)\nOverview (4)\n5' 10\" (1.78 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nRod Stewart was born on January 10, 1945 in Highgate, London, England as Roderick David Stewart. He has been married to Penny Lancaster since June 16, 2007. They have two children. He was previously married to Rachel Hunter and Alana Stewart .\nSpouse (3)\n( 6 April 1979 - 1984) (divorced) (2 children)\nTrade Mark (2)\nFifth child of Robert and Elsie Stewart.\nHis brothers and sisters are Mary, Peggy, Don and Bob.\nHas eight children: Sarah Thubron Streeter (born 1964) born to art student Susannah Boffey; Kimberly Stewart (born 21 August 1979) and Sean Stewart (born 1 September 1980) born to Alana Stewart (ex-wife of actor George Hamilton ; Ruby Stewart (born 17 June 1987), born to Kelly Emberg , his girlfriend at the time; Renee Stewart (born 1 June 1992), Liam McAlister Stewart (born 4 September 1994), born to ex-wife Rachel Hunter , a model, Alistair Wallace Stewart (born 27 November 2005) and Aiden Stewart (born 16 February 2011), born to wife Penny Lancaster .\nContrary to popular belief, he was never a professional soccer player with Brentford Football Club before becoming a musician, this was one of many stories invented by his publicist when Rod was starting to hit the big time. Rod was successfully sued by Brazilian singer Jorge Ben Jor who claimed the tune to Rod's \"Do Ya Think I'm Sexy?\" was too similar to his song \"Taj Mahal\". Ben won the lawsuit and asked Rod to donate all his profits from the song to UNICEF.\nHis daughter, Kimberly Stewart , designs shoes.\nLead singer for the 1970s rock group The Faces .\nInducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994.\nGave his friend Elton John the nickname \"Sharon\".\nCovered Elton John 's hit song \"Your Song\".\nAlthough he was born in England and has English blood on his mother's side, he has Scottish blood on his father's side and prefers to be considered a Scotsman.\nIn 1998, he bought the Victorian mansion Stargroves in Hampshire, which had previously belonged to Mick Jagger of The Rolling Stones .\nHe put on the first concert at SkyDome in Toronto, Canada in 1989.\nVoted the sexiest male spectacles wearer in a 2004 poll by Specsavers opticians.\n(March 9, 2005) Proposed to girlfriend Penny Lancaster at the top of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France. They married according to their plan, on board his yacht \"Lady Anne MaGee\" in the Portofino harbor, Italy, after his divorce from Rachel Hunter was finalized.\nContray to rumor, he did not play the harmonica on Millie Small 's 1964 #2 hit \"My Boy Lollipop\", her credited as Millie.\nUnderwent successful surgery for thyroid cancer in July 2000, and announced he was completely recovered in January 2001.\nIn an early stage of The Kinks , before future frontman Ray Davies was willing to be the lead singer, they recruited Stewart (who grew up in the same neighborhood as the Davies brothers) as a singer. After a couple of weeks of trying to be a band, Stewart and the future Kinks found that they did not get along that well, with their musical tastes being too different, and parted ways.\nFirst artist to record the Burt Bacharach / Carole Bayer Sager song \"That's What Friends Are For\" (for the movie Night Shift (1982)), four years before it became a number one hit for Dionne Warwick , Elton John , Gladys Knight and Stevie Wonder .\nWas the original lead singer of the Jeff Beck Group. However, when the band was scheduled to appear at Woodstock he quit on the eve of the show due to the fact that his best friend Ronnie Wood , who was playing bass at the time, was kicked out.\nIs a supporter of Glasgow Celtic Football Club.\nWinner of the 1993 Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution.\nHe was awarded the CBE (Commander of the Order of the British Empire) in the 2007 Queen's New Years Honours List for his services to music.\nThe story that Rod once worked as a gravedigger was another myth which he created with his publicist.\n(November 14, 2006) Inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame for his outstanding contribution to British music and integral part of British music culture.\nRanked #94 on VH1's 100 Sexiest Artists.\nRanked #71 on VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of Rock & Roll.\nLives in Los Angeles, California.\nHad relationships with Dee Harrington (1971-1975), Kelly Emberg (1983-1990), Bebe Buell and Britt Ekland .\nHe was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Recording at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California on October 11, 2005.\nRecorded several of his multi-platinum selling albums at Cherokee Recording Studios, including \"A Night on the Town\", \"Footloose and Fancy Free\" and \"Blondes Have More Fun\".\nThe 2009 Sunday Times List estimated his net worth at $164 million.\nDiscovered busking in a train station in the early 1960s by British blues pioneer Long John Baldry . Baldry was so impressed with Stewart's vocal prowess, he invited him to join his band, The Hoochie Coochie Men. Stewart has often admitted in interviews that he owes his great success to that chance meeting with Baldry.\nWhen then-girlfriend Britt Ekland discovered that Rod was seeing other women, she filed a $12.5 million palimony suit, claiming that, as she had given up much of her career for him, she deserved a large portion of his income. The lawsuit was dismissed.\nWhen asked what he had like to have as his epitaph on Piers Morgan Tonight: Episode dated 30 March 2011 (2011), Stewart quipped, \"I'm a celebrity, get me out of here.\".\nDuring a period when first touring in the United States where rowdy Rod and his band were prohibited from staying in some hotels, the boys used to masquerade as Fleetwood Mac in order acquire accommodation.\nA lifelong collector of model trains, Stewart maintains an elaborate outlay in an upstairs room of his Los Angeles home that stretches the length of his house. Bases his layout scale on the 1940s New York Central and Pennsylvania line.\n(July 2, 2007) Performed at the \"Concert for Diana\" at the new Wembley Stadium in London, England.\nHe was awarded the Knight Bachelor of the Order of the British Empire in the 2016 Queen's Birthday Honours List for his services to Music and Charity. He is a singer and songwriter in Essex, England.\nPersonal Quotes (34)\nInstead of getting married again, I'm going to find a woman I don't like and just give her a house.\n[on looking young] The secret is to moisturise the face. I've been doing that since I was 17 years old.\n[on Brigitte Bardot ] She's the only woman I've ever had a sexual fantasy about. With me, looks come first, and she's everything a woman should be. She's blonde and beautiful, she's got the most incredible legs--et cetera, et cetera. And she's French as well.\n[on his former wife, Rachel Hunter , shortly after their break-up] She was the first woman who left me.\n[on being awarded the CBE] It's a marvellous occasion. We're the only country in the world to honour the common man.\nElvis was the king. No doubt about it. People like myself, Mick Jagger and all the others only followed in his footsteps.\n[on his move to Los Angeles, California] The British taxation in 1975 was absolutely crippling. I think about 84% of my income was going in income tax. And I wasn't inspired by the music scene in '73, '74, '75 either.\nI don't believe you should flaunt your wealth like Liberace or something.\nI don't know anybody that doesn't like being famous and anybody that doesn't like it shouldn't have thought about being famous in the first place. I think it's absolutely marvelous being famous. I love it. I like walking down the street and being recognised. I don't go out of my way to be recognised. I mean I don't go walking down the street in a pink satin suit.\nI don't think people expect Bruce Springsteen to come out in a pink satin jacket, but Rod Stewart they do. And I like doing it, I don't wear it just because I think I have to. I'm a very flamboyant person.\nI don't mind buying one round of drinks, but I am bloody well not going to buy another. I don't miss a penny. I get a daily statement about where every penny is going and every investment. I wouldn't say I worry about money, but you never know what's around the corner. I worry more about my children's views on money sometimes. They've grown up privileged and it's an ongoing battle. They know the price of everything and the value of nothing.\nI've been lucky. I couldn't deal with it if I'd run out of barnet. Imagine me with a Bobby Charlton comb-over.\nMy age group and our age group, the Stones [ The Rolling Stones ] and Elton [ Elton John ], it's hard to get on the radio. And it's hard to buy records now 'cos you can't buy 'em anywhere. My audience like to go in and buy records.\n[on Mick Jagger ] I've got utmost respect for Mick and the boys. I love 'em to death. He's a great singer, he's one of the greatest. He's not quite as good as me.\nI've always looked on myself as one of a band and never sought a solo career.\nIt's always been a spiritual home, but as I don't live there I shouldn't comment on Scottish independence. If it's good for the Scots I'm happy. I hope it's not a lot of kids thinking ' Braveheart (1995)'. I'd hate to see the union broken after all these years. And I don't think it will happen.\nI'm a romantic and like a one-on-one situation, candlelight and foreplay, all the old-fashioned things.\nThere's never been much rivalry between any of our generation - well, maybe me and Elton [ Elton John ] but that's friendly.\n[on Mick Jagger ] Mick's a fine blues singer, but technically not as good as me. He's made the best of what he's got, but I don't think he could do standards and he may not want to.\nEvery three years, Model Railroader puts me on their cover, which is better than Rolling Stone.\n[on Elton John ] The second-best rock singer ever.\n[on Tom Waits ] He's one of my favorite all-time songwriters.\n[on \"Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?\"] It certainly wasn't one of the best songs I've written. It transformed me overnight into a sex symbol I suppose, for want of a better word, and everything that goes with that, and for a long time I believed everything I read about myself in the papers. People, when we do live shows, they love that song, everywhere around the world.\nI believe I'm a romantic. I can cry at sad films and I like candle-lit dinners. All depends what you describe as being a romantic.\n[on love songs] I've always written songs like that. I think it comes as the years go on, you mature a little bit and you want to write songs that are more loving songs.\nI've got a lot of English blood in me, not too much English blood, but I consider myself to be a fairly good lover, I've had no complaints. I've had no compliments either.\nWhen Scotland play England, I don't care if it's schoolboys or what it is, it's very serious.\n[on the World Cup in 1986] If that had been an English goal when Maradona [ Diego Maradona ] handballed it, everyone would have said it was OK, it's just that it was on the other team, but I've got a feeling that none of the British teams could have won it, maybe it's about time we had a Great Britain team. It's only an idea.\n[on the World Cup in 1986] We played three, we weren't too good in the last one, but I was real proud of them. I was really proud of the British teams all round, not just Scotland.\nBeing a football fan and playing Wembley, it's not like Wham! - I don't think are real football fans - but it means a hell of a lot to me.\n[on the suggestion his tax exile status could have prevented a knighthood] Mick [ Mick Jagger ] doesn't pay taxes here, and Tom [ Tom Jones ] lives in America. If my time comes, it will. And if it doesn't, I'm not bothered. Are you kidding? I never expected a CBE.\nPeople said I went astray with Da Ya Think I'm Sexy? and they're absolutely right. I jumped on a bandwagon, but everyone loves it. It's my novelty song. I try to give the audience what they want, and sod the critics.",
"Former Supermodel Rachel Hunter looking less than super - NY Daily News\nFormer Supermodel Rachel Hunter looking less than super... but much better than ex-Rod Stewart!\nFormer Supermodel Rachel Hunter looking less than super \nNEW YORK DAILY NEWS\nWednesday, August 22, 2012, 5:00 PM\nRachel Hunter looks like she’s heading to the beach — let’s hope she doesn’t run into former flame Rod Stewart .\nThe one-time supermodel was recently snapped in a skimpy bandeau top and flowy trousers — a far cry from the string bikinis she once wore in the pages of Sports Illustrated magazine — but a modest choice.\nHunter, 42, appeared less than polished in the photos, as she clutched a canvas tote to her chest and ran a hand through her hair, but at least she was dressed — which is more than one can say for Stewart.\nRAF/ZOJ/Mandatory Credit: WENN.com\nPaparazzi recently caught the 67-year-old British rocker letting it all hang out in a tiny blue Speedo, on vacation with his family in Miami.\nHunter and Stewart married in 1990. While they announced their split in 1999, they weren’t officially divorced until 2006.\[email protected]\nMiamiPIXX/FAMEFLYNET PICTURES/MiamiPIXX/FAMEFLYNET PICTURES\nSinger Rod Stewart enjoys the beach of Miami, Florida with his current wife Penny Lancaster and son Alastair on Aug. 7.",
"Rod bares all about losing 'beautiful' Rachel - Entertainment - NZ Herald News\nRachel Glucina looks at the top events and newsmakers of the day.\nRod bares all about losing 'beautiful' Rachel\n5:30 AM Wednesday Oct 10, 2012\nSHARE:\nThe Diary\nRod Stewart has revealed he shed 5kg and threw himself into yoga, psychotherapy and self-help books after his wife Rachel Hunter dumped him. He was blindsided and begged her to stay - but she wouldn't.\nIn an extract from his book, Rod: The Autobiography of Rod Stewart, released this week and serialised in Britain's Daily Mail, the 67-year-old divulges the lengths he went to to mend his broken heart - including lying on the couch for four months clutching a hot water bottle.\nBut don't accept the invite to the pity party just yet. Stewart had planned to propose to Kelly Emberg (the mother of his daughter Ruby) and hired a small plane to trail a banner popping the question.\nBut the night before the big romantic gesture, he met Hunter - a supermodel with a TV fitness video - at LA nightclub the Roxbury and, well, swiftly changed his mind.\n\"There was a connection straight away. She was extremely beautiful, but there was something no-nonsense about her as well. It was there in her New Zealand accent, but also in her face, which was open and smart,\" Stewart writes.\nOf course, it helped that she had her own bank account.\n\"Not only was she as far removed as could be from the stereotype of the flaky model, but she already had money and fame. That was a relief. In my position, that suspicion was always there: does this woman really like me, or just the stuff that surrounds me?\"\nStewart has been married three times: to model Alana Hamilton, Rachel Hunter and model Penny Lancaster, and his long-term girlfriends have included model Dee Harrington and model Kelly Emberg. There's a theme.\nBut he fell for Hunter, hard. He sent her roses and flew to New York, where she was working, on a dedicated wooing mission. She played hard to get and went to bed with him wearing a modern day chastity belt: a floor-length T-shirt.\nContinued below.\nRod Stewart ashamed over past breakups\n\"She wore a T-shirt that came down to her ankles - a T-shirt that said 'Not tonight, thank you' as efficiently as if she had come clanking out of the bathroom in a deep-sea diving outfit,\" he writes.\nThey consummated their relationship on a romantic fling to the Bahamas. There was a rented Learjet, a chartered boat and whispers of a wedding. Three months later they married in a Beverley Hills church. Rod was 45; Rachel was 20.\nFootball mates played the role of ushers wearing sunglasses and white canes. \"They performed an impression of the blind leading the blind,\" he says.\nEvidently the jokes kept coming. Rachel arrived at the altar and pinched Rod on the bum. But Rod's sister, Mary, wasn't laughing. She said, prophetically, \"That girl will break his heart one day.\"\nThey had two children - Liam and Renee - and travelled together as a family when Stewart toured. They dressed, too, for dinner like lord and lady of the manor, meeting on the landing to appreciate each other's outfits and descending the stairs together.\n\"I had no idea how oppressive Rachel found this, how much she wished she could have been in her jeans, eating poached eggs on toast,\" the rock'n'roll veteran says.\nHunter wanted out of the marriage. She was unhappy and couldn't conceal it any longer.\nThe couple split in 1999 but Rod says he was loyal. \"In the eight years we were together, I was entirely faithful ... Rachel was everything I wanted; I became a devoted husband overnight.\"\nHunter declined to comment. Her rep, Andy Haden, said she was interviewed for her ex-husband's book but \"she hasn't read it yet\". She had to delay her own book plans until next year \"because Rod's book was coming out\".\nGREEN CARPET FOR AL GORE\nFormer Vice-President Al Gore can expect the full green carpet trappings at Friday night's gala dinner in Manukau where he will be guest of honour. The climate change environmentalist jets into the country on Friday morning by commercial airliner, but the carbon footprint miles will not overshadow the sustainable business message he's come to preach.\nOrganisers say guests - including convicted greenie activist Lucy Lawless and NZ First leader Winston Peters - will drink wine from an environmentally sustainable Marlborough winery and Gore will be driven to the venue in a hybrid BMW. Westpac - winners of the 2012 Sustainable Bank of the Year Award - have spent big bucks to sponsor the event which will be MC'd by champagne socialist-in-chief John Campbell.\nCARLY'S TURN IN LIMELIGHT\nAs ratings for the two-women reality TV show, The Ridges, continues to slide, another Ridge woman is stepping into the spotlight. Matthew Ridge's partner Carly Binding, the mother of their 2-year-old son London, is performing in an Andrew Lloyd Webber production next month.\nBinding will star in the one-woman show, Tell Me on a Sunday, which will run at Q Theatre from November 14-24. The former pop star tells The Diary the Broadway musical is a big challenge. \"I'm a classically trained singer, but I had to learn how to use my voice like that again and unlearn everything I did in pop.\"\nFormer True Bliss band mate Joe Cotton is expected to attend the opening night performance - but don't expect the other members. Nor Sally and Jaime and their trailing TV cameras. There's no love lost there. Boh Runga and her sister Bic will, however, show their support in the front row. So too, Binding's beloved.",
"Rachel Hunter - IMDb\nIMDb\nRachel Hunter was born on September 9, 1969 in Auckland, New Zealand. She is an actress and producer, known for Ford Supermodel of the World (1995), The Benchwarmers (2006) and Jordon Saffron: Taste This! (2009). She was previously married to Rod Stewart . See full bio »\nBorn:\nFamous Directors: From Sundance to Prominence\nFrom Christopher Nolan to Quentin Tarantino and every Coen brother in between, many of today's most popular directors got their start at the Sundance Film Festival . Here's a list of some of the biggest names to go from Sundance to Hollywood prominence.",
"Not-So-Hot Rod\nNot-So-Hot Rod\nEmail\nNot long before Christmas, Rod Stewart was in his usual corner in the Theydon Oak, a pub near his home in Epping, outside of London. But the normally easygoing British rocker, who’s not averse to enjoying a pint with the lads, seemed lonely enough to sing the blues. “He looked pretty unhappy,” says James Lange, 23, a local resident who frequents the pub. Says another patron: “I got the impression he was on his own in the mansion. That must have been pretty depressing.”\nBy last week, Stewart was hunkered down in a second estate, this one in Beverly Hills, but his winter remained bleak. On Jan. 7 the 54-year-old rock star and his second wife, New Zealand-born model Rachel Hunter, 29, announced that they were separating after eight years. Stewart, denying to the British press that the marriage had unraveled because of any infidelity, said it was Hunter’s decision to move out and “find herself” as a person. “I was so sure she was the woman I was going to spend the rest of my life with,” he added. “I hope and pray with all my heart that she will eventually come back.”\nHe may have reason to believe she will. Hunter and their two children—Renee, 6, and Liam, 4—are staying near Stewart in L.A., and the couple meet daily to discuss their differences, which surfaced before the holidays. Celebrating their eighth wedding anniversary Dec. 15 in a London restaurant, says one witness, the two seemed “very cheerful.” But by the time they left, to the scrutiny of waiting paparazzi, they were publicly rowing. And the next evening, Hunter caught Stewart flirting with her friend Andrea Trevor at the Dorchester Hotel, where the couple were staying. Stewart’s brother Don, 68, a retired accountant, had noticed Hunter’s absence from Rod’s recent U.K. concerts. “I only saw her once out of 12 shows,” he says.\nStewart’s ex-fiancée Dee Harrington is not surprised. “Rachel,” says Harrington, who was engaged to Stewart between 1971 and ’75, “got bored with Rod,” whom Harrington characterizes as a perennial “lad” with a penchant for drinking with his mates and pursuing women. These have included Swedish actress Britt Ekland, now 56, who ended up suing him for $15 million in palimony in 1978 (her case was dismissed); first wife Alana Stewart, 53, with whom he had Kimberly, 19, and Sean, 18, before their ’84 divorce; and Kelly Emberg, 39, who gave birth to their daughter, Ruby, now 11, before they split in 1990 after seven years. “He’s always liked ladies,” says model-turned-music executive Harrington, “and they always liked him.”\nThen there are Stewart’s other hobbies. Recalling their relationship, Harrington says he loved to “hang out with his football mates and watch football and play with his train set.” Even now, Stewart keeps a professional-quality soccer field on his Epping property and amuses himself in L.A. with an extravagant 100-foot-track train set comprising computer-programmed locomotives.\nOf course his tastes have often been more refined than that. Stewart, worth an estimated $100 million, can easily plunk down $7 million for an oceanfront mansion in Palm Beach, Fla., as the couple did in 1995. There they were regarded as “a nice contribution to the community,” says real estate broker Rusty Gulden. “Not like the Rolling Stones.”\nBut apparently too much like the Stones to suit Hunter, at least in terms of Stewart’s advancing years and the couple’s 25-year age difference. “No matter how rich or generous he is, his references are still all her parents’ references,” says rock expert Ray Connolly. “Now she’s grown-up and looking around, and he’s this middle-aged man who’s had his fun. And she thinks, ‘Maybe I’ve missed out.’ ”\nHunter, in fact, has been playing career catchup, taking acting classes, signing with a talent agent and even landing a leading film role. “Rod was supportive,” says David Glasser, who produced Two Shades of Blue, an as-yet-unreleased thriller the novice actress shot last summer with Eric Roberts. “He seemed proud.”\nAnd Hunter seems optimistic—maybe. “We’re just working things through,” she told London’s Daily Mail last week. “These things can be dreadful.”\nTom Gliatto\nJoanna Blonska, Matthew Chapman and Liz Corcoran in London, Tom Cunneff and Paula Yoo in Los Angeles and Don Sider in Palm Beach\nShow Full Article",
"Rod Stewart Biography - life, family, children, story, wife, young, son, old, born, marriage - Newsmakers Cumulation\nRod Stewart Biography\nSinger\nRod Stewart\nBorn January 10, 1945, in London, England; married Alana Hamilton (a model), 1979 (divorced, 1984); married Rachel Hunter (a model), 1991 (divorced, 2006); children: Kimberly, Sean (from first marriage), Ruby (with Kelly Emberg), Renee, Liam (from second marriage), Alastair (with Penny Lancaster).\nAddresses: Record company —J-Records, 745 Fifth Ave., 6th Flr., New York, NY 10151. Website —http://www.rodstewart.com.\nCareer\nWorked as apprentice for Brentford Football Club, early 1960s; toured with folk singer Wizz Jones; sang in Jimmy Powell & the Five Dimensions, the Hoochie Coochie Men (later Steampacket), and Shotgun Express, mid-1960s; lead singer of the Jeff Beck Group, 1968–69; released first solo album, The Rod Stewart Album , 1969; joined the Small Faces (later the Faces), 1969; performed on MTV Unplugged , performance released on CD as Unplugged … And Seated , 1993; released Human , 2001; released Great American Songbook series, 2002–05; released Still the Same … Great Rock Classics of Our Time , 2006.\nAwards: Grammy Award for best traditional pop vocal album, Recording Academy, for Stardust … The Great American Songbook Volume III , 2004.\nSidelights\nRod Stewart, perhaps the most popular British rocker of the 1970s, has enjoyed platinum record sales, seemingly permanent celebrity, an equally permanent place on classic rock radio, wealth, and the company of countless beautiful young women. Yet he has also suffered a 30-year assault on his reputation from the music press, eternally disappointed that he forsook his early '70s blend of rowdy rock-and-roll with rough, poignant folk music for a slick pop sound, heartstring-snapping ballads, and lyrics that celebrate his own playboy decadence.\nAt his best, wrote critic Jon Pareles in the New York Times , Stewart is \"one of rock's more appealing personas—a rueful working-class rake, well aware of love's pratfalls but sincere when he pledges his devotion.\" Also key to his appeal is his distinctive raspy voice, which John Rockwell, another New York Times critic, described as a \"whisky tenor\" that combines \"manly toughness with aching emotional pain and the sexuality that high voices have always symbolized.\"\nBorn in a working-class part of London to a Scottish family, Stewart took up music as a young man in the early 1960s after working as an apprentice for the Brentford Football Club. He toured Europe with Wizz Jones, a folk singer. Over the next few years, he sang in several short-lived British R&B and blues-rock bands, including Jimmy Powell & the Five Dimensions, the Hoochie Coochie Men (which, after renaming itself Steampacket, toured with the Rolling Stones), and Shotgun Express.\nStewart's first moment of rock stardom came as lead singer of the Jeff Beck Group, named after the band's guitarist, formerly of the mid-'60s British blues-rock band the Yardbirds. Stewart's wildly emotional vocals fit well with Beck's heavy, dramatic guitar work. Together, on the albums Truth and Beck-Ola —\"exercises in brilliant bombast,\" as Rolling Stone 's biography of Stewart puts it—they helped establish the heavy, pre-metal, blues-based rock sound that Jimi Hendrix and Cream were also exploring and that would soon make Led Zeppelin famous.\nIn 1969, as Beck recovered from a car accident, Stewart and Beck's bass player, Ron Wood, left the band. Together, they recorded Stewart's acclaimed solo debut, The Rod Stewart Album . (That was its American title; it was named An Old Raincoat Won't Let You Down in Great Britain.) The album combined R&B and rock sounds with Stewart's folk roots to create a semi-acoustic rock and roll sound. Covers ranged from \"Street Fighting Man,\" a then-recent Rolling Stones hit, to \"Dirty Old Town,\" a classic folk song by Scottish songwriter Ewan MacColl. The songs Stewart wrote himself were poignant character sketches of misfits and people down on their luck.\nThe combination of Wood's slide guitar and Stewart's gravelly voice was even more successful than Beck and Stewart's collaboration. Stewart and Wood soon joined the band the Small Faces, whose lead singer had just left. After putting out their first album, First Step , in the spring of 1970, which established them as a sloppy but fun band with a heavy Rolling Stones influence, the group renamed itself the Faces.\nFor the next four years, Stewart and Wood worked together on roughly two albums a year, both Stewart albums and Faces albums. On his second solo album, Gasoline Alley , released in the fall of 1970, Stewart began to establish a reputation as an excellent interpreter of Bob Dylan songs by covering Dylan's folk song \"Only A Hobo.\" The Stewart-Wood collaboration peaked in the year 1971, with Stewart's third solo album, Every Picture Tells A Story , which hit number one in America and Britain and made Stewart famous. It included Stewart's best-known song, still played relentlessly on classic rock stations: \"Maggie May.\" The song tells the story of a young man trying to tear himself away from a consuming romance with a more mature woman. Stewart has said it was based on an actual affair he had with an older woman when he was 15 or 16. Also in 1971, the Faces released perhaps their best two albums, Long Player and A Nod Is as Good as a Wink … To a Blind Horse , which reached the top ten in America and Britain and included their only American hit, \"Stay With Me.\"\nThe success of Stewart's solo career began to create tension in the Faces as they toured in early 1972. His new solo album, Never A Dull Moment , lived up to its title by ranging from a cover of soul singer Sam Cooke's euphoric \"Twistin' the Night Away\" to the lustful \"Italian Girls.\" The Faces recorded one more studio album, Ooh La La , in 1973 and quarreled during a difficult tour of the United States, documented on the live album Coast to Coast: Overture and Beginners . The band, estranged by early 1974, officially broke up in 1975, and Wood went on to join the Rolling Stones.\nRock critics began to turn against Stewart with the release of his next solo album, Smiler , in 1974. Though recorded in the same style as his previous efforts, it showed he was in something of a rut. It included a strong cover of Dylan's \"Girl from the North Country,\" but also an ill-advised cover of Aretha Franklin's song \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman,\" which Stewart changed to \"Natural Man.\" Still, the album was a hit.\nIn 1975, Stewart began a romance with Britt Ekland, a Swedish actress. He also decided to move to the United States because of a dispute with the British government over his taxes. His next album, Atlantic Crossing , commemorated his move and marked his transition from rock toward pop music. A Night on the Town from 1976, had a similar slick pop sound, but also featured ambitious songwriting. Stewart tipped his hat to his gay fans with \"The Killing of Georgie (Part I and II),\" a narrative about the murder of a gay friend of his, and covered folk singer Cat Stevens' \"The First Cut is the Deepest.\"\nAs Stewart became famous for his wild lifestyle and many actress and model girlfriends, his album titles turned cheeky, playing up his playboy image. Albums such as Foot Loose & Fancy Free and Blondes Have More Fun , released in 1977 and 1978, sold millions of copies. On the latter, Stewart embraced disco. Critics reacted badly, especially hating the single \"Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?\"—but it became one of Stewart's biggest pop hits, hitting number one in 1979. Around this time, he married model Alana Hamilton; they went on to have two children, Kimberly and Sean.\nIn 1981, on Tonight I'm Yours , Stewart updated his sound with then-popular new wave and synth pop styles. But his career took a downturn soon after, both in record sales and musical quality. He released a few singles during the 1980s, such as \"Lost in You\" and a cover of Dylan's \"Forever Young,\" that were well-crafted enough to hit the pop charts but soft enough to disappoint old fans. A 1984 profile in People found him going through a bitter divorce from his first wife, Alana, after five years of marriage, and becoming more frugal after years of outrageous spending. \"Gone are the fleet of nine sports cars, the troop of retainers,\" reported Todd Gold of People . Not gone were Stewart's playboy antics; at 39, he was dating a 25-year-old model, Kelly Emberg, and several other women. (He eventually had a daughter, Ruby, with Emberg.) He briefly reunited with Beck for what was to be a full tour, but Beck soon dropped out after—in the opinion of Stewart and his band—dragging down the show with extremely long guitar solos.\nStewart was 39 when Gold profiled him for People . He was about to bring his 80-year-old father along on tour with him for two weeks, which made him think about what it would be like to be that old. \"I suppose it'd be hard to sing rock 'n' roll at 80,\" he told Gold with a laugh. \"But you've got no idea what it's like to be up there in front of 20,000 screaming fans. It's a hard thing to give up. It's really like a drug.\"\nA comeback began in 1989 when Stewart, embracing the advent of CDs and the trend of career-spanning box sets, released the four-disc set Storyteller . It included a cover of the Tom Waits song \"Downtown Train,\" which became a major hit. He showed a partial return to rock form with 1991's Vagabond Heart , which included a duet with soul star Tina Turner and contributions from Robbie Robertson, former leader of The Band (Dylan's mid-'60s backup group, which had become popular in its own right in the 1970s). He reunited with Wood for his appearance on the television show MTV Unplugged , which spawned the album Unplugged … and Seated . The well-received performance included many of his best songs from the early '70s. Meanwhile, his love life was on the upswing too; in 1991, he married another model, Rachel Hunter, who was in her early 20s, half his age. The couple had a daughter, Renee, and a son, Liam.\nWith the 1998 album When We Were the New Boys , whose title clearly points back to his rock roots, Stewart pleased rock and roll fans for the first time in years. The album included a strong cover of \"Cigarettes and Alcohol\" by Oasis, one of the top British rock bands of the 1990s. But he quickly hit another rough patch in his career and romantic life. In 1999, he and his wife separated. Stewart, then 54, cheered himself up by dating another model, Tracy Tweed, 34, followed by 29-year-old underwater photographer Robbie Lauren, followed by Penny Lancaster, also 29 and both a photographer and a lingerie model. Thyroid surgery in 2000 lowered his voice slightly, and his 2001 album Human , an attempt to cross over to urban and contemporary pop, bombed commercially and was savaged by critics.\nTo revive his career, Stewart tapped the songwriting of a much earlier generation. Starting with It Had to Be You and continuing through three more albums, Stewart recorded versions of classics from the Great American Songbook, a term for the best American pop music of the first half of the 20th century, including the work of such acclaimed songwriters as George Gershwin and Cole Porter. The albums, released between 2002 and 2005 and collected into a box set, became hits on adult contemporary charts. Stewart had not expected their commercial success. \"It was meant to be a labor of love, something I was doing for a laugh,\" he told Rebecca Winters of Time , \"and here we are going double platinum.\"\nSome critics recoiled, though, saying Stewart lacked the vocal talent to interpret the nuanced old standards. Chuck Arnold of People proclaimed the first two albums \"lame.\" Ty Burr of Entertainment Weekly called the whole series \"sacrilegious.\" Stewart seemed unfazed. In March of 2005, at age 60, he proposed to Lancaster, now 34, while they were in at the top of Paris' Eiffel Tower. That December, Lancaster gave birth to Stewart's sixth child, Alastair. In March of 2006, Stewart and Hunter finalized their divorce after a seven-year legal battle.\nIn 2006, Stewart's career took another new turn. He encouraged celebrity Paris Hilton to record his song \"Da Ya Think I'm Sexy\" for her first album, and she did. It was released on her first album in August of 2006. Meanwhile, Stewart announced the October of 2006 release of his new album, Still the Same … Great Rock Classics of Our Time , which includes rock ballads such as Dylan's \"If Not For You,\" Creedence Clearwater Revival's \"Have You Ever Seen the Rain,\" and the title track, Bob Seger's \"Still the Same.\" The album was predicted to be a return to form that would please both consumers and hard-to-please critics.\nSelected discography\nThe Rod Stewart Album , Mercury, 1969.\nGasoline Alley , Mercury, 1970.\nEvery Picture Tells A Story , Mercury, 1971.\nNever A Dull Moment , Mercury, 1972.\nSmiler , Mercury, 1974.\nAtlantic Crossing , Warner Bros., 1975.\nA Night on the Town , Warner Bros., 1976.\nFoot Loose & Fancy Free , Warner Bros., 1977.\nBlondes Have More Fun , Warner Bros., 1978.\nFoolish Behaviour , Warner Bros., 1980.\nTonight I'm Yours , Warner Bros., 1981.\nAbsolutely Live , Warner Bros., 1982.\nBody Wishes , Warner Bros., 1983.\nCamouflage , Warner Bros., 1984.\nEvery Beat of My Heart , Wea International, 1986.\nRod Stewart , Warner Bros., 1986.\nOut of Order , Warner Bros., 1988.\nStoryteller (box set), Warner Bros., 1989.\nVagabond Heart , Warner Bros., 1991.\nUnplugged … And Seated , Warner Bros., 1993.\nSpanner in the Works , Warner Bros., 1995.\nWhen We Were the New Boys , Warner Bros., 1998.\nHuman , Atlantic, 2001.\nIt Had to Be You … The Great American Songbook , J-Records, 2002.\nAs Time Goes By … The Great American Songbook, Vol. 2 , J-Records, 2003.\nStardust … The Great American Songbook, Vol. 3 , J-Records, 2004.\nThanks for the Memory … The Great American Songbook, Vol. 4 , J-Records, 2005.\nThe Great American Songbook Box Set , J-Records, 2005.\nStill the Same … Great Rock Classics of Our Time , J-Records, 2006.\nThe Faces\nFirst Step (as the Small Faces), Mercury, 1970.\nLong Player , Mercury, 1971.\nA Nod Is as Good as a Wink … To a Blind Horse , Mercury, 1971.\nOoh La La , Mercury, 1973.\nCoast to Coast: Overture and Beginners , Mercury, 1974.\nJeff Beck Group",
"'Why I had to leave Rod,' by Rachel | Daily Mail Online\nNext\n'Why I had to leave Rod,' by Rachel\nRod Stewart's ex-wife Rachel Hunter has told of the agony behind her decision to leave her rock star husband because she felt stifled by their eight-year marriage.\nThe New Zealand-born model said she'd become so cosseted by her lavish lifestyle that she didn't have the confidence to do things on her own and felt like she had 'lost her identity'.\n'By the time I was 29 I'd spent eight years with someone else's group of friends. I had no idea what it was like to be a woman with mates of her own to socialise with,' Hunter tells The Mirror.\n'I'd become so cosseted I was too scared to do anything for myself. Like lots of women who marry young and find themselves mothers by the time they're 25, I felt I no longer had an identity. I was just nothing.'\nThe couple met in a Los Angeles nightclub in 1991. Within three weeks Stewart had proposed to Hunter and three months later they were married. Eighteen months after the ceremony their daughter Renee was born followed by son Liam two years later.\nBut Hunter began to feel increasingly stifled by her situation, where everything, even visits to friends, had to be planned by staff and organised in advance.\nAfter communication between the couple had broken down, in December 1998, Hunter eventually plucked up the courage to leave Stewart. 'He was distraught,' she says. ' I'll take to the grave the pain I caused Rod. I hurt the one person I loved and cared about and that's a hard thing to live with on a daily basis.'\nTwo years on, Hunter says she has no regrets and says she remains good friends with Stewart, whom she describes as 'a good man'. 'We speak to each other all the time, and he'll pop round for a cup of tea,' she says.",
"Rod Stewart admits that his ex-wife Rachel Hunter broke his heart | Celebrity News | Showbiz & TV | Daily Express\nCELEBRITY NEWS\nRod Stewart admits that his ex-wife Rachel Hunter broke his heart\nFAMOUS for romancing many a blonde beauty Rod Stewart now believes second wife Rachel Hunter leaving him in 2006 was his “comeuppance” after being a womaniser for so many years.\n00:00, Thu, May 29, 2014\nRachel was 21 when she met Rod[GETTY]\nThe father of eight, who has been married three times, tells Woman’s Weekly: “Rachel Hunter broke my heart.\n\"It was painful but it was a learning lesson.\n\"I knew it was my comeuppance.\n\"I’d broken all those hearts in the past – now it was my turn.”\nRod, who married the New Zealand born model in 1990, adds: “She was 21 when we met.\n\"I like formal dinners, getting dressed up and meeting on the staircase.\n\"She wanted – I discovered later – to be like a normal kid, dressing in her jeans.\nIt was painful but it was a learning lesson\nRod Stewart\n\"But we get on great now and [third wife] Penny gets on great with Rachel.\n\"In fact all the exes get on so I think I must have done something right.”\nThe 69-year-old, who has been married to Penny Lancaster, 43, since 2007, insists he can’t imagine life without female company.\n“I’ve always had a woman in my life,” he points out.\n“I’m not good at being on my own.\n\"I enjoy women’s company.\n“I’ve taken a lot of risks but I’ve never gambled or smoked – women don’t like that.\n\"I’ve always loved women; won some, lost some but it’s not about a magic touch, it’s about being a better person and a good listener.\n\"My relationship rule is never argue over a glass of wine; leave debating until the morning.”\nMost read in TV & Radio"
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"'Why I had to leave Rod,' by Rachel | Daily Mail Online",
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Who was America's first world chess champion?
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"The World Chess Championship (sometimes abbreviated as WCC) is played to determine the World Champion in chess.\n\nThe official world championship is generally regarded to have begun in 1886, when the two leading players in Europe and the United States, Johann Zukertort and Wilhelm Steinitz respectively, played a match. From 1886 to 1946, the champion set the terms, requiring any challenger to raise a sizable stake and defeat the champion in a match in order to become the new world champion. From 1948 to 1993, the championship was administered by FIDE, the World Chess Federation. In 1993, the reigning champion (Garry Kasparov) broke away from FIDE, which led to the creation of the rival PCA championship. The titles were unified at the World Chess Championship 2006.\n\nCurrent world champion Magnus Carlsen won the World Chess Championship 2013 against Viswanathan Anand and successfully defended his title against Anand in the World Chess Championship 2014.\n\nOther separate events and titles are the Women's World Chess Championship, the World Junior Chess Championship ( for players under 20 years of age), and the World Senior Chess Championship (for men above 60 years of age, and women above 50). There is also a World Computer Chess Championship, which is the only event computers may participate in.\n\nHistory\n\nThe concept of a world chess champion started to emerge in the first half of the 19th century, and the phrase \"world champion\" appeared in 1845. From this time onwards various players were acclaimed as world champions, but the first contest that was defined in advance as being for the world championship was the match between Steinitz and Zukertort in 1886. Until 1948 world championship contests were matches arranged privately between the players. As a result, the players also had to arrange the funding, in the form of stakes provided by enthusiasts who wished to bet on one of the players. In the early 20th century this was sometimes a barrier that prevented or delayed challenges for the title.\n\nBetween 1888 and 1948 various difficulties that arose in match negotiations led players to try to define agreed rules for matches, including the frequency of matches, how much or how little say the champion had in the conditions for a title match and what the stakes and division of the purse should be. However these attempts were unsuccessful in practice, as the same issues continued to delay or prevent challenges.\n\nThe first attempt by an external organization to manage the world championship was in 1887–89, but this experiment was not repeated. A system for managing regular contests for the title went into operation in 1948, under the control of FIDE, and functioned quite smoothly until 1993. However, in that year reigning champion Kasparov and challenger Short were so dissatisfied with FIDE's arrangements for their match that they set up a break-away organization. The split in the world championship continued until 2006; however, the compromises required in order to achieve reunification had effects that lasted until 2012, due to the conditions of the 2009 Challenger Match.\n\nUnofficial champions (pre-1886)\n\nThe first match proclaimed by the players as for the world championship was the match that Wilhelm Steinitz won against Johannes Zukertort in 1886. However, a line of players regarded as the strongest (or at least the most famous) in the world extends back hundreds of years beyond them, and these players are sometimes considered the world champions of their time. They include Ruy López de Segura around 1560, Paolo Boi and Leonardo da Cutri around 1575, Alessandro Salvio around 1600, and Gioachino Greco around 1623.\n\nIn the 18th and early 19th centuries, French players dominated, with Legall de Kermeur (1730–55), François-André Danican Philidor (1755–95), Alexandre Deschapelles (around 1800–21) and Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais (1821–40) all widely regarded as the strongest players of their time. Something resembling a world championship match was the La Bourdonnais - McDonnell chess matches in 1834, in which La Bourdonnais played a series of six matches – and 85 games – against the Irishman Alexander McDonnell.\n\nThe idea of a world champion goes back at least to 1840, when a columnist in Fraser's Magazine wrote, \"To whom is destined the marshal's baton when La Bourdonnais throws it down, and what country will furnish his successor? ... At present de La Bourdonnais, like Alexander the Great, is without heir, and there is room to fear the empire may be divided eventually under a number of petty kings.\" \n\nThe Englishman Howard Staunton's match victory over another Frenchman, Pierre Charles Fournier de Saint-Amant, in 1843 is considered to have established Staunton as the world's strongest player, with a letter quoted in The Times on 16 November 1843, but probably written before that, described the second Staunton vs Saint-Amant match, played in Paris in November–December 1843, as being for \"the golden sceptre of Philidor.\" The earliest recorded use of the term \"World Champion\" was in 1845, when Howard Staunton was described as \"the Chess Champion of England, or ... the Champion of the World\". \n\nThe first known proposal that a contest should be defined in advance as being for recognition as the world's best player was by Ludwig Bledow in a letter to von der Lasa, written in 1846 and published in the Deutsche Schachzeitung in 1848: \"... the winner of the battle in Paris should not be overly proud of his special position, since it is in Trier that the crown will first be awarded\" (Bledow died in 1846 and the proposed tournament did not take place). In 1850 to 1851 the forthcoming 1851 London International Tournament was explicitly described as being for the world championship by three commentators: a letter from \"a member of the Calcutta Chess Club\" (dated 1 August 1850) and another from Captain Hugh Alexander Kennedy (dated October 1850) in the 1850 volume of the Chess Player's Chronicle; and the Liberty Weekly Tribune in Missouri (20 June 1851). Although Kennedy was a member of the organizing committee for the tournament, there is no evidence that crowning a world champion was an official aim of the tournament. \n\nThe 1851 London tournament was won by the German Adolf Anderssen, establishing Anderssen as the leading player in the world. Anderssen has been described as the first modern chess master. However, there is no evidence that this victory led to his being widely acclaimed at the time as the world champion, although in 1893 Henry Bird retrospectively awarded the title to Anderssen for his victory. \n\nAnderssen was himself decisively defeated in an 1858 match against the American Paul Morphy, after which Morphy was toasted across the chess-playing world as the world chess champion. Morphy played matches against several leading players, crushing them all. Harper's Weekly (25 September 1858) and The American Union (9 October 1858) hailed him as the world champion, but another article in Harper's Weekly (9 October 1858; by C.H. Stanley) was uncertain about whether to describe the Morphy–Harrwitz match as being for the world championship. Soon after, Morphy offered pawn and move odds to anyone who played him. Finding no takers, he abruptly retired from chess the following year, but many considered him the world champion until his death in 1884. His sudden withdrawal from chess at his peak and subsequent mental illness led to his being known as \"the pride and sorrow of chess\".\n\nThis left Anderssen again as possibly the world's strongest active player, a reputation he reinforced by winning the strong London 1862 chess tournament.\n\nWilhelm Steinitz narrowly defeated Anderssen in an 1866 match, which some commentators consider the first \"official\" world championship match. The match was not declared to be a world championship at the time, and it was only after Morphy's death in 1884 that such a match was declared, a testament to Morphy's dominance of the game (even though he had not played publicly for 25 years). The use of the term \"World Chess Champion\" in this era is varied, but it appears that Steinitz, at least in later life, dated his reign from this 1866 match. \n\nIn 1883, Johannes Zukertort won a major international tournament in London, ahead of nearly every leading player in the world, including Steinitz. This tournament established Steinitz and Zukertort as the best two players in the world, and led to the inaugural World Championship match between these two, the World Chess Championship 1886. This match, won by Steinitz, though not held under the aegis of any official body, is generally recognized as the first official World Chess Championship match, with Steinitz the game's first official World Champion.\n\nGraham Burgess lists Philidor, de la Bourdonnais, Staunton, and Morphy as players who were acclaimed as the greatest players of their time .\n\nOfficial champions before FIDE (1886–1946)\n\nThe championship was conducted on a fairly informal basis through the remainder of the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th: if a player thought he was strong enough, he (or his friends) would find financial backing for a match purse and challenge the reigning world champion. If he won, he would become the new champion. There was no formal system of qualification. However, it is generally regarded that the system did on the whole produce champions who were the strongest players of their day. The players who held the title up until World War II were Steinitz, Emanuel Lasker, José Raúl Capablanca, Alexander Alekhine, and Max Euwe, each of them defeating the previous incumbent in a match.\n\nThe reign of Wilhelm Steinitz\n\nWilhelm Steinitz' reign is notable for: the first recorded suggestion that a world champion could forfeit the title by declining a credible challenge or by prolonged absence from competition; the first recorded instance of a disputed world championship; the first actual contest that was defined in advance as being for the world championship (Bledow's 1846 proposal came to nothing); the first attempt to regulate contests for the world championship; debates about whether the championship should be decided by a match or a tournament; and differences between commentators about when his reign began, which persist right down to the present day. \n\nThere is no evidence that Steinitz claimed the title for himself immediately after winning a match against Adolf Anderssen in 1866, although in his International Chess Magazine (September 1887 and April 1888) he claimed to have been the champion since 1866. It has been suggested that Steinitz could not make such a claim while Paul Morphy was alive. Morphy had defeated Anderssen by a far wider margin in 1858, but retired from chess competition soon after he returned to the USA in 1859, and died in 1884. The earliest known reference to Steinitz as world champion was in the Chess Player's Chronicle (October 1872), after he beat Johannes Zukertort in their first match. But the New York Times (11 March 1894), British Chess Magazine (April 1894) and Emanuel Lasker (Lasker's Chess Magazine, May 1908) dated his reign from 1866, and in the early 1950s Reuben Fine followed their example. On the other hand, many recent commentators divide Steinitz' reign into an \"unofficial\" one before he beat Zukertort again in 1886 and the first \"official\" world championship from that time onwards; Steinitz had insisted that the contract for the 1886 match must specify that the match was \"for the Championship of the World\" (Chess Monthly, January 1886).\n\nThe Irish Times (6 March 1879) argued that Steinitz had forfeited the title by prolonged absence from competitive chess and therefore Zukertort should be regarded as champion. The Chess Player's Chronicle (18 July 1883) made a more complex argument: other commentators had suggested that Zukertort should be regarded as champion because he had won a major tournament (London 1883, 3 points ahead of Steinitz ); the Chronicle thought tournaments were an unreliable way of deciding the championship and Steinitz' victories in matches gave him the better claim; but, if Zukertort were the champion, he should forfeit the title if he declined a challenge, especially from a challenger with Steinitz' credentials, and in that case the title should revert to Steinitz.\n\nIn 1887 the American Chess Congress started work on drawing up regulations for the future conduct of world championship contests. Steinitz supported this endeavor, as he thought he was becoming too old to remain world champion. The proposal evolved through many forms (as Steinitz pointed out, such a project had never been undertaken before), and resulted in the New York 1889 tournament to select a challenger for Steinitz, rather like the more recent Candidates Tournaments. The tournament was duly played, but the outcome was not quite as planned: Mikhail Chigorin and Max Weiss tied for first place; their play-off resulted in four draws; and neither wanted to play a match against Steinitz – Chigorin had just lost to him, and Weiss wanted to get back to his work for the Rothschild Bank. The third prizewinner Isidore Gunsberg was prepared to play Steinitz for the title in New York, and Steinitz won their match in 1890–91. This experiment was not repeated and the 1894 match in which Steinitz lost his title was a private arrangement between the players.\n\nLasker (1894–1921)\n\nLasker was the first champion after Steinitz; although he did not defend his title in 1897–1906 or 1911–20, he did string together an impressive run of tournament victories and dominated his opponents. His success was largely due to the fact that he was an excellent practical player. In difficult or objectively lost positions he would complicate matters and use his extraordinary tactical abilities to save the game. He held the title from 1894 to 1921, the longest reign (27 years) of any champion. In that period he defended the title successfully in one-sided matches against Steinitz, Frank Marshall, Siegbert Tarrasch and Dawid Janowski, and was only seriously threatened in a tied 1910 match against Carl Schlechter.\n\nLasker's negotiations for title matches from 1911 onwards were extremely controversial. In 1911 he received a challenge for a world title match against José Raúl Capablanca and, in addition to making severe financial demands, proposed some novel conditions: the match should be considered drawn if neither player finished with a two-game lead; and it should have a maximum of 30 games, but finish if either player won six games and had a two-game lead (previous matches had been won by the first to win a certain number of games, usually 10; in theory such a match might go on for ever). Capablanca objected to the two-game lead clause; Lasker took offence at the terms in which Capablanca criticized the two-game lead condition and broke off negotiations. \n\nFurther controversy arose when, in 1912, Lasker's terms for a proposed match with Akiba Rubinstein included a clause that, if Lasker should resign the title after a date had been set for the match, Rubinstein should become world champion (American Chess Bulletin, October 1913). When he resumed negotiations with Capablanca after World War I, Lasker insisted on a similar clause that if Lasker should resign the title after a date had been set for the match, Capablanca should become world champion. On 27 June 1920 Lasker abdicated in favor of Capablanca because of public criticisms of the terms for the match, naming Capablanca as his successor (American Chess Bulletin, July August 1920). Some commentators questioned Lasker's right to name his successor (British Chess Magazine, August 1920; Rochester Democrat and Chronicle); Amos Burn raised the same objection but welcomed Lasker's resignation of the title (The Field, 3 July 1920). Capablanca argued that, if the champion abdicated, the title must go to the challenger as any other arrangement would be unfair to the challenger (British Chess Magazine, October 1922). Nonetheless Lasker agreed to play a match against Capablanca in 1921, announcing that, if he won, he would resign the title so that younger masters could compete for it (\"Dr Lasker and the Championship\" in American Chess Bulletin, September–October 1920). Capablanca won their 1921 match easily.\n\nCapablanca, Alekhine and Euwe (1921–46)\n\nAfter the breakdown of his first attempt to negotiate a title match against Lasker (1911), Capablanca drafted rules for the conduct of future challenges, which were agreed by the other top players at the 1914 Saint Petersburg tournament, including Lasker, and approved at the Mannheim Congress later that year. The main points were: the champion must be prepared to defend his title once a year; the match should be won by whichever player first won six or eight games (the champion had the right to choose); and the stake should be at least £1,000 (worth about £347,000 or $700,000 in 2006 terms ).\n\nFollowing the controversies surrounding his 1921 match against Lasker, in 1922 world champion Capablanca proposed the \"London Rules\": the first player to win six games would win the match; playing sessions would be limited to 5 hours; the time limit would be 40 moves in 2½ hours; the champion must defend his title within one year of receiving a challenge from a recognized master; the champion would decide the date of the match; the champion was not obliged to accept a challenge for a purse of less than US $10,000 (worth about $349,000 in 2006 terms ); 20% of the purse was to be paid to the title holder, and the remainder being divided, 60% going to the winner of the match, and 40% to the loser; the highest purse bid must be accepted. Alekhine, Bogoljubov, Maróczy, Réti, Rubinstein, Tartakower and Vidmar promptly signed them. \n\nThe only match played under those rules was Capablanca vs Alekhine in 1927, although there has been speculation that the actual contract might have included a \"two-game lead\" clause. Alekhine, Rubinstein and Nimzowitsch had all challenged Capablanca in the early 1920s but only Alekhine could raise the US $10,000 Capablanca demanded and only in 1927. Capablanca was shockingly upset by the new challenger. Before the match, almost nobody gave Alekhine a chance against the dominant Cuban, but Alekhine overcame Capablanca's natural skill with his unmatched drive and extensive preparation (especially deep opening analysis, which became a hallmark of most future grandmasters). The aggressive Alekhine was helped by his tactical skill, which complicated the game.\n\nImmediately after winning, Alekhine announced that he was willing to grant Capablanca a return match provided Capablanca met the requirements of the \"London Rules\". Negotiations dragged on for several years, often breaking down when agreement seemed in sight. Alekhine easily won two title matches against Efim Bogoljubov in 1929 and 1934.\n\nIn 1935, Alekhine was unexpectedly defeated by the Dutch Max Euwe, an amateur player who worked as a mathematics teacher. Alekhine convincingly won a rematch in 1937. World War II temporarily prevented any further world title matches, and Alekhine remained world champion until his death in 1946.\n\nFIDE, Euwe and AVRO\n\nAttempts to form an international chess federation were made at the time of the 1914 St. Petersburg, 1914 Mannheim and 1920 Gothenburg Tournaments. On 20 July 1924 the participants at the Paris tournament founded FIDE as a kind of players' union. \n\nFIDE's congresses in 1925 and 1926 expressed a desire to become involved in managing the world championship. FIDE was largely happy with the \"London Rules\", but claimed that the requirement for a purse of $10,000 was impracticable and called upon Capablanca to come to an agreement with the leading masters to revise the Rules. In 1926 FIDE decided in principle to create a parallel title of \"Champion of FIDE\" and, in 1928, adopted the forthcoming 1928 Bogoljubow–Euwe match (won by Bogoljubow) as being for the \"FIDE championship\". Alekhine agreed to place future matches for the world title under the auspices of FIDE, except that he would only play Capablanca under the same conditions that governed their match in 1927. Although FIDE wished to set up a \"unification\" match between Alekhine and Bogoljubow, it made little progress and the title \"Champion of FIDE\" quietly vanished after Alekhine won the 1929 world championship match that he and Bogoljubow themselves arranged. \n\nWhile negotiating his 1937 World Championship rematch with Alekhine, Euwe proposed that if he retained the title FIDE should manage the nomination of future challengers and the conduct of championship matches. FIDE had been trying since 1935 to introduce rules on how to select challengers, and its various proposals favored selection by some sort of committee. While they were debating procedures in 1937 and Alekhine and Euwe were preparing for their rematch later that year, the Royal Dutch Chess Federation proposed that a super-tournament (AVRO) of ex-champions and rising stars should be held to select the next challenger. FIDE rejected this proposal and at their second attempt nominated Salo Flohr as the official challenger. Euwe then declared that: if he retained his title against Alekhine he was prepared to meet Flohr in 1940 but he reserved the right to arrange a title match either in 1938 or 1939 with José Raúl Capablanca, who had lost the title to Alekhine in 1927; if Euwe lost his title to Capablanca then FIDE's decision should be followed and Capablanca would have to play Flohr in 1940. Most chess writers and players strongly supported the Dutch super-tournament proposal and opposed the committee processes favored by FIDE. While this confusion went unresolved: Euwe lost his title to Alekhine; the AVRO tournament in 1938 was won by Paul Keres under a tie-breaking rule, with Reuben Fine placed second and Capablanca and Flohr in the bottom places; and the outbreak of World War II in 1939 cut short the controversy. \n\nBirth of FIDE's World Championship cycle (1946–48)\n\nBefore 1946 a new World Champion had won the title by defeating the former champion in a match. Alexander Alekhine's death created an interregnum that made the normal procedure impossible. The situation was very confused, with many respected players and commentators offering different solutions. FIDE found it very difficult to organize the early discussions on how to resolve the interregnum because problems with money and travel so soon after the end of World War II prevented many countries from sending representatives. The shortage of clear information resulted in otherwise responsible magazines publishing rumors and speculation, which only made the situation more confused.\nIt did not help that the Soviet Union had long refused to join FIDE, and by this time it was clear that about half the credible contenders were Soviet citizens. But the Soviet Union realized it could not afford to be left out of the discussions about the vacant world championship, and in 1947 sent a telegram apologizing for the absence of Soviet representatives and requesting that the USSR be represented in future FIDE Committees.\n\nThe eventual solution was very similar to FIDE's initial proposal and to a proposal put forward by the Soviet Union (authored by Mikhail Botvinnik). The 1938 AVRO tournament was used as the basis for the 1948 Championship Tournament. The AVRO tournament had brought together the eight players who were, by general acclamation, the best players in the world at the time. Two of the participants at AVRO – Alekhine and former world champion José Raúl Capablanca – had died; but FIDE decided that the championship should be awarded to the winner of a round-robin tournament in which the other six participants at AVRO would play four games against each other. These players were: Max Euwe, from the Netherlands; Botvinnik, Paul Keres and Salo Flohr from the Soviet Union; and Reuben Fine and Samuel Reshevsky from the United States. However, FIDE soon accepted a Soviet request to substitute Vasily Smyslov for Flohr, and Fine dropped out in order to continue his degree studies in psychology, so only five players competed. Botvinnik won convincingly and thus became world champion, ending the interregnum. \n\nSince Keres lost his first four games against Botvinnik in the 1948 World Championship Tournament, suspicions are sometimes raised that Keres was forced to \"throw\" games to allow Botvinnik to win the Championship. Chess historian Taylor Kingston investigated all the available evidence and arguments, and concluded that: Soviet chess officials gave Keres strong hints that he should not hinder Botvinnik's attempt to win the World Championship; Botvinnik only discovered this about half-way through the tournament and protested so strongly that he angered Soviet officials; Keres probably did not deliberately lose games to Botvinnik or anyone else in the tournament. \n\nThe proposals which led to the 1948 Championship Tournament also specified the procedure by which challengers for the World Championship would be selected in a three-year cycle: countries affiliated to FIDE would send players to Zonal Tournaments (the number varied depending on how many good enough players each country had); the players who gained the top places in these would compete in an Interzonal Tournament (later split into two and then three tournaments as the number of countries and eligible players increased ); the highest-placed players from the Interzonal would compete in the Candidates Tournament, along with whoever lost the previous title match and the second-placed competitor in the previous Candidates Tournament three years earlier; and the winner of the Candidates played a title match against the champion. Until 1962 inclusive the Candidates Tournament was a multi-cycle round-robin tournament – how and why it was changed are described below.\n\nFIDE system (1949–63)\n\nThe FIDE system followed its 1948 design through five cycles: 1948–51, 1951–54, 1954–57, 1957–60 and 1960–63. In 1956 FIDE introduced two apparently minor changes which Soviet grandmaster and chess official Yuri Averbakh alleged were instigated by the two Soviet representatives in FIDE, who were personal friends of reigning champion Mikhail Botvinnik. A defeated champion would have the right to a return match, a provision which enabled Botvinnik to regain his title from Vasily Smyslov in 1958 and from Mikhail Tal in 1961. FIDE also limited the number of players from the same country that could compete in the Candidates Tournament, on the grounds that it would reduce Soviet dominance of the tournament. Averbakh claimed that this was to Botvinnik's advantage as it reduced the number of Soviet players he might have to meet in the title match. \n\nFIDE system (1963–75)\n\nAfter the 1962 Candidates Tournament, Bobby Fischer publicly alleged that the Soviets had colluded to prevent any non-Soviet – specifically him – from winning. He claimed that Tigran Petrosian, Efim Geller and Paul Keres had prearranged to draw all their games, and that Korchnoi had been instructed to lose to them. Averbakh, who was head of the Soviet team, confirmed in 2002 that Petrosian, Geller and Keres arranged to draw all their games in order to save their energy for games against non-Soviet players, and a statistical analysis in 2006 backed this up. Another contestant, Pal Benko, claimed that towards the end of the tournament Petrosian and Geller, who were friends, helped Benko with adjournment analysis of his game against Keres, who was the main threat to Petrosian. Korchnoi, who defected from the USSR in 1976, has never alleged he was forced to throw games. FIDE responded by changing the format of future Candidates Tournaments to eliminate the possibility of collusion. Beginning in the next cycle, 1963–66, the round-robin tournament was replaced by a series of elimination matches. Initially the quarter-finals and semifinals were best of 10 games, and the final was best of 12. This was the system under which Boris Spassky twice challenged Petrosian (who had won the title from Botvinnik in 1963) for the title, unsuccessfully in 1966 and successfully in 1969. \n\nFischer withdrew from the 1967 Sousse Interzonal tournament in the 1966–69 World Championship cycle, after leading with 8½ points from the first 10 games. His observance of the Worldwide Church of God's sabbath was honored by the organizers, but deprived Fischer of several rest days, which led to a scheduling dispute.\n\nIn the 1969–72 cycle Fischer caused two more crises. He refused to play in the 1969 US Championship, which was a Zonal Tournament. This would have eliminated him from the 1969–72 cycle, but Benko was persuaded to concede his place in the Interzonal to Fischer. FIDE President Max Euwe accepted this maneuver and interpreted the rules very flexibly to enable Fischer to play, as he thought it important for the health and reputation of the game that Fischer should have the opportunity to challenge for the title as soon as possible. Fischer crushed all opposition and won the right to challenge reigning champion Boris Spassky. After agreeing to play in Yugoslavia, Fischer raised a series of objections and Iceland was the final venue. Even then Fischer raised difficulties, mainly over money. It took a phone call from United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and a doubling of the prize money by financier Jim Slater to persuade him to play. After a few more traumatic moments Fischer won the match 12½–8½. \n\nA line of unbroken FIDE champions had thus been established from 1948 to 1972, with each champion gaining his title by beating the previous incumbent. This came to an end when Anatoly Karpov won the right to challenge Fischer in 1975. Fischer objected to the \"best of 24 games\" championship match format that had been used from 1951 onwards, claiming that it would encourage whoever got an early lead to play for draws. Instead he demanded that the match should be won by whoever first won 10 games, except that if the score reached 9–9 he should remain champion. He argued that this was more advantageous to the challenger than the champion's advantage under the existing system, where the champion retained the title if the match was tied at 12–12 including draws. Eventually FIDE deposed Fischer and crowned Karpov as the new champion. \n\nFischer privately maintained that he was still World Champion. He went into seclusion and did not play chess in public again until 1992, when he offered Spassky a rematch, again for the World Championship. The match was greatly appreciated and attracted good media coverage, but the general chess public did not take this claim to the championship seriously, since both of them were well past their prime.\n\nKarpov and Kasparov (1975–93)\n\nKarpov dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with an incredible string of tournament successes. He convincingly demonstrated that he was the strongest player in the world by defending his title twice against ex-Soviet Viktor Korchnoi, first in Baguio City in 1978 (6–5 with 21 draws) then in Meran in 1981 (6–2, with 10 draws). His \"boa constrictor\" style frustrated opponents, often causing them to lash out and err. This allowed him to bring the full force of his Botvinnik-learned dry technique (both Karpov and Kasparov were students at Botvinnik's school) against them, grinding his way to victory.\n\nHe eventually lost his title to a fiery, aggressive, tactical player who was equally convincing over the board: Garry Kasparov. The two of them fought five incredibly close world championship matches, the World Chess Championship 1984 (controversially terminated without result with Karpov leading +5 −3 =40), World Chess Championship 1985 (in which Kasparov won the title, 13–11), World Chess Championship 1986 (narrowly won by Kasparov, 12½–11½), World Chess Championship 1987 (drawn 12–12, Kasparov retaining the title), and World Chess Championship 1990 (again narrowly won by Kasparov, 12½–11½).\nIn the five matches Kasparov and Karpov played 144 games with 104 draws, 21 wins by Kasparov and 19 wins by Karpov.\n\nSplit title (1993–2005)\n\nIn 1993, Nigel Short broke the domination of the two K's (Kasparov and Karpov) by defeating Karpov in the candidates semifinals followed by Jan Timman in the finals, thereby earning the right to challenge Kasparov for the title. However before the match took place, both Kasparov and Short complained of corruption and a lack of professionalism within FIDE in organizing the match, and split from FIDE to set up the Professional Chess Association (PCA), under whose auspices they held their match. Affronted by the PCA split, FIDE stripped Kasparov of his title and held a championship match between Karpov and Timman. Kasparov defeated Short while Karpov beat Timman, and for the first time in history there were two World Chess Champions.\n\nFIDE and the PCA each held a championship cycle in 1993–96, with many of the same challengers playing in both. Kasparov and Karpov both won their respective cycles. In the PCA cycle, Kasparov defeated Viswanathan Anand in the PCA World Chess Championship 1995. Karpov defeated Gata Kamsky in the final of the FIDE World Chess Championship 1996. Negotiations were held for a reunification match between Kasparov and Karpov in 1996–97, but nothing came of them. \n\nSoon after the 1995 championship, the PCA folded, and Kasparov had no organisation to choose his next challenger. In 1998 he formed the World Chess Council, which organised a candidates match between Alexei Shirov and Vladimir Kramnik. Shirov won the match, but negotiations for a Kasparov–Shirov match broke down, and Shirov was subsequently omitted from negotiations, much to his disgust. Plans for a 1999 or 2000 Kasparov–Anand match also broke down, and Kasparov organised a match with Kramnik in late 2000. In a major upset, Kramnik won the Classical World Chess Championship 2000 match with two wins, thirteen draws, and no losses, thereby becoming the Classical World Chess Champion. Meanwhile, FIDE had decided to scrap the Interzonal and Candidates system, instead having a large knockout event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks (see FIDE World Chess Championship 1998). Very fast games were used to resolve ties at the end of each round, a format which some felt did not necessarily recognize the highest quality play: Kasparov refused to participate in these events, as did Kramnik after he won Kasparov's title in 2000. In the first of these events, champion Karpov was seeded straight into the final, but subsequently the champion had to qualify like other players. Karpov defended his title in the first of these championships in 1998, but resigned his title in anger at the new rules in 1999. Alexander Khalifman took the title in 1999, Anand in 2000, Ruslan Ponomariov in 2002 and Rustam Kasimdzhanov won the event in 2004.\n\nBy 2002, not only were there two rival champions, but Kasparov's strong results – he had the top Elo rating in the world and had won a string of major tournaments after losing his title in 2000 – ensured even more confusion over who was World Champion. In May 2002, American grandmaster Yasser Seirawan led the organisation of the so-called \"Prague Agreement\" to reunite the world championship. Kramnik had organised a candidates tournament (won later in 2002 by Peter Leko) to choose his challenger. It was decided that Kasparov play the FIDE champion (Ponomariov) for the FIDE title, and the winner of this match play the winner of the Kramnik–Leko match for a unified title. However, the matches proved difficult to finance and organise. The Kramnik–Leko match, now renamed the Classical World Chess Championship, did not take place until late 2004 (it was drawn, so Kramnik retained his title). Meanwhile, FIDE never managed to organise a Kasparov match, either with 2002 FIDE champion Ponomariov, or 2004 FIDE champion Kasimdzhanov. Partly due to his frustration at the situation, Kasparov retired from chess in 2005, still ranked No. 1 in the world.\n\nSoon after, FIDE dropped the short knockout format for a World Championship and announced the FIDE World Chess Championship 2005, a double round robin tournament to be held in San Luis, Argentina between eight of the leading players in the world. However Kramnik insisted that his title be decided in a match, and declined to participate. The tournament was convincingly won by the Bulgarian Veselin Topalov, and negotiations began for a Kramnik–Topalov match to unify the title.\n\nReunified title (2006–present)\n\nThe FIDE World Chess Championship 2006 reunification match between Topalov and Kramnik was held in late 2006. After much controversy, it was won by Kramnik. Kramnik thus became the first unified and undisputed World Chess Champion since Kasparov split from FIDE to form the PCA in 1993.\n\nKramnik played to defend his title at the World Chess Championship 2007 in Mexico. This was an 8-player double round robin tournament, the same format as was used for the FIDE World Chess Championship 2005. This tournament was won by Viswanathan Anand, thus making him the World Chess Champion.\n\nBecause Anand's World Chess Champion title was won in a tournament rather than a match, a minority of commentators questioned the validity of his title. Kramnik also made ambiguous comments about the value of Anand's title, but did not claim the title himself. \n\nSubsequent world championship matches returned to the format of a match between the champion and a challenger. The World Chess Championship 2008 was a 12-game match between the current champion Viswanathan Anand and 2006 champion Vladimir Kramnik. Anand convincingly defended his title in 11 games with 6½–4½. The World Chess Championship 2010 took place in April and May 2010, where Anand defeated 2005 FIDE champion Veselin Topalov (who defeated Chess World Cup 2007 winner Gata Kamsky in a match in February 2009 to determine Anand's challenger) to defend the title for the second time. \n\nThe first stage of 2012 qualification, the FIDE Grand Prix 2008–2010, began in April 2008. The final stage of qualification ended in May 2011, with Boris Gelfand emerging as the winner of the Candidates Tournament and the right to challenge Anand for the World Chess Championship 2012. Anand retained his title by beating Gelfand 2½–1½ in a four-game tie-breaker round, after the two ended the 12-game series level. Anand lost his title in November 2013 in Chennai, India, to world No. 1 Magnus Carlsen, winner of the 2013 Candidates Tournament, by a score of 3.5–6.5. Carlsen successfully defended his title against Anand in Sochi in November 2014, with a score of 6.5–4.5. \n\nThe 2016 Championship is scheduled to happen between November 11–30 in New York City, between Magnus Carlsen and challenger Sergey Karjakin. Sergey Karjakin won the Candidates Tournament 2016.\n\nFinancing\n\nBefore 1948 world championship matches were financed by arrangements similar to those Emanuel Lasker described for his 1894 match with Wilhelm Steinitz: either the challenger or both players, with the assistance of financial backers, would contribute to a purse; about half would be distributed to the winner's backers, and the winner would receive the larger share of the remainder (the loser's backers got nothing). The players had to meet their own travel, accommodation, food and other expenses out of their shares of the purse. This system evolved out of the wagering of small stakes on club games in the early 19th century.\n\nUp to and including the 1894 Steinitz–Lasker match, both players, with their backers, generally contributed equally to the purse, following the custom of important matches in the 19th century before there was a generally recognized world champion. For example: the stakes were £100 a side in both the second Staunton vs Saint-Amant match (Paris, 1843) and the Anderssen vs Steinitz match (London, 1866); Steinitz and Zukertort played their 1886 match for £400 a side. Lasker introduced the practise of demanding that the challenger should provide the whole of the purse, and his successors followed his example up to World War II. This requirement made arranging world championship matches more difficult, for example: Marshall challenged Lasker in 1904 but could not raise the money until 1907; in 1911 Lasker and Rubinstein agreed in principle to a world championship match, but this was never played as Rubinstein could not raise the money. In the early 1920s, Alekhine, Rubinstein and Nimzowitsch all challenged Capablanca, but only Alekhine was able to raise the US $10,000 that Capablanca demanded, and not until 1927. \n\nLeading players before the World Chess Championships\n\nWorld champions\n\nUndisputed world champions (1886–1993)\n\nClassical (PCA/Braingames) world champions (1993–2006)\n\nFIDE world champions (1993–2006)\n\nUndisputed world champions (2006–present)\n\nWorld Champions by number of title match victories\n\nThe table below organises the world champions in order of championship wins. (For the purpose of this table, a successful defence counts as a win, even if the match was drawn.) The table is made more complicated by the split between the \"Classical\" and FIDE world titles between 1993 and 2006.",
"Robert James \"Bobby\" Fischer (March 9, 1943 – January 17, 2008) was an American chess grandmaster, the eleventh World Chess Champion. Many consider him the greatest chess player of all time. In 1972, he captured the World Chess Championship from Boris Spassky of the USSR in a match held in Reykjavík, Iceland, publicized as a Cold War confrontation which attracted more worldwide interest than any chess championship before or since. In 1975, Fischer refused to defend his title when an agreement could not be reached with FIDE, the game's international governing body, over one of the conditions for the match. This allowed Soviet GM Anatoly Karpov, who had won the qualifying Candidates' cycle, to become the new world champion by default under FIDE rules.\n\nFischer showed skill at an early age. At age 13 he won a \"brilliancy\" that became known as \"The Game of the Century\". Starting at age 14, Fischer played in eight United States Championships, winning each by at least a one-point margin. At age 15, Fischer became both the youngest grandmaster up to that time and the youngest candidate for the World Championship.\n\nAt age 20, Fischer won the 1963–64 U.S. Championship with 11/11, the only perfect score in the history of the tournament. His book My 60 Memorable Games (published 1969) became an icon of American chess literature and is regarded a masterwork. Fischer won the 1970 Interzonal Tournament by a record 3½-point margin and won 20 consecutive games, including two unprecedented 6–0 sweeps in the Candidates Matches. In July 1971, he became the first official FIDE number-one-rated player.\n\nAfter losing his title as World Chess Champion, Fischer became reclusive and sometimes erratic, disappearing from both competitive chess and the public eye. In 1992 he reemerged to win an unofficial rematch against Spassky. It was held in Yugoslavia, which was under a United Nations embargo at the time. His participation led to a conflict with the U.S. government, which sought income tax on Fischer's match winnings, and ultimately issued a warrant for his arrest. After that, he lived his life as an émigré. In the 1990s, Fischer patented a modified chess timing system that added a time increment after each move, now a standard practice in top tournament and match play. He also invented a new variant of chess named Fischerandom Chess. Fischer made many additional contributions to chess.\n\nEarly years\n\nBobby Fischer was born at Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago, Illinois, on March 9, 1943. His birth certificate listed his father as Hans-Gerhardt Fischer, also known as Gerardo Liebscher, a German biophysicist. His mother, Regina Wender Fischer, was a U.S. citizen; Regina was born in Switzerland, to Jewish parents from Poland and Russia. Raised in St. Louis, Missouri, Regina became a teacher, registered nurse, and later a physician. \n\nAfter graduating from college in her teens, Regina traveled to Germany to visit her brother. It was there she met geneticist and future Nobel Prize winner, Hermann Joseph Muller, who persuaded Regina to move to Moscow to study medicine. She enrolled at I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, where she met Hans-Gerhardt, whom she married in November 1933. In 1938, Hans and Regina had a daughter, Joan Fischer. The reemergence of anti-Semitism under Joseph Stalin prompted Regina to go with Joan to Paris, France, where Regina became an English teacher. The threat of a German invasion led her and Joan to go to the United States in 1939. Hans-Gerhardt attempted to follow the pair but his German citizenship barred him from entering the United States. Regina and Hans-Gerhardt had separated in Moscow, although they did not officially divorce until 1945.\n\nAt the time of her son's birth, Regina was \"homeless\" and shuttled to different jobs and schools around the country to support her family. She engaged in political activism, and raised both Bobby and Joan as a single parent. \n\nIn 1949, the family moved to Brooklyn, New York, where she studied for her master's degree in nursing and subsequently began working in that field.\n\nPaul Nemenyi as Fischer's father\n\nSources implying that Paul Nemenyi, a Hungarian Jewish physicist and an expert in fluid and applied mechanics, may have been Fischer's biological father were first made public in a 2002 investigation by Peter Nicholas and Clea Benson of The Philadelphia Inquirer. Throughout the 1950s, the FBI investigated Regina and her circle for her alleged communist sympathies, as well as her previous life in Moscow. The FBI files identify Paul Nemenyi as Bobby Fischer's biological father, showing that Hans-Gerhardt Fischer never entered the United States, having been refused admission by U.S. immigration officials due to his alleged Communist sympathies. Not only were Regina and Nemenyi reported to have had an affair in 1942, but Nemenyi made monthly child support payments to Regina and paid for Bobby's schooling until his own death in 1952. Nemenyi had lodged complaints with social workers, saying he was concerned about the way that Regina was raising Bobby, to the point that, on at least one occasion, Nemenyi broke down in tears. Later on Bobby told the Hungarian chess player Zita Rajcsányi that Paul Nemenyi would sometimes show up at the family's Brooklyn apartment and take him on outings. After Paul Nemenyi died in 1952, Regina Fischer wrote a letter to Paul Nemenyi's first son (Peter), asking if Paul had left money for Bobby in his will:Bobby was sick 2 days with fever and sore throat and of course a doctor or medicine was out of the question. I don't think Paul would have wanted to leave Bobby this way and would ask you most urgently to let me know if Paul left anything for Bobby. On one occasion, Regina told a social worker that the last time she had ever seen Hans-Gerhardt Fischer was in 1939, four years before Bobby was born. On another occasion, she told the same social worker she had traveled to Mexico to see Hans-Gerhardt in June 1942 and that Bobby was conceived during that meeting. According to Bobby Fischer's brother-in-law, Russell Targ, who was married to Bobby's half-sister, Joan, for 40 years, Regina concealed the fact that Nemenyi was Bobby's father because she wanted to avoid the stigma of an out-of-wedlock birth.\n\nChess beginnings\n\nImpoverished childhood\n\nIn March 1949, 6-year-old Bobby and his sister Joan learned how to play chess using the instructions from a set bought at a candy store. When Joan lost interest in chess and Regina did not have time to play, it left Fischer to play many of his first games against himself. When the family vacationed at Patchogue, Long Island that summer, Bobby found a book of old chess games and studied it intensely. Fischer biographer Frank Brady describes the family's move from Manhattan to Brooklyn in 1950: In the fall of 1950, Regina moved the family out of Manhattan and across the bridge to Brooklyn, where she rented an inexpensive apartment near the intersection of Union and Franklin streets. It was only temporary: She was trying to get closer to a better neighborhood. Robbed of her medical degree in Russia because of the war, she was now determined to acquire a nursing diploma. As soon as she enrolled in the Prospect Heights School of Nursing, the peripatetic Fischer family, citizens of nowhere, moved once again—its tenth transit in six years—to a $52-a-month two-bedroom flat at 560 Lincoln Place in Brooklyn.\n\nThe family resided in apartment Q, a \"small, basic, but habitable\" apartment. It was there that \"Fischer soon became so engrossed in the game that Regina feared he was spending too much time alone\". As a result, on November 14, 1950, Regina sent a postcard to the Brooklyn Eagle newspaper, seeking to place an ad inquiring whether other children of Bobby's age might be interested in playing chess with him. The paper rejected her ad because no one could figure out how to classify it, but forwarded her inquiry to Hermann Helms, the \"Dean of American Chess\", who told her that Master Max Pavey, former Scottish champion, would be giving a simultaneous exhibition on January 17, 1951. Fischer played in the exhibition. Although he held on for 15 minutes, even drawing a crowd of onlookers, he eventually lost to the chess master. \n\nOne of the spectators was Brooklyn Chess Club President, Carmine Nigro, an American chess expert of near master strength and an instructor. Nigro was so impressed with Fischer's play that he introduced him to the club and began teaching him. Fischer noted of his time with Nigro: \"Mr. Nigro was possibly not the best player in the world, but he was a very good teacher. Meeting him was probably a decisive factor in my going ahead with chess.\"\n\nNigro hosted Fischer's first chess tournament at his home in 1952. In the summer of 1955, Fischer, then 12 years old, joined the Manhattan Chess Club, the strongest chess club in the country. Fischer's relationship with Nigro lasted until 1956, when Nigro moved away.\n\nMentorship from Lombardy\n\nNigro introduced Fischer to future grandmaster William Lombardy, and, starting in September 1954, Lombardy began coaching Fischer in private. \"We spent hours in our sessions, simply playing over quality games,\" said Lombardy. \"I tried to instill in Bobby the secret of my own speedy rise. Eidetic Imagery and Total Immersion.\" Based on a 1956 game Lombardy played against Povilas Vaitonis (in which he agreed to a draw offer after only 13 moves), Lombardy told Fischer: \"Do not accept draw offers. For an ambitious and talented player, accepting a draw is death to a top result. Opponents fear an uncompromising opponent and thus make more mistakes. Act as I advise and do not copy my timidity.\" Lombardy played a key part in Fischer's becoming World Champion. He was Fischer's aide at Portorož where they analyzed Fischer's games. He was Bobby's second in Reykjavik, where he analyzed with Fischer, and helped keep Fischer in the match. \n\nThe Hawthorne Chess Club\n\nIn June 1956, Fischer began attending the Hawthorne Chess Club, based in master John \"Jack\" W. Collins' home. For years it was believed that Collins was Fischer's teacher and coach, even though Collins stated that he did not teach Fischer. It is now believed that Collins was Fischer's mentor, not his teacher or coach. A mentor and a friend, Fischer played thousands of blitz and offhand games with Collins and other strong players, studied the books in Collins' large chess library, and ate almost as many dinners at Collins' home as his own. \n\nFuture grandmaster Arnold Denker was also a mentor to young Bobby, often taking him to watch the New York Rangers play hockey at Madison Square Garden. Bobby enjoyed those treats and never forgot them; the two became lifelong friends. \n\nYoung champion\n\nIn 1956, Fischer experienced a \"meteoric rise\" in his playing strength. On the tenth national rating list of the United States Chess Federation (USCF), published on May 20, 1956, Fischer's rating was 1726, more than 900 points below top-rated Samuel Reshevsky (2663). \n\nIn March 1956, the Log Cabin Chess Club of Orange, New Jersey, took Fischer on a tour to Cuba, where he gave a 12-board simultaneous exhibition at Havana's Capablanca Chess Club, winning ten games and drawing two. On this tour the club played a series of matches against other clubs. Fischer played second board, behind International Master Norman Whitaker. Whitaker and Fischer were the leading scorers for the club, each scoring 5½ points out of 7 games. \n\nIn July 1956, Fischer won the U.S. Junior Chess Championship, scoring 8½/10 at Philadelphia to become the youngest-ever Junior Champion at age 13. At the 1956 U.S. Open Chess Championship in Oklahoma City, Bobby scored 8½/12 to tie for 4–8th places, with Arthur Bisguier winning. In the first Canadian Open Chess Championship at Montreal 1956, Bobby scored 7/10 to tie for 8–12th places, with Larry Evans winning. In November, Fischer played in the 1956 Eastern States Open Championship in Washington, D.C., tying for second with William Lombardy, Nicholas Rossolimo, and Arthur Feuerstein, with Hans Berliner taking first by a half-point. \n\nFischer accepted an invitation to play in the Third Lessing J. Rosenwald Trophy Tournament in New York City (1956), a premier tournament limited to the 12 players considered the best in the country. Although Fischer's rating was not among the top 12 in the country, he received entry by special consideration. Playing against top opposition, the 13-year-old Fischer could only score 4½/11, tying for 8–9th place. Yet, Bobby won the brilliancy prize for his '\"immortal\"' game against International Master Donald Byrne, in which Bobby sacrificed his queen to unleash an unstoppable attack. Hans Kmoch called it \"The Game of the Century\". Wrote Kmoch, \"The following game, a stunning masterpiece of combination play performed by a boy of 13 against a formidable opponent, matches the finest on record in the history of chess prodigies\". The Game of the Century' has been talked about, analyzed, and admired for more than fifty years, and it will probably be a part of the canon of chess for many years to come.\" \"In reflecting on his game a while after it occurred, Bobby was refreshingly modest: 'I just made the moves I thought were best. I was just lucky. \n\nIn 1957, Fischer played a two-game match against former World Champion Max Euwe at New York, losing ½–1½. On the USCF's eleventh national rating list, published on May 5, 1957, Fischer was rated 2231—over 500 points higher than his rating a year before. This made him the country's youngest ever chess master, up to that point. In July, Bobby successfully defended his U.S. Junior title, scoring 8½/9 at San Francisco. As a result of his strong tournament results, Fischer's rating went up to 2298, \"making him among the top ten active players in the country\". In August, Fischer scored 10/12 at the U.S. Open Chess Championship in Cleveland, winning on tie-breaking points over Arthur Bisguier. This made Bobby the youngest ever U.S. Open Champion. Bobby won the New Jersey Open Championship, scoring 6½/7. He then defeated the young Filipino master Rodolfo Tan Cardoso 6–2 in a New York match sponsored by Pepsi-Cola. \n\nWins first U.S. title\n\nBased on Fischer's rating and strong results, the USCF invited him to play in the 1957–58 U.S. Championship. The tournament included such luminaries as six-time U.S. champion Samuel Reshevsky, defending U.S. champion Arthur Bisguier, and William Lombardy, who in August had won the World Junior Championship with the only perfect score (11–0) in the history of the event. Bisguier predicted that Fischer would \"finish slightly over the center mark\". Despite all the predictions to the contrary, Fischer scored eight wins and five draws to win the tournament by a one-point margin, with 10½/13. Still two months shy of his 15th birthday, Fischer became the youngest ever U.S. Champion. Since the championship that year was also the U.S. Zonal Championship, Fischer's victory earned him the title of International Master. Fischer's victory in the U.S. Championship sent his rating up to 2626, making him the second highest rated player in the United States, behind only Reshevsky (2713), and qualified him to participate in the 1958 Portorož Interzonal, the next step toward challenging the World Champion.\n\nGrandmaster, candidate, author\n\nBobby wanted to go to Moscow. At his pleading, \"Regina wrote directly to the Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, requesting an invitation for Bobby to participate in the World Youth and Student Festival. The reply—affirmative—came too late for him to go.\" Regina did not have the money to pay the airfare, but in the following year Fischer was invited onto the game show I've Got a Secret, where, thanks to Regina's efforts, the producers of the show arranged two round-trip tickets to Russia. \n\nOnce in Russia, Fischer was invited by the Soviet Union to Moscow, where International Master Lev Abramov would serve as a guide to Bobby and his sister, Joan. Upon arrival, Fischer immediately demanded that he be taken to the Moscow Central Chess Club, where he played speed chess with \"two young Soviet masters\", Evgeni Vasiukov and Alexander Nikitin, winning every game. Chess author V. I. Linder writes about the impression Fischer gave grandmaster Vladimir Alatortsev when he played blitz against the Soviet masters: \"Back in 1958, in the Central Chess Club, Vladimir Alatortsev saw a tall, angular 15-year-old youth, who in blitz games, crushed almost everyone who crossed his path... Alatortsev was no exception, losing all three games. He was astonished by the play of the young American Robert Fischer, his fantastic self-confidence, amazing chess erudition and simply brilliant play! On arriving home, Vladimir said in admiration to his wife: 'This is the future world champion! \n\nFischer demanded to play against Mikhail Botvinnik, the reigning World Champion. When told that this was impossible, Fischer asked to play Keres. \"Finally, Tigran Petrosian was, on a semi-official basis, summoned to the club...\" where he played speed games with Fischer, winning the majority. \"When Bobby discovered that he wasn't going to play any formal games... he went into a not-so-silent rage\", saying he was fed up \"with these Russian pigs\", which angered the Soviets who saw Fischer as their honored guest. It was then that the Yugoslavian chess officials offered to take in Fischer and Joan as early guests to the Interzonal. Fischer took them up on the offer, arriving in Yugoslavia to play two short training matches against masters Dragoljub Janošević and Milan Matulović. Fischer drew both games against Janošević and then defeated Matulović in Belgrade by 2½–1½. \n\nThe top six finishers in the Interzonal would qualify for the Candidates Tournament. Most observers doubted that a 15-year-old with no international experience could finish among the six qualifiers at the Interzonal, but Fischer told journalist Miro Radoicic, \"I can draw with the grandmasters, and there are half-a-dozen patzers in the tournament I reckon to beat.\" Despite some bumps in the road and a problematic start, Fischer succeeded in his plan: after a strong finish, he ended up with 12/20 (+6−2=12) to tie for 5–6th. The Soviet grandmaster Yuri Averbakh observed, In the struggle at the board this youth, almost still a child, showed himself to be a full-fledged fighter, demonstrating amazing composure, precise calculation and devilish resourcefulness. I was especially struck not even by his extensive opening knowledge, but his striving everywhere to seek new paths. In Fischer's play an enormous talent was noticeable, and in addition one sensed an enormous amount of work on the study of chess. Soviet grandmaster David Bronstein said of Fischer's time in Portorož: \"It was interesting for me to observe Fischer, but for a long time I couldn't understand why this 15-year-old boy played chess so well\". Fischer became the youngest person ever to qualify for the Candidates and the youngest ever grandmaster at 15 years, 6 months, 1 day. \"By then everyone knew we had a genius on our hands.\" \n\nBefore the Candidates' Tournament, Fischer won the 1958–59 U.S. Championship (scoring 8½/11). He tied for third (with Borislav Ivkov) in Mar del Plata (scoring 10/14), a half-point behind Ludek Pachman and Miguel Najdorf. He tied for 4–6th in Santiago (scoring 7½/12) behind Ivkov, Pachman, and Herman Pilnik. \n\nAt the Zürich International Tournament, spring 1959, Fischer finished a point behind future World Champion Mikhail Tal and a half-point behind Yugoslavian grandmaster Svetozar Gligorić. Tal recalled Fischer's uncompromising style: \"In his game with the oldest competitor, the Hungarian grandmaster Gedeon Barcza, Fischer had no advantage, but, not wishing to let his opponent go in peace, played on to the 103rd move. The game was adjourned three times and the contestants used up two score sheets, but even when there were only the kings left on the board, Fischer made two more moves! Draw! Stunned by such a fanatical onslaught, Barcza could barely get up from his chair, but Bobby nonchalantly suggested: 'Let's have a look at the game from the beginning...' Barcza then began pleading: 'Look, I have a wife and children. Who's going to support them in the event of my untimely death! \n\nAlthough Fischer had ended his formal education at age 16, dropping out of Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn, he subsequently taught himself several foreign languages so he could read foreign chess periodicals. According to Latvian chess master Alexander Koblencs, even he and Tal could not match the commitment that Fischer had made to chess. Recalling a conversation from the tournament: Tell me, Bobby,' Tal continued, 'what do you think of the playing style of Larissa Volpert?' 'She's too cautious. But you have another girl, Dmitrieva. Her games do appeal to me!' Here we were left literally open-mouthed in astonishment. Misha and I have looked at thousands of games, but it never even occurred to us to study the games of our women players. How could we find the time for this?! Yet Bobby, it turns out, had found the time! \n\nUntil late 1959, Fischer \"had dressed atrociously for a champion, appearing at the most august and distinguished national and international events in sweaters and corduroys.\" A director of the Manhattan Chess Club had once banned Fischer for not being \"properly accoutered\", forcing Denker to intercede to get him reinstated. Now, encouraged by Pal Benko to dress more smartly, Fischer \"began buying suits from all over the world, hand-tailored and made to order.\" He told journalist Ralph Ginzburg that he had 17 hand-tailored suits and that all of his shirts and shoes were handmade. \n\nAt the age of 16, Fischer finished equal fifth out of eight (the top non-Soviet player) at the 1959 Candidates Tournament in Bled/Zagreb/Belgrade, Yugoslavia, scoring 12½/28. He was outclassed by tournament winner Tal, who won all four of their individual games. That year, Fischer released his first book of collected games: Bobby Fischer's Games of Chess, published by Simon & Schuster. \n\nDrops out of school\n\nBobby's interest in chess became more important than schoolwork, to the point that \"by the time he reached the fourth grade, he'd been in and out of six schools.\" In 1952, Regina got Bobby a scholarship (based on his chess talent and \"astronomically high IQ\") to Brooklyn Community Woodward. Fischer later attended Erasmus Hall High School at the same time as Barbra Streisand and Neil Diamond. In 1959, its student council awarded him a gold medal for his chess achievements. The same year, Fischer dropped out of high school when he turned age 16, the earliest he could legally do so. He later explained to Ralph Ginzburg, \"You don't learn anything in school.\" \n\nWhen Fischer was 16, his mother moved out of their apartment to pursue medical training. Her friend Joan Rodker, who had met Regina when the two were \"idealistic communists\" living in Moscow in the 1930s, believes that Fischer resented his mother for being mostly absent as a mother, a communist activist and an admirer of the Soviet Union and that this led to his hatred for the Soviet Union. In letters to Rodker, Fischer's mother states her desire to pursue her own \"obsession\" of training in medicine and writes that her son would have to live in their Brooklyn apartment without her: \"It sounds terrible to leave a 16-year-old to his own devices, but he is probably happier that way\". The apartment was on the edge of Bedford-Stuyvesant, a neighborhood that had one of the highest homicide and general crime rates in New York City. Despite the alienation from her son, Regina, in 1960, protested the practices of the American Chess Foundation and staged a five-hour protest in front of the White House, urging President Dwight Eisenhower to send an American team to that year's chess Olympiad (set for Leipzig, East Germany, behind the Iron Curtain) and to help support the team financially.\n\nU.S. Championships\n\nFischer played in eight U.S. Championships, winning all of them, by at least a one-point margin. His results were: \n\nFischer missed the 1961–62 Championship (he was preparing for the 1962 Interzonal), and there was no 1964–65 event. Out of eight U.S. Chess Championships, Fischer lost only three games; to Edmar Mednis in the 1962–63 event, and in consecutive rounds to Samuel Reshevsky, and Robert Byrne in the 1965 championship, culminating in a total score of 74/90 (61 wins, 26 draws, 3 losses). \n\nOlympiads\n\nFischer refused to play in the 1958 Munich Olympiad when his demand to play first board ahead of Samuel Reshevsky was rejected. Some sources claim that 15-year-old Fischer was unable to arrange leave from attending high school. Fischer would later represent the United States on first board at four Men's Chess Olympiads, winning two individual Silver and one individual Bronze medals: \n\nOut of four Men's Chess Olympiads, Fischer scored +40−7=18, for 49/65: 75.4%. In 1966, Fischer narrowly missed the individual gold medal, scoring 88.23% to World Champion Tigran Petrosian's 88.46%, even though he played four games more than Petrosian, faced stiffer opposition, and would have won the gold if he had accepted Florin Gheorghiu's draw offer, rather than declining it and suffering his only loss. \n\nAt the 1962 Varna Olympiad, Fischer predicted that he would defeat Argentinian GM Miguel Najdorf in 25 moves. Fischer actually did it in 24, becoming the only player to beat Najdorf in the tournament. Ironically, Najdorf lost the game whilst employing the very opening variation named after him: the Sicilian Najdorf. \n\nFischer had planned to play for the U.S. at the 1968 Lugano Olympiad, but backed out when he saw the poor playing conditions. Both former World Champion Tigran Petrosian and Belgian-American International Master George Koltanowski, the \"leader of the American team\" that year, felt that Fischer was \"justified\" in not participating in the Olympiad. According to Lombardy, Fischer's non-participation was due to Reshevsky's refusal to \"yield first board\". \n\n1960–61\n\nIn 1960, Fischer tied for first place with Soviet star Boris Spassky at the strong Mar del Plata Tournament in Argentina, winning by a two-point margin, scoring 13½/15 (+13−11), ahead of David Bronstein.Edmonds & Eidinow 2004, p. 12. Fischer lost only to Spassky; this was the start of their lifelong friendship. \n\nFischer experienced the only failure in his competitive career at the Buenos Aires Tournament (1960), finishing with 8½/19 (+3−5=11), far behind winners Viktor Korchnoi and Samuel Reshevsky with 13/19. According to Larry Evans, Fischer's first sexual experience was with a girl to whom Evans introduced him during the tournament. Pal Benko says that Fischer did horribly in the tournament \"because he got caught up in women and sex. Afterwards, Fischer said he'd never mix women and chess together, and kept the promise.\" Fischer concluded 1960 by winning a small tournament in Reykjavík with 4½/5, and defeating Klaus Darga in an exhibition game in West Berlin. \n\nIn 1961, Fischer started a 16-game match with Reshevsky, split between New York and Los Angeles. Reshevsky, 32 years Fischer's senior, was considered the favorite, since he had far more match experience and had never lost a set match. After 11 games and a tie score (two wins apiece with seven draws), the match ended prematurely due to a scheduling dispute between Fischer and match organizer and sponsor Jacqueline Piatigorsky. Reshevsky was declared the winner, by default, and received the winner's share of the prize fund. \n\nFischer was second in a super-class field, behind only former World Champion Tal, at Bled, 1961. Yet, Fischer defeated Tal head-to-head for the first time in their individual game, scored 3½/4 against the Soviet contingent, and finished as the only unbeaten player, with 13½/19 (+8−0=11). \n\n1962: success, setback, accusations of collusion\n\nFischer won the 1962 Stockholm Interzonal by a 2½-point margin, going undefeated, with 17½/22 (+13−0=9). He was the first non-Soviet player to win an Interzonal since FIDE instituted the tournament in 1948. Russian grandmaster Alexander Kotov said of Fischer: I have discussed Fischer's play with Max Euwe and Gideon Stahlberg. All of us, experienced 'tournament old-timers', were surprised by Fischer's endgame expertise. When a young player is good at attacking or at combinations, this is understandable, but a faultless endgame technique at the age of 19 is something rare. I can recall only one other player who at that age was equally skillful at endgames — Vasily Smyslov.\n\nFischer's victory made him a favorite for the Candidates Tournament in Curaçao. Yet, despite his result in the Interzonal, Fischer only finished fourth out of eight with 14/27 (+8−7\n12), far behind Tigran Petrosian (17½/27), Efim Geller, and Paul Keres (both 17/27). Tal fell very ill during the tournament, and had to withdraw before completion. Fischer, a friend of Tal, was the only contestant who visited him in the hospital.Benko & Silman, p. 155.\n\nAccuses Soviets of collusion\n\nFollowing his failure in the 1962 Candidates, Fischer asserted, in an August 20, 1962 Sports Illustrated article, entitled \"The Russians Have Fixed World Chess\", that three of the five Soviet players (Tigran Petrosian, Paul Keres, and Efim Geller) had a prearranged agreement to quickly draw their games against each other in order to conserve their energy for playing against Fischer. It is generally thought that this accusation is correct. Fischer stated that he would never again participate in a Candidates' tournament, since the format, combined with the alleged collusion, made it impossible for a non-Soviet player to win. Following Fischer's article, FIDE, in late 1962, voted to implement a radical reform of the playoff system, replacing the Candidates' tournament with a format of one-on-one knockout matches; the format that Fischer would dominate in 1971. \n\nFischer defeated Bent Larsen in a summer 1962 exhibition game in Copenhagen for Danish TV. Later that year, Fischer beat Bogdan Śliwa in a team match against Poland in Warsaw. \n\nIn the 1962–63 U.S. Championship, Fischer experienced his first single-game loss (to Edmar Mednis) in round one. Bisguier was in excellent form, and Fischer caught up to him only at the end. Tied at 7–3, the two met in the final round. Bisguier stood well in the middlegame, but blundered, handing Fischer his fifth consecutive U.S. championship. \n\nSemi-retirement in the mid-1960s\n\nInfluenced by ill will over the aborted 1961 match against Reshevsky, Fischer declined an invitation to play in the 1963 Piatigorsky Cup tournament in Los Angeles, which had a world-class field. He instead played in the Western Open in Bay City, Michigan, which he won with 7½/8. In August–September 1963, Fischer won the New York State Championship at Poughkeepsie, with 7/7, his first perfect score, \"ahead of Bisguier and Sherwin\". \n\nIn the 1963–64 U.S. Championship, Fischer achieved his second perfect score, this time against the top-ranked chess players in the country: \"This tournament became, as they say, the stuff of legend. The fact that Fischer won his sixth U.S. title was no surprise. The way he did it was spectacular.\" \"One by one Fischer mowed down the opposition as he cut an 11–0 swathe through the field, to demonstrate convincingly to the opposition that he was now in a class by himself.\" This result brought Fischer heightened fame, including a profile in Life magazine. Sports Illustrated diagrammed each of the 11 games in its article, \"The Amazing Victory Streak of Bobby Fischer\". Such extensive chess coverage was groundbreaking for the top American sports' magazine. His 11–0 win in the 1963–64 Championship is the only perfect score in the history of the tournament, and one of about ten perfect scores in high-level chess tournaments ever. David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld called it \"the most remarkable achievement of this kind\". Fischer recalls: \"Motivated by my lopsided result (11–0!), Dr. [Hans] Kmoch congratulated [Larry] Evans (the runner up) on 'winning' the tournament... and then he congratulated me on 'winning the exhibition'.\"\n\nInternational Master Anthony Saidy recalled his last round encounter with the undefeated Fischer: Going into the final game I certainly did not expect to upset Fischer. I hardly knew the opening but played simply, and he went along with the scenario, opting for a N-v-B [i.e., Knight vs. Bishop] endgame with a minimal edge. In the corridor, Evans said to me, 'Good. Show him we're not all children.'\nAt adjournment, Saidy saw a way to force a draw, yet \"sealed a different, wrong move\", and lost. \"The rest is history.\" \"Chess publications around the world wrote of the unparalleled achievement. Only Bent Larsen, always a Fischer detractor, was unimpressed: 'Fischer was playing against children. \n\nFischer, eligible as U.S. Champion, decided against his participation in the 1964 Amsterdam Interzonal, taking himself out of the 1966 World Championship cycle, even after FIDE changed the format of the eight-player Candidates Tournament from a round-robin to a series of knockout matches, which eliminated the possibility of collusion. Instead, Fischer embarked on a tour of the United States and Canada from February through May, playing a simultaneous exhibition, and giving a lecture in each of more than 40 cities. His 94% winning percentage over more than 2,000 games is one of the best ever achieved. Fischer declined an invitation to play for the U.S. in the 1964 Olympiad in Tel Aviv. \n\nSuccessful return\n\nFischer wanted to play in the Capablanca Memorial Tournament, Havana in August and September 1965. Since the State Department refused to endorse Fischer's passport as valid for visiting Cuba, he proposed, and the tournament officials and players accepted, a unique arrangement: Fischer played his moves from a room at the Marshall Chess Club, which were then transmitted by teleprinter to Cuba. Luděk Pachman observed that Fischer \"was handicapped by the longer playing session resulting from the time wasted in transmitting the moves, and that is one reason why he lost to three of his chief rivals.\" The tournament was an \"ordeal\" for Fischer, who had to endure eight-hour and sometimes even twelve-hour playing sessions. Despite the handicap, Fischer tied for second through fourth places, with 15/21 (+12−36), behind former World Champion Vasily Smyslov, whom Fischer defeated in their individual game. The tournament received extensive media coverage. \n\nIn December, Fischer won his seventh U.S. Championship (1965), with the score of 8½/11 (+8−21), despite losing to Robert Byrne and Reshevsky in the eighth and ninth rounds. Fischer also reconciled with Mrs. Piatigorsky, accepting an invitation to the very strong second Piatigorsky Cup (1966) tournament in Santa Monica. Fischer began disastrously and after eight rounds was tied for last with 3/8. He then staged \"the most sensational comeback in the history of grandmaster chess\", scoring 7/8 in the next eight rounds. In the end, World Chess Championship finalist Boris Spassky edged him out by a half point, scoring 11½/18 to Fischer's 11/18 (+7−3\n8). Now aged 23, Fischer would win every match or tournament he completed for the rest of his life. \n\nFischer won the U.S. Championship (1966–67) for the eighth and final time, ceding only three draws (+8−03), In March–April and August–September, Fischer won strong tournaments at Monte Carlo, with 7/9 (+6−1\n2), and Skopje, with 13½/17 (+12−2=3). In the Philippines, Fischer played nine exhibition games against master opponents, scoring 8½/9. \n\nWithdrawal while leading Interzonal\n\nFischer's win in the 1966–67 U.S. Championship qualified him for the next World Championship cycle.\n\nAt the 1967 Interzonal, held at Sousse, Tunisia, Fischer scored 8½ points in the first 10 games, to lead the field. His observance of the Worldwide Church of God's seventh-day Sabbath was honored by the organizers, but deprived Fischer of several rest days, which led to a scheduling dispute, causing Fischer to forfeit two games in protest and later withdraw, eliminating himself from the 1969 World Championship cycle. Communications difficulties with the highly inexperienced local organizers were also a significant factor, since Fischer knew no French and the organizers had very limited English. No one in Tunisian chess had previous experience running an event of this stature. \n\nSince Fischer had completed less than half of his scheduled games, all of his results were annulled, meaning players who had played Fischer had those games cancelled, and the scores nullified from the official tournament record.\n\nSecond semi-retirement\n\nIn 1968, Fischer won tournaments at Netanya, with 11½/13 (+10−03), and Vinkovci, with 11/13 (+9−0\n4), by large margins. Fischer then stopped playing for the next 18 months, except for a win against Anthony Saidy in a 1969 New York Metropolitan League team match. That year, Fischer (assisted by grandmaster Larry Evans) released his second book of collected games: My 60 Memorable Games, published by Simon & Schuster. The book \"was an immediate success\". \n\nWorld Champion\n\nIn 1970, Fischer began a new effort to become World Champion. His dramatic march toward the title made him a household name and made chess front-page news for a time. He won the title in 1972, but forfeited it three years later.\n\nRoad to the World Championship\n\nThe 1969 U.S. Championship was also a zonal qualifier, with the top three finishers advancing to the Interzonal. Fischer, however, had sat out the U.S. Championship because of disagreements about the tournament's format and prize fund. Benko, one of the three qualifiers, agreed to give up his spot in the Interzonal in order to give Fischer another shot at the World Championship. \"When it was suggested to Fischer that Benko was considering the gesture based on a large sum of money to be paid to him, Bobby replied that Benko would not give up his berth for money alone. It was a matter of honor\". \"Lombardy, who was next in line with the right to participate, was queried as to whether he would also step aside. 'I would like to play,' he answered, 'but Fischer should have the chance.\n\nIn 1970 and 1971, Fischer \"dominated his contemporaries to an extent never seen before or since\". \n\nBefore the Interzonal, in March and April 1970, the world's best players competed in the USSR vs. Rest of the World match in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, often referred to as \"the Match of the Century\". There was much surprise when Fischer decided to participate: \n\nFischer had not played competitive chess for eighteen months, and many thought he would never return. Then, to general surprise and delight, he agreed to participate in the Soviet Union vs. the Rest of the World in 1970 in Belgrade.\n\nWith Evans as his second, Fischer flew to Belgrade with the intention of playing board one for the rest of the world. Danish grandmaster Bent Larsen, however, (due to his recent tournament victories) demanded to play first board instead of Fischer, even though Fischer had the higher Elo rating. To the surprise of everyone, Fischer agreed. Although the USSR team eked out a 20 ½–19 ½ victory, \"On the top four boards, the Soviets managed to win only one game out of a possible sixteen. Bobby Fischer was the high scorer for his team, with a 3–1 score against Petrosian (two wins and two draws)\". \"Fischer left no doubt in anyone's mind that he had put his temporary break from the tournament circuit to good use. Petrosian was almost unrecognizable in the first two games, and by the time he had collected himself, although pressing his opponent, he could do no more than draw the last two games of the four-game set\".\n\nAfter the USSR versus the Rest of the World Match, the unofficial World Championship of Lightning Chess (5-minute games) was held at Herceg Novi. \"[The Russians] figured on teaching Fischer a lesson and on bringing him down a peg or two\". Petrosian and Tal were considered the favorites, but Fischer overwhelmed the super-class field with 19/22 (+17−14), far ahead of Tal (14½), Korchnoi (14), Petrosian (13½), and Bronstein (13). Fischer lost only one game (to Korchnoi, who was also the only player to achieve an even score against him in the double round robin tournament). Fischer \"crushed such blitz kings as Tal, Petrosian and Vasily Smyslov by a clean score\". Tal marveled that, \"During the entire tournament he didn't leave a single pawn en prise!\", while the other players \"blundered knights and bishops galore\". For Lombardy, who had played many blitz games with Fischer, Fischer's 4½-point margin of victory \"came as a pleasant surprise\". \n\nIn April–May 1970, Fischer won at Rovinj/Zagreb with 13/17 (+10−16), by a two-point margin, ahead of Gligorić, Hort, Korchnoi, Smyslov, and Petrosian. In July–August, Fischer crushed the mostly grandmaster field at Buenos Aires, winning by a 3½-point margin, scoring 15/17 (+13−0\n4). Fischer then played first board for the U.S. Team in the 19th Chess Olympiad in Siegen, where he won an individual Silver medal, scoring 10/13 (+8−14), with his only loss being to World Champion Boris Spassky. Right after the Olympiad, Fischer defeated Ulf Andersson in an exhibition game for the Swedish newspaper Expressen. Fischer had taken his game to a new level. \n\nFischer won the Interzonal (held in Palma de Mallorca in November and December 1970) with 18½/23 (+15−17), far ahead of Larsen, Efim Geller, and Robert Hübner, with 15/23. Fischer finished the tournament with seven consecutive wins. Setting aside the Sousse Interzonal (which Fischer withdrew from while leading), Fischer's victory gave him a string of eight consecutive first prizes in tournaments. Former World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik was not, however, impressed by Fischer's results, stating: \"Fischer has been declared a genius. I do not agree with this... In order to rightly be declared a genius in chess, you have to defeat equal opponents by a big margin. As yet he has not done this\". Despite Botvinnik's remarks, \"Fischer began a miraculous year in the history of chess\". \n\nIn the 1971 Candidates matches, Fischer was set to play against Soviet grandmaster and concert pianist Mark Taimanov in the quarter-finals. \"Their match was to begin in May 1971 in Vancouver, Canada, on the beautiful campus of the University of British Columbia\". \"Analysts and players alike predicted that Fischer would win the Candidates, but not without a struggle. Tal predicted that Fischer would win 5½–4½ against Taimanov\". \"[Fischer] saw himself as the firm favorite in the Taimanov match. He was not alone; the noncommunist press was of the same mind. Only Taimanov insisted that he could win, dismissing Fischer as a mere computer\". Taimanov had reason to be confident. He was backed by the firm guidance of Botvinnik, who \"had thoroughly analysed Fischer's record and put together a 'dossier' on him\", from when he was in talks to play Fischer in a match \"a couple of years earlier\". After Fischer defeated Taimanov in the second game of the match, Taimanov asked Fischer how he managed to come up with the move 12. N1c3, to which Fischer replied \"that the idea was not his—he had come across it in the monograph by the Soviet master Alexander Nikitin in a footnote\". Taimanov said of this: \"It is staggering that I, an expert on the Sicilian, should have missed this theoretically significant idea by my compatriot, while Fischer had uncovered it in a book in a foreign language!\" With the score at 4–0, in Fischer's favor, the fifth game adjournment was a sight to behold. Schonberg explains the scene:Taimanov came to Vancouver with two seconds, both grandmasters. Fischer was alone. He thought that the sight of Taimanov and his seconds was the funniest thing he had ever seen. There Taimanov and his seconds would sit, six hands flying, pocket sets waving in the air, while variations were being spouted all over the place. And there sat Taimanov with a confused look on his face. Just before resuming play [in the fifth game] the seconds were giving Taimanov some last-minute advice. When poor Taimanov entered the playing room and sat down to confront Fischer, his head was so full of conflicting continuations that he became rattled, left a Rook en prise and immediately resigned. Fischer beat Taimanov by the score of 6–0. \"The record books showed that the only comparable achievement to the 6–0 score against Taimanov was Wilhelm Steinitz's 7–0 win against Joseph Henry Blackburne in 1876 in an era of more primitive defensive technique.\" \"Who would have imagined that any challenger's match would ever have been decided by a perfect score, when the participants are all to be ranked among the strongest players in the world?\" \"It is difficult to portray to non-chess players the magnitude of such a shutout. A typical result between well-matched players might be, say, six wins to four, with nine draws\". Taimanov later recalled, \"When Grand Masters play, they see the logic of their opponent's moves. One's moves may be so powerful that the other may not be able to stop him, but the plan behind the moves will be clear. Not so with Fischer. His moves did not make sense...\" \n\nUpon losing the final game of the match, Taimanov shrugged his shoulders, saying sadly to Fischer: \"Well, I still have my music.\" As a result of his performance, Taimanov \"was thrown out of the USSR team and forbidden to travel for two years. He was banned from writing articles, was deprived of his monthly stipend... [and] the authorities prohibited him from performing on the concert platform.\" \"The crushing loss virtually ended Taimanov's chess career.\" \n\nFischer was next scheduled to play against Danish grandmaster Bent Larsen. \"Spassky predicted a tight struggle: 'Larsen is a little stronger in spirit. Before the match, Botvinnik had told a Soviet television audience: It is hard to say how their match will end, but it is clear that such an easy victory as in Vancouver [against Taimanov] will not be given to Fischer. I think Larsen has unpleasant surprises in store for [Fischer], all the more since having dealt with Taimanov thus, Fischer will want to do just the same to Larsen and this is impossible. Fischer beat Larsen by the score of 6–0. Robert Byrne writes: \"To a certain extent I could grasp the Taimanov match as a kind of curiosity–almost a freak, a strange chess occurrence that would never occur again. But now I am at a loss for anything whatever to say... So, it is out of the question for me to explain how Bobby, how anyone, could win six games in a row from such a genius of the game as Bent Larsen\". Just a year before, Larsen had played first board for the Rest of the World team ahead of Fischer, and had handed Fischer his only loss at the Interzonal. Garry Kasparov later wrote that no player had ever shown a superiority over his rivals comparable to Fischer's \"incredible\" 12–0 score in the two matches. Chess statistician Jeff Sonas concludes that the victory over Larsen gave Fischer the \"highest single-match performance rating ever\". \n\nOn August 8, 1971, while preparing for his last Candidates match with former World Champion Tigran Petrosian, Fischer played in the Manhattan Chess Club Rapid Tournament, winning with 21½/22 against a strong field. \n\nDespite Fischer's results against Taimanov and Larsen, his upcoming match against Petrosian seemed a daunting task. Nevertheless, the Soviet government was concerned about Fischer. \"Reporters asked Petrosian whether the match would last the full twelve games... 'It might be possible that I win it earlier,' Petrosian replied\", and then stated: \"Fischer's [nineteen consecutive] wins do not impress me. He is a great chess player but no genius\". Petrosian played a strong theoretical novelty in the first game, gaining the advantage, but Fischer eventually won the game after Petrosian faltered. This gave Fischer a run of 20 consecutive wins against the world's top players (in the Interzonal and Candidates matches), a winning streak topped only by Steinitz's 25 straight wins in 1873–82. Petrosian won the second game, finally snapping Fischer's streak. After three consecutive draws, Fischer swept the next four games to win the match 6½–2½ (+5−13). Sports Illustrated ran an article on the match, highlighting Fischer's domination of Petrosian as being due to Petrosian's outdated system of preparation: Fischer's recent record raises the distinct possibility that he has made a breakthrough in modern chess theory. His response to Petrosian's elaborately plotted 11th move in the first game is an example: Russian experts had worked on the variation for weeks, yet when it was thrown at Fischer suddenly, he faced its consequences alone and won by applying simple, classic principles. Upon completion of the match, Petrosian remarked: \"After the sixth game Fischer really did become a genius. I on the other hand, either had a breakdown or was tired, or something else happened, but the last three games were no longer chess.\" \"Some experts kept insisting that Petrosian was off form, and that he should have had a plus score at the end of the sixth game...\" to which Fischer replied, \"People have been playing against me below strength for fifteen years.\" Fischer's match results befuddled Botvinnik: \"It is hard to talk about Fischer's matches. Since the time that he has been playing them, miracles have begun.\" \"When Petrosian played like Petrosian, Fischer played like a very strong grandmaster, but when Petrosian began making mistakes, Fischer was transformed into a genius.\"\n\nFischer gained a far higher rating than any player in history up to that time. On the July 1972 FIDE rating list, his Elo rating of 2785 was 125 points above (World No. 2) Spassky's rating of 2660. His results put him on the cover of Life magazine, and allowed him to challenge World Champion Boris Spassky, whom he had never beaten (+0−3=2). \n\nWorld Championship match\n\nFischer's career-long stubbornness about match and tournament conditions was again seen in the run-up to his match with Spassky. Of the possible sites, Fischer's first choice was Belgrade, Yugoslavia, while Spassky's was Reykjavík, Iceland. For a time it appeared that the dispute would be resolved by splitting the match between the two locations, but that arrangement failed. After that issue was resolved, Fischer refused to appear in Iceland until the prize fund was increased. London financier Jim Slater donated an additional US$125,000, bringing the prize fund up to an unprecedented $250,000 (equivalent to $ in ), and Fischer finally agreed to play. \n\nBefore and during the match, Fischer paid special attention to his physical training and fitness, which was a relatively novel approach for top chess players at that time. He had developed his tennis skills to a good level, and played frequently during off-days in Reykjavík. He had also arranged for exclusive use of his hotel's swimming pool during specified hours, and swam for extended periods, usually late at night. According to Soviet grandmaster Nikolai Krogius, Fischer \"was paying great attention to sport, and that he was swimming and even boxing...\" \n\nThe match took place in Reykjavík from July to September 1972 and was the first to receive an American broadcast in prime time. Fischer lost the first two games in strange fashion: the first when he played a risky pawn-grab in a drawn endgame, the second by forfeit when he refused to play the game in a dispute over playing conditions. Fischer would likely have forfeited the entire match, but Spassky, not wanting to win by default, yielded to Fischer's demands to move the next game to a back room, away from the cameras whose presence had upset Fischer. After that game, the match was moved back to the stage and proceeded without further serious incident. Fischer won seven of the next 19 games, losing only one and drawing eleven, to win the match 12½–8½ and become the 11th World Chess Champion.\n\nThe Cold War trappings made the match a media sensation. It was called \"The Match of the Century\", and received front-page media coverage in the United States and around the world. Fischer's win was an American victory in a field that Soviet players had dominated for the previous quarter-century; players closely identified with, and subsidized by, the Soviet state. Kasparov remarked, \"Fischer fits ideologically into the context of the Cold War era: a lone American genius challenges the Soviet chess machine and defeats it\". Dutch grandmaster Jan Timman calls Fischer's victory \"the story of a lonely hero who overcomes an entire empire\". Fischer's sister observed, \"Bobby did all this in a country almost totally without a chess culture. It was as if an Eskimo had cleared a tennis court in the snow and gone on to win the world championship\". \n\nUpon Fischer's return to New York, a Bobby Fischer Day was held. He was offered numerous product endorsement offers worth \"at least $5 million\" (all of which he declined). He appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with American Olympic swimming champion Mark Spitz. Fischer also made an appearance on a Bob Hope TV special. Membership in the U.S. Chess Federation doubled in 1972, and peaked in 1974; in American chess, these years are commonly referred to as the \"Fischer Boom\". Fischer won the 'Chess Oscar' (an award, started in 1967, given to the best chess player, determined through votes from chess media and leading players) for 1970, 1971, and 1972. This match attracted more worldwide interest than any chess championship before or since. \n\nForfeiture of title\n\nFischer was scheduled to defend his title in 1975 against Anatoly Karpov, who emerged as his challenger. Fischer, who had played no competitive games since his World Championship match with Spassky, laid out a proposal for the match in September 1973, in consultation with FIDE official Fred Cramer. He made three principal (non-negotiable) demands:\n\n#The match continues until one player wins 10 games, draws not counting.\n#No limit to the total number of games played.\n#In case of a 9–9 score, the champion (Fischer) retains the title, and the prize fund is split equally. \n\nA FIDE Congress was held in 1974 during the Nice Olympiad. The delegates voted in favor of Fischer's 10-win proposal, but rejected his other two proposals, and limited the number of games in the match to 36. In response to FIDE's ruling, Fischer sent a cable to Euwe on June 27, 1974. \n\nAs I made clear in my telegram to the FIDE delegates, the match conditions I proposed were non-negotiable. Mr. Cramer informs me that the rules of the winner being the first player to win ten games, draws not counting, unlimited number of games and if nine wins to nine match is drawn with champion regaining title and prize fund split equally were rejected by the FIDE delegates. By so doing FIDE has decided against my participation in the 1975 World Chess Championship. Therefore, I resign my FIDE World Chess Championship title. Sincerely, Bobby Fischer.\n\nThe delegates responded by reaffirming their prior decisions, but did not accept Fischer's resignation and requested that he reconsider. Many observers considered Fischer's requested 9–9 clause unfair because it would require the challenger to win by at least two games (10–8). Botvinnik called the 9–9 clause \"unsporting\". Korchnoi, David Bronstein, and Lev Alburt considered the 9–9 clause reasonable. \n\nDue to the continued efforts of U.S. Chess Federation officials, a special FIDE Congress was held in March 1975 in Bergen, Netherlands in which it was accepted that the match should be of unlimited duration, but the 9–9 clause was once again rejected, by a narrow margin of 35 votes to 32. FIDE set a deadline of April 1, 1975, for Fischer and Karpov to confirm their participation in the match. No reply was received from Fischer by April 3. Thus, by default, Karpov officially became World Champion. In his 1991 autobiography, Karpov professed regret that the match had not taken place, and claimed that the lost opportunity to challenge Fischer held back his own chess development. Karpov met with Fischer several times after 1975, in friendly but ultimately unsuccessful attempts to arrange a match since Karpov would never agree to play to 10. \n\nBrian Carney opined in The Wall Street Journal that Fischer's victory over Spassky in 1972 left him nothing to prove, except that perhaps someone could someday beat him, and he was not interested in the risk of losing. And that Fischer's refusal to recognize peers also allowed his paranoia to flower: \"The world championship he won ... validated his view of himself as a chess player, but it also insulated him from the humanizing influences of the world around him. He descended into what can only be considered a kind of madness\".\n\nBronstein felt that Fischer \"had the right to play the match with Karpov on his own conditions\". Korchnoi stated: Was Fischer right in demanding that the world title be protected by a two point handicap – that the challenger would be considered the winner with a 10–8 score and that the champion would retain his title in the event of a 9–9 draw? Yes, this was quite natural: the champion deserves this, not to mention the fact that further play to the first win in the event of an even score would be nothing short of a lottery – the winner in that case could not claim to have won a convincing victory.\n\nSoviet grandmaster Lev Alburt felt that the decision to not concede to Fischer's demands rested on Karpov's \"sober view of what he was capable of\". Years later, in his 1992 match against Spassky, Fischer said that Karpov \"refused to play against [him] under [his] conditions\". \n\nSudden obscurity\n\nAfter the 1972 World Chess Championship, Fischer did not play a competitive game in public for nearly 20 years. In 1977 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, he played three games against the MIT Greenblatt computer program, winning them all. \n\nOn May 26, 1981, while walking in Pasadena, Fischer was arrested by a police patrolman, allegedly because Fischer matched the description of a man who had just committed a bank robbery in the area. Fischer, who alleged that he was slightly injured during the arrest, said that he was held for two days, subjected to assault and various types of mistreatment, and released on $1,000 bail. Fischer published a 14-page pamphlet detailing his alleged experiences and saying that his arrest had been \"a frame up and set up\". \n\nIn 1981, Fischer stayed at the home of grandmaster Peter Biyiasas, where, over a period of four months, he beat Biyiasas seventeen times in a series of speed games. In an interview with Sports Illustrated reporter William Nack, Biyiasas assessed Fischer's play:He was too good. There was no use in playing him. It wasn't interesting. I was getting beaten, and it wasn't clear to me why. It wasn't like I made this mistake or that mistake. It was like I was being gradually outplayed, from the start. He wasn't taking any time to think. The most depressing thing about it is that I wasn't even getting out of the middle game to an endgame. I don't ever remember an endgame. He honestly believes there is no one for him to play, no one worthy of him. I played him, and I can attest to that.\n\n1992 Spassky rematch\n\nFischer emerged after twenty years of isolation to play Spassky (then tied for 96th–102nd on the FIDE rating list) in a \"Revenge Match of the 20th century\" in 1992. This match took place in Sveti Stefan and Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in spite of a United Nations embargo that included sanctions on commercial activities. Fischer demanded that the organizers bill the match as \"The World Chess Championship\", although Garry Kasparov was the recognized FIDE World Champion. Fischer insisted he was still the true World Champion, and that for all the games in the FIDE-sanctioned World Championship matches, involving Karpov, Korchnoi, and Kasparov, the outcomes had been prearranged. The purse for the rematch was US$5 million, with $3.35 million of the purse to go to the winner. \n\nAccording to grandmaster Andrew Soltis: \n[The match games] were of a fairly high quality, particularly when compared with Kasparov's championship matches of 1993, 1995 and 2000, for example. Yet the games also reminded many fans of how out of place Fischer was in 1992. He was still playing the openings of a previous generation. He was, moreover, the only strong player in the world who didn't trust computers and wasn't surrounded by seconds and supplicants.\n\nFischer won the match with 10 wins, 5 losses, and 15 draws. Kasparov stated, \"Bobby is playing OK, nothing more. Maybe his strength is 2600 or 2650. It wouldn't be close between us\". Yasser Seirawan believed that the match proved that Fischer's playing strength was \"somewhere in the top ten in the world\". \n\nFischer and Spassky gave ten press conferences during the match. Seirawan attended the match and met with Fischer on several occasions; the two analyzed some match games and had personal discourse. Seirawan later wrote: \"After September 23 [1992], I threw most of what I'd ever read about Bobby out of my head. Sheer garbage. Bobby is the most misunderstood, misquoted celebrity walking the face of the earth.\" He further wrote that Fischer was not camera shy, smiled and laughed easily, was \"a fine wit\" and \"wholly enjoyable conversationalist\". \n\nThe U.S. Department of the Treasury warned Fischer before the start of the match that his participation was illegal, that it would violate President George H. W. Bush's imposing United Nations Security Council Resolution 757 sanctions against engaging in economic activities in Yugoslavia. In response, during the first scheduled press conference on September 1, in front of the international press, Fischer spat on the U.S. order, saying \"this is my reply\". His violation of the order led U.S. Federal officials to initiate a warrant for his arrest upon completion of the match, citing, in pertinent part, \"Title 50 USC §§1701, 1702, and 1705 and Executive Order 12810\". \n\nPrior to the rematch against Spassky, Fischer had won a training match against Svetozar Gligorić in Sveti Stefan with six wins, one loss and three draws. \n\nLife as an émigré\n\nAfter the 1992 match with Spassky, Fischer, now a fugitive, slid back into relative obscurity, taking up residence in Budapest, Hungary, and allegedly having a relationship with young Hungarian chess master Zita Rajcsányi. \n\nFischer claimed that standard chess was stale and that he now played blitz games of chess variants, such as Chess960. He visited with the Polgár family in Budapest and analyzed many games with Judit, Zsuzsa, and Zsófia Polgár. \n\nFrom 2000 to 2002, Fischer lived in Baguio City in the Philippines, residing in the same compound as the Filipino grandmaster Eugenio Torre, a close friend who acted as his second during his 1992 match with Spassky. Torre introduced Fischer to a 22-year-old woman named Marilyn Young.Marilyn Young's name was written behind a photograph dated December 14, 2000, sent to her by Fischer. The photograph is displayed on the Chessbase website. See also: On May 21, 2001 Marilyn Young gave birth to a daughter named Jinky Young. Her mother claimed that Jinky was Fischer's daughter, citing as evidence Jinky's birth and baptismal certificates, photographs, a transaction record dated December 4, 2007 of a bank remittance by Fischer to Jinky, and Jinky's DNA through her blood samples. On the other hand, Magnús Skúlason, a friend of Fischer's, said that he was certain that Fischer was not the girl's father. On August 17, 2010, it was reported that a DNA test revealed that Jinky Young was not the daughter of Bobby Fischer.\n\nAnti-semitic statements\n\nFischer made numerous anti-Jewish statements and professed a general hatred for Jews since at least the early 1960s. Jan Hein Donner wrote that at the time of Bled 1961, \"He idolized Hitler and read everything about him that he could lay his hands on. He also championed a brand of anti-semitism that could only be thought up by a mind completely cut off from reality\". Donner took Fischer to a war museum, which \"left a great impression, since [Fischer] is not an evil person, and afterwards he was more restrained in his remarks—to me, at least.\"\n\nAlthough Fischer described his mother as Jewish in a 1962 interview, he later denied his Jewish ancestry. In 1984, Fischer denied being a Jew in a letter to the Encyclopaedia Judaica, insisting that they remove his name and accusing them of \"fraudulently misrepresenting me to be a Jew [...] to promote your religion\". \n\nFrom the 1980s on, Fischer's comments about Jews were a major theme in his public and private remarks. He openly denied the Holocaust, and called the United States \"a farce controlled by dirty, hook-nosed, circumcised Jew bastards\". Between 1999 and 2006, Fischer's primary means of communicating with the public was radio interviews. He participated in at least 34 such broadcasts, mostly with radio stations in the Philippines, but also in Hungary, Iceland, Colombia, and Russia. In 1999, he gave a radio call-in interview to a station in Budapest, Hungary, during which he described himself as the \"victim of an international Jewish conspiracy\". In another radio interview, Fischer said that it became clear to him in 1977, after reading The Secret World Government by Count Cherep-Spiridovich, that Jewish agencies were targeting him. Fischer's sudden reemergence was apparently triggered when some of his belongings, which had been stored in a Pasadena, California storage unit, were sold by the landlord who claimed it was in response to nonpayment of rent. \n\nFischer's library contained anti-semitic and racist literature such as Mein Kampf, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and The White Man's Bible and Nature's Eternal Religion by Ben Klassen, founder of the World Church of the Creator. A notebook written by Fischer contains sentiments such as \"8/24/99 Death to the Jews. Just kill the Motherfuckers!\" and \"12/13/99 It's time to start randomly killing Jews\". Despite his views, Fischer remained on good terms with Jewish chess players. \n\nAnti-American and anti-Israel statements\n\nShortly after midnight on September 12, 2001, Philippines local time (approximately four hours after the September 11, 2001 attacks in the U.S.), Fischer was interviewed live by Pablo Mercado on the Baguio City station of the Bombo Radyo network. Fischer stated that he was happy that the airliner attacks had happened, while expressing his view on U.S. and Israeli foreign policy, saying \"I applaud the act. Look, nobody gets ... that the U.S. and Israel have been slaughtering the Palestinians ... for years.\" He also said \"The horrible behavior that the U.S. is committing all over the world ... This just shows you, that what goes around, comes around even for the United States.\" Fischer also referenced the movie Seven Days in May and said he hoped for a military coup d'état in the U.S., \"[I hope] the country will be taken over by the military, they'll close down all the synagogues, arrest all the Jews, execute hundreds of thousands of Jewish ringleaders.\" In response to Fischer's statements about 9/11, the U.S. Chess Federation passed a motion to cancel his right to membership in the organization. Fischer's right to become a member was reinstated in 2007. \n\nDetention in Japan\n\nFischer lived for a time in Japan. On July 13, 2004, acting in response to a letter from U.S. officials, he was arrested by Japanese immigration authorities at Narita International Airport near Tokyo for allegedly using a revoked U.S. passport while trying to board a Japan Airlines flight to Ninoy Aquino International Airport in Manila, Philippines. Fischer resisted arrest, claiming to have sustained bruises, cuts and a broken tooth in the process. At the time, Fischer had a passport (originally issued in 1997 and updated in 2003 to add more pages) that, according to U.S. officials, had been revoked in November 2003 due to his outstanding arrest warrant for the Yugoslavia sanctions violation. Despite the outstanding arrest warrant in the U.S., Fischer said that he believed the passport was still valid. The authorities held Fischer at a custody center for 16 days before transferring him to another facility. Fischer claimed that his cell was windowless and he had not seen the light of day during that period, and that the staff had ignored his complaints about constant tobacco smoke in his cell. \n\nTokyo-based Canadian journalist and consultant John Bosnitch set up the \"Committee to Free Bobby Fischer\" after meeting Fischer at Narita Airport and offering to assist him. Boris Spassky wrote a letter to U.S. President George H. W. Bush, asking \"For mercy, charity\", and, if that was not possible, \"to put [him] in the same cell with Bobby Fischer\" and \"to give [them] a chess set\". It was reported that Fischer and Miyoko Watai, the President of the Japanese Chess Association (with whom he had reportedly been living since 2000) wanted to become legally married. (It was also reported that Fischer had been living in the Philippines with Marilyn Young during the same period.) Fischer applied for German citizenship on the grounds that his father was German. Fischer stated that he wanted to renounce his U.S. citizenship, and appealed to U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell to help him do so, though to no effect. Japan's Justice Minister rejected Fischer's request for asylum and ordered him deported. \n\nAsylum in Iceland\n\nSeeking ways to evade deportation to the United States, Fischer wrote a letter to the government of Iceland in early January 2005, requesting Icelandic citizenship. Sympathetic to Fischer's plight, but reluctant to grant him the full benefits of citizenship, Icelandic authorities granted him an alien's passport. When this proved insufficient for the Japanese authorities, Althing (the Icelandic Parliament), at the behest of William Lombardy, agreed unanimously to grant Fischer full citizenship in late March for humanitarian reasons, as they felt he was being unjustly treated by the U.S. and Japanese governments, and also in recognition of his 1972 match, which had \"put Iceland on the map\". \n\nAfter arriving in Reykjavík, Fischer gave a press conference. Fischer lived a reclusive life in Iceland, avoiding entrepreneurs and others who approached him with various proposals. Fischer moved into an apartment in the same building as his close friend and spokesman, Garðar Sverrisson. Garðar's wife, Kristín Þórarinsdóttir, was a nurse and later looked after Fischer as a terminally ill patient. Garðar's two children, especially his son, were very close to Fischer. Fischer also developed a friendship with Magnús Skúlason, a psychiatrist and chess player who later recalled long discussions with Fischer on a wide variety of subjects.\n\nOn December 10, 2006, Fischer telephoned an Icelandic television station and pointed out a winning combination, missed by the players and commentators. In 2005, some of Fischer's belongings were auctioned on eBay. Fischer claimed, in 2006, that those belongings were worth millions of U.S. dollars. \n\nPersonal life\n\nFischer was eccentric. He made a large number of demands for the playing conditions at his 1972 World Championship match with Spassky. He became more erratic in his years after losing his World Championship title.\n\nReligious affiliation\n\nAlthough Fischer's mother was Jewish, Fischer disavowed having Jewish roots. In an interview in the January 1962 issue of Harper's, Fischer was quoted as saying, \"I read a book lately by Nietzsche and he says religion is just to dull the senses of the people. I agree.\" \n\nFischer joined the Worldwide Church of God in the mid-1960s. The church prescribed Saturday Sabbath, and forbade work (and competitive chess) on Sabbath. According to his friend and colleague Larry Evans, in 1968 Fischer felt philosophically that \"the world was coming to an end\" and he might as well make some money by publishing My 60 Memorable Games; Fischer thought that the Rapture was coming soon. During the mid 1970s Fischer contributed significant money to the Worldwide Church of God. In 1972 one journalist stated that \"Fischer is almost as serious about religion as he is about chess\", and the champion credited his faith with greatly improving his chess. Yet, prophecies by Herbert W. Armstrong went unfulfilled, and the church was rocked by revelations of a series of sex scandals involving Garner Ted Armstrong. Fischer eventually left the church in 1977, \"accusing it of being 'Satanic', and vigorously attacking its methods and leadership.\" \n\nDeath, estate dispute, and exhumation\n\nOn January 17, 2008, Fischer died from renal failure at the Landspítali Hospital (National University Hospital of Iceland) in Reykjavík. He originally had a urinary tract blockage but refused surgery or medications. Magnús Skúlason reported Fischer's last words as \"Nothing is as healing as the human touch.\" \n\nOn January 21, Fischer was buried in the small Christian cemetery of Laugardælir church, outside the town of Selfoss, 60 km southeast of Reykjavík, after a Catholic funeral presided over by Fr. Jakob Rolland of the diocese of Reykjavík. In accordance with Fischer's wishes, only Miyoko Watai, Garðar Sverrisson, and Garðar's family were present. \n\nFischer's estate was estimated at 140 million ISK (about 1 million GBP, or $2 million USD). It quickly became the object of a legal battle involving claims from four parties, with Miyoko Watai ultimately inheriting what remained of Fischer's estate after government claims. The four parties were Fischer's apparent Japanese wife Miyoko Watai, his alleged Filipino daughter Jinky Young and her mother Marilyn Young, his two American nephews Alexander and Nicholas Targ and their father Russell Targ, and the U.S. government (claiming unpaid taxes). \n\nAccording to a press release issued by Samuel Estimo, an attorney representing Jinky Young, the Supreme Court of Iceland ruled, in December 2009, that Watai's claim of marriage to Fischer was invalidated because of her failure to present the original copy of their alleged marriage certificate. On June 16, 2010, the Court ruled in favor of a petition on behalf of Jinky Young to have Bobby Fischer's remains exhumed. The exhumation was performed on July 5, 2010, in the presence of a doctor, a priest, and other officials. A DNA sample was taken and Fischer's body was then reburied. On August 17, 2010, the Court announced that based on the DNA sample it was determined that Fischer was not the father of Jinky Young. On March 3, 2011, an Icelandic district court ruled that Miyoko Watai and Fischer had married on September 6, 2004, and that, as Fischer's widow and heir, Watai was therefore entitled to inherit Fischer's estate. Fischer's nephews were ordered to pay Watai's legal costs, amounting to ISK 6.6 million (approximately $57,000).\n\nPsychology\n\nFischer’s views and behavior attracted widespread comment Reuben Fine, psychologist and chess player, who met Fischer many times, said that \"Some of Bobby's behavior is so strange, unpredictable, odd and bizarre that even his most ardent apologists have had a hard time explaining what makes him tick.\" and described him as \"a troubled human being\" with \"obvious personal problems\". \n\nValery Krylov, advisor to Anatoly Karpov and a specialist in the \"psycho-physiological rehabilitation of sportsmen\", believed Bobby suffered from schizophrenia. Psychologist Joseph G Ponteretto, from second-hand sources, concludes that \"Bobby did not meet all the necessary criteria to reach diagnoses of schizophrenia or Asperger's Disorder. The evidence is stronger for paranoid personality disorder.\"\n\nContributions to chess\n\nOpening theory\n\nFor most of his career, Fischer was predictable in his use of openings and variations of those openings. Despite this seeming disadvantage, it was very difficult for opponents to exploit this limitation, because Fischer's knowledge of the openings and variations that he used was extensive. \n\nAs Black, Fischer would usually play the Najdorf Sicilian against 1.e4, and the King's Indian Defense against 1.d4, only rarely venturing into the Nimzo-Indian (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4), Benoni, Grünfeld or Neo-Grünfeld. As White, Fischer almost exclusively played 1.e4 throughout his career. \n\nFischer was a master of playing with, and against, the Sicilian Defense. The next most common defense against Fischer's 1.e4 was the Caro-Kann Defense (1.e4 c6), against which Fischer had a good record. Fischer's worst record was against the French Defense (1.e4 e6), especially the Winawer Variation (1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4). Fischer maintained that the Winawer was unsound because it exposed Black's kingside, and that, in his view, \"Black was trading off his good bishop with 3...Bb4 and ...Bxc3.\" Later on Fischer said: \"I may yet be forced to admit that the Winawer is sound. But I doubt it! The defense is anti-positional and weakens the K-side.\" \n\nFischer was renowned for his opening preparation and made numerous contributions to chess opening theory. He was one of the foremost experts on the Ruy Lopez. A line of the Exchange Variation (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Bxc6 dxc6 5.0-0) is sometimes called the \"Fischer Variation\" after he successfully resurrected it at the 1966 Havana Olympiad. Fischer's lifetime score with the move 5.0-0 in tournament and match games was eight wins, three draws, and no losses: (86.36%). \n\nFischer was a recognized expert in the black side of the Najdorf Sicilian and the King's Indian Defense. He used the Grünfeld Defense and Neo-Grünfeld Defense to win his celebrated games against Donald and Robert Byrne, and played a theoretical novelty in the Grünfeld against reigning World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik, refuting Botvinnik's prepared analysis over-the-board. In the Nimzo-Indian Defense, the line beginning with 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.e3 b6 5.Ne2 Ba6 was named after him. \n\nFischer established the viability of the so-called Poisoned Pawn Variation of the Najdorf Sicilian (1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6). This bold queen sortie, to snatch a pawn at the expense of development, had been considered dubious, but Fischer succeeded in proving its soundness. Out of ten tournament and match games as Black in the Poisoned Pawn, Fischer scored 70%, winning five, drawing four, and losing only one: the 11th game of his 1972 match against Spassky. Following Fischer's use, the Poisoned Pawn Variation became a respected line, utilized by many of the world's leading players. \n\nOn the white side of the Sicilian, Fischer made advances to the theory of the line beginning 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 (or e6) 6.Bc4, which has sometimes been named after him. In 1961, prompted by a loss the year before to Spassky, Fischer wrote an article entitled \"A Bust to the King's Gambit\" for the first issue of the American Chess Quarterly, in which he stated, \"In my opinion, the King's Gambit is busted. It loses by force.\" Fischer recommended 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 d6, which has since become known as the Fischer Defense, as a refutation to the King's Gambit. Fischer later played the King's Gambit as White in three tournament games, winning them all. \n\nEndgame\n\nFischer had excellent endgame technique. International Master Jeremy Silman listed him as one of the five best endgame players (along with Emanuel Lasker, Akiba Rubinstein, José Capablanca, and Vasily Smyslov), calling Fischer a \"master of bishop endings\". The endgame of a rook, bishop, and pawns against a rook, knight, and pawns has sometimes been called the \"Fischer Endgame\" because of several instructive wins by Fischer (with the bishop), including three against Mark Taimanov in 1970 and 1971. \n\nFischer clock\n\nIn 1988, Fischer filed for for a new type of chess clock, which gave each player a fixed period at the start of the game and then added a small increment after each completed move. Used in the 1992 rematch between Fischer and Spassky, the \"Fischer clock\" soon became standard in most major chess tournaments. \n\nFischerandom Chess\n\nFischer heavily disparaged chess as it was currently being played (at the highest levels). As a result, on June 19, 1996, in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Fischer announced and advocated a variant of chess called Fischerandom Chess (later known as Chess960). The goal of Fischerandom Chess was to ensure that a game between two players is a contest between their understandings of chess, rather than their abilities to memorize opening lines or prepare opening strategies. \n\nIn a 2006 Icelandic Radio interview, Fischer explained his reasons for advocating Fischerandom Chess: In chess so much depends on opening theory, so the champions before the last century did not know as much as I do and other players do about opening theory. So if you just brought them back from the dead they wouldn’t do well. They’d get bad openings. You cannot compare the playing strength, you can only talk about natural ability. Memorisation is enormously powerful. Some kid of fourteen today, or even younger, could get an opening advantage against Capablanca, and especially against the players of the previous century, like Morphy and Steinitz. Maybe they would still be able to outplay the young kid of today. Or maybe not, because nowadays when you get the opening advantage not only do you get the opening advantage, you know how to play, they have so many examples of what to do from this position... and that is why I don’t like chess any more... It is all just memorization and prearrangement...\n\nLegacy\n\nKasparov calls Fischer \"perhaps the most mythologically shrouded figure in chess\". Some leading players and some of Fischer's biographers have ranked him as the greatest player who ever lived. Other writers have said that he was arguably the greatest player ever, without reaching a definitive conclusion. Leonard Barden wrote, \"Most experts place him the second or third best ever, behind Kasparov but probably ahead of Karpov.\"\n\nSome grandmasters compared Fischer's play to that of a computer; \"Referring to the future chess computer, Jim Sherwin [aka: James Sherwin], an American [chess] player who knew Fischer well, described him as 'a prototype Deep Blue.' The Soviet analysis showed that even when faced with an unexpected position, Fischer took not longer than fifteen or twenty minutes to make his move; other grandmasters might take twice as long. Nor did Fischer appear to be governed by any psychologically predetermined system or technique\". Edmonds & Eidinow 2004, p. 22. a player without noticeable weaknesses. \n\nAlthough international ratings were just introduced in 1970, Chessmetrics (a website that uses algorithms to rank performances retrospectively and uniformly throughout chess history) determined that Fischer's peak rating was 2895 in October 1971—the highest in history. His one-year peak (1971) average was 2881, the highest of all time. His three-year peak average was 2867, from January 1971 to December 1973—the second highest ever, just behind Garry Kasparov. Fischer was ranked as the number one player in the world for a total of 109 different months, running (not consecutively) from February 1964 until July 1974. \n\nFischer's great rival Mikhail Tal praised him as \"the greatest genius to have descended from the chess heavens\". American grandmaster Arthur Bisguier wrote \"Robert James Fischer is one of the few people in any sphere of endeavour who has been accorded the accolade of being called a legend in his own time.\" Former World Champion Tigran Petrosian stated that Fischer put more time into chess than the entire Soviet team. \n\nBiographers David Edmonds and John Eidinow wrote: Faced with Fischer's extraordinary coolness, his opponents [sic] assurance would begin to disintegrate. A Fischer move, which at first glances looked weak, would be reassessed. It must have a deep master plan behind it, undetectable by mere mortals (more often than not they were right, it did). The U.S. grandmaster Robert Byrne labeled the phenomenon \"Fischer-fear\". Grandmasters would wilt, their suits would crumple, sweat would glisten on their brows, panic would overwhelm their nervous systems. Errors would creep in. Calculations would go awry. There was talk among grandmasters that Fischer hypnotized his opponents, that he undermined their intellectual powers with a dark, mystic, insidious force.\n\nKasparov wrote that Fischer \"became the detonator of an avalanche of new chess ideas, a revolutionary whose revolution is still in progress\". In January 2009, reigning World Champion Viswanathan Anand described him as \"the greatest chess player who ever lived\". Serbian grandmaster Ljubomir Ljubojević called Fischer, \"A man without frontiers. He didn't divide the East and the West, he brought them together in their admiration of him.\"\n\nGerman grandmaster Karsten Müller wrote:Fischer, who had taken the highest crown almost singlehandedly from the mighty, almost invincible Soviet chess empire, shook the whole world, not only the chess world, to its core. He started a chess boom not only in the United States and in the Western hemisphere, but worldwide. Teaching chess or playing chess as a career had truly become a respectable profession. After Bobby, the game was simply not the same.\n\nFischer was a charter inductee into the U.S. Chess Hall of Fame in Washington, D.C. in 1985. After routing Taimanov, Larsen, and Petrosian in 1971, Fischer achieved a then-record Elo rating of 2785. After beating Spassky by the score 12½–8½ in their 1972 match, his rating dropped to 2780.\n\nSt. Louis philanthropist Rex Sinquefield offered a $64,000 Fischer Memorial Prize for any player who could win all nine of their games at the 2009 U.S. Chess Championship. By the fifth day of the championship, all 24 participants became ineligible for the prize, having drawn or lost at least one game. \n\nHead-to-head record versus selected grandmasters\n\n(Rapid, blitz and blindfold games not included; listed as +wins −losses =draws.) \nPlayers who have been World Champions in boldface\n\n* Pal Benko (USA) +8−3=7\n* Mikhail Botvinnik (USSR) +0−0=1\n* David Bronstein (USSR) +0−0=2\n* Max Euwe (Netherlands) +1−1=1\n* Efim Geller (USSR) +3−5=2\n* Svetozar Gligoric (Yugoslavia) +7−4=8\n* Paul Keres (USSR) +4−3=3\n* Victor Korchnoi (USSR) +2−2=4\n* Bent Larsen (Denmark) +9−2=1\n* Miguel Najdorf (Argentina) +4−1=4\n* Tigran Petrosian (USSR) +8−4=15\n* Lev Polugaevsky (USSR) +0−0=1\n* Samuel Reshevsky (USA) +9−4=13\n* Vasily Smyslov (USSR) +3−1=5\n* Boris Spassky (USSR) +17−11=28\n* Mark Taimanov (USSR) +7−0=1\n* Mikhail Tal (USSR) +2-4=5\n\nInternet Bobby Fischer theory\n\nIn 2001, Nigel Short wrote in The Sunday Telegraph chess column that he believed he had been secretly playing Fischer on ICC in speed chess matches. Fischer denied ownership of the account. \n\nNational Masters R.O. Mitchell and Lionel Davis both claimed to have played Fischer on ICC, with Mitchell providing his alleged conversation with the supposed Fischer. Chessbase.com did a study where they concluded that the user was more likely a hoax, and not the real Bobby Fischer. \n\nIn popular culture\n\n* The musical Chess, with lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson, tells the story of two chess champions, referred to only as \"The American\" and \"The Russian\". The musical is loosely based on the 1972 World Championship match between Fischer and Spassky, and in later stage productions the American player is named \"Freddie Trumper\", a reference to Fischer. \n* During the 1972 Fischer–Spassky match, the Soviet bard Vladimir Vysotsky wrote an ironic two-song cycle \"Honor of the Chess Crown\". The first song is about a rank-and-file Soviet worker's preparation for the match with Fischer; the second is about the game. Many expressions from the songs have become catchphrases in Russian culture. \n* Bobby Fischer is referred to in the chorus of the song \"Cosby Sweater\" by Australian hip hop band Hilltop Hoods. Another Australian band, Lazy Susan, released a song \"Bobby Fischer\" on their 2001 album Long Lost.\n* Matthew Good, in his song \"Invasion 1\" from the 1997 Underdogs album, sings: \"Drops off the face of the earth - Bobby is my hero for that\" in reference to Fischer's reclusion.\n* In 2015 the Comedy Central program Drunk History portrayed Bobby Fischer on Season 3, Episode 6.\n\nIn film\n\n* The 1993 film Searching for Bobby Fischer uses Fischer's name in the title, even though the film is about the life of chess prodigy Joshua Waitzkin. Outside of the United States, it was released as Innocent Moves. The title refers to the search for Fischer's successor after his disappearance from competitive chess. The author feels that his son could be that successor. Fischer never saw the film and complained bitterly that it was an invasion of his privacy by using his name without his permission. Fischer never received any compensation from the film, calling it \"a monumental swindle\". \n*In April 2009, the film Me and Bobby Fischer, about Bobby Fischer's last years as his old friend Saemundur Palsson gets him out of jail in Japan and helps him settle in Iceland, was premiered in Iceland. The film was produced by Friðrik Guðmundsson with music by Guðlaugur Kristinn Óttarsson, Björk Guðmundsdóttir and Einar Arnaldur Melax.\n*In October 2009, the biographical film Bobby Fischer Live was released, with Damien Chapa directing and starring as Fischer.\n*In 2011, documentary film-maker Liz Garbus released Bobby Fischer Against the World, which explores the life of Fischer, with interviews from Garry Kasparov, Anthony Saidy, and others. \n*On September 16, 2015 the American biographical film Pawn Sacrifice was released, starring Tobey Maguire as Fischer, Liev Schreiber as Boris Spassky, Lily Rabe as Joan Fischer, and Peter Sarsgaard as William Lombardy. \n\nWritings\n\n* Bobby Fischer's Games of Chess (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1959). ISBN 0-923891-46-3. An early collection of 34 lightly annotated games, including \"The Game of the Century\" against Donald Byrne.\n* \"A Bust to the King's Gambit\" (American Chess Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Summer 1961), pp. 3–9).\n* \"The Russians Have Fixed World Chess\" (Sports Illustrated magazine, 20 August 1962). This is the controversial article in which Fischer asserted that several of the Soviet players in the 1962 Curaçao Candidates' tournament had colluded with one another to prevent him [Fischer] from winning the tournament.\n* \"The Ten Greatest Masters in History\" (Chessworld, Vol. 1, No. 1 (January–February 1964), pp. 56–61). An article in which Fischer named Paul Morphy, Howard Staunton, Wilhelm Steinitz, Siegbert Tarrasch, Mikhail Chigorin, Alexander Alekhine, José Raúl Capablanca, Boris Spassky, Mikhail Tal, and Samuel Reshevsky as the greatest players of all time. Fischer's criteria for inclusion on his list was his own subjective appreciation of their games rather than their achievements. \n* \"Checkmate\" column from December 1966 to December 1969 in Boys' Life, later assumed by Larry Evans.\n* My 60 Memorable Games (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1969, and Faber and Faber, London, 1969; Batsford 2008 (algebraic notation)). Studied by Kasparov at a young age; \"A classic of painstaking and objective analysis that modestly includes three of his losses.\" \n* I Was Tortured in the Pasadena Jailhouse! (1982) a self-published \"essay in a fourteen-page booklet\" on Fischer's time in a Pasadena jail—he was \"booked for vagrancy\". \n\nUnder Fischer's name\n\nNumerous books list Fischer as a co-author or endorser. One such book is Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess, co-authored by Donn Mosenfelder and Stuart Margulies. \n\nTournament and match summaries\n\nTournaments\n\nMatches\n\nTeam events\n\nNotable games\n\n*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1008361 Donald Byrne–Fischer, New York 1956, Grünfeld, 5.Bf4 (D92), 0–1] \"The Game of the Century\". Chess magazine called this \"a game of great depth and brilliancy\". \n*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1008419 Svetozar Gligoric–Fischer, Bled 1961, King's Indian Defense: Orthodox Variation. Classical System Misc. Lines (E98), ½–½]\n\n1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 Bg7 4.e4 d6 5.Nf3 0-0 6.Be2 e5 7.0-0 Nc6 8.d5 Ne7 9.Ne1 Nd7 10.Nd3 f5 11.exf5 Nxf5 12.f3 Nf6 13.Nf2 Nd4 14.Nfe4 Nh5 15.Bg5 Qd7 16.g3 h6 17.Be3 c5 18.Bxd4 exd4 19.Nb5 a6 20.Nbxd6 d3 21.Qxd3 Bd4+ 22.Kg2 Nxg3 (see diagram) 23.Nxc8 Nxf1 24.Nb6 Qc7 25.Rxf1 Qxb6 26.b4 Qxb4 27.Rb1 Qa5 28.Nxc5 Qxc5 29.Qxg6+ Bg7 30.Rxb7 Qd4 31.Bd3 Rf4 32.Qe6+ Kh8 33.Qg6 ½–½ \n\n*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1008419 Robert Byrne–Fischer, 1963–64 U.S. Championship, Neo-Grünfeld, 0–1] [http://www.lifemasteraj.com/old_af-dl/byrfisrpg0.html annotated] From an almost symmetrical position, Fischer beats a strong grandmaster in just 21 moves—\"a game that was immediately recognized as an all-time classic\". \n\n1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.g3 c6 4.Bg2 d5 5.cxd5 cxd5 6.Nc3 Bg7 7.e3 0-0 8.Nge2 Nc6 9.0-0 b6 10.b3 Ba6 11.Ba3 Re8 12.Qd2 e5 13.dxe5 Nxe5 14.Rfd1 Nd3 15.Qc2 Nxf2 16.Kxf2 Ng4+ 17.Kg1 Nxe3 18.Qd2 (see diagram) Nxg2 19.Kxg2 d4 20.Nxd4 Bb7+ 21.Kf1 Qd7 0–1 \n\n*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1044018 Fischer–Svetozar Gligorić, Havana Olympiad 1966, Spanish Game: Exchange. Gligoric Variation (C69), 1-0] Fischer revived the Exchange Variation of the Ruy Lopez in this tournament and some later events; it is still important in opening theory. \n*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1044361 Fischer–Mark Taimanov, Vancouver Candidates Final 1971, 4th match game, Sicilian Defense: Paulsen. Bastrikov Variation (B47), 1–0] Fischer's patient and accurate handling of bishop vs. knight, first in the rook and minor piece endgame, and then after rooks were exchanged, has become a staple of endgame instructional literature. \n\n1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Qc7 5.Nc3 e6 6.g3 a6 7.Bg2 Nf6 8.0-0 Nxd4 9.Qxd4 Bc5 10.Bf4 d6 11.Qd2 h6 12.Rad1 e5 13.Be3 Bg4 14.Bxc5 dxc5 15.f3 Be6 16.f4 Rd8 17.Nd5 Bxd5 18.exd5 e4 19.Rfe1 Rxd5 20.Rxe4+ Kd8 21.Qe2 Rxd1+ 22.Qxd1+ Qd7 23.Qxd7+ Kxd7 (see diagram) 24.Re5 b6 25.Bf1 a5 26.Bc4 Rf8 27.Kg2 Kd6 28.Kf3 Nd7 29.Re3 Nb8 30.Rd3+ Kc7 31.c3 Nc6 32.Re3 Kd6 33.a4 Ne7 34.h3 Nc6 35.h4 h5 36.Rd3+ Kc7 37.Rd5 f5 38.Rd2 Rf6 39.Re2 Kd7 40.Re3 g6 41.Bb5 Rd6 42.Ke2 Kd8 43.Rd3 Kc7 44.Rxd6 Kxd6 45.Kd3 Ne7 46.Be8 Kd5 47.Bf7+ Kd6 48.Kc4 Kc6 49.Be8+ Kb7 50.Kb5 Nc8 51.Bc6+ Kc7 52.Bd5 Ne7 53.Bf7 Kb7 54.Bb3 Ka7 55.Bd1 Kb7 56.Bf3+ Kc7 57.Ka6 Ng8 58.Bd5 Ne7 59.Bc4 Nc6 60.Bf7 Ne7 61.Be8 Kd8 62.Bxg6 Nxg6 63.Kxb6 Kd7 64.Kxc5 Ne7 65.b4 axb4 66.cxb4 Nc8 67.a5 Nd6 68.b5 Ne4+ 69.Kb6 Kc8 70.Kc6 Kb8 71.b6 1–0 \n\n*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1044351 Fischer–Tigran Petrosian, Buenos Aires Candidates Final 1971, 7th match game, Sicilian Defense: Kan. Modern Variation (B42), 1–0] This game includes \"22.Nxd7+!!\" which is \"perhaps Fischer's most famous and instructive move and is still being cited today\". \n\n1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 a6 5.Bd3 Nc6 6.Nxc6 bxc6 7.0-0 d5 8.c4 Nf6 9.cxd5 cxd5 10.exd5 exd5 11.Nc3 Be7 12.Qa4+ Qd7 13.Re1 Qxa4 14.Nxa4 Be6 15.Be3 0-0 16.Bc5 Rfe8 17.Bxe7 Rxe7 18.b4 Kf8 19.Nc5 Bc8 20.f3 Rea7 21.Re5 Bd7 (see diagram) 22.Nxd7+ Rxd7 23.Rc1 Rd6 24.Rc7 Nd7 25.Re2 g6 26.Kf2 h5 27.f4 h4 28.Kf3 f5 29.Ke3 d4+ 30.Kd2 Nb6 31.Ree7 Nd5 32.Rf7+ Ke8 33.Rb7 Nxf4 34.Bc4 1–0 \n\n*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1044366 Fischer–Boris Spassky, World Chess Championship 1972, 6th match game, Queen's Gambit Declined, Tartakower (D59), 1–0] Further analysis on the 1972 match page Saidy called this game \"[the] finest artistic achievement of the whole match\". \n*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1128889 Boris Spassky–Fischer, World Chess Championship 1972, 13th match game, Alekhine Defense: Modern, Alburt Variation (B04), 0–1] Further analysis on the 1972 match page Botvinnik called this game \"the highest creative achievement of Fischer\". He resolved a drawish opposite-colored bishops endgame by sacrificing his bishop and trapping his own rook. \"Then five passed pawns struggled with the white rook. Nothing similar had been seen before in chess.\" \n*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1129672 Fischer–Boris Spassky, 1992, 1st match game, Spanish Game: Morphy Defense. Breyer Defense Zaitsev Hybrid (C95), 1–0] Further analysis on the 1992 match page"
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"The World Chess Champion American - Business Insider\nBobby Fischer, the last US World Chess Champion. Da Nes via flickr\nIt's been a very long drought for Americans when it comes to the World Chess Championship. The last American to win was, famously, Bobby Fischer in 1972. Fischer defeated Boris Spassky in Iceland, but never defended his title.\nIt was of course a long drought before 1972: in the modern era, post-1900, there had never been a World Chess Champion from the United States, prior to Fischer, and the only players who even had a shot after him were Robert Byrne and Gata Kamsky.\nNorways's Magnus Carlsen, the current WCC, is actually the first player from the West since Fischer to claim the title. \nOn Friday in Moscow, the next World Championship cycle began, with the 2016 Candidates Tournament. Eight Grandmasters will compete to face Carlsen in New York in November . And for the first time ever, two Americans are in the field, both with excellent chances to win.\nFabiano Caruana, 23, is the number three player in the world by ranking. Hikaru Nakamura, 28, is number six. \nAs it turns out, the players faced each other in Round 1 of the Candidates; Naka had the white pieces, Fabby had the black, and they played to a draw, splitting a point.\nThe remainder of the field consists of only three other players in the current world top ten, as ranked by FIDE, chess's governing body: Anish Giri of the Netherlands, Levon Aronian of Armenia, and Veselin Topalov of Bulgaria. The Candidates lineup isn't selected based on ratings, but rather on competitive criteria derived from a variety of different tournaments and tournament cycles. Viswanathan Anand, for example, is in because he won the last Candidates and met Carlsen for the WCC match, ultimately losing for the second straight time.\nThat said, Anand, the world number 12, seems to save his best for the Candidates: he notched a win in the first round with white against Topalov (who was the World Champ in 2005).\nWorld 13 Sergey Karjakin and wildcard Peter Svidler, world number 16, both from Russia, round out the field.\nGM Hikaru Nakamura. US Chess Championship\nBut all eyes will be on the Americans, for obvious reasons: Carlsen is the most captivating World Champion since Fischer, a global celebrity; the WCC is coming to New York; and while Anand was a great World Champion, five times, and spurred a chess boom in India, a Carlsen vs. Nakamura or Caruana would be a spectacle and boost chess to a level of excitement it hasn't seen since the Fischer boom.\nOf the two, Nakamura has on paper the better chances, given that his form has been solid for several years . He won a big tournament in Zurich recently. But he a dismal record against Carlsen, no wins and 12 losses (18 draws). He has had Carlsen on the ropes a few times and still lost in demoralizing fashion. \nGM Fabiano Caruana. Alina L'Ami\nCaruana's recent play, after an astonishing 2014, has been iffy. However, he is ranked higher than Nakamura (although his rating, 2794, is only slightly better than Naka's 2790). And he switched his affiliation from Italy to the US only last year . That said, he's beaten Carlsen more than he's lost to the World Champion, 5 wins against 8 losses and 10 draws.\nCarlsen himself said that he thinks Caruana has the best chance of the two Americans to win the Candidates — but that could just be Carlsen trying to get in Nakamura's head.\nThe Candidates is pretty grueling: 14 rounds played over the next two weeks. I'll try to highlight the more interesting games and keep track of the American challengers.\nWorld Champion Magnus Carlsen. FIDE\nFor what it's worth, an interesting media dustup has developed as the Candidates is kicking of. For the first time since the internet has become a major factor in chess fandom, both the Candidates and the World Chess Championship will only be viewable on WorldChess.com . This includes the game moves. Before, a lot of real-time coverage and analysis was generated across the internet by sites freely distributing the information. \nBut now everyone will be obliged to register at WordChess.com (it's free, by the way). \n\"This is a substantial change from the way chess has been broadcasted,\" World Chess and its organizing parent, Agon Ltd., said in a statement.\n\"Previously it was common practice that all websites were able to receive moves without broadcast limitations, resulting in a diffusion of major tournaments’ audiences and sponsorship values,\" the organization added. \"The move is designed to enhance and safeguard the viewing experience for chess fans and to protect the commercial future of World Championship events.\"\nOther sites can recap the games, but Agon and World Chess are stipulating a two-hour delay.\nChess.com wrote a lengthy post analyzing the legal ramification of this. It's worth a read if you've been following major chess events at a variety of sites.\nOther outlets have taken strong exception to World Chess' decision. Chessdom.com, for example, claimed that the move was an offense against journalism and the growth of the game and complained that it had already put its coverage plan in place long before World Chess and Agon limited coverage.",
"Bobby Fischer - Author, Chess Player - Biography.com\nBobby Fischer\nBobby Fischer was a record-setting chess master who became the youngest player to win the U.S. Chess Championship at 14, and the first American-born player to win the World Chess Championship.\nIN THESE GROUPS\nBobby Fischer\nSynopsis\nBobby Fischer was born on March 9, 1943, in Chicago, Illinois. Fischer first learned the game of chess at age 6 and eventually became the youngest international grand master at the age of 15. In 1972, he became the first American-born world chess champion after defeating Boris Spassky . An eccentric genius, who was believed to have an I.Q. of 181, Fischer became known for his controversial public remarks in his later years. He was granted Icelandic citizenship in 2005, following legal trouble with the United States. He died on January 17, 2008.\nEarly Life\nRobert James Fischer was born in Chicago, Illinois, on March 9, 1943. Fischer's parents divorced when he was a toddler, and he began learning chess at the age of 6 after his older sister Joan bought him a chess set. He continued to hone his skills as a youngster at the Brooklyn Chess Club and Manhattan Chess Club. Fischer had a strained relationship with his mother, who supported his chess endeavors, but preferred that he pursue other areas of interest.\nA brilliant, highly competitive player who lost himself in the game, Fischer earned a place in the record books at age 14 when he became the youngest player to win the U.S. Chess Championship. Then in 1958, at 15, he became the youngest international grand master in history by winning the related tournament in Portoroz, Yugoslavia (now Slovenia). \nMatch of the Century\nDuring the early 1960s, Fischer continued to be involved in U.S. and world championship matches, but was also making a name for himself with his erratic, paranoid commentary. After having a 20-game winning streak in the early 1970s, Fischer once again made chess history in 1972 with his defeat of the Soviet Union's Boris Spassky at the Reykjavik, Iceland world championships, thus marking the first time an American chess player had won the title. Fischer's defeat of a Soviet opponent, which became known as the \"Match of the Century,\" took on iconic proportions in the midst of the Cold War and was seen as a symbolic victory of democracy over Communism. Fischer's historic win also made chess a popular game in the United States. \nControversial Figure\nDespite his global popularity, Fischer's controversial behavior continued to make headlines. In the mid-1970s he refused to play Anatoly Karpov, the challenger to his title, and was thus stripped of his championship by the International Chess Federation. Fischer was reportedly homeless for a time in the Los Angeles area, becoming involved with a fringe church. He also became known for making anti-Semitic remarks despite the fact that his mother was Jewish. \nOn the 20th anniversary of the famed Fischer/Spassky game, the two met again in 1992 to play a $5 million rematch in Yugoslavia, although travel to the country by American citizens was illegal at the time. Fischer continued to live abroad for several years to avoid facing criminal charges in the U.S., during which time he continued his anti-Semitic diatribes, and on a radio broadcast he celebrated the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center. \nIn July 2004, Fischer was detained at a Japanese airport for trying to leave the country with an invalid passport and he was jailed for several months. He was eventually granted citizenship by Iceland and moved there in 2005. \nBobby Fischer died of kidney failure on January 17, 2008, in Reykjavík, Iceland. Miyoko Watai, a Japanese women's chess champion and general secretary of the Japanese Chess Federation, claimed that she had married Fischer in 2004, although the validity of their marriage was questioned. Another woman claimed that she had a daughter with Fischer. His body was exhumed to be DNA tested, and the claim of paternity was found to be false. In 2011, an Icelandic court ruled that Watai was Fischer's widow and the sole heir to his estate. \nBooks and Films on Fischer's Life\nSeveral books and films have been made about Fischer's life and career. Fischer himself published works like Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess (1966) and My 60 Memorable Games (1969), while biographies on the icon include Endgame: Bobby Fischer's Remarkable Rise and Fall... by Frank Brady (2011), Fischer's childhood friend. The documentary Bobby Fischer Against the World, directed by Liz Garbus, was released in 2011. \nPawn Sacrifice, a film that focuses on Fischer's chess matches and the psychology of his troubled genius, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2014 and was released in U.S. theaters a year later. Directed by Edward Zwick, actor Tobey Maguire played the role of Fischer, with Liev Schreiber portraying Spassky.\nFact Check\nWe strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us !\nCitation Information",
"The Fields | www.uschesschamps.com\nHOME OF U.S. CHAMPIONSHIP CHESS & THE COUNTRY’S TOP PLAYERS\nThe Fields\nAccepted\nBio: \nThe 2015 U.S. Chess Championship is Grandmaster Hikaru Nakamura’s first return to the U.S. Championship since winning the title in 2012. Ranked in the world's top-10 players for nearly five years, Nakamura has been the longtime U.S. No. 1 Grandmaster and the leading hopeful to bring America its first World Champion since Bobby Fischer. The chance for that world title creeps ever closer this year, as Nakamura currently sits second place at the halfway point of FIDE's 2014-15 Grand Prix and may earn his first seat in a Candidate's Tournament.\nA child prodigy in every sense of the word, Nakamura made a fast impact on U.S. chess by knocking down nearly every age record on his way to the top. He was at one time the youngest-ever American master in history (10 years, 79 days), the youngest American international master (13 years, 2 months) and eventually the youngest American Grandmaster (15 years, 79 days) – breaking Fischer’s record by three months.\nNakamura has collected numerous titles and championships since the age of 13, when he first arrived onto the national scene by becoming the 2001 U.S. Junior Champion. He quickly confirmed his place as one of chess’ great elites, shocking the world with a sweet sixteen appearance in the 2004 FIDE World Cup, and then grabbing his first of three U.S. Championships the following year.\nHe is a recipient of the prestigious Samford Chess Fellowship (2005), the 2007 National Open champion and a three-time North American Open champion. He was an individual bronze medalist in the 2006 and 2008 World Olympiad, as well as the gold medalist on the first board of the 2010 World Team Championship, where the United States placed second.\nThis chess player only gets better as he gets faster, gracing the top of the world in Blitz chess when FIDE began publishing its list earlier this year and demonstrating his skill. Nakamura finished with bronze at the FIDE World Blitz Championship in June 2014, and currently sits second on FIDE’s Blitz rating.\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nThe 2015 U.S. Championship will see the first participation from Grandmaster Wesley So, who recently transferred to the U.S. Chess Federation from his home Philippines. His arrival to the USCF was synonymous with his arrival as one of the World’s top-10 players, and So has already begun pushing the envelope to become the nation’s highest-rated GM -- a title Hikaru Nakamura has owned for years.\nSo learned chess from his father at age 6 and was competing in junior tournaments by 9 years old. By earning his Grandmaster title at the age of 14 years, 1 month, and 28 days, So completed the trifecta as the Philippines’ youngest-ever National Champion, International Master and Grandmaster. Considered a chess prodigy, he is the eighth-youngest GM in the world.\nSo came to the U.S. in August 2012, enrolling at Webster University in St. Louis to be guided by Susan Polgar and her SPICE Program. There, he made the jump from top-100 to top-10 in the world, entrenching Webster as a powerhouse collegiate program and leading the school to back-to-back national titles along the way.\nLast October, So won the inaugural Millionaire Open in Las Vegas along with its $100,000 prize, then returned to St. Louis to lead the Arch Bishops to their first-ever U.S. Chess League championship.\nSo participated in his first world-elite tournament with a fourth-place effort in 2014 at the 77th Tata Steel Chess Tournament in Wijk aan Zee, Holland, though returned this past January and tied for second place, just a half-point behind winner World Champion Magnus Carlsen.\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nAfter Wesley’s So’s departure as a professional, the Webster University program has been left in the extremely capable hands of Grandmaster Ray Robson, who leads the school to its third-consecutive appearance in the President’s Cup in the weekend before the 2015 U.S. Championship begins.\nBorn in Guam, Robson soon after moved with his family to Florida, where his father taught him chess when he was just three years old. From 2004 to 2007, Robson finished in the top 10 at the World Youth Championship and then won SuperNationals in 2005. He defeated his first grandmaster in 2006, the same year he earned the USCF National Master title. Other impressive performances include first place in the 2005 and 2006 Pan-American Youth Championships; the 2009 U.S. Junior Championship; the 2009 World Team Championship; and the 2012 Dallas Invitational.\nIn 2008, Robson won his first major tournament at the Miami Open, and later that year became the youngest American to win the Grandmaster title, at the age of 14 years, 11 months and 16 days. The mark bested the record held by Hikaru Nakamura and once by the great Bobby Fischer, making Robson one of America’s brightest hopes to another world-elite GM.\nThough the University of Texas offered him a chess scholarship, in 2012 Robson decided instead on the SPICE program at Webster University where, just a few months after enrolling, he won the 2012 Webster University SPICE Cup Open and eventually helped the program to back-to-back national titles. Robson also participated in the inaugural Millionaire Open in Las Vegas last October, where he took second place behind his good friend and former Webster roommate, Wesley So.\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nGrandmaster Gata Kamsky is the two-time defending U.S. Champion, a title he has earned five times over an illustrious career - including four of the last five years. Born in Siberia, Russia, Kamsky learned chess at the age of seven, won the country’s U15 Championship at the age of nine, then became back-to-back Junior Champion of the Soviet Union at 13.\nKamsky began his dominance of American chess shortly after emigrating to the U.S. in 1989 and spent nearly 20 years as the highest-rated American - losing that title to Nakamura in 2009. In 1990 he earned his GM, and soon after became the youngest player ever rated in the World’s top-ten. Kamsky won his first U.S. Championships in 1991, and the following year helped the USCF secure its first-ever gold medal in the World Team Chess Olympiad. Kamsky also became the youngest-ever to challenge for the FIDE world title and the first American since Bobby Fischer, as the Candidate for the 1996 World Chess Championship.\nAfterwards, Kamsky began an eight-year hiatus away from chess to focus on studies, first graduating in pre-med chemistry and then returning to find his law degree. His return to chess in 2004 began an extraordinary second chapter in his playing career. Within three years Kamsky had regained his elite form, qualifying for the 2007 Candidates Tournament and later winning the 2007 Chess World Cup, where he knocked off Magnus Carlsen in the semifinals. In 2010, Kamsky won his second U.S. Championship – 19 years removed from his first title. Since then he's earn three more.\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nGrandmaster Alexander Onischuk began playing chess when he was six years old and has ranked as one of the top 100 players in the world for the past two decades.\nOnischuk earned his GM title as a Ukranian 18-year-old in 1994, then later won the 2000 Ukranian Championship before emigrating to the U.S. the following year. For five years, he played collegiate chess for the University of Maryland, Baltimore Country (UMBC), leading the program to multiple national titles before graduating in 2006 with a degree in linguistics. He has been invited to every FIDE World Cup since 2005, winning more than 20 major tournaments along the way, including the 2006 U.S. Championship -- which he called the happiest moment of his career, having his name on a trophy alongside players such as Bobby Fischer and Paul Morphy.\nOnischuk was key to America’s bronze medal finishes at the 2006 and 2008 Olympiads, and delivered a gold-medal performance on board two at the 2009 World Team Championship in Bursa, Turkey.\nIn 2012, Alexander Onischuk was named the head coach of Texas Tech University’s chess program, helping the squad return to the President’s Cup in 2014, finishing in a close second behind Webster University. He leads the TTU program back to the Final Four of Collegiate Chess in 2015, just before the start of the U.S. Championship. Last year’s season led to national recognition, with Texas Tech named “Chess College of the Year” and Onischuk awarded “2014 Grandmaster of the Year” by the U.S. Chess Federation.\nHe has finished among the top three in the U.S. Championship seven times.\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nGrandmaster Daniel Naroditsky first learned the rules of chess at six years old, and it was not long before he was paving his professional future -- eventually becoming a three-time U.S. Scholastic champion, earning a gold medal at the World U12 championship in 2007 and winning the U.S. Junior championship in 2013. Naroditsky has remained the U.S. No. 1 in his age category for the past eight years and is also the youngest published chess author in history -- now with two titles to his name.\nNaroditsky is an active ambassador for scholastic chess in the United States; giving simuls in schools, activity centers and chess clubs around the country. Aside from chess, Naroditsky maintains many other interests, including history, music, foreign languages, art and mathematics. He graduated from Crystal Springs Uplands School in Hillsboro, CA in 2014 and plans to attend Stanford University for fall 2015.\nIn the year between, however, Naroditsky received the prestigious Frank P. Samford Jr. Chess Fellowship, which provides access to top level coaching, study material and competition. Through 2014, Naroditsky traveled and competed in several elite tournaments around the world, including the London Chess Classic and the Qatar Masters, and last February turned in an impressive performance at the 2015 Tradewise Gibraltar Chess Festival.\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nWhen Sam Shankland was just 18, he announced he would be retiring from the game of chess. Before leaving, however, he agreed to honor his previous commitments and compete in the 2010 U.S. Junior Closed Championship - the rest is history. He won the Junior championship after back-to-back playoff matches against Parker Zhano and tournament favorite Ray Robson, earning Shankland a spot in the 2011 U.S. Championship and another commitment that became too good to refuse.\nThe youngster performed admirably in the 2011 national title fight, edging veteran GM Alexander Onischuk in a playoff to reach the four-player quad finals. There, Shankland ran into eventual champion GM Gata Kamsky, who topped him 1.5-.5 - though after his defeat, Shankland remained upbeat. He finished third place, and described his performance as his “dream tournament for the year.\"\nSam enters the 2015 U.S. Championship at the ever-climbing peak of his career. A strong showing at the 2014 Qatar Masters Open was topped by an undefeated run at the 2014 Tromso Chess Olympiad, where he entered as the fifth-board reserve but went on to win an Olympic gold medal. He made his first break into the world’s top 100 players at the end of 2014, then opened up 2015 with another undefeated performance in the Tata Steel Challengers section for third place. He has now remained unbeaten in over 65 games.\nDue to his incredible recent performances, spectators should keep a close eye on this young player who may just ride his wave of confidence to a victory in the 2015 U.S. Chess Championship.\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nThe weather was so harsh in the years that youngster Varuzhan Akobian spent in Mongolia, his father forbade \"Var\" and his sister from playing outside. Instead, he taught them chess -- a perfect indoor distraction.\n\"From the very beginning, I was different from other chess kids,” Akobian recalls. “It was never just a game for me. I always wanted to be a Grandmaster, and I knew that I would do what it takes.\"\nLater as a teenager in Yerevan, Armenia, Akobian spent many of his days playing chess and soccer -- all with his teachers’ permission.\n\"This is one way in which Armenia is very different from the United States. If I went to high school here, I never could have spent so much energy on chess.\"\nAkobian immigrated from Armenia to the U.S. in 2001, and it didn’t take him long to make an impact on the American chess community. Within his first three years, Akobian had been awarded the prestigious Samford Chess Fellowship, tied for first in the 2002 World Open, won the Irme Koenig GM Invitational, and dominated the 2003 U.S. Junior Closed Championship after winning his first seven games. He was officially awarded the GM title in June 2004, after which he won the World Open again, clinching it with a sparkling win against Alexander Shabalov.\nAkobian is a popular rotation in the Resident Grandmaster position at the Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis, and he continues to be a force in U.S. chess tournaments. This past year, Akobian narrowly lost an armageddon playoff in the 2014 U.S. Championship to Gata Kamsky, though he dusted himself off nicely by helping the Saint Louis Arch Bishops to their first-ever U.S. Chess League championship.\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nBlindfold exhibitionist Grandmaster Timur Gareev, originally from Uzbekistan, is a formidable opponent with unlimited potential and the proven ability to make a serious run at the U.S. Championship title. A veteran of the game, Timur’s standard rating has remained active and comfortably above 2500 for more than a decade.\n\"My grandfather taught me how to play chess at the age of four,\" Gareev said. \"I practiced the game regularly challenging my father, friends and schoolmates. At the age of eight, I played my first rated competition. I started succeeding in my improvement very fast, winning most of the national events.\"\nAt 10, Gareev was playing expert level strength and dedicating 4-6 hours every day, working with his coach Georgi Borisenko and mastering the game on his own. By 2004, at 16, he earned the distinction as the youngest-ever Grandmaster from Asia, then traveled to the U.S. in 2005 to help the University of Texas at Brownsville win its first national championship. After receiving his B.A. degree in 2011, Gareev was awarded the Samford Fellowship in 2012, which awarded him a monetary stipend to assist his chess development.\nTimur has conducted 19-board, 27-board, and 33-board blindfold simultaneous exhibitions - the last of which he served up a score of 29-0-4 against members of the Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis, days before the start of the 2013. U.S. Championship. His exceptional memory allows for top-tier preparation and study, and he has good chances of catching an unsuspecting opponent in deeply analyzed lines. He believes that blindfold training has helped him improve his focus.\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nLast year proved to be highlight in the career of young Kayden Troff, earning his Grandmaster title at the Saint Louis Invitational in May, and then returning to the Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis the following month to win the 2014 U.S. Junior Closed Championship with a convincing 7/9 score. The victory earned him a seat in this year’s U.S. Championship, his second appearance in the national title event.\nTroff first demonstrated chess ability at the age of three, learning to play by watching his father teach his older brothers. By the time he was six, his father had him tutored by Grandmaster Igor Ivanov, who was impressed with how well the youngster played.\nTroff was among the first selected into the Young Stars-Team USA program, a joint partnership between the Kasparov Chess Foundation and the Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis, which sought to train the country’s top emerging players to compete with those around the world. Through the program, Troff has participated in several training sessions with Garry Kasparov, as well as frequent sessions with GM Alex Chernin.\nTroff’s accomplishments include several Utah scholastic and adult championships, as well as a gold medal at the U14 World Youth Chess Championship title earned in Maribor, Slovenia in 2012 -- an upgrade from the silver medal earned in the U12 World Youth Chess Championship in Greece in 2010.\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nSamuel Sevian is the 2015 U.S. Chess Championship Wildcard and an American chess prodigy. He set previous records as the youngest American Expert and the youngest American National Master in history, and currently stands as the youngest American International Master in history. Last November, he continued his record-setting climb by becoming the youngest American Grandmaster in history, earning the coveted title at 13 years, 10 months and 27 days -- and also the sixth-youngest GM in world history.\nSevian has maintained his status as one of the most-promising Juniors in the country, fully realized since he became a U12 World Champion in Maribor Slovenia in November 2012. He is a product of the Young Stars - Team USA program, a joint partnership between the Kasparov Chess Federation (KCF) and the Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis to find and train the country's top emerging chess players. Sam received intensive training with legendary World Champion GM Garry Kasparov, which he said was a big contributing factor to his recent success.\n\"The KCF helped me enormously,\" Sam said. \"First, it was Garry's camps held in Saint Louis and New York where we got to train with the Champion himself, and of course long and frequent training sessions with GM Alexander Chernin, who helped me grow.\"\nTag: \nAccepted\nBio: \nIt is no wonder how Grandmaster Conrad Holt came to be known as the “Thunder” Holt: His recent electrifying play—a first place finish at the 2014 U.S. Open, an appearance in the 2014 U.S. Chess League Finals as part of the Dallas Destiny, and another fine showing at the Pan-American Intercollegiate Championships—has established him as a player to watch in the upcoming 2015 U.S. Championship.\nA native of Wichita, Kansas, Holt made an early name for himself by winning the 2008 U.S. Cadet Championship and appearing in the 2010 World Open, and then earning his GM title at only 19 years old in 2012. Now 21, Holt currently attends the University of Texas-Dallas and is finishing up his undergraduate degree in Physics, also a member of the prestigious UT-Dallas Chess Team. Holt has helped lead the UTD squad to several President’s Cups, including a trip to the 2015 Final Four of collegiate chess held just before this year’s U.S. Championships.\nTag:",
"Bobby Fischer - Biography - IMDb\nBobby Fischer\nBiography\nShowing all 27 items\nJump to: Overview (5) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (2) | Trade Mark (1) | Trivia (16) | Personal Quotes (2)\nOverview (5)\nThe Bad Boy of Chess\nHeight\n6' 1\" (1.85 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nBobby Fischer was the greatest American chess player in history and might have been the most talented chess player ever to play the game. His career and legacy were marred by eccentricities that developed into what likely was full-blown mental illness that made him an exile from his country of birth that he represented in the greatest proxy battle of the Cold War and from the game he loved.\nThe chess legend was born Robert James Fischer on March 9, 1943 in Chicago to Regina Wender Fischer. His mother was a Jew who had been born in Switzerland but raised in St. Louis who became a naturalized U.S. citizen. The actual identity of his father is unknown. Regina listed German biophysicist Hans-Gerhardt Fischer, her first husband, as the father on Bobby's birth certificate, but they had been separated since 1939. Bobby's actual father likely was Hungarian physicist Paul Newmenyi, who like his mother, was Jewish. As his mental stability broke down late in life, Bobby became a vicious anti-Semite, insisting he wasn't Jewish.\nThe young Bobby grew up without a father with his mother and older sister. It was his sister who whet his appetite for chess when she bought a chess set when Bobby was six year old. Reportedly possessed of a super genius I.Q. of 180, Bobby had a remarkably retentive memory. A monomaniac when it came to chess, his memory combined with an uncanny knack for the game and a determination to win transformed him into the greatest chess player in the world.\nBobby became a National Master at the age of 12 and won America's Junior Chess Championship at the age of 13, making him the youngest Junior Champ in history. The 13 year-old Bobby defeated 26-year-old Donald Byrne, winner of America's chess championship, in a 1956 game heralded as \"The Game of the Century.\" By this age, Fischer was showing gifts for improvisation and innovation that marked him as a chess genius.\nAs a 14 year-old on the cusp of his 15th birthday, he won the U.S. Chess Championship in 1958, giving him the title of International Master. Later that same year, he broke future opponent Boris Spassky 's record to become the youngest World Chess Federation Grand Master; Bobby was 15, and Boris was 18 when he set the distinction. The two names would become linked forever in chess history. (When the two first played each other in 1960, Fischer lost during an Argentine tournament, though the two tied and were co-winners of the tourney. He would not beat Spassky until their famous world title match in Iceland in 1972.)\nBobby quit high school at the age of 16 to earn his daily bread by the sweat of his brow as a chess player. In a 1961 match against American champ Samuel Reshevsky, Bobby dropped out of the match claiming a scheduling dispute with the match organizer after tying Reshevsky in 11 games. Such eccentric behavior heralded his future.\nBy '62, Fischer was considered the best non-Soviet chess player in the world. Bobby came to hate the Soviet players, who he claimed colluded with each other to him at a disadvantage. In 1966, Bobby placed second behind Boris Spassky in a super-tournament held in California. A year later, he withdrew from the tournament cycle that culminated in the World Championship, again over a scheduling dispute. The cycle ended in 1969 with Spassky crowned as the World Chess Champion.\nIn 1968, Fischer began an 18-month-long sabbatical from the game, which included sitting out the '69 American Championship tournament as he was dissatisfied with the prize money and the tourney format. Failing to compete should have disqualified him from the 1969-72 Championship cycle, but he was able to compete for the world title when an American Grand Master surrendered his own spot for Fischer.\nStarting with the 1970 USSR v. Rest of the World tournament in which he beat former World Champion Tigran Petrosian, the master who had been defeated by Spassky in '69, Bobby began his march to the world championship. Through 1971, he had won 20 straight games in international tournament play, the second-longest win streak in the history of the game. Petrosian broke the streak but was in turn defeated by Fischer to win the right to challenge Spassky, a player he had never beaten, for the world title.\nThough he hated Soviet players for what he considered collusion (drawing matches between themselves so they could concentrate on beating non-Soviet players like Fischer), he liked and respected Boris Spassky. Spassky returned the affection and esteem.\nBy 1972, he was in the position to make good his boast that he was the greatest chess player in the world. His difficult nature when it came to setting match and tournament conditions flared up again, and though he wanted to play in Yugoslavia, he accepted Spassky's suggestion of Iceland for the world title match. Negotiations were so prickly, President Richard Nixon 's national security adviser, Henry Kissinger intervened, personally contacting Bobby to ensure that he did not drop out of the match, which was seen as a proxy battle in the ongoing Cold War between America and the Soviet Union.\nThough he later denounced the United States, at the time, Bobby embraced the Cold War rhetoric, declaring the match was \"the free world against the lying, cheating hypocritical Russians.\"\nHeld in Reykjavik, Iceland from July through September 1972, the drama of the world championship boosted the image and popularity of chess to new heights. Bobby lost the first two games, the first on a bad end move and the second by forfeit when he refused to participate. Because of his eccentric demands, he came close to forfeiting the match, but Spassky agreed to his demand to play in a new room with no TV cameras, the presence of which had upset Fischer.\nFischer won the third game of the match, the first time he had beaten Boris Spassky in 12 years. For the rest of their play in 1972 and their 1992 rematch, Fischer never fell behind Spassky in terms of play or points. Spassky was baffled by Fischer's innovative moves, as he played new lines and combinations that Boris had never encountered before. Fischer won the match and became World Chess Champion by a score of 12.5 points to 8.5 on seven wins, one loss and 11 draws in 19 games.\nHis championship was heralded by the U.S. media as a victory for the individualistic America over the collectivist U.S.S.R., whose players had dominated chess since the end of the Second World War. It was front page news, and it made Bobby Fischer a celebrity. He reportedly turned down a $1-million offer to endorse a chess set brand as he faded from the public spotlight.\nFischer did not play competitively for the next three years, and in 1975, he forfeited his title by refusing to defend it when the World Chess Federation did not meet one or two of his many demands (estimated at between 64 and a hundred). The world title went to Anatoli Karpov by default, though Fischer continued to insisted he was the world chess champion.\nFischer did not play competitively until 1992 when he met Boris Spassky for a rematch on the resort island of Sveti Stefan in in Montenegro, which was part of all that remained of Yugoslavia along with Serbia. The match was held in defiance of United Nations sanctions against Slobodan Miloseviæ's Serbia for war crimes.\nBobby beat Boris, winning $3.35 million in prize money (approximately $5.65 million in 2012 dollar, when factored for inflation), but because the United States intended to enforce the U.N. sanctions, he had violated American law and could have served up to 10 years in jail upon returning to America. A defiant Fischer went into exile instead, living in Hungary before moving to the Philippines and then Japan.\nIt was while living in the Philippines during the opening days of the new millennium that Bobby Fischer established himself as a world-class crank. After the 9/11 attacks on the United States, he praised the attacks and spewed forth anti-Semitic drivel on radio broadcasts. The Soviet hater of the Cold War era had become a rabid America hater and Jew-basher at the start of the global war on terror. His anti-Semitism became so extreme, he renamed himself \"Robert James\" and insisted he wasn't Jewish.\nDuring a stop-over in Japan, Fischer was arrested for traveling with an invalid U.S. passport. He promptly renounced his American citizenship. The arrest meant he could not leave Japan as he was a stateless person wanted by the United States. Facing a potential extradition to the country of his birth, Iceland came through and granted him citizenship, which allowed him to leave Japan. The country was still grateful for the publicity he had brought to its then-unknown capital of Reykjavik. Thus, Fischer moved to Iceland, the place where he had became part of not only chess lore, but of world history\nBobby Fischer died on January 17, 2008 in Reykjavik after having been gravely ill. He made it to his 64th year, which was symbolic, as a chessboard has 64 squares.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Jon C. Hopwood\nSpouse (2)\nOnly American to win the FIDE World Chess Championship (1 September 1972).\nAwarded the title of Chess Grandmaster in 1958.\nIn 1953, he played his first chess tournament at the age of ten at the Brooklyn Chess Club Championship. He came in fifth place.\nFischer was wanted in the United States for violating economic sanctions against the former Yugoslavia by playing a chess match there in 1992. He fled to Japan and was arrested in July 2004 for trying to leave Japan on a revoked U.S. passport. Thus, he was detained in Japan awaiting deportation to the United States. He renounced his U.S. citizenship and tried to become a German citizen, but was denied. Finally, in March 2005, Iceland's parliament voted to grant him Icelandic citizenship. He remained a fugitive in the U.S. until his death.\nDue to his anti-American and anti-Semitic statements, he became a controversial figure in the final decades of his life. He, for example, asked the editors of Encyclopedia Judaica to remove his name from the publication because he was, and has never been, Jewish (1984) and denied the Holocaust in several interviews. On a radio show shortly after the 9/11 attacks, he proclaimed them \"a wonderful news\" (2001).\nThe episode Law & Order: Criminal Intent: Gone (2005) was inspired by his biography (2004).\nAttended Erasmus Hall High School together with Barbra Streisand .\nHas an older sister, Joan.\nBorn to Regina Wender, a naturalized American citizen of German Jewish descent, he was considered the son of her first husband, Hans-Gerhardt Fischer, a German biophysicist. They were married from 1933 to 1945, but some sources claim that his biological father was Hungarian physicist Paul Nemenyi.\nDied at the age of 64, ironically the number of fields on a chessboard.\nInducted into the World Chess Hall of Fame in 2001 (one of five charter inductees).\nInducted into the U.S. Chess Hall of Fame in 1985 (one of two charter inductees).\nThe last movie Fischer saw before his death was Ridley Scott's American Gangster (2007).\nBecame a citizen of Iceland. [March 2005]\nBeing deported to U.S. for violating U.N. sanctions. [July 2004]\nEven though he had a very high IQ, it is reported that he was a very poor student in high school and dropped out at fifteen.\nPersonal Quotes (2)\nAll that matters on the chessboard is good moves.\nChess is life."
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Which Swiss-born Californian first used an amplifier with a guitar?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"An electric guitar is a guitar that uses a pickup to convert the vibration of its strings—which are typically made of metal, and which occurs when a guitarist strums, plucks or fingerpicks the strings—into electrical impulses. The vibrations of the strings are sensed by a pickup, of which the most common type is the magnetic pickup, which uses the principle of direct electromagnetic induction. The signal generated by an electric guitar is too weak to drive a loudspeaker, so it is plugged into a guitar amplifier before being sent to a loudspeaker, which makes a sound loud enough to hear. The output of an electric guitar is an electric signal, and the signal can easily be altered by electronic circuits to add \"color\" to the sound or change the sound. Often the signal is modified using effects such as reverb and distortion and \"overdrive\", with the latter being a key element of the sound of the electric guitar as it is used in blues and rock music.\n\nInvented in 1931, the amplified electric guitar was adopted by jazz guitarists, who sought to be able to be heard in large big band ensembles. Early proponents of the electric guitar on record included Les Paul, Lonnie Johnson, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, T-Bone Walker, and Charlie Christian. During the 1950s and 1960s, the electric guitar became the most important instrument in pop music. It has evolved into an instrument that is capable of a multitude of sounds and styles. It served as a major component in the development of electric blues, rock and roll, rock music, heavy metal music and many other genres of music.\n\nElectric guitar design and construction vary greatly in the shape of the body and the configuration of the neck, bridge, and pickups. Guitars have a fixed bridge or a spring-loaded hinged bridge that lets players bend notes or chords up or down in pitch or perform vibrato effects. The sound of a guitar can be modified by new playing techniques such as string bending, tapping, hammering on, using audio feedback, or slide guitar playing. There are several types of electric guitar, including the solid-body guitar, various types of hollow-body guitars, the seven-string guitar, which typically adds a low B string below the low E, and the twelve-string electric guitar, which has six pairs of strings.\n\nPopular music and rock groups often use the electric guitar in two roles: as a rhythm guitar, which provides the chord sequence or progression and sets the beat (as part of a rhythm section), and as a lead guitar, which is used to perform melody lines, melodic instrumental fill passages, and solos. In a small group, such as a power trio, one guitarist switches between both roles. In larger rock and metal bands, there is often a rhythm guitarist and a lead guitarist.\n\nHistory\n\nMany experiments at electrically amplifying the vibrations of a string instrument date back to the early part of the 20th century. Patents from the 1910s show telephone transmitters adapted and placed inside violins and banjos to amplify the sound. Hobbyists in the 1920s used carbon button microphones attached to the bridge; however, these detected vibration from the bridge on top of the instrument, resulting in a weak signal. With numerous people experimenting with electrical instruments in the 1920s and early 1930s, there are many claimants to have been the first to invent an electric guitar.\n\nElectric guitars were originally designed by guitar makers and instrument manufacturers. Some of the earliest electric guitars adapted hollow-bodied acoustic instruments and used tungsten pickups. The first electrically amplified guitar was designed in 1931 by George Beauchamp, the general manager of the National Guitar Corporation, with Paul Barth, who was vice president. The maple body prototype for the one-piece cast aluminum \"frying pan\" was built by Harry Watson, factory superintendent of the National Guitar Corporation. Commercial production began in late summer of 1932 by the Ro-Pat-In Corporation (Electro-Patent-Instrument Company), in Los Angeles, a partnership of Beauchamp, Adolph Rickenbacker (originally Rickenbacher), and Paul Barth. By 1934 the company was renamed the Rickenbacker Electro Stringed Instrument Company.\n\nThe need for the amplified guitar became apparent during the big band era as orchestras increased in size, particularly when guitars had to compete with large brass sections. The first electric guitars used in jazz were hollow archtop acoustic guitar bodies with electromagnetic transducers. By 1932 an electrically amplified guitar was commercially available. Early electric guitar manufacturers include Rickenbacker (originally called Ro-Pat-In) in 1932; Dobro in 1933; National, AudioVox and Volu-tone in 1934; Vega, Epiphone (Electrophone and Electar), and Gibson in 1935 and many others by 1936.\n\nThe solid-body electric guitar is made of solid wood, without functionally resonating air spaces. Rickenbacker offered a cast aluminum electric steel guitar, nicknamed \"the frying pan\" or \"the pancake guitar\", developed in 1931, with production beginning in the summer of 1932.\n\nThe first solid-body Spanish standard guitar was offered by Vivi-Tone no later than 1934. This model featured a guitar-shaped body of a single sheet of plywood affixed to a wood frame. Another early, substantially solid Spanish electric guitar, called the Electro Spanish, was marketed by the Rickenbacker guitar company in 1935 and made of Bakelite. By 1936, the Slingerland company introduced a wooden solid-body electric model, the Slingerland Songster 401 (and a lap steel counterpart, the Songster 400).\n\nThe earliest documented performance with an electrically amplified guitar was in 1932, by Gage Brewer, a musician based in Wichita, Kansas.Wheelwright, Lynn; Carter, Walter (28 April 2010). [http://www.vintageguitar.com/3588/ro-pat-in-electric-spanish/]. Vintage Guitar. Retrieved 10 July 2014. He had an Electric Hawaiian A-25 (frypan, lap steel) and a standard Electric Spanish from George Beauchamp of Los Angeles. Brewer publicized his new instruments in an article in the Wichita Beacon of 2 October 1932 and through performances that month.\n\nThe first recordings using the electric guitar were by Hawaiian-style players, in 1933. Bob Dunn of Milton Brown's Musical Brownies introduced the electric Hawaiian guitar to Western swing with his January 1935 Decca recordings, departing almost entirely from the Hawaiian musical influence and heading towards jazz and blues. Alvino Rey was an artist who took this instrument to a wide audience in a large orchestral setting and later developed the pedal steel guitar for Gibson. An early proponent of the electric Spanish guitar was jazz guitarist George Barnes, who used the instrument in two songs recorded in Chicago on 1 March 1938, \"Sweetheart Land\" and \"It's a Low-Down Dirty Shame\". Some incorrectly attribute the first recording to Eddie Durham, but his recording with the Kansas City Five was made 15 days later. Durham introduced the instrument to a young Charlie Christian, who made the instrument famous in his brief life and would be a major influence on jazz guitarists for decades thereafter. \n\nGibson's first production electric guitar, marketed in 1936, was the ES-150 model (\"ES\" for \"Electric Spanish\", and \"150\" reflecting the $150 price of the instrument, along with matching amplifier). The ES-150 guitar featured a single-coil, hexagonally shaped \"bar\" pickup, which was designed by Walt Fuller. It became known as the \"Charlie Christian\" pickup (named for the great jazz guitarist who was among the first to perform with the ES-150 guitar). The ES-150 achieved some popularity but suffered from unequal loudness across the six strings.\n\nEarly proponents of the electric guitar on record include Alvino Rey (Phil Spitalney Orchestra), Les Paul (Fred Waring Orchestra), Danny Stewart (Andy Iona Orchestra), George Barnes (under many aliases), Lonnie Johnson, Floyd Smith, Big Bill Broonzy, T-Bone Walker, George Van Eps, Charlie Christian (Benny Goodman Orchestra), Tampa Red, Memphis Minnie, and Arthur Crudup.\n\nA functionally solid-body electric guitar was designed and built in 1940 by Les Paul from an Epiphone acoustic archtop. His \"log guitar\" (so called because it consisted of a simple 4x4 wood post with a neck attached to it and homemade pickups and hardware, with two detachable Epiphone hollow-body halves attached to the sides for appearance only) shares nothing in design or hardware with the solid-body Gibson Les Paul introduced in 1952. However, the feedback associated with hollow-bodied electric guitars was understood long before Paul's \"log\" was created in 1940; Gage Brewer's Ro-Pat-In of 1932 had a top so heavily reinforced that it essentially functioned as a solid-body instrument.\n\nIn 1945, Richard D. Bourgerie made an electric guitar pickup and amplifier for professional guitar player George Barnes. Bourgerie worked through World War II at Howard Radio Company, making electronic equipment for the American military. Barnes showed the result to Les Paul, who then arranged for Bourgerie to have one made for him.\n\nSix-string guitar chromatic note table\n\nThis table shows the layout of pitches on a standard tuning six-string guitar, which is tuned E, A, D, G, B, E, going from the lowest-pitch, thickest string to the highest - pitch, thinnest string. The table depicts a guitar fretboard as it would appear to an observer looking at a guitar that is on its side and upside-down, thus giving the table the same appearance that a guitarist would see when holding the instrument in playing position.\nZero is the nut; 5 is the fifth (tuning) fret. This table only shows up to the twelfth fret. Most electric guitars have additional frets beyond the twelfth fret which have the same layout as the 1st- 12th fret (although the notes are an octave higher in pitch). \n\nConstruction\n\nElectric guitar design and construction vary greatly in the shape of the body and the configuration of the neck, bridge, and pickups. However, some features are present on most guitars. The photo below shows the different parts of an electric guitar. The headstock (1) contains the metal machine heads (1.1), which use a worm gear for tuning. The nut (1.4)—a thin fret-like strip of metal, plastic, graphite or bone—supports the strings at the headstock end of the instrument. The frets (2.3) are thin metal strips that stop the string at the correct pitch when the player pushes a string against the fingerboard. The truss rod (1.2) is a metal rod (usually adjustable) that counters the tension of the strings to keep the neck straight. Position markers (2.2) provide the player with a reference to the playing position on the fingerboard. \n\nThe neck and fretboard (2.1) extend from the body. At the neck joint (2.4), the neck is either glued or bolted to the body. The body (3) is typically made of wood with a hard, polymerized finish. Strings vibrating in the magnetic field of the pickups (3.1, 3.2) produce an electric current in the pickup winding that passes through the tone and volume controls (3.8) to the output jack. Some guitars have piezo pickups, in addition to or instead of magnetic pickups. \n\nSome guitars have a fixed bridge (3.4). Others have a spring-loaded hinged bridge called a vibrato bar, tremolo bar, or whammy bar, which lets players bend notes or chords up or down in pitch or perform a vibrato embellishment. A plastic pickguard on some guitars protects the body from scratches or covers the control cavity, which holds most of the wiring.\nThe degree to which the choice of woods and other materials in the solid-guitar body (3) affects the sonic character of the amplified signal is disputed. Many believe it is highly significant, while others think the difference between woods is subtle. In acoustic and archtop guitars, wood choices more clearly affect tone.\n\nWoods typically used in solid-body electric guitars include alder (brighter, but well rounded), swamp ash (similar to alder, but with more pronounced highs and lows), mahogany (dark, bassy, warm), poplar (similar to alder), and basswood (very neutral).[http://www.warmoth.com/guitar/bodies/options/bodywoodoptions.aspx Warmoth Custom Guitars], (retrieved 16 Dec 2013)\n\nMaple, a very bright tonewood, is also a popular body wood, but is very heavy. For this reason it is often placed as a \"cap\" on a guitar made primarily of another wood. Cheaper guitars are often made of cheaper woods, such as plywood, pine or agathis—not true hardwoods—which can affect durability and tone. Though most guitars are made of wood, any material may be used. Materials such as plastic, metal, and even cardboard have been used in some instruments.\n\nThe guitar output jack typically provides a monaural signal. Many guitars with active electronics use a jack with an extra contact normally used for stereo. These guitars use the extra contact to break the ground connection to the on-board battery to preserve battery life when the guitar is unplugged. These guitars require a mono plug to close the internal switch and connect the battery to ground. Standard guitar cables use a high-impedance 1/4-inch (6.35-mm) mono plug. These have a tip and sleeve configuration referred to as a TS phone connector. The voltage is usually around 1 to 9 millivolts.\n\nA few guitars feature stereo output, such as Rickenbacker guitars equipped with Rick-O-Sound. There are a variety of ways the \"stereo\" effect may be implemented. Commonly, but not exclusively, stereo guitars route the neck and bridge pickups to separate output buses on the guitar. A stereo cable then routes each pickup to its own signal chain or amplifier. For these applications, the most popular connector is a high-impedance 1/4-inch plug with a tip, ring and sleeve configuration, also known as a TRS phone connector. Some studio instruments, notably certain Gibson Les Paul models, incorporate a low-impedance three-pin XLR connector for balanced audio. Many exotic arrangements and connectors exist that support features such as midi and hexaphonic pickups.\n\nBridge and tailpiece systems \n\nThe bridge and tailpiece, while serving separate purposes, work closely together to affect playing style and tone. There are four basic types of bridge and tailpiece systems on electric guitars. Within these four types are many variants.\n\nHard-tail \n\nA hard-tail guitar bridge anchors the strings at or directly behind the bridge and is fastened securely to the top of the instrument. These are common on carved-top guitars, such as the Gibson Les Paul and the Paul Reed Smith models, and on slab-body guitars, such as the Music Man Albert Lee and Fender guitars that are not equipped with a vibrato arm.\n\nFloating tailpiece \n\nA floating or trapeze tailpiece (similar to a violin's) fastens to the body at the base of the guitar. These appear on Rickenbackers, Gretsches, Epiphones, a wide variety of archtop guitars, particularly Jazz guitars, and the 1952 Gibson Les Paul. \n\nVibrato arms \n\nPictured is a tremolo arm or vibrato tailpiece style bridge and tailpiece system, often called a whammy bar or trem. It uses a lever (\"vibrato arm\") attached to the bridge that can temporarily slacken or tighten the strings to alter the pitch. A player can use this to create a vibrato or a portamento effect. Early vibrato systems were often unreliable and made the guitar go out of tune easily. They also had a limited pitch range. Later Fender designs were better, but Fender held the patent on these, so other companies used older designs for many years. \n\nWith expiration of the Fender patent on the Stratocaster-style vibrato, various improvements on this type of internal, multi-spring vibrato system are now available. Floyd Rose introduced one of the first improvements on the vibrato system in many years when, in the late 1970s, he experimented with \"locking\" nuts and bridges that prevent the guitar from losing tuning, even under heavy vibrato bar use.\n\nString-through body \n\nThe fourth type of system employs string-through body anchoring. The strings pass over the bridge saddles, then through holes through the top of the guitar body to the back. The strings are typically anchored in place at the back of the guitar by metal ferrules. Many believe this design improves a guitar's sustain and timbre. \nA few examples of string-through body guitars are the Fender Telecaster Thinline, the Fender Telecaster Deluxe, the B.C. Rich IT Warlock and Mockingbird, and the Schecter Omen 6 and 7 series.\n\nPickups\n\nCompared to an acoustic guitar, which has a hollow body, electric guitars make less audible sound when their strings are plucked, so electric guitars are normally plugged into a guitar amplifier. When an electric guitar is played, string movement produces a signal by generating (i.e., inducing) a small electric current in the magnetic pickups, which are magnets wound with coils of very fine wire. \nThe signal passes through the tone and volume circuits to the output jack, and through a cable to an amplifier. The current induced is proportional to such factors as string density and the amount of movement over the pickups. \n\nBecause in most cases it is desirable to isolate coil-wound pickups from the unintended sound of internal vibration of loose coil windings, a guitar's magnetic pickups are normally embedded or \"potted\" in wax, lacquer, or epoxy to prevent the pickup from producing a microphonic effect.\n\nBecause of their natural inductive qualities, all magnetic pickups tend to pick up ambient, usually unwanted electromagnetic interference or EMI. The resulting hum is particularly strong with single-coil pickups, and it is aggravated by the fact that many vintage guitars are insufficiently shielded against electromagnetic interference. The most common source is 50- or 60-Hz hum from power transmission systems (house wiring, etc.). Since nearly all amplifiers and audio equipment associated with electric guitars must be plugged in, it is a continuing technical challenge to reduce or eliminate unwanted hum.\n\nDouble-coil or \"humbucker\" pickups were invented as a way to reduce or counter the unwanted ambient hum sounds (known as 60-cycle hum). Humbuckers have two coils of opposite magnetic and electric polarity to produce a differential signal. Electromagnetic noise that hits both coils equally tries to drive the pickup signal toward positive on one coil and toward negative on the other, which cancels out the noise. The two coils are wired in phase, so their signal adds together. This high combined inductance of the two coils leads to the richer, \"fatter\" tone associated with humbucking pickups.\n\nPiezoelectric pickups use a \"sandwich\" of quartz crystal or other piezoelectric material, typically placed beneath the string saddles or nut. These devices respond to pressure changes from all vibration at these specific points.\n\nOptical pickups are a type of pickup that sense string and body vibrations using infrared LED light. These pickups are not sensitive to EMI.\n\nSome \"hybrid\" electric guitars are equipped with additional microphone, piezoelectric, optical, or other types of transducers to approximate an acoustic instrument tone and broaden the sonic palette of the instrument.\n\nGuitar necks\n\nElectric guitar necks vary in composition and shape. The primary metric of guitar necks is the scale length, which is the vibrating length of the strings from nut to bridge. A typical Fender guitar uses a 25.5-inch scale length, while Gibson uses a 24.75-inch scale length in their Les Paul. While the scale length of the Les Paul is often described as 24.75 inches, it has varied through the years by as much as a half inch.\n\nFrets are positioned proportionally to scale length—the shorter the scale length, the closer the fret spacing. Opinions vary regarding the effect of scale length on tone and feel. Popular opinion holds that longer scale length contributes to greater amplitude. Reports of playing feel are greatly complicated by the many factors involved in this perception. String gauge and design, neck construction and relief, guitar setup, playing style and other factors contribute to the subjective impression of playability or feel.\n\nNecks are described as bolt-on, set-in, or neck-through, depending on how they attach to the body. Set-in necks are glued to the body in the factory. They are said to have a warmer tone and greater sustain. This is the traditional type of joint. Leo Fender pioneered bolt-on necks on electric guitars to facilitate easy adjustment and replacement. Neck-through instruments extend the neck the length of the instrument, so that it forms the center of the body, and are known for long sustain and for being particularly sturdy. While a set-in neck can be carefully unglued by a skilled luthier, and a bolt-on neck can simply be unscrewed, a neck-through design is difficult or even impossible to repair, depending on the damage. Historically, the bolt-on style has been more popular for ease of installation and adjustment. Since bolt-on necks can be easily removed, there is an after-market in replacement bolt-on necks from companies such as Warmoth and Mighty Mite. Some instruments—notably most Gibson models—continue to use set-in glued necks. Neck-through bodies are somewhat more common in bass guitars.\n\nMaterials for necks are selected for dimensional stability and rigidity, and some allege that they influence tone. Hardwoods are preferred, with maple, mahogany, and ash topping the list. The neck and fingerboard can be made from different materials; for example, a guitar may have a maple neck with a rosewood or ebony fingerboard. In the 1970s, designers began to use exotic man-made materials such as aircraft-grade aluminum, carbon fiber, and ebonol. Makers known for these unusual materials include John Veleno, Travis Bean, Geoff Gould, and Alembic.\n\nAside from possible engineering advantages, some feel that in relation to the rising cost of rare tonewoods, man-made materials may be economically preferable and more ecologically sensitive. However, wood remains popular in production instruments, though sometimes in conjunction with new materials. Vigier guitars, for example, use a wooden neck reinforced by embedding a light, carbon fiber rod in place of the usual heavier steel bar or adjustable steel truss rod. After-market necks made entirely from carbon fiber fit existing bolt-on instruments. Few, if any, extensive formal investigations have been widely published that confirm or refute claims over the effects of different woods or materials on electric guitar sound.\n\nSeveral neck shapes appear on guitars, including shapes known as C necks, U necks, and V necks. These refer to the cross-sectional shape of the neck (especially near the nut). Several sizes of fret wire are available, with traditional players often preferring thin frets, and metal shredders liking thick frets. Thin frets are considered better for playing chords, while thick frets allow lead guitarists to bend notes with less effort.\n\nAn electric guitar with a folding neck called the \"Foldaxe\" was designed and built for Chet Atkins by Roger C. Field. Steinberger guitars developed a line of exotic, carbon fiber instruments without headstocks, with tuning done on the bridge instead.\n\nFingerboards vary as much as necks. The fingerboard surface usually has a cross-sectional radius that is optimized to accommodate finger movement for different playing techniques. Fingerboard radius typically ranges from nearly flat (a very large radius) to radically arched (a small radius). The vintage Fender Telecaster, for example, has a typical small radius of approximately 7.25 inches. Some manufacturers have experimented with fret profile and material, fret layout, number of frets, and modifications of the fingerboard surface for various reasons. Some innovations were intended to improve playability by ergonomic means, such as Warmoth Guitars' compound radius fingerboard. Scalloped fingerboards added enhanced microtonality during fast legato runs. Fanned frets intend to provide each string with an optimal playing tension and enhanced musicality. Some guitars have no frets—and others, like the Gittler guitar, have no neck in the traditional sense.\n\nSound and effects\n\nWhile an acoustic guitar's sound depends largely on the vibration of the guitar's body and the air inside it, the sound of an electric guitar depends largely on the signal from the pickups. The signal can be \"shaped\" on its path to the amplifier via a range of effect devices or circuits that modify the tone and characteristics of the signal. Amplifiers and speakers also add coloration to the final sound.\n\nBuilt-in sound shaping\n\nElectric guitars usually have one to four magnetic pickups. Identical pickups produce different tones depending on how near they are to the neck or bridge. Bridge pickups produce a bright or trebly timbre, and neck pickups are warmer or more bassy. The type of pickup also affects tone. Dual-coil pickups sound warm, thick, perhaps even muddy; single-coil pickups sound clear, bright, perhaps even biting. Guitars don't require a uniform pickup type: a common mixture is the \"fat Strat\" arrangement of one dual-coil at the bridge position and single coils in the middle and neck positions, known as HSS (humbucker/single/single).\n\nSome guitars have piezoelectric pickup in addition to electromagnetic pickups. Piezo pickups produce a more acoustic sound. The piezo runs through a built-in equalizer (EQ) to improve similitude and control tone. A blend knob controls the mix between electromagnetic and piezoelectric sounds.\n\nWhere there is more than one pickup, a pickup selector switch is usually present. These typically select or combine the outputs of two or more pickups, so that two-pickup guitars have three-way switches, and three-pickup guitars have five-way switches (a Gibson Les Paul three-pickup Black Beauty has a three-position toggle switch which configures bridge, bridge and middle [switch in middle position] and neck pickups). Further circuitry sometimes combines pickups in different ways. For instance, phase switching places one pickup out of phase with the other(s), leading to a \"honky\", \"nasal\", or \"funky\" sound. Individual pickups can also have their timbre altered by switches, typically coil tap switches that effectively short-circuit some of a dual-coil pickup's windings to produce a tone similar to a single-coil pickup (usually done with push-pull volume knobs).\n\nThe final stages of on-board sound-shaping circuitry are the volume control (potentiometer) and tone control (which \"rolls off\" the treble frequencies). Where there are individual volume controls for different pickups, and where pickup signals can be combined, they would affect the timbre of the final sound by adjusting the balance between pickups from a straight 50:50.\n\nThe strings fitted to the guitar also have an influence on tone. Rock musicians often prefer the lightest gauge of roundwound string, which is easier to bend, while jazz musicians go for heavier, flatwound strings, which have a rich, dark sound. Steel, nickel, and cobalt are common string materials, and each gives a slightly different tone color.\n\nRecent guitar designs may incorporate much more complex circuitry than described above; see\nDigital and synthesizer guitars, below.\n\nGuitar amplifier\n\nThe electric guitar does not produce enough sound to be audible to the audience in a performance setting without it being plugged into a guitar amplifier, so as a result, electric guitars are almost always used with guitar amps (the exception is cases where a guitarist is doing a sound recording and plugs into the DI input of the mixing console). Guitar amplifiers are designed with a different approach than that used to design sound reinforcement system power amplifiers and home \"hi-fi\" stereo systems. Whereas concert sound systems and home \"hi-fi\" systems are designed to accurately reproduce the source signal without adding unwanted tonal coloration (i.e., they have a flat frequency response) or unwanted distortion, most electric guitar amplifiers are used for the tonal coloration and/or overdrive that they can add to a guitar signal. A common tonal coloration sought out by guitarists is rolling off some of the high frequencies. Along with a guitarist's playing style and choice of electric guitar and pickups, the choice of guitar amp model is a key part of a guitarist's unique tone. Many top guitarists are associated with a specific brand of guitar amp.\n\nIn the 1960s, some guitarists began exploring a wider range of tonal effects by distorting the sound of the instrument. To do this, they used overdrive — increasing the gain of the preamplifier beyond the level where the signal could be faithfully reproduced, resulting in a \"fuzzy\" sound. This effect is called \"clipping\" by sound engineers, because when viewed with an oscilloscope, the wave forms of a distorted signal appear to have had their peaks \"clipped off\", approximating a square wave. This was not actually a new development in the instrument, but rather a shift of aesthetics, the sound having not been recognized as desirable previously.\n\nAfter distortion became popular amongst rock music groups, guitar amplifier manufacturers included various provisions for it, making amps easier to overdrive, and providing separate \"dirty\" and \"clean\" channels so that distortion could easily be switched on and off. The distortion characteristics of vacuum tube amplifiers are particularly sought-after in blues and many rock music genres, and various attempts have been made to emulate them without the disadvantages (fragility, low power, expense) of actual tubes.\n\nGuitar amplifiers have long included at least a few effects, often tone controls for bass and treble, an integrated tremolo system (sometimes incorrectly marketed as vibrato), and/or a spring reverb unit. The use of offboard effects is assisted with the provision of an effects loop, an arrangement that allows effects to be electrically or mechanically switched out of the signal path when not required. In the signal chain, the effects loop is typically located between the preamplifier and the power amplifier (though reverb units generally precede the effects loop if both are featured on an amplifier). This allows the guitarist to apply modulation effects to the signal after it has been processed through the preamplifier, something generally desirable, particularly with time-based effects such as delay. In the 2010s, guitar amplifiers usually include a distortion effect. Some 2010-era amps provide digital amp modeling effects units, which emulate popular guitar amp tones.\n\nEffects units\n\nIn the 1960s, the tonal palette of the electric guitar was further modified by introducing an effects units in its signal path, before the guitar amp, of which one of the earliest units was the fuzz pedal. Effects units come in several formats, the most common of which are the stompbox \"pedal\" and the rackmount unit. A stomp box (or pedal) is a small metal or plastic box containing the circuitry, which is placed on the floor in front of the musician and connected in line with the patch cord connected to the instrument. The box is typically controlled by one or more foot-pedal on-off switches and it typically contains only one or two effects. Pedals are smaller than rackmount effects and they are usually less expensive than rackmount effects. \"Guitar pedalboards\" are used by musicians who use multiple stomp-boxes; these may be a DIY project made with plywood or a commercial stock or custom-made pedalboard.\n\nA rackmount effects unit may contain an electronic circuit nearly identical to a stompbox-based effect, but it is mounted in a standard 19\" equipment rack, which is usually mounted in a road case that is designed to protect the equipment during transport. More recently, as signal-processing technology continuously becomes more feature-dense, rack-mount effects units frequently contain several types of effects. They are typically controlled by knobs or switches on the front panel, and often by a MIDI digital control interface.\n\nTypical effects include:\n* Effects such as stereo chorus, phasers and flangers, which shift the pitch of the signal by a small and varying amount, creating swirling, shimmering and whooshing noises\n* Effects such as octavers, which displace pitch by an exact musical interval\n* Distortion, such as transistor-style fuzz, effects incorporating, emulating vacuum tube distortion or overdrive \n* Filters, such as wah-wah\n* Envelope shapers, such as compression/sustain or volume/swell\n* Time-shift effects, such as delay and reverb\n\nModern amplifier techniques\n\nIn the 1970s, as effects pedals proliferated, their sounds were combined with tube amp distortion at lower, more controlled volumes by using power attenuators, such as Tom Scholz's Power Soak, as well as re-amplified dummy loads, such as Eddie Van Halen's use of a variac, power resistor, post-power-tube effects, and a final solid-state amp driving the guitar speakers. A variac is one approach to power-supply based power attenuation, to make the sound of power-tube distortion more practically available.\n\nRecent amplifiers may include digital technology similar to modern effects pedals, including the ability to model or emulate a variety of classic amps.\n\nDigital and software-based effects\n\nA multi-effects device (also called a \"multi-FX\" device) is a single electronics effects pedal or rack-mount device that contains many electronic effects. In the late 1990s and throughout the 2000s, multi-FX manufacturers such as Zoom and Korg produced devices that were increasingly feature-laden. Multi-FX devices combine several effects together, and most devices allow users to use preset combinations of effects, including distortion, chorus, reverb, compression, and so on. This allows musicians to have quick on-stage access to different effects combinations. Some multi-FX pedals contain modelled versions of well-known effects pedals or amplifiers.\n\nMulti-effects devices have garnered a large share of the effects device market, because they offer the user such a large variety of effects in a single package. A low-priced multi-effects pedal may provide 20 or more effects for the price of a regular single-effect pedal. More expensive multi-effect pedals may include 40 or more effects, amplifier modelling, and the ability to combine effects and/or modelled amp sounds in different combinations, as if the user was using multiple guitar amps. More expensive multi-effects pedals may also include more input and output jacks (e.g., an auxiliary input or a \"dry\" output), MIDI inputs and outputs, and an expression pedal, which can control volume or modify effect parameters (e.g., the rate of the simulated rotary speaker effect).\n\nBy the 1980s and 1990s, software effects became capable of replicating the analog effects used in the past. These new digital effects attempt to model the sound produced by analog effects and tube amps, with varying degrees of quality. There are many free guitar effects computer programs that can be downloaded from the Internet. Now, computers with sound cards can be used as digital guitar effects processors. Although digital and software effects offer many advantages, many guitarists still use analog effects.\n\nSynthesizer and digital guitars\n\nIn 2002, Gibson announced the first digital guitar, which performs analog-to-digital conversion internally. The resulting digital signal is delivered over a standard Ethernet cable, eliminating cable-induced line noise. The guitar also provides independent signal processing for each individual string. In 2003, modelling amplifier maker Line 6 introduced the Variax guitar. It differs in some fundamental ways from conventional solid-body electrics. It has on-board electronics capable of modelling the sound of a variety of unique guitars and some other stringed instruments. At one time, some models featured piezoelectric pickups instead of the conventional electromagnetic pickups.\n\nPlaying techniques\n\nThe sound of a guitar can not only be adapted by electronic sound effects but is also heavily affected by various new techniques developed or becoming possible in combination with electric amplification. This is called extended technique.\n\nExtended techniques include:\n* String bending. This is not unique to the electric instrument, but it is greatly facilitated by the light strings typically used on solid-body guitars.\n* Neck bending, by holding the upper arm on the guitar body and bending the neck either to the front or pulling it back. This is used as a substitute for a tremolo bar, although not as effective, and the use of too much force could snap the guitar neck.\n* The use of the whammy bar or tremolo arm, including the extreme technique of dive bombing.\n* Tapping, in which both hands are applied to the fretboard. Tapping may be performed either one-handed or two-handed. It is an extended technique, executed by using one hand to tap the strings against the fingerboard, thus producing legato notes. Tapping usually incorporates pull-offs or hammer-ons as well, where the fingers of the left hand play a sequence of notes in synchronization with the tapping hand. \n* Hammering on the string with the fretting hand.\n\n* Pinch harmonics or artificial harmonics, sometimes called \"squealies\". This technique involves adding the edge of the thumb or the tip of the index finger on the picking hand to the regular picking action, resulting in a high-pitched sound.\n*Volume swell, in which the volume knob is repeatedly rolled to create a violin-like sound. The same result can also be accomplished through the use of an external swell pedal, although the knob technique can enhance showmanship and conveniently eliminate the need for another pedal.\n* Use of audio feedback to enhance sustain and change timbre. Feedback has become a striking characteristic of rock music, as electric guitar players such as Jeff Beck, Pete Townshend and Jimi Hendrix deliberately induced feedback by holding their guitars close to the amplifier. Lou Reed created his 1975 album Metal Machine Music entirely from loops of feedback played at various speeds. A good example of feedback can be heard on Jimi Hendrix's performance of \"Can You See Me?\" at the Monterey Pop Festival. The entire guitar solo was created using amplifier feedback. \n* Substitution of another device for the plectrum, for instance the cello bow (as famously used by Jimmy Page) and the e-bow, a device using electromagnetic feedback to vibrate strings without direct contact. Like feedback, these techniques increase sustain, bring out harmonics and change the acoustic envelope.\n* Sustainers built into the guitar itself.\n\n* Use of a slide or bottleneck. The term slide refers to the motion of the slide against the strings, while bottleneck refers to the material originally used for such slides: the necks of glass bottles. Instead of altering the pitch of a string in the normal manner (by pressing the string against a fret), a slide is placed upon the string to vary its vibrating length and thus its pitch. The slide can be moved along the string without lifting, creating continuous transitions in pitch.\n* Sometimes guitars are even adapted with extra modifications to alter the sound, such as Prepared guitar and 3rd bridge.\n\nOther techniques, such as axial finger vibrato, pull-offs, hammer-ons, palm muting, harmonics and altered tunings, are also used on the classical and acoustic guitar. Shred guitar is a genre involving a number of extended techniques.\n\nTypes\n\nSolid-body guitar\n\nUnlike acoustic guitars, solid-body electric guitars have no vibrating soundboard to amplify string vibration. Instead, solid-body instruments depend on electric pickups and an amplifier (or amp) and speaker. The solid body ensures that the amplified sound reproduces the string vibration alone, thus avoiding the wolf tones and unwanted feedback associated with amplified acoustic guitars of the period. These guitars are generally made of hardwood covered with a hard polymer finish, often polyester or lacquer. In large production facilities, the wood is stored for three to six months in a wood-drying kiln before being cut to shape. Premium custom-built guitars are frequently made with much older, hand-selected wood.\n\nOne of the first solid-body guitars was invented by Les Paul. Gibson did not present their Les Paul guitar prototypes to the public, as they did not believe the solid-body style would catch on. Another early solid-body Spanish style guitar, resembling what would become Gibson's Les Paul guitar a decade later, was developed in 1941 by O.W. Appleton, of Nogales, Arizona. Appleton made contact with both Gibson and Fender but was unable to sell the idea behind his \"App\" guitar to either company. In 1946, Merle Travis commissioned steel guitar builder Paul Bigsby to build him a solid-body Spanish-style electric. Bigsby delivered the guitar in 1948. The first mass-produced solid-body guitar was Fender's Broadcaster (later to become the Telecaster), first made in 1948, five years after Les Paul made his prototype. The Gibson Les Paul appeared soon after to compete with the Broadcaster. Another notable solid-body design is the Fender Stratocaster, which was introduced in 1954 and became extremely popular among musicians in the 1960s and 1970s for its wide tonal capabilities and more comfortable ergonomics than other models.\n\nChambered-body guitar\n\nSome solid-bodied guitars, such as the Gibson Les Paul Supreme, the PRS Singlecut, and the Fender Telecaster Thinline, among others, are built with hollows in the body. These hollows are designed specifically not to interfere with the critical bridge and string anchor point on the solid body. In the case of Gibson and PRS, these are called chambered bodies. The motivation for this may be to reduce weight, to achieve a semi-acoustic tone (see below) or both. \n\nSemi-acoustic guitar \n\nSemi-acoustic guitars have a hollow body (similar in depth to a solid-body guitar) and electronic pickups mounted on the body. They work in a similar way to solid-body electric guitars except that, because the hollow body also vibrates, the pickups convert a combination of string and body vibration into an electrical signal. Whereas chambered guitars are made, like solid-body guitars, from a single block of wood, semi-acoustic and full-hollowbody guitars bodies are made from thin sheets of wood. They do not provide enough acoustic volume for live performance, but they can be used unplugged for quiet practice. Semi-acoustics are noted for being able to provide a sweet, plaintive, or funky tone. They are used in many genres, including blues, funk, sixties pop, and indie rock. They generally have cello-style F-shaped sound holes. These can be blocked off to prevent feedback, as in B. B. King's famous Lucille. Feedback can also be reduced by making them with a solid block in the middle of the soundbox. Advocates of semi-hollow-body guitars argue that they have greater resonance and sustain than true solid-body guitars.\n\nFull hollow-body guitar\n\nFull hollow-body guitars have large, deep bodies made of glued-together sheets, or \"plates\", of wood. They can often be played at the same volume as an acoustic guitar and therefore can be used unplugged at intimate gigs. They qualify as electric guitars inasmuch as they have fitted pickups. Historically, archtop guitars\nwith retrofitted pickups were among the very earliest electric guitars. The instrument originated during the Jazz Age, in the 1920s and 1930s, and are still considered the classic jazz guitar (nicknamed \"jazzbox\"). Like semi-acoustic guitars, they often have f-shaped sound holes.\n\nHaving humbucker pickups (sometimes just a neck pickup) and usually strung heavlly, jazzboxes are noted for their warm, rich tone. A variation with single-coil pickups, and sometimes with a Bigsby tremolo, has long been popular in country and rockabilly; it has a distinctly more twangy, biting tone than the classic jazzbox. The term archtop refers to a method of construction subtly different from the typical acoustic (or \"folk\" or \"western\" or \"steel-string\" guitar): the top is formed from a moderately thick (1 inch or 2–3 cm) piece of wood, which is then carved into a thin (0.1 in, or 2–3 mm) domed shape, whereas conventional acoustic guitars have a thin, flat top.\n\nElectric acoustic guitar\n\nSome steel-string acoustic guitars are fitted with pickups purely as an alternative to using a separate microphone. They may also be fitted with a piezoelectric pickup under the bridge, attached to the bridge mounting plate, or with a low-mass microphone (usually a condenser mic) inside the body of the guitar that converts the vibrations in the body into electronic signals. Combinations of these types of pickups may be used, with an integral mixer/preamp/graphic equalizer. Such instruments are called electric acoustic guitars. They are regarded as acoustic guitars rather than electric guitars, because the pickups do not produce a signal directly from the vibration of the strings, but rather from the vibration of the guitar top or body.\n\nElectric acoustic guitars should not be confused with semi-acoustic guitars, which have pickups of the type found on solid-body electric guitars, or solid-body hybrid guitars with piezoelectric pickups.\n\nString, bridge, and neck variants\n\nOne-string guitar\n\nThe one-string guitar is also known as the Unitar. Although rare, the one-string guitar is sometimes heard, particularly in Delta blues, where improvised folk instruments were popular in the 1930s and 1940s. Eddie \"One String\" Jones had some regional success. Mississippi blues musician Lonnie Pitchford played a similar, homemade instrument. In a more contemporary style, Little Willie Joe, the inventor of the Unitar, had a rhythm and blues instrumental hit in the 1950s with \"Twitchy\", recorded with the Rene Hall Orchestra.\n\nFour-string guitar\n\nThe four-string guitar is better known as the tenor guitar. One of its best-known players was Tiny Grimes, who played on 52nd Street with the beboppers and played a major role in the Prestige Blues Swingers. Multi-instrumentalist Warren Ellis (musician) of Dirty Three and Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds is a contemporary player who includes a tenor guitar in his repertoire.\n\nThe four-string guitar is normally tuned CGDA, but some players, such as Tiny Grimes, tune to DGBE in order to preserve familiar 6-string guitar chord fingerings. The tenor guitar can also be tuned like a soprano, concert, or tenor ukulele, using versions of GCEA tuning.\n\nSeven-string guitar\n\nMost seven-string guitars add a low B string below the low E. Both electric and classical guitars exist designed for this tuning. A high A string above the high E instead of the low B string is sometimes used. Another less common seven-string arrangement is a second G string situated beside the standard G string and tuned an octave higher, in the same manner as a twelve-stringed guitar (see below). Jazz guitarists using a seven-string include George Van Eps, Lenny Breau, Bucky Pizzarelli and his son John Pizzarelli.\n\nSeven-string electric guitars were popularized among rock players in the 1980s by Steve Vai. Along with the Japanese guitar company Ibanez, Vai created the Universe series seven-string guitars in the 1980s, with a double locking tremolo system for a seven-string guitar. These models were based on Vai's six-string signature series, the Ibanez Jem. Seven-string guitars experienced a resurgence in popularity in the 2000s, championed by Deftones, Limp Bizkit, Slayer, KoRn, Fear Factory, Strapping Young Lad, Nevermore, Muse and other hard rock and metal bands. Metal musicians often prefer the seven-string guitar for its extended lower range. The seven-string guitar has also played an essential role in progressive metal rock and is commonly used in bands such as Dream Theater and Pain of Salvation and by experimental guitarists such as Ben Levin.\n\nEight- and nine-string guitars\n\nEight-string electric guitars are rare but not unused. One is played by Charlie Hunter, which was manufactured by Novax Guitars. The largest manufacturer of eight- to 14-string instruments is Warr Guitars. Their models are used by Trey Gunn (ex King Crimson), who has his own signature line from the company. Similarly, Mårten Hagström and Fredrik Thordendal of Meshuggah used 8-string guitars made by Nevborn Guitars and now guitars by Ibanez. Munky of the nu metal band KoRn is also known to use seven-string Ibanez guitars, and it is rumored that he is planning to release a K8 eight-string guitar similar to his K7 seven-string guitar. Another Ibanez player is Tosin Abasi, lead guitarist of the progressive metal band Animals as Leaders, who uses an Ibanez RG2228 to mix bright chords with very heavy low riffs on the seventh and eighth strings. Stephen Carpenter of Deftones also switched from a seven-string to an eight-string in 2008 and released his signature STEF B-8 with ESP Guitars. In 2008, Ibanez released the Ibanez RG2228-GK, which is the first mass-produced eight-string guitar. Jethro Tull's first album uses a nine-string guitar. Bill Kelliher, guitarist for the heavy metal group Mastodon, worked with First Act on a custom mass-produced nine-string guitar.\n\nTen-string guitar\n\nB.C. Rich manufactures a ten-string six-course electric guitar, the Bich, whose radical shape positions the machine heads for the four secondary strings on the body, avoiding the head-heaviness of many electric twelve-string guitars. However many players bought it for the body shape or electrics and simply removed the extra strings. The company recognized this and released six-string models of the Bich, but ten-string models also remain in production.\n\nTwelve-string guitar\n\nTwelve-string electric guitars feature six pairs of strings, usually with each pair tuned to the same note. The extra E, A, D, and G strings add a note one octave above, and the extra B and E strings are in unison. The pairs of strings are played together as one, so the technique and tuning are the same as a conventional guitar, but they create a much fuller tone. They are used almost solely to play harmony and rhythm. They are relatively common in folk rock music. Lead Belly is the folk artist most identified with the twelve-string guitar, usually acoustic with a pickup.\n\nGeorge Harrison of the Beatles and Roger McGuinn of the Byrds brought the electric twelve-string to notability in rock and roll. During the Beatles' first trip to the United States, in February 1964, Harrison received a new 360/12 model guitar from the Rickenbacker company, a twelve-string electric made to look onstage like a six-string. He began using the 360 in the studio on Lennon's \"You Can't Do That\" and other songs. McGuinn began using electric twelve-string guitars to create the jangly sound of the Byrds. Another notable guitarist to utilize electric twelve-string guitars is Jimmy Page, the guitarist with Led Zeppelin.\n\nThird-bridge guitar\n\nThe third-bridge guitar is an electric prepared guitar with an additional, third bridge. This can be a normal guitar with, for instance, a screwdriver placed under the strings, or it can be a custom-made instrument. Lee Ranaldo of Sonic Youth plays with a third bridge.\n\nDouble-neck guitar\n\nDouble-neck (or, less commonly, \"twin-neck\") guitars enable guitarists to play both guitar and bass guitar or, more commonly, both a six-string and a twelve-string. In the mid-1960s, one of the first players to use this type of guitar was Paul Revere & the Raiders' guitarist Drake Levin. Another early user was John McLaughlin. The double-neck guitar was popularized by Jimmy Page, who used a custom-made, cherry-finished Gibson EDS-1275 to perform \"Stairway to Heaven\", \"The Song Remains the Same\" and \"The Rain Song\", although for the recording of \"Stairway to Heaven\" he used a Fender Telecaster and a Fender XII electric twelve-string. Mike Rutherford of Genesis and Mike + the Mechanics is also famous for his use of a double-neck guitar during live shows. Don Felder of the Eagles used the Gibson EDS-1275 during the Hotel California tour. Muse guitarist and vocalist Matthew Bellamy uses a silver Manson double-neck on his band's Resistance Tour. Rush guitarist Alex Lifeson is also known for using double-neck guitars in the live performance of several songs. In performances of the song \"Xanadu\" during the band's 2015 R40 anniversary tour, Lifeson played a white Gibson EDS-1275 double-neck guitar with six-string and twelve-string necks, while bassist Geddy Lee performed with a double-neck Rickenbacker guitar with four-string bass and twelve-string guitar necks.\n\nUses\n\nPopular music\n\nPopular music and rock groups often use the electric guitar in two roles: as a rhythm guitar which provides the chord sequence or \"progression\" and sets out the \"beat\" (as part of a rhythm section), and a lead guitar, which is used to perform melody lines, melodic instrumental fill passages, and guitar solos. In some rock or metal bands with two guitarists, the two performers may perform as a guitar tandem, and trade off the lead guitar and rhythm guitar roles. In bands with a single guitarist, the guitarist may switch between these two roles, playing chords to accompany the singer's lyrics, and then playing a guitar solo in the middle of the song.\n\nIn the most commercially available and consumed pop and rock genres, electric guitars tend to dominate their acoustic cousins in both the recording studio and the live venue, especially in the \"harder\" genres such as heavy metal and hard rock. However the acoustic guitar remains a popular choice in country, western and especially bluegrass music, and it is widely used in folk music.\n\nJazz and jazz fusion\n\nJazz guitar playing styles include rhythm guitar-style \"comping\" (accompanying) with jazz chord voicings (and in some cases, walking basslines) and \"blowing\" (improvising solos) over jazz chord progressions with jazz-style phrasing and ornaments. The accompanying style for electric guitar in most jazz styles differs from the way chordal instruments accompany in many popular styles of music. In rock and pop, the rhythm guitarist usually performs the chords in dense and regular fashion, which sets out the beat of a tune. Rock and pop chord voicings tend to focus on the first, third, and fifth notes of the chord. In contrast, in many modern jazz styles, the guitarist plays much more sparsely, intermingling periodic chords and delicate voicings into pauses in the melody or solo. Jazz chord voicings are usually rootless and emphasize the third and seventh notes of the chord. Jazz chords also often include the 11th and 13th notes of the chord.\n\nWhen jazz guitar players improvise, they use scales, modes, and arpeggios associated with the chords in a tune's chord progression. Jazz guitarists have to learn how to use scales (whole tone scale, chromatic scale, etc.) to solo over chord progressions. Jazz guitar improvising is not merely the recitation of jazz scales and rapid arpeggios. Jazz guitarists often try to imbue their melodic phrasing with the sense of natural breathing and legato phrasing used by horn players such as saxophone players. As well, a jazz guitarists' solo improvisations have to have a rhythmic drive and \"time feel\" that creates a sense of \"swing\" and \"groove\".\n\nIn addition to the traditional rhythm/comping and lead/blowing roles, some jazz guitarists use the electric instrument to play unaccompanied, combining harmony and melody to form a complete piece of music, like classical guitarists.\n\nMost jazz guitarists play hollow-body instruments, but solid-body guitars are also used. Hollow-body instruments were the first guitars used in jazz in the 1930s and 1940s. During the 1970s jazz fusion era, many jazz guitarists switched to the solid body guitars that dominated the rock world.\n\nContemporary classical music\n\nUntil the 1950s, the acoustic, nylon-stringed classical guitar was the only type of guitar favored by classical, or art music composers. In the 1950s a few contemporary classical composers began to use the electric guitar in their compositions. Examples of such works include Karlheinz Stockhausen's Gruppen (1955–57); Donald Erb's String Trio (1966), Morton Feldman's The Possibility of a New Work for Electric Guitar (1966); George Crumb's Songs, Drones, and Refrains of Death (1968); Hans Werner Henze's Versuch über Schweine (1968); Francis Thorne's Sonar Plexus (1968) and Liebesrock (1968–69), Michael Tippett's The Knot Garden (1965–70); Leonard Bernstein's MASS (1971) and Slava! (1977); Louis Andriessen's De Staat (1972–76); Helmut Lachenmann's Fassade, für grosses Orchester (1973, rev. 1987), Steve Reich's Electric Counterpoint (1987), Arvo Pärt's Miserere (1989/92), György Kurtág's Grabstein für Stephan (1989), and countless works composed for the quintet of Ástor Piazzolla.\nAlfred Schnittke also used electric guitar in several works, like the \"Requiem\", \"Concerto Grosso N°2\" and \"Symphony N°1\".\n\nIn the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, a growing number of composers (many of them composer-performers who had grown up playing the instrument in rock bands) began writing contemporary classical music for the electric guitar. These include Frank Zappa, Shawn Lane, Steven Mackey, Nick Didkovsky, Scott Johnson, Lois V Vierk, Tim Brady, Tristan Murail, and Randall Woolf.\n\nYngwie Malmsteen released his Concerto Suite for Electric Guitar and Orchestra in 1998, and Steve Vai released a double-live CD entitled Sound Theories, of his work with the Netherlands Metropole Orchestra in June 2007. The American composers Rhys Chatham and Glenn Branca have written \"symphonic\" works for large ensembles of electric guitars, in some cases numbering up to 100 players, and the instrument is a core member of the Bang on a Can All-Stars (played by Mark Stewart). Still, like many electric and electronic instruments, the electric guitar remains primarily associated with rock and jazz music, rather than with classical compositions and performances. R. Prasanna plays a style of Indian classical music (Carnatic music) on the electric guitar.\n\nIn the 21st century, European avant garde composers like Richard Barrett, Fausto Romitelli, Peter Ablinger, Bernhard Lang, Claude Ledoux and Karlheinz Essl have used the electric guitar (together with extended playing techniques) in solo pieces or ensemble works. Probably the most ambitious and perhaps significant work to date is Ingwe (2003–2009) by Georges Lentz (written for Australian guitarist Zane Banks), a 60-minute work for solo electric guitar, exploring that composer's existential struggles and taking the instrument into realms previously unknown in a concert music setting.\n\nVietnamese traditional music \n\nIn Vietnam, electric guitars are often used as an instrument in cải lương music (traditional southern Vietnamese folk opera), sometimes as a substitute for certain traditional stringed instruments like the Đàn nguyệt (two-stringed lute) when they are not available. Electric guitars used in cải lương are played in finger vibrato (string bending), with no amplifiers or sound effects."
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"Early History of Rickenbacker\n \nThe Earliest Days of the Electric Guitar\nThe Rickenbacker International Corporation (RIC) grew out of the first company founded for the sole purpose of creating and manufacturing fully electric musical instruments and amplifiers-the Los Angeles-based Electro String Instrument Corporation. Founded in 1931 by Adolph Rickenbacker and George D. Beauchamp, this pioneering firm produced \"Rickenbacker Electro Instruments\", the first modern electric guitars. RIC's history now spans 86 years in business on the leading edge of music trends that have changed popular culture forever. Played by Hawaiian musicians of the 1930s to jazz bassists of the 1990s, by the Beatles and Byrds to the most-current rock groups on MTV, the ringing sound of Rickenbacker instruments has helped define music as we know it. Never resting on its laurels, RIC continues to ignite and propel the electric guitar's transformation of music by providing today's musicians with the finest instruments available.\nIt all began in 1920s Los Angeles, a city fast becoming the entertainment capital of the world. Like many of his contemporaries, steel player George Beauchamp (pronounced Beechum) sought a louder, improved guitar. Several inventors had already tried to build louder stringed instruments by adding megaphone-like amplifying horns to them. Beauchamp saw one of these and went looking for someone to build him one, too. His search led to John Dopyera, a violin repairman with a shop fairly close to Beauchamp's L.A. home.\nDopyera and his brother Rudy's first attempt for George sat on a stand; a Victrola horn attached to the bottom and pointed towards the audience. It was a failure, so the Dopyeras then started experiments with thin, cone-like aluminum resonators attached to a guitar bridge and placed inside a metal body. A successful prototype (soon dubbed \"the tri-cone\") used three of these resonators. Beauchamp, so pleased with the results, suggested forming a manufacturing company with the Dopyeras, who had already started making more guitars in their shop. Setting out to find investors, he took the tri-cone prototype and the Sol Hoopii Trio (a world-famous Hawaiian group) to a lavish party held by his millionaire cousin-in-law, Ted Kleinmeyer. He was so excited about the guitar and the prospects for a new company that he gave Beauchamp a check for $12,000 that night.\nSubstantial production of the metal-body guitars began almost immediately. Beauchamp, acting as general manager, hired some of the most experienced and competent craftsmen available, including several members of his own family and the Dopyeras. He purchased equipment and located the new factory near Adolph Rickenbacker's tool and die shop. Rickenbacker (known to his friends as Rick) was a highly skilled production engineer with experience in a wide variety of manufacturing techniques. Swiss-born, he was also a relative of WWI flying ace Eddie Rickenbacker. Well equipped to manufacture metal bodies for the Nationals, Adolph owned one of the largest deep-drawing presses on the West Coast and soon carried the title of engineer in the National Company.\nUnfortunately, the seeds for an internal dispute within National were planted in the very beginning. By late 1928 the Dopyeras became very disgruntled with the management of company and resources. John Dopyera, who rightfully considered himself an inventor, ironically thought that Beauchamp wasted time experimenting with new ideas. Dopyera and Beauchamp lived in two different worlds and apparently were at odds on every level of personal, business and social interaction. That they could not work together successfully was a foregone conclusion. Another problem was Ted Kleinmeyer, who had inherited a million dollars at 21 and was trying to spend it all before turning 30 (when he would inherit another million). A Roaring '20s party animal, successful losing money faster than he could make it, he started hounding Beauchamp for cash advances from National's till. George's fault was that he could not turn people down, especially his friends and the company's president.\nJohn Dopyera quit and formed the Dobro Corporation, but maintained National stock. The Dopyera brothers would eventually win more in a court settlement. Then Ted Kleinmeyer, nearly broke (and a few years away from the rest of his inheritance), sold his controlling interest in the concern to another Dopyera, brother Louis. In a shakeup that followed, Beauchamp and several other employees were fired. Now George needed a new project and a new company, fast.\nAlong with others of his day, he had thought about the possibility of an electric guitar for several years and, though not schooled in electronics, had started experimenting as early as 1925 with PA systems and microphones. Early on he made a single-string test guitar out of a 2x4 board and a pickup from a Brunswick electric phonograph. This experiment shaped his thinking and put him on the right path. After leaving National, he began his home experiments in earnest and attended night-school classes in electronics.\nBy 1930 many people familiar with electricity knew that a metal moving through a magnetic field caused a disturbance that in turn could be translated into an electric current by a nearby coil of wire. Electrical generators and phonograph pickups utilized different applications of this principle. The problem building a guitar pickup was creating a practical way of translating the strings' vibration directly into a current. After many months of trial and error, George developed a pickup that consisted of two horseshoe magnets. The strings passed through these and over a coil, which had six pole pieces concentrating the magnetic field under each string. (Conducting work on his dining room table, he used the motor out of the family washing machine to wind the coil. Paul Barth, who helped Beauchamp, said that they eventually used a sewing machine motor.)\nWhen the pickup seemed to be doing its job, Beauchamp called on Harry Watson, a skilled craftsman who had been National's factory superintendent, to make a wooden neck and body for it. In several hours, carving with small hand tools, a rasp, and a file, the first fully electric guitar took form. It was nicknamed the \"Frying Pan,\" for obvious reasons. Anxious to manufacture it, Beauchamp enlisted his friend Adolph Rickenbacker. With Adolph's help, know-how, ideas, and capital were abundant. The first name of the company was Ro-Pat-In Corporation but was soon changed to Electro String. Adolph became president and George secretary-treasurer. They called the instruments Rickenbackers because it was a famous name (thanks to cousin Eddie) and easier than Beauchamp to pronounce. Paul Barth and Billy Lane, who helped with an early preamplifier design, both had small financial interests in the company as production began in a small rented shop at 6071 S. Western Ave., next to Rickenbacker's tool and die plant. (Rick's other company still made metal parts for National and Dobro guitars and Bakelite plastic products such as Klee-B-Tween toothbrushes, fountain pens, and candle holders.)\nElectro String had several obstacles. Timing could not have been worse--1931 heralded the lowest depths of the Great Depression and few people had money to spend on guitars. Musicians resisted at first; they had no experience with electrics and only the most farsighted saw their potential. The Patent Office did not know if the Frying Pan was an electrical device or a musical instrument. What's more, no patent category included both. Many competing companies rushed to get an electric guitar onto the market, too. By 1935 it seemed futile to maintain a legal battle against all of these potential patent infringements.\nHawaiian guitars (lap steels) would be the best known and most accepted 1930s Rickenbackers. Early literature illustrates both 6- and 7-string versions of the Frying Pan. Both had the same cast aluminum construction, compared with the prototype's wood. Over the years (this guitar would be available into the 1950s) two scale lengths would be offered: 22 1/2 inch and 25 inch. Workers stuffed the bodies and necks with newspapers, which today can provide a clue as to the guitar's date of manufacture. Soon after the Frying Pan, several additional steel models were offered, the most popular being the hard-plastic Bakelite Model B, later named Model BD. The earliest examples had a volume control and five decorative chrome cover plates on top. By the late 1930s they had both tone and volume controls and white-enameled metal cover plates. In the 1970s, David Lindley used a Bakelite steel on many recordings with Jackson Browne, proving the integrity of the original design in a modern context. Many players consider these lap steels the finest ever produced.\nElectro String's first Spanish (standard) guitar had a flattop hollow body with small F-holes and a slotted-peghead. A bound neck joined at the 14th fret. By the mid-1930s, the concert-sized Ken Roberts Model (named after one of Beauchamp's guitar-playing friends) came out. It had a bound neck that joined the body at the 17th fret, a shaded 2-tone brown top with F-holes, and a Kauffman vibrato tailpiece. In the 1930s and 1940s there were at least two electric arch top models. The SP had a maple body, shaded spruce top, bound rosewood neck with large position markers, and a built-in horseshoe pickup. The Model S-59 sported a blonde finish and a narrow, detachable horseshoe pickup. This so-called \"Rickenbacker Electro peerless adjustable pickup unit\" was also available as a separate accessory and would attach to most F-hole style arch tops.\nDespite the popularity of arch tops, the 1935 Bakelite Model B Spanish guitar made the most history for Rickenbacker. Though not entirely solid (it had thick plastic walls and a detachable Spanish neck), it achieved the desired result-virtual elimination of the acoustic feedback that plagued big-box electrics of the day. It set the stage for all solid body guitars to follow, even though it was difficult to play sitting down on the bandstand. (A Bakelite Spanish the size most guitarists were accustomed to would have been as heavy, literally, as a sack of bowling balls.) A variation of the Bakelite Spanish invented by Doc Kauffman (who would later become Leo Fender's first partner) was the Vibrola Spanish Guitar, an ungainly thing equipped with a motorized vibrato tailpiece. So heavy, it required a stand to hold it up.\nFrom the very beginning Electro String developed and sold amplifiers. After all, the instruments worked only in conjunction with them. The first production-model amp was designed and built by a Mr. Van Nest at his L.A. radio shop. Shortly thereafter, Beauchamp and Rickenbacker hired design engineer Ralph Robertson to work on amplifiers. He developed the new circuitry for a line that by 1941 included at least four models. The speaker in the Professional Model was designed by James B. Lansing. Early Rickenbacker amps influenced, among others, Leo Fender who by the early 1940s repaired them at his radio shop in nearby Fullerton, California.\nHow did Rickenbacker guitars shape the 1930s music industry? Beauchamp had many friends and contacts in the entertainment community and as a result many stars used his instruments. Sol Hoopii and Dick McIntyre, to name just two popular Hawaiian steel guitarists, played Rickenbackers on countless influential recordings. Perry Botkin, who did many recording sessions with Bing Crosby and other Hollywood stars, used one of the few Vibrola Spanish Models. Les Paul owned a Rickenbacker. Electro String even made Harpo Marx an electric harp. A family of Rickenbacker Electro String Instruments was born, all using some variation of the horseshoe-magnet pickup. Besides guitars and mandolins, the company invented fully electric bass viols, violins, cellos and violas. An electric piano prototype sat in the firm's front office for years. Most of these instruments totally disregarded traditional styling. Rickenbacker realized that a fully electric instrument did not have to retain the appearance of its acoustical counterpart. This conceptual jump-the first of several Rickenbacker revolutions-liberated the thinking of designers to come.\nBy 1940, after fifteen years in the fast lane, Beauchamp became frustrated and disenchanted with the instrument business, partly due to his deteriorating health. His second passion, fishing and designing fishing lures, captured his attention. He patented one that he sought to manufacture; to raise the necessary capital he sold his shares in Electro String to Harold Kinney, Rickenbacker's bookkeeper. Soon after this, Beauchamp went deep sea fishing and had a fatal heart attack. His funeral procession was over two miles long. A true pioneer of electric instruments, he unfortunately did not live to see the electric guitar reach its full potential.\nAdolph Rickenbacker had maintained other interests throughout Electro String's short history; he never had as much faith in the guitar business as his partners. Nevertheless, he continued instrument making until 1953 when he sold the company to F.C. Hall, a leading figure in the post-WWII Southern California music business. That sale marked the end of one era and the beginning of another, the dawn of modern Rickenbacker guitars."
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Who was chairman of the Watergate hearings?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Watergate was a major political scandal that occurred in the United States in the 1970s, following a break-in at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. and President Richard Nixon's administration's attempted cover-up of its involvement. When the conspiracy was discovered and investigated by the U.S. Congress, the Nixon administration's resistance to its probes led to a constitutional crisis. \n\nThe term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included such \"dirty tricks\" as bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom Nixon or his officials were suspicious. Nixon and his close aides ordered harassment of activist groups and political figures, using the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).\n\nThe scandal led to the discovery of multiple abuses of power by the Nixon administration, articles of impeachment, and the resignation of Nixon as President of the United States on August 9, 1974. The scandal also resulted in the indictment of 69 people, with trials or pleas resulting in 25 being found guilty and incarcerated, many of whom were Nixon's top administration officials.\n\nThe affair began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the DNC headquarters at the Watergate complex on Saturday, June 17, 1972. The FBI investigated and discovered a connection between cash found on the burglars and a slush fund used by the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CREEP), the official organization of Nixon's campaign. In July 1973, evidence mounted against the President's staff, including testimony provided by former staff members in an investigation conducted by the Senate Watergate Committee. The investigation revealed that President Nixon had a tape-recording system in his offices and that he had recorded many conversations. \n\nAfter a protracted series of bitter court battles, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the president was obligated to release the tapes to government investigators, and he eventually complied. These audio recordings implicated the president, revealing he had attempted to cover up activities that took place after the break-in and to use federal officials to deflect the investigation. \nFacing near-certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and equally certain conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9, 1974. On September 8, 1974, his successor, Gerald Ford, pardoned him.\n\nThe name \"Watergate\" and the suffix \"-gate\" have since become synonymous with political scandals in the United States and elsewhere. \n\nWiretapping of the Democratic Party's headquarters \n\nIn January 1972, G. Gordon Liddy, general counsel to the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CREEP), presented a campaign intelligence plan to CREEP's Acting Chairman Jeb Stuart Magruder, Attorney General John Mitchell, and Presidential Counsel John Dean, that involved extensive illegal activities against the Democratic Party. According to Dean, this marked \"the opening scene of the worst political scandal of the twentieth century and the beginning of the end of the Nixon presidency.\" \n\nMitchell viewed the plan as unrealistic. Two months later, he was alleged to have approved a reduced version of the plan, to include burgling the Democratic National Committee's (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate Complex in Washington, D.C.—ostensibly to photograph campaign documents and install listening devices in telephones. Liddy was nominally in charge of the operation, but has since insisted that he was duped by Dean and at least two of his subordinates. These included former CIA officers E. Howard Hunt and James McCord, then-CREEP Security Coordinator (John Mitchell had by then resigned as Attorney General to become chairman of the CREEP).[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/stories/mitchobit.htm Lawrence Meyer, \"John N. Mitchell, Principal in Watergate, Dies at 75\"], The Washington Post, November 10, 1988\n\nIn May, McCord assigned former FBI agent Alfred C. Baldwin III to carry out the wiretapping and monitor the telephone conversations afterward.[http://spartacus-educational.com/JFKbaldwinA.htm Alfred C. Baldwin] Spartacus Educational. Retrieved May 17, 2015 McCord testified that he selected Baldwin's name from a registry published by the Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI to work for the Committee to Re-elect the President. Baldwin first served as bodyguard to Martha Mitchell, the wife of John Mitchell, who was living in Washington. Baldwin accompanied Martha Mitchell to Chicago. Martha did not like Baldwin and described him as the \"gauchest character I've ever met.\" The Committee replaced Baldwin with another security man.\n\nOn May 11, McCord arranged for Baldwin, whom investigative reporter Jim Hougan described as \"somehow special and perhaps well known to McCord,\" to stay at the Howard Johnson's motel across the street from the Watergate complex. The room 419 was booked in the name of McCord’s company. At behest of G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt, McCord and his team of burglars prepared for their first Watergate break-in, which began on May 28.\n\nTwo phones inside the offices of the DNC headquarters were said to have been wiretapped. One was the phone of Robert Spencer Oliver, who at the time was working as the executive director of the Association of State Democratic Chairmen, and the other was the phone of DNC secretary Larry O'Brien. The FBI found no evidence that O'Brien's phone was bugged. However, it was determined that an effective listening device had been installed in Oliver's phone.\n\nDespite the success in installing the listening devices, the Committee agents soon determined that they needed to be repaired. They planned a second \"burglary\" in order to take care of this.\n\nShortly after midnight on June 17, 1972, Frank Wills, a security guard at the Watergate Complex, noticed tape covering the latches on some of the doors in the complex leading from the underground parking garage to several offices (allowing the doors to close but remain unlocked). He removed the tape, and thought nothing of it. He returned an hour later and, having discovered that someone had retaped the locks, Wills called the police. Five men were discovered inside the DNC office and arrested. They were Virgilio González, Bernard Barker, James McCord, Eugenio Martínez, and Frank Sturgis, who were charged with attempted burglary and attempted interception of telephone and other communications. On September 15, a grand jury indicted them, as well as Hunt and Liddy, for conspiracy, burglary, and violation of federal wiretapping laws. The five burglars who broke into the office were tried by a jury, Judge John Sirica officiating, and were convicted on January 30, 1973. \n\nCover-up and its unraveling \n\nInitial cover-up \n\nWithin hours of the burglars' arrest, the FBI discovered the name of E. Howard Hunt in the address books of Barker and Martínez. Nixon administration officials were concerned because Hunt and Liddy were also involved in a separate secret activity known as the White House Plumbers, which was set up to stop security \"leaks\" and to investigate other sensitive security matters. Dean would later testify he was ordered by top Nixon aide John Ehrlichman to \"deep six\" the contents of Howard Hunt's White House safe. Ehrlichman subsequently denied that. In the end, the evidence from Hunt's safe was destroyed (in separate operations) by Dean and the FBI's Acting Director, L. Patrick Gray.\n\nNixon's own reaction to the break-in, at least initially, was one of skepticism. Watergate prosecutor James Neal was sure Nixon had not known in advance of the break-in. As evidence, he cited a June 23 taped conversation between the President and his Chief of Staff, H. R. Haldeman, in which Nixon asked, \"Who was the asshole who ordered it?\" But Nixon subsequently ordered Haldeman to have the CIA block the FBI's investigation into the source of the funding for the burglary.\n\nA few days later, Nixon's Press Secretary, Ron Ziegler, described the event as \"a third-rate burglary attempt.\" On August 29, at a news conference, President Nixon stated Dean had conducted a thorough investigation of the matter, when in fact Dean had not conducted any investigation at all. Nixon also said, \"I can say categorically that... no one in the White House staff, no one in this Administration, presently employed, was involved in this very bizarre incident.\" On September 15, Nixon congratulated Dean, saying, \"The way you've handled it, it seems to me, has been very skillful, because you—putting your fingers in the dikes every time that leaks have sprung here and sprung there.\"\n\nMoney trail \n\nOn June 19, 1972, the press reported that one of the Watergate burglars was a Republican Party security aide. Former Attorney General John Mitchell, who at the time was the head of the Nixon re-election campaign (CRP), denied any involvement with the Watergate break-in or knowledge of the five burglars. On August 1, a $25,000 cashier's check earmarked for the Nixon re-election campaign was found in the bank account of one of the Watergate burglars. Further investigation by the FBI would reveal the team had thousands of dollars more to support their travel and expenses in the months leading up to their arrests. Examination of their funds showed a link to the finance committee of CRP.\n\nSeveral donations (totaling $86,000) were made by individuals who thought they were making private donations by certified and cashier's checks for the President's re-election. Investigators' examination of the bank records of a Miami company run by Watergate burglar Barker revealed an account controlled by him personally had deposited a check and then transferred it (through the Federal Reserve Check Clearing System).\n\nThe banks that had originated the checks were keen to ensure the depository institution used by Barker had acted properly in ensuring the checks had been received and endorsed by the check's payee, before its acceptance for deposit in Bernard Barker's account. Only in this way would the issuing banks not be held liable for the unauthorized and improper release of funds from their customers' accounts.\n\nThe investigation by the FBI, which cleared Barker's bank of fiduciary malfeasance, led to the direct implication of members of the CRP, to whom the checks had been delivered. Those individuals were the Committee bookkeeper and its treasurer, Hugh Sloan.\n\nAs a private organization, the Committee followed normal business practice in allowing only duly authorized individual(s) to accept and endorse checks on behalf of the Committee. No financial institution could accept or process a check on behalf of the Committee unless a duly authorized individual endorsed it. The checks deposited into Barker's bank account were endorsed by Committee treasurer Hugh Sloan, who was authorized by the Finance Committee. However, once Sloan had endorsed a check made payable to the Committee, he had a legal and fiduciary responsibility to see that the check was deposited only into the accounts named on the check. Sloan failed to do that. When confronted with the potential charge of federal bank fraud, he revealed that Committee deputy director Jeb Magruder and finance director Maurice Stans had directed him to give the money to G. Gordon Liddy.\n\nLiddy, in turn, gave the money to Barker, and attempted to hide its origin. Barker tried to disguise the funds by depositing them into accounts in banks outside of the United States. What Barker, Liddy, and Sloan did not know was that the complete record of all such transactions were held for roughly six months. Barker's use of foreign banks in April and May 1972, to deposit checks and withdraw the funds via cashier's checks and money orders, resulted in the banks keeping the entire transaction records until October and November 1972.\n\nAll five Watergate burglars were directly or indirectly tied to the 1972 CRP, thus causing Judge Sirica to suspect a conspiracy involving higher-echelon government officials. \n\nOn September 29, 1972, the press reported that John Mitchell, while serving as Attorney General, controlled a secret Republican fund used to finance intelligence-gathering against the Democrats. On October 10, the FBI reported the Watergate break-in was part of a massive campaign of political spying and sabotage on behalf of the Nixon re-election committee. Despite these revelations, Nixon's campaign was never seriously jeopardized; on November 7, the President was re-elected in one of the biggest landslides in American political history.\n\nRole of the media \n\nThe connection between the break-in and the re-election committee was highlighted by media coverage—in particular, investigative coverage by The Washington Post, Time, and The New York Times. The coverage dramatically increased publicity and consequent political repercussions. Relying heavily upon anonymous sources, Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein uncovered information suggesting that knowledge of the break-in, and attempts to cover it up, led deeply into the upper reaches of the Justice Department, FBI, CIA, and the White House. Woodward and Bernstein interviewed Judy Hoback Miller, the bookkeeper for Nixon, who revealed to them information about the mishandling of funds and records being destroyed. \n\nChief among the Post's anonymous sources was an individual whom Woodward and Bernstein had nicknamed Deep Throat; 33 years later, in 2005, the informant was identified as William Mark Felt, Sr., deputy director of the FBI during that period of the 1970s, something Woodward later confirmed. Felt met secretly with Woodward several times, telling him of Howard Hunt's involvement with the Watergate break-in, and that the White House staff regarded the stakes in Watergate extremely high. Felt warned Woodward that the FBI wanted to know where he and other reporters were getting their information, as they were uncovering a wider web of crimes than the FBI first disclosed. All of the secret meetings between Woodward and \"Deep Throat\" (W. Mark Felt) took place at an underground parking garage somewhere in Rosslyn over a period from June 1972 to January 1973. Prior to resigning from the FBI on June 22, 1973, Felt also anonymously planted leaks about Watergate to Time magazine, the Washington Daily News and other publications.[http://www.miamiherald.com/2012/02/14/v-fullstory/2639954/the-profound-lies-of-deep-throat.html \"The profound lies of Deep Throat\"], The Miami Herald, February 14, 2012 \n\nDuring this early period, most of the media failed to grasp the full implications of the scandal, and concentrated reporting on other topics related to the 1972 presidential election. After the reporting that one of the convicted burglars wrote to Judge Sirica alleging a high-level cover-up, the media shifted its focus. Time magazine described Nixon as undergoing \"daily hell and very little trust.\" The distrust between the press and the Nixon administration was mutual and greater than usual due to lingering dissatisfaction with events from the Vietnam War. At the same time, public distrust of the media was polled at more than 40%.\n\nNixon and top administration officials discussed using government agencies to \"get\" (or retaliate against) those they perceived as hostile media organizations. The discussions had precedent. At the request of Nixon's White House in 1969, the FBI tapped the phones of five reporters. In 1971, the White House requested an audit of the tax return of the editor of Newsday, after he wrote a series of articles about the financial dealings of Charles Rebozo, a friend of Nixon. \n\nThe Administration and its supporters accused the media of making \"wild accusations,\" putting too much emphasis on the story, and of having a liberal bias against the Administration. Nixon said in a May 1974 interview with supporter Baruch Korff that if he had followed the liberal policies that he thought the media preferred, \"Watergate would have been a blip.\" The media noted that most of the reporting turned out to be accurate; the competitive nature of the media guaranteed widespread coverage of the far-reaching political scandal. Applications to journalism schools reached an all-time high in 1974.\n\nScandal Escalates \n\nRather than ending with the conviction and sentencing to prison of the five Watergate burglars on January 30, 1973, the investigation into the break-in and the Nixon Administration's involvement grew broader. Nixon's conversations in late March and all of April 1973 revealed that not only did he know he needed to remove Haldeman, Ehrlichman, and Dean to gain distance from them, but he had to do so in a way that was least likely to incriminate him and his presidency. Nixon created a new conspiracy—to effect a cover-up of the cover-up—which began in late March 1973 and became fully formed in May and June 1973, operating until his presidency ended on August 9, 1974. On March 23, 1973, Judge Sirica read the court a letter from Watergate burglar James McCord, who alleged that perjury had been committed in the Watergate trial, and defendants had been pressured to remain silent. Trying to make them talk, Sirica gave Hunt and two burglars provisional sentences of up to 40 years.\n\nOn March 28, on Nixon's orders, aide John Ehrlichman told Attorney General Richard Kleindienst that nobody in the White House had prior knowledge of the burglary. On April 13, Magruder told U.S. attorneys that he had perjured himself during the burglars' trial, and implicated John Dean and John Mitchell.\n\nJohn Dean believed that he, Mitchell, Ehrlichman and Haldeman could go to the prosecutors, tell the truth, and save the presidency. Dean wanted to protect the presidency and have his four closest men take the fall for telling the truth. During the critical meeting with Dean and Nixon on April 15, 1973, Dean was totally unaware of the president's depth of knowledge and involvement in the Watergate cover-up. It was during this meeting that Dean felt that he was being recorded. He wondered if this was due to the way Nixon was speaking, as if he were trying to prod attendees; recollections of earlier conversations about fundraising. Dean mentioned this observation while testifying to the Senate Committee on Watergate, exposing the thread of what were taped conversations that would unravel the fabric of Watergate. \n\nTwo days later, Dean told Nixon that he had been cooperating with the U.S. attorneys. On that same day, U.S. attorneys told Nixon that Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Dean and other White House officials were implicated in the cover-up. \n\nOn April 30, Nixon asked for the resignation of Haldeman and Ehrlichman, two of his most influential aides. They were later both indicted, convicted, and ultimately sentenced to prison. He asked for the resignation of Attorney General Kleindienst, to ensure no one could claim that his innocent friendship with Haldeman and Ehrlichman could be construed as a conflict. He fired White House Counsel John Dean, who went on to testify before the Senate Watergate Committee and said that he believed and suspected the conversations in the Oval Office were being taped. This information became the bombshell that helped force Richard Nixon to resign rather than be impeached. \n\nWriting from prison for New West and New York magazines in 1977, Ehrlichman claimed Nixon had offered him a large sum of money, which he declined. \n\nThe President announced the resignations in an address to the American people:\n\nOn the same day, Nixon appointed a new attorney general, Elliot Richardson, and gave him authority to designate a special counsel for the Watergate investigation who would be independent of the regular Justice Department hierarchy. In May 1973, Richardson named Archibald Cox to the position.\n\nSenate Watergate hearings and revelation of the Watergate tapes \n\nOn February 7, 1973, the United States Senate voted 77–0 to approve Senate Resolution and establish a select committee to investigate Watergate, with Sam Ervin named chairman the next day.[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,942983-1,00.html \"WATERGATE RETROSPECTIVE: THE DECLINE AND FALL\"], Time, August 19, 1974 The hearings held by the Senate committee, in which Dean and other former administration officials testified, were broadcast from May 17 to August 7, 1973. The three major networks of the time agreed to take turns covering the hearings live, each network thus maintaining coverage of the hearings every third day, starting with ABC on May 17 and ending with NBC on August 7. An estimated 85% of Americans with television sets tuned into at least one portion of the hearings. \n\nOn Friday, July 13, 1973, during a preliminary interview, deputy minority counsel Donald Sanders asked White House assistant Alexander Butterfield if there was any type of recording system in the White House. \nButterfield said he was reluctant to answer, but finally stated there was a new system in the White House that automatically recorded everything in the Oval Office, the Cabinet Room and others, as well as Nixon's private office in the Old Executive Office Building.\n\nOn Monday, July 16, 1973, in front of a live, televised audience, chief minority counsel Fred Thompson asked Butterfield whether he was \"aware of the installation of any listening devices in the Oval Office of the President.\" Butterfield's revelation of the taping system transformed the Watergate investigation. Cox immediately subpoenaed the tapes, as did the Senate, but Nixon refused to release them, citing his executive privilege as president, and ordered Cox to drop his subpoena. Cox refused. \n\n\"Saturday Night Massacre\" \n\nOn October 20, 1973, after Cox refused to drop the subpoena, Nixon commanded Attorney General Elliot Richardson, and then Richardson's deputy, William Ruckelshaus, to fire the special prosecutor. Richardson and Ruckelshaus both refused to fire Cox and resigned in protest. Nixon's search for someone in the Justice Department willing to fire Cox ended with the Solicitor General Robert Bork. Though Bork claims to believe Nixon's order was valid and appropriate, he considered resigning to avoid being \"perceived as a man who did the President's bidding to save my job.\" Bork carried out the presidential order and dismissed the special prosecutor.\n\nThese actions met considerable public criticism. Responding to the allegations of possible wrongdoing, in front of 400 Associated Press managing editors on November 17, 1973, Nixon stated emphatically, \"I'm not a crook.\" He needed to allow Bork to appoint a new special prosecutor; Bork chose Leon Jaworski to continue the investigation.\n\nLegal action against Nixon Administration members \n\nOn March 1, 1974, a grand jury in Washington, D.C., indicted several former aides of President Nixon, who became known as the \"Watergate Seven\": Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Mitchell, Charles Colson, Gordon C. Strachan, Robert Mardian and Kenneth Parkinson, for conspiring to hinder the Watergate investigation. The grand jury secretly named President Nixon as an unindicted co-conspirator. The special prosecutor dissuaded them from an indictment of Nixon, arguing that a President can only be indicted after he leaves office. John Dean, Jeb Stuart Magruder, and other figures had already pleaded guilty. On April 5, 1974, Dwight Chapin, the former Nixon appointments secretary, was convicted of lying to the grand jury. Two days later, the same grand jury indicted Ed Reinecke, the Republican lieutenant governor of California, on three charges of perjury before the Senate committee.\n\nRelease of the transcripts \n\nThe Nixon administration struggled to decide what materials to release. All parties involved agreed that all pertinent information should be released. Whether to release unedited profanity and vulgarity divided his advisers. His legal team favored releasing the tapes unedited, while Press Secretary Ron Ziegler preferred using an edited version where \"expletive deleted\" would replace the raw material. After several weeks of debate, they decided to release an edited version. Nixon announced the release of the transcripts in a speech to the nation on April 29, 1974. Nixon noted that any audio pertinent to national security information could be redacted from the released tapes. \n\nInitially, Nixon gained a positive reaction for his speech. As people read the transcripts over the next couple of weeks, however, former supporters among the public, media and political community called for Nixon's resignation or impeachment. Vice President Gerald Ford said, \"While it may be easy to delete characterization from the printed page, we cannot delete characterization from people's minds with a wave of the hand.\" The Senate Republican Leader Hugh Scott said the transcripts revealed a \"deplorable, disgusting, shabby, and immoral\" performance on the part of the President and his former aides. The House Republican Leader John Jacob Rhodes agreed with Scott, and Rhodes recommended that if Nixon's position continued to deteriorate, he \"ought to consider resigning as a possible option.\" \n\nThe editors of The Chicago Tribune, a newspaper that had supported Nixon, wrote, \"He is humorless to the point of being inhumane. He is devious. He is vacillating. He is profane. He is willing to be led. He displays dismaying gaps in knowledge. He is suspicious of his staff. His loyalty is minimal.\" The Providence Journal wrote, \"Reading the transcripts is an emetic experience; one comes away feeling unclean.\" This newspaper continued, that, while the transcripts may not have revealed an indictable offense, they showed Nixon contemptuous of the United States, its institutions, and its people. According to Time magazine, the Republican Party leaders in the Western United States felt that while there remained a significant number of Nixon loyalists in the party, the majority believed that Nixon should step down as quickly as possible. They were disturbed by the bad language and the coarse, vindictive tone of the conversations in the transcripts. \n\nSupreme Court \n\nThe issue of access to the tapes went to the US Supreme Court. On July 24, 1974, in United States v. Nixon, the Court, which did not include the recused Justice William Rehnquist (who had recently been appointed by Nixon and had served as Assistant Attorney General of the Office of Legal Counsel in the Nixon Justice Department), ruled unanimously that claims of executive privilege over the tapes were void. They ordered the president to release them to the special prosecutor. On July 30, 1974, President Nixon complied with the order and released the subpoenaed tapes for the public.\n\nRelease of the tapes \n\nThe tapes revealed several crucial conversations that took place between the President and his counsel, John Dean, on March 21, 1973. In this conversation, Dean summarized many aspects of the Watergate case, and focused on the subsequent cover-up, describing it as a \"cancer on the presidency.\" The burglary team was being paid hush money for their silence and Dean stated: \"That's the most troublesome post-thing, because Bob [Haldeman] is involved in that; John [Ehrlichman] is involved in that; I am involved in that; Mitchell is involved in that. And that's an obstruction of justice.\" Dean continued, stating that Howard Hunt was blackmailing the White House, demanding money immediately; President Nixon replied that the blackmail money should be paid: \"…just looking at the immediate problem, don't you have to have – handle Hunt's financial situation damn soon? […] you've got to keep the cap on the bottle that much, in order to have any options.\" \n\nAt the time of the initial congressional impeachment, it was not known if Nixon had known and approved of the payments to the Watergate defendants earlier than this conversation. Nixon's conversation with Haldeman on August 1, 1972, is one of several that establishes he did. Nixon states: \"Well…they have to be paid. That's all there is to that. They have to be paid.\" During the congressional debate on impeachment, some believed that impeachment required a criminally indictable offense. President Nixon's agreement to make the blackmail payments was regarded as an affirmative act to obstruct justice. \n\nOn December 7, 1973, investigators found that an 18½ minute portion of one recorded tape had been erased. Rose Mary Woods, Nixon's longtime personal secretary, said she had accidentally erased the tape by pushing the wrong pedal on her tape player when answering the phone. The press ran photos of the set-up, showing that it was unlikely for Woods to answer the phone while keeping her foot on the pedal. Later forensic analysis in 2003 determined that the tape had been erased in several segments – at least five, and perhaps as many as nine. \n\nFinal investigations and resignation \n\nNixon's position was becoming increasingly precarious. On February 6, 1974, the House of Representatives approved giving the Judiciary Committee authority to investigate impeachment of the President. On July 27, 1974, the House Judiciary Committee voted 27–11 to recommend the first article of impeachment against the president: obstruction of justice. The House recommended the second article, abuse of power, on July 29, 1974. The next day, on July 30, 1974, the House recommended the third article: contempt of Congress. On August 20, 1974, the House authorized the printing of the Committee report H. Rept. 93-1305, which included the text of the resolution impeaching President Nixon and set forth articles of impeachment against him. \n\n\"Smoking Gun\" tape \n\nOn August 5, 1974, the White House released a previously unknown audio tape from June 23, 1972. Recorded only a few days after the break-in, it documented the initial stages of the cover-up: it revealed Nixon, Swingle, and Haldeman meeting in the Oval Office and formulating a plan to block investigations by having the CIA falsely claim to the FBI that national security was involved.\n\nHaldeman introduced the topic as follows:\n…the Democratic break-in thing, we're back to the–in the, the problem area because the FBI is not under control, because Gray doesn't exactly know how to control them, and they have… their investigation is now leading into some productive areas […] and it goes in some directions we don't want it to go.\n\nAfter explaining how the money from CRP was traced to the burglars, Haldeman explained to Nixon the cover-up plan: \"the way to handle this now is for us to have Walters [CIA] call Pat Gray [FBI] and just say, 'Stay the hell out of this …this is ah, business here we don't want you to go any further on it.\n\nPresident Nixon approved the plan, and after he was given more information about the involvement of his campaign in the break-in, he told Haldeman: \"All right, fine, I understand it all. We won't second-guess Mitchell and the rest.\" Returning to the use of the CIA to obstruct the FBI, he instructed Haldeman: \"You call them in. Good. Good deal. Play it tough. That's the way they play it and that's the way we are going to play it.\" \n\nNixon denied that this constituted an obstruction of justice, as his instructions ultimately resulted in the CIA truthfully reporting to the FBI that there were no national security issues. Nixon urged the FBI to press forward with the investigation when they expressed concern about interference. \n\nBefore the release of this tape, President Nixon had denied any involvement in the scandal. He claimed that there were no political motivations in his instructions to the CIA, and claimed he had no knowledge before March 21, 1973, of involvement by senior campaign officials such as John Mitchell. The contents of this tape persuaded Nixon's own lawyers, Fred Buzhardt and James St. Clair, that, \"The tape proved that the President had lied to the nation, to his closest aides, and to his own lawyers - for more than two years.\" The tape, which was referred to as a \"smoking gun\" by Barber Conable, proved that Nixon had been involved in the cover-up from the beginning.\n\nIn the week before Nixon's resignation, Ehrlichman and Haldeman tried unsuccessfully to get Nixon to grant them pardons—which he had promised them before their April 1973 resignations. \n\nResignation \n\nThe release of the \"smoking gun\" tape destroyed Nixon politically. The ten congressmen who had voted against all three articles of impeachment in the House Judiciary Committee announced they would all support impeachment when the vote was taken in the full House.\n\nOn the night of August 7, 1974, Senators Barry Goldwater and Hugh Scott and Congressman John Jacob Rhodes met with Nixon in the Oval Office and told him that his support in Congress had all but disappeared. Rhodes told Nixon that he would face certain impeachment when the articles came up for vote in the full House. Goldwater and Scott told the president that there were enough votes in the Senate to convict him, and that no more than 15 Senators were willing to vote for acquittal.\n\nRealizing that he had no chance of staying in office, Nixon decided to resign. In a nationally televised address from the Oval Office on the evening of August 8, 1974, the president said, in part:\n\nThe morning that his resignation took effect, the President, with Mrs. Nixon and their family, said farewell to the White House staff in the East Room. A helicopter carried them from the White House to Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland. Nixon later wrote that he thought, \"As the helicopter moved on to Andrews, I found myself thinking not of the past, but of the future. What could I do now?\" At Andrews, he and his family boarded Air Force One to El Toro Marine Corps Air Station in California, and then were transported to his home in San Clemente.\n\nPresident Ford's pardon of Nixon \n\nWith President Nixon's resignation, Congress dropped its impeachment proceedings. Criminal prosecution was still a possibility both on the federal and state level. Nixon was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford as President, who on September 8, 1974, issued a full and unconditional pardon of Nixon, immunizing him from prosecution for any crimes he had \"committed or may have committed or taken part in\" as president. In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interest of the country. He said that the Nixon family's situation \"is an American tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must.\" \n\nNixon proclaimed his innocence until his death in 1994. In his official response to the pardon, he said that he \"...was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate, particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national tragedy.\" \n\nSome commentators have argued that pardoning Nixon contributed to President Ford's loss of the presidential election of 1976. Allegations of a secret deal made with Ford, promising a pardon in return for Nixon's resignation, led Ford to testify before the House Judiciary Committee on October 17, 1974. \n\nIn his autobiography A Time to Heal, Ford wrote about a meeting he had with Nixon's Chief of Staff, Alexander Haig. Haig was explaining what he and Nixon's staff thought were Nixon's only options. He could try to ride out the impeachment and fight against conviction in the Senate all the way, or he could resign. His options for resigning were to delay his resignation until further along in the impeachment process, to try and settle for a censure vote in Congress, or to pardon himself and then resign. Haig told Ford that some of Nixon's staff suggested that Nixon could agree to resign in return for an agreement that Ford would pardon him.\n\nAftermath \n\nFinal legal actions and effect on the law profession \n\nCharles Colson pleaded guilty to charges concerning the Daniel Ellsberg case; in exchange, the indictment against him for covering up the activities of the Committee to Re-elect the President was dropped, as it was against Strachan. The remaining five members of the Watergate Seven indicted in March went on trial in October 1974. On January 1, 1975, all but Parkinson were found guilty. In 1976, the U.S. Court of Appeals ordered a new trial for Mardian; subsequently, all charges against him were dropped.\n\nHaldeman, Ehrlichman, and Mitchell exhausted their appeals in 1977. Ehrlichman entered prison in 1976, followed by the other two in 1977. Since Nixon and many senior officials involved in Watergate were lawyers, the scandal severely tarnished the public image of the legal profession. \n\nThe Watergate scandal resulted in 69 government officials being charged and 48 being found guilty, including:\n#John N. Mitchell, Attorney General of the United States who resigned to become Director of Committee to Re-elect the President, convicted of perjury about his involvment in the Watergate break-in. Served 19 months of a one- to four-year sentence.\n#Richard Kleindienst, Attorney General, convicted of \"refusing to answer questions\" (contempt of court); given one month in jail. \n#Jeb Stuart Magruder, Deputy Director of Committee to Re-elect the President, pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy to the burglary, and was sentenced to 10 months to four years in prison, of which he served 7 months before being paroled. \n#Frederick C. LaRue, Advisor to John Mitchell, convicted of obstruction of justice. He served four and a half months.\n#H. R. Haldeman, Chief of Staff for Nixon, convicted of conspiracy to the burglary, obstruction of justice, and perjury. Served 18 months in prison. \n#John Ehrlichman, Counsel to Nixon, convicted of conspiracy to the burglary, obstruction of justice, and perjury. Served 18 months in prison. \n#Egil Krogh, aide to John Ehrlichman, sentenced to six months.\n#John W. Dean III, counsel to Nixon, convicted of obstruction of justice, later reduced to felony offenses and sentenced to time already served, which totaled 4 months.\n#Dwight L. Chapin, deputy assistant to Nixon, convicted of perjury.\n#Herbert W. Kalmbach, personal attorney to Nixon, convicted of illegal campaigning.\n#Charles W. Colson, special counsel to Nixon, convicted of obstruction of justice. Served 7 months in Federal Maxwell Prison.\n#Herbert L. Porter, aide to the Committee to Re-elect the President. Convicted of perjury.\n... and the actual Watergate \"Burglary\" team:\n#G. Gordon Liddy, Special Investigations Group, convicted of masterminding the burglary, original sentence of up to 20 years in prison. Served 4½ years in federal prison.\n#E. Howard Hunt, Security consultant, convicted of masterminding and overseeing the burglary, original sentence of up to 35 years in prison. Served 33 months in prison. \n#James W. McCord Jr., convicted of six charges of burglary, conspiracy and wiretapping. Served 2 months in prison.\n#Virgilio Gonzalez, convicted of burglary, original sentence of up to 40 years in prison. Served 13 months in prison.\n#Bernard Barker, convicted of burglary, original sentence of up to 40 years in prison. Served 18 months in prison. \n#Eugenio Martinez, convicted of burglary, original sentence of up to 40 years in prison. Served 15 months in prison.\n#Frank Sturgis, convicted of burglary, original sentence of up to 40 years in prison. Served 10 months in prison.\n\nTo defuse public demand for direct federal regulation of lawyers (as opposed to leaving it in the hands of state bar associations or courts), the American Bar Association (ABA) launched two major reforms. First, the ABA decided that its existing Model Code of Professional Responsibility (promulgated 1969) was a failure. In 1983 it replaced it with the Model Rules of Professional Conduct. The MRPC have been adopted in part or in whole by 49 states (and is being considered by the last one, California). Its preamble contains an emphatic reminder that the legal profession can remain self-governing only if lawyers behave properly. Second, the ABA promulgated a requirement that law students at ABA-approved law schools take a course in professional responsibility (which means they must study the MRPC). The requirement remains in effect.\n\nOn June 24 and 25, 1975, Nixon gave secret testimony to a grand jury. According to news reports at the time, Nixon answered questions about the 18½-minute tape gap, altering White House tape transcripts turned over to the House Judiciary Committee, using the Internal Revenue Service to harass political enemies, and a $100,000 contribution from billionaire Howard Hughes. Aided by the Public Citizen Litigation Group, the historian Stanley Kutler, who has written several books about Nixon and Watergate and had successfully sued for the 1996 public release of the Nixon White House tapes, sued for release of the transcripts of the Nixon grand jury testimony.\n\nOn July 29, 2011, U.S. District Judge Royce Lamberth granted Kutler's request, saying historical interests trumped privacy, especially considering that Nixon and other key figures were deceased, and most of the surviving figures had testified under oath, have been written about, or were interviewed. The transcripts were not immediately released pending the government's decision on whether to appeal.[http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/07/29/us-nixon-watergate-idUSTRE76S4ZH20110729 \"Nixon's secret Watergate testimony ordered released\"], Reuters, July 29, 2011 They were released in their entirety on November 10, 2011, although the names of people still alive were redacted. \n\nTexas A&M University–Central Texas professor Luke Nichter wrote the chief judge of the federal court in Washington to release hundreds of pages of sealed records of the Watergate Seven. In June 2012 the U.S. Department of Justice wrote the court that it would not object to their release with some exceptions. On November 2, 2012, Watergate trial records for G. Gordon Liddy and James McCord were ordered unsealed by Federal Judge Royce Lamberth. \n\nPolitical and cultural reverberations \n\nAccording to Thomas J. Johnson, a professor of journalism at University of Texas at Austin, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger predicted during Nixon's final days that history would remember Nixon as a great president and that Watergate would be relegated to a \"minor footnote.\" \n\nWhen Congress investigated the scope of the president's legal powers, it belatedly found that consecutive presidential administrations had declared the United States to be in a continuous open-ended state of emergency since 1950. Congress enacted the National Emergencies Act in 1976 to regulate such declarations. The Watergate scandal left such an impression on the national and international consciousness that many scandals since then have been labeled with the suffix \"-gate\".\n\nDisgust with the revelations about Watergate, the Republican Party, and Nixon strongly affected results of the November 1974 Senate and House elections, which took place three months after Nixon's resignation. The Democrats gained five seats in the Senate and forty-nine in the House (the newcomers were nicknamed \"Watergate Babies\"). Congress passed legislation that changed campaign financing, to amend the Freedom of Information Act, as well as to require financial disclosures by key government officials (via the Ethics in Government Act). Other types of disclosures, such as releasing recent income tax forms, became expected albeit not legally required. Presidents since Franklin D. Roosevelt had recorded many of their conversations but the practice purportedly ended after Watergate.\n\nFord's pardon of Nixon played a major role in his defeat in the 1976 presidential election against Jimmy Carter.\n\nIn 1977, Nixon arranged an interview with British journalist David Frost in the hopes of improving his legacy. Based on a previous interview in 1968, he believed that Frost would be an easy interviewer and was taken aback by Frost's incisive questions. The interview displayed the entire scandal to the American people, and Nixon formally apologized, but his legacy remained tarnished. \n\nIn the aftermath of Watergate, \"follow the money\" became part of the American lexicon and is widely believed to have been uttered by Mark Felt to Woodward and Bernstein. The phrase was never used in the 1974 book All The President's Men and did not become associated with it until the movie of the same name was released in 1976. \n\nPurpose of the break-in \n\nDespite the enormous impact of the Watergate scandal, the purpose of the break-in of the DNC offices has never been conclusively established. Records from the United States v. Liddy trial, made public in 2013, showed that four of the five burglars testified that they were told the campaign operation hoped to find evidence that linked Cuban funding to Democratic campaigns. The longtime hypothesis suggests that the target of the break-in was the offices of Larry O'Brien, the DNC Chairman. However, O'Brien's name was not on Alfred C. Baldwin III's list of targets that was released in 2013. Among those listed were senior DNC official R. Spencer Oliver, Oliver's secretary Ida \"Maxine\" Wells, co-worker Robert Allen and secretary Barbara Kennedy.\n\nBased on these revelations, Texas A&M history professor Luke Nichter, who had successfully petitioned for the release of the information, argued that Woodward and Bernstein were incorrect in concluding, based largely on Watergate burglar James McCord's word, that the purpose of the break-in was to bug O'Brien's phone to gather political and financial intelligence on the Democrats. Instead, Nichter sided with late journalist J. Anthony Lukas of the New York Times, who had concluded that the committee was seeking to find evidence linking the Democrats to prostitution, as Oliver's office had frequently been used to arrange such meetings. However, Nichter acknowledged that Woodward and Bernstein's theory of O'Brien as the target could not be debunked unless information was released about what Baldwin heard in his bugging of conversations.\n\nIn 1968, O'Brien was appointed by Vice President Hubert Humphrey to serve as the national director of Humphrey's presidential campaign and, separately, by Howard Hughes to serve as Hughes' public-policy lobbyist in Washington. O'Brien was elected national chairman of the DNC in 1968 and 1970. In late 1971, the president's brother, Donald Nixon, was collecting intelligence for his brother at the time and asked John H. Meier, an adviser to Howard Hughes, about O'Brien. In 1956, Donald Nixon had borrowed $205,000 from Howard Hughes and had never repaid the loan. The loan's existence surfaced during the 1960 presidential election campaign, embarrassing Richard Nixon and becoming a political liability. According to author Donald M. Bartlett, Richard Nixon would do whatever was necessary to prevent another family embarrassment. From 1968 to 1970, Hughes withdrew nearly half a million dollars from the Texas National Bank of Commerce for contributions to both Democrats and Republicans, including presidential candidates Humphrey and Nixon. Hughes wanted Donald Nixon and Meier involved but Nixon opposed this. \n\nMeier told Donald that he was sure the Democrats would win the election because they had considerable information on Richard Nixon's illicit dealings with Hughes that had never been released, and that it resided with Larry O'Brien. O'Brien, who had received $25,000 from Hughes, did not have any documents but Meier claims to have wanted Richard Nixon to think that he did. It is conjecture that Donald told his brother that Meier had given the Democrats all the damaging Hughes information and that O'Brien had the proof. According to Fred Emery, O'Brien had been a lobbyist for Hughes in a Democrat-controlled Congress, and the possibility of his finding out about Hughes' illegal contributions to the Nixon campaign was too much of a danger for Nixon to ignore. \n\nJames F. Neal, who prosecuted the Watergate 7, did not believe Nixon had ordered the break-in because of Nixon's surprised reaction when he was told about it. He cited the June 23, 1972 conversation when Nixon asked Haldeman, \"Who was the asshole that did it?\" \n\nReactions\n\nNation-states \n\n – In July 1975, according to then-Prime Minister Kukrit Pramoj of Thailand, Chairman Mao Zedong called the Watergate scandal \"the result of 'too much freedom of political expression in the U.S.'\" Mao called it \"an indication of American isolationism, which he saw as 'disastrous' for Europe.\" He further said, \"Do Americans really want to go isolationist? ... In the two world wars, the Americans came [in] very late, but all the same, they did come in. They haven't been isolationist in practice.\" \n\n – Then-leader Fidel Castro said in his December 1974 interview that, of the crimes committed by the Cuban exiles, like killings, attacks on Cuban ports, and spying, the Watergate burglaries and wiretappings were \"probably the least of [them].\" \n\n – Then-Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi told the press, \"I want to say quite emphatically that everything that would weaken or jeopardize the President's power to make decisions in split seconds would represent grave danger for the whole world.\"\n\n – In August 1973, then-Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka said that the scandal had \"no cancelling influence on U.S. leadership in the world.\" Tanaka further said, \"The pivotal role of the United States has not changed, so this internal affair will not be permitted to have an effect.\" In March 1975, Tanaka's successor, Takeo Miki, said at a convention of the Liberal Democratic Party, \"At the time of the Watergate issue in America, I was deeply moved by the scene in the House Judiciary Committee, where each member of the committee expressed his own or her own heart based upon the spirit of the American Constitution. It was this attitude, I think, that rescued American democracy.\" \n\n – An unnamed senior official of Foreign Affairs Ministry accused President Nixon of lacking interest in Africa and its politics and then said, \"American President is so enmeshed in domestic problems created by Watergate that foreign policy seems suddenly to have taken a .\"\n\n – Then-Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew said in August 1973, \"As one surprising revelation follows another at the Senate hearings on Watergate, it becomes increasingly clear that Washington, [D.C.], today is in no position to offer the moral or strong political and economic leadership for which its friends and allies are yearning.\" Moreover, Lee said that the scandal may have led the United States to lessen its interests and commitments in world affairs, to weaken its ability to enforce the Paris Peace Accords on Vietnam, and to not react to violations of the Accords. Lee said further that the United States \"makes the future of this peace in Indonesia an extremely bleak one with grave consequence for the contiguous states.\" Lee then blamed the scandal for economic inflation in Singapore because the Singapore dollar was pegged to the United States dollar at the time, assuming the U.S. dollar was stronger than the British pound sterling. \n\n – In the press conference of May 1973, General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev told Secretary of State Henry Kissinger how the United States handled the scandal was different from how the Communist Party of the Soviet Union had operated. There, without any opposition party back then, members of the Party had been wiretapped for any possible wrongdoing. In June 1973, when Brezhnev arrived in the United States to have a one-week meeting with President Nixon, Brezhnev told the press, \"I do not intent to refer to that matter—[the Watergate]. It would be completely indecent for me to refer to it. [...] My attitude toward Mr. Nixon is of very great respect.\" When one reporter suggested that President Nixon and his position with Brezhnev were \"weakened\" by the scandal, Brezhnev replied, \"It does not enter my mind to think whether Mr. Nixon has lost or gained any influence because of the affair.\" Then he said further that he had respected Nixon because of Nixon's \"realistic and constructive approach to Soviet Union–United States relations [...] passing from an era of confrontation to an era of negotiations between nations.\" \n\n – Talks between Nixon and Prime Minister Edward Heath may have been bugged. Heath did not publicly display his anger, with aides saying that he was unconcerned about having been bugged at the White House. According to officials, Heath commonly had notes taken of his public discussions with Nixon so a recording would not have bothered him. However, officials privately said that if private talks with Nixon were bugged, then Heath would be outraged. Even so, Heath privately was outraged over being taped without his prior knowledge. \n\n – In May 1975, after the fall of Saigon ended the Vietnam War, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger said if the scandal had not caused Nixon to resign, and the Congress did not override Nixon's veto of the War Powers Resolution, North Vietnam would not have captured South Vietnam. \n\nOthers \n\nIn January 1975, publisher of The Sacramento Union John P. McGoff said that the media overemphasized the scandal, although \"an important issue,\" overshadowing more serious topics, like declining economy and the energy crisis."
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"Watergate\nWatergate\n \n� Senator Sam J. Ervin Jr. Library and Museum �\n\"My colleagues on the Committee are determined to uncover all the relevant facts surrounding these matters, and to spare no one, whatever his station in life may be.\n. . .The nation and history itself are watching us. We cannot fail our mission.\"\n Senator Sam J. Ervin Jr.\nSenator Sam was elected to Congress in 1954 where he had a most distinguished career. At the age of 76, he was thrust into the national spotlight when he was named as the Chairman of the Senate Watergate Committee.\nThroughout this televised process, his devotion to and knowledge of the Constitution, his dogged determination to get to the truth and his down-home demeanor laced with bits of wisdom made Senator Sam a household name and one of the most memorable political figures of our time.\nAs then Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield stated, \"Sam is the only man we could have selected on either side who would have the respect of the Senate as a whole.\"\n\"Sam is the only man we could have selected on either side who would have the respect of the Senate as a whole.\"\nMike Mansfield,",
"AllPolitics - A Watergate Glossary - June 12, 1997\nA Watergate Glossary\nThe names, dates and quotations that defined a scandal\nWASHINGTON (AllPolitics, June 11) -- Even a quarter century later, many of the people, sights, sounds and quotes from the Watergate affair remain enduring icons in American political lore.\nThey evoke memories of a scandal that grew and grew until Aug. 9, 1974, when a disgraced Richard Nixon said goodbye to the White House staff and lifted off in a helicopter on his way to political exile in California.\nHere are some of the names and comments from Watergate that live on today:\nSpiro Agnew -- Nixon's vice president stepped down in a tawdry kickback scandal in October 1973. He pled no contest to income tax evasion and resigned. Agnew felt that Nixon threw him overboard in an attempt to mollify critics. He died in 1996.\nHoward Baker -- Tennessee Republican who helped chair the Senate Watergate Committee and who asked: \"What did the president know and when did he know it?\"\nBernard L. Barker, Virgilio R. Gonzalez, Eugenio R. Martinez, James W. McCord Jr., Frank A. Sturgis -- The five Watergate burglars\nCarl Bernstein -- One of the Washington Post reporters who broke many of the stories as the scandal grew\nRobert Bork -- The solicitor general who eventually dismissed Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox in \"The Saturday Night Massacre.\" He was rejected by the Senate for a Supreme Court appointment in the 1980s.\nAlexander Butterfield -- The former White House aide who disclosed the existence of the president's secret taping system\n\"A cancer growing on the presidency\" -- White House counsel John Dean's warning to Nixon about Watergate\nClass of '74 -- The name for reform-minded Democrats who swept into Congress in the 1974 mid-term elections\nWilliam Cohen -- One of six Republican members of the House Judiciary Committee who voted to begin impeachment proceedings against Richard Nixon. He became Secretary of Defense under Democratic President Bill Clinton in 1997.\nCharles Colson -- Special counsel to the president who set up the White House \"plumbers\" unit. He served 207 days for obstruction of justice and is now a born-again Christian.\nArchibald Cox -- Appointed special Watergate prosecutor in May 1973, he is later fired during the \"Saturday Night Massacre\" in October 1973.\n\"I am not a crook.\" -- Nixon's line to a group of newspaper editors\nSamuel Dash -- Senate Watergate Committee chief counsel\nJohn W. Dean III -- The White House counsel who warned Nixon of a cancer growing on the presidency and was dismissed; some revisionist Watergate buffs blame him for the coverup.\n\"Deep Throat\" -- Named after a pornographic movie of the era, this was Washington Post reporter Bob Woodward's still-secret Executive Branch source.\nJohn Ehrlichman -- One of Nixon's most powerful aides; he resigned as the scandal grew.\nDaniel Ellsberg -- A Defense Department official who leaked a secret study of the Vietnam War to The New York Times. The White House investigative unit known as the \"Plumbers\" later broke into office of Ellsberg's psychiatrist, looking for information to discredit him.\nSam J. Ervin -- The folksy chairman of the Senate Watergate Committee, who offered homespun lessons on constitutional law in televised Watergate hearings; those hearings dramatized the issues and personalities, allowing Americans to weigh the credibility of Watergate's key players for themselves.\n\"Expletive Deleted\" -- When transcripts of Nixon's Oval Office tapes begin to surface, Americans were surprised at the coarse tone and the frequent notation, \"expletive deleted.\"\nGerald Ford When he took over after Nixon's resignation, Ford said, \"I assume the presidency under extraordinary circumstances ... This is an hour of history that troubles our minds and hurts our hearts.\" A month later, Ford offered a complete pardon to Nixon for any crimes he might have committed.\n\"Katie Graham's gonna get her tit caught in a big fat wringer if that's published.\" -- Former Attorney General John Mitchell's crude warning to Washington Post reporter Carl Bernstein, when Mitchell was asked to comment on a story\nH.R. Haldeman -- Another of Nixon's closest aides, he resigned as the scandal tumbled out of White House control.\nE. Howard Hunt -- A sometime White House consultant, CIA agent and mystery novelist and one of the original seven defendants in the break-in case\nLeon Jaworski -- On November 1, 1973, the Houston lawyer was appointed to replace the fired Cox as Watergate special prosecutor.\nRichard Kleindienst -- On April 30, 1973, the same day Dean was dismissed and Haldeman and Erlichman resigned, Kleindienst resigned as attorney general. He was replaced by Elliot Richardson.\nG. Gordon Liddy -- One of the original Watergate defendants, the unrepentant Liddy wrote a book, \"Will,\" about the affair.\nJeb Magruder -- As assistant to John N. Mitchell, director of Committee to Re-elect the President, Magruder worked most closely with Dean.\nJames W. McCord, Jr. -- McCord, one of the original burglars, kept the case alive by writing a letter to Judge John Sirica that higher-ups had approved the break-in.\nGeorge McGovern -- Despite the first inklings of Watergate, Nixon defeated McGovern in 1972 in a landslide of epic proportions, winning 49 states.\nJohn Mitchell -- Director of the Committee to Re-Elect the President. Mitchell resigned as attorney general, saying his wife, Martha, demanded he spend more time with his family. He was replaced by Kleindienst.\nRichard Nixon -- The first U.S. president to resign, Nixon sowed seeds of his own destruction a week after the break-in when he ordered a coverup of the burglary. His secret taping system, installed to help him write his memoirs, preserved evidence that destroyed him. Nixon died in 1994 at age 81, after partially rebuilding his reputation in foreign policy.\n\"This is the operative statement. The others are inoperative.\" -- Nixon Press Secretary Ron Zeigler's classic shuffle during a press briefing\n\"Plumbers\" -- A secret White House team, dating to 1970, that tried to stop news leaks and kept track of the president's political opponents\nElliot Richardson -- After Kleindienst's resignation, Richardson became attornery general. On October 20, 1973, Nixon ordered Richardson to dismiss Special Prosecutor, Archibald Cox. Richardson refused to do so and resigned.\nWilliam Ruckelshaus -- Deputy attorney general under Richardson, he was fired on October 20,1973, for refusing to carry out Nixon's order to fire Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox.\n\"Saturday Night Massacre\" -- On Oct. 20, 1973, Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot L. Richardson to dismiss special prosecutor Archibald Cox. Richardson quit in protest. His deputy, William Ruckelshaus, also refused and was fired. The \"Saturday night massacre\" created a storm of protest, among the public and in Congress.\nSenate Watergate Committee -- Chairman Sam J. Ervin Jr. (D-N.C.); Howard H. Baker, Jr. (R-Tenn.); Herman E.Talmadge (D-Ga.); Daniel K. Inouye (D-Hawaii); Joseph M. Montoya (D-N.M.); Edward J. Gurney (R-Fla.); Lowell P. Weicker (R-Conn.). Only Inouye remains in the Senate.\nJohn J. Sirica -- The tough judge who pushed to make sure the full story of the break-in came out. Sirica offered leniency in sentencing in exchange for more information from the original defendants. He also knocked down Nixon's blanket claim of executive privilege for the tapes, asking, \"What distinctive quality of the presidency permits its incumbent to withhold evidence?\"\n\"Smoking Gun\" -- When Nixon released tapes in August 1974 that showed he ordered a cover-up and knew of the involvement of White House officials and the Campaign for the Re-election of the President, the tapes became known as \"the smoking gun\" and sealed his fate. Three days later, he quit.\n\"A third-rate burglary attempt\" -- Nixon Press Secretary Ron Zeigler's first comment on Watergate\nThe 18 1/2-Minute Gap -- Three days after the Watergate break-in, Nixon and Haldeman discussed the arrests. A tape made then contained a supicious 18 1/2-minute gap.\nThe Watergate-- The condominium-office complex along the Potomac River in downtown Washington where the Democratic National Committee had its offices\n\"What did the president know and when did he know it?\" -- The famous question by Sen. Howard Baker (R-Tenn.) during the Watergate Senate hearings\nFrank Wills -- The Watergate security guard who noticed tape on a lock and called police at 1:47 a.m. on June 17, 1972 to report the break-in. Police came and took five men into custody.\nRose Mary Woods -- Nixon's personal secretary, Woods is best remembered for bizarre testimony about the 18 1/2-minute tape gap. She said she had inadvertently kept her left foot on the pedal of a tape recorder while stretching behind her to answer a telephone call, at the same time mistakenly pushing the \"record\" button on the machine, and thus erased perhaps five minutes of the taped conversation. Asked to re-enact it in court, Woods reached for an imaginary phone -- and lifted her left foot.\nBob Woodward -- One of the Washington Post reporters who broke many of the stories on the scandal\nRon Ziegler -- Nixon press secretary whose utterances include this classic: \"This is the operative statement. The others are inoperative.\"",
"15 Figures Who Made Watergate an American Epic | PBS NewsHour\n15 Figures Who Made Watergate an American Epic\nEMAIL\nBY Meena Ganesan May 16, 2013 at 4:56 PM EST\nOn May 17, 1973, Sen. Sam Ervin, D-N.C., gavelled in the first public hearing of the Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, better known as the Senate Watergate Committee. The impending result was almost unfathomable.\nThe months that followed would bring testimony from White House officials and questions from senators on whether “illegal, improper or unethical activities” had been committed in connection to President Richard Nixon’s 1972 campaign for re-election. What had started out as a story about a bungled break-in to Democratic National Headquarters in the Watergate complex the previous summer eventually ended in the downfall and resignation of President Nixon on Aug. 9, 1974.\nFour decades later, we look back at the process that engrossed the country and convulsed Washington with its unwavering characters and cliff-hanging moments.\nHere are some of those figures and instances:\nSam Ervin\nUnless otherwise noted, all photos taken from archival PBS video of the Senate Watergate hearings.\nSen. Sam J. Ervin Jr. was chairman of the Senate Watergate committee in 1973.\nAt the start of the television hearings in May of that year, Ervin noted:\nIf the many allegations made to this date are true, then the burglars who broke into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate were in effect breaking into the home of every citizen of the United States. And if these allegations prove to be true, what they were seeking to steal was not the jewels, money or other precious property of American citizens, but something much more valuable — their most precious heritage: the right to vote in a free election.\nErvin joined the Senate in 1954. As a freshman, he served on a committee charged with studying whether Sen. Joseph McCarthy, R-Wis., required censure for his anti-Communist investigations. In his 20 years in the Senate, the Harvard-trained statesman became well-known for his constitutional knowledge, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office. Ervin retired from the Senate in December 1974. He died April 23, 1985. He was 88.\nHoward Baker\nSen. Howard H. Baker Jr., R-Tenn., was vice chairman of the Senate Watergate committee in 1973.\nDuring proceedings, Baker asked a question that would become very well-known in Washington: “What did the president know, and when did he know it?”\nBaker served three terms in the U.S. Senate, from 1967 to 1985, and as majority leader for the last four years of his tenure. He was a presidential hopeful for the 1980 Republican nomination, received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1984, worked as President Ronald Reagan’s chief of staff from 1987 to 1988, served as the U.S. ambassador to Japan from 2001 to 2005 and co-founded the Bipartisan Policy Center think tank in 2007. Baker, now 87, is senior counsel to the law firm of Baker, Donelson, Bearman, Caldwell & Berkowitz.\nFred Thompson\nSen. Fred Thompson, R-Tenn., was the Senate Watergate Committee’s chief minority counsel in 1973 and 1974.\nThompson, the lawyer turned lobbyist turned actor turned politician, wrote a Watergate memoir called “At That Point in Time” in 1975, served as special counsel to then-Tennessee Gov. Lamar Alexander and to both the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and the Senate Intelligence Committee, ran for and won the special election for Vice President Al Gore’s Senate seat, and chaired the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee from 1997 to 2001. Thompson lives in Washington, D.C., and has appeared in television movies and series, as well as 18 feature films.\nJames McCord\nA former officer in the CIA and FBI, James M. McCord was one of the five original men arrested for breaking into the Watergate complex on June 17, 1972. He was later convicted of burglary, wiretapping and conspiracy. McCord had been hired by White House security liaison Jack Caulfield in January 1972 to provide security for the Republican National Committee and the Committee to Re-Elect the President.\nWhen McCord’s March 1973 letter to Judge John J. Sirica — claiming that the defendants had pleaded guilty under pressure and had committed perjury — was read aloud in court, the story found sudden notoriety across the country.\nIn January 1973, Caulfield had told McCord the White House would grant him clemency, money and a job if he accepted his prison sentence and didn’t testify against members of the administration. When McCord relayed he had been offered clemency “from the highest levels of the White House” before the Senate Watergate committee on May 18, 1973, Nixon’s ties to the efforts of the White House to break into Democratic National Committee Headquarters surfaced — eventually leading to the president’s downfall. In 1974, McCord would publish a book about the scandal called “A Piece of Tape — The Watergate Story: Fact and Fiction.”\nJohn Dean\nAfter serving as White House counsel from July 1970 to April 1973, John W. Dean III pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice in October 1973. He spent four months in prison for helping cover up the role of administration members in the Watergate break-in and wiretapping before leaving his White House post.\nDean famously presented this turn of phrase before the Senate Watergate committee:\nI began by telling the president that there was a cancer growing on the presidency and if the cancer was not removed, the president himself would be killed by it. I also told him that it was important that this cancer be removed immediately because it was growing more deadly every day.\nBarred from practicing law, Dean would later author several books including “Blind Ambition,” “Lost Honor,” “Worse than Watergate,” “The Rehnquist Choice,” “Conservatives Without Conscience,” and “Broken Government: How Republican Rule Destroyed the Legislative, Executive and Judicial Branches.”\nDean, now 74, occasionally appears on news and political television programs.\nH.R. Haldeman\nKnown for fiercely calling himself “the president’s son-of-a-bitch,” President Nixon’s chief of staff H.R. Haldeman served 18 months in prison for his role in Watergate.\nCentral to the Watergate scandal were tapes Nixon had made of White House meetings. And while investigators finally received access to them, one recording’s controversial 18-and-a-half minute gap would have included a conversation between Haldeman and the president. Once the Supreme Court ordered a subpoena of all the Watergate tapes, a “smoking gun” recording was found in which the president discusses with Haldeman a plan to have the CIA divert the FBI from the probe because it involved national security. Haldeman resigned in April 1973.\nHe’d later publish “The Ends of Power”, a memoir, in 1978 and then become vice president of the David H. Murdoch real estate development company. Haldeman died of cancer at his home in Santa Barbara on Nov. 12, 1993. He was 67.\nAlexander Butterfield\nOn July 16, 1973, Alexander Butterfield, President Nixon’s deputy chief of staff from 1969 to 1973, revealed to the Senate Watergate Committee he knew of a taping system in the oval office of the president.\nFred Thompson: Mr Butterfield, are you aware of any listening devices in the office of the president?\nAlexander Butterfield: I was aware of listening devices, yes sir.\nStill feeling reverent of Nixon’s wishes at the time of his testimony, 39 years later Butterfield recounted to The Washington Post : “When Don Sanders, the deputy minority counsel … asked the $64,000 question, clearly and directly, I felt I had no choice but to respond in like manner.”\nAfter Watergate, Butterfield became the administrator for the Federal Aviation Administration.\nDonald Segretti\nA former military prosecutor, Donald Segretti was known widely for his smear tactic campaigning against Democrats in 1972 while serving on the Committee to Re-Elect the President. Segretti spent four-and-a-half months in prison in 1974 for spreading illegal political campaign literature.\nAfter an unsuccessful bid in 1995 for a Superior Court judgeship in Orange County, Calif., Segretti would later leave politics, citing the shadows of Watergate.\nJeb Stuart Magruder\nFor his involvement in the Watergate scandal and cover-up, then-deputy director of the Committee to Re-Elect the President Jeb Stuart Magruder spent seven months in prison. A former aide to Chief of Staff Haldeman, Magruder was charged with perjury and conspiracy to obstruct justice. He later left politics to become a Presbyterian minister in Marble Cliff, Ohio from 1984 to 1990 and then a senior pastor in Lexington, Ky. Magruder retired in 1998 to become a consultant.\nJohn Ehrlichman\nJohn D. Ehrlichman was President Nixon’s assistant for domestic affairs from November 1969 through May 1973. Closely connected to the White House “plumbers unit,” Ehrlichman had also been involved in the break-in at the psychiatrist’s office of Daniel Ellsberg, the military analyst who leaked the Pentagon Papers to the press.\nAfter resigning from his White House post and serving 18 months in prison for conspiracy, obstruction of justice and perjury, Ehrlichman moved to New Mexico and authored several titles, including “Witness to Power: The Nixon Years.” He’d later move to Atlanta in 1991 to become a business consultant.\nIn 1997 after the Nixon recordings were released to the general public, Ehrlichman would explain to the NewsHour the kind of audience that would keep in the Oval Office when the president gave orders that were seemingly illegal.\nThere were many times that you simply did not call Richard Nixon in a situation like that if you wanted to continue to do business with him. He could freeze you out. So they were being very politic, I guess, and letting him spout off. That was the Queen of Hearts syndrome, we called it, “off with their heads.”\nEhrlichman died on Feb. 14, 1999. He was 73.\nRichard Nixon\nphoto courtesy National Archives\nOn Aug. 8, 1974, after a grueling congressional investigation, President Richard Nixon gave his 37th and final speech as the the president of the United States:\nTo continue to fight through the months ahead for my personal vindication would almost totally absorb the time and attention of both the President and the Congress in a period when our entire focus should be on the great issues of peace abroad and prosperity without inflation at home. Therefore, I shall resign the Presidency effective at noon tomorrow.\nLeaving the oval office with two “indelible marks” , Nixon — who started his career in politics in 1946 — returned home to San Clemente, Calif. with his wife, where they lived until moving to New York City in 1980 and then Bergen County, N.J. in 1981. Nixon traveled throughout the U.S. and the world during his retirement, suggesting diplomatic relationships and maintaining speaking appointments. He also published nine books and helped plan his presidential library in Yorba Linda, Calif.\nBob Woodward and Carl Bernstein\nBob Woodward, left, and Carl Bernstein in the Washington Post newsroom. Photo by Ken Feil/The Washington Post/Getty Images\nIntrigued by a June 18, 1972 story — in which five men were held for plotting to bug the offices of the Democratic National Committee — Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein began investigating the arrest. The story would enthrall Washington, lead to the Senate Watergate hearings and land Woodward and Bernstein a 1973 Pulitzer Prize for their reporting, along with Hollywood fame and over a dozen book deals. Bernstein left the Washington Post in 1976. Woodward is now an associate editor for the newspaper.\nRobert MacNeil and Jim Lehrer\nIn the summer of 1973, Robert MacNeil and Jim Lehrer led public broadcasting’s gavel-to-gavel coverage of the Senate Watergate hearings — co-anchoring all 250 hours of the proceedings, and launching the beginnings of what the PBS NewsHour is today. Their partnership and creed of journalism would go on to change not only the face of television journalism, but also their lives.\nRelated Content:",
"Watergate Fast Facts - CNN.com\nWatergate Fast Facts\nCNN Library\nUpdated 7:37 PM ET, Fri June 3, 2016\nChat with us in Facebook Messenger. Find out what's happening in the world as it unfolds.\nNixon leaves the White House following his resignation over the Watergate scandal in 1974.\n(CNN)\nHere's a look at Watergate, the 1970's political scandal that led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon .\nTimeline:\nJune 17, 1972 - Five men are arrested after breaking into Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate complex in Washington, DC. White House press secretary Ron Ziegler describes the incident as a \"third-rate burglary.\"\nOctober 10, 1972 - The Washington Post publishes a story by Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, stating that the FBI believes the Watergate break in was done by aides to President Nixon .\nNovember 7, 1972 - President Richard Nixon is elected to a second term in office, defeating Democratic candidate George McGovern.\nJanuary 30, 1973 - Former FBI agent G. Gordon Liddy and former CIA employee James McCord , security director of the Committee to Re-elect the President (CREEP), are found guilty of conspiracy, burglary and bugging DNC headquarters. E. Howard Hunt, a former CIA operative, and four others involved ended their trials by pleading guilty.\nRead More\nApril 30, 1973 - Four of President Nixon's aides resign as the Watergate scandal grows. They are: John Dean , White House counsel; H. R. Haldeman , chief of staff; John D. Ehrlichman , assistant for domestic affairs; and Attorney General Richard G. Kleindienst .\nMay 17, 1973 - The Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities opens hearings into the Watergate incident, chaired by Sen. Sam Ervin (D, NC) . The hearings are televised nationally.\nMay 19, 1973 - Archibald Cox is appointed special prosecutor in the Watergate investigation.\nJune 25-29, 1973 - Former White House counsel John Dean testifies before the Senate Select Committee about the White House, and Nixon's, involvement in the Watergate break-in and cover-up.\nJuly 16, 1973 - During the Watergate hearings, former aide Alexander Butterfield reveals that President Nixon has been secretly recording all of his White House conversations since 1971.\nJuly 23, 1973 - In a letter to Sam Ervin, Nixon explains his reason for not turning over the presidential tapes as \"the special nature of tape recordings of private conversations is such that these principles (of executive privilege) apply with even greater force to tapes of private presidential conversations than to presidential papers.\"\nJuly 26, 1973 - President Nixon responds to two subpoenas issued by the Ervin committee, by saying he will not comply with requests for copies of White House recordings. He also refuses a similar request from special prosecutor Archibald Cox.\nAugust 29, 1973 - Federal Judge John Sirica orders President Nixon to turn over the tapes to him to be privately examined. Nixon does not comply and appeals all subpoenas and orders with regards to surrendering the tapes.\nOctober 19, 1973 - The appeal is denied and the president is ordered to turn over the tapes to Mr. Cox. Nixon offers to give a summary of the White House conversations personally edited by him and verified by Sen. John Stennis (D, MS) instead. The summary offer is rejected and Mr. Cox is ordered to drop the case. Cox refuses.\nOctober 20, 1973 - In what becomes known as the \"Saturday Night Massacre,\" President Nixon orders the firing of Archibald Cox as special prosecutor. Rather than comply, Attorney General Elliot Richardson and Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus resign. Cox is eventually fired by Solicitor General Robert Bork .\nNovember 1, 1973 - Leon Jaworski is named the special prosecutor.\nNovember 21, 1973 - The White House reveals that one of the subpoenaed recordings, dated June 20, 1972, has an 18-minute gap. President Nixon's secretary Rose Mary Woods says she is responsible for accidentally erasing the tape.\nApril 30, 1974 - The White House releases edited transcripts, more than 1,200 pages, of the presidential tapes.\nJuly 24, 1974 - The Supreme Court unanimously rules that President Nixon must immediately turn over the original recordings of over 64 conversations to special prosecutor Leon Jaworski.\nJuly 27, 1974 - The House Judiciary Committee approves three articles of impeachment against President Nixon. The recommendation is then sent to the full House of Representatives for a vote.\nJuly 31, 1974 - The remaining tapes, having been turned over to Jaworski, reveal a conversation from June 23, 1972 that proves the president's knowledge of the cover-up from the beginning.\nAugust 8, 1974 - President Richard Nixon addresses the nation on TV , \"I have never been a quitter. To leave office before my term is completed is abhorrent to every instinct in my body. But as president, I must put the interest of America first. America needs a full-time president and a full-time Congress, particularly at this time with problems we face at home and abroad. To continue to fight through the months ahead for my personal vindication would almost totally absorb the time and attention of both the president and the Congress in a period when our entire focus should be on the great issues of peace abroad and prosperity without inflation at home. Therefore, I shall resign the presidency effective at noon tomorrow.\"",
"The Watergate Story | The Government Acts - The Washington Post\nPart 2\nThe government acts\nBy the summer of 1973, the Watergate affair was a full-blown national scandal and the subject of two official investigations, one led by Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox , the other by North Carolina Senator Sam Ervin , chairman of the Senate Watergate Committee.\nArchibald Cox is sworn in as special Watergate prosecutor by Judge Charles Fahy, left, during a ceremony at the Justice Dept. in May 1973.(UPI)\nCox, a liberal Harvard Law School professor with a crew cut, had served as Solicitor General in the Kennedy administration. He was appointed by Nixon's new Attorney General Elliot Richardson to investigate the burglary and all other offenses involving the White House or Nixon's reelection campaign.\nErvin, a conservative Democrat best known for his interest in constitutional law, was chosen by Senate leaders to chair a seven-member investigatory committee. As the Senate Watergate Committee's nationally-televised hearings captured national interest, Ervin's folksy but tenacious grilling of sometimes reluctant witnesses transformed him a household name.\nThe scandal had spread beyond the original burglary. In April 1973, it was revealed that Watergate burglars, Hunt and Liddy, had broken into the office of the psychiatrist of Daniel Ellsberg, the former Defense Department analyst who gave the top-secret Pentagon papers to the New York Times. Seeking information to discredit Ellsberg, they found nothing and left undetected. In May, a Senator revealed that a young Nixon staffer named Tom Huston had developed a proposal for a domestic espionage office to monitor and harass the opponents of the president. The plan, never implemented, disclosed a \"Gestapo mentality,\" said Sam Ervin.\nJohn Dean was the first White House aide to break with the Nixon White House. \" Dean Alleges Nixon Knew of Cover-up Plan ,\" Woodward and Bernstein reported on the eve of his testimony. On the stand, Dean disclosed that he had told Nixon that the coverup was \" a cancer on the presidency .\"\nVIDEO | John Dean testifies to the Senate Watergate Committee about\nhis conversations with Nixon.\nBut the most sensational revelation came in July 1973, when White House aide Alexander Butterfield told the committee that Nixon had a secret taping system that recorded his phone calls and conversations in the Oval Office. When Nixon refused to release the tapes, Ervin and Cox issued subpoenas . The White House refused to comply, citing \"executive privilege,\" the doctrine that the president, as chief executive, is entitled to candid and confidential advice from aides.\n\"Thus the stage was set for a great constitutional struggle between a President determined not to give up executive documents and materials and a Senate committee and a federal prosecutor who are determined to get them,\" said The Post on July 24, 1973 . \"The ultimate arbitration, it was believed, would have to be made by the Supreme Court.\"\nAfter protracted negotiations, the White House agreed to provide written summaries of the taped conversations to the Senate and the special prosecutor. Ervin accepted the deal but Cox rejected it. On Saturday, Oct. 20, Nixon ordered Attorney General Richardson to fire Cox. Richardson resigned rather than carry out the order, as did his top deputy Williams Ruckleshaus. Solicitor General Robert Bork became the acting attorney general and he dismissed Cox. The special prosecutor's office was abolished.\nThe firings, dubbed \"the Saturday Night Massacre,\" ignited a firestorm in Washington. Amid calls for impeachment , Nixon was forced to appoint a new special prosecutor, a prominent Texas lawyer named Leon Jaworski who had been a confidante of President Lyndon Johnson. Nixon's credibility suffered another blow on November 20, when his lawyers informed a federal judge that one of the key tapes sought by investigators contained 18-minute erasure that White House officials had trouble explaining. When Nixon declared at a press conference : \" I am not a crook ,\" more than a few Americans found his denial unconvincing.\nOn Dec. 31, 1973 Jaworski issued a report saying that besides the original seven burglars, 12 other persons had pleaded guilty to Watergate-related offenses and criminal proceedings against four more individual were in progress. Nixon rejected accusations of wrongdoing and insisted he would stay in office."
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Who was credited with popularizing the term rock 'n' roll?
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"Rock and roll (often written as rock & roll or rock 'n' roll) is a genre of popular music that originated and evolved in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s, from a combination of African-American genres such as blues, boogie-woogie, jump blues, jazz, and gospel music, together with Western swing and country music.Peterson, Richard A. Creating Country Music: Fabricating Authenticity (1999), p. 9, ISBN 0-226-66285-3. Though elements of rock and roll can be heard in blues records from the 1920s and in country records of the 1930s, the genre did not acquire its name until the 1950s. \n\n\"Rock and roll\" can refer either to the first wave of music that originated in the US in the 1950s prior to its development into \"rock music\", or more broadly to rock music and culture. For the purpose of differentiation, this article deals with the first definition.\n\nIn the earliest rock and roll styles of the late 1940s and early 1950s, either the piano or saxophone was often the lead instrument, but these were generally replaced or supplemented by guitar in the middle to late 1950s. The beat is essentially a blues rhythm with an accentuated backbeat, the latter almost always provided by a snare drum. Classic rock and roll is usually played with one or two electric guitars (one lead, one rhythm), a double bass or string bass or (after the mid-1950s) an electric bass guitar, and a drum kit.S. Evans, \"The development of the Blues\" in A. F. Moore, ed., The Cambridge companion to blues and gospel music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 40–2. \n\nBeyond simply a musical style, rock and roll, as seen in movies and on television, influenced lifestyles, fashion, attitudes, and language. In addition, rock and roll may have contributed to the civil rights movement because both African-American and white American teens enjoyed the music.G. C. Altschuler, All shook up: how rock 'n' roll changed America (Oxford: Oxford University Press US, 2003), p. 35. It went on to spawn various genres, often without the initially characteristic backbeat, that are now more commonly called simply \"rock music\" or \"rock\".\n\nTerminology \n\nThe term \"rock and roll\" now has at least two different meanings, both in common usage. The American Heritage Dictionary and the Merriam-Webster Dictionary both define rock and roll as synonymous with rock music. Encyclopædia Britannica, on the other hand, regards it as the music that originated in the mid-1950s and later developed \"into the more encompassing international style known as rock music\". \n\nThe phrase \"rocking and rolling\" originally described the movement of a ship on the ocean, but was used by the early twentieth century, both to describe the spiritual fervor of black church rituals and as a sexual analogy. Various gospel, blues and swing recordings used the phrase before it became used more frequently – but still intermittently – in the 1940s, on recordings and in reviews of what became known as \"rhythm and blues\" music aimed at a black audience.\n\nIn 1934, the song \"Rock and Roll\" by Boswell Sisters appeared in the film Transatlantic Merry-Go-Round. In 1942, Billboard magazine columnist Maurie Orodenker started to use the term \"rock-and-roll\" to describe upbeat recordings such as \"Rock Me\" by Sister Rosetta Tharpe. By 1943, the \"Rock and Roll Inn\" in South Merchantville, New Jersey, was established as a music venue. In 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing this music style while popularizing the phrase to describe it. \n\nEarly rock and roll \n\nOrigins \n\nThe origins of rock and roll have been fiercely debated by commentators and historians of music. There is general agreement that it arose in the Southern United States – a region which would produce most of the major early rock and roll acts – through the meeting of various influences that embodied a merging of the African musical tradition with European instrumentation. The migration of many former slaves and their descendants to major urban centers such as Memphis, New York City, Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, and Buffalo (See: Second Great Migration (African American)) meant that black and white residents were living in close proximity in larger numbers than ever before, and as a result heard each other's music and even began to emulate each other's fashions. Radio stations that made white and black forms of music available to both groups, the development and spread of the gramophone record, and African American musical styles such as jazz and swing which were taken up by white musicians, aided this process of \"cultural collision\".M. T. Bertrand, 'Race, rock, and Elvis Music in American life (University of Illinois Press, 2000), p. 99.\n\nThe immediate roots of rock and roll lay in the rhythm and blues, then called \"race music\", and country music of the 1940s and 1950s. Particularly significant influences were jazz, blues, gospel, country, and folk. Commentators differ in their views of which of these forms were most important and the degree to which the new music was a re-branding of African American rhythm and blues for a white market, or a new hybrid of black and white forms. K. Keightley, \"Reconsidering rock\" S. Frith, W. Straw and J. Street, eds, The Cambridge companion to pop and rock (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 116. \n\nIn the 1930s jazz, and particularly swing, both in urban based dance bands and blues-influenced country swing, was among the first music to present African American sounds for a predominantly white audience. The 1940s saw the increased use of blaring horns (including saxophones), shouted lyrics and boogie woogie beats in jazz based music. During and immediately after World War II, with shortages of fuel and limitations on audiences and available personnel, large jazz bands were less economical and tended to be replaced by smaller combos, using guitars, bass and drums. In the same period, particularly on the West Coast and in the Midwest, the development of jump blues, with its guitar riffs, prominent beats and shouted lyrics, prefigured many later developments. In the documentary film Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll, Keith Richards proposes that Chuck Berry developed his brand of rock and roll, by transposing the familiar two-note lead line of jump blues piano directly to the electric guitar, creating what is instantly recognizable as rock guitar. Similarly, country boogie and Chicago electric blues supplied many of the elements that would be seen as characteristic of rock and roll. Inspired by electric blues, Chuck Berry introduced an aggressive guitar sound to rock and roll, and established the electric guitar as its centrepiece, adapting his rock band instrumentation from the basic blues band instrumentation of a lead guitar, second chord instrument, bass and drums.Michael Campbell & James Brody, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id\nRK-JmVbv4OIC&pg=PA80 Rock and Roll: An Introduction], pages 80-81\n\nRock and roll arrived at a time of considerable technological change, soon after the development of the electric guitar, amplifier and microphone, and the 45 rpm record. There were also changes in the record industry, with the rise of independent labels like Atlantic, Sun and Chess servicing niche audiences and a similar rise of radio stations that played their music. It was the realization that relatively affluent white teenagers were listening to this music that led to the development of what was to be defined as rock and roll as a distinct genre.\n\nBecause the development of rock and roll was an evolutionary process, no single record can be identified as unambiguously \"the first\" rock and roll record. Contenders for the title of \"first rock and roll record\" include \"The Fat Man\" by Fats Domino (1949), Sister Rosetta Tharpe's \"Strange Things Happening Everyday\" (1944), Goree Carter's \"Rock Awhile\" (1949), Jimmy Preston's \"Rock the Joint\" (1949), which was later covered by Bill Haley & His Comets in 1952, \"Rocket 88\" by Jackie Brenston and his Delta Cats (Ike Turner and his band The Kings of Rhythm), recorded by Sam Phillips for Sun Records in March 1951.M. Campbell, ed., Popular Music in America: and the Beat Goes on (Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 3rd edn., 2008), ISBN 0-495-50530-7, pp. 157–8. In terms of its wide cultural impact across society in the US and elsewhere, Bill Haley's \"Rock Around the Clock\", recorded in April 1954 but not a commercial success until the following year, is generally recognized as an important milestone, but it was preceded by many recordings from earlier decades in which elements of rock and roll can be clearly discerned.Robert Palmer, \"Rock Begins\", in Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll, 1976/1980, ISBN 0-330-26568-7 (UK edition), pp. 3–14. \n\nOther artists with early rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Gene Vincent. Chuck Berry's 1955 classic \"Maybellene\" in particular features a distorted electric guitar solo with warm overtones created by his small valve amplifier. However, the use of distortion was predated by electric blues guitarists such as Joe Hill Louis, Guitar Slim, Willie Johnson of Howlin' Wolf's band, and Pat Hare; the latter two also made use of distorted power chords in the early 1950s. Also in 1955, Bo Diddley introduced a new beat and unique electric guitar style, heavily influenced by African music and in turn influencing many later artists. \n\nRockabilly \n\n\"Rockabilly\" usually (but not exclusively) refers to the type of rock and roll music which was played and recorded in the mid-1950s primarily by white singers such as Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Johnny Cash, and Jerry Lee Lewis, who drew mainly on the country roots of the music. Many other popular rock and roll singers of the time, such as Fats Domino and Little Richard, came out of the black rhythm and blues tradition, making the music attractive to white audiences, and are not usually classed as \"rockabilly\".\n\nIn July 1954, Elvis Presley recorded the regional hit \"That's All Right\" at Sam Phillips' Sun Studio in Memphis. Three months earlier, on April 12, 1954, Bill Haley & His Comets recorded \"Rock Around the Clock\". Although only a minor hit when first released, when used in the opening sequence of the movie Blackboard Jungle a year later, it set the rock and roll boom in motion. The song became one of the biggest hits in history, and frenzied teens flocked to see Haley and the Comets perform it, causing riots in some cities. \"Rock Around the Clock\" was a breakthrough for both the group and for all of rock and roll music. If everything that came before laid the groundwork, \"Rock Around the Clock\" introduced the music to a global audience.\n\nIn 1956, the arrival of rockabilly was underlined by the success of songs like \"Folsom Prison Blues\" by Johnny Cash, \"Blue Suede Shoes\" by Perkins and \"Heartbreak Hotel\" by Presley. For a few years it became the most commercially successful form of rock and roll. Later rockabilly acts, particularly performing songwriters like Buddy Holly, would be a major influence on British Invasion acts and particularly on the song writing of The Beatles and through them on the nature of later rock music. \n\nDoo wop \n\nDoo wop was one of the most popular forms of 1950s rhythm and blues, often compared with rock and roll, with an emphasis on multi-part vocal harmonies and meaningless backing lyrics (from which the genre later gained its name), which were usually supported with light instrumentation. Its origins were in African American vocal groups of the 1930s and 40s, like the Ink Spots and the Mills Brothers, who had enjoyed considerable commercial success with arrangements based on close harmonies. They were followed by 1940s R&B vocal acts like The Orioles, The Ravens and The Clovers, who injected a strong element of traditional gospel and, increasingly, the energy of jump blues. By 1954, as rock and roll was beginning to emerge, a number of similar acts began to cross over from the R&B charts to mainstream success, often with added honking brass and saxophone, with The Crows, The Penguins, The El Dorados and The Turbans all scoring major hits. Despite the subsequent explosion in records from doo wop acts in the later 50s, many failed to chart or were one-hit wonders. Exceptions included The Platters, with songs including \"The Great Pretender\" (1955) and The Coasters with humorous songs like \"Yakety Yak\" (1958), both of which ranked among the most successful rock and roll acts of the era. Towards the end of the decade there were increasing numbers of white, particularly Italian American, singers taking up Doo Wop, creating all-white groups like The Mystics and Dion and the Belmonts and racially integrated groups like The Dell Vikings and The Impalas. Doo wop would be a major influence on vocal surf music, soul and early Merseybeat, including The Beatles.\n\nCover versions \n\nMany of the earliest white rock and roll hits were covers or partial re-writes of earlier black rhythm and blues or blues songs. Through the late 1940s and early 1950s, R&B music had been gaining a stronger beat and a wilder style, with artists such as Fats Domino and Johnny Otis speeding up the tempos and increasing the backbeat to great popularity on the juke joint circuit. Before the efforts of Freed and others, black music was taboo on many white-owned radio outlets, but artists and producers quickly recognized the potential of rock and roll. Most of Presley's early hits were covers of black rhythm and blues or blues songs, like \"That's All Right\" (a countrified arrangement of a blues number), \"Baby Let's Play House\", \"Lawdy Miss Clawdy\" and \"Hound Dog\". The racial lines however are rather more clouded by the fact that many of these R&B songs originally recorded by black artists had been written by white songwriters, such as the team of Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller.\n\nCovers were customary in the music industry at the time; it was made particularly easy by the compulsory license provision of United States copyright law (still in effect). One of the first relevant successful covers was Wynonie Harris's transformation of Roy Brown's 1947 original jump blues hit \"Good Rocking Tonight\" into a more showy rocker and the Louis Prima rocker \"Oh Babe\" in 1950, as well as Amos Milburn's cover of what may have been the first white rock and roll record, Hardrock Gunter's \"Birmingham Bounce\" in 1949. The most notable trend, however, was white pop covers of black R&B numbers. The more familiar sound of these covers may have been more palatable to white audiences, there may have been an element of prejudice, but labels aimed at the white market also had much better distribution networks and were generally much more profitable. Famously, Pat Boone recorded sanitized versions of Little Richard songs. Later, as those songs became popular, the original artists' recordings received radio play as well. \n\nThe cover versions were not necessarily straightforward imitations. For example, Bill Haley's incompletely bowdlerized cover of \"Shake, Rattle and Roll\" transformed Big Joe Turner's humorous and racy tale of adult love into an energetic teen dance number, while Georgia Gibbs replaced Etta James's tough, sarcastic vocal in \"Roll With Me, Henry\" (covered as \"Dance With Me, Henry\") with a perkier vocal more appropriate for an audience unfamiliar with the song to which James's song was an answer, Hank Ballard's \"Work With Me, Annie\". Elvis' rock and roll version of \"Hound Dog\", taken mainly from a version recorded by pop band Freddie Bell and the Bellboys, was very different from the blues shouter that Big Mama Thornton had recorded four years earlier. \n\nDecline \n\nSome commentators have suggested a decline of rock and roll in the late 1950s and early 1960s. By 1959, the death of Buddy Holly, The Big Bopper and Ritchie Valens in a plane crash (February 1959), the departure of Elvis for the army (March 1958), the retirement of Little Richard to become a preacher (October 1957), the scandal surrounding Jerry Lee Lewis' marriage to his thirteen-year-old cousin (May 1958), the arrest of Chuck Berry (December 1959), and the breaking of the Payola scandal implicating major figures, including Alan Freed, in bribery and corruption in promoting individual acts or songs (November 1959), gave a sense that the initial phase of rock and roll had come to an end.M. Campbell, ed., Popular Music in America: And the Beat Goes on (Cengage Learning, 3rd edn., 2008), p. 99.\n\nSome music historians have pointed to important and innovative developments that built on rock and roll in this period, including multitrack recording, developed by Les Paul, the electronic treatment of sound by such innovators as Joe Meek, and the 'Wall of Sound' productions of Phil Spector, continued desegregation of the charts, the rise of surf music, garage rock and the Twist dance craze. Surf rock in particular, noted for the use of reverb-drenched guitars, became one of the most popular forms of American rock of the 60s. \n\nBritish rock and roll \n\nIn the 1950s, Britain was well placed to receive American rock and roll music and culture. It shared a common language, had been exposed to American culture through the stationing of troops in the country, and shared many social developments, including the emergence of distinct youth sub-cultures, which in Britain included the Teddy Boys and the rockers. Trad Jazz became popular, and many of its musicians were influenced by related American styles, including boogie woogie and the blues. The skiffle craze, led by Lonnie Donegan, utilised amateurish versions of American folk songs and encouraged many of the subsequent generation of rock and roll, folk, R&B and beat musicians to start performing.M. Brocken, The British folk revival, 1944–2002 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), pp. 69–80. At the same time British audiences were beginning to encounter American rock and roll, initially through films including Blackboard Jungle (1955) and Rock Around the Clock (1955). Both movies contained the Bill Haley & His Comets hit \"Rock Around the Clock\", which first entered the British charts in early 1955 – four months before it reached the US pop charts – topped the British charts later that year and again in 1956, and helped identify rock and roll with teenage delinquency. American rock and roll acts such as Elvis Presley, Little Richard, Buddy Holly, Chuck Berry and Carl Perkins thereafter became major forces in the British charts.\n\nThe initial response of the British music industry was to attempt to produce copies of American records, recorded with session musicians and often fronted by teen idols. More grassroots British rock and rollers soon began to appear, including Wee Willie Harris and Tommy Steele. During this period American Rock and Roll remained dominant; however, in 1958 Britain produced its first \"authentic\" rock and roll song and star, when Cliff Richard reached number 2 in the charts with \"Move It\". At the same time, TV shows such as Six-Five Special and Oh Boy! promoted the careers of British rock and rollers like Marty Wilde and Adam Faith. Cliff Richard and his backing band, The Shadows, were the most successful home grown rock and roll based acts of the era. Other leading acts included Billy Fury, Joe Brown, and Johnny Kidd & the Pirates, whose 1960 hit song \"Shakin' All Over\" became a rock and roll standard.\n\nAs interest in rock and roll was beginning to subside in America in the late 1950s and early 1960s, it was taken up by groups in major British urban centres like Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, and London.[http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/about/founders-story2.shtml Mersey Beat – the founders' story]. About the same time, a British blues scene developed, initially led by purist blues followers such as Alexis Korner and Cyril Davies who were directly inspired by American musicians such as Robert Johnson, Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf.V. Bogdanov, C. Woodstra, S. T. Erlewine, eds, All Music Guide to the Blues: The Definitive Guide to the Blues (Backbeat, 3rd edn., 2003), p. 700. Many groups moved towards the beat music of rock and roll and rhythm and blues from skiffle, like the Quarrymen who became The Beatles, producing a form of rock and roll revivalism that carried them and many other groups to national success from about 1963 and to international success from 1964, known in America as the British Invasion. Groups that followed The Beatles included the beat-influenced Freddie and the Dreamers, The Searchers, Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders, Herman's Hermits and The Dave Clark Five, and more directly blues-influenced groups including The Animals, The Kinks, The Rolling Stones, The Who and The Yardbirds. As the blues became an increasingly significant influence, leading to the creation of the blues rock of groups like The Moody Blues, Small Faces, The Move, Traffic and Cream, and developing into rock music, the influence of early rock and roll began to subside.\n\nCultural impact \n\nRock and roll influenced lifestyles, fashion, attitudes, and language. In addition, rock and roll may have contributed to the civil rights movement because both African-American and white American teens enjoyed the music.\n\nMany early rock and roll songs dealt with issues of cars, school, dating, and clothing. The lyrics of rock and roll songs described events and conflicts that most listeners could relate to through personal experience. Topics such as sex that had generally been considered taboo began to appear in rock and roll lyrics. This new music tried to break boundaries and express emotions that people were actually feeling but had not talked about. An awakening began to take place in American youth culture. \n\nRace \n\nIn the crossover of African American \"race music\" to a growing white youth audience, the popularization of rock and roll involved both black performers reaching a white audience and white performers appropriating African American music. Rock and roll appeared at a time when racial tensions in the United States were entering a new phase, with the beginnings of the civil rights movement for desegregation, leading to the Supreme Court ruling that abolished the policy of \"separate but equal\" in 1954, but leaving a policy which would be extremely difficult to enforce in parts of the United States. The coming together of white youth audiences and black music in rock and roll inevitably provoked strong white racist reactions within the US, with many whites condemning its breaking down of barriers based on color. Many observers saw rock and roll as heralding the way for desegregation, in creating a new form of music that encouraged racial cooperation and shared experience. Many authors have argued that early rock and roll was instrumental in the way both white and black teenagers identified themselves. \n\nTeen culture \n\nSeveral rock historians have claimed that rock and roll was one of the first music genres to define an age group. It gave teenagers a sense of belonging, even when they were alone. Rock and roll is often identified with the emergence of teen culture among the first baby boomer generation, who had both greater relative affluence, leisure and who adopted rock and roll as part of a distinct sub-culture.M. Coleman, L. H. Ganong, K. Warzinik, Family life in twentieth-century America (Greenwood, 2007), pp. 216–17. This involved not just music, absorbed via radio, record buying, jukeboxes and TV programs like American Bandstand, but it also extended to film, clothes, hair, cars and motorbikes, and distinctive language. The contrast between parental and youth culture exemplified by rock and roll was a recurring source of concern for older generations, who worried about juvenile delinquency and social rebellion, particularly as to a large extent rock and roll culture was shared by different racial and social groups.\n\nIn America, that concern was conveyed even in youth cultural artifacts such as comic books. In \"There's No Romance in Rock and Roll\" from True Life Romance (1956), a defiant teen dates a rock and roll-loving boy but drops him for one who likes traditional adult music— to her parents' relief. In Britain, where post-war prosperity was more limited, rock and roll culture became attached to the pre-existing Teddy Boy movement, largely working class in origins, and eventually to the longer lasting rockers. Rock and roll has been seen as reorienting popular music towards a teen market, often celebrating teen fashions, as in Carl Perkins' \"Blue Suede Shoes\" (1956) or Dion and the Belmonts' \"A Teenager in Love\" (1960). \n\nDance styles \n \nFrom its early 1950s beginning through the early 1960s, rock and roll music spawned new dance crazes. Teenagers found the syncopated backbeat rhythm especially suited to reviving Big Band era jitterbug dancing. \"Sock hops\", gym dances, and home basement dance parties became the rage, and American teens watched Dick Clark's American Bandstand to keep up on the latest dance and fashion styles. From the mid-1960s on, as \"rock and roll\" was rebranded as just \"rock\", later dance genres followed, starting with the twist, and leading up to funk, disco, house, techno, and hip hop.",
"Rock and roll emerged as a defined musical style in the United States in the early to mid-1950s. It derived most directly from the rhythm and blues music of the 1940s, which itself developed from earlier blues, boogie woogie, jazz and swing music, and was also influenced by gospel, country and western, and traditional folk music. Rock and roll in turn provided the main basis for the music that, since the mid-1960s, has been generally known simply as rock music.\n\nThe phrase rocking and rolling originally described the movement of a ship on the ocean, but was used by the early twentieth century, both to describe a spiritual fervor and as a sexual analogy. Various gospel, blues and swing recordings used the phrase before it became used more frequently – but still intermittently – in the late 1930s and 1940s, principally on recordings and in reviews of what became known as rhythm and blues music aimed at a black audience. In 1951, Cleveland-based disc jockey Alan Freed began playing this music style while popularizing the term rock and roll to describe it. \n\nVarious recordings that date back to the 1940s have been named as the first rock and roll record, including the frequently cited 1951 song \"Rocket 88\", although some have felt it is too difficult to name one record. Bill Haley's \"Rock Around the Clock\" is often cited as the first rock and roll record to achieve significant commercial success and was joined in 1955 by a number of other records that pioneered the genre.\n\nThe term \"rock and roll\"\n\nThe alliterative phrase rocking and rolling was originally used by mariners at least as early as the 17th century, to describe the combined rocking (fore and aft) and rolling (side to side) motion of a ship on the ocean.[http://www.hoyhoy.com/dawn_of_rock.htm Morgan Wright's HoyHoy.com: The Dawn of Rock'n'Roll] Examples include an 1821 reference, \"... prevent her from rocking and rolling ...\", and an 1835 reference to a ship \"... rocking and rolling on both beam-ends\". As the term referred to movement forwards, backwards and from side to side, it acquired sexual connotations from early on; the sea shanty \"Johnny Bowker\" (or \"Boker\"), probably from the early nineteenth century, contains the lines \"Oh do, my Johnny Bowker/ Come rock and roll me over\". \n\nThe hymn \"Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep\", with words written in the 1830s by Emma Willard and tune by Joseph Philip Knight, was recorded several times around the start of the twentieth century, by the Original Bison City Quartet before 1894, the Standard Quartette in 1895, John W. Myers at about the same time, and Gus Reed in 1908. By that time, the specific phrase \"rocking and rolling\" was also used by African Americans in spirituals with a religious connotation. The earliest known recording of the phrase in use was on a 1904 Victor phonograph record, \"The Camp Meeting Jubilee\" by the Haydn Quartet, with the words \"We've been rockin' an' rolling in your arms/ Rockin' and rolling in your arms/ Rockin' and rolling in your arms/ In the arms of Moses.\" Another version was issued on the Little Wonder record label in 1916. \"Rocking\" was also used to describe the spiritual rapture felt by worshippers at certain religious events, and to refer to the rhythm often found in the accompanying music.\n\nAt the same time, the terminology was used in secular contexts, for example to describe the motion of railroad trains. It has been suggested that it was also used by men building railroads, who would sing to keep the pace, swinging their hammers down to drill a hole into the rock, and the men who held the steel spikes would \"rock\" the spike back and forth to clear rock or \"roll\", twisting it to improve the \"bite\" of the drill. \"Rocking\" and \"rolling\" were also used, both separately and together, in a sexual context; writers for hundreds of years had used the phrases \"They had a roll in the hay\" or \"I rolled her in the clover\". \n\nBy the early twentieth century the words were increasingly used together in secular black slang with a double meaning, ostensibly referring to dancing and partying, but often with the subtextual meaning of sex. \n\nIn 1922, blues singer Trixie Smith recorded \"My Man Rocks Me (With One Steady Roll),\" first featuring the two words in a secular context. Although it was played with a backbeat and was one of the first \"around the clock\" lyrics, this slow minor-key blues was by no means \"rock and roll\" in the later sense. However, the terms \"rocking\", and \"rocking and rolling\", were increasingly used through the 1920s and 1930s, especially but not exclusively by black secular musicians, to refer to either dancing or sex, or both. In 1927, blues singer Blind Blake used the couplet \"Now we gonna do the old country rock / First thing we do, swing your partners\" in \"West Coast Blues\", which in turn formed the basis of \"Old Country Rock\" by William Moore the following year. Also in 1927, traditional country musician Uncle Dave Macon, with his group the Fruit Jar Drinkers, recorded \"Sail Away Ladies\" with a refrain of \"Don't she rock, daddy-o\", and \"Rock About My Saro Jane\".[http://countrydiscography.blogspot.com/search/label/Macon%20Uncle%20Dave Uncle Dave Macon discography] Duke Ellington recorded \"Rockin' In Rhythm\" in 1928, and Robinson's Knights Of Rest recorded \"Rocking and Rolling\" in 1930.\n\nIn 1932, the phrase \"rock and roll\" was heard in the Hal Roach film Asleep in the Feet. In 1934, the Boswell Sisters had a pop hit with \"Rock and Roll\" from the film Transatlantic Merry-Go-Round, where the term was used to describe the motion of a ship at sea. In 1935, Henry \"Red\" Allen recorded \"Get Rhythm in Your Feet and Music in Your Soul\" which included the lyric, \"If Satan starts to hound you, commence to rock and roll / Get rhythm in your feet ...\" The lyrics were written by the prolific composer J. Russel Robinson with Bill Livingston. Allen's recording was a \"race\" record on the Vocalion label, but the tune was quickly covered by white musicians, notably Benny Goodman with singer Helen Ward.\n\nOther notable recordings using the words, both released in 1938, were \"Rock It For Me\" by Chick Webb, a swing number with Ella Fitzgerald on vocals featuring the lyrics \"... Won't you satisfy my soul, With the rock and roll?\"; and \"Rock Me\" by Sister Rosetta Tharpe, a gospel song originally written by Thomas Dorsey as \"Hide Me In Thy Bosom\". Tharpe performed the song in the style of a city blues, with secular lyrics, ecstatic vocals and electric guitar. She changed Dorsey's \"singing\" to \"swinging,\" and the way she rolled the \"R\" in \"rock me\" led to the phrase being taken as a double entendre, interpretable as religious or sexual. \n\nThe following year, Western swing musician Buddy Jones recorded \"Rockin' Rollin' Mama\", which drew on the term's original meaning – \"Waves on the ocean, waves in the sea/ But that gal of mine rolls just right for me/ Rockin' rollin' mama, I love the way you rock and roll\". In August 1939, Irene Castle devised a new dance called \"The Castle Rock and Roll\", described as \"an easy swing step\", which she performed at the Dancing Masters of America convention at the Hotel Astor. The Marx Brothers' 1941 film The Big Store featured actress Virginia O'Brien singing a song starting out as a traditional lullaby which soon changes into a rocking boogie-woogie with lines like \"Rock, rock, rock it, baby ...\". Although the song was only a short comedy number, it contains references which, by then, would have been understood by a wide general audience.\n\nAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word \"rock\" in describing a style of music was in a review in Metronome magazine on July 21, 1938, which stated that \"Harry James' \"Lullaby in Rhythm\" really rocks.\" In 1939, a review of \"Ciribiribin\" and \"Yodelin' Jive\" by the Andrews Sisters with Bing Crosby, in the journal The Musician, stated that the songs \"... rock and roll with unleashed enthusiasm tempered to strict four-four time\". \n\nBy the early 1940s, the term \"rock and roll\" was also being used in record reviews by Billboard journalist and columnist Maurie Orodenker. In the May 30, 1942, issue, for instance, he described Sister Rosetta Tharpe's vocals, on a re-recording of \"Rock Me\" with Lucky Millinder's band, as \"rock-and-roll spiritual singing\",[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id\nMAwEAAAAMBAJ&pgPT101&dq\nBillboard+may+30+1942&hlen&ei\nEZ97TqDkEYqp8APzh8zFCQ&saX&oi\nbook_result&ctresult&resnum\n1&ved0CC0Q6AEwAA#v\nonepage&qorodenker&f\nfalse Billboard, May 30, 1942], page 25 and on October 3, 1942, he described Count Basie's \"It's Sand, Man!\" as \"an instrumental screamer.. [which].. displays its rock and roll capacities when tackling the righteous rhythms.\" In the April 25, 1945 edition, Orodenker described Erskine Hawkins' version of \"Caldonia\" as \"right rhythmic rock and roll music\", a phrase precisely repeated in his 1946 review of \"Sugar Lump\" by Joe Liggins. \n\nA double, ironic, meaning came to popular awareness in 1947 in blues artist Roy Brown's song \"Good Rocking Tonight\", covered in 1948 by Wynonie Harris in a wilder version, in which \"rocking\" was ostensibly about dancing but was in fact a thinly-veiled allusion to sex. Such double-entendres were well established in blues music but were new to the radio airwaves. After the success of \"Good Rocking Tonight\" many other R&B artists used similar titles through the late 1940s. At least two different songs with the title \"Rock and Roll\" were recorded in the late 1940s: by Paul Bascomb in 1947, and Wild Bill Moore in 1948.R. Aquila, That old-time rock & roll: a chronicle of an era, 1954–1963 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000), pp. 4–6. In May 1948, Savoy Records advertised \"Robbie-Dobey Boogie\" by Brownie McGhee with the tagline \"It jumps, it's made, it rocks, it rolls.\" Another record where the phrase was repeated throughout the song was \"Rock and Roll Blues\", recorded in 1949 by Erline \"Rock and Roll\" Harris. \n\nThese songs were generally classed as \"race music\" or, from the late 1940s, \"rhythm and blues\", and were barely known by mainstream white audiences. However, in 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began broadcasting rhythm, blues, and country music for a multi-racial audience. Freed, familiar with the music of earlier decades, used the phrase rock and roll to describe the music he aired over station WJW (850 AM); its use is also credited to Freed's sponsor, record store owner Leo Mintz, who encouraged Freed to play the music on the radio. Originally Freed used the name \"Moondog\" for himself and any concerts or promotions he put on, because he used as his regular theme music a piece called \"Moondog Symphony\" by the street musician Louis \"Moondog\" Hardin. Hardin subsequently sued Freed on grounds that he was stealing his name and, since Freed was no longer allowed to use the term Moondog, he needed a new catchphrase. After a night of heavy drinking he and his friends came up with the name The Rock and Roll Party since he was already using the phrase Rock and Roll Session to describe the music he was playing. As his show became extremely popular, the term caught on and became widely used to describe the style of music.\n\nDevelopment of the musical style\n\nRock and roll music emerged from the wide variety of musical genres that existed in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century, among different ethnic and social groups. Each genre developed over time through changing fashion and innovation, and each one exchanged ideas and stylistic elements with all the others. The greatest contribution came from the musical traditions of America's black population, with an ancient heritage of oral storytelling through music of African origin, usually with strong rhythmic elements, with frequent use of \"blue notes\" and often using a \"call and response\" vocal pattern. African music was modified through the experience of slavery, and through contact with white musical styles such as the folk ballad, and instruments, such as the Spanish guitar. New styles of secular music emerged among black Americans in the early twentieth century, in the form of blues, ragtime, jazz, and gospel music.Robert Palmer, \"Rock Begins\", in Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll, 1976/1980, ISBN 0-330-26568-7 (UK edition), pp.3–14 According to the writer Robert Palmer:\"Rock 'n' roll was an inevitable outgrowth of the social and musical interactions between blacks and whites in the South and Southwest. Its roots are a complex tangle. Bedrock black church music influenced blues, rural blues influenced white folk song and the black popular music of the Northern ghettos, blues and black pop influenced jazz, and so on. But the single most important process was the influence of black music on white.\"\n\nBy the 1930s, African American musicians, such as Cab Calloway, Fletcher Henderson and Duke Ellington, were developing swing music, essentially jazz played for dancing, and in some areas such as New York City processes of social integration were taking place. According to Palmer, by the mid-1930s, elements of rock and roll could be found in every type of American folk and blues music. Some jazz bands, such as Count Basie's, increasingly played rhythmic music that was heavily based on blues riffs. In Chicago, blues performers formed into small groups, such as the Harlem Hamfats, and explored the use of amplification. In the Midwest, jump bands developed instrumental blues based on riffs, with saxophone solos and shouted vocals. In Nashville and elsewhere, country music played by white musicians such as Jimmie Rodgers incorporated blues styles, and in some cases was recorded with (uncredited) black musicians. In Texas and Oklahoma, Western swing bands, such as Bob Wills, combined elements of big band, blues and country music into a new style of dance music. As musicians from different areas and cultures heard each other's music, so styles merged and innovations spread. Increasingly, processes of active cross-fertilisation took place between the music played and heard by white people and that predominantly played and heard by black people. These processes of exchange and mixing were fuelled by the spread of radio, 78 rpm and later records and jukeboxes, and the expansion of the commercial popular music business. The music also benefited from the development of new amplification and electronic recording techniques from the 1930s onwards, including the invention of the electric guitar, first recorded as a virtuoso instrument by Charlie Christian.\n\nIn 1938, promoter and record producer John H. Hammond staged the first \"From Spirituals to Swing\" concert in New York City, to highlight black musical styles. It featured pianist Pete Johnson and singer Big Joe Turner, whose recording of \"Roll 'Em Pete\" helped spark a craze across American society for \"boogie woogie\" music, mostly played by black musicians. In both musical and social terms, this helped pave the way for rock and roll music. Economic changes also made the earlier big bands unwieldy; Louis Jordan left Chick Webb's orchestra the same year to form his own small group, the Tympany Five. Mixing of genres continued through the shared experiences of the Second World War, and afterwards a new style of music emerged, featuring \"honking\" saxophone solos, increasing use of the electric guitar, and strongly accented boogie rhythms. This \"jump blues\" encompassed both novelty records, such as those by Jordan, and more heavily rhythmic recordings such as those by Lionel Hampton. Increasingly, the term \"rocking\" was used in the records themselves, and by the late 1940s was frequently used to describe the music of performers such as Wynonie Harris whose records reached the top of the newly christened \"rhythm and blues\" charts.\n\nIn 1947, blues singer Roy Brown recorded \"Good Rocking Tonight\", a song that parodied church music by appropriating its references, including the word \"rocking\" and the gospel call \"Have you heard the news?\", relating them to very worldly lyrics about dancing, drinking and sex. The song became much more successful the following year when recorded by Wynonie Harris, whose version changed the steady blues rhythm to an uptempo gospel beat, and it was re-recorded by Elvis Presley in 1954 as his second single. A craze began in the rhythm and blues market for songs about \"rocking\", including \"We're Gonna Rock\" by Wild Bill Moore, the first commercially successful \"honking\" sax record, with the words \"We're gonna rock, we're gonna roll\" as a background chant. One of the most popular was \"Rock the Joint\", first recorded by Jimmy Preston in May 1949, and a R&B top 10 hit that year. Preston's version is often considered a prototype rock and roll song, and it was covered in 1952 by Bill Haley and the Saddlemen. Marshall Lytle, Haley's bass player, claimed that this was one of the songs that inspired Alan Freed to coin the phrase \"rock and roll\" to refer to the music he played.\n\nFreed first started playing the music in 1951, and by 1953 the phrase \"rock and roll\" was becoming used much more widely to market the music beyond its initial black audience. The practitioners of the music were young black artists, appealing to the post-war community's need for excitement, dancing and increasing social freedoms, but the music also became very attractive to white teenagers. As well as \"rocking\" rhythm and blues songs, such as the massively successful and influential \"Rocket 88\" recorded by Ike Turner and his band but credited to singer Jackie Brenston, the term was used to encompass other forms of black music. In particular, vocal harmony group recordings in the style that later became known as \"doo-wop\", such as \"Gee\" by the Crows, and \"Earth Angel\" by the Penguins, became huge commercial successes, often for the new small independent record companies becoming established. These included Modern, Imperial, Specialty, Atlantic, King and Chess.\n\nThe adoption of rock and roll by white people was hindered by racist attitudes. As Billy Burnette said about his father Dorsey Burnette and uncle Johnny Burnette:They'd buy their clothes on Beale Street, at Lansky Brothers, where all the black people shopped. Right outside Memphis, there was a voodoo village, all black-real mystic kind of people... A lot of real old line southern people called my dad and my uncle white nigger. Nobody was doing rock-and-roll in those days except people they called white trash. When my dad and my uncle started doin' it, they were just about the first. \n\nAlthough some of the rhythm and blues musicians who had been successful in earlier years – such as Joe Turner, Ruth Brown, and Fats Domino who had his first R&B hit in 1950 – were able to make the transition into new markets, much of the initial breakthrough into the wider pop music market came from white musicians, such as Haley, Presley, Carl Perkins and Jerry Lee Lewis, re-recording earlier rhythm and blues hits, often making use of technological improvements in recording and innovations such as double tracking, developed by the large mainstream record companies, as well as the invention of the 45-rpm record and the rapid growth of its use in jukeboxes. At the same time, younger black musicians such as Little Richard, Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley took advantage of the gradual breakdown of ethnic barriers in America to become equally popular and help launch the rock and roll era. By the time of Haley's first hits in 1953, and those of Berry, Little Richard and then Presley the next year, rock and roll was firmly established.\n\nKey recordings\n\n1920s\n\n* \"My Man Rocks Me (With One Steady Roll)\" by Trixie Smith was issued in 1922, the first record to refer to \"rocking\" and \"rolling\" in a secular context.\n* Papa Charlie Jackson recorded \"Shake That Thing\" in 1925.\n* \"That Black Snake Moan\", a country blues first recorded in 1926 by Blind Lemon Jefferson, contains the lines \"That's all right mama / That's all right for you / Mama, that's all right / Most any old way you do\", later famously used by Arthur Crudup and then Elvis Presley.[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id\n3xQwHeUXqKYC&pgPT133&dq\n%22that%27s+all+right+mama%22+%22lemon+jefferson%22&hlen&ei\nro00TuPcMcL_-gaVx62BDQ&saX&oi\nbook_result&ctresult&resnum\n3&ved0CDwQ6AEwAg#v\nonepage&q%22that%27s%20all%20right%20mama%22%20%22lemon%20jefferson%22&f\nfalse Francis Davis, The History of the Blues: The Roots, the Music, the People, p,122]\n* \"Sail Away Ladies\" and \"Rock About My Saro Jane\" were recorded by Uncle Dave Macon and his Fruit Jar Drinkers on May 7, 1927. \"Sail Away Ladies\" is a traditional square dance tune, with, in Macon's version, a vocal refrain of \"Don't she rock, daddy-o\", which in other versions became \"Don't you rock me, daddy-o\". \"Don't You Rock Me, Daddy-o\" later became a hit in the UK in 1957 for both the Vipers Skiffle Group and Lonnie Donegan. Macon is thought to have learned the song \"Rock About My Saro Jane\" from black stevedores at Nashville in the 1880s, although Alan Lomax believed that the song dated from the mid-nineteenth century. \n* \"Jim Jackson's Kansas City Blues\" by Jim Jackson. recorded on October 10, 1927, was a best selling blues, suggested as one of the first million-seller records. Its melody line was later re-used and developed by Charlie Patton in \"Going To Move To Alabama\" (1929) and Hank Williams (\"Move It On Over\") (1947) before emerging in \"Rock Around the Clock\", (1954) and its lyrical content presaged Leiber and Stoller's \"Kansas City\". It contains the line \"It takes a rocking chair to rock, a rubber ball to roll,\" which had previously been used in 1924 by Ma Rainey in \"Jealous Hearted Blues\", and which Bill Haley would later incorporate into his 1952 recording, \"Sundown Boogie.\"\n* \"It's Tight Like That\" by Tampa Red with pianist Georgia Tom (Thomas A. Dorsey), recorded on October 24, 1928, was a highly successful early hokum record, which combined bawdy rural humour with sophisticated musical technique. With his Chicago Five, Tampa Red later went on to pioneer the Chicago small group \"Bluebird\" sound, while Dorsey became \"the father of gospel music\".\n* \"Pine Top's Boogie Woogie\" by Clarence \"Pinetop\" Smith, recorded on December 29, 1928, was one of the first hit \"boogie woogie\" recordings, and the first to include classic rock and roll references to \"the girl with the red dress on\" being told to \"not move a peg\" until she could \"shake that thing\" and \"mess around\". Smith's tune itself derives from Jimmy Blythe's 1925 recording, \"Jimmy's Blues\", and earlier records had been made in a similar style by Meade \"Lux\" Lewis and others. A hit \"pop\" version of Smith's record was released by Tommy Dorsey in 1938, as \"Boogie Woogie\". \n* \"Crazy About My Baby\" by Blind Roosevelt Graves and brother Uaroy, recorded in 1929, was a rhythmic country blues with small group accompaniment. Researcher Gayle Dean Wardlow has stated that this \"could be considered the first rock 'n' roll recording\".Gayle Dean Wardlow, Chasin' That Devil Music, 1998 The brothers also recorded rhythmic gospel music. The Graves brothers, with an additional piano player, were later recorded as the Mississippi Jook Band, whose 1936 recordings including \"Skippy Whippy\", \"Barbecue Bust\" and \"Hittin' The Bottle Stomp\" were highly rhythmic instrumental recordings which, according to writer Robert Palmer, \"..featured fully formed rock and roll guitar riffs and a stomping rock and roll beat\". \n\n1930s\n\n* \"Standing on the Corner (Blue Yodel No. 9)\" by Jimmie Rodgers, recorded on July 16, 1930, was one of a series of recordings made by the biggest early star of country music in the late 1920s and early 1930s, based on blues songs he had heard on his travels. \"Blue Yodel No. 9\" was recorded with an uncredited Louis Armstrong (cornet) and Lil Armstrong (piano), foreshadowing later collaborations between black and white musicians but which at the time were almost unprecedented. \n* \"Tiger Rag\" by the Washboard Rhythm Kings (later known as the Georgia Washboard Stompers), recorded in 1932, was a virtually out of control performance, with a rocking washboard and unusually high energy. It opens with a repeated one-note guitar lick that would transform into a chord in the hands of Robert Johnson, T-Bone Walker and others. This is just one of many recordings by spasm bands, jug bands, and skiffle groups that have the same wild, informal feel that early rock and roll had. After the original recording by the Original Dixieland Jass Band in 1917, \"Tiger Rag\" had become not only a jazz standard, but was also widely covered in dance band and march orchestrations.\n* \"Good Lord (Run Old Jeremiah)\" by Austin Coleman with Joe Washington Brown, from 1934, was a frenzied and raucous ring shout recorded by John and Alan Lomax in a church in Jennings, Louisiana, with the singer declaiming \"I'm going to rock, you gonna rock ... I sit there and rock, I sit there and rock, yeah yeah yeah.\"[http://www.hoyhoy.com/dawn_of_rock.htm Morgan Wright's HoyHoy.com: The Dawn of Rock 'n' Roll] Music historian Robert Palmer wrote that \"the rhythmic singing, the hard-driving beat, the bluesy melody, and the improvised, stream-of-consciousness words ... all anticipate key aspects of rock 'n roll as it would emerge some 20 years later.\"Robert Palmer, \"Rock Begins\", in Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll, 1976/1980, ISBN 0-330-26568-7 (UK edition), pp.3–14\n* \"Oh! Red\" by the Harlem Hamfats, recorded on April 18, 1936, was a hit record made by a small group of jazz and blues musicians assembled by J. Mayo Williams for the specific purpose of making commercially successful dance records. Viewed at the time (and subsequently by jazz fans) as a novelty group, the format became very influential, and the group's recordings included many with sex and drugs references. \n* \"I Believe I'll Dust My Broom\" (recorded on November 23, 1936), \"Crossroad Blues\" (recorded on November 27, 1936), and other recordings by Robert Johnson, while not particularly successful at the time, directly influenced the development of Chicago blues and, when reissued in the 1960s, also strongly influenced later rock musicians.\n* \"Rock It For Me\" was recorded by Ella Fitzgerald with Chick Webb and his Orchestra in 1937. Its lyrics mentioned a kind of music called \"rock and roll\": \"Every night/You'll see all the nifties/Plenty tight/Swingin' down the fifties/Now they're all through with symphony/Ho ho ho, rock it for me!/Now it's true that once upon a time/The opera was the thing/But today the rage is rhythm and rhyme/So won't you satisfy my soul/With the rock and roll?\"\n* \"One O'Clock Jump\" by Count Basie, arranged by Eddie Durham and recorded on July 7, 1937, was based on a 12-bar blues that builds in rhythmic intensity and features, like many of Basie's other records, the rhythm section of Jo Jones (drums), Walter Page (bass), and Freddie Green (rhythm guitar) that \"all but invented the notion of swing through their innovations\". \"Sing, Sing, Sing\" by Benny Goodman, also from 1937, written by Louis Prima, featured repeated drum breaks by Gene Krupa, whose musical nature and high showmanship presaged rock and roll drumming.\n* \"Rock Me\" by Sister Rosetta Tharpe, recorded on October 31, 1938, was important not only for its lyrical content, but for its style. Many later rock and roll stars, including Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Little Richard, cited Tharpe's singing, electric guitar playing, and energetic performance style as an influence. Tharpe performed the song with pianist Albert Ammons at the From Spirituals to Swing concert presented by John Hammond in Carnegie Hall on December 23, 1938. She also re-recorded the song with Lucky Millinder's band in 1942, when columnist Maurie Orodenker described her vocals as \"rock-and-roll spiritual singing\".\n* \"Ida Red\" by Bob Wills and the Texas Playboys, recorded in 1938 by a Western swing band, featuring electric guitar by Eldon Shamblin. The tune was recycled again some years later by Chuck Berry in \"Maybellene\". \n* \"Roll 'Em Pete\" by Pete Johnson and Joe Turner, recorded on December 30, 1938, was an up-tempo, non-swung boogie woogie with a hand-clapping backbeat and a collation of blues verses \n* \"Rocking the Blues\" by the Port of Harlem Jazz Men, a group comprising Frank Newton, J. C. Higginbotham, Albert Ammons, Teddy Bunn, John Williams and Sidney Catlett, was an upbeat instrumental issued in 1939 as Blue Note no. 3. \n\n1940s\n\n* \"New Early in the Morning\" and \"Jivin' the Blues\", both recorded on May 17, 1940 by \"Sonny Boy\" Williamson, the first of the two musicians who used that name, are examples of the very influential and popular rhythmic small group Chicago blues recordings on Lester Melrose's Bluebird label, and among the first on which drums (by Fred Williams) were prominently recorded. \n* \"Down the Road a Piece\" by the Will Bradley Orchestra, a smooth rocking boogie number, was recorded in August 1940 with drummer \"Eight Beat Mack\" Ray McKinley sharing the vocals with the song's writer, Don Raye. The song would later become a rock and roll standard. The \"eight beats\" in McKinley's nickname and the popular phrase \"eight to the bar\" in many songs indicate the newness of the shift from the four beats per bar of jazz to boogie woogie's eight beats per bar, which became, and remains, characteristic of rock and roll. Bradley also recorded the first version of Raye's \"Beat Me Daddy, Eight to the Bar\", later recorded with greater commercial success by the Andrews Sisters, whose biggest hit \"Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy\" also contains numerous proto-rock and roll elements. \n* \"Flying Home\" was most famously recorded in 1942 by Lionel Hampton and his Orchestra, with tenor sax solo by Illinois Jacquet, recreated and refined live by Arnett Cobb. This became a model for rock and roll solos ever since: emotional, honking, long, not just an instrumental break but the keystone of the song. The Benny Goodman Sextet had a popular hit in 1939 with a more subdued version of the song, featuring electric guitarist Charlie Christian. The book What Was the First Rock'n'Roll Record by Jim Dawson and Steve Propes discusses 50 contenders as the \"first rock and roll record\", the earliest being \"Blues, Part 2\" from the 1944 Jazz at the Philharmonic live album, also featuring Jacquet's saxophone but with an even more \"honking\" solo. \n* \"Mean Old World\" by T-Bone Walker, recorded in 1942, is an early classic by this hugely influential guitarist, often cited as the first song in which he fully found his sound. B.B. King credits Walker as inspiring him to take up the electric guitar, but his influence extended far beyond the blues to jazz and rock and roll. Among other innovations, \"Mean Old World\" has a two-string guitar lick where Walker bends notes on the G string up to the notes on the B string, which would be used by Chuck Berry in \"Johnny B. Goode\" and other songs. \n* \"Caldonia\", first recorded by Louis Jordan and then by Erskine Hawkins and others, seems to have been the first song to which the phrase \"right rhythmic rock and roll music\" was applied, by Billboard magazine in 1945. Jordan, by the time of his recording of the song, was an established star, whose novelty performances had been influenced in particular by Cab Calloway. Jordan's 1944 disc, \"G.I. Jive\", had been the first record by a black performer to top both the pop and R&B charts. Big bands became increasingly less economically viable, and smaller groups such as Jordan's Tympany Five became more popular. Many of his recordings, including \"Choo Choo Ch'Boogie\" (recorded in January 1946) and \"Let the Good Times Roll\", were hugely influential in style and content, and popular across both black and white audiences. Their producer Milt Gabler went on to produce Bill Haley's hits, and Jordan's guitarist Carl Hogan, on such songs as \"Ain't That Just Like a Woman\" (also 1946), was also a direct influence on Chuck Berry's guitar style.\n* \"Rock Me Mamma\" by Arthur \"Big Boy\" Crudup, recorded on December 15, 1944, was the blues singer's first and biggest R&B chart hit, but in later decades became overshadowed by his – at the time, much less successful – 1946 recording of \"That's All Right\", later to be covered by Elvis Presley in 1954 as his first single. \n* \"Strange Things Happening Every Day\" by Sister Rosetta Tharpe, recorded in 1944 with pianist Sammy Price, was a boogie-woogie flavored gospel song that \"crossed over\" to become a hit on the \"race records\" chart, the first gospel recording to do so. It featured Tharpe on an electric guitar and is considered an important precursor to rock and roll.\n* \"The Honeydripper\" by Joe Liggins, recorded on April 20, 1945, synthesized boogie-woogie piano, jazz, and the riff from the folk chestnut \"Shortnin' Bread\", into an exciting dance performance that topped the R&B \"race\" charts for 18 weeks (a record later shared with Jordan's \"Choo Choo Ch'Boogie\") and also made the pop charts. The lyrics proclaimed urban arrogance and were sexually suggestive – \"He's a solid gold cat, the honeydripper ... he's a killer, a Harlem diller ...\".\n* \"Guitar Boogie\" by Arthur Smith, originally recorded in 1945 but not a hit until reissued in 1948, was the first boogie woogie played on the electric guitar, and was much imitated by later rock and roll guitarists. The tune was based on \"Pinetop's Boogie Woogie\" from 1929.\n* \"The House of Blue Lights\" by Freddie Slack and Ella Mae Morse, was recorded on February 12, 1946. The song was co-written by Slack with Don Raye, and, like Raye's \"Down the Road a Piece\", was later recorded by many rock and roll singers. Morse was one of the first white singers to perform what would now be regarded as rhythm and blues music.\n* \"Route 66\", was recorded by the Nat Cole Trio on March 15, 1946. Written by Bobby Troup, the song was a big hit for Cole – who by that time had already had 11 top ten hits on the R&B chart, starting with \"That Ain't Right\" in 1942 – and was later widely covered by rock and roll performers including Chuck Berry. \n* \"Boogie Woogie Baby,\" \"Freight Train Boogie\" and \"Hillbilly Boogie\" by the Delmore Brothers, featuring harmonica player Wayne Raney, were typically up-tempo recordings, heavily influenced by the blues, by this highly influential country music duo, who had first recorded in 1931. \n* \"Open the Door, Richard\", was a novelty R&B record based on a comedy routine performed by Dusty Fletcher, Pigmeat Markham and others. It was first recorded in September 1946 by Jack McVea, and immediately covered by many other artists including Fletcher himself, Count Basie, The Three Flames, and Louis Jordan, all of whom had hits with it. It was the precursor of many similar novelty R&B-based records, which became a mainstay of early rock and roll in recordings by groups such as the Coasters.\n* \"Move It On Over\" by Hank Williams was recorded on April 21, 1947. It was Williams' first hit on the country music charts, reaching # 4. It used a similar melody to Jim Jackson's 1927 \"Kansas City Blues\" and was itself adapted several years later for \"Rock Around The Clock\".\n* \"Good Rocking Tonight\", in separate versions by Roy Brown (1947) and Wynonie Harris (1948) led to a craze for blues with \"rocking\" in the title. \"Rock and Roll\" by Wild Bill Moore was recorded in 1948 and released in 1949. This was a rocking boogie where Moore repeats throughout the song \"We're going to rock and roll, we're going to roll and rock\" and ends the song with the line, \"Look out mamma, going to do the rock and roll.\" Another version of this song (with songwriting credit to Moore) was recorded in 1949 by Doles Dickens. Also related were \"Rock and Roll Blues\" by Erline 'Rock and Roll' Harris, a female singer, with the lyrics \"I'll turn out the lights, we'll rock and roll all night\"; and \"Hole in the Wall\" by Albennie Jones, co-written and produced by Milt Gabler, with the lyrics \"We're gonna rock and roll at the hole in the wall tonight\". \n* \"Boogie Chillen'\" (or \"Boogie Chillun\") is a blues song written by John Lee Hooker and recorded in 1948. It was Hooker's debut record release and became a No. 1 Billboard R&B chart hit in 1949. The guitar figure from \"Boogie Chillen'\" has been called \"the riff that launched a million songs\", inspiring many popular blues and rock songs. It is considered one of the blues recordings most influential on the forthcoming rock 'n' roll. \n\n* \"Rock Awhile\" by Goree Carter was recorded in April 1949. It has been cited as a contender for the \"first rock and roll record\" title and a \"much more appropriate candidate\" than the more frequently cited \"Rocket 88\" (1951). Carter's over-driven electric guitar style was similar to that of Chuck Berry from 1955 onwards. \n* \"Rock the Joint\", recorded by Jimmy Preston in May 1949, was a prototype rock and roll song which was successful in its own right, and was highly influential in that it was recorded three years later in 1952, by Bill Haley, in the same hard rocking style. Although Haley first recorded in 1946, his early recordings, including \"Rovin' Eyes\", were essentially in the Western swing style of country music, as was his 1951 cover of \"Rocket 88\" (see below). \"Rock the Joint\" became the first of his records in the style that became known as \"rockabilly\".\n* \"The Fat Man\" by Fats Domino, recorded in New Orleans on December 10, 1949, featured Domino on wah-wah mouth trumpet as well as piano and vocals. The insistent backbeat of the rhythm section dominates. The song is based on \"Junker's Blues\", by pianist Willie Hall. It was the first of Domino's 35 US Top 40 hits and helped establish his career; he also played piano on Lloyd Price's big 1952 hit, \"Lawdy, Miss Clawdy\".\n\nEarly 1950s\n\n* \"Boogie in the Park\" by Joe Hill Louis, recorded in July 1950 and released in August 1950. It featured Louis as a one-man band performing \"one of the loudest, most overdriven, and distorted guitar stomps ever recorded\" while playing on a rudimentary drum kit at the same time. It was the only record ever released on Sam Phillips' early Phillips label before founding Sun Records. Louis' electric guitar work is also considered a distant ancestor of heavy metal music. \n* \"Hot Rod Race\" recorded by Arkie Shibley and His Mountain Dew Boys in late 1950, another early example of \"rockabilly\", highlighted the role of fast cars in teen culture.\n* \"Sixty Minute Man\" by the Dominoes, recorded on December 30, 1950, was the first (and most sexually explicit) big R&B hit to cross over to the pop charts. The group featured the gospel-style lead vocals of Clyde McPhatter (though not on this song), and appeared at many of Alan Freed's early shows. McPhatter later became lead singer of the Drifters, and then a solo star.\n* \"Rocket 88\" was recorded on March 5, 1951 by Jackie Brenston and His Delta Cats – actually Ike Turner and the Kings of Rhythm – and covered later in the year by Bill Haley and the Saddlemen. Brenston's version – produced in Memphis by Sam Phillips and leased to Chess Records – was highly influential for its sound and lyrical content, and was a big hit. It reached No. 1 on the Billboard Rhythm and Blues chart on June 9, 1951, and set Phillips on the road to success by helping to finance his company, Sun Records. Haley's version was one of the first white covers of an R&B hit. The song also features an early example of distortion, or fuzz guitar, played by the band's guitarist Willie Kizart. \n* \"How Many More Years\" recorded by Howlin' Wolf in May 1951. Robert Palmer has cited it as the first record to feature a distorted power chord, played by Willie Johnson on the electric guitar.\n* \"Cry\" by Johnnie Ray was recorded on October 16, 1951. Ray's emotional delivery – he was mistaken for a woman, as well as for a black man – set a template for later vocal styles and, more importantly, showed that music could cross racial barriers both ways, by topping the R&B chart as well as the pop chart.\n* \"Rock and Roll Blues\" by Anita O'Day recorded on January 22, 1952. One of Anita O'Day's few compositions, she was one of the best jazz singers ever, and recorded this blues single on Mercury Records with her own orchestra.\n* \"Hound Dog\", by Willie Mae \"Big Mama\" Thornton, was recorded on August 13, 1952. A raucous R&B song recorded with Johnny Otis' band (uncredited for contractual reasons), it was written by white teenagers Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, covered three years later by Freddie Bell and the Bellboys (Teen Records 101), and then in turn, more famously, by Elvis Presley.\n* \"Love My Baby\" and \"Mystery Train\" were recorded by Junior Parker with his electric blues band, the Blue Flames, in 1953, \"contributing a pair of future rockabilly standards\" that would later be covered by Hayden Thompson and Elvis Presley, respectively. For Presley's version of \"Mystery Train\", Scotty Moore also borrowed the guitar riff from Parker's \"Love My Baby\", played by Pat Hare. \n* \"Gee\" by the Crows was recorded on February 10, 1953. This was a big hit in 1954, and is credited by rock n' roll authority, Jay Warner, as being \"the first rock n' roll hit by a rock and roll group\". \n* \"Crazy Man, Crazy\" by Bill Haley and his Comets, recorded in April 1953, was the first of his recordings to make the Billboard pop chart. This was not a cover, but an original composition, and has been described as \"the first white rock hit\".\n* \"Mess Around\" by Ray Charles was recorded in May 1953, one of his earliest hits. The writing credit was claimed by Ahmet Ertegün, with some lyrics riffing off of the 1929 classic, \"Pinetop's Boogie Woogie\". \"I've Got a Woman\", recorded in November 1954 and first performed when Charles was on tour with T-Bone Walker, was a bigger hit, and is also widely considered to be the first soul song, combining gospel with R&B; its tune was derived from the gospel song \"My Jesus Is All the World to Me\" by Alex Bradford.\n* \"The Things That I Used to Do\" by Guitar Slim was recorded on October 16, 1953. It was an electric blues song that had a major impact on rock & roll and featured distorted overtones on the electric guitar a full decade before Jimi Hendrix. It is listed as one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. \n* \"Work with Me, Annie\" by Hank Ballard and the Midnighters, was recorded on January 14, 1954. Despite, or because of, its salacious lyrics, it was immediately successful in the R&B market, topping the R&B chart for seven weeks, and led to several sequels, including Ballard's \"Annie Had a Baby\" and Etta James' first hit \"The Wallflower\", also known as \"Roll with Me, Henry\". Although the records were banned from radio play and led to calls for rock and roll itself to be banned, the lyrics were soon rewritten for a more conservative white audience, and Georgia Gibbs topped the pop charts in 1955 with her version, \"Dance with Me, Henry\".\n* \"Shake, Rattle and Roll\" by Big Joe Turner was recorded on February 15, 1954, and was covered early in July by Bill Haley and his Comets, whilst Turner's version topped the Billboard R&B chart in June. Haley's version, which was substantially different in lyric and arrangement, reached No 7 in the pop chart at the end of August and predated his much wider success with \"Rock Around the Clock\" by almost a year. Elvis Presley's later 1956 version combined Haley's arrangement with Turner's lyrics, but was not a substantial hit.\n* \"Rock Around the Clock\" by Bill Haley and his Comets (recorded on April 12, 1954) was the first number one rock and roll record on the US pop charts. It stayed in the Top 100 for a then-record 38 weeks. The record is often credited with propelling rock into the mainstream, at least the teen mainstream. At first it had lackluster sales but, following the success of two other Haley recordings, \"Shake Rattle and Roll\" and \"Dim, Dim the Lights\", was later included in the movie Blackboard Jungle about a raucous high-school, which exposed it to a wider audience and took it to worldwide success in 1955. The song itself had first been recorded in late 1953 by Sonny Dae & His Knights, a novelty group whose recording had become a modest local hit at the time Haley recorded his version.\n* James Cotton's \"Cotton Crop Blues\" and Pat Hare's \"I'm Gonna Murder My Baby\" (both recorded in May 1954), were electric blues records which feature heavily distorted, power chord-driven electric guitar solos by Pat Hare that anticipate elements of heavy metal music. The other side of Cotton's \"Cotton Crop Blues\" single, \"Hold Me in Your Arms,\" also featured a heavily distorted guitar sound by Hare that resembles the \"distorted tones favored by modern rock players.\" \n* \"That's All Right\" by Elvis Presley, was recorded on July 5, 1954. This cover of Arthur Crudup's tune was Presley's first single. Its B-side was a rocking version of Bill Monroe's bluegrass song \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\", itself recognized by various rock singers as an influence on the music.\n\nViews on the first rock and roll record \n\nThe identity of the first rock and roll record is one of the most enduring subjects of debate among rock historians. Various recordings dating back to the 1940s and 1950s have been cited as the first rock and roll record. A number of sources have considered the first to be \"Rocket 88\", which was recorded in 1951 by Ike Turner and his band, but credited to his saxophonist and the song's vocalist Jackie Brenston. According to The Boston Globes Joan Anderman, most rock historians cite it as the first, while The New Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll and the website of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame said that it is \"frequently cited\" and \"widely considered the first\", respectively. People in the music industry have also called it the first, among several others. \"Rocket 88\" is cited for its forceful backbeat and unrefined, distorted electric guitar. By contrast, writer and musician Michael Campbell wrote that, \"from our perspective,\" it was not the first rock and roll record because it had a shuffle beat rather than the rock rhythm originally characteristic in Chuck Berry's and Little Richard's songs, although he added that \"Rocket 88\" had basic characteristics of rock music such as the emphasis on guitar and distortion. Its characterization as a rock and roll or rhythm and blues song continues to be debated. Nigel Williamson questions whether it was really an R&B song \"with an unusually fast, bottom-heavy eight-to-the bar boogie rhythm and a great lyric about cars, booze and women\". \n\nThe music historian Robert Palmer wrote that Goree Carter's earlier 1949 song \"Rock Awhile\" is a \"much more appropriate candidate\" than \"the more frequently cited\" \"Rocket 88\", primarily because of the presence of loud electric guitar work on the former song. Palmer wrote that \"Rocket 88\" is credited for its raucous saxophone, boogie-woogie beat, fuzzy amplified guitar, and lyrics that celebrate the automobile. However, he regards \"Rock Awhile\" to be a more appropriate candidate for the \"first rock and roll record\" title, because it was recorded two years earlier, and because of Carter's guitar work bearing a striking resemblance to Chuck Berry's later guitar work, while making use of an over-driven amplifier, along with the backing of boogie-based rhythms, and the appropriate title and lyrical subject matter. Roger Wood and John Nova Lomax have also cited \"Rock Awhile\" as the first rock & roll record. Others have taken the view that the first was Roy Brown's \"Good Rockin' Tonight\", or Wynonie Harris' 1948 version; the song received greater exposure when Elvis Presley covered it in 1954. Sister Rosetta Tharpe's 1944 song \"Strange Things Happening Every Day\" has also been viewed as among the first. \n\nMost rock historians have cited Bill Haley's 1953 song \"Crazy Man, Crazy\" as the first rock and roll record to reach the Billboard charts. Haley's \"Rock Around the Clock\" released in 1954 was the first rock and roll record to achieve significant commercial success and was joined in 1955 by a number of other records that pioneered the genre. Along with \"Rock Around the Clock\", several rock critics have also pointed to Presley's \"That's All Right\" from 1954 as a candidate for the first rock and roll record. \n\nThe 1992 book What Was the First Rock'n'Roll Record by Jim Dawson and Steve Propes discusses 50 contenders, from Illinois Jacquet's \"Blues, Part 2\" (1944) to Elvis Presley's \"Heartbreak Hotel\" (1956), without reaching a definitive conclusion. In their introduction, the authors claim that since the modern definition of rock 'n' roll was set by disc jockey Alan Freed's use of the term in his groundbreaking The Rock and Roll Show on New York's WINS in late 1954, as well as at his Rock and Roll Jubilee Balls at St. Nicholas Arena in January 1955, they chose to judge their candidates according to the music Freed spotlighted: R&B combos, black vocal groups, honking saxophonists, blues belters, and several white artists playing in the authentic R&B style (Bill Haley, Elvis Presley). The artists who appeared at Freed's earliest shows included orchestra leader Buddy Johnson, the Clovers, Fats Domino, Big Joe Turner, the Moonglows, Clyde McPhatter and the Drifters, and the Harptones. That, say Dawson and Propes, was the first music being called rock 'n' roll during that short time when the term caught on all over America. Because the honking tenor saxophone was the driving force at those shows and on many of the records Freed was playing, the authors began their list with a 1944 squealing and squawking live performance by Illinois Jacquet with Jazz at the Philharmonic in Los Angeles in mid-1944. That record, \"Blues, Part 2,\" was released as Stinson 6024 and is still in print as a CD on the Verve label. Several notable jazz greats accompanied Jacquet on \"Blues\" including Paul Leslie and Slim Nadine (the monikers employed by Les Paul and Nat \"King\" Cole, respectively, in order to appear at the JATP concert incognito).\n\nIn 2004, Elvis Presley's \"That's All Right Mama\" and Bill Haley's \"Rock Around the Clock\" both celebrated their 50th anniversaries. Rolling Stone Magazine felt that Presley's song was the first rock and roll recording. At the time Presley recorded the song, Big Joe Turner's \"Shake, Rattle & Roll\", later covered by Haley, was already at the top of the Billboard R&B charts. The Guardian felt that while there were rock'n'roll records before Presley's, his recording was the moment when all the strands came together in \"perfect embodiment\". Presley himself is quoted as saying: \"A lot of people seem to think I started this business, but rock 'n' roll was here a long time before I came along.\" \n\nAlso formative in the sound of rock and roll were Little Richard and Chuck Berry. From the early 1950s, Little Richard combined gospel with New Orleans R&B, heavy backbeat, pounding piano and wailing vocals. Ray Charles referred to Little Richard as being the artist that started a new kind of music, which was a funky style of rock'n'roll that he was performing onstage for a few years before appearing on record in 1955 as \"Tutti Frutti.\" Chuck Berry, with \"Maybellene\" (recorded on May 21, 1955, and which reached # 1 on the R&B chart and # 5 on the US pop chart), \"Roll over Beethoven\" (1956), \"Rock and Roll Music\" (1957) and \"Johnny B. Goode\" (1958), refined and developed the major elements that made rock and roll distinctive, focusing on teen life and introducing guitar intros and lead breaks that would be a major influence on subsequent rock music.M. Campbell, ed., Popular Music in America: And the Beat Goes on (Cengage Learning, 3rd edn., 2008), pp. 168–9. Early rock and roll used the twelve-bar blues chord progression and shared with boogie woogie the four beats (usually broken down into eight eighth-notes/quavers) to a bar. Rock and roll however has a greater emphasis on the backbeat than boogie woogie. Bo Diddley's 1955 hit \"Bo Diddley\", with its B-side \"I'm A Man\", introduced a new beat and unique guitar style that inspired many artists without either side using the 12-bar pattern – they instead played variations on a single chord each. His more insistent, driving rhythms, hard-edged electric guitar sound, African rhythms, and signature clave beat (a simple, five-accent rhythm), have remained cornerstones of rock and pop. \n\nOthers point out that performers like Arthur Crudup and Fats Domino were recording blues songs as early as 1946 that are indistinguishable from later rock and roll, and that these blues songs were based on themes, chord changes, and rhythms dating back decades before that. Wynonie Harris' 1947 cover of Roy Brown's \"Good Rocking Tonight\" is also a claimant for the title of first rock and roll record, as the popularity of this record led to many answer songs, mostly by black artists, with the same rocking beat, during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Big Joe Turner's 1939 recording \"Roll 'Em Pete\" is close to 1950s rock and roll.M. Campbell, ed., Popular Music in America: And the Beat Goes on (Cengage Learning, 3rd edn., 2008), p. 99. Sister Rosetta Tharpe was also recording shouting, stomping music in the 1930s and 1940s, such as \"Strange Things Happening Every Day\" (1944), that in some ways contained major elements of mid-1950s rock and roll. Pushing the date back even earlier, blues researcher Gayle Dean Wardlow has stated that \"Crazy About My Baby\" by Blind Roosevelt Graves and his brother, recorded in 1929, \"could be considered the first rock 'n' roll recording\".\n\nBy contrast, musician and writer Billy Vera argued that because rock and roll was \"an evolutionary process\", to name \"any one record as the first would make any of us look a fool.\" Writer Nick Tosches similarly felt that, \"It is impossible to discern the first modern rock record, just as it is impossible to discern where blue becomes indigo in the spectrum.\" Music writer Rob Bowman remarked that the long-debated question is useless and cannot be answered because \"criteria vary depending upon who is making the selection.\""
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"Commentary: Pittsburgh Rock Hall of Fame has to dig deeper for its inductees | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\nCommentary: Pittsburgh Rock Hall of Fame has to dig deeper for its inductees\nJanuary 18, 2014 9:05 PM\nScott Mervis/Post-Gazette\nJimmy Beaumont, left, and Porky Chedwick in September 2012.\nConcert promoter Pat DiCesare, who was in competition with Dick Clark's Caravan of Stars, brought The Beatles to Pittsburgh in 1964.\nBy Scott Mervis / Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\nRich Engler is a great guy and one of the true legends of Pittsburgh rock 'n' roll.\nOur music scene, our music life, our memories would not be the same without the concert promoter, who took a lot of chances and brought thousands of great shows to our city over the span of 30 years.\nThere is absolutely no question that he should go into the Pittsburgh Rock 'N Roll Hall of Fame.\nJust not first.\nOn Thursday, he will be the initial inductee into this symbolic hall created by the Hard Rock Cafe and the Cancer Caring Center. Inductees will be honored each year with a plaque mounted at the Hard Rock.\nMr. Engler, who in addition to being a promoter was the drummer for '60s band the Grains of Sand, will be celebrated with an all-star show featuring Donnie Iris, B.E. Taylor, Joe Grushecky, Scott Blasey and more.\nOn hand will be the actual president and CEO of the national Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Joel Peresman. It's a testament to DiCesare-Engler Productions that Mt. Lebanon native Mr. Peresman got his start there as an go-fer.\nThe chairs of the Pittsburgh rock hall are Mary Ann Miller and Theresa Kaufman, who both work in the public relations business. They conceived of the hall as a way to honor Pittsburgh music legends while raising money for the Cancer Caring Center, clearly a noble cause.\nThey are working on \"a blue ribbon committee\" to make decisions for the hall in the future.\nMs. Miller says that for now Mr. Engler was chosen because he is \"where music came from in our lives -- his name was on everybody's list.\"\nAs longtime Pittsburghers know, it didn't start here with Rich Engler.\nA legit Pittsburgh Rock 'N Roll Hall of Fame should begin with Porky Chedwick, who started playing \"race\" records here in 1948, even before Alan Freed, who is credited with popularizing the phrase \"rock 'n' roll.\" It was the Daddio of the Raddio who launched rock 'n' roll in Pittsburgh, played the forbidden black artists, broke records nationally and literally drove our teenagers wild in the streets (Stanley Theatre 1953).\nHe's still very much alive at 95, God bless him.\nFrom there, you have to go to Jimmy Beaumont. And Joe Rock. Mr. Beaumont was and is the golden-voiced lead singer of the Skyliners, who went to No. 12 on the charts in 1959 with \"Since I Don't Have You.\" It was the first major Pittsburgh hit of the rock era. (You have heard the Guns 'N Roses version).\nIt was written by late Skyliners manager and producer Joe Rock, who also managed the Jaggerz (No. 2 in 1970 with \"The Rapper\") and the Granati Brothers. He would have been the logical co-inductee with Mr. Beaumont.\nThere were other brilliant choices from the doo-wop era, including the Marcels (\"Blue Moon\"), Del-Vikings (\"Come and Go With Me\") and Lou Christie (\"The Gypsy Cried\").\nBusiness-wise, the first inductee candidate is a no-brainer. It was, after all, called DiCesare-Engler, Pat DiCesare being the man who brought The Beatles to Pittsburgh in 1964. I would say that Mr. DiCesare was the Bill Graham of Pittsburgh, but he predated Bill Graham. A songwriter for doo-wop acts, he started booking concerts in 1962, mentored by his friend Tim Tormey, who was more of a Sinatra guy. Mr. DiCesare became the dominant promoter in town during the '60s and when Mr. Engler came along as the new kid on the block in 1969, Mr. DiCesare didn't try to squash him -- he made him a partner!\nSo, your first class of Pittsburgh Rock 'N Roll Hall of Famers: Porky Chedwick, Joe Rock, Jimmy Beaumont and Pat DiCesare.\nYou can't blame Mr. Engler for graciously accepting this honor. You can bet, though, that he will have a hand in making sense of this operation in the future.\nScott Mervis: [email protected] or 412-263-2576.",
"Alan Freed\nAlan Freed\nOne of the most important popularizers of rock and roll during the '50s, Alan Freed was the first disc jockey and concert producer of rock and roll. Often credited with coining the term rock and roll in 1951, ostensibly to avoid the stigma attached to R&B and so called race music, Freed opened the door to white acceptance of black music, eschewing white cover versions in favor of the R&B originals.\nSenior year at Salem (Ohio) High - 1939-1940\nFreed family - 1956\nR to L: father Charles, Alan, sister Jackie\nSeated: mother Maude\nAlbert James Freed was born December 15, 1922 in Johnstown, Pennsylvania of a Welsh mother and Lithuanian born father. He was one of three sons of Maude and Charles Freed, a clothing store salesman.In 1933 when Freed was twelve his family moved to Salem, Ohio. He attended Salem High School during which time he formed a band known as the Sultans of Swing, in which he played trombone. His ambition was to on day to become a bandleader, but an ear infection ended that possibility. After he graduated from high school in 1940, he enrolled at Ohio State University where he studied engineering for a year. It was during this time that he developed an interest in radio\nAfter the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, Freed joined the US Army where he was assigned to the Ski Patrol. It was at this time he developed a serious ear infection causing him to receive his discharge. Returning to Salem he went work as a government inspector in military plants. It was here he met his first wife Betty Lou Bean. They were married in 1942.\nWhile at his government job, Freed enrolled in a night broadcasting class in Youngstown, Ohio. After finishing he landed a jobs at number of small stations. His first at WKST (1942) in New Castle, Pennsylvania where he played classical music for $45 a week. Next was sportscasting at WKBN (1942) and WAKR (1945) where he became a local favorite, playing hot jazz and pop recordings. Both of these stations were in Akron, Ohio. In 1949 Freed landed a job and moved to WXEL-TV in Cleveland.\nIn 1950, Freed went to the management of WAKR requesting more money. When he didn't get it he quit went to another Akron station WADC. Except Freed still was under contract to WAKR. A law resulted that banned him from braodcasting within 75 miles of akron for one year suit. He then left Akron for Cleveland.\nIt was at this time that Freed took his Request Review to WXEL-TV where the show bombed. However he stayed hosting a midday movie before he went to WJW where he did a classical radio show and late night movie on their television station.\nWAKR - 1949-1950\nWXEL - 1950-1951\nCourtesy John Cavello, National Television Archive\nLeo Mintz who owned the Record Rendezvous a local record store saw an increasing number of white teenagers buying rhythm and blues records at his store. Based on these observations Mintz suggested to Freed he would sponsor his show if he whould begin playing these records. On July 11, 1951, at 11 PM signed off on his clasical program. Putting the needle down on Todd Rhodes's Blues For A Moondog calling himself \"Moondog,\" Freed went on the air and became among the first to program rhythm and blues for a white teenage audience. Other small stations followed eventually forcing the larger stations to join in.\nDue to the prejudices of the times Freed began calling the rhythm and blues records he played Rock \"n\" Roll. What is ironic that term Freed was using to make rhythm and blues more acceptable to a white audience, was slang for sex in the black community.\nIn 1951 a black vocal group The Dominoes recorded \"Sixty Minute Man\" which was a (#1 R&B and #17 pop) hit. The lyrics were highly suggestive and used rock and roll in the lyrics. Freed began using the term a month later and most likely was inspired by this song.\nMoondog Coronation Ball - 3/21/52\nCourtesy John Cavello, National Television Archive\nFreed would name his show Moondog's Rock 'n' Roll Party. The shows success led to Freed's March 1952 Moondog Coronation Ball in Cleveland. Top black acts were booked for the show. Six thousand fans crashed gates in addition to the thousands already in 10,000 seat hall. Two thirds of the audience was white\nWINS-1955\nCourtesy John Cavello, National Television Archive\nIn 1954 Freed moved his show to WINS radio in NY. Within months the show was #1. Freed began staging revues at Brooklyn Paramount where he often could be found on stage gyrating. Freed appeared in a number of rock and roll movies such as Don't Knock The Rock, Rock Around The Clock, and Rock, Rock, Rock. It was no surprise that these movies broadened the acceptance of rock and roll. The real surprise was Alan Freed in the flesh. In his mid-thirties Freed looked at least ten years older. Klutzy with little stage presence Freed looked completely out of place. To many teens Freed looked like the ultimate adult.\nIn 1957 ABC-TV gave Freed his own nationally-televised rock & roll show, but an episode on which Frankie Lymon danced with a white girl enraged ABC's Southern affiliates and the show was cancelled.\nFreed's first real problems began when he put on a show at the Boston Arena (1958) that resulted in his being charged with incitement to riot. Though the charges were later dismissed, but WINS failed to renew Freed's contract. This incident forced him into into bankruptcy and would just be the beginning of Freed's legal problems.\nFreed moved to WABC radio, and also hosted a locally televised dance show.\nIn 1959 the U.S. House Oversight Committee, at the urging of ASCAP, began to look into deejays who took gifts from record companies in return for playing their records on their shows. Though a number of deejays and program directors were caught in the scandal, the committee decide to focus on Freed. Freed's broadcasts alliances quickly deserted him. In 1959, WABC in New York asked him to sign a statement confirming that he had never accepted payola. Freed refused \"on principle\" to sign and was fired.\nOn Feb 8, 1960 a New York Grand Jury began looking into commercial information in the recording industry and on May 19, 1960 eight men were charged with receiving $116,580 in illegal gratuities. This probe would lead to Freed being charged with income tax evasion by the IRS.\n(Left to right Mel Leeds, program director WINS, Peter Tripp, WMGM disc jockey\nand Alan Freed being booked at a New York police station in May, 1960)\nFreed was the only deejay subpoenaed by the Oversight Committee and refused to testify despite being given immunity. Trial began December, 1962 and ended with Freed pleading guilty to 29 counts of commercial bribery. Though he only received a $300 fine and 6 months suspended sentence his career would be over.\nForced to leave New York Freed work briefly at KDAY (owned by the same company that owned WINS) in 1960, in Los Angeles, but when management refused to let him promote live rock & roll shows Freed left the station and returned to Manhattan to emcee a live twist revue. When the twist craze cooled he hooked on as a disc jockey at WQAM (Miami, FL). Realizing that his dream of returning to New York radio was just that, Freed's drinking increased. The Miami job lasted only two months.\nAlan Freed's Gravestone\nFerncliff Cemetery, Hartsdale, New York, USA\nMarch 15, 1964 Freed was indicted by a federal grand jury for tax evasion. The IRS claimed that Freed owed $37,920 tax on unreported of $56,652 for the years 1957-59. Living in Palm Springs, California at the time, Freed was poor, unemployed and unemployable. Before he could answer the charges he entered a hospital suffering from uremia. Alan Freed died Jan 20, 1965 a penniless, broken man. He was 43.\nFreed truly loved rock and roll, claimed to have never have played a record he didn't like and never forgot where the music came from. However, he was a flawed man who claimed songwriting credits that weren't his, paid performers on his tours very little and associated with questionable individuals.\nAlan Freed was inducted in to The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1986.",
"alan-freeds-ashes-removed-from-the-rock-hall-will-stay-in-cleveland\nTrey Barrineau, USA TODAY 3:59 p.m. ET Aug. 17, 2014\n1 Shares\nThe ashes of Alan Freed, the disc jockey credited with popularizing the term \"rock 'n' roll,\" are no longer in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, but their final resting place won't be too far away.\nFreed's remains, which until earlier this month had been displayed under a spotlight at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, will be interred in Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland, the Associated Press reports.\nOn Aug. 4, the urn was removed from the hall and given to Freed's family. Rock Hall officials say it was because they wanted the exhibit to focus more on Freed's story and not his remains.\nFreed launched the \"Moondog Show\" on Cleveland's WJW-AM in 1951 as a showcase for rhythm & blues records by black artists. The program became wildly popular. Freed started using the term \"rock and roll\" -- slang for sex -- to describe the new sound that was starting to spread to the mainstream, and it stuck.\nHe moved to New York's WINS in 1954, which gave him and the music a national platform. The rest is history.\nLater, Freed was caught up in the \"payola\" scandal , in which DJs illegally took secret payments to play records. He died in 1965 at the age of 43.\nFreed's story came to the big screen in 1978's American Hot Wax. It's notable for giving Jay Leno and Fran Drescher some of their earliest work. The film was also notable for performances by rock pioneers Jerry Lee Lewis and Chuck Berry.\nRead or Share this story: http://usat.ly/1Yhryfw\nMost Popular",
"The Straight Dope: Who invented the term \"rock 'n' roll\"?\nA Straight Dope Classic from Cecil's Storehouse of Human Knowledge\nWho invented the term \"rock 'n' roll\"?\nFebruary 28, 1986\nDear Cecil:\nWith all the recent furor over the location of the Rock 'n' Roll Hall of Fame, we all need to know: when, where, and by whom was the term \"rock 'n' roll music\" invented?\n— DMc, Alexandria, Virginia\nCecil replies:\nDepends what you mean by \"invent.\" The term was first used to describe a particular kind of music by Alan Freed, the legendary Cleveland disc jockey who was among the first to introduce black rhythm-and-blues music to a white audience. But the roots of the term go back much earlier.\nIn the 1920s the words \"rock\" and \"roll,\" used separately or together, were employed by black people to mean partying, carrying on, and/or having sex. According to rock historian Nick Tosches, blues singer Trixie Smith recorded a tune in 1922 called \"My Daddy Rocks Me (With One Steady Roll)\" for Black Swan Records. \"Daddy,\" suffice it to say, wasn't trying to rock little Trixie to sleep. This song inspired such variations as \"Rock That Thing\" by Lil Johnson and \"Rock Me Mama\" by Ikey Robinson.\nBy the 1930s the term had begun to be associated with the idea of music with a good beat to it. In 1931 Duke Ellington did \"Rockin' in Rhythm\" for Victor. The Boswell Sisters did a song called \"Rock and Roll\" in the 1934 United Artists flick Transatlantic Merry-Go-Round. In 1939 Buddy Jones recorded \"Rockin' Rollin' Mama\" (String), in which he soulfully shouted, \"I love the way you rock and roll!\" But rockin' and rollin' didn't really catch on until 1948, when Wynonie Harris released \"Good Rockin' Tonight\" (King). An earlier version by Roy Brown (Deluxe, 1947) had bombed, but Wynonie's cover became a number one hit. That was the beginning of a flood of tunes that worked \"rock\" into the title, such as Bill Haley's \"Rock-a-Beatin' Boogie\" (1952), which contained the deathless words \"Rock, rock, rock, everybody/Roll, roll, roll, everybody.\"\nIn 1952 Alan Freed visited a Cleveland record store and learned that R&B records were being snapped up by white teenagers. Sensing the makings of something big, he changed the name of his popular music show on radio station WJW from \"Record Rendezvous\" to \"Moon Dog's Rock 'n' Roll House Party\" and began playing R&B tunes. Freed apparently used the term \"rock 'n' roll\" to describe the music because he thought the racial connotation of \"rhythm and blues\" might turn off the white audience. In any case, the term stuck.\nFreed was the original high-energy, shout-along-with-the-record AM screamer, and his show, along with rock 'n' roll music, attracted a huge following. A rock 'n' roll show Freed promoted at Cleveland Stadium had to be canceled when the place was mobbed by thousands of fans. By 1954 Freed had moved to a late-night show on WINS in New York City, where he duplicated his earlier success.\nOn April 12, 1954, Bill Haley and the Comets recorded \"Rock Around the Clock,\" a teen anthem generally credited with making rock 'n' roll a worldwide phenomenon. Initially the tune did poorly, but when it was chosen as the theme for the film Blackboard Jungle, it became a monster smash in just about every country where the movie played, selling 22 million copies in all. Meanwhile, down in Memphis, a redneck by the name of Elvis Aron Presley … but the rest you know.\nA correction\nDear Cecil:\nBill Haley did not record \"Rock-a-Beatin' Boogie\" in 1952. \"Rock-Around-the-Clock\" was the first song he recorded for Decca Records (now MCA) in 1954. (I was there.) He also recorded the other song for Decca, but a year later. According to Alan Freed, the first time he used the term \"rock 'n' roll\" was when he first played RATC on his radio show at NYC station WINS.\nHaley's recording of RATC is still selling over a million copies a year worldwide, and has sold more than 40 million copies to date. It has been recorded over 500 times by other artists such as Chubby Checker, Mae West, Pat Boone, and several of the Beatles. Total sales have passed the one hundred million mark, making it the best-selling song of all time. Anyhoo, thanks for the plug on my song.\n— James E. Myers, AKA Jimmy DeKnight, composer (with Max Freedman) of \"Rock-Around-the-Clock.\"\nCecil replies:\nI stand corrected — \"Rock-a-Beatin' Boogie\" was recorded in 1955. Possibly I was thinking of \"Rock the Joint,\" a 1952 Bill Haley release with the line, \"We're gonna rock this joint tonight.\"\n— Cecil Adams",
"Rock 'n' Roll History For July 10\nRock 'n' Roll History for\nJuly 10\n1950 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nThe US music show Your Hit Parade premiered on NBC-TV. The program, which featured vocalists covering the top hits of the week, had been on radio since 1935. It moved to CBS in 1958 but was canceled the following year, unable to cope with the rising popularity of Rock 'n' Roll.\n1954 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nProducer Sam Phillips took an acetate of Elvis Presley singing \"That's All Right\" to DJ Dewey Phillips at Memphis radio station WHBQ. After Dewey played the song on the air around 9:30 that evening, listeners flooded the phone lines requesting to hear the song again.\nJuly 10\nNew York radio station WINS announced the hiring of pioneer Rock disc jockey Alan Freed to be the host of their Rock 'n' Roll Party. As he did on his earlier Moondog's Rock 'n' Roll House Party Show on WJW in Cleveland, Freed programmed records by Black R&B artists that many White teenagers had never heard before. Freed is often credited with popularizing the term \"Rock and Roll\", although the phrase was first used in 1942 by Billboard magazine columnist Maurie Orodenker to describe upbeat recordings.\n1961 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\n\"Tossin' and Turnin'\" by 28 year old Bobby Lewis reaches the top of the Billboard chart for the first of a seven week run, one of the longest of the year. A few months later he'll have another Top Ten song, \"One Track Mind\", his only other major hit record.\n1963 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nMartha And The Vandellas release \"Heatwave\", which will reach #4 on the Billboard Pop chart and #1 on the R&B chart by mid-August. The song became their first million-seller and eventually won the group their only Grammy nomination for Best R&B Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group.\n1965 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nThe Rolling Stones classic rocker \"Satisfaction\" was number one in the US on both the Cashbox and Billboard charts. In 2004 Rolling Stone magazine placed \"Satisfaction\" in the number two spot on its list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, and in 2006 it was added to the Library of Congress National Recording Registry, despite its sexually suggestive lyrics.\nJuly 10\nWilson Pickett 's \"In The Midnight Hour\" is released, as is Sonny And Cher 's \"I Got You Babe\".\nJuly 10\nThe Strangeloves , a New York-based American songwriting team who pretended to be a band from Australia, cracked the Billboard Top 40 for the first time with \"I Want Candy\". They had already had success by writing \"My Boyfriend's Back\" for The Angles and would place two more of their own recordings on the chart with \"Cara-Lin\" (#39) and \"Night Time\" (#30).\n1966 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nCat Stevens cuts his first record, \"I Love My Dog\" at Decca Records' studio in London. It would peak at #28 in the UK the following November.\n1967 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nKenny Rogers and several other members of the New Christy Minstrels quit to form the First Edition. The new group received their first national exposure on the Smothers Brothers TV show and went on to have such hits as \"Just Dropped In (To See What Condition My Condition Was In)\" in 1968, \"Ruby, Don't Take Your Love to Town\" in 1969 and 1971's \"Something's Burning\" as well as hosting their own weekly TV show.\nJuly 10\nBobbie Gentry records \"Ode to Billie Joe\", which will top the Billboard chart next August. Originally intended as the B-side of her first single, the song has now sold over 3 million copies world-wide.\n1968 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nThe Nice was banned from Royal Albert Hall in London after stomping on and burning an American flag during a concert. Two years later, Keith Emerson, leader of the Nice, joined Greg Lake and Carl Palmer in Emerson, Lake and Palmer .\n1969 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nFormer Rolling Stones' guitarist Brian Jones is laid to rest at the Priory Road Cemetery in Prestbury, England. The other members of the band, except Mick Jagger, were in attendance.\n1971 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nThree Dog Night 's \"Liar\" is released. It would become their sixth Billboard Top Ten song, topping out at #7.\n1972 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nHarry Nilsson 's album, \"Son of Schmilsson\" is released. It featured George Harrison under the name George Harrysong and Ringo Starr, listed as Richie Snare, on some of the tracks.\n1975 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nAfter being married for only ten days, Cher petitioned for divorce from Greg Allman . She would change her mind a few days later, but the pair eventually split for good in 1979.\nJuly 10\nGladys Knight 's NBC-TV Summer variety series begins, as does The Mac Davis Show.\n1976 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nThe Starland Vocal Band, the first act to be signed to John Denver's new Windsong label, had the top tune on the Billboard chart with \"Afternoon Delight\". The song reached #18 in the UK.\nJuly 10\nAfter years of trying to find hit material, England Dan and John Ford Coley reach the Billboard Hot 100 with, \"I'd Really Love To See You Tonight\". The single will rise to number two in North America and sell over two million copies.\n1979 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nChuck Berry is sentenced to four months in prison for income-tax evasion. In 1973, he short-changed Uncle Sam $200,000.\n1986 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nThe Grateful Dead 's Jerry Garcia goes into a diabetic coma. He recovered and was released from hospital three weeks later on his 44th birthday.\n2000 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nPromoters cancel the remainder of a Supremes reunion tour due to poor ticket sales. The tour featured Diana Ross without Mary Wilson or Cindy Birdsong, who refused to join due to the little money they were offered.\n2007 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nArista Records announced a September release date for Barry Manilow 's next album, \"The Greatest Songs of the Seventies\". This was his third volume of decade-driven, covers albums, the first two of which sold nearly 1.7 million copies in the United States combined.\n2008 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\n59-year-old Olivia Newton-John married 49-year old Australian entrepreneur, John Easterling, in a small wedding at her Malibu, California home.\n2010 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nA US judge drastically reduced a $675,000 US verdict against a Boston University graduate student charged with illegally downloading and sharing 30 songs. The student admitted in court to downloading songs between 1999 and 2007 and a jury assessed the damage award last July. The US District Court judge in Boston cut the damage award to $67,500, stating the original fine was \"unconstitutionally excessive\" and \"wholly out-of-proportion.\"\n2011 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nA pub in Dundee, Scotland called Lennon's Bar was forced to change the name of the venue and remove all Beatles memorabilia after Yoko Ono threatened legal action for copyright infringement.\n2015 - ClassicBands.com\nJuly 10\nJohn Fogerty filed a breach of contract lawsuit against two of his former Creedence Clearwater Revival band mates, Stu Cook and Doug Clifford, alleging that the pair were not honoring their earlier agreement that the name could only be used when the pair appeared on stage together.",
"Alan Freed or Beyonce? False debate rages around Rock Hall - LA Times\nAlan Freed or Beyonce? False debate rages around Rock Hall\nBeyonce\nLawrence K. Ho / Los Angeles Times\nBeyoncé at her \"On the Run\" tour stop with hubby Jay Z at the Rose Bowl on Sunday.\nBeyoncé at her \"On the Run\" tour stop with hubby Jay Z at the Rose Bowl on Sunday. (Lawrence K. Ho / Los Angeles Times)\nLorraine Ali Contact Reporter\nA change of exhibits at the Rock Hall sets up a seeming clash of past vs. present, but it's not that simple\nAn exhibit featuring an urn filled with the late DJ Alan Freed ’s ashes was recently removed from the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum in Cleveland, just a week or so after Beyoncé’s wardrobe moved in.\nThe overlapping events birthed the idea that revered rock history has been tossed out of the museum to make room for Bey’s Givenchy purple feather mermaid gown.\n“Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ousts DJ Alan Freed's ashes, adds Beyoncé’s leotards” read CNN’s headline. “Rock music is constantly reinventing itself,” stated a piece in Billboard, “such that even the style's initial promoter, Alan Freed, must eventually step aside to make room for Beyoncé.” \nFreed had a radio show in 1950s Cleveland on which he’s credited with popularizing the term rock 'n' roll. But more important, he was an avid R&B fan who played a major role in exposing the work of black artists to white audiences, essentially desegregating the airwaves. Freed died in 1965 at age 43.\nThere’s no clear indication from the museum or Freed’s family that his ashes were removed as a direct result of Ms. Carter’s stage costumes moving in.\nThat narrative -- Pop Diva Tramples Rock History! – is a product of interpretation, and that dynamic in itself tells you a lot about where attitudes still lie when it comes to choosing who’s worthy of R-E-S-P-E-C-T.\n(Lorraine Ali)\nThe museum, which features other nods to Freed, including representation in its Architects of Rock and Roll exhibit, said the decision was a matter of changing standards. “The museum world is moving away from exhibiting remains\" Executive Director Greg Harris told CNN. \"Museum community colleagues across the country agree.\"\n“I’m more than disappointed,” Lance Freed told the Cleveland Plain Dealer in reference to the museum’s decision. “After 12 years, we thought this was going to be his final resting place.”\nLance Freed’s disappointment is understandable. He wants his father's memory and contributions honored in a meaningful -- and permanent -- way.\nOn the Run tour lands at Rose Bowl (Lawrence K. Ho/Los Angeles Times)\nBut the consensus that Beyoncé somehow sullied sacred ground is as predictable as it is puzzling.\nAfter all, her crossover fame is at least partly due to groundwork laid by Freed. She rules the pop world – black and white – because (a) she's good and (b) barriers were broken decades before the 32-year-old singer was born. \nIn another era, she likely would have been relegated to Billboard’s “Race Records” charts, music by African American artists for African American listeners, or the segregated world of “black music.”\nFreed – along with plenty of other pioneers including Ruth Brown, Little Richard and Berry Gordy -- were instrumental in moving those boundaries.\nThe fact that Beyoncé is now being honored by an institution that’s been criticized for not representing enough female or R&B and hip-hop artists is a good thing, and there’s no evidence her inclusion came at the expense of Freed’s place in its halls.\nBeyoncé's inclusion simply happened to overlap with Freed’s exit. In a sense, what better way to honor the man who helped make moments like this one happen?",
"Rock Hall of Fame boots DJ Alan Freed’s ashes - NY Daily News\nRock and Roll Hall of Fame boots out DJ Alan Freed’s ashes\nRock Hall of Fame boots DJ Alan Freed’s ashes\nThe Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum in Cleveland reportedly asked the family of legendary DJ Alan Freed to collect the late radio personality’s ashes, which were on display.\n(George Rose/Getty Images)\nNEW YORK DAILY NEWS\nMonday, August 4, 2014, 4:50 PM\nThe family of pioneering rock 'n' roll deejay Alan Freed has been told to haul his ashes out of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum.\nFreed, who died in 1965 and is widely credited with popularizing the term \"rock 'n' roll,\" started his radio career in Cleveland, where the Hall of Fame is located.\nBut the Cleveland Plain Dealer reported that the Hall has told Freed's family having his ashes on display there was just a little too creepy.\nLance Freed, Alan's son, told the Plain Dealer that Hall Executive Director Greg Harris said to him, \"There's something strange, people walk past the exhibit and your dad's ashes and they scratch their heads and can't figure out what this thing is, and we'd like you to come pick up the ashes.\"\nAlan Freed was a WABC disc jockey in New York in April 1957.\n(Anonymous/ASSOCIATED PRESS)\nHarris told the paper that the Hall still \"loves\" Alan Freed and will keep all his artifacts except the ashes.\nHe said that when the Freed family moved the ashes from Hartsdale, N.Y., to the Hall in 2002, the plan all along was that they would be returned.\nLance Freed said that his father's other artifacts are being moved to a different part of the Hall — \"pushed aside,\" as he phrased it.\nA selection of Alan Freed posters are stored at the library and archives of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum.\n(Tony Dejak/ASSOCIATED PRESS)\nFreed started his rock 'n' roll career in Cleveland in the early 1950s. He called himself Moondog and hosted what is often called the first rock 'n' roll concert with his 1952 Moondog Coronation Ball.\nHe came to New York in 1954 and was one of the leading DJs, along with others like Dr. Jive and Hal Jackson, in the early explosion of rock 'n' roll.\nHe left New York after being ensnared in the payola scandal of 1959. He worked briefly in Miami before he died in 1965 at the age of 43.\nTags:",
"Cleveland readies for rock 'n' roll party - The Boston Globe\nMusic\nCleveland readies for rock 'n' roll party\nMetallica (James Hetfield, left, and Kirk Hammett) will be among the inductees into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland. (JUSTINE HUNT/GLOBE STAFF/FILE)\n|\nText size – +\nCLEVELAND - The city that bills itself as the birthplace of rock 'n' roll is going through some rocky times of its own.\nCleveland's foreclosure rates are alarmingly high, unemployment is skyrocketing, its steel mills are going idle and federal officials are investigating alleged government corruption.\nA high-flying rock party might be just the distraction this troubled city needs.\nTomorrow, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame will hold its induction ceremonies in the city where it is based for the first time in more than a decade. A week's worth of events are leading up to the induction of heavy metal band Metallica, rap pioneers Run-DMC, soul singer Bobby Womack, guitarist and former Yardbirds member Jeff Beck, and rhythm & blues doo-wop group Little Anthony and the Imperials.\n\"These are difficult times and Cleveland has a chip on its shoulder,\" Rock Hall Director Terry Stewart said. \"The idea is to do a great job this time and everybody will say let's do it again.\"\nAlthough the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum is in Cleveland, the induction ceremony usually is held at the Waldorf Astoria in New York, the city where the hall's foundation is based. The foundation tentatively has agreed to let Cleveland host the event every three years, if this year's ceremony is successful and funding is available. The last time Cleveland hosted the ceremony was in 1997.\nThe tab for this year's ceremony is an estimated $5 million, with most of the money coming from Cleveland, civic organizations, and sponsors.\nThe city is putting on the glitz to make sure it will be ready when the spotlight hits it this weekend. Already, $500,000 has been spent to spruce up downtown's 87-year-old Public Hall, the site of the ceremony. Cleveland is also making a greater effort to clean downtown streets of litter and debris.\nThe induction ceremony will give the city a chance to temporarily set aside its troubles and remind the music world of Cleveland's key role in the creation of rock 'n' roll.\nCleveland disc jockey Alan Freed in the 1950s is widely credited with popularizing the music and the term rock 'n' roll. Legendary bands in their early years, including the Beatles and Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band, made sure to sample that fan base with Cleveland appearances. British rock star Ian Hunter even paid homage to the city with the song \"Cleveland Rocks,\" which later became the theme for \"The Drew Carey Show,\" which had some scenes and its storyline set in Cleveland.\nCleveland's importance to rock music became a reason why the hall's New York foundation erected the steel and glass triangular shrine here in 1995.\nStewart regularly hears criticism of an out-of-town induction ceremony, most often when he's trying to raise money in Cleveland. Concerns increased last year, when a Rock Hall Annex opened in New York.\nStewart said the Annex was designed to display some exhibits and to make the hall generally more well known and isn't a test to see if New York might be a better location.\nHenry LoConti, 79, who in 1966 opened one of Cleveland's more well known rock music performance nightclubs, the Agora, is among those relieved that the ceremony has returned to the city.\n\"It adds legitimacy to the fact that the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame is here,\" he said.\n© Copyright 2009 Globe Newspaper Company.\nLOG IN TO COMMENT OR TO SEE OUR NEW FEATURES\nYOU MUST LOG IN to see all of the features available on our new Personal Pages.\nWant to automatically create your own Personal Page?\nJust add a comment and click on your screen name.\nSorry, we could not find your e-mail or password.\nPlease try again, or click here to retrieve your password.\nExisting users"
],
"title": [
"Commentary: Pittsburgh Rock Hall of Fame has to dig deeper ...",
"Alan Freed - The History of Rock and Roll",
"alan-freeds-ashes-removed-from-the-rock-hall-will-stay-in ...",
"The Straight Dope: Who invented the term \"rock 'n' roll\"?",
"Rock 'n' Roll History For July 10 - - Classic Rock Bands",
"Alan Freed or Beyonce? False debate rages around Rock Hall",
"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame boots out DJ Alan Freed’s ashes",
"Cleveland readies for rock 'n' roll party - The Boston Globe"
],
"url": [
"http://www.post-gazette.com/ae/music/2014/01/19/Pittsburgh-Rock-Hall-of-Fame-has-to-dig-deeper-for-its-inductees/stories/201401190120",
"http://history-of-rock.com/freed.htm",
"http://www.usatoday.com/story/life/entertainthis/2014/08/17/alan-freeds-ashes-removed-from-the-rock-hall-will-stay-in-cleveland/77347998/",
"http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/382/who-invented-the-term-rock-n-roll",
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What were Gary Gilmore's final words before his execution in 1977?
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"Gary Mark Gilmore (December 4, 1940 – January 17, 1977) was an American criminal who gained international notoriety for demanding the implementation of his death sentence for two murders he committed in Utah. After the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a new series of death penalty statutes in the 1976 decision Gregg v. Georgia, he became the first person in almost ten years to be executed in the United States. These new statutes avoided the problems under the 1972 decision in Furman v. Georgia, which had resulted in earlier death penalty statutes being deemed as \"cruel and unusual\" punishment, and therefore unconstitutional. (The Supreme Court had previously ordered all states to commute death sentences to life imprisonment after Furman v. Georgia.) Gilmore was executed by firing squad in 1977. \n\nEarly life\n\nGary Mark Gilmore was born in McCamey, Texas, on December 4, 1940, the second of four sons, to Frank and Bessie Gilmore. The other sons were Frank, Jr., Gaylen, and the writer and music journalist Mikal Gilmore. Frank Gilmore Sr. (1890–1962), an alcoholic con man, had other wives and families, none of whom he supported. On a whim he married Bessie (née Brown) (1914 – June 1980), a Mormon outcast from Provo, Utah, in Sacramento, California. Gary was born while they were living in Texas under the pseudonym of Coffman to avoid the law. Frank christened his son Faye Robert Coffman, but once they left Texas, Bessie changed it to Gary Mark. This name change proved to be a sore point years later. Frank's mother Fay kept the original \"Faye Coffman\" birth certificate, and when Gary found it two decades later, he assumed he must be either illegitimate or someone else's son. He seized on this as the reason that he and his father never got along; he became very upset and walked out on his mother when she tried to explain the name change to him. \n\nThe theme of illegitimacy, real or imagined, was common in the Gilmore family. Frank, Sr.'s mother Fay Gilmore once told Bessie that Frank, Sr.'s father was a famous magician who had passed through Sacramento, where she was living. Bessie researched this at the library and concluded that Frank was the illegitimate son of Harry Houdini. In fact Houdini was only sixteen years old in 1890, the year of Frank Gilmore's birth, and did not begin his career as a magician until the following year. Mikal Gilmore, Gary's youngest brother, believes the story to be false, but has stated that both his father and mother believed it.\n\nDuring Gary's childhood, the family frequently relocated throughout the Western United States, with Frank supporting them by selling fake magazine subscriptions. Gary had a troubled relationship with his father, whom his youngest brother Mikal described as a \"cruel and unreasonable man.\" Frank Gilmore, Sr. was strict and quick to anger, and would often whip his sons Frank, Jr., Gary and Gaylen with a razor strop, whip or a belt for little or no reason. Less often, he would beat his wife. He mellowed somewhat with age: Mikal reported that Frank whipped him only once, and never did it again after Mikal told him, \"I hate you.\" In addition, Frank and Bessie would argue loudly and verbally abuse each other. Frank would anger Bessie by calling her crazy, and defame Brigham Young, the second president and prophet of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, as \"Bring 'em Young.\" Bessie would retaliate by calling him a \"Cat-licker\" [Catholic] and threatening to kill him some night. This abuse continued for years, and caused considerable turmoil within the Gilmore family. \n\nIn 1952, the Gilmore family settled in Portland, Oregon. As an adolescent, Gary began engaging in petty crime. Although Gilmore had an IQ test score of 133, gained high scores on both aptitude and achievement tests, and showed artistic talent, he dropped out of high school in the ninth grade. He ran away from home with a friend to Texas, returning to Portland after several months. At the age of 14, he started a small car theft ring with friends, which resulted in his first arrest. He was released to his father with a warning. Two weeks later he was back in court on another car theft charge. The court remanded him to the MacLaren Reform School for Boys in Oregon, from which he was released the following year. He was sent to Oregon State Correctional Institution on another car theft charge in 1960, and was released later that year. In 1961, Frank, Sr., was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer; he died at the end of June 1962, while Gary was still in prison. One of his jailers told Gary when his father died. Despite his dysfunctional relationship with his father, Gary was devastated and tried to kill himself by slitting his wrists.\n\nCriminal career\n\nIn 1962, Gilmore was arrested again and sent to the Oregon State Penitentiary for armed robbery and assault. He faced assault and armed robbery charges again in 1964, and was given a 15-year prison sentence as a habitual offender. A prison psychiatrist diagnosed him with antisocial personality disorder with intermittent psychotic decompensation. He was granted conditional release in 1972 to live weekdays in a halfway house in Eugene, Oregon, and study art at a community college. Gilmore never registered and, within a month, he was arrested and convicted of armed robbery.\n\nBecause of his violent behavior in prison, Gilmore was transferred in 1975 from Oregon to the maximum security federal prison in Marion, Illinois.\n\nGilmore was conditionally paroled in April 1976 and went to Provo, Utah, to live with a distant cousin, Brenda Nicol, who tried to help him find work. Gilmore worked briefly at his uncle Vern Damico's shoe repair store and then for an insulation company, but he soon returned to his previous lifestyle of stealing, drinking, and getting into fights. Gilmore, then 35, had a relationship with Nicole Baker, a 19-year-old widow and divorcee who had two young children. The relationship was at first casual, but soon became intense and strained due to Gilmore's aggressive behavior and pressure from Baker's family to stop her seeing him. \n\nMurders\n\nOn the evening of July 19, 1976, Gilmore robbed and murdered Max Jensen, a gas station employee in Orem, Utah. The next evening, he robbed and murdered Bennie Bushnell, a motel manager in Provo. Although both men had complied with his demands, he murdered each of them. While disposing of the .22 caliber pistol used in both killings, Gilmore accidentally shot himself in his right hand, leaving a trail of blood to the service garage, where he had left his truck to be repaired prior to murdering Bushnell. Garage mechanic Michael Simpson witnessed Gilmore hiding the gun in the bushes. Seeing the blood on Gilmore's crudely bandaged right hand when he approached to pay for the repairs to his truck, and hearing on a police scanner of the shooting at the nearby motel, Simpson wrote down Gilmore's license number and called the police. Gilmore's cousin, Brenda, turned him in to police shortly after he phoned her asking for bandages and painkillers for the injury to his hand. The Utah State Police apprehended Gilmore as he tried to drive out of Provo, and he gave up without attempting to flee. Although he was charged with the murders of Jensen and Bushnell, the first case was never brought to trial, apparently because there were no eyewitnesses.\n\nTrial\n\nGilmore's murder trial began at the Provo courthouse on October 5, 1976 and lasted two days. Peter Arroyo, a motel guest, testified that he saw Gilmore in the motel registration office that night. After taking the money, Gilmore allegedly ordered Bushnell to lie down on the floor and then shot him. Gerald F. Wilkes, an FBI ballistics expert, matched the two shell casings and the bullet that killed Bushnell to the gun hidden in the bush, and a patrolman testified that he had traced Gilmore's trail of blood to that same bush. Gilmore's two court-appointed lawyers, Michael Esplin and Craig Snyder, made no attempt to cross-examine the majority of the state's witnesses, and rested without calling any witnesses for the defense. Gilmore protested, and the following day asked the judge if he could take the stand in his own defense, perhaps arguing that due to the dissociation and lack of control he felt at the time, he had a good case for insanity. His attorneys presented the findings of four separate psychiatrists, all of whom had said that Gilmore was aware of what he was doing and that he knew it was wrong at the time. While he did have an antisocial personality disorder, which may have been aggravated by drinking and drugs, he did not meet the legal criteria for insanity. Gilmore withdrew his request. On October 7, the jury retired to deliberate and by mid-day, they had returned with a guilty verdict. Later that day, the jury unanimously recommended the death penalty due to the special circumstances of the crime.\n\nGary chose to not pursue habeas corpus relief in federal court. His mother, Bessie, sued for a stay of execution on his behalf. In a five-to-four decision, the US Supreme Court refused to hear his mother's claim. The Court's per curiam opinion said that the defendant had waived his rights by not pursuing them. At the time, Utah had two methods of execution — firing squad or hanging. Believing a hanging could be botched, Gilmore chose the former, declaring, \"I'd prefer to be shot.\" The execution was set for November 15 at 8 AM.\n\nAgainst his express wishes, Gilmore received several stays of execution through the efforts of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). The last of these occurred just hours before the re-scheduled execution date of January 17. That stay was overturned at 7:30 AM, and the execution was allowed to proceed as planned. At a Board of Pardons hearing in November 1976, Gilmore said of the efforts by the ACLU and others to prevent his execution: \"They always want to get in on the act. I don't think they have ever really done anything effective in their lives. I would like them all — including that group of reverends and rabbis from Salt Lake City — to butt out. This is my life and this is my death. It's been sanctioned by the courts that I die and I accept that.\"\n\nDuring the time Gilmore was on death row awaiting his execution, he attempted suicide twice; the first time on November 16 after the first stay was issued, and again one month later on December 16.\n\nExecution\n\nGilmore was executed on January 17, 1977, at 8:07 a.m. by firing squad at Utah State Prison in Draper, Utah. The night before, Gilmore had requested an all-night gathering of friends and family at the prison mess hall. On the evening before his execution, he was served a last meal of steak, potatoes, milk and coffee but consumed only the milk and coffee. His uncle, Vern Damico, who attended the gathering, later claimed to have smuggled in three small, 50ml Jack Daniel's whiskey bottles which Gilmore supposedly consumed.\n\nIn the morning at the time of execution, Gilmore was transported to an abandoned cannery behind the prison, which served as its death house. He was strapped to a chair, with a wall of sandbags placed behind him to trap the bullets. Five gunmen, local police officers, stood concealed behind a curtain with five small holes, through which they aimed their rifles. When asked for any last words, Gilmore simply replied, \"Let's do it.\" The Rev. Thomas Meersman, the Roman Catholic prison chaplain, administered the last rites to Gilmore. After the prison physician cloaked him in a black hood, Gilmore uttered his last words to Meersman: \"Dominus vobiscum\" (Latin, translation: \"The Lord be with you.\") Meersman replied, \"Et cum spiritu tuo\" (\"And with your spirit.\") \n\nIn Utah, firing squads consist of five volunteer law enforcement officers from the county in which the conviction of the offender took place. The five executioners were equipped with .30-30-caliber rifles and off-the-shelf Winchester 150-grain (9.7 g) SilverTip ammunition. The condemned was restrained and hooded, and the shots were fired at a distance of 20 feet (6 m), aiming at the chest. According to his brother Mikal Gilmore's memoir Shot in the Heart, Utah's tradition dictated that a firing squad comprise four men with live rounds, and one with a blank round, so that the shooters could not be certain as to who fired the fatal shots. However, upon inspecting the clothes worn by his brother Gary at his execution, Mikal noted five holes in the shirt—indicating, he wrote, that \"the state of Utah, apparently, had taken no chances on the morning that it put my brother to death.\"\n\nGilmore had requested that his organs be donated for transplant purposes. Within hours of the execution, two people received his corneas. His body was sent for autopsy and was cremated later that day. The following day, his ashes were scattered from an airplane over Spanish Fork, Utah. \n\nRepresentation in other media\n\nAs Gilmore was the first person in the United States executed since the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1976, his story had immense cultural resonance at the time. It continues to influence the works of writers, artists and advertisers in the early 21st century.\n\nBefore his execution, the December 11, 1976, episode of NBC's Saturday Night Live (Season 2, Episode 10) featured guest host Candice Bergen and the cast singing a Christmas-themed medley entitled \"Let's Kill Gary Gilmore For Christmas.\" Dressed in winter attire and surrounded by fake snow, the performers sang the medley of familiar Christmas carols with altered lyrics. Lyrics set to \"Winter Wonderland\" included this line: \"In the meadow we can build a snowman / One with Gary Gilmore packed inside / We'll ask him, 'Are you dead yet?' He'll say, 'No, man' / But we'll wait out the frostbite till he dies.\" A later episode of Saturday Night Live, on October 20, 1979, featured guest host Eric Idle performing impersonations while strapped to a stretcher, assisted by orderlies. With the stretcher standing on end, Idle covered his eyes with a black blindfold and announced it as an impersonation of Gary Gilmore.\n\nTelevision comedies have referred to the Gilmore execution, specifically his final words, \"Let's do this.\" The Seinfeld episode, \"The Jacket,\" originally included a reference to Gary Gilmore's final words, but the scene was changed during the final shoot. In the deleted scene, Jerry is trying to decide upon buying the titular jacket, when he remarks to Elaine: \"Well, in the immortal words of Gary Gilmore 'Let's do this.'\" On the Roseanne episode, \"The Wedding,\" Roseanne's daughter Darlene is asked if she is ready to get married. Darlene responds with a similar punchline, \"Well in the words of Gary Gilmore, 'Let's do this.'\" On NYPD Blue, Andy Sipowicz cracks \"Let's do this,\" as his wedding is about to begin, then explains further, \"That's what that guy in Utah said...'Let's do this.' He said that to the firing squad just before they whacked him.\"\n\nThe founder of advertising agency Wieden+Kennedy, Dan Wieden credits the inspiration for his \"Just Do It\" Nike slogan to Gilmore's last words.\n\nNorman Mailer wrote a novel, The Executioner's Song, based on Gilmore's life; it won the Pulitzer Prize. Notable for its portrayal of Gilmore and the anguish surrounding the murders he committed, the book expressed Mailer's thinking about the national debate over the revival of capital punishment. Another writer to blend fact with fiction was Colombian writer Rafael Chaparro Madiedo, who featured Gilmore as one of the main characters of his 1992 novel Opio en las Nubes, which won the National Prize. \n\nIn 1982, The Executioner's Song was adapted by Mailer for a television movie of the same name starring Tommy Lee Jones as Gilmore, and co-starring Christine Lahti, Eli Wallach and Rosanna Arquette. Jones won an Emmy Award for his portrayal of Gilmore. Gilmore's brother's memoir Shot in the Heart was adapted as an HBO movie. Artist Matthew Barney's film Cremaster 2 (1999), featured Gilmore as the main character; it was the second of five films in the series The Cremaster Cycle. Played by an actress, the metamorphosed character corresponding to Gilmore appears in the beginning of Cremaster 3.\n\nJack Nicholson's performance in The Postman Always Rings Twice was reportedly inspired in part by Gilmore. \n\nWelsh playwright Dic Edwards dramatised Gilmore's life in his 1995 play Utah Blue.\n\nOther references\n\nIn the RiffTrax of Independence Day, Mike Nelson makes reference to Gilmore's last words, relating them to those of the President (played by Bill Pullman) during the transition into the third act.\n\nMany musicians have explored the Gilmore case. In 1976, The Adverts had a top 20 hit in the UK with the song \"Gary Gilmore's Eyes\". The lyrics describe an eye donor recipient realizing his new eyes came from the executed murderer. The song was later covered by German punk rock band Die Toten Hosen and a country version of the song was recorded by Dean Schlabowske. In 1978, Los Angeles punk band The Deadbeats released a song called \"Let's Shoot Maria\" which featured the chorus, \"Gonna finish off what Gary Gilmore started.\" Also in 1976, New York City experimental punk band Chain Gang released the song \"Gary Gilmore and the Island of Dr. Moreau\" as the B-side to their single \"Son of Sam\" about a contemporary serial killer who was still at large. The Police's song \"Bring on the Night\", from their 1979 album Reggatta de Blanc, speculated on Gary Gilmore's possible feelings on the evening before the execution took place. In 1980, The Judy's released the song \"How's Gary?\" on their album Wonderful World of Appliances. The song presumably asks Gary Gilmore's mother what's wrong with him, saying that he never comes out to play anymore. The song also inquires about the holes in his vest and why he is wearing a blindfold.\n\nSeveral playwrights have integrated the Gilmore story into their work in one way or another. The Oakland-based performance artist Monte Cazazza sent out photos of himself in an electric chair on the day of the execution. One of these was mistakenly printed in a Hong Kong newspaper as the real execution. Cazazza was also photographed alongside COUM Transmissions/Throbbing Gristle members Genesis P-Orridge and Cosey Fanni Tutti for the \"Gary Gilmore Memorial Society\" postcard, in which the three artists posed blindfolded and tied to chairs with loaded guns pointed at them to depict Gilmore's execution. In Christopher Durang's play Beyond Therapy (1983), the character Bruce claims that he \"wanted to see Gary Gilmore executed on television.\""
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"The execution of Gary Gilmore - Jan 17, 1977 - HISTORY.com\nThe execution of Gary Gilmore\nShare this:\nThe execution of Gary Gilmore\nAuthor\nThe execution of Gary Gilmore\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nGary Gilmore, convicted in the double murder of an elderly couple, is shot to death by a firing squad in Utah, becoming the first person to be executed in the United States since the death penalty was reinstated in 1976.\nIn 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that, in violation of the eighth Amendment to the Constitution, the death penalty qualified as “cruel and unusual punishment,” primarily because states used capital punishment in “arbitrary and capricious ways,” especially in regard to race. However, in 1976, with 66 percent of Americans supporting the death penalty, the court ended the constitutional ban on capital punishment, provided that states create specific guidelines for imposing death sentences. In 1977, Gary Gilmore, a career criminal who had murdered the elderly couple because they would not lend him their car, was the first person to be executed since the end of the ban. Defiantly facing a firing squad, Gilmore’s last words to his executioners before they shot him through the heart were “Let’s do it.”\nFact Check We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, contact us !\nGet This Day In History every morning in your inbox!",
"BBC ON THIS DAY | 17 | 1977: Gilmore executed by firing squad\nAbout This Site | Text Only\n1977: Gilmore executed by firing squad\nGary Gilmore, the convicted murderer, was executed today by firing squad in the Utah state prison in Salt Lake City.\nThis is the first execution to have been carried out in the United States for almost 10 years.\nGilmore, 36, was sentenced to death for the murder in 1976 of a motel clerk in Provo, Utah.\nAn appeals court in Denver overturned a restraining order on the execution in the early hours of this morning.\nLet's do it\nGary Gilmore before being executed\nIn his closing words, one of the judges emphasised that Mr Gilmore should take responsibility for insisting that his own execution go ahead.\n\"Among other people who have rights, Mr Gilmore has his own. If an error is being made and the execution goes forward, he brought that on himself,\" said Judge Lewis.\nWithin an hour of the ruling Gary Gilmore was dead. The execution took place in a converted prison cannery in front of around 20 witnesses at 0806 local time.\nAfter the legal order had been read, Gilmore's last words were: \"Let's do it.\"\nA hood was placed over his head, a target attached to his t-shirt, and the five-man firing squad took aim and shot from behind a screen.\nSo that none of his executioners could be sure they had fired a mortal round, one of the rifles was loaded with a blank.\nLaverne Damico, Gilmore's uncle and witness at the scene, said his nephew \"died like he wanted to die, with dignity. He got his wish.\"\nGilmore's body was taken to the University of Utah Medical Center where his organs will be used for medical research.",
"The 1977 Execution of Gary Gilmore | Utah Communication History Encyclopedia\nUtah Communication History Encyclopedia\nThe 1977 Execution of Gary Gilmore\nby ALY ANDERSON\nGary Gilmore was the first person executed in the United States after the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a new series of death penalty statutes in 1976. He committed two murders in Utah, one on July 19, 1976, and another one the next night. He was found to be guilty and sentenced to the death penalty after the recent Gregg v. Georgia (1976) case overturned the prior Furman v. Georgia (1972) case that deemed the death penalty unconstitutional. Gilmore became an instant celebrity when he demanded that his death sentence be carried out.\nBefore he was sentenced to death, he tried to take his own life two times and great efforts were made to save him so he could be executed. When the day finally came for him to be executed, he was killed by a firing squad in Draper, Utah. Some of his famous last words before his death were, “Let’s do it.” Before Gilmore was executed he chose to donate his corneas for transplant purposes and shortly after his death two people received them. It was now January 17, 1977, he was finally gone, but his story would be told again in many mediums in pop culture in the future. He has shaped many genres of American culture with his unique character, controversial murders and trial, and most of all his execution and eye donation. (“Gary Gilmore”)\nOn January 31, 1977, TIME described the setting of Gilmore’s execution: “It was an old mahogany office chair with a black vinyl seat and back. There, in an old tannery known as the Slaughterhouse in the southwest corner of the Utah State Prison, sat Gary Mark Gilmore, 36, freshly shaven and wearing a black T shirt, crumpled white trousers and red, white, and blue sneakers. His neck, waist, wrists and feet were loosely bound to the chair. Twenty-six feet away hung a sailcloth partition with five slits. Hidden behind the curtain stood five riflemen armed with .30-.30 deer rifles, four loaded with steel-jacketed shells, the fifth with a blank.” As this describes, Gary Gilmore’s death itself became well known to society, and it was also the aftermath of his death that had an effect on pop culture.\nOne of the most influential and well known things that came from Gilmore’s execution was the current Nike slogan. Before Gilmore was executed, he was asked if he had any last words. He replied with, “Let’s do it.” This later inspired Dan Wieden of Wieden+Kennedy, one of the largest independently owned advertising agencies, to come up with the idea for the Nike slogan, “Just Do It.” Wieden, the agency’s cofounder, said he wanted to appeal to women who had just started walking and also to world-class athletes. For some reason, when he was brainstorming he thought of Gary Gilmore and his last few words. He remembered how at a hard time like Gilmore’s execution he still had it in him to push through, hence the origin of the “Just Do It” slogan. (Wieden)\nOn top of inspiring a well-known slogan, Gilmore’s execution also became part of TV pop culture. References were seen on Roseanne and Saturday Night Live following the execution. During the December 11, 1976, episode of NBC’s Saturday Night Live, host Candice Bergen and the cast sang a Christmas-themed melody titled, “Let’s Kill Gary Gilmore for Christmas.” Set to the tune of “Winter Wonderland,” a few lyrics went like this, “In the meadow we can build a snowman / One with Gary Gilmore packed inside / We’ll ask him, ‘Are you dead yet?’ He’ll say, ‘No, man’ / But we’ll wait out the frostbite till he dies.”\nThen, during an episode of Roseanne titled, “The Wedding,” that aired on May 7, 1996, Roseanne’s daughter Darlene is asked if she is ready to get married. Darlene responds, “Well, in the words of Gary Gilmore, ‘Let’s do it!'” The references on these popular TV shows illustrate that Gary Gilmore’s story continued to be told — even twenty years later — and the phrase that both of the shows used were his famous last words of “Let’s do it.”\nThe same year that Gilmore was executed, 1977, a popular English punk band, The Adverts, debuted a song titled, “ Gary Gilmore’s Eyes .” This song was about how Gilmore’s corneas had been donated when he was executed and what it was like to have just received them in the hospital. The lyrics go as follows: “I’m lying in a hospital / I’m pinned against the bed / A stethoscope upon my heart / A hand against my head / They’re peeling off the bandages / I’m wincing in the light / The nurse is looking anxious / And she’s quivering in fright, I’m looking through Gary Gilmore’s eyes.”\nAs impressive as it seems to have one popular band write a song about you, it is even more impressive to have two popular bands write songs about you. In addition to The Adverts’ song, The Police released an album that included a track titled, “Bring on the Night,” which is an ode to Gary Gilmore’s ultimate death wish. (“About this album”) These are a few of the lyrics: “The afternoon has gently passed me by / The evening spreads its sail against the sky / Waiting for tomorrow, just another day / God bid yesterday good-bye.” This demonstrates how Gilmore’s story and execution had an impressive effect on music and society in general.\nLarry Schiller interviewed Gary Gilmore for an article in Playboy magazine on April 1977. Since this was during the time Gilmore was in the spotlight for his trial, this article made his story even more of a mainstream topic than it already was and one that would be read for leisure on top of being read in hard-news mediums. It is unusual that hard-news stories appear in leisure publications, too, but since this story was so interesting and intriguing, people who took a variety of media were reading about Gilmore’s story. This interview had many controversial questions and after reading it, one might feel more strongly about Gilmore being sentenced to death.\nAlong with the songs and TV references, there were also books that were written about Gilmore’s execution and his life. Two years after Gilmore’s death, The Executioner’s Song, written in 1979, depicted the events surrounding the execution. It is also notable for speaking about the debate about capital punishment, in which this book takes a central position. This book by Norman Mailer won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1980 and in 1982 it was made in to a TV movie titled, The Executioner’s Song, that starred Tommy Lee Jones. Jones won an Emmy award for outstanding lead actor in a miniseries or a special in 1983 for this role. Then in 1995, Gary’s brother, Mikal Gilmore, wrote a memoir, Shot in the Heart, which detailed his relationship with Gary and their troubled family. The book traced the family’s genealogy starting with the original Mormon settlers and then continued to Gary’s execution and its aftermath.\nGary Gilmore was the first person to be executed since the re-installment of the death penalty in 1976. He became an instant celebrity for events surrounding his execution and death including his famous last words and the many effects he had on pop culture that would last for decades to come.\nThis event highlighted the death penalty, which is still a hot topic today. Back then it placed the death penalty on the main stage in Utah and whenever people might see the re-runs of Roseanne or Saturday Night Live with Gilmore references they will be brought back to that time and think about how Utah was the first place to execute Gilmore after the statutes were changed. Still today this could leave a bad taste in people’s mouths and they might think that Utah is a police state that is pro-gun and pro-death penalty even though that happened several decades ago and not all people who live in Utah share those beliefs.\nRecently, a judge approved the request of an inmate to be sentenced to death by firing squad in Utah in April 2010. This will be Utah’s first execution since 1999 and only the third man to be killed by a firing squad in Utah since the U.S. Supreme court reinstated capital punishment in 1976 when Gilmore was executed.\nAly Anderson graduated in May 2010 from the University of Utah with a bachelor of science degree in mass communication.\nSources\n“After Gilmore, Who’s next to Die,” TIME, January 31, 1977.\n“Firing Squad Executes Killer,” The New York Times, January 27, 1996.",
"Gary Gilmore (1940 - 1977) - Find A Grave Memorial\nSalt Lake County\nUtah, USA\nConvicted Murderer. First person to be executed in the United States when the U.S. Supreme Court reinstated the death penalty in 1976 after a ten year hiatus. Gary Gilmore dropped out of school at age fourteen and was a career criminal. He was on parole in the summer of 1976 when he murdered a motel clerk and a gas station attendant in two separate crimes which were committed a day apart. He was turned in to the police by his own cousin, who didn't want him to commit a third murder the following day. Gilmore wanted a speedy trial and was sentenced to death after his conviction for capital murder. He was one of the few people who fought the justice system to ensure that he would be executed quickly. His wish was carried out six months after the crimes on January 17, 1977, when he was executed by a firing squad in Utah. Norman Mailer wrote \"The Executioner's Song,\" which detailed the life of Gary Gilmore. The book won the Pulitzer Prize for 1980. Mailer's book was later produced into a made for TV movie. Gary Gilmore's last words were, \"Let's do it.\" (bio by: Anthony B)",
"ExecutedToday.com » 1977: Gary Gilmore\n1977: Gary Gilmore\nJanuary 17th, 2008 Headsman\nOn this date in 1977, Gary Gilmore uttered the last words “Let’s do it” and was shot by a five-person firing squad in Utah as the curtain raised on a “modern” death penalty era in the United States.\nFamous for volunteering for death — he had nothing but disdain for his outside advocates and angrily prevented his own lawyers pursuing last-minute appeals — Gilmore rocketed through the justice system at a pace now unthinkable.\nMere days after courts blessed the resumption of executions in 1976, the career criminal — just paroled from a decade mostly behind bars in Oregon — murdered two people in the Provo, Utah, area. He was convicted in a three-day trial in October 1976 … and dead little more than three months later.\nOwing to his milestone status and the unfamiliar public persona he cut insisting on his own death, Gilmore left a trail of cultural artifacts far surpassing his personal stature as small-time crook.\nHe was lampooned in an early episode of Saturday Night Live . His public desire to donate his eyes (the wish was granted) inspired a top-20 punk hit :\nNorman Mailer wrote a book about Gilmore ( The Executioner’s Song ) and adapted it into an award-winning television movie. Gary’s brother Mikal published his own memoir ( Shot in the Heart ), later made into an HBO movie.\nIn a weirder vein, Gilmore is the touchstone for the surrealistic film Cremaster 2 , in which magician Harry Houdini — who might have been Gilmore’s grandfather — is portrayed by Norman Mailer.\nGary Gilmore’s was the first execution of any kind in the United States since June 2, 1967. According to the Espy file , it was also the first firing squad execution since James Rodgers was shot in Utah March 30, 1960; only one of the other 1,098 men and women put to death since Gilmore — John Taylor in 1996 , also in Utah — faced a firing squad. (Update: After this post was published, another Utah condemned man also opted for a firing squad execution: Ronnie Lee Gardner , shot in 2010.)\nBoth Gilmore and Taylor chose to be shot in preference to hanging. The firing squad is all but extinct in the U.S., though it still remains on the books in some form in Idaho, Oklahoma and (for prisoners convicted before 2004) Utah.",
"Gary Mark Gilmore #1\n10-07-76\nSummary:\nOn Monday, July 19, 1976, Max Jensen went to work as usual at the self-service gas station in Orem, Utah. That night, Gilmore had a spat with his girlfriend and went driving with her mentally unstable younger sister, April. At around 10:30 pm he told April he wanted to make a phone call. He left her in the truck and walked away. Gilmore went around the corner, out of her sight, and into the Sinclair service station. He spotted the attendant and quickly saw that no one else was around. He walked up to Max Jensen and pulled out a .22 Browning Automatic. He instructed Jensen to empty his pockets, which the young Mormon quickly did. Then he told Jensen to go into the bathroom and lie down on the floor with his arms under his body. Jensen got into the position. He was obeying everything that Gilmore said. Then inexplicably, Gilmore put the gun close to Jensen's head. \"This one is for me,\" he said, and fired. Then he placed the muzzle right against Jensen's skull and shot him once again, this time \"for Nicole.\" (girlfriend Nicole Baker Barrett)\nGilmore spent the night with April at a motel and the following night, he walked into the City Center Motel in Provo, not far from Brigham Young University. He confronted the attendant, Ben Bushnell, who lived on the premises with his wife and baby. Gilmore told Ben to give him the cash box and get down on the floor. Then he shot Bushnell in the head. Bushnell's wife came in, so Gilmore grabbed the cash box and left. Trying to dispose of the gun in a nearby bush, Gilmore shot himself in the hand. By Wednesday, Gilmore's cousin, Brenda Nicol, turned him into the police. Gilmore gave up near a roadblock without a fight. At first, he denied the murders, but later admitted both.\nIn October, Gilmore was tried, convicted, and sentenced to death. He chose death by firing squad and waived all appeals. Despite the efforts of other groups to stop it, 6 months after the murders, the execution was carried out. Gary Gilmore was the first person executed in the U.S. in almost 10 years. In prison most of his life and paroled only four months before the murders, Gilmore becomes a celebrity with his efforts to hasten his execution.\nCitations:\nGilmore v. Utah, 429 U.S. 1012, 97 S.Ct. 436 (1976).\nFinal / Special Meal:\nSteak, potatoes, milk and coffee.\nLast Words / Final Statement:\n�Let�s do it.�\nUtah Execution Chair for Firing Squad:\nInternet Sources:\nGary Gilmore a/k/a Gary Mark Gilmore\nBorn: 4-Dec-1940\nMurder Max Jensen, Orem, UT (9-Jul-1976)\nMurder Ben Bushnell, Provo, UT (20-Jul-1976)\nSuicide Attempt 16-Nov-1976\nShot: Firing Squad Salt Lake City, UT (17-Jan-1977)\nRisk Factors: Smoking, Alcoholism\nIs the subject of books:\nExecutioner's Song, 1979, BY: Norman Mailer\nShot in the Heart, 1994, BY: Mikal Gilmore (Gary's brother)\nGary Gilmore\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nGary Mark Gilmore (December 4, 1940 � January 17, 1977) was an American criminal and spree killer who gained international notoriety for demanding that his death sentence be fulfilled following two murders he committed in Utah. He became the first person executed in the United States after the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a new series of death penalty statutes in the 1976 decision Gregg v. Georgia (these new statutes avoiding the problems that had led earlier death penalty statutes to be deemed unconstitutional in Furman v. Georgia).\nEarly life\nGilmore was born in Waco, Texas, the second of four sons born to Frank and Bessie Gilmore. His parents drifted around the western United States while he and his brothers grew up, his father earning a living selling advertising space in magazines. Gilmore was raised in a dysfunctional family, and had a horrible relationship with his father. Gary's brother Mikal described their father as a \"cruel and unreasonable man.\" Frank Gilmore's mother claimed that he was the illegitimate son of magician Harry Houdini, who rejected his paternity. Mikal has said he believes the story is not true, however his father believed this.\nThe Gilmore family settled in Portland, Oregon in 1952. Gilmore began getting into trouble with the law as a teenager, with offenses ranging from shoplifting, car theft and assault and battery. Although Gilmore had an I.Q. of 133, had high scores on both scholastic and academic tests, and clear artistic skills, he dropped out of high school at age 14. He ran away from home with a friend to Texas to see his place of birth, returning to Portland after several months.\nBy the age of 14, Gilmore started a small car theft ring with other friends, resulting in his first arrest. He was released to his father with a warning. Two weeks later he was back in court on another car theft charge. The court ordered him, at age 14, to Oregon's MacLaren Reform School for Boys, from which he was released the following year. He was sent to Oregon State Correctional Institution on another car theft charge in 1960, and was released later that year.\nIn 1962, Gilmore was arrested and sent to the Oregon State Penitentiary for armed robbery and assault. He faced assault and armed robbery charges again in 1964, and was given a 15-year prison sentence as a habitual offender. He was granted conditional release in 1972 to live in a halfway house in Eugene, Oregon on weekdays, and study art at a community college. Gilmore never registered, and within a month he was arrested and convicted for armed robbery. Due to his violent behavior in prison, he was transferred from Oregon to the maximum security federal prison in Marion, Illinois in 1975. He was conditionally paroled in April 1976 and went to Provo, Utah to live with a distant cousin, named Brenda Nicol, who tried to help him find work. Gilmore worked briefly at his uncle Vern Damico's shoe store and for Spencer McGrath's insulation company, but he soon returned to his previous lifestyle, stealing items from stores, drinking, and getting into fights. Gilmore met and had a romance with Nicole Baker, a 19-year-old widow and divorcee, with two young children which was at first casual, but soon became intense and strained due to Gilmore's aggressive behavior and Nicole's family pressure to break off her relationship with him for a variety of reasons, including their age difference and Gilmore's unpredictable behavior.\nMurders\nOn the evening of July 19, 1976, Gilmore robbed and murdered Max Jensen, a Sinclair gas station employee in Orem, Utah. The next evening, he robbed and murdered Bennie Bushnell, a motel manager in Provo. He murdered these people even though they complied with his demands. As he disposed of his .22 caliber pistol used in both killings, he accidentally shot himself in the hand, leaving a trail of blood from the gun to the service garage where he had left his truck to be repaired shortly before the murder of Bushnell. The garage owner, seeing the blood and hearing on a police scanner of the shooting at the nearby motel, wrote down Gilmore's license number and called the police. Gilmore's cousin, Brenda, turned him in to police shortly thereafter, after he placed a phone call to her asking for bandages and painkillers for the injury to his hand. Gilmore gave up without a fight as he was trying to drive out of Provo. He was charged with the murders of Bushnell and Jensen, although the latter case never went to trial, apparently because there were no eyewitnesses.\nOn October 7, at 10:13 AM, the jury retired to consider the verdict. By mid-day, they returned with a guilty verdict. Later that day, the jury also unanimously recommended the death penalty because of special circumstances to the crime. At the time, Utah had two methods of execution � firing squad or hanging, so Judge Bullock allowed Gilmore to choose between the two. Gilmore's reply was, \"I'd prefer to be shot.\" The execution was set for Monday, November 15 at 8 a.m. Utah was the only state in the Union offering death by firing squad. It was in keeping with the Mormon doctrine of Blood Atonement, first enunciated by Brigham Young.\nIn November 1976, during a Board of Pardons hearing, Gilmore said, \"They always want to get in on the act. I don't think they have ever really done anything effective in their lives. I would like them all � including that group of reverends and rabbis from Salt Lake City � to butt out. This is my life and this is my death. It's been sanctioned by the courts that I die and I accept that.\" Gilmore received several stays of execution, brought about by the efforts of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), the last of which occurred just hours before the re-scheduled execution date of January 17. That stay was overturned at 7:30 a.m. on the morning of the 17th, and the execution was allowed to proceed as planned. During the time Gilmore was on death row awaiting his execution, he attempted suicide twice, the first time on November 16 as a result of the first stay issued, and again one month later. While incarcerated, Gilmore developed a deep dislike for two of his fellow inmates, convicted murderers and rapists Pierre Dale Selby and William Andrews, the \"Hi-Fi Murderers.\" The two were eventually executed for their crimes in 1987 and 1992 respectively.\nExecution\nGary Gilmore was executed by firing squad on January 17, 1977, at 8:07 a.m. The night before, Gilmore had requested an all-night gathering of friends and family at the prison mess hall. On the evening before his execution, he was served a last meal consisting of a steak, potatoes, milk and coffee, of which he consumed only the milk and coffee. His uncle, Vern Damico, who attended the gathering later claimed to have secretly smuggled in three small, one-ounce Jack Daniels whisky shot bottles for Gilmore which he supposedly consumed. He was then taken to an abandoned cannery behind the prison which served as the prison's death house. He was strapped to a chair, with a wall of sandbags placed behind him to absorb the bullets. Five gunmen, local police, stood concealed behind a curtain with five small holes cut for them to place their rifles through which were aimed at him. After being asked for any last words, Gilmore simply replied, \"Let's do it!\" The Rev. Thomas Meersman, the Roman Catholic prison chaplain, imparted Gilmore's last rites. After the prison physician cloaked him in a black hood, Gilmore uttered his last words to Father Meersman:\nGary: Dominus vobiscum (Latin translation: \"The Lord be with you.\") Meersman: Et cum spiritu tuo (\"And with your spirit\")[1]\nReferences in popular culture According to his brother Mikal Gilmore's memoir Shot in the Heart, Utah's tradition dictated that a firing squad comprise five men�four of them with live rounds, and one with a blank round, so that each of the shooters could cast doubt to having fired a fatal shot. However, upon inspecting the clothes worn by Gary Gilmore at his execution, Mikal noticed five holes in the shirt�indicating, he wrote, that \"the state of Utah, apparently, had taken no chances on the morning that it put my brother to death\" (p. 390).\nGilmore's story is documented in Norman Mailer's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Executioner's Song (1979), which was adapted by Mailer for the 1982 television movie of the same name starring Tommy Lee Jones as Gilmore. Jones won an Emmy Award for his portrayal of Gilmore. Gilmore's brother's memoir Shot in the Heart was made into an HBO movie starring Giovanni Ribisi, Elias Koteas, and Sam Shepard.\nThe December 11, 1976 episode of NBC's Saturday Night featured guest host Candice Bergen and the cast singing a Christmas-themed medley entitled \"Let's Kill Gary Gilmore For Christmas.\" Dressed in winter attire and surrounded by fake snow, the performers sang the medley of familiar Christmas carols with altered lyrics. Among its more memorable lyrics are set to \"Winter Wonderland\": \"In the meadow we can build a snowman / One with Gary Gilmore packed inside / We'll ask him, 'Are you dead yet?' He'll say, 'No, man' / But we'll wait out the frostbite till he dies.\" [2] Later in the TV season and subsequent to Gilmore's death, NBC re-ran the episode, but the network removed this musical sequence. In its place, NBC inserted a brief, Christmas oriented film�filmed at an airport�about people meeting friends and relatives after disembarking from airplanes. For a subsequent broadcast of this episode in 2005, NBC reinserted the original Gilmore sequence.\nThe Oakland-based performance artist Monte Cazazza sent out photos of himself in an electric chair on the day of Gilmore's execution. One of these was mistakenly printed in a Hong Kong newspaper as the real execution. Cazazza was also photographed alongside COUM Transmissions/Throbbing Gristle members Genesis P-Orridge and Cosey Fanni Tutti for the \"Gary Gilmore Memorial Society\" postcard, in which the three artists posed blindfolded and tied to chairs with actual loaded guns pointed at them to depict Gilmore's execution. [1]\nIn 1977, The Adverts had a top 20 hit in the UK with the song \"Gary Gilmore's Eyes\". The lyrics describe an eye donor recipient realizing his new eyes came from the executed murderer. The song was later covered by the German punk rock band Die Toten Hosen. A country version of the song was recorded by Dean Schlabowske.\nOn October 2, 1979 (Sting's birthday), The Police released the album Regatta de Blanc [2] which featured a track entitled \"Bring on the Night.\" This ballad, which displays Andy Summers' surreal and spacious guitar talents, is an ode to Gary Gilmore's ultimate deathwish. Gilmore is also the main character of artist Matthew Barney's Cremaster 2 (1999), the second part of The Cremaster Cycle, a series of five films dealing with surreal and controversial topics and themes.\nIn 1980, The Judy's on their Wonderful World of Appliances album released the song \"How's Gary?\" which presumably asks Gary Gilmore's mother what's wrong with him, because he never comes out to play anymore; also inquiring what the holes in his vest are and why he's wearing a silly blindfold.\nSeason 2 episode 3 of \"Seinfeld\" that aired on February 6th 1991, originally had a reference to Gary Gilmore's line of \"Let's do it\" until the scene was changed during the final shoot. In the deleted scenes from the episode Jerry is trying to decide upon buying \"The Jacket\" when he finally remarks to Elaine: \"Well, in the immortal words of Gary Gilmore 'Let's do it'\".\nOn the TV sitcomRoseanne on Season 8, Episode 23: \"The Wedding\" that aired on May 7th 1996, Roseanne's daughter, Darlene says to her just before her wedding, \" Well in the words of Gary Gilmore, \"Let's Do It!\"\". The Welsh playwright Dic Edwards dramatised Gilmore's life in his 1995 play Utah Blue.\nIn Christopher Durang's play Beyond Therapy (1983), the character Bruce claims that he \"Wanted to see Gary Gilmore executed on public television.\" Dan Wieden, founder of advertising agency Wieden+Kennedy, credits the inspiration for his \"Just Do It\" Nike slogan to \"Let�s do it\", Gary Gilmore�s last words before he was executed.\nTime Magazine (December 13, 1976)\nMonday, Dec. 13, 1976\nThe Law: Much Ado About Gary\nWhat's to become of Gilmore, the killer who wanted to die? Will they just do away with Gilmore, or will they give him another try?\nThe Ballad of Gary Gilmore\nTo all appearances, the long wait seemed almost over for Gary Mark Gilmore last week. Just as he had been demanding ever since his conviction two months ago for the murder of a 25-year-old motel clerk in Provo, Utah, Gilmore was being given the right to die. After a steamy two-hour hearing before the state board of pardons, the board voted 2 to 1 to grant the condemned man's plea that he stand \"like a man\" in front of a firing squad in the first U.S. execution in almost a decade. The following day, District Court Judge J. Robert Bullock set the execution date for sunrise, Dec. 6, just two days after Gilmore's 36th birthday. \"That's acceptable,\" Gilmore said quietly.\nThe pardon-board hearing took place, like some futuristic fantasy, on television. At 9 a.m. Gilmore was led in, his tattooed wrists manacled. He wore a white prison uniform, and he looked somewhat gaunt from his twelve-day hunger strike (he has lost about 201bs.).\nEx-Judge George W. Latimer. 75. chairman of the board, asked Gilmore if he had anything to say. Answered Gilmore: \"Your board dispenses privileges that I always thought were sought, deserved and earned. I haven't earned anything. To paraphrase Shakespeare, this is much ado about nothing. I simply accepted my sentence.\"\nGilmore repeated his earlier charge that Governor Calvin Rampton was a \"moral coward\" for staying his execution last month. As for the others who wanted to speak in his defense�the witnesses at the hearing included a right-to-life housewife and a vociferous representative of the Citizens Against Pornography and Other Crimes Committee �Gilmore was equally blunt: \"All I have to say to all of them�the rabbis, the priests, the A.C.L.U.�I'd like them to butt out. It's my life and my death.\"\n\"Courtroom graphics and Gilmore in chains,\" said TV Reporter John Hollenhorst as he sat in the studio of Salt Lake City's KSL-TV and watched the 10 p.m. news. \"The story today has all the visual elements.\" \"Most people around here want the Gilmore story to disappear because they're embarrassed by the publicity,\" said the program's producer, Janice Evans. \"But I think it's terrific.\"\nThe next day's hearing before Judge Bullock was brisk. Again the manacled prisoner was asked whether he had anything to say. Gilmore rose shakily to his feet and made one request: \"I understand, your honor, they are planning to seat me in a chair with a hood over my head. I don't want that. I don't want a hood, and I want to be standing.\"\nThe judge said he did not have the authority to set the details of the execution but would notify Warden Samuel Smith of Gilmore's request. That left only the time to be set. \"I'm going to set it at sunrise Monday,\" the judge said. \"Do you request another time?\" \"I don't request anything,\" Gilmore said.\nOutside Salt Lake's massive Zions Cooperative Mercantile Institution, a handful of pickets paraded among the Christmas shoppers with sandwich boards demanding RELEASE GILMORE NOW. \"The man I see there is not a guilty killer,\" said Demonstrator Larry Wood, 30, pointing to a newspaper photograph of the wan Gilmore at the hearing. \"He looks like a high beam to me. We Christians should turn the other cheek.\"\nThough Gilmore has persistently disavowed all lawyers who tried to win him a reprieve, the decisive intervention came when Stanford Law Professor Anthony G. Amsterdam moved in the following day, on behalf of Gilmore's mother. Amsterdam, a leader in the fight against capital punishment for a decade, filed a petition with Supreme Court Justice Byron White, who is responsible for emergency appeals in the Utah area. \"The need for a stay of execution is obvious,\" said Amsterdam. \"Such stays are commonly granted in death cases. Indeed, the only factor that makes this application unusual is [Gilmore's] assertion that he wished to be executed.\" Among Amsterdam's reasons for appealing: that there may have been judicial errors in the original trial, that Gilmore may have waived his constitutional rights without fully understanding them, that his defense lawyers were inadequate, and that Utah's capital punishment law may be unconstitutional. Justice White duly turned the petition over to the full court. The next day the court voted 6 to 3 to stay the execution for one day so that Utah state authorities can provide more information. That demand is very likely to require several further delays.\nSo, for a time, the execution was called off.\nIn the dingy foyer of the Utah State Prison, Gilmore's aunt, Ida Damico, and her daughter, Brenda Nicol, maintain a sort of vigil. They say, though, that if they had been on Gilmore's jury, they would have voted to convict. \"The Indians had the right idea,\" says Brenda, a cocktail waitress in Orem. \"When a rapist was caught, he got tied down and everyone was invited to throw stones. You better believe the other young bucks got the right idea. Poor Gary�I love him even though he is a murderer. Gary says the only way to atone for the dead is to give your own life. He's prepared and so are we.\"\nThe family has already discussed the division of Gilmore's worldly possessions, including parts of his body. One of Brenda's children hopes to get Gilmore's pituitary gland. \"I wish I could get his brain, \"Aunt Ida says with a smile. \"I always wanted to go to college.\"\nAs Gilmore waits out the next round, book, magazine and television offers keep flooding in. Gilmore has fired his first agent, Dennis Boaz, who until recently was also his lawyer, in favor of his uncle, Vern Damico. Damico listened to a $5,000 bid from the National Enquirer, a $100,000 bid from David Susskind, and then accepted a more elaborate contract from Los Angeles Photographer and Entrepreneur Lawrence Schiller. For a $100,000 down payment, plus royalties, Schiller has arranged a package deal that includes a TV dramatization of Gilmore's life and death for ABC's Movie of the Week. As money comes in, along with celebrity, so do bills. Last week a Massachusetts insurance company filed suit against Gilmore to collect $45,818 in death benefits for one of his shooting victims. Even so, there will be money left over that Gilmore has promised to parcel out among his family, to the relatives of his victims and to such favorite charities as a Pennsylvania society of handicapped artists. Gilmore, who has spent 18 of his 36 years behind bars, says he will keep only $1,000 so that during his remaining days in prison he can live well.\nChief Defense Lawyers: Michael Esplin and Craig Snyder\nChief Prosecutor: Noall T. Wootton\nJudge: J. Robert Bullock\nDates of Trial: October 5-7, 1976\nVerdict: Guilty\nSentence: Death\nSIGNIFICANCE: Convicted killer Gary Gilmore's craving for self-destruction fueled a re-examination of capital punishment in America and led to a best-selling book, The Executioner's Song, and a subsequent movie.\nAt age 35, Gary Gilmore had spent more than half his life behind bars. In April 1976 he was paroled from the federal penitentiary in Marion, Illinois, and went to live with family members in Utah. On July 19, 1976, he robbed and killed a gas station attendant in Orem, Utah. The next day, he held up a motel in nearby Provo, forced the manager, Ben Bushnell, to lie face down on floor, then shot him through the head. Less than 24 hours later, Gilmore was in custody. Because there were eyewitnesses to the motel killing, it was decided to try Gilmore on the Bushnell murder first.\nWhen the trial began on October 5, 1976, the evidence against Gilmore was overwhelming. Peter Arroyo, a motel guest, described seeing Gilmore in the registration office. Prosecutor Noall Wootton asked, \"How far away from him were you at the time?\" \"Somewhere near ten feet.\" \"Did you observe anything in his possession at the time?\" \"In his right hand he had a pistol with a long barrel. In his left hand he had a cash box from a cash register.\" Moments later Arroyo found Ben Bushnell, shot to death in the office.\nGilmore had accidentally shot himself in the hand while escaping from the motel. When detectives traced the blood spots to some bushes, they discovered a. 22-caliber pistol. Gerald F. Wilkes, an FBI ballistics expert, compared a shell casing found there with one from the murder scene. Wootton asked him, \"Would you tell the jury, please, what your conclusions were?\" \"Based on my examination of these two cartridges, I was able to determine that both cartridge cases were fired with this weapon and no other weapon.\"\nIn the face of such damning testimony, Gilmore's chief counsel, Michael Esplin, declared that the defense intended to offer no evidence, a decision that did not sit well with the defendant. Gilmore loudly protested that he be allowed to testify. Judge J. Robert Bullock told him, \"I want you to fully understand that if you do that then you're subject to cross-examination by the State's attorney. Do you understand that?\" Gilmore replied affirmatively.\nAt this point Gilmore's other attorney, Craig Snyder, stepped in with an explanation of why he and Esplin had offered no defense. Essentially both felt that there was no defense. Snyder's argument obviously impressed the mercurial Gilmore who abruptly said, \"I'll withdraw my request. Just go ahead with it like it is.\" \"What?\" gulped Judge Bullock, stunned by this turn of events. Gilmore said it again. \"I withdraw my request.\"\nAll that was left was for both sides to make their closing arguments. At 10:13 A.M. on October 7, 1976, the jury retired to consider their verdict. Before mid-day they were back with a verdict of guilty. Later that day they unanimously recommended the death penalty. Because Utah had dual methods of capital punishment�hanging and firing squad�Gilmore was given a choice. \"I prefer to be shot,\" he said.\nWhen Gary Gilmore went to Death Row, nobody in America had been executed in over a decade, and nobody expected Gilmore to be the first�except Gilmore. He adamantly refused to appeal his conviction or sentence, dismissed both of his lawyers when they did, and insisted that he just wanted to be shot and be done with it. Anything, he said, was preferable to spending the rest of his life behind bars. Two failed suicide bids, on November 16 and December 16, 1977, only strengthened his resolve. Despite frantic legal wrangling by opponents of capital punishment, Gilmore got his wish.\nOn January 17, 1977, he was strapped to a chair in the Utah State Prison. Five marksmen took aim at the white circle pinned to Gilmore's shirt, then shot him through the heart.\n\"Gary Gilmore: Death Wish,\" by Katherine Ramsland.\nFreedom\nIt's not that his ambitions were great that got him into trouble, but that he hadn't the patience to earn what he desired. From a young age, Gary Mark Gilmore just went out and took whatever he wanted�beer, cigarettes, cars, money. More times than not (according to him) he was successful, but when he wasn't, he landed in the slammer. He'd just get an idea into his head and do it. He said he couldn't help himself.\nGilmore�s story is documented in a book written by his younger brother, Mikal Gilmore, called Shot in the Heart, and by Norman Mailer, who wrote a narrative nonfiction account, The Executioner�s Song, in which he utilized letters that Gilmore wrote, interviews with many of his intimates, trial transcripts, and interviews or statements that Gilmore gave to the press. Mailer did not himself interview Gilmore, but his account relies on actual documents, with an emphasis on how those around Gilmore perceived him. There are also a few film clips available of Gilmore as he spoke to the press or to the courts, and an A&E documentary collected these into an overview of his fight to die rather then face years in prison. Gilmore is a historical case, in that he was the first man to be executed after the U. S. Supreme Court reinstated the death penalty, and because he refused all appeals to which he was legally entitled.\nBorn on December 4, 1940, he'd aspired as a boy to become a man of God. By the time he was thirty-five, he'd spent more than half of his life in prison, from juvenile detention to a federal penitentiary. At age 14, he dropped out of school. By fifteen, he was running an illegal car theft ring. That's when he was first arrested, although he'd been drinking for three years, harassing teachers, playing hooky, and stealing petty items. According to his own statements to court-ordered psychologists, he developed a need for bravado, which meant staring down approaching trains until near-impact or sticking a wet finger into an outlet. Upon his first arrest, his father Frank got a lawyer and got him off, teaching him to manipulate the legal system and skirt responsibility for criminal acts. After all, Frank had made a living at it for many years. He was a professional con man, but could not abide the taint of criminality in his son.\nHowever, Gilmore then stole something that got him into Oregon's MacLaren Reform School for Boys. He spent a year there, and then went in and out of jail until he was eighteen. At that point, he ended up in the Oregon State Correctional Institution on a car theft charge. His father couldn't do much for him, especially after he piled up an array of disciplinary charges while in prison. Then he was out and then in again, and this time while he was behind bars, Frank Gilmore died. According to statements made by one of the wardens in the documentary, �A Fight to Die,� Gary went wild, tearing up his cell and attempting suicide. This was a blow he could not bear.\nYet there was no release for him, no respite to mourn. He became violent to guards and inmates alike. Because he was so difficult to handle, he was heavily drugged with an anti-psychotic called Prolixin, and only with his mother's horrified intervention was he removed from this dehumanizing regimen. He never forgot its paralyzing effects. He got out when he was 21 and promptly committed robbery and assault for $11. At this point, the State of Oregon decided that he was a repeat offender with a poor prognosis. He went to Oregon State Penitentiary. While incarcerated, his brother Gaylen, the third of Bessie and Frank's four boys, was stabbed in the stomach. Mikal Gilmore documents this tragic incident. Having no money for medical care, Gaylen died. This time, Gary was allowed to attend the funeral, but losing Gaylen had its effect. Gary often ended up in solitary confinement over his inability to conform to the prison routines.\nYet spending so much time alone in solitary proved beneficial. With an IQ of 130, he educated himself in literature and began to write poetry. More notably, he developed an artistic talent that won contests. For that, he was granted an early release in 1972 to live in a halfway house in Eugene and attend art school at the local community college. While he welcomed this opportunity, it apparently intimidated him. Rather than show up to register, he stayed away and drank. He visited his brother Mikal, who reported that he was afraid of Gary. Within a month, Gilmore had committed armed robbery and was arrested. When he went to trial again, he asked permission to address the court, which was granted, and his actual words are recorded in several places, including court transcripts.\nWith great articulation, Gilmore made an appeal for leniency. He said that he had been locked up for the past nine and a half years, with only two years of freedom since he was fourteen. Justice had been harsh and he'd never asked for a break until now. He argued that �you can keep a person locked up too long� and that �there is an appropriate time to release somebody or to give them a break. �I stagnated in prison a long time and I have wasted most of my life. I want freedom and I realize that the only way to get it is to quit breaking the law. �I�ve got problems and if you sentence me to additional time, I�m going to compound them.� The judge told him that he had already been convicted once for armed robbery, a serious charge, so there was no option but to sentence him to another nine years. Gilmore was hurt and angry. As promised, he became more violent while in prison and on a number of occasions tried unsuccessfully to kill himself. They wanted to try Prolixin again, but Gilmore begged for an alternative. He was transferred to a maximum-security penitentiary in Marion, Illinois. That meant that no one in his family could visit him. He started writing to a cousin in Utah, Brenda Nicol, and only three years into his sentence, a parole plan was worked out. Brenda gave several interviews about her involvement with Gary, and Mailer offers a complete description of her account.\nBrenda orchestrated Gilmore�s release. She hadn't seen Gary since he was a boy, but she remembered how distinctive he was. She believed that if she and her family could help him out with a loving community and a job, he'd get along okay. She didn't know that he'd been diagnosed (according the reports that Mailer documents) with a psychopathic personality disorder. She had no idea how compulsive he was, or demanding. It was in her mind to do a good deed, so she worked on bringing Gary home. Finally in 1977, he was released to go live in Provo. He arrived with everything he owned packed in a small gym bag. He was ready for freedom, he firmly believed.\nYet life in Utah proved to be hard. He'd hated prison, but the skills he'd developed there to survive just didn't work in a conservative Mormon community. He was briefly employed in his Uncle Vern Damico's shoe shop and then did insulation for a man named Spencer McGrath, but he had a hard time concentrating. The first chance he got, according to interviews that Vern Damico gave to Mailer, he went out drinking. When he couldn't afford beer, he stole it. Then he found himself a beautiful girlfriend, Nicole Baker Barrett, thrice divorced by age 19, and soon returned to a life of compulsive theft because he wanted what he wanted�right now. It was the sight of a white Ford pickup truck priced well beyond his means that appeared to those who knew him to have sparked a spree that could only have ended badly.\nFirst Victim\nGilmore had bought a blue Mustang from Val Conlin, a used car dealer, but it had problems and often wouldn't run. He still owed on that but he'd seen a ten-year-old, overpriced white truck on the lot that he really wanted. The dealer said no way, not unless he found himself a co-signer. That frustrated Gilmore. By hook or by crook, he intended to have that truck. To his mind, there were always ways of getting money. He'd already stolen some merchandise to sell. Then he managed to collect a bag full of guns---nine of them. He gave one to Nicole, she later told police officers, showed her the rest, and said he intended to sell whatever he could. Nicole�s interview for A&E is the best source of information for what happened in those final days, along with Gilmore�s own documented admissions. Each person who saw him over the next few days later gave interviews on film as well. Gilmore had scared her. He'd already shown a violent side, she later related, and now this. She didn't know what to do.\nGilmore had moved into her rented home in Spanish Fork, near Provo, but things weren't always so good. He often took a drug, Fiorinal, for headaches and he drank all the time, which created sexual dysfunction, an inability to think clearly, and a great deal of frustrated anger. He was impulsive and demanding, and there were times when Nicole was actually afraid of him, though she loved him. Once when he'd picked her up she'd had the feeling of an evil presence emanating from him. She thought he might be the devil, and there were times when he acted like he was. He even claimed he knew Charles Manson. Finally it all just got to her. She just took her two children and went to live in an apartment five miles away. Gary went looking for her. He was in a state. She wasn't going to run out on him. He told his cousin Brenda he might just kill her. But he couldn't find her. On top of that, he was now deeply in debt with no clear way out�except the only way he knew. He'd been free less than three months and already he couldn't cope.\nMailer interviewed the families of Gilmore�s victim�s and Gilmore�s friends to put together the following accounts:\nOn Monday, July 19, 1976, Max Jensen went to work as usual at the self-service gas station in Orem, Utah. His shift went from 3 in the afternoon until 11. He was just there until he could find a job that paid more so that he and his new wife could get a little security. At around the same time that Max was going through the routines of his job, Gilmore learned that no one would co-sign on the truck for him, so he insisted that he himself could pay it off within a few weeks. Conlin assured Gilmore that he would repossess the truck at once if the payments weren't made. Then Gilmore left with the truck and headed toward Nicole's mother's house. Nicole wasn't there, but her mentally unstable younger sister, April, had a crush on Gary and was happy to go for a ride in his new truck. She told him she wanted to stay out all night. Angry and hurt by Nicole, as he later said in letters to her, he was pleased to oblige. Around 10:30 that evening, he told April he wanted to make a phone call. He left her in the truck and walked away. She had no idea where he was going.\nGilmore went around the corner, out of her sight, and into the Sinclair service station. He spotted the attendant and quickly saw that no one else was around. He walked up to the man, whose nameplate read \"Max Jensen\" and pulled out a .22 Browning Automatic. He instructed Jensen to empty his pockets, which the young Mormon quickly did. Then he told Jensen to go into the bathroom and lie down on the floor with his arms under his body. Jensen got into the position. He was obeying everything that Gilmore said. Then inexplicably, Gilmore put the gun close to Jensen's head. \"This one is for me,\" he said, and fired. Then he placed the muzzle right against Jensen's skull and shot him once again, this time \"for Nicole.\"\nTo his surprise, the blood spread fast and got on his pants. He turned around and left the gas station, not even noticing the wad of cash on the counter. His next move was to take April to see a movie, \"One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest.\" Then they went over to Brenda's. She thought Gilmore was strangely agitated. He had some clothes that he didn't seem to want her to see. He didn't stay long and she couldn't get over the feeling that something was up. Without further explanation, Gary drove off with April and they got a room at a Holiday Inn. While they slept, the hunt began for Max Jensen's killer. Around 11:00 p.m., a customer had found the body.\nThe Killing Continues\nBen Bushnell, 25, was the manager of the City Center Motel in Provo, not far from Brigham Young University. He and his wife lived on the premises with their infant son, and things looked promising for Ben's future. On Tuesday July 20, Gilmore had trouble with his new truck, so he took it to gas station three blocks from his Uncle Vern's house. Upon learning that a fix could take twenty minutes, according to Norman Fulmer, the man who ran the gas station, Gilmore decided to run a little errand. He walked down the street and saw the City Center Motel next to Uncle Vern's. Emboldened by his previous murder, he got an idea. He went into the lobby.\nBen had just come in from the store so he asked Gilmore what he wanted. Gary told Ben to give him the cash box and get down on the floor. Then he shot Bushnell in the head. But the man wasn't dead yet. He lay there twitching and trying to move. Gilmore wasn't sure what to do, but just then Bushnell's wife, Debbie, came out so Gilmore grabbed the cash box and left. He pocketed the cash and placed the box under a bush. A block later, he took the gun he'd used by the muzzle and shoved it into another bush, but something caught the trigger and he took a bullet in the fleshy part of his hand, between the thumb and palm. He went into the garage to get his truck and the owner, Norman Fulmer, spotted the trail of blood. Then on the police scanner Fulmer heard about an assault and robbery at a nearby hotel. He wrote down the truck's license plate number and after Gilmore drove away, Fulmer called it in. Patrol cars sped through town and SWAT teams turned out to track and capture Gilmore. They figured he'd just killed a man for around $125. Pretty much like the murder in Orem the night before.\nUncle Vern came out to see what all the excitement was about, and it wasn't long before he realized that his nephew was involved. Over the past month, he'd watched Gilmore go from bad to worse, especially when he drank, and this brutal act seemed to cap his latest escalation of acting out. Vern's wife called Brenda, and she in turn called a police dispatcher she knew. Then Gilmore called her. He admitted he'd been shot and needed help. He told her where he was. Brenda sent the police to go get him. About the same time that they were evacuating neighbors and closing in, Debbie Bushnell was learning that the paramedics couldn't save her husband. He was dead.\nAfraid that Brenda wasn't coming, Gilmore left the house where he'd gotten some first aid and drove right through a police roadblock. Then it dawned on the cops that he was the guy. They set out after him and eventually ordered him to stop just outside Nicole's mother's house. Gilmore gave up without a fight. He asked only that they be careful of his wounded hand. Nicole was there. She went out and saw him lying on the ground. Then she overheard the cops suggest that he'd just committed two murders. She couldn't help but wonder if her leaving him had something to do with it, but she also though he was one stupid, crazy son-of-a-bitch. Brenda soon learned that no one else had been hurt and Gilmore was now in custody. She knew he'd hate her for it, and when he asked her the next day why she had turned him in, she said, \"You commit a murder Monday, and commit a murder Tuesday. I wasn't waiting for Wednesday to roll around.\" (This is her recollection as she recounted it to both Mailer and the A&E crew.) While Gilmore eventually accepted the fact that what he'd done was wrong and he deserved to be punished, he never totally forgave her for this betrayal. When she turned him in, she had effectively separated him forever from Nicole. To his mind, she could have driven him to the border and let him go up to Oregon. He didn't seem to get it.\nUpon his arrest, Gary said that he'd talk with one cop, Gerald Nielsen, and he freely spoke about his various interactions with Gilmore in film and to Mailer. At the hospital, a test on Gilmore's hand indicated that he'd recently held metal in it. Then it was set in a cast. Nielsen then tried to get him to admit to the murders. He said that he had not killed anyone and that he could account for his whereabouts. He even said there were witnesses who would vouch for him. The facts were, as he recounted them, that he'd come across a guy holding up the man at the motel. He tried to stop it and got shot in the hand for his trouble. On the night before, he'd been with April the whole night and she'd be able to tell them that he hadn't killed anyone.\nThe story didn't check out; it was full of holes. In fact, there was a witness who had seen Gilmore with the gun and the cash box at the motel. April knew that Gilmore had left her to \"make a phone call.\" Then Val Conlin found Gilmore's stash of stolen guns. He called the police and turned them in. Nielsen went back to try again. This time Gary simply said he didn't know why he had killed the two Mormons. He didn't have a reason. He admitted that if he hadn't been caught, he'd likely have gone on killing. Not much later, he said that he ought to die for what he'd done.\nOn August 3, at the preliminary hearing, prosecutor Noall Wootton met Gilmore for the first time. Mailer indicates from interviews that Wootton was impressed with the prisoner's intelligence, and it struck him that this man embodied the system's utter failure to rehabilitate. Gilmore would never be anything but dangerous---yet he might have been so much better than that.\nFor the next few months, Gilmore and Nicole wrote love letters to each other with great intensity, sometimes three a day. She knew that he faced life in prison, and possibly worse, yet she couldn't unhook herself from this enigmatic man who'd walked into her life and changed it forever. They swore an eternal bond. By October, everything was ready for trial. Since the case for the Bushnell murder was the strongest, the prosecution concentrated on it. If need be, they could go back and try Gilmore for Jensen's murder, but Wootton expected to prove his case. He had plenty of witnesses, even without the questionable confession. If Harry Houdini was really Gary Gilmore's grandfather, as his mother had often intimated, perhaps he'd passed down a few tricks on getting out of hopeless situations. Gilmore would need them.\nDestined For Death\nHow does someone with talent and intelligence fall into such a life? Why would Gary Mark Gilmore develop into a habitual criminal who so thoughtlessly took the lives of two young men who'd done nothing to him? In his case, the answer seems to lie with the turbulent family in which he'd grown up; it had been full of fantasy and denial, coupled with rampant and random abuse. Years later, Gary's youngest brother, Mikal, researched their family's history for his book, Shot in the Heart, to see where things went wrong. His feeling was that Gary reminded their father of his own failings in life and therefore got the brunt of the man's anger. Gary's conduct disorders as a juvenile, coupled with his compulsive personality, took the path of least resistance ---straight into the narcissistic and remorseless depths of psychopathy. He never knew when he'd get beaten, nor why, so he formed a notion of a harsh and punitive reality that made no sense. In many ways, the prison system itself was a metaphor of his father. No matter how he resisted and reacted, he'd always get beat up.\nFrank Gilmore Sr. was a con man and an alcoholic. He'd married Bessie on a whim, and he'd had many wives and families before her, none of whom he cared about or supported. They had a son, Frank Jr., and then Gary came along while they were wandering aimlessly through Texas under the pseudonym of Coffman to avoid the law. Frank christened him Faye Robert Coffman, which Bessie quickly changed to Gary, but this birth certificate proved to be a sore spot years later. Gary thought he'd been illegitimate, deciding that this was the reason that his father had never loved him.\nFrank had many dark secrets and Bessie was a Mormon outcast. They seemed to cling to each other to escape the realities of their pathetic lives. Frank craved independence and would disappear for long stretches of time. Bessie, for her part, did not allow the children to touch or hug her, so there was emotional deprivation from both parents. Yet Bessie did want security, so she persuaded Frank to settle in Portland, Oregon, and open a legitimate business. He actually succeeded at it and for a while they were happier. Yet Frank drank heavily, which sent him into terrible rages. He'd whip his sons severely. The boys soon learned that no matter what they said or did, their father simply wanted to brutalize them, all the while insisting that they love him. One time, Gary was abandoned on a park bench while his father went to scam someone and he ended up in an orphanage for several days.\nAs he grew older, Gary reacted. He began to despise people in authority, and they in turn, treated him in a way that reminded him of his father. Both parents turned a blind eye to his problems, pretending they would just go away somehow. Neither respected the law, and they would rather get their children off than let them learn the consequences of their actions. The point at which psychological intervention might have made a difference for Gary, Frank refused to pay for it. On top of all of this, Bessie had a deep-rooted superstition about Gary that went back to her own childhood. She believed that as a girl playing with a Ouija board, she had conjured up a demonic ghost that had attached itself to her family. When one of her sisters was killed and another paralyzed in an accident, she felt certain it was the ghost. Then she married Frank and found out that his mother, Fay, was a medium who could get spirits to materialize. One night while at Fay�s house with three of her sons, including Gary, she learned that there was to be a �special� s�ance to contact a spirit who had died under the shameful suspicion of murder. Bessie stayed away.\nAfter the ceremony, she found Fay in a state of exhaustion with an expression on her face of great fear and helplessness. She helped the older woman to bed, but later that night Bessie woke up to the feel of being touched, and when she turned over, she was looking into the face of a leering inhuman creature. She jumped out of bed and saw Fay, an invalid, staggering toward her, insisting that she get out now. �It knows who you are!� Fay shouted. Bessie ran to Gary�s room and saw the same figure leaning over her son, staring into his eyes. She grabbed the kids and ran. Fay died shortly thereafter and Gary began to have terrible, shuddering nightmares that he was being beheaded. He was certain something was trying to get him and the nightmares haunted him the rest of his life.\nBessie saw the entity again in their house, and that�s when Gary began to get into trouble. He continued having dreams, swearing that something was in the room with him. Bessie concluded that the thing had taken over her son�s soul. His life thereafter was filled with angry, malevolent energy that seemed bent on self-destruction. Whether influenced by a demon or by familial abuse, Gary developed a death wish that guided his actions. He seemed destined to die in some violent manner, though he'd often heard his mother's horror stories of an execution that she claimed to have witnessed as a girl. She'd been enraged that her father had taken her, a mere child, to witness a hanging. She told this story over and over. All of the boys believed that she'd really witnessed this incident and it had left a deep impression on them. Yet when Mikal researched it in Utah records, he realized that it was impossible for her to have witnessed such an event. She had made it up, possibly deriving this metaphor from her helplessness and anger. Yet it was a fatal vision that may have marked her second son with a sense of inevitability. Mikal concludes that the lies she told revealed terrible psychological truths that became an unspoken emotional legacy for her sons. They wanted to erase themselves from existence, and in fact, one was murdered, one was executed, one dropped into a psychological coma�and one (Mikal) became a writer.\nThe Trial\nTwo public defenders, Craig Snyder and Mike Esplin, took on Gilmore's case, but it looked pretty hopeless. There was an eyewitness who placed him near the Bushnell murder with the cash box and gun in his hand, and to top it all, he'd shot himself with the same gun. Then there was his cache of stolen guns, not to mention his apparent confession to a cop and later to his cousin. He'd told Brenda to tell his mother \"it was true.\" As vague as that was, the jury could construe it as an admission of guilt. Their best hope was to find some legal technicality and take it to an appeals court.\nWhile Noall Wootton was asking for the death penalty on the grounds that Gilmore was a danger to society should he ever escape and a threat to other inmates if sent to prison, no one had been executed in Utah for sixteen years. Wootton wasn't a death penalty advocate, but he did believe there was no possibility for Gilmore's rehabilitation. And even if he managed to get this sentence, he believed there was small likelihood of its being carried out. Gilmore's trial lasted only two days, starting on October 5, 1976. The transcripts lay out the main events: An FBI ballistics expert matched two spent cartridges and the bullet from Bushnell to the gun left in the bush, a patrolman had traced Gilmore's trail of blood to that same bush, and the witness named Gilmore as the person he saw at the motel. The defense had no defense. When the two lawyers quickly rested without calling witnesses, Gilmore protested. The following day he asked the judge if he could take the stand to present his own defense. He figured that, based on what they had heard from the prosecution, it would take the jury less than half an hour to convict him and he wanted the chance to tell his story. He thought he had a good case for insanity. After all, he'd felt completely dissociated during the commission of the crime, like it was inevitable and he couldn't have done anything differently. He didn't have control. His lawyers stood up and indicated that they had consulted four separate psychiatrists, all of whom had said that Gilmore had known what he was doing and that it was wrong. While he did have an antisocial personality disorder, which may have been aggravated by drinking and Fiorinal, he still did not meet the legal criteria for insanity.\nFaced with that, Gilmore withdrew his request. He seemed suddenly to resign himself to the hopelessness of his situation. He'd already experienced some remorse for what he'd done but thought he'd probably end up doing it again. Never had he felt so much pain as that week without Nicole, according to what he said in his letters to her, and he knew he'd have kept up the spree, mindlessly hurting others.\nIn closing, Wootton took pains to point out that Ben Bushnell had been shot by a gun held directly against his head. It had been no random shot but quite deliberate. Esplin countered with the fact that Gilmore himself had been wounded by the gun going off accidentally. It could have been the case that it had discharged accidentally in the incident that had resulted in Bushnell's death, even if held against him. Maybe Bushnell had moved suddenly. Since there are no eyewitnesses, who was to say differently? He urged the jury to find Gilmore guilty of a lesser crime of second-degree murder committed during a robbery, or even to acquit him altogether.\nOn October 7, 1976, after an hour and twenty minutes, the jury returned a verdict of Guilty of Murder in the First Degree. Then after lunch, the sentencing phase�called the Mitigation Hearing-- began. Again, the defense lawyers were at a disadvantage, since it was Gary's own family who had turned him in. Clearly they were afraid of him. Brenda felt that Gilmore had betrayed her trust and that he ought to pay for what he'd done. Getting good witnesses looked pretty hopeless. Yet no one could have predicted at that moment that Gilmore's own worst enemy in this regard would be himself.\nAt the end of the hearing, Gilmore was asked if he had anything to say, with the expectation that he would show some remorse, but all he said was, \"I am finally glad to see that the jury is looking at me.\" The sentence was death, arrived at unanimously, and to be carried out on November 15, just over a month hence. Gilmore was asked to choose between being hanged or shot by a firing squad. He chose the latter, believing that a hanging could easily be botched. While his attorneys prepared the expected course of action, Gilmore took the unexpected one.\nBacklash\nAlthough his attorneys had every intention of running an appeal, they told Mailer, Gilmore made up his mind to accept his due. He fired Esplin and Snyder and hired Dennis Boaz, a lawyer from California who had written to him on a whim in support of his desire to go through with the execution. Boaz also revealed his interactions with Gilmore to Mailer, who talked with various other people who�d spoken to Boaz. Gilmore traded an exclusive interview for the man's services, but as Mailer saw it, Boaz got hungry for the writer's life and started talking too much to the media. Gary decided to fire him.\nYet the very idea that a man was going to be executed stirred the residents of Utah into attention. This hadn't happened in sixteen years. To top it off, in 1972 the U. S. Supreme Court had ruled in the case of Furman v. Georgia that the death penalty as currently applied was cruel and unusual. Therefore, it was unconstitutional. All states were ordered to commute death sentences to life imprisonment. There was no more death row. Then four years later, after the states had revised their laws, the Supreme Court made a series of rulings that allowed capital punishment to be reinstated for certain types of murders. Thus, as of July 2, 1976, just three weeks before Gilmore committed his murders, such an act became a capital offense in Utah, and not without considerable controversy. While the hiatus had only lasted four years, it had been ten full years since the U. S. had executed anyone.\nThen when Gilmore said that he did not wish to appeal, the Attorney General, Earl Dorius, wondered if the court might be caught in a net of its own making. Gilmore was supposed to be executed within sixty days of sentencing. There were no provisions for what might happen if they didn't get the deed done within the scheduled time frame. They hadn't executed a man in so long he couldn't be certain that they'd be ready in time. Dorius wondered if it was possible that, on a technicality, Gilmore might just go free. In fact, as he indicated to Mailer, he wasn't altogether certain how to put together a firing squad.\nJust a few days before his scheduled execution, Gilmore argued his case before the Justices of the Utah Supreme Court, insisting that he did not wish to spend his life in prison, particularly not on death row. He thought the sentence was fair and proper and he wanted to accept it like a man. \"It's been sanctioned by the courts,\" he said, \"and I accept that.\" To his mind, it was his karma to die. He'd had dreams of it all his life and had come to believe that he owed a debt from a past life. The manner in which he was to die would be a learning experience for others. That was all right with him. By a vote of 4 to 1, the Justices granted his wish. He requested that his last meal be a six-pack of beer.\nBut there were groups who could not abide such a decision, either on Gilmore's part or on the part of the law. The protests began at once, and his former lawyers felt duty-bound to continue to file an appeal. When Gilmore's mother heard about it, she told her youngest son. Mikal's comment, according to Mailer, was not to worry. \"They haven't executed anyone in this country for ten years,\" he said, \"and they're not going to start with Gary.\"\nNovember 15th came and went. Associations against the death penalty, including the American Civil Liberties Union and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, intended to stop this execution. They did not want such a precedent on the record of the court giving in to a defendant and dispensing with the appeals process. On behalf of the prison population, as well as future prisoners, they felt they could not allow this procedure to continue in the direction in which it was going. A Stay of execution was granted, despite Gilmore's protests. He was ready to die. He wanted this over with.\nThen he and Nicole formed a plan, which was documented in their letters to each other. She also admitted to it later in filmed interviews. Gilmore instructed her to go around to various doctors to collect as many barbiturates as she could get. She managed 50 pills. Smuggling half in a balloon inside her vagina, she handed them over to Gary. Then at midnight, she swallowed her dose. Gary was supposed to do likewise, but he waited till closer to morning, which gave the appearance that he wanted her to die while he was found and saved. In fact they both survived, but now Nicole was effectively cut off from her lover. There were to be no more communications between them. Nicole was signed in to a psychiatric facility for observation.\nIn the meantime, the rights to Gilmore's story were up for sale. He authorized Uncle Vern to negotiate, and he ended up selling to Lawrence Schiller and ABC for $50,000, which Gilmore distributed randomly among relatives and former associates from prison. He fully expected to die in December. Authorizing another lawyer, Ron Stanger, to speak on his behalf, he went before the Utah Board of Pardons to plead his case once more and ask all the religious and civil rights groups to butt out. \"It's my life and my death,\" he insisted on film. He hadn't realized that no one had taken the sentence seriously. He didn't know it was all a joke. He expected that if they were going to hand it down, they were going to carry it out. As he spoke, his courage and anger were both evident. He wanted this over with. His execution was set for December 6, two days after his thirty-sixth birthday. Then on December 3, Gilmore�s mother stepped in. She was represented by the same lawyer whose rhetoric had convinced the Supreme Court to stop capital punishment several years earlier until the laws were changed. She requested a Stay on her son's behalf. He'd been on a hunger strike ever since he'd been separated from Nicole, she claimed through the lawyer, so he didn't know what he was doing. She should be able to step in.\nGilmore composed an open letter to her, published by the press, to ask that she allow him to get on with it. Ten days later, the Stay was overturned and Gilmore ended his 25-day hunger strike. Upon learning that he would still have to wait another month for his execution, he tried once again to kill himself, but was found in time. Then Mikal decided that he needed to try to stop the process. He went to Utah to talk with his brother, describing the meeting in detail in his book, and was ultimately convinced that Gary knew what he was doing and wanted to do it. On film, Mikal said that Gary had quoted Nietzsche to him, that \"a time comes when a man should rise to meet the occasion.\" That's what he was trying to do. During their last meeting, Gary kissed Mikal on the mouth and said, \"See you in the darkness.\" Mikal left without taking any further action.\nFinally it was scheduled for January 17, 1977. Overnight, the courts had continued to wrestle with the legal questions before them. A federal court judge in Salt Lake City ordered a Stay, but the Tenth Circuit Court in Denver set it aside. The ACLU continued to protest this right up to the moment that Gilmore began his walk as a dead man. Even as late as 7:30 a.m., Gilmore's fate hung in the balance. It was the U. S. Supreme Court that finally decided the issue. The execution was allowed to go on as scheduled.\nThe End and the Beginning\nThe night before he was to die, Gilmore had been given plenty of drugs. His relatives visited and he was in good spirits. Uncle Vern admitted on A&E that he�d brought him some whiskey, which Gilmore drank down. Then Johnny Cash, his favorite singer, called and sang him a song. Gilmore tried to sing it with him. Then he made a tape for Nicole on which he asked her to kill herself for him. Finally, the circus was over. All of those who believed the con was bluffing, that he'd change his mind at the last minute, were in shock. Gilmore had asked to be allowed to die and he was going to die.\nAt 8:00 a.m. on January 17, 1977, the volunteer firing squad got into place. Four of the five weapons were loaded and one would fire a blank. That way, each man would have some idea that perhaps he was not the one who had ended another man's life. They placed the barrels of their rifles through small square holes in a wall as Gilmore was strapped into a chair. He gave his watch to Vern to give to Nicole; he'd broken it at his estimated time of execution. A paper target was placed over his heart and a black corduroy hood over his head. He was strapped into the chair. The least movement could make the bullets miss their mark. Mailer gives a full account of the final minutes, which were also described on film by some of those who attended.\nAsked for last words, Gilmore said, \"Let's do it.\" Then to the priest delivering last rights, he said in Latin, \"There will always be a father.\" The countdown began. Gilmore appeared calm. There were three distinct shots. His head went forward into the strap, his right hand delicately lifted, then dropped. The spectators he'd requested to witness the event watched as blood flowed from his heart down his shirt and onto the floor. The doctor went forward to listen, and said that he was still alive. In twenty more seconds, it was over. Three lives had been tragically wasted.\nBessie got the news that there had been a Stay, but then she saw on the television that her second son, Gary Mark Gilmore, had been executed. Some of his organs were donated before he was cremated, and his ashes were spread in three designated areas of Utah, including Spanish Fork. His immortal words, \"Let's do it,\" opened the door for other convicted criminals to be put to death. Since 1977, there have been 711 executions in the United States. [Katherine Ramsland has written a dozen books and numerous articles, as well as publishing folklore and short stories. After publishing two books in psychology, Engaging the Immediate and The Art of Learning, she wrote Prism of the Night: A Biography of Anne Rice. At that time, she had a cover story in Psychology Today on our culture's fascination with vampires. Then she wrote guide books to Anne Rice's fictional worlds: The Vampire Companion: The Official Guide to Anne Rice's Vampire Chronicles, The Witches' Companion: The Official Guide to Anne Rice's Lives of the Mayfair Witches, The Roquelaure Reader: A Companion to Anne Rice's Erotica, and The Anne Rice Reader. Her next book was Dean Koontz: A Writer�s Biography, and then she ventured into journalism with Piercing the Darkness: Undercover with Vampires in America Today. She has also written for The New York Times Book Review, The Writer, Million: The Magazine of Popular Fiction, The Newark Star Ledger, Magical Blend, Publishers Weekly, and The Trenton Times. Her background in forensic studies positioned her to assist former FBI profiler John Douglas on his book, The Cases that Haunt Us. Ramsland holds master�s degrees, respectively, in clinical and forensic psychology and a Ph.D. in philosophy. She has been a professor at Rutgers University, a therapist, and a psycho-educator specializing in the psyche's dark side.]\nBBCNews\nExecutions Out of the Ordinary During the 1950s and 1960s 10 states, including Michigan and New York, abolished the death penalty and the rate of executions nationwide began to decline. By 1968 executions had stopped and in 1972 the Supreme Court ruled, in the case of Furman v Georgia, \"that the imposition of the death penalty constituted cruel and unusual punishment\". But 35 states responded by drafting new death penalty statutes and in 1976 the Supreme Court reversed its decision, ruling that the punishment of death did not violate the constitution provided that \"guided discretion\" was exercised in imposing it.\nIn October 1976 Gary Gilmore was convicted of a double murder in Utah and sentenced to death. Gilmore, who had spent much of his life in prison, could not bear the prospect of spending years behind bars and decided not to appeal the sentence. The American Civil Liberties Union appealed on his behalf - and to his annoyance - but on 17 January 1977 Gilmore was executed by firing squad, the first execution in the US for a decade. Norman Mailer later wrote a book about Gilmore, The Executioner's Song, which was made into a TV movie starring Tommy Lee Jones.\nABOLISH Archives\nWashington Post (January 18, 1977) by William Greider.\nPROVO, Utah - Early this morning at the mountain prison, attended by scribes and camera crews, the state of Utah delivered Gary Mark Gilmore back to his maker. Gilmore was judged defective as a human being in October. Last summer he murdered 2 Utah citizens, a service station attendant named Max Jensen and a motel clerk named Bennie Bushnell. While in prison awaiting execution, Gilmore twice tried to kill himself and insisted that the legal authorities proceed to do it for him without further delay. This morning the government of Utah complied, despite a last-minute legal flurry from civil liberties lawyers. It was done as tastefully as possible under the circumstances. Gilmore was taken to a cinder block shed, strapped in a chair and shot.\nAs easy as pouring blood into water. Gilmore, alive for 36 unsuccessful years, attained celebrity by being the subject of the 1st American execution in nearly a decade. His official last words to the warden, witnesses and 5 anonymous gunmen with their .30-cal. rifles was: \"Let's do it.\"...\nIt was an unpleasant spectacle -- not the killing itself, which was done in privacy, but the swarming attention and brittle humor of the news media, which, after all, made Gilmore into a mythical creature larger than his real self, perhaps made him even enviable to others with freakish wishes for self-destruction. For those who need to know these things, Gilmore bled profusely when shot. The prison people pinned a paper target to his clothing, over his heart, and 4 riflemen hit it (1 of the 5 had a blank in his gun though nobody is supposed to know which one). The scene was then cleaned up a bit before the press was taken in to look it over. Some sort of gravel was spread around the platform to cover the blood stains under the black leather arm chair. The chair had been wiped clean but it had 4 bullet holes in its back, stained with blood, and there was a drying trickle of blood on the plywood board behind where Gilmore had sat. The 4 slugs are presumably still buried in the backstop of sandbags and a flowered mattress -- valuable souvenirs if anyone takes the trouble to retrieve them.\nGilmore, it was reported by an eyewitness, did nothing untoward at the moment of his death. He did not quiver with fear. He did not shrink from the black corduroy hood placed over his head and shoulders, did not struggle or cry out at the last moment. His head turned slightly when he was shot. His body shrugged a trifle. That's all.\n(source: Washington Post)\nSuper70's.Com\nThe Execution of Gary Gilmore\nAt eight minutes after 8:00 a.m on January 17, 1977, Gary Mark Gilmore was executed by a firing squad in Draper, Utah. The execution ended the life of a man who had killed at least two people and who had spent 18 of his 36 years behind bars for various offenses. Two aspects of the case kept it on the front pages for months. First, the death penalty had been reinstated in the United States in 1976 (not without controversy) after a 10-year hiatus and Gilmore was to become the first prisoner to be executed. Second, he fought the justice system to ensure he would be executed quickly.\nIn Cold Blood\nOver the course of two nights in mid-July 1976, Gary Gilmore murdered a motel owner (Bennie Bushnell) in Provo, Utah and a gas station attendant (Max Jensen) in nearby Orem in an apparent attempt to get the attention of his estranged girlfriend Nichole Baker. Both men were forced to lie face down on the floor before he shot them in each in the head at point-blank range.\nCapture\nIn the early morning hours of July 21, 1976 Gary Gilmore was arrested in Provo, Utah for the murders of the two men. At the time of his arrest Gilmore was on probation from a 12-year sentence for armed robbery and had been staying with relatives. He was turned in by his cousin Brenda Nicol, who later told him \"You commit a murder Monday, and commit a murder Tuesday. I wasn't waiting for Wednesday to come around.\"\nSpeedy Trial\nOne of the most remarkable aspects of the case was the speed at which he went through the justice system. He was that he was arrested in July, then tried, convicted, and sentenced to death by October and the sentence was carried out in January. The pace was no accident.\nMultiple Suicide Attempts\nNot satisfied with the amount of time the state was taking to execute him, Gilmore tried to speed things up with repeated suicide attempts (by drug overdose) and became front page news for this, the attempts by others to stop the execution, and his own refusal to make any appeals. He had said \"Death is the only inescapable, unavoidable, sure thing. We are sentenced to die the day that we are born.\" His girlfriend Nicole also tried to take her own life at the same time as him. She failed too and was placed in a mental hospital and was not allowed to see Gary again. The only contact she had with him until his execution was via letters.\nMultiple Appeals\nHis original execution date was November 15, but the ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union) and the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) - both death penalty opponents - filed motions in the courts and multiple Stays were ordered. But the final appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court on the morning of January 17th, 1977 was denied and Gilmore's wish to be executed was granted. It had been only nine months since he had been paroled.\nFiring Squad\nWhen asked if he had any last words by the warden, he simply replied \"Let's do this.\" As is the custom with a firing squad, four of the five rifles were loaded with real bullets and the fifth had a blank (None of the members knows which gun is which. This leaves a shadow of doubt in each member's mind about whether or not they really killed him.) He was shot at 8:08 a.m. and pronounced dead a minute later. His body was cremated and his ashes spread over three areas in Utah by a family member in accordance with his wishes.\nExecutioner's Song\nThe Executioner's Song\n, a book written by Norman Mailer in 1979, is a must read if you are interested in reading about the Gilmore case. The book, which won a 1980 Pulitzer Prize, was later turned into a made-for-TV movie starring Tommy Lee Jones, Eli Wallach and Rosanna Arquette. Jones won an Emmy for his portrayal of Gilmore.\nScott Vallum\n\"The Story of Gary Gilmore: Executioner's Song by Norman Mailer and Shot in the Heart by Mikal Gilmore,\" by Scott Vollum, Doctoral Student, College of Criminal Justice, Sam Houston State University.\nI submit these two books together because they are, in many ways, good companions to one another. Together, these two books provide you with a thorough history and analysis of a single criminal--Gary Gilmore. After reading both of these books you feel like you actually know and understand Gary Gilmore and what drove and motivated him to his criminal acts.\nEXECUTIONERS SONG\nIn Executioner's Song, Norman Mailer's Pulitzer Prize winning novel, we are presented with the adult criminal life of Gary Gilmore and the resulting execution that would be the first in America since the Furman v. Georgia decision. The book starts with Gilmore getting out of prison, follows his failed attempts at a \"legitimate\" life, the events leading up to a killing spree, and the resulting path back through the justice system. This time, however, he would not be released back into society. He was sentenced to death and in response demanded that the sentence be carried out. He refused to cooperate in any attempt to appeal his death penalty sentence and even went so far as to challenge the system to put actions to their words. This is significant because no one had been executed since the Furman case. Gary Gilmore would force the hand of a system that was reluctant to begin executing people again. Arguably, he opened up the flood gates for the implementation of the death penalty in the decades that were to follow. Executioner's Song paints a very thorough portrait of a man driven to murder and to eventually demanding the end of his own life. In regard to the Sutherland's three elements of Criminology: The making of law, breaking of law, and reaction to the breaking of law, they are all represented in this book.\nMaking of Law:\nThe representation of the making of law in Executioner's Song is not explicit but the execution of Gary Gilmore began a new era for the use of death as a punishment in American society effectively making it part of law once again. Also, the question of whether the state can force an individual to adhere to the appeals processes so important in death penalty cases was asked. Ultimately, there was a situation in which the offender was asking the state to take his life. This raises a lot of potential legal issues surrounding the death penalty. The door was closed on these issues when the execution of Gary Gilmore was carried out. While these are not explicit examples of the portrayal of the making of law, they were important events that molded the way the death sentence is perceived and implemented under the law.\nBreaking of Law:\nThe representation of the breaking of law is more clear and pervasive in Executioner's Song. We are presented with a good example of a life-course-persistent criminal in Gary Gilmore. We are also presented with some good examples of Agnew's General Strain Theory at work. Gary Gilmore is a man that wants things in life but does not see the legitimate means to obtain them as existing for him. He feels that the world is against him and reacts to this with anger and violence. The many forms of strain that persisted throughout Gary Gilmore's life resulted in frustration and anger that ultimately led to a murderous rampage.\nReaction to the Breaking of Law:\nThe reaction to the breaking of law is clear in this book. This books depiction of Gilmore's adjudication and time spent in prison and ultimately his execution are great examples of the system at work.\nSHOT IN THE HEART\nShot in the Heart, too, presents us with the life of Gary Gilmore. However, this book is written by his youngest brother and presents us with a portrayal of Gilmore's childhood and life growing up in a family with an abusive father. This book gives us the background from which Gary Gilmore came and provides a deeper understanding of the man presented to us so well in Mailer's Executioner's Song. What we begin to see, as this book chronicles Gilmore's young life, is the genesis of a murderer. The crime correlates of social class and family are clearly analyzed in this very poignant account of a future murderer's upbringing.\nCBS News\nFamous Cases\nKilled by a firing squad just after 8 a.m. on Monday, Jan. 17, 1977, Gilmore became the first convict to be executed in the United States after a near-decade pause following a Supreme Court ruling. Gilmore, who had asked to be executed, had been convicted of murdering Bennie Bushnell and Max David Jensen, both shot during robberies.\nAsked if he had any last words, Gilmore said, \"Let's do it.\" Gilmore, who had vowed not to flinch before the firing squad, sat placidly, a hood covering his head, as five anonymous gunmen armed with .30-caliber rifles took aim and fired. Four of the rifles were loaded with live ammunition; one held a blank.\nPrior to his execution, Gilmore drew attention with two suicide attempts by drug overdose and his pleas for death. Gilmore's uncle, one of the only people to have close contact with the convict before his death said of the execution, \"I would like to say at this time, Gary, my nephew, died like he wanted to die, in dignity. He got his wish to die. He died in dignity. That's all I have to say.\"\nAt the time there were 358 other Americans - including four women - on death row throughout the country. Gilmore's death publicly marked the resumption of executions in the United States.\nGilmore v. Utah, 429 U.S. 1012, 97 S.Ct. 436 (1976).\nAfter entering stay of execution, the United States Supreme Court held that convicted murderer who had been sentenced to death had made a knowing and intelligent waiver of any and all federal rights which he might have asserted after the sentence was imposed so that the stay of execution, which had been granted upon application of the convicted murderer's mother and next friend and over the convicted murderer's objection would be terminated. Stay of execution terminated.\nMr. Chief Justice Burger concurred and filed an opinion in which Mr. Justice Powell concurred. Mr. Justice Stevens concurred and filed an opinion in which Mr. Justice Rehnquist concurred. Mr. Justice White dissented and filed an opinion in which Mr. Justice Brennan and Mr. Justice Marshall concurred. Mr. Justice Marshall dissented and filed an opinion. Mr. Justice Blackmun dissented and filed an opinion.\nOn October 7, 1976, Gary Mark Gilmore was convicted of murder and sentenced to death by a judgment entered after a jury trial in a Utah court. On December 3, 1976, this Court granted an application for a stay of execution of the judgment and sentence, pending the filing here by the State of Utah of a response to the application together with transcripts of various specified hearings in the Utah courts and Board of Pardons, and until �further action of the Court on the application for stay.�\nThe State of Utah has now filed its response and has substantially complied with the Court's request for transcripts of the specified hearings. After carefully examining the materials submitted by the State of Utah, the Court is convinced that Gary Mark Gilmore made a knowing and intelligent waiver of any and all federal rights he might have asserted after the Utah trial court's sentence was imposed, and, specifically, that the State's determinations of his competence knowingly and intelligently to waive any and all such rights were firmly grounded.\nAccordingly, the stay of execution granted on December 3, 1976, is hereby terminated.\nMr. Chief Justice BURGER, with whom Mr. Justice POWELL, joins, concurring.\nOn December 2, 1976, Bessie Gilmore, claiming to act as �next friend� on behalf of her son, Gary Mark Gilmore, filed with this Court an application for stay of execution of the death sentence then scheduled for December 6, 1976. FN1 Since only a limited record was then before the Court, we granted a temporary stay of execution on December 3, 1976 FN2 in order to secure a response from the State of Utah. That response was received on December 7, 1976. On December 8, 1976, a response was filed by Gary Mark Gilmore, by and through his attorneys of record, Ronald R. Stanger and Robert L. Moody, challenging the standing of Bessie Gilmore to initiate any proceedings in his behalf.\nFN1. This case may be unique in the annals of the Court. Not only does Gary Mark Gilmore request no relief himself; on the contrary he has expressly and repeatedly stated since his conviction in the Utah courts that he had received a fair trial and had been well treated by the Utah authorities. Nor does he claim to be innocent of the crime for which he was convicted. Indeed, his only complaint against Utah or its judicial process, including that raised in the state habeas corpus petition mentioned in note 3, infra, has been with respect to the delay on the part of the State in carrying out the sentence.\nFN2. The Chief Justice, Mr. Justice REHNQUIST, and Mr. Justice STEVENS dissented from issuance of the stay. When the application for a stay was initially filed on December 2, a serious question was presented as to whether Bessie Gilmore had standing to seek the requested relief or any relief from this Court. Assuming the Court would otherwise have jurisdiction with respect to a �next friend� application, that jurisdiction would arise only if it were demonstrated that Gary Mark Gilmore is unable to seek relief in his own behalf. See Rosenberg v. United States, 346 U.S. 273, 291, 73 S.Ct. 1152, 1161, 97 L.Ed. 1607 (1953) (separate opinion of Mr. Justice Jackson for six Members of the Court). However, in view of Gary Mark Gilmore's response on December 8, 1976, it is now clear that the �next friend� concept is wholly inapplicable to this case. Since Gary Mark Gilmore has now filed a response and appeared in his own behalf, through his retained attorneys, any basis for the standing of Bessie Gilmore to seek relief in his behalf is necessarily eliminated. The only possible exception to this conclusion would be if the record suggested, despite the representations of Gary Mark Gilmore's attorneys, that he was incompetent to waive his right of appeal under state law and was at the present time incompetent to assert rights or to challenge Bessie Gilmore's standing to assert rights in his behalf as �next friend.� FN3\nFN3. When Bessie Gilmore's application for a stay first came before the Court, we did not have before us for consideration transcripts of the various hearings at which Gary Mark Gilmore was said to have waived his federal constitutional rights. As today's order makes clear, each Justice has now had an opportunity to review the relevant transcripts and reports concerning mental competence and waiver. After examining with care the pertinent portions of the transcripts and reports of state proceedings, and the response of Gary Mark Gilmore filed on December 8, I am in complete agreement with the conclusion expressed in the Court's order that Gary Mark Gilmore knowingly and intelligently, with full knowledge of his right to seek an appeal in the Utah Supreme Court, has waived that right.FN4 I further agree that the State's determinations of his competence to waive his rights knowingly and intelligently were firmly grounded.FN5\nFN4. At a hearing on November 1, 1976, on a motion for a new trial, Gilmore's attorneys informed the trial court that they had been told by Gilmore not to file an appeal and not to seek a stay of execution of sentence on his behalf. They also informed the trial court that they had advised Gilmore of his right to appeal that they believed there were substantial grounds for appeal, that the constitutionality of the Utah death penalty statute had not yet been reviewed by either the Utah Supreme Court or the United States Supreme Court, and that in their view there was a chance that the statute would eventually be held unconstitutional. The trial court itself advised Gilmore that he had a right to appeal, that the constitutional issue had not yet been resolved, and that both counsel for the State and Gilmore's own counsel would attempt to expedite an appeal to avoid unnecessary delay. Gilmore stated that he did not �care to languish in prison for another day,� that the decision was his own, and that he had not made the decision as a result of the influence of drugs or alcohol or as a result of the way he was treated in prison. On November 4, the state trial court concluded that Gilmore fully understood his right to appeal and the consequences of a decision not to appeal.On November 10, the Utah Supreme Court held a hearing on the Utah Attorney General's motion to vacate a stay of execution of sentence entered two days earlier by that Court. Gilmore was present, and, in response to questions from several Justices, stated that he thought he had received a fair trial and a proper sentence, that he opposed any appeal in the case, and that he wished to withdraw an appeal previously filed without his consent by appointed trial counsel.Finally, at a hearing before the trial court on December 1, Gilmore again informed the court that he opposed all appeals that had been filed.\nFN5. In the pretrial period, from August 5 to October 6, 1976, the trial court appointed psychiatrists to examine Gilmore on two occasions, to determine his competency to stand trial and his sanity at the time of the offense. Three of the five psychiatrists who examined Gilmore in that period found no evidence of mental illness or insanity. The record before us does not include the findings of the other two psychiatrists, which were presented to the trial court when it concluded that Gilmore was sane for the purpose of standing trial.After trial, at the November 1 hearing, the state trial court ordered sua sponte that the Utah State Prison Psychiatrist, or other available psychiatric personnel of the prison, examine Gilmore to determine his ability to decide not to appeal. In the order, the court noted that Gilmore had instructed his attorneys not to appeal after they had informed him that there was substantial legal merit to such an appeal. On November 3 the Prison Psychiatrist submitted a report, based on a one-hour psychiatric interview and a review of Gilmore's medical records, concluding that Gilmore's decision to waive appeal was the �product of an organized thought process� and that Gilmore had not �become �insane� or mentally ill.� On the same day, two prison psychologists submitted a second report, based on psychological tests and an individual interview, concluding that �(Gilmore) presently has the mental capacity and the emotional stability to make the necessary decision concerning his sentence and to understand the consequences.�Gilmore apparently attempted to take his own life on November 16. The Prison Psychiatrist subsequently reported to the Board of Pardons that Gilmore's mental state on November 24 was �exactly as described� in the Psychiatrist's report to the court on November 3.\nWhen the record establishing a knowing and intelligent waiver of Gary Mark Gilmore's right to seek appellate review is combined with the December 8 written response submitted to this Court,FN6 it is plain that the Court is without jurisdiction to entertain the �next friend� application filed by Bessie Gilmore. This Court has jurisdiction pursuant to Art. III of the Constitution only over �cases and controversies,� and we can issue stays only in aid of our jurisdiction. 28 U.S.C. ss 1651, 2101(f). There is no dispute, presently before us, between Gary Mark Gilmore and the State of Utah, and the application of Bessie Gilmore manifestly fails to meet the statutory requirements to invoke this Court's power to review the action of the Supreme Court of Utah. No authority to the contrary has been brought to our attention, and nothing suggested in dissent bears on the threshold question of jurisdiction.\nFN6. On December 8, 1976, Gilmore, by counsel, advised this Court of the filing of a petition in a Utah state court seeking habeas corpus relief. Although that petition is not in the papers before us, it is understood that the ground relied upon is not the deprivation of any constitutional right but that there is a 60-day limitation under Utah law upon the carrying out of the sentence of death, an issue which has not been presented to the Utah Supreme Court as of this date.\nIn his dissenting opinion, Mr. Justice WHITE suggests that Gary Mark Gilmore is �unable� as a matter of law to waive the right to state appellate review. FN7 Whatever may be said as to the merits of this suggestion, the question simply is not before us. Gilmore, duly found to be competent by the Utah courts, has had available meaningful access to this Court and has declined expressly to assert any claim here other than his explicit repudiation of Bessie Gilmore's effort to speak for him as next friend. It follows, therefore, that the Court is without jurisdiction to consider the question posed by the dissent.\nFN7. Mr. Justice WHITE's dissent expresses the view that absent an affirmative decision by �the state courts� as to the validity of Utah's capital punishment statute, �the imposition of the death penalty in this case should be stayed.� However, Gilmore has not challenged the validity of the statute under which he was convicted, and there is no other party before this Court with requisite standing to do so.\nMr. Justice STEVENS, with whom Mr. Justice REHNQUIST joins, concurring.\nIn my judgment the record not only supports the conclusion that Gilmore was competent to waive his right to appeal, but also makes it clear that his access to the courts is entirely unimpeded and therefore a third party has no standing to litigate an Eighth Amendment claim or indeed any other claim on his behalf. Without a proper litigant before it, this Court is without power to stay the execution.\nMr. Justice WHITE, joined by Mr. Justice BRENNAN and Mr. Justice MARSHALL, dissenting.\nAs Justice Wilkins said in dissent below,FN1 there are substantialquestions under Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238, 92 S.Ct. 2726, 33 L.Ed.2d 346 (1972), about the constitutionality of the Utah death penalty statute. Because of Gary Gilmore's purported waiver of his right to challenge the statute, none of these questions was resolved in the Utah courts. I believe, however, that the consent of a convicted defendant in a criminal case does not privilege a State to impose a punishment otherwise forbidden by the Eighth **440 Amendment.FN2 Until the state courts have resolved the obvious serious doubts about the validity of the state statute, the imposition of the death penalty in this case should be stayed.\nFN1. Prior to Gilmore's seeming waiver, the trial judge also appeared ready to certify an appeal in order that the State Supreme Court could pass on the issue of the validity of the death penalty statute, an issue he had not himself addressed. FN2. Nor in the absence of a state court decision sustaining the death penalty statute would a purported waiver of the Eighth Amendment necessarily be a defense to a wrongful-death action, see Utah Code Ann. s 78-11-7, based on an execution imposed under an unconstitutional statute.\nGiven the inability of Gary Gilmore to waive resolution in the state courts of the serious questions concerning the constitutional legality of his death sentence, there is no jurisdictional barrier to addressing the question upon the petition of the defendant's mother. See Rosenberg v. United States, 346 U.S. 273, 291, 73 S.Ct. 1152, 1161, 97 L.Ed. 1607 (1953) (separate opinion of Justice Jackson). Without examining the constitutionality of the Utah death statute, on November 10, 1976, the Utah Supreme Court vacated its stay of Gilmore's sentence and dismissed the appeal which his then attorneys had filed on his behalf.\nPending the filing of a timely petition for certiorari, I would continue the stay previously issued by this Court; and upon said filing it would appear that the judgment of the Supreme Court of Utah should be vacated and the case remanded to the state courts for reconsideration in the light of the death penalty decisions announced by this Court last Term. Cf. Collins v. Arkansas, 429 U.S. 808, 97 S.Ct. 44, 50 L.Ed.2d 69 (1976); Neal v. Arkansas, 429 U.S. 808, 97 S.Ct. 45, 50 L.Ed.2d 69 (1976).\nMr. Justice MARSHALL, dissenting.\nI fully agree with my Brother WHITE that a criminal defendant has no power to agree to be executed under an unconstitutional statute. I believe that the Eighth Amendment not only protects the right of individuals not to be victims of cruel and unusual punishment, but that it also expresses a fundamental interest of society in ensuring that state authority is not used to administer barbaric punishments. Irrespective of this, however, I cannot agree with the view expressed by THE CHIEF JUSTICE that Gilmore has competently, knowingly, and intelligently decided to let himself be killed. Less than five months have passed since the commission of the crime; just over two months have elapsed since sentence was imposed. That is hardly sufficient time for mature consideration of the question, nor does Gilmore's erratic behavior from his suicide attempt to his state habeas petition evidence such deliberation. No adversary hearing has been held to examine the experts,FN1 all employed by the State of Utah, who have pronounced Gilmore sane.FN2 The decision of the Utah Supreme Court finding a valid waiver can be given little weight. In the transcripts that the court prepared for us, it omitted a portion of its proceedings as having �no pertinency� to the issue of Gilmore's �having voluntarily and intelligently waived his right to appeal.� That �irrelevant� portion involved*1020 a discussion by Gilmore's trial counsel of his opinion of Gilmore's competence and the constitutionality of the Utah statute. It is appalling that any court could consider these questions irrelevant to that determination. It is equally shocking that the Utah court, in a matter of such importance, failed even to have a court reporter present to transcribe the proceeding, instead relying on recordings made by dictating machines which have produced a partly unintelligible record. These inexplicable actions by a court charged with life or death responsibility underscore the failure of the State to determine adequately the validity of Gilmore's purported waiver and the propriety of imposing capital punishment.\nFN1. If Gilmore's own lawyers refused to question his competence, the court could certainly ask other counsel acting as amicus curiae to present that side of the issue.\nFN2. As THE CHIEF JUSTICE notes, the opinion of the Prison Psychiatrist, the only doctor who has considered Gilmore's competency since the waiver decision was publicly announced, was based on a review of Gilmore's medical records and a one-hour interview.\nMr. Justice BLACKMUN, dissenting.\nI am of the view that the question of Bessie Gilmore's standing and the constitutional issue are not insubstantial, and, indeed, in the context of this case, are of manifest importance. I therefore would have the pending application set for expeditious hearing and given plenary, not summary, consideration. See Mr. Justice Harlan's haunting admonition, which I joined, in New York Times Co. v. United States, 403 U.S. 713, 752, 755 (1971) (Harlan, J., dissenting)."
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"title": [
"The execution of Gary Gilmore - Jan 17, 1977 - HISTORY.com",
"1977: Gilmore executed by firing squad - BBC News",
"The 1977 Execution of Gary Gilmore | Utah Communication ...",
"Gary Gilmore (1940 - 1977) - Find A Grave Memorial",
"ExecutedToday.com » 1977: Gary Gilmore",
"Gary Mark Gilmore - Summary of Execution"
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"http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-execution-of-gary-gilmore",
"http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/17/newsid_2530000/2530413.stm",
"https://utahcommhistory.wordpress.com/2010/05/04/the-1977-execution-of-gary-gilmore/",
"http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7073887",
"http://www.executedtoday.com/2008/01/17/1977-gary-gilmore/",
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In which country was Ivana Trump born and brought up?
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Ivana Marie Trump (née Zelníčková;; February 20, 1949) is a Czech-American socialite and former fashion model, known for her second marriage, to Donald Trump.\n\nEarly years\n\nIvana Zelníčková was born in the Moravian town of Zlín (before known as Gottwaldov), Czechoslovakia, the daughter of Miloš Zelníček and Marie Francová. From a very young age, her father nurtured and encouraged her skiing talent. She has claimed that she was selected as an alternate on the 1972 Czechoslovak Olympic Ski Team. However, in 1989, Petr Pomezny, Secretary General of the Czechoslovak Olympic Committee, stated, \"Who is this Ivana woman, and why do people keep calling us about her? We have searched so many times and have consulted many, many people, and there is no such girl in our records.\" \n\nIn the early 1970s, she attended Charles University in Prague. \n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 1971 Ivana married real estate agent Alfred Winklmayr. They were divorced in 1973. She left Czechoslovakia for Canada to be with a childhood friend, George Syrovatka, who owned a ski boutique there. For the following two years, she lived in Montreal, improved her English by taking night courses at McGill University, and worked as a model for some of Canada's top fur companies. Ivana then left Syrovatka and moved to New York to promote the Montreal Olympics.\n\nIt was in New York that Ivana met Donald Trump, son of prominent real estate developer Fred Trump. On April 7, 1977, she married Donald in a lavish society wedding. Donald and Ivana Trump became leading figures in New York society during the 1980s. They set to work on several massive projects, including the renovation of the Grand Hyatt Hotel and construction of the Trump Taj Mahal Casino Resort in Atlantic City, New Jersey and the Trump Tower on Fifth Avenue in Manhattan. They had three children: Donald John Jr. (born December 31, 1977), Ivanka Marie (born October 30, 1981), and Eric Fredrick (born January 6, 1984). She has eight grandchildren. \n\nIvana took a major role in the Trump Organization. She became the Vice President of Interior Design for the company, spearheading the signature design of Trump Tower. Afterwards, her then-husband appointed her to head up the Trump Castle Hotel and Casino as president. She became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1988, with Donald at her side. \n\nIn the late 1980s, Ivana decided to leave Atlantic City in order to devote more time to her family. However, her husband asked her to oversee the restoration of the landmark Plaza Hotel, and she took over as its president. She was named Hotelier of the Year in 1990. Her work at the Plaza would be the zenith of her work within the Trump Organization. Towards the end of that year, rumors began to circulate that her husband was having an affair with a former beauty queen from Georgia, Marla Maples. While the family was on vacation in Aspen, Colorado that Christmas, she encountered Maples on the ski slopes; their confrontation was reported in the New York Post the following day. In 1991, she retained entertainment attorney Neil Papiano and filed for divorce, seeking a greater amount of the family fortune than had been set out in her prenuptial agreement. Her husband fought back in court, protesting her claims that she had contributed to the Trump Organization.\n\nThe divorce proceedings led to extensive pieces in the gossip columns. In October 1990 her 63-year-old father died suddenly from a heart attack. The Trumps stood side-by-side at the funeral. Their divorce was settled after that in 1992. Although the settlement remains sealed by the courts, it is rumored that Ivana received $20 million; the $14 million family estate in Connecticut; a $5 million housing allowance; $350,000 annual alimony; all of her jewelry; and 49% of Mar-a-Lago, the family home in Palm Beach, Florida, that also serves as a private club for the Palm Beach elite. Not long after her divorce from Donald, Ivana married Riccardo Mazzucchelli. The marriage was dissolved before two years had elapsed, and she filed a $15 million breach of contract suit against Mazzucchelli for violating the confidentiality clause in their prenuptial agreement. The suit was settled out of court. In 1997, Mazzucchelli sued Ivana and Donald for libel. \n\nIn April 2008, Ivana, then 59, married Rossano Rubicondi, then 36. The $3 million wedding for 400 guests was hosted by Donald at his Mar-a-Lago estate. Trump's daughter Ivanka, of the reality show The Apprentice, was her maid of honor. On December 1, 2008, Trump confirmed to the Associated Press that she had filed a legal separation agreement three months previously; she has stated in interviews that she and her husband have an on-again/off-again relationship.\n\nCareer\n\nSoon after her divorce from Donald Trump, she signed on with the William Morris Agency and developed lines of clothing, fashion jewelry and beauty products that have been successfully sold through television shopping channels. She has also written several bestselling books including the novels For Love Alone, Lucy Wilkins and Free to Love as well as a self-help book The Best is Yet to Come: Coping with Divorce and Enjoying Life Again. In 2001, she penned an advice column for Divorce Magazine. She played a cameo role in the Hollywood film The First Wives Club with the memorable line, \"Remember girls: don't get mad, get everything.\" \n\nIn 2005, she was involved in several proposed condominium projects that ultimately failed, including the unbuilt Ivana Las Vegas, and the Bentley Bay in Miami, Florida. She was the host of Oxygen Network's reality-dating series Ivana Young Man in 2006. In 2010, she sued a Finnish fashion company, accusing it of selling women's clothing that incorporates her name without permission. In the same year, she took part in the UK's Celebrity Big Brother, finishing seventh. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nIn Kreayshawn's 2011 hit single \"Gucci Gucci\", Ivana is briefly mentioned in the line \"I'm looking like Madonna and flossing like Ivana Trump\".\n\nIn the former Disney sitcoms The Suite Life of Zack and Cody and The Suite Life on Deck, main character London Tipton's dog is named Ivana, after Ivana Trump.\n\nIn the 1996 movie adaptation of The First Wives Club, Ivana makes a brief appearance at the end gala, at which point she tells the ladies, \"Don't get mad. Get everything!\"\n\nAbsolutely Fabulous creator Jennifer Saunders has admitted that the character Patsy Stone (who shares Trump's characteristic blond beehive) is partially based on Trump. \n\nIn the John David Coles-directed TV movie Trump Unauthorized (2005), Ivana is portrayed by actress Katheryn Winnick. Actress Michaela Watkins portrays her in the Funny or Die parody film Donald Trump's The Art of the Deal: The Movie."
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"Ivana Trump Biography | Fandango\nIvana Trump Biography\nFilmography\nBiography\nSocialite Ivana Trump initially gained national recognition as the first wife of billionaire Donald Trump , to whom she was wed from 1977 to 1992. Born Ivana Marie Zelnickova in 1949, she grew up in Gottwaldov, Czechoslovakia, just south of Prague, and established herself as a champion skier at an early age. After earning her masters in the dual arenas of physical education and languages, Ivana spent a number of years professionally coaching ski racers with then-paramour George Syrovatka in Montréal, Canada, then shifted gears and moved into modeling for the Audrey Morris agency during the 1970s -- a line of work that inadvertently brought her to New York City and introduced her to Donald Trump in 1976. The two married within a year and had three children: Ivanka Trump , Donald Trump Jr., and Eric Trump.\nAs Mrs. Trump, Ivana worked for many years as vice president of interior design for the Trump Organization. Following their much-publicized and ballyhooed divorce (an event that occupied an inordinate number of tabloid pages and headlines), she established two of her own companies, Ivana, Inc. and Ivana Haute Couture; graced numerous print advertisements for a plethora of brands; and significantly (like her ex-husband) moved into work as on-camera talent, as the subject of her own Lifetime network biography special, Intimate Portrait: Ivana Trump (2001) and the host of her own reality television special, Ivana Young Man on the Oxygen Channel. The program traveled behind the scenes to witness Trump guiding an affluent young socialite into marriage with the proper suitor.\n— Nathan Southern, Rovi",
"Ivana Trump. Biography, news, photos and videos\nHoroscope : Capricorn\n\"Women relate to Ivana because she suffered,\" says New York gossip columnist Cindy Adams. \"If she is over the top with her wardrobe, or the things she says, it is forgiven because she has been beaten down and she has risen to the top. America loves an underdog.\"\nBorn on February 20, 1949, in the Czech factory town of Zlin, Ivana Zelnicek spent the first few months of her life in an incubator. Her father Milos, believing it would toughen up the sickly toddler, taught Ivana to ski and swim when she was just two years old. It was a tactic which evidently paid off Ivana later became a member of the country\"s youth ski team, although Olympic selectors passed her over for the 1972 squad.\nIvana seemed to have it all. Former classmates describe her as clever, pretty, tall and skinny and, even as a teenager, her drive had already begun to manifest itself. This she put down to a lesson learnt at the age of 13. \"When I was doing poorly at school, my father yanked me out and got me a job in a shoe factory,\" she told an interviewer. \"After three weeks I begged him to give me another chance at doing well in school. I learned that discipline is necessary to accomplish anything in life.\"\nAfter obtaining a Masters degree in physical education at Charles University in Prague, Ivana emigrated to Canada. She had married an Austrian skier, Alfred Winklmayr, in 1971, meaning she was able to leave Communist-controlled Czechoslovakia. After learning English in Toronto, she moved to Montreal where she got a job as a model and spent two successful years on the catwalks.\nWhile she was sharing a drink with some fellow models in a New York singles bar called Maxwell's Plum in 1976, Ivana's destiny walked in. His name was Donald Trump (or The Donald, as Ivana later dubbed him), an entrepreneur who had inherited his father's $20-million real estate and development business. Nine months later they were married, and in the course of time had three children, Donald Jr, Ivanka, and Eric.\nIn the New York of the Eighties, the Trumps were a force to be reckoned with. The Donald's knack of generating greenbacks, combined with Ivana's talent for publicity, hastened their rise to the top of Big Apple society. When the businessman bought New York's Plaza Hotel, he installed his wife as president on a $1-a-year salary, plus all the couture frocks she wanted estimated at costing around half a million a year. The couple acquired more property than they had kids including a triplex penthouse in Trump Tower with 50-odd rooms, not to mention their own Boeing 727.\nStorm clouds were threatening in the golden couple's relationship, however, and Ivana confronted her husband after blonde aspiring actress Marla Maples told her, on the ski slopes of Aspen, that she was in love with Ivana's husband. Two months later, the Trumps separated. A 13-month legal battle over financial settlement ensued, with Ivana, who was granted a divorce on the grounds of \"cruel and inhumane treatment\", eventually getting a $25-million payout, $10 million of which was in cash.\nSuddenly Ivana was on her own, and loving it. She decided to build her own empire, dubbing it Ivana Inc, and by 1997 just one arm of her business, the clothes range House Of Ivana, was worth $50 million a year. She has also written, with the help of a ghost writer, two novels and a guide to divorce entitled The Best Is Yet To Come, as well as establishing a magazine, Ivana's Living In Style.\nJust months after her divorce, Ivana met Riccardo Mazzucchelli. The Italian businessman was immediately smitten and proposed. Ms Trump held off, however, until the end of 1995 when she and the man she described as a \"typical Italian macho\", said \"I do\" in a New York hotel.\nTwenty-two months later, they both said, \"We don't\". Almost immediately Ivana took up with another beau Ferrari dealer Roffredo Gaetani di Laurenzana dell'Aquila d'Aragona Lovatelli - to give him his full name - who she met at the Red Cross Ball in Monaco.\nWhen that relationship ended she found a new escort in Rossano Rubicondi, a handsome male model 24 years her junior. After six years together, they married at Donald's Mar-A-Lago estate in lavish style on April 12, 2008.\nBut by the following December Ivana was admitting the union was over and a legal separation was in the works.\nYet whether she is in a high-profile relationship or dynamically single, Ivana is a trooper and she knows it. \"A woman is like a tea bag,\" she once told HELLO!. \"You never know how strong she is until she gets into hot water.\"\n© 2000-2017, HELLO!",
"Ivana Trump on how she advises Donald — and those hands | New York Post\nIvana Trump on how she advises Donald — and those hands\nModal Trigger\nIt’s Ivana Trump’s fault that Donald didn’t run for president sooner.\n“Probably five years before our divorce, Reagan or somebody brought him a letter and said, ‘You should run for president,’ ” Donald’s first wife tells The Post at her opulent seven-floor Upper East Side town house, which she purchased for $2.8 million in 1998.\n“So he was thinking about it. But then . . . there was the divorce, there was the scandal, and American women loved me and hated him,” she says, referencing Donald’s much-publicized infidelity with Marla Maples that led to the power couple’s 1991 split. “So there was no way that he would go into [politics] at that point,” Ivana says. “But he was always tooling around with the idea.”\nNo tooling now — now, Donald’s the GOP front-runner.\nAnd Ivana, a self-proclaimed conservative who has mended fences with her ex, is along for the ride — acting as Donald’s cheerleader and, at times, adviser.\n“I suggest a few things,” says Ivana, lounging next to her framed 1996 “Got Milk?” ad in the Louis XVI-inspired living room — the fireplace blazing on a 70-degree spring day.\nThe 67-year-old former model is sporting a mini Roberto Cavalli dress with sheer lace panels, an Ivana Trump necklace from her defunct QVC jewelry line (“Now I just prefer to take it easy,” she says of getting out of the accessories business) and her signature blond bouffant.\n“We speak before and after the appearances and he asks me what I thought,” says Ivana, who tells him to “be more calm” and adds that she gave Donald the motto: “You think it, I say it.”\n“But Donald cannot be calm,” she admits. “He’s very outspoken. He just says it as it is.” That’s exactly why she thinks The Donald — as she famously referred to him in a 1989 Spy magazine interview — would make a great president.\n“He’s no politician. He’s a businessman. He knows how to talk. He can give an hour speech without notes . . . He’s blunt.” She adds that Donald would surround himself with “fantastic advisers, like Carl Icahn. Really brilliant minds. And he’d make a decision! Obama cannot make a decision if his life depends on it. It’s ridiculous.”\nDonald and Ivana Trump at their Connecticut home in 1987.Getty Images\nWhile Ivana says she’s not political — “I was born in a Communist country [Czechoslovakia] and I don’t like politics” — she frets that America has lost its prestige. “We have to get it back.”\nThe first step? Adopting Donald’s immigration policies. “And I’m an immigrant,” Ivana says.\n“I have nothing against Mexicans, but if they [come] here — like this 19-year-old, she’s pregnant, she crossed over a wall that’s this high” — Ivana lowers her hand to 4 inches above her wall-to-wall carpeting. “She gives the birth in American hospital, which is for free. The child becomes American automatically. She brings the whole family, she doesn’t pay the taxes, she doesn’t have a job, she gets the housing, she gets the food stamps. Who’s paying? You and me.\n“As long as you come here legally and get a proper job . . . we need immigrants. Who’s going to vacuum our living rooms and clean up after us? Americans don’t like to do that.”\nIvana TrumpGetty Images\nWell, Trumps certainly don’t.\nIvana wasn’t always a Trump, though. Born Ivana Zelnícková, she grew up in what was then Czechoslovakia, and began skiing competitively at age 6. She says she was an alternate for the 1972 Czechoslovak Olympic ski team (there are disputes as to the validity of this claim). She was married from 1971 to 1973 to an Austrian skier, Alfred Winklmayr, and lived in Montreal, where she modeled and worked as a ski instructor.\nIn 1976, Ivana was in NYC for a fashion show and went with friends to Maxwell’s Plum, an Upper East Side pickup spot for real-life Mr. Bigs and the women who loved them. While waiting for a table, she felt a tap on her shoulder.\n“[There’s] this tall blond guy with blue eyes. He said, ‘I’m Donald Trump and I see you’re looking for a table. I can help you.’ I look at my friends and said, ‘The good news is, we’re going to get a table real fast. The bad news is, this guy is going to be sitting with us.’ ”\nAfter the meal, Donald paid the bill on the sly and disappeared.\n“I said, ‘There’s something strange because I’ve never met a man who didn’t want anything from a woman and paid for it,’ ” Ivana says with a laugh.\nWhen she walked outside, there was Donald, in the driver’s seat of his own limousine. “He drove us home and then we started to date,” she says.\n‘As long as you come here legally … We need immigrants. Who’s going to vacuum our living rooms and clean up after us?’\n - Ivana Trump\nDonald took Ivana to Aspen, Colo., not knowing her Olympian status. She feigned altitude sickness while Donald, a ski novice, took a lesson.\n“Sure enough, 10 minutes later I was on the mountains and looking at him doing full turns, and it was not fun,” says Ivana.\n“The second day, he was getting good. So he said, ‘Ivana, let’s go ski.’ I asked the instructor to put the ski boots on me like a beginner. Donald was like, ‘OK, darling, you can do it!’ I took off and he got so angry. He said, ‘I will never [ski] again for anybody! Even Ivana!’ So I play for his ego.”\nAfter less than a year, the two married, in 1977, and went on to have three children together: Donald Jr., now 38, Ivanka, 34, and Eric, 32. Donald hired his wife to work within his Trump Organization. She was crowned vice president of interior design, eventually becoming president of the Trump’s Castle casino resort, in Atlantic City, and later of the Plaza hotel.\n“I’d get up at 6 and read newspapers, and then I went to 63rd Street to the helicopter pad and flew to Atlantic City. I could come back 5 or 6 . . . Then we’d watch ‘Dallas’ and ‘Dynasty.’ ”\nIvana says Donald’s faith in her business acumen is proof of his respect for women. “When people ask, I say that behind every successful woman is a man in shock. And it’s true, so I think Donald knew that I could achieve.\n“He gave me the chance. I came [to America] and I was a poor person. I had a sense of style so he put me in charge of interior design of the Grand Hyatt Hotel. I was seven months pregnant and going up the steps, making sure everything was on the schedule.”\n“Speaking of America, Donald’s on the phone,” interrupts Dorothy, Ivana’s longtime assistant and her kids’ former nanny. Ivana excuses herself.\nDonald and Ivana TrumpGetty Images (l); WireImage (2)\n“I don’t think he’s feminist,” Ivana says upon her return when asked of Donald’s stance. “He loves women. But not a feminist.” (Ivana’s reps called The Post two days after the interview to clarify that Donald was a feminist. Then they called to say he wasn’t. An hour later, they said he was.) It was that love of women that led to the couple’s divorce. Ivana discovered that her husband was cheating on her with former beauty queen Marla Maples. As Ivana told Barbara Walters in a 1991 “20/20” interview, Maples stopped her at a restaurant in Aspen and told her, “I’m Marla and I love your husband. Do you?”\nIvana filed for divorce, claiming in her deposition that Donald raped her after he used her plastic surgeon for a scalp-reduction surgery to remove a bald spot. “Your f – – king doctor has ruined me!” Trump cried, according to the 1993 book “Lost Tycoon: The Many Lives of Donald J. Trump,” before forcing himself on her sexually.\nOnce the book was out, Ivana softened her remarks in a statement: “As a woman, I felt violated, as the love and tenderness, which he normally exhibited toward me, was absent. I referred to this as a ‘rape,’ but I do not want my words to be interpreted in a literal or criminal sense.”\n(From left) Donald Trump Jr., Ivana Trump, Ivanka Trump and Eric TrumpGetty Images\nNow, she tells The Post, “It was all the lawyers. The negotiations and stuff like that. I was never abused.”\nAfter battling it out in court — and in the tabloids — Ivana walked away with a $14 million cash settlement, the family’s 45-room Greenwich, Conn., mansion, an apartment at Trump Plaza, and use of Donald’s Palm Beach mansion, Mar-a-Lago, every March.\n“Donald took the divorce as a businessman. And he had to negotiate and he had to win,” says Ivana. “Once the financial part was settled, we’re friendly.”\nShe had custody of the children, but he saw them often.\n“Once [the children] were the age of 21 and out of the university, I said, ‘Donald, this is the final product, now you deal with it.’ ” She still oversaw the kids’ monthly allowance, though. “Sometimes they’d say, ‘But I have this Arab friend who drives a Ferrari! And is in Armani suits and gets $20,000! And I get $1,500 a month!’ And I said, ‘You know what, the money doesn’t fall from the trees,’ ” says Ivana, who foresees her children running the family business if Donald is in the White House.\nAs for Donald’s current wife, Ivana thinks Melania will “be OK” as first lady. “She’s going to adapt just fine,” says Ivana, who is friendly with Melania. “She never did anything wrong to me. I wish them all the best.”\nShe can’t say the same for Maples.\n“[Maples] asked to apologize to me in the Daily Mail in London. They asked if I accepted the apology and I said no. Why should I? She broke my marriage!”\nNot that Ivana’s too concerned. She’s plenty busy juggling her properties in Saint-Tropez, London, Miami and New York, as well as her three boyfriends.\n“If you are a married woman, you usually follow what the man wants to do. I can do whatever what I want,” she says. “I’m not getting married again. But I like companions. The most important for me is honesty, good humor — not necessarily a millionaire. I don’t need [money]. I prefer to be a baby sitter than a nursemaid. I don’t want to worry about bad knees and bad back.”\nDonald and Ivana TrumpWireImage\nPlus there’s her bundle of grandchildren — now up to eight, with last week’s addition of Theodore, son of Ivanka and her husband, Jared Kushner. The grandchildren call her “Ivana-ma or Glam-ma,” says Ivana, who plans to attend Theodore’s bris today but says she doesn’t know whether Donald will make it.\nWhile her ex’s campaign has thrust the family into the solar core of the public spotlight, she says the kids and she — and certainly Donald — are used to the heat. Plus, there are surprise benefits, like Donald’s recent weight loss, aided by his germophobia.\n“He loves to eat. I told him, ‘Donald, you lost weight!’ because I can tell if he’s 225 or 215,” says Ivana. “And he said, ‘I don’t have time to eat! I shake so many hands!’ ”\nSpeaking of hands — and other body parts — Ivana says Donald does just fine in that department.\n“If there was a problem there, Donald would not have five kids.”\nShare this:",
"From Ivana, More Trump Immigration Foolishness | The Huffington Post\nFrom Ivana, More Trump Immigration Foolishness\n04/04/2016 10:58 pm ET | Updated Apr 04, 2016\n190\nRaul A. Reyes Attorney; NBCNews.com Contributor, CNN Opinion columnist\nAstrid Stawiarz via Getty Images\nBut what does Ivana think? In response to that question, likely asked by no one, the former wife of Donald Trump has weighed in on her ex-husband, why he will be good for the country, and how she advises him on his 2016 campaign. In an interview with the New York Post on Sunday, Ivana Trump revealed that she has mended fences with Trump and that she is on board with his candidacy -- including his proposed immigration policies.\nIvana Trump, who was born in Czechoslovakia, has a fairly narrow view of her fellow immigrants. \"As long as you come here legally and get a proper job... we need immigrants,\" she said. \"Who's going to vacuum our living rooms and clean up after us? Americans don't like to do that.\" Allowing that the idea of vacuuming her own living room or cleaning up after herself does not seem to have entered into her mind, Ms. Trump's comments reveal a fundamental ignorance about the lives of immigrants as well as American workers. In most states, housekeeper is not actually the most common profession for immigrants. According to an analysis of U.S. Census data by Business Insider, a majority of housekeepers and maids are American-born. The most common job held by immigrants in Donald Trump's home state of New York, for example, is home health care aide.\nHow sad that a woman who describes herself as the \"perfect example of professionalism, motherhood, and ambition\" can only see immigrants as low-wage, menial workers. Immigrants, both legal and undocumented, perform critical tasks throughout society, from nurturing our children to starting small businesses to caring for our seniors. Forty percent of Fortune 500 countries were started by immigrants or their children. So not all immigrants are consigned to vacuuming Mrs. Trump's living room.\nIvana Trump is also wrong to assume that American workers do not want to work as housekeepers or in domestic positions. For proof, she need look no further than Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago resort in Palm Beach, Florida, where her former husband has repeatedly hired foreign workers over hundred of Americans. Since 2010, nearly 300 United States residents have applied or been referred for jobs as waiters, waitresses, cooks and housekeepers at Mar-a-Lago, reported the New York Times. But federal records show that only 17 have been hired; the rest of the jobs went to workers from Romania and other countries.\nMs. Trump seems to believe that undocumented immigrants are a drag on the economy. \"I have nothing against Mexicans,\" she stated, before unloading a trove of inaccurate information about an imaginary pregnant, undocumented immigrant. \"She gives the birth in American hospital, which is for free. The child becomes American automatically,\" Trump said. \"She brings the whole family, she doesn't pay the taxes, she doesn't have a job, she gets the housing, she gets the food stamps. Who's paying? You and me.\"\nNot exactly. Having a child in the U.S. is no protection from deportation for an undocumented immigrant. In 2013, Immigration and Customs Enforcement deported over 72,000 undocumented parents of U.S.-born children. Contrary to what Ms. Trump believes, undocumented immigrants are not eligible for food stamps, \"Obamacare,\" or other social service programs. Undocumented workers, in fact, do pay taxes at the federal, state, and local level. Undocumented workers pay an estimated net $12 billion annually into the Social Security Fund (money they will not benefit from later in life). According to the nonpartisan Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy, undocumented workers have collectively paid $11.64 billion annually in state and local taxes.\nIvana Trump's website states that she is the \"ultimate symbol of strength, glamour, and worldliness.\" Though these claims may be debatable, it is safe to say that Ms. Trump is no immigration expert. She is a private person who is thankfully not running for office. Yet if she expects to avoid public criticism, then she should not be giving \"exclusive\" interviews to newspaper tabloids on issues whose nuances clearly escape her. If she truly cares about our illegal immigration problem, she might consider that Trump Tower -- where she once lived -- was allegedly built in part by undocumented Polish workers. Or that the Washington Post has reported that undocumented workers are currently building a Trump hotel in D.C. These would be more productive endeavors than scapegoating immigrants and promoting offensive, xenophobic falsehoods.\nIvana Trump's demeaning comments about immigrants reflect only her shallow and uninformed views. The last thing this country needs is another Trump advising us on immigration.\nFollow Raul A. Reyes on Twitter: www.twitter.com/RaulAReyes",
"Ivana Trump Biography | Movies.com\n<img src=http://images.fandango.com/mdcsite/images/global/shim.gif class=\"spriteIcons arrowGreen\" /> <a href=http://www.movies.com/dvd-movies/first-wives-club-dvd/m35435>Watch at Home</a>\nIvana Trump Biography\nAwards\nSocialite Ivana Trump initially gained national recognition as the first wife of billionaire [[Performer~P71941~Donald Trump~donaldtrump]], to whom she was wed from 1977 to 1992. Born Ivana Marie Zelnickova in 1949, she grew up in Gottwaldov, Czechoslovakia, just south of Prague, and established herself as a champion skier at an early age. After earning her masters in the dual arenas of physical education and languages, Ivana spent a number of years professionally coaching ski racers with then-paramour George Syrovatka in Montréal, Canada, then shifted gears and moved into modeling for the Audrey Morris agency during the 1970s -- a line of work that inadvertently brought her to New York City and introduced her to [[Performer~P71941~Donald Trump~donaldtrump]] in 1976. The two married within a year and had three children: [[Performer~P355841~Ivanka Trump~ivankatrump]], Donald Trump Jr., and Eric Trump.\nAs Mrs. Trump, Ivana worked for many years as vice president of interior design for the Trump Organization. Following their much-publicized and ballyhooed divorce (an event that occupied an inordinate number of tabloid pages and headlines), she established two of her own companies, Ivana, Inc. and Ivana Haute Couture; graced numerous print advertisements for a plethora of brands; and significantly (like her ex-husband) moved into work as on-camera talent, as the subject of her own Lifetime network biography special, [[Feature~V336448~Intimate Portrait: Ivana Trump~intimateportrait:ivanatrump]] (2001) and the host of her own reality television special, [[Feature~V350864~Ivana Young Man~ivanayoungman]] on the Oxygen Channel. The program traveled behind the scenes to witness Trump guiding an affluent young socialite into marriage with the proper suitor. ~ Nathan Southern, Rovi\nAdvertisement",
"Donald Trump's immigrant wives - CNNPolitics.com\nDonald Trump's immigrant wives\nBy Chris Frates , CNN\nUpdated 9:50 PM ET, Mon August 24, 2015\nChat with us in Facebook Messenger. Find out what's happening in the world as it unfolds.\nJUST WATCHED\nDonald Trump's wife, Melania, is Slovenian born\nHis first wife, Ivana, was born in Czechoslovakia\nWashington (CNN)\nIt's more than a little ironic that a guy as hardline on immigration as Donald Trump has been surrounded by immigrants his entire life, starting from the very beginning.\n\"My mother was born in Scotland, in the Hebrides, in Stornoway, so that's serious Scotland. And she was a great woman,\" Trump said in a 2010 documentary. \"Whenever anything was on about, ceremonial about the Queen she could sit at the television and just watch it. She had great respect for the Queen and for everything (she) represents\"\nIn 1930, an 18-year-old Mary MacLeod sailed for America from Glasgow on the S.S. Transylvania, according to a copy of the ship's passenger list on Ancestry.com. MacLeod arrived in New York and married Fred Trump, the son of German immigrants himself.\n\"My grandfather Frederick Trump came to the United States in 1885. He joined the great gold rush and instead of gold he decided to open up some hotels in Alaska. He did fantastically well. He loved this country, likewise my father and now me,\" Trump said in a taped message for a German-American pride parade a few years ago.\nRELATED: Trump to Bush: Illegal immigration not about 'love'\nRead More\nBut on the campaign trail, Trump sounds more like a nativist than the son and grandson of immigrants.\nTrump told a meeting of conservative activists last year that the nation's 11 million undocumented immigrants would never vote Republican.\n\"You'd better be smart and you'd better be tough,\" Trump said. \"They're taking your jobs, and you'd better be careful.\"\nIt's tough rhetoric that comes with a twist. Trump's current wife is an immigrant herself.\nMelania Trump moved to New York about 20 years ago. The Slovenian born model now has her own jewelry and caviar-cream skincare lines. She married Trump in 2005 in a fairytale wedding that included a wedding gown reported to cost $100,000. And the next year, she became a citizen -- a decade after arriving in America.\n\"She went through a long process to become a citizen. It was very tough,\" Trump told CNN recently, adding that Melania agrees with his immigration position. \"When she got it, she was very proud of it. She came from Europe, and she was very, very proud of it. And she thinks it's a beautiful process when it works.\"\nAnd of course, Trump's first wife, Ivana, was an immigrant too. Born in Czechoslovakia, she married an Austrian ski instructor in order to get a foreign passport to leave the communist country, her divorce lawyer has said.\nA few years later, she \"went to my aunt and uncle in Canada,\" she has said.\nShe and Trump married in 1977, but she didn't become an American citizen for another 11 years.\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nPresident-elect Donald Trump has been in the spotlight for years. From developing real estate and producing and starring in TV shows, he became a celebrity long before winning the White House.\nHide Caption\n1 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump at age 4. He was born in 1946 to Fred and Mary Trump in New York City. His father was a real estate developer.\nHide Caption\nTrump, left, in a family photo. He was the second-youngest of five children.\nHide Caption\n3 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump, center, stands at attention during his senior year at the New York Military Academy in 1964.\nHide Caption\n4 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump, center, wears a baseball uniform at the New York Military Academy in 1964. After he graduated from the boarding school, he went to college. He started at Fordham University before transferring and later graduating from the Wharton School, the University of Pennsylvania's business school.\nHide Caption\n5 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump stands with Alfred Eisenpreis, New York's economic development administrator, in 1976 while they look at a sketch of a new 1,400-room renovation project of the Commodore Hotel. After graduating college in 1968, Trump worked with his father on developments in Queens and Brooklyn before purchasing or building multiple properties in New York and Atlantic City, New Jersey. Those properties included Trump Tower in New York and Trump Plaza and multiple casinos in Atlantic City.\nHide Caption\n6 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump attends an event to mark the start of construction of the New York Convention Center in 1979.\nHide Caption\nTrump attends the opening of his new Atlantic City casino, the Taj Mahal, in 1989.\nHide Caption\n13 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump signs his second book, \"Trump: Surviving at the Top,\" in 1990. Trump has published at least 16 other books, including \"The Art of the Deal\" and \"The America We Deserve.\"\nHide Caption\n14 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump and singer Michael Jackson pose for a photo before traveling to visit Ryan White, a young child with AIDS, in 1990.\nHide Caption\n15 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump dips his second wife, Marla Maples, after the couple married in a private ceremony in New York in December 1993. The couple divorced in 1999 and had one daughter together, Tiffany.\nHide Caption\nTrump putts a golf ball in his New York office in 1998.\nHide Caption\n17 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nAn advertisement for the television show \"The Apprentice\" hangs at Trump Tower in 2004. The show launched in January of that year. In January 2008, the show returned as \"Celebrity Apprentice.\"\nHide Caption\n18 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nA 12-inch talking Trump doll is on display at a toy store in New York in September 2004.\nHide Caption\n19 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump attends a news conference in 2005 that announced the establishment of Trump University. From 2005 until it closed in 2010, Trump University had about 10,000 people sign up for a program that promised success in real estate. Three separate lawsuits -- two class-action suits filed in California and one filed by New York's attorney general -- argued that the program was mired in fraud and deception. Trump's camp rejected the suits' claims as \"baseless.\" And Trump has charged that the New York case against him is politically motivated.\nHide Caption\n20 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump attends the U.S. Open tennis tournament with his third wife, Melania Knauss-Trump, and their son, Barron, in 2006. Trump and Knauss married in 2005.\nHide Caption\n21 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump wrestles with \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin at WrestleMania in 2007. Trump has close ties with the WWE and its CEO, Vince McMahon.\nHide Caption\n22 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nFor \"The Apprentice,\" Trump was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in January 2007.\nHide Caption\n23 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump appears on the set of \"The Celebrity Apprentice\" with two of his children -- Donald Jr. and Ivanka -- in 2009.\nHide Caption\n24 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump poses with Miss Universe contestants in 2011. Trump had been executive producer of the Miss Universe, Miss USA and Miss Teen USA pageants since 1996.\nHide Caption\nThe Trump family poses for a photo in New York in April.\nHide Caption\n31 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump speaks during a campaign event in Evansville, Indiana, on April 28. After Trump won the Indiana primary, his last two competitors dropped out of the GOP race.\nHide Caption\n32 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump delivers a speech at the Republican National Convention in July, accepting the party's nomination for President. \"I have had a truly great life in business,\" he said. \"But now, my sole and exclusive mission is to go to work for our country -- to go to work for you. It's time to deliver a victory for the American people.\"\nHide Caption\n33 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump faces Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton in the first presidential debate, which took place in Hempstead, New York, in September.\nHide Caption\n34 of 36\nPhotos: Donald Trump's rise\nTrump apologizes in a video, posted to his Twitter account in October, for vulgar and sexually aggressive remarks he made a decade ago regarding women. \"I said it, I was wrong and I apologize,\" Trump said, referring to lewd comments he made during a previously unaired taping of \"Access Hollywood.\" Multiple Republican leaders rescinded their endorsements of Trump after the footage was released.\nHide Caption",
"Ivana Trump Speaks Out About Donald in New Interview\nPinterest\nCliff Lipson/Retna Ltd USA\nIvana Trump is speaking out about her ex-husband Donald Trump ‘s campaign for the White House in a revealing new interview with the New York Post .\nIvana, who was married to the 69-year-old from 1977 to 1992, and shares three of his five children , publicly – and privately – supports the GOP frontrunner, and helps advise him on policy, she claims. “We speak before and after the appearances and he asks me what I thought,” Ivana, 67, sais.\nLikely, her support comes from past experience: she said that Trump considered a presidential run decades ago.\n“Probably five years before our divorce, Reagan or somebody brought him a letter and said, ‘You should run for president,’ ” Ivana told the Post. “So he was thinking about it. But then… there was the divorce, there was the scandal, and American women loved me and hated him. So there was no way that he would go into [politics] at that point. But he was always tooling around with the idea.”\nTrump and Ivana split after his affair with eventual second wife Marla Maples , with whom he fathered daughter Tiffany Trump .\nDonald and Ivana Trump\nRon Galella/WireImage\nAnd that large brood should be proof that the Donald has no issues down there , Ivana said in reference to the billionaire businessman’s previous remarks about his manhood during a debate.\n“If there was a problem there, Donald would not have five kids,” Ivana said.\nGetting serious, Ivana also issued her take on the potential world leader’s policies, specifically, immigration. Ivana, a Czech Republic native, said that Americans have to embrace Donald’s plan to build a wall between the U.S. and Mexico.\n“I have nothing against Mexicans, but if they [come] here – like this 19-year-old, she’s pregnant, she crossed over a wall that’s this high,” Ivana said, displaying what looked like four-inches. “She gives the birth in American hospital, which is for free. The child becomes American automatically. She brings the whole family, she doesn’t pay the taxes, she doesn’t have a job, she gets the housing, she gets the food stamps. Who’s paying? You and me.”\nDonald and Ivana Trump\nRon Galella/WireImage\nShe continued, “As long as you come here legally and get a proper job… we need immigrants. Who’s going to vacuum our living rooms and clean up after us? Americans don’t like to do that.”\nVIDEO: Clint Black Has an Idea of What Should Happen Every Week If Donald Trump Makes It into the Oval Office\nIvana also touched on Trump’s controversial attitude toward women , noting that she doesn’t think “he’s a feminist.”\n“He loves women. But not a feminist,” she said. The Post noted that Ivana’s rep changed their stance on Donald’s feminism several times, ultimately saying that he is a feminist.\nFinally, the one-time accessories designer issued her opinion on Donald’s current wife Melania ‘s capability to be the First Lady, noting that the former model will “do OK.”\n“She’s going to adapt just fine,” Ivana said. “She never did anything wrong to me. I wish them all the best.”\n(Melania and Donald met after he had divorced Maples and he told PEOPLE in September that she initially refused to give him her number.)\nWhen asked about potentially being a First Lady, the Slovenian-born model previously said she would “be different” from previous first ladies.\nThe fact that Ivana and Donald have apparently remained friendly following a contentious divorce battle might speak to what the presidential hopeful told PEOPLE in our current cover story.\n“I’m a much nicer person than people would think, to see me from the outside,” he said.\nShow Full Article",
"Ivana Trump - Microsoft Store\nIvana Trump\nIvana Trump\nActor\nSocialite Ivana Trump initially gained national recognition as the first wife of billionaire Donald Trump, to whom she was wed from 1977 to 1992. Born Ivana Marie Zelnickova in 1949, she grew up in Gottwaldov, Czechoslovakia, just south of Prague, and established herself as a champion skier at an early age. After earning her masters in the dual arenas of physical education and languages, Ivana spent a number of years professionally coaching ski racers with then-paramour George Syrovatka in Montréal, Canada, then shifted gears and moved into modeling for the Audrey Morris agency during the 1970s -- a line of work that inadvertently brought her to New York City and introduced her to Donald Trump in 1976. The two married within a year and had three children: Ivanka Trump, Donald Trump Jr., and Eric Trump. As Mrs. Trump, Ivana worked for many years as vice president of interior design for the Trump Organization. Following their much-publicized and ballyhooed divorce (an event that occupied an inordinate number of tabloid pages and headlines), she established two of her own companies, Ivana, Inc. and Ivana Haute Couture; graced numerous print advertisements for a plethora of brands; and significantly (like her ex-husband) moved into work as on-camera talent, as the subject of her own Lifetime network biography special, Intimate Portrait: Ivana Trump (2001) and the host of her own reality television special, Ivana Young Man on the Oxygen Channel. The program traveled behind the scenes to witness Trump guiding an affluent young socialite into marriage with the proper suitor."
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"Ivana Trump. Biography, news, photos and videos - HELLO US",
"Ivana Trump on how she advises Donald — and those hands ...",
"From Ivana, More Trump Immigration Foolishness",
"Ivana Trump Biography | Movies.com",
"Donald Trump's immigrant wives - CNNPolitics.com",
"Ivana Trump Speaks Out About Donald in New Interview ...",
"Ivana Trump - Microsoft Store"
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"http://www.fandango.com/ivanatrump/biography/p445908",
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"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/raul-a-reyes/from-ivana-more-trump-imm_b_9614194.html",
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"http://www.cnn.com/2015/08/24/politics/donald-trump-immigrant-wives/index.html",
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Who wrote the stage musical Cabaret?
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tc_885
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http://www.triviacountry.com/
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"Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting, and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through the words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals.\n\nAlthough music has been a part of dramatic presentations since ancient times, modern Western musical theatre emerged during the 19th century, with many structural elements established by the works of Gilbert and Sullivan in Britain and those of Harrigan and Hart in America. These were followed by the numerous Edwardian musical comedies and the musical theatre works of American creators like George M. Cohan. The Princess Theatre musicals and other smart shows like Of Thee I Sing (1931) were artistic steps forward beyond revues and other frothy entertainments of the early 20th century and led to such groundbreaking works as Show Boat (1927) and Oklahoma! (1943). Some of the most famous and iconic musicals through the decades that followed include\nWest Side Story (1957), The Fantasticks (1960), Hair (1967), A Chorus Line (1975), Les Misérables (1985), The Phantom of the Opera (1986), Rent (1996), The Producers (2001), Wicked (2003) and Hamilton (2015).\n\nMusicals are performed around the world. They may be presented in large venues, such as big-budget Broadway or West End productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller fringe theatre, Off-Broadway or regional theatre productions, or on tour. Musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada and Latin America.\n\nDefinitions and scope \n\nBook musicals\n\nSince the 20th century, the \"book musical\" has been defined as a musical play where songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story with serious dramatic goals that is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter. The three main components of a book musical are its music, lyrics and book. The book or script of a musical refers to the story, character development, and dramatic structure, including the spoken dialogue and stage directions, but it can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to as the libretto (Italian for “little book”). The music and lyrics together form the score of a musical and includes songs; incidental music; and musical scenes, which are \"theatrical sequence[s] set to music, often combining song with spoken dialogue.\" The interpretation of a musical by is influenced by its creative team, which includes a director, a musical director, usually a choreographer and sometimes an orchestrator. A musical's production is also creatively characterized by technical aspects, such as set design, costumes, stage properties (props), lighting and sound, which generally change from the original production to succeeding productions. Some famous production elements, however, may be retained from the original production; for example, Bob Fosse's choreography in Chicago.\n\nThere is no fixed length for a musical. While it can range from a short one-act entertainment to several acts and several hours in length (or even a multi-evening presentation), most musicals range from one and a half to three hours. Musicals are usually presented in two acts, with one short intermission and the first act frequently longer than the second. The first act generally introduces nearly all of the characters and most of the music, and often ends with the introduction of a dramatic conflict or plot complication while the second act may introduce a few new songs but usually contains reprises of important musical themes and resolves the conflict or complication. A book musical is usually built around four to six main theme tunes that are reprised later in the show, although it sometimes consists of a series of songs not directly musically related. Spoken dialogue is generally interspersed between musical numbers, although \"sung dialogue\" or recitative may be used, especially in so-called \"sung-through\" musicals such as Jesus Christ Superstar, Les Misérables, and Evita. Several shorter musicals on Broadway and in the West End have been presented in one act in recent decades.\n\nMoments of greatest dramatic intensity in a book musical are often performed in song. Proverbially, \"when the emotion becomes too strong for speech you sing; when it becomes too strong for song, you dance.\" In a book musical, a song is ideally crafted to suit the character (or characters) and their situation within the story; although there have been times in the history of the musical (e.g. from the 1890s to the 1920s) when this integration between music and story has been tenuous. As New York Times critic Ben Brantley described the ideal of song in theatre when reviewing the 2008 revival of Gypsy: \"There is no separation at all between song and character, which is what happens in those uncommon moments when musicals reach upward to achieve their ideal reasons to be.\" Typically, many fewer words are sung in a five-minute song than are spoken in a five-minute block of dialogue. Therefore, there is less time to develop drama in a musical than in a straight play of equivalent length, since a musical usually devotes more time to music than to dialogue. Within the compressed nature of a musical, the writers must develop the characters and the plot.\n\nThe material presented in a musical may be original, or it may be adopted or born from novels (Wicked and Man of La Mancha), plays (Hello, Dolly!), classic legends (Camelot), historical events (Evita) or films (The Producers and Billy Elliot). On the other hand, many successful musical theatre works have been adapted for musical films, such as West Side Story, My Fair Lady, The Sound of Music, Oliver! and Chicago.\n\nComparisons with opera\n\nMusical theatre is closely related to the theatrical form of opera, but the two are usually distinguished by weighing a number of factors. Musicals generally have a greater focus on spoken dialogue (though some musicals are entirely accompanied and sung through; and on the other hand, some operas, such as Die Zauberflöte, and most operettas, have some unaccompanied dialogue); on dancing (particularly by the principal performers as well as the chorus); on the use of various genres of popular music (or at least popular singing styles); and on the avoidance of certain operatic conventions. In particular, a musical is almost always performed in the language of its audience. Musicals produced on Broadway or in the West End, for instance, are invariably sung in English, even if they were originally written in another language. While an opera singer is primarily a singer and only secondarily an actor (and rarely needs to dance), a musical theatre performer is often an actor first and then a singer and dancer. Someone who is equally accomplished at all three is referred to as a \"triple threat\". Composers of music for musicals often consider the vocal demands of roles with musical theatre performers in mind. Today, large theatres staging musicals generally use microphones and amplification of the actors' singing voices in a way that would generally be disapproved of in an operatic context.\n\nSome works (e.g. by George Gershwin, Leonard Bernstein and Stephen Sondheim) have received both \"musical theatre\" and \"operatic\" productions. Similarly, some older operettas or light operas (such as The Pirates of Penzance by Gilbert and Sullivan) have had modern productions or adaptations that treat them as musicals. For some works, production styles are almost as important as the work's musical or dramatic content in defining into which art form the piece falls. Sondheim said, \"I really think that when something plays Broadway it's a musical, and when it plays in an opera house it's opera. That's it. It's the terrain, the countryside, the expectations of the audience that make it one thing or another.\" Although this article primarily concerns musical theatre works that are \"non-operatic\", the overlap remains between lighter operatic forms and more musically complex or ambitious musicals. In practice, it is often difficult to distinguish among the various kinds of musical theatre, including \"musical play\", \"musical comedy\", \"operetta\" and \"light opera\".\n\nLike opera, the singing in musical theatre is generally accompanied by an instrumental ensemble called a pit orchestra, located in a lowered area in front of the stage. While opera typically uses a conventional symphony orchestra, musicals are generally orchestrated for ensembles ranging from 27 players down to only a few players. Rock musicals usually employ a small group of mostly rock instruments, and some musicals may call for only a piano or two instruments. The music in musicals uses a range of \"styles and influences including operetta, classical techniques, folk music, jazz [and] local or historical styles [that] are appropriate to the setting.\" Musicals may begin with an overture played by the orchestra that \"weav[es] together excerpts of the score's famous melodies.\" \n\nOther forms\n\nThere are various Eastern traditions of theatre that include music, such as Chinese opera, Taiwanese opera, Noh and Musical theatre in India, including Sanskrit drama, Classical Indian dance and Yakshagana. India has, since the 20th century, produced numerous musical films, referred to as \"Bollywood\" musicals, and in Japan a series of musicals based on popular Anime and Manga comics has developed in recent decades. Shorter or simplified \"junior\" versions of many musicals are available for schools and youth groups, and very short works created or adapted for performance by children are sometimes called minimusicals. \n\nHistory\n\nEarly antecedents of musical theatre\n\nThe antecedents of musical theatre in Europe can be traced back to the theatre of ancient Greece, where music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE.Thornton, Shay| last \n Thornton. [http://web.archive.org/web/20071127051412/http://www.tuts.com/season07/wonderful_study.pdf \"A Wonderful Life\"], Theatre Under the Stars, Houston, Texas, p. 2 (2007), accessed May 26, 2009 The music from the ancient forms is lost, however, and they had little influence on later development of musical theatre.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/stagecap.htm \"A Capsule History\"], Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed October 12, 2015 In the 12th and 13th centuries, religious dramas taught the liturgy. Groups of actors would use outdoor Pageant wagons (stages on wheels) to tell each part of the story. Poetic forms sometimes alternated with the prose dialogues, and liturgical chants gave way to new melodies. \n\nThe European Renaissance saw older forms evolve into two antecedents of musical theatre: commedia dell'arte, where raucous clowns improvised familiar stories, and later, opera buffa. In England, Elizabethan and Jacobean plays frequently included music, and short musical plays began to be included in an evenings' dramatic entertainments. Court masques developed during the Tudor period that involved music, dancing, singing and acting, often with expensive costumes and a complex stage design. These developed into sung plays that are recognizable as English operas, the first usually being thought of as The Siege of Rhodes (1656). In France, meanwhile, Molière turned several of his farcical comedies into musical entertainments with songs (music provided by Jean Baptiste Lully) and dance in the late 17th century. These influenced a brief period of English opera by composers such as John Blow and Henry Purcell.\n\nFrom the 18th century, the most popular forms of musical theatre in Britain were ballad operas, like John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, that included lyrics written to the tunes of popular songs of the day (often spoofing opera), and later pantomime, which developed from commedia dell'arte, and comic opera with mostly romantic plot lines, like Michael Balfe's The Bohemian Girl (1845). Meanwhile, on the continent, singspiel, comédie en vaudeville, opéra comique, zarzuela and other forms of light musical entertainment were emerging. The Beggar's Opera was the first recorded long-running play of any kind, running for 62 successive performances in 1728. It would take almost a century afterwards before any play broke 100 performances, but the record soon reached 150 in the late 1820s. Other musical theatre forms developed in England by the 19th century, such as music hall, melodrama and burletta, which were popularized partly because most London theatres were licensed only as music halls and not allowed to present plays without music.\n\nColonial America did not have a significant theatre presence until 1752, when London entrepreneur William Hallam sent a company of actors to the colonies managed by his brother Lewis.Wilmeth and Miller, p. 182 In New York in the summer of 1753, they performed ballad-operas, such as The Beggar’s Opera, and ballad-farces. By the 1840s, P.T. Barnum was operating an entertainment complex in lower Manhattan. Other early musical theatre in America consisted of British forms, such as burletta and pantomime, but what a piece was called did not necessarily define what it was. The 1852 Broadway extravaganza The Magic Deer advertised itself as \"A Serio Comico Tragico Operatical Historical Extravaganzical Burletical Tale of Enchantment.\"Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/erastage.htm \"History of Stage Musicals\"], Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed May 26, 2009 Theatre in New York moved from downtown gradually to midtown from around 1850, and did not arrive in the Times Square area until the 1920s and 1930s. Broadway's The Elves (1857) broke the 50 performance barrier. New York runs continued to lag far behind those in London, but Laura Keene's \"musical burletta\" Seven Sisters (1860) shattered previous New York records with a run of 253 performances. \n\n1850s to 1880s\n\nAround 1850, the French composer Hervé was experimenting with a form of comic musical theatre he called opérette. The best known composers of operetta were Jacques Offenbach from the 1850s to the 1870s and Johann Strauss II in the 1870s and 1880s. Offenbach's fertile melodies, combined with his librettists' witty satire, formed a model for the musical theatre that followed.Lubbock, Mark. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/937354 \"The Music of 'Musicals'\",] The Musical Times, Vol. 98, No. 1375 (September 1957), pp. 483–485 Adaptations of the French operettas (played in mostly bad, risqué translations), musical burlesques, music hall, pantomime and burletta dominated the London musical stage into the 1870s.Bond, Jessie. [http://math.boisestate.edu/gas/books/bond/intro.html Introduction to The Life and Reminiscences of Jessie Bond], reprinted at The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive, accessed March 4, 2011\n\nIn America, mid-18th century musical theatre entertainments included crude variety revue, which eventually developed into vaudeville, minstrel shows, which soon crossed the Atlantic to Britain, and Victorian burlesque, first popularized in the US by British troupes. The first original theatre piece in English that conforms to many of the modern definitions of a musical, including dance and original music that helped to tell the story, is generally considered The Black Crook, which premiered in New York on September 12, 1866. The production was a staggering five-and-a-half hours long, but despite its length, it ran for a record-breaking 474 performances. The same year, The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post was the first show to call itself a \"musical comedy.\" Comedians Edward Harrigan and Tony Hart produced and starred in musicals on Broadway between 1878 (The Mulligan Guard Picnic) and 1885. These musical comedies featured characters and situations taken from the everyday life of New York's lower classes and represented a significant step forward towards a more legitimate theatrical form. They starred high quality singers (Lillian Russell, Vivienne Segal, and Fay Templeton) instead of the ladies of questionable repute who had starred in earlier musical forms.\n\nAs transportation improved, poverty in London and New York diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays ran longer, leading to better profits and improved production values, and men began to bring their families to the theatre. The first musical theatre piece to exceed 500 consecutive performances was the French operetta The Chimes of Normandy in 1878. English comic opera adopted many of the successful ideas of European operetta, none more successfully than the series of more than a dozen long-running Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas, including H.M.S. Pinafore (1878) and The Mikado (1885). These were sensations on both sides of the Atlantic and in Australia and helped to raise the standard for what was considered a successful show.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/usafter.htm \"G&S in the USA\" at the musicals101 website] The Cyber Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre, TV and Film (2008). Retrieved on 4 May 2012. These shows were designed for family audiences, a marked contrast from the risqué burlesques, bawdy music hall shows and French operettas that sometimes drew a crowd seeking less wholesome entertainment. Only a few 19th-century musical pieces exceeded the run of The Mikado, such as Dorothy, which opened in 1886 and set a new record with a run of 931 performances. Gilbert and Sullivan's influence on later musical theatre was profound, creating examples of how to \"integrate\" musicals so that the lyrics and dialogue advanced a coherent story.Jones, 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?id\nWqQH31qkYNoC&pgPA9&lpg\nPA9&dqBordman+pinafore&source\nbl&ots-4A-Dm231B&sig\nUwT_XytKbxkRXtLo_OV7-_VTlps&hlen&ei\nRPzlSezEBpeUMcSs4I4J&saX&oi\nbook_result&ctresult&resnum\n7#PPA4,M1 pp. 10–11] Their works were admired and copied by early authors and composers of musicals in Britain and America. \n\n1890s to the new century\n\nA Trip to Chinatown (1891) was Broadway's long-run champion (until Irene in 1919), running for 657 performances, but New York runs continued to be relatively short, with a few exceptions, compared with London runs, until the 1920s. Gilbert and Sullivan were both pirated and imitated in New York by productions such as Reginald de Koven's Robin Hood (1891) and John Philip Sousa's El Capitan (1896). A Trip to Coontown (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by African Americans on Broadway (largely inspired by the routines of the minstrel shows), followed by ragtime-tinged shows. Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 20th century, composed of songs written in New York's Tin Pan Alley, including those by George M. Cohan, who worked to create an American style distinct from the Gilbert and Sullivan works. The most successful New York shows were often followed by extensive national tours. \n\nMeanwhile, musicals took over the London stage in the Gay Nineties, led by producer George Edwardes, who perceived that audiences wanted a new alternative to the Savoy-style comic operas and their intellectual, political, absurdist satire. He experimented with a modern-dress, family-friendly musical theatre style, with breezy, popular songs, snappy, romantic banter, and stylish spectacle at the Gaiety and his other theatres. These drew on the traditions of comic opera and used elements of burlesque and of the Harrigan and Hart pieces. He replaced the bawdy women of burlesque with his \"respectable\" corps of Gaiety Girls to complete the musical and visual fun. The success of the first of these, In Town (1892) and A Gaiety Girl (1893) set the style for the next three decades. The plots were generally light, romantic \"poor maiden loves aristocrat and wins him against all odds\" shows, with music by Ivan Caryll, Sidney Jones and Lionel Monckton. These shows were immediately widely copied in America, and the Edwardian musical comedy swept away the earlier musical forms of comic opera and operetta. The Geisha (1896) was one of the most successful in the 1890s, running for more than two years and achieving great international success.\n\nThe Belle of New York (1898) became the first American musical to run for over a year in London. The British musical comedy Florodora (1899) was a popular success on both sides of the Atlantic, as was A Chinese Honeymoon (1901), which ran for a record-setting 1,074 performances in London and 376 in New York. After the turn of the 20th century, Seymour Hicks joined forces with Edwardes and American producer Charles Frohman to create another decade of popular shows. Other enduring Edwardian musical comedy hits included The Arcadians (1909) and The Quaker Girl (1910). \n\nEarly 20th century\n\nVirtually eliminated from the English-speaking stage by competition from the ubiquitous Edwardian musical comedies, operettas returned to London and Broadway in 1907 with The Merry Widow, and adaptations of continental operettas became direct competitors with musicals. Franz Lehár and Oscar Straus composed new operettas that were popular in English until World War I. In America, Victor Herbert produced a string of enduring operettas including The Fortune Teller (1898), Babes in Toyland (1903), Mlle. Modiste (1905), The Red Mill (1906) and Naughty Marietta (1910).\n\nIn the 1910s, the team of P. G. Wodehouse, Guy Bolton and Jerome Kern, following in the footsteps of Gilbert and Sullivan, created the \"Princess Theatre shows\" and paved the way for Kern's later work by showing that a musical could combine light, popular entertainment with continuity between its story and songs. Historian Gerald Bordman wrote:\n\nThe theatre-going public needed escapist entertainment during the dark times of World War I, and they flocked to the theatre. The 1919 hit musical Irene ran for 670 performances, a Broadway record that held until 1938.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/1930bway3.htm Hellzapoppin - History of The Musical Stage 1930s: Part III - Revues], Musicals101.com, accessed October 8, 2015 The British theatre public supported far longer runs like that of Maid of the Mountains (1,352 performances) and especially Chu Chin Chow. Its run of 2,238 performances was more than twice as long as any previous musical, setting a record that stood for nearly forty years.[http://www.guidetomusicaltheatre.com/shows_s/salad_days.htm \"Salad Days History, Story, Roles and Musical Numbers\"] guidetomusicaltheatre.com, accessed March 16, 2012 Revues like The Bing Boys Are Here in Britain, and those of Florenz Ziegfeld and his imitators in America, were also extraordinarily popular.\n\n \nThe musicals of the Roaring Twenties, borrowing from vaudeville, music hall and other light entertainments, tended to emphasize big dance routines and popular songs at the expense of plot. Typical of the decade were lighthearted productions like Sally, Lady Be Good, No, No, Nanette, Oh, Kay! and Funny Face. Despite forgettable stories, these musicals featured stars such as Marilyn Miller and Fred Astaire and produced dozens of enduring popular songs by Kern, George and Ira Gershwin, Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and Rodgers and Hart. Popular music was dominated by musical theatre standards, such as \"Fascinating Rhythm\", \"Tea for Two\" and \"Someone to Watch Over Me\". Many shows were revues, series of sketches and songs with little or no connection between them. The best-known of these were the annual Ziegfeld Follies, spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets, elaborate costumes, and beautiful chorus girls. These spectacles also raised production values, and mounting a musical generally became more expensive. Shuffle Along (1921), an all-African American show was a hit on Broadway. A new generation of composers of operettas also emerged in the 1920s, such as Rudolf Friml and Sigmund Romberg, to create a series of popular Broadway hits. \n\nIn London, writer-stars such as Ivor Novello and Noël Coward became popular, but the primacy of British musical theatre from the 19th century through 1920 was gradually replaced by American innovation after the war as Kern and other Tin Pan Alley composers began to bring new musical styles such as ragtime and jazz to the theatres and the Shubert Brothers took control of the Broadway theatres. Musical theatre writer Andrew Lamb notes, \"The operatic and theatrical styles of nineteenth-century social structures were replaced by a musical style more aptly suited to twentieth-century society and its vernacular idiom. It was from America that the more direct style emerged, and in America that it was able to flourish in a developing society less hidebound by nineteenth-century tradition.\" \n\nShow Boat and the Great Depression\n\nProgressing far beyond the comparatively frivolous musicals and sentimental operettas of the decade, Broadway's Show Boat (1927), represented an even more complete integration of book and score than the Princess Theatre musicals, with dramatic themes told through the music, dialogue, setting and movement. This was accomplished by combining the lyricism of Kern's music with the skillful libretto of Oscar Hammerstein II. One historian wrote, \"Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy. Now ... everything else was subservient to that play. Now ... came complete integration of song, humor and production numbers into a single and inextricable artistic entity.\"Lubbock (2002)\n\nAs the Great Depression set in during the post-Broadway national tour of Show Boat, the public turned back to mostly light, escapist song-and-dance entertainment. Audiences on both sides of the Atlantic had little money to spend on entertainment, and only a few stage shows anywhere exceeded a run of 500 performances during the decade. The revue The Band Wagon (1931) starred dancing partners Fred Astaire and his sister Adele, while Porter's Anything Goes (1934) confirmed Ethel Merman's position as the First Lady of musical theatre, a title she maintained for many years. Coward and Novello continued to deliver old fashioned, sentimental musicals, such as The Dancing Years, while Rodgers and Hart returned from Hollywood to create a series of successful Broadway shows, including On Your Toes (1936, with Ray Bolger, the first Broadway musical to make dramatic use of classical dance), Babes In Arms (1937) and The Boys From Syracuse (1938). Porter added DuBarry Was a Lady (1939). The longest-running piece of musical theatre of the 1930s was Hellzapoppin (1938), a revue with audience participation, which played for 1,404 performances, setting a new Broadway record.\n\nStill, a few creative teams began to build on Show Boats innovations. Of Thee I Sing (1931), a political satire by the Gershwins, was the first musical awarded the Pulitzer Prize. As Thousands Cheer (1933), a revue by Irving Berlin and Moss Hart in which each song or sketch was based on a newspaper headline, marked the first Broadway show in which an African-American, Ethel Waters, starred alongside white actors. Waters' numbers included \"Supper Time\", a woman's lament for her husband who has been lynched. The Gershwins' Porgy and Bess (1935) featured an all African-American cast and blended operatic, folk, and jazz idioms. The Cradle Will Rock (1937), directed by Orson Welles, was a highly political pro-union piece that, despite the controversy surrounding it, ran for 108 performances. Rodgers and Hart's I'd Rather Be Right (1937) was a political satire with George M. Cohan as President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Kurt Weill's Knickerbocker Holiday depicted New York City's early history while good-naturedly satirizing Roosevelt's good intentions.\n\nThe motion picture mounted a challenge to the stage. Silent films had presented only limited competition, but by the end of the 1920s, films like The Jazz Singer could be presented with synchronized sound. \"Talkie\" films at low prices effectively killed off vaudeville by the early 1930s. Despite the economic woes of the 1930s and the competition from film, the musical survived. In fact, it continued to evolve thematically beyond the gags and showgirls musicals of the Gay Nineties and Roaring Twenties and the sentimental romance of operetta, adding technical expertise and the fast-paced staging and naturalistic dialogue style led by director George Abbott.\n\nThe Golden Age (1940s to 1960s)\n\n1940s\n\nThe 1940s would begin with more hits from Porter, Irving Berlin, Rodgers and Hart, Weill and Gershwin, some with runs over 500 performances as the economy rebounded, but artistic change was in the air.\n\nRodgers and Hammerstein's Oklahoma! (1943) completed the revolution begun by Show Boat, by tightly integrating all the aspects of musical theatre, with a cohesive plot, songs that furthered the action of the story, and featured dream ballets and other dances that advanced the plot and developed the characters, rather than using dance as an excuse to parade scantily clad women across the stage. Rodgers and Hammerstein hired ballet choreographer Agnes de Mille, who used everyday motions to help the characters express their ideas. It defied musical conventions by raising its first act curtain not on a bevy of chorus girls, but rather on a woman churning butter, with an off-stage voice singing the opening lines of Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin' unaccompanied. It drew rave reviews, set off a box-office frenzy and received a Pulitzer Prize. Brooks Atkinson wrote in The New York Times that the show's opening number changed the history of musical theater: “After a verse like that, sung to a buoyant melody, the banalities of the old musical stage became intolerable.\"Gordon, John Steele. [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1993/1/1993_1_58.shtml Oklahoma'!']. Retrieved June 13, 2010 It was the first \"blockbuster\" Broadway show, running a total of 2,212 performances, and was made into a hit film. It remains one of the most frequently produced of the team's projects. William A. Everett and Paul R. Laird wrote that this was a \"show, that, like Show Boat, became a milestone, so that later historians writing about important moments in twentieth-century theatre would begin to identify eras according to their relationship to Oklahoma!\" \n\n\"After Oklahoma!, Rodgers and Hammerstein were the most important contributors to the musical-play form... The examples they set in creating vital plays, often rich with social thought, provided the necessary encouragement for other gifted writers to create musical plays of their own\". The two collaborators created an extraordinary collection of some of musical theatre's best loved and most enduring classics, including Carousel (1945), South Pacific (1949), The King and I (1951), and The Sound of Music (1959). Some of these musicals treat more serious subject matter than most earlier shows: the villain in Oklahoma! is a suspected murderer and psychopath with a fondness for lewd post cards; Carousel deals with spousal abuse, thievery, suicide and the afterlife; South Pacific explores miscegenation even more thoroughly than Show Boat; and the hero of The King and I dies onstage.\n\nThe show's creativity stimulated Rodgers and Hammerstein's contemporaries and ushered in the \"Golden Age\" of American musical theatre. Americana was displayed on Broadway during the \"Golden Age\", as the wartime cycle of shows began to arrive. An example of this is On the Town (1944), written by Betty Comden and Adolph Green, composed by Leonard Bernstein and choreographed by Jerome Robbins. The story is set during wartime and concerns three sailors who are on a 24-hour shore leave in New York City, during which each falls in love. The show also gives the impression of a country with an uncertain future, as the sailors and their women also have. Irving Berlin used sharpshooter Annie Oakley's career as a basis for his Annie Get Your Gun (1946, 1,147 performances); Burton Lane, E. Y. Harburg, and Fred Saidy combined political satire with Irish whimsy for their fantasy Finian's Rainbow (1947, 725 performances); and Cole Porter found inspiration in William Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew for Kiss Me, Kate (1948, 1,077 performances). The American musicals overwhelmed the old-fashioned British Coward/Novello-style shows, one of the last big successes of which was Novello's Perchance to Dream (1945, 1,021 performances). The formula for the Golden Age musicals reflected one or more of four widely held perceptions of the \"American dream\": That stability and worth derives from a love relationship sanctioned and restricted by Protestant ideals of marriage; that a married couple should make a moral home with children away from the city in a suburb or small town; that the woman's function was as homemaker and mother; and that Americans incorporate an independent and pioneering spirit or that their success is self-made. \n\n1950s\n\nDamon Runyon's eclectic characters were at the core of Frank Loesser's and Abe Burrows' Guys and Dolls, (1950, 1,200 performances); and the Gold Rush was the setting for Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe's Paint Your Wagon (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show didn't discourage Lerner and Loewe from collaborating again, this time on My Fair Lady (1956), an adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion starring Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews, which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood films were made of all of these musicals. This surpassed the run of two hits by British creators: The Boy Friend (1954), which ran for 2,078 performances in London and marked Andrews' American debut, was very briefly the third longest-running musical in West End or Broadway history (after Chu Chin Chow and Oklahoma!), until Salad Days (1954) surpassed its run and became the new long-run record holder, with 2,283 performances.\n\nAnother record was set by The Threepenny Opera, which ran for 2,707 performances, becoming the longest-running off-Broadway musical until The Fantasticks. The production also broke ground by showing that musicals could be profitable off-Broadway in a small-scale, small orchestra format. This was confirmed in 1959 when a revival of Jerome Kern and P. G. Wodehouse's Leave It to Jane ran for more than two years. The 1959–1960 Off-Broadway season included a dozen musicals and revues including Little Mary Sunshine, The Fantasticks and Ernest in Love, a musical adaptation of Oscar Wilde's 1895 hit The Importance of Being Earnest. \n\nWest Side Story (1957) transported Romeo and Juliet to modern day New York City and converted the feuding Montague and Capulet families into opposing ethnic gangs, the Jets and the Sharks. The book was adapted by Arthur Laurents, with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by newcomer Stephen Sondheim. It was embraced by the critics, but failed to be a popular choice for the \"blue-haired matinee ladies\", who preferred the small town River City, Iowa of Meredith Willson's The Music Man to the alleys of Manhattan's Upper West Side. Apparently Tony Award voters were of a similar mind, since they favored the former over the latter. West Side Story had a respectable run of 732 performances (1,040 in the West End), while The Music Man ran nearly twice as long, with 1,375 performances. However, the film of West Side Story was extremely successful. Laurents and Sondheim teamed up again for Gypsy (1959, 702 performances), with Jule Styne providing the music for a backstage story about the most driven stage mother of all-time, stripper Gypsy Rose Lee's mother Rose. The original production ran for 702 performances, and was given four subsequent revivals, with Angela Lansbury, Tyne Daly, Bernadette Peters and Patti LuPone later tackling the role made famous by Ethel Merman.\n\nAlthough directors and choreographers have had a major influence on musical theatre style since at least the 19th century, George Abbott and his collaborators and successors took a central role in integrating movement and dance fully into musical theatre productions in the Golden Age.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/dancestage3.htm \"Dance in Stage Musicals – Part III\"], Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed August 14, 2012 Abbott introduced ballet as a story-telling device in On Your Toes in 1936, which was followed by Agnes DeMille's ballet and choreography in Oklahoma!. After Abbott collaborated with Jerome Robbins in On the Town and other shows, Robbins combined the roles of director and choreographer, emphasizing the story-telling power of dance in West Side Story, A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962) and Fiddler on the Roof (1964). Bob Fosse choreographed for Abbott in The Pajama Game (1956) and Damn Yankees (1957), injecting playful sexuality into those hits. He was later the director-choreographer for Sweet Charity (1968), Pippin (1972) and Chicago (1975). Other notable director-choreographers have included Gower Champion, Tommy Tune, Michael Bennett, Gillian Lynne and Susan Stroman. Prominent directors have included Hal Prince, who also got his start with Abbott, and Trevor Nunn. \n\nDuring the Golden Age, automotive companies and other large corporations began to hire Broadway talent to write corporate musicals, private shows only seen by their employees or customers. The 1950s ended with Rodgers and Hammerstein's last hit, The Sound of Music, which also became another hit for Mary Martin. It ran for 1,443 performances and shared the Tony Award for Best Musical. Together with its extremely successful 1965 film version, it has become one of the most popular musicals in history.\n\n1960s\n\nIn 1960, The Fantasticks was first produced off-Broadway. This intimate allegorical show would quietly run for over 40 years at the Sullivan Street Theatre in Greenwich Village, becoming by far the longest-running musical in history. Its authors produced other innovative works in the 1960s, such as Celebration and I Do! I Do!, the first two-character Broadway musical. The 1960s would see a number of blockbusters, like Fiddler on the Roof (1964; 3,242 performances), Hello, Dolly! (1964; 2,844 performances), Funny Girl (1964; 1,348 performances), and Man of La Mancha (1965; 2,328 performances), and some more risqué pieces like Cabaret, before ending with the emergence of the rock musical. Two men had considerable impact on musical theatre history beginning in this decade: Stephen Sondheim and Jerry Herman.\n\nThe first project for which Sondheim wrote both music and lyrics was A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962, 964 performances), with a book based on the works of Plautus by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart, and starring Zero Mostel. Sondheim moved the musical beyond its concentration on the romantic plots typical of earlier eras; his work tended to be darker, exploring the grittier sides of life both present and past. Other early Sondheim works include Anyone Can Whistle (1964, which ran only nine performances, despite having stars Lee Remick and Angela Lansbury), and the successful Company (1970), Follies (1971) and A Little Night Music (1973). Later, Sondheim found inspiration in unlikely sources: the opening of Japan to Western trade for Pacific Overtures (1976), a legendary murderous barber seeking revenge in the Industrial Age of London for Sweeney Todd (1979), the paintings of Georges Seurat for Sunday in the Park with George (1984), fairy tales for Into the Woods (1987), and a collection of presidential assassins in Assassins (1990).\n\nWhile some critics have argued that some of Sondheim’s musicals lack commercial appeal, others have praised their lyrical sophistication and musical complexity, as well as the interplay of lyrics and music in his shows. Some of Sondheim's notable innovations include a show presented in reverse (Merrily We Roll Along) and the above-mentioned Anyone Can Whistle, in which the first act ends with the cast informing the audience that they are mad.\n\nJerry Herman played a significant role in American musical theatre, beginning with his first Broadway production, Milk and Honey (1961, 563 performances), about the founding of the state of Israel, and continuing with the blockbuster hits Hello, Dolly! (1964, 2,844 performances), Mame (1966, 1,508 performances), and La Cage aux Folles (1983, 1,761 performances). Even his less successful shows like Dear World (1969) and Mack & Mabel (1974) have had memorable scores (Mack & Mabel was later reworked into a London hit). Writing both words and music, many of Herman's show tunes have become popular standards, including \"Hello, Dolly!\", \"We Need a Little Christmas\", \"I Am What I Am\", \"Mame\", \"The Best of Times\", \"Before the Parade Passes By\", \"Put On Your Sunday Clothes\", \"It Only Takes a Moment\", \"Bosom Buddies\", and \"I Won't Send Roses\", recorded by such artists as Louis Armstrong, Eydie Gorme, Barbra Streisand, Petula Clark and Bernadette Peters. Herman's songbook has been the subject of two popular musical revues, Jerry's Girls (Broadway, 1985), and Showtune (off-Broadway, 2003).\n\nThe musical started to diverge from the relatively narrow confines of the 1950s. Rock music would be used in several Broadway musicals, beginning with Hair, which featured not only rock music but also nudity and controversial opinions about the Vietnam War, race relations and other social issues. \n\nSocial themes\n\nAfter Show Boat and Porgy and Bess, and as the struggle in America and elsewhere for minorities' civil rights progressed, Hammerstein, Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg and others were emboldened to write more musicals and operas that aimed to normalize societal toleration of minorities and urged racial harmony. Early Golden Age works that focused on racial tolerance included Finian's Rainbow and South Pacific. Towards the end of the Golden Age, several shows tackled Jewish subjects and issues, such as Fiddler on the Roof, Milk and Honey, Blitz! and later Rags. The original concept that became West Side Story was set in the Lower East Side during Easter-Passover celebrations; the rival gangs were to be Jewish and Italian Catholic. The creative team later decided that the Polish (white) vs. Puerto Rican conflict was fresher. \n\nTolerance as an important theme in musicals has continued in recent decades. The final expression of West Side Story left a message of racial tolerance. By the end of the 1960s, musicals became racially integrated, with black and white cast members even covering each other's roles, as they did in Hair. Homosexuality has also been explored in musicals, starting with Hair, and even more overtly in La Cage aux Folles, Falsettos, Rent, Hedwig and the Angry Inch and other shows in recent decades. Parade is a sensitive exploration of both anti-Semitism and historical American racism, and Ragtime similarly explores the experience of immigrants and minorities in America.\n\n1970s to present\n\n1970s\n\nAfter the success of Hair, rock musicals flourished in the 1970s, with Jesus Christ Superstar, Godspell, The Rocky Horror Show, Evita, and Two Gentlemen of Verona. Some of these began with \"concept albums\" and then moved to film or stage, such as Tommy. Others had no dialogue or were otherwise reminiscent of opera, with dramatic, emotional themes; these sometimes started as concept albums and were referred to as rock operas. Shows like Raisin, Dreamgirls, Purlie and The Wiz brought a significant African-American influence to Broadway. More varied musical genres and styles were incorporated into musicals both on and especially off-Broadway. At the same time, Stephen Sondheim found success with some of his musicals, as mentioned above.\n\nIn 1975, the dance musical A Chorus Line emerged from recorded group therapy-style sessions Michael Bennett conducted with \"gypsies\" – those who sing and dance in support of the leading players – from the Broadway community. From hundreds of hours of tapes, James Kirkwood, Jr. and Nick Dante fashioned a book about an audition for a musical, incorporating many real-life stories from the sessions; some who attended the sessions eventually played variations of themselves or each other in the show. With music by Marvin Hamlisch and lyrics by Edward Kleban, A Chorus Line first opened at Joseph Papp's Public Theater in lower Manhattan. What initially had been planned as a limited engagement eventually moved to the Shubert Theatre on Broadway for a run of 6,137 performances, becoming the longest-running production in Broadway history up to that time. The show swept the Tony Awards and won the Pulitzer Prize, and its hit song, What I Did for Love, became an instant standard.\n\nBroadway audiences welcomed musicals that varied from the golden age style and substance. John Kander and Fred Ebb explored the rise of Nazism in Germany in Cabaret, and murder and the media in Prohibition-era Chicago, which relied on old vaudeville techniques. Pippin, by Stephen Schwartz, was set in the days of Charlemagne. Federico Fellini's autobiographical film 8½ became Maury Yeston's Nine. At the end of the decade, Evita and Sweeney Todd were precursors of the darker, big budget musicals of the 1980s that depended on dramatic stories, sweeping scores and spectacular effects. At the same time, old-fashioned values were still embraced in such hits as Annie, 42nd Street, My One and Only, and popular revivals of No, No, Nanette and Irene. Although many film versions of musicals were made in the 1970s, few were critical or box office successes, with the notable exceptions of Fiddler on the Roof, Cabaret and Grease. \n\n1980s\n\nThe 1980s saw the influence of European \"mega-musicals\", or \"pop operas\", on Broadway, in the West End and elsewhere. These typically featured a pop-influenced score, had large casts and sets and were identified by their notable effects – a falling chandelier (in The Phantom of the Opera), a helicopter landing on stage (in Miss Saigon) – and big budgets. Many were based on novels or other works of literature. The most important writers of mega-musicals include the French team of Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil, responsible for Les Misérables, which became the longest-running international musical hit in history. The team, in collaboration with Richard Maltby, Jr., continued to produce hits, including Miss Saigon, inspired by the Puccini opera Madame Butterfly.\n\nThe British composer Andrew Lloyd Webber saw similar success with Evita, based on the life of Argentina's Eva Perón; Cats, derived from the poems of T. S. Eliot (both of which musicals originally starred Elaine Paige); Starlight Express, performed on roller skates; The Phantom of the Opera, derived from the Gaston Leroux novel, \"Le Fantôme de l'Opéra\"; and Sunset Boulevard (from the classic film of the same name). These works ran (or are still running) for decades in both New York and London and had extraordinary international and touring success. The mega-musicals' huge budgets redefined expectations for financial success on Broadway and in the West End. In earlier years, it was possible for a show to be considered a hit after a run of several hundred performances, but with multimillion-dollar production costs, a show must run for years simply to turn a profit.\n\n1990s\n\nIn the 1990s, a new generation of theatrical composers emerged, including Jason Robert Brown and Michael John LaChiusa, and who began with productions Off-Broadway. The most conspicuous success of these artists was Jonathan Larson's show Rent (1996), a rock musical (based on the opera La bohème) about a struggling community of artists in Manhattan. While the cost of tickets to Broadway and West End musicals was escalating beyond the budget of many theatregoers, Rent was marketed to increase the popularity of musicals among a younger audience. It featured a young cast and a heavily rock-influenced score; the musical became a hit. Its young fans, many of them students, calling themselves RENTheads, camped out at the Nederlander Theatre in hopes of winning the lottery for $20 front row tickets, and some saw the show dozens of times. Other shows on Broadway followed Rents lead by offering heavily discounted day-of-performance or standing-room tickets, although often the discounts are offered only to students. \n\nThe 1990s also saw the influence of large corporations on the production of musicals. The most important has been Disney Theatrical Productions, which began adapting some of Disney's animated film musicals for the stage, starting with Beauty and the Beast (1994), The Lion King (1997) and Aida (2000), the latter two with music by Elton John. The Lion King is the highest-grossing musical in Broadway history. The Who's Tommy (1993), a theatrical adaptation of the rock opera Tommy, achieved a healthy run of 899 performances but was criticized for sanitizing the story and \"musical theatre-izing\" the rock music. \n\nDespite the growing number of large-scale musicals in the 1980s and 1990s, a number of lower-budget, smaller-scale musicals managed to find critical and financial success, such as Falsettoland and Little Shop of Horrors, Bat Boy: The Musical and Blood Brothers. The topics of these pieces vary widely, and the music ranges from rock to pop, but they often are produced off-Broadway, or for smaller London theatres, and some of these stagings have been regarded as imaginative and innovative. \n\n2000s – 2010s\n\n;Trends\nIn the new century, familiarity has been embraced by producers and investors anxious to guarantee that they recoup their considerable investments, if not show a healthy profit. Some took (usually modest-budget) chances on the new and unusual, such as Urinetown (2001), Avenue Q (2003), Caroline or Change (2004), The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee (2005), The Light in the Piazza (2005), Spring Awakening (2006), In the Heights (2007), Next to Normal (2009) and American Idiot (2010). But most took a safe route with revivals of familiar fare, such as Fiddler on the Roof, A Chorus Line, South Pacific, Gypsy, Hair, West Side Story and Grease, or with other proven material, such as films (The Producers, Spamalot, Hairspray, Legally Blonde, The Color Purple, Xanadu, Billy Elliot and Shrek) or well-known literature (The Scarlet Pimpernel and Wicked) hoping that the shows would have a built-in audience as a result. Some critics consider the reuse of film plots, especially those from Disney (such as Mary Poppins, and The Little Mermaid) a redefinition of the Broadway and West End musical as a tourist attraction, rather than a creative outlet.\n\nToday, it is less likely that a sole producer, such as David Merrick or Cameron Mackintosh, backs a production. Corporate sponsors dominate Broadway, and often alliances are formed to stage musicals, which require an investment of $10 million or more. In 2002, the credits for Thoroughly Modern Millie listed ten producers, and among those names were entities composed of several individuals. Typically, off-Broadway and regional theatres tend to produce smaller and therefore less expensive musicals, and development of new musicals has increasingly taken place outside of New York and London or in smaller venues. For example, Spring Awakening, Grey Gardens, Fun Home and Hamilton were developed Off-Broadway before being launched on Broadway.\n\nSeveral musicals returned to the spectacle format that was so successful in the 1980s, recalling extravaganzas that have been presented at times, throughout theatre history, since the ancient Romans staged mock sea battles. Examples include the musical adaptations of The Lord of the Rings (2007), Gone With the Wind (2008) and Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark (2011). These musicals involved songwriters with little theatrical experience, and the expensive productions generally lost money. Conversely, The Drowsy Chaperone, Avenue Q, The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee and Xanadu, among others, have been presented in smaller-scale productions, mostly uninterrupted by an intermission, with short running times, and enjoyed financial success. In 2013, Time magazine reported a trend Off-Broadway has been \"immersive\" theatre, citing shows such as Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 (2012) and Here Lies Love (2013) in which the staging takes place around and within the audience. The shows set a joint record, each receiving 11 nominations for Lucille Lortel Awards. and feature contemporary scores. \n\nIn 2013, Cyndi Lauper was the \"first female composer to win the [Tony for] Best Score without a male collaborator\" for writing the music and lyrics for Kinky Boots. In 2015, for the first time, an all-female writing team, Lisa Kron and Jeanine Tesori, won the Tony Award for Best Original Score (and Best Book for Kron) for Fun Home, although work by male songwriters continues to be produced more often. \n\n;Jukebox musicals\nAnother trend has been to create a minimal plot to fit a collection of songs that have already been hits. Following the earlier success of Buddy - The Buddy Holly Story, these have included Movin' Out (2002, based on the tunes of Billy Joel), Jersey Boys (2006, The Four Seasons), Rock of Ages (2009, featuring classic rock of the 1980s) and many others. This style is often referred to as the \"jukebox musical\".Kaye, Kimberly. [http://www.broadway.com/buzz/152360/broadwaycom-at-10-the-10-biggest-broadway-trends-of-the-decade/ \"Broadway.com at 10: The 10 Biggest Broadway Trends of the Decade\"], Broadway.com, May 10, 2010, accessed August 14, 2012 Similar but more plot-driven musicals have been built around the canon of a particular pop group including Mamma Mia! (1999, based on the songs of ABBA), Our House (2002, based on the songs of Madness), and We Will Rock You (2002, based on the songs of Queen).\n\n;Film and TV musicals\nLive-action film musicals were nearly dead in the 1980s and early 1990s, with exceptions of Victor/Victoria, Little Shop of Horrors and the 1996 film of Evita.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/1980film.htm \"The 1980s\"], History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014; and Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/1990film.htm \"The 1990s: Disney & Beyond\"], History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014 In the new century, Baz Luhrmann began a revival of the film musical with Moulin Rouge! (2001). This was followed by Chicago in 2002; Phantom of the Opera in 2004; Dreamgirls in 2006; Hairspray, Across the Universe, Enchanted and Sweeney Todd all in 2007; Mamma Mia! in 2008; Nine in 2009; Burlesque in 2010; Les Misérables and Pitch Perfect in 2012, and Into The Woods in 2014. Dr. Seuss's How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (2000) and The Cat in the Hat (2003), turned children's books into live-action film musicals. After the immense success of Disney and other houses with animated film musicals beginning with The Little Mermaid in 1989 and running throughout the 1990s (including some more adult-themed films, like South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut (1999)), fewer animated film musicals were released in the first decade of the 21st century. The genre made a comeback beginning in 2010 with Tangled (2010), Rio (2011) and Frozen (2013). In Asia, India continues to produce numerous \"Bollywood\" film musicals, and Japan produces \"Anime\" and \"Manga\" film musicals.\n\nMade for TV musical films were popular in the 1990s, such as Gypsy (1993), Cinderella (1997) and Annie (1999). Several made for TV musicals in the first decade of the 21st century were adaptations of the stage version, such as South Pacific (2001), The Music Man (2003) and Once Upon A Mattress (2005), and a televised version of the stage musical Legally Blonde in 2007. Additionally, several musicals were filmed on stage and broadcast on Public Television, for example Contact in 2002 and Kiss Me, Kate and Oklahoma! in 2003. The made-for-TV musical High School Musical (2006), and its several sequels, enjoyed particular success and were adapted for stage musicals and other media. In 2013, NBC began a series of live television broadcasts of musicals with The Sound of Music Live! Although the production received mixed reviews, it was a ratings success. Further broadcasts have included Peter Pan Live! (NBC 2014), The Wiz Live! (NBC 2015), a UK broadcast, The Sound of Music Live (ITV 2015) and Grease: Live (Fox 2016). \n\nSome television shows have set episodes as a musical. Examples include episodes of Ally McBeal, Xena, the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode Once More, with Feeling, That's So Raven, Daria, Oz, Scrubs (one episode was written by the creators of Avenue Q), Batman: The Brave and the Bold, episode \"Mayhem of the Music Meister\", and the 100th episode of That '70s Show, called That '70s Musical. Others have included scenes where characters suddenly begin singing and dancing in a musical-theatre style during an episode, such as in several episodes of The Simpsons, 30 Rock, Hannah Montana, South Park and Family Guy. The television series Cop Rock extensively used the musical format, as do the series Flight of the Conchords, Glee and Smash.\n\nThere have also been musicals made for the internet, including Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog, about a low-rent super-villain played by Neil Patrick Harris. It was written during the WGA writer's strike. Since 2006, reality TV shows have been used to help market musical revivals by holding a talent competition to cast (usually female) leads. Examples of these are How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?, Grease: You're the One that I Want!, Any Dream Will Do, Legally Blonde - The Musical: The Search for Elle Woods, I'd Do Anything and Over the Rainbow.\n\nInternational musicals\n\nThe U.S. and Britain were the most active sources of book musicals from the 19th century through much of the 20th century (although Europe produced various forms of popular light opera and operetta, for example Spanish Zarzuela, during that period and even earlier). However, the light musical stage in other countries has become more active in recent decades.\n\nMusicals from other English-speaking countries (notably Australia and Canada) often do well locally, and occasionally even reach Broadway or the West End (e.g., The Boy from Oz and The Drowsy Chaperone). South Africa has an active musical theatre scene, with revues like African Footprint and Umoja and book musicals, such as Kat and the Kings and Sarafina! touring internationally. Locally, musicals like Vere, Love and Green Onions, Over the Rainbow: the all-new all-gay... extravaganza and Bangbroek Mountain and In Briefs – a queer little Musical have been produced successfully.\n\nSuccessful musicals from continental Europe include shows from (among other countries) Germany (Elixier and Ludwig II), Austria (Tanz der Vampire, Elisabeth, Mozart! and Rebecca), Czech Republic (Dracula), France (Notre Dame de Paris, Les Misérables, Roméo et Juliette and Mozart, l'opéra rock) and Spain (Hoy No Me Puedo Levantar and The Musical Sancho Panza).\n\nJapan has recently seen the growth of an indigenous form of musical theatre, both animated and live action, mostly based on Anime and Manga, such as Kiki's Delivery Service and Tenimyu. The popular Sailor Moon metaseries has had twenty-nine Sailor Moon musicals, spanning thirteen years. Beginning in 1914, a series of popular revues have been performed by the all-female Takarazuka Revue, which currently fields five performing troupes. Elsewhere in Asia, the Indian Bollywood musical, mostly in the form of motion pictures, is tremendously successful. \n\nHong Kong's first modern musical, produced in both Cantonese and Mandarin, is Snow.Wolf.Lake (1997). Beginning with a 2002 tour of Les Misérables, numerous Western musicals have been imported to mainland China and staged in English.Zhou, Xiaoyan. Taking the Stage, Beijing Review, 2011, p. 42 Attempts at localizing Western productions in China began in 2008 when Fame was produced in Mandarin with a full Chinese cast at the Central Academy of Drama in Beijing. Since then, other western productions have been staged in China in Mandarin with a Chinese cast. The first Chinese production in the style of Western musical theatre was The Gold Sand in 2005. In addition, Li Dun, a well-known Chinese producer, produced Butterflies, based on a classic Chinese love tragedy, in 2007 as well as Love U Teresa in 2011.\n\nOther countries with an especially active musicals scene include the Netherlands, Italy, Poland, Sweden, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Russia, and Turkey.\n\nAmateur and school productions\n\nMusicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. Although amateur theatre has existed for centuries, even in the New World,Lynch, Twink. [http://www.aact.org/community-theatre-history \"Community Theatre History\"], American Association of Community Theatre, accessed March 14, 2016 François Cellier and Cunningham Bridgeman wrote, in 1914, that prior to the late 19th century, amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals. After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies licensed to perform the Savoy operas, professionals recognized that the amateur societies \"support the culture of music and the drama. They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage, and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present-day favourites.\" The National Operatic and Dramatic Association was founded in the UK in 1899. It reported, in 1914, that nearly 200 amateur dramatic societies were producing Gilbert and Sullivan operas in Britain that year. Similarly, more than 100 community theatres were founded in the US in the early 20th century. This number has grown to an estimated 18,000 in the US. The Educational Theater Association in the US has nearly 5,000 member schools. \n\nRelevance\n\nThe Broadway League announced that in the 2007–08 season, 12.27 million tickets were purchased for Broadway shows for a gross sale amount of almost a billion dollars. The League further reported that during the 2006–07 season, approximately 65% of Broadway tickets were purchased by tourists, and that foreign tourists were 16% of attendees. (These figures do not include off-Broadway and smaller venues.) The Society of London Theatre reported that 2007 set a record for attendance in London. Total attendees in the major commercial and grant-aided theatres in Central London were 13.6 million, and total ticket revenues were £469.7 million. Also, the international musicals scene has been particularly active in recent years. However, Stephen Sondheim has commented:\n\nThe success of original material like Urinetown, Avenue Q, Spelling Bee, In the Heights, The Book of Mormon, as well as creative re-imaginings of film properties, including Thoroughly Modern Millie, Hairspray, Billy Elliot and The Color Purple, and plays or biographies, such as Spring Awakening and Hamilton, prompted theatre historian John Kenrick to write: \"Is the Musical dead? ... Absolutely not! Changing? Always! The musical has been changing ever since Offenbach did his first rewrite in the 1850s. And change is the clearest sign that the musical is still a living, growing genre. Will we ever return to the so-called 'golden age,' with musicals at the center of popular culture? Probably not. Public taste has undergone fundamental changes, and the commercial arts can only flow where the paying public allows.\""
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"Cabaret Undressed! The Real-Life Stories Behind the Gritty, Glittering Broadway Hit | Broadway Buzz | Broadway.com\nCabaret Undressed! The Real-Life Stories Behind the Gritty, Glittering Broadway Hit\nFeatures By Gemma Wilson April 23, 2014 - 7:05PM\nJoel Grey in 'Cabaret' & Alan Cumming in 'Cabaret'\nAbout the Show\nVideos\nDid you know Liza Minnelli auditioned for Sally Bowles in the Broadway production of 'Cabaret' and didn't get the part?\nWillkommen back to Broadway, Cabaret ! The classic Kander and Ebb musical has arrived for a return engagement on the Great White Way, with Alan Cumming reprising his Tony-winning performance as the Emcee alongside Oscar nominee Michelle Williams , who is making her Broadway debut as British cabaret singer Sally Bowles. In the iconic tale set in 1930s Berlin, the Emcee holds court over the seedy Kit Kat Klub, where Sally strikes up a relationship with an American writer, Cliff. Cabaret opens at Studio 54 on April 24, but a classic isn't born overnight! Read on for a look at what has long made Cabaret such a crowd-pleasing, game-changing favorite.\nWelcome to Berlin\nThe Weimar Republic, which flourished between Germany's defeat at the end of World War I and Hitler's rise to power in 1933, was a vibrant cultural period famous for its music, film, art and philosophy, as well as its tolerance of decadent behavior (including prostitution and homosexuality). 1920s Berlin was the center of Weimar culture, but when the Nazi Party began rising to power, this liberal mecca started crumbling as artists and intellectuals fled to safer shores.\nCapturing a Culture\nWriter Christopher Isherwood compiled his experiences living in Weimar Berlin into a semi-autobiographical collection of stories, Goodbye to Berlin, in 1939. The character of Sally Bowles was based on German nightclub singer Jean Ross—her name was borrowed from composer Paul Bowles. British playwright John Van Druten adapted Isherwood's work into the 1951 Broadway play I Am a Camera, which was panned by the critics (Walter Kerr of The New York Times famously said, \"Me no Leica\"), but won actress Julie Harris the first of five Tony Awards for playing Sally.\nBroadway Tug-of-War\nAfter his musical The Boy Friend became a big hit in the West End and on Broadway in the mid-'50s, composer/lyricist Sandy Wilson adapted I Am A Camera into a musical, only to find that the rights had been scooped up by producer Harold Prince. Prince commissioned Joe Masteroff to write the musical's book, but the pair agreed that Wilson's take on the material didn't feel authentic to 1920s Berlin. Instead, they enlisted John Kander and Fred Ebb to write the score, and Wilson got the boot.\nThe Evolution of the Emcee\nWhen it came to creating the world of Cabaret, director Hal Prince recalled his own time in Germany as a young man in the army—specifically a Stuttgart nightclub called Maxim's. \"There was a dwarf MC, hair parted in the middle and lacquered down with brilliantine, his mouth made into a bright red cupid's bow, who wore heavy false eyelashes,\" Prince explained in The Making of Cabaret . Joel Grey, who created the role of the Emcee on Broadway, came up with the white-faced, pink-cheeked look that defined the role for decades. \"I found this greasepaint called 'Juvenile Pink,' and I thought to myself, 'This creep, he would want to look young, and this is what he would use,'\" Grey recalled.\nRedefining Broadway\nWhen Cabaret opened in 1966, it turned the idea of a Broadway musical on its head. There was no overture—instead, audiences were caught off-guard by a drumroll and loud cymbal crash. A giant mirror reflected the audience back on itself. The story dealt with everything from anti-Semitism to abortion, which was unusual for the day. \"This marionette's-eye view of a time and place in our lives that was brassy, wanton, carefree and doomed to crumble is brilliantly conceived,\" wrote New York Times critic Walter Kerr.\nAt First, Liza Didn't Get the Part\nThe 1972 film version of Cabaret was just as successful as its stage debut, due in part to its magnetic leading lady, Liza Minnelli. But the young actress had initially tried out for the Broadway musical, and didn't get the part of Sally. \"I knew I'd get the movie for some reason,\" Minnelli told The Huffington Post . \"I remember saying to myself, 'That's all right, I'll do the film.\" Minnelli not only got her wish, but she won an Oscar for her performance, alongside original Broadway star Joel Grey as the Emcee and director Bob Fosse. And as an added bonus, the film basically revived the whole concept of the movie musical, which had been languishing for years. Thanks, guys!\nSam Mendes Made it Seedier…\nIn 1993, Donmar Warehouse artistic director Sam Mendes revived the stage musical at the non-for-profit theater in London's Covent Garden, starring then-unknown Scottish actor Alan Cumming as the Emcee and Jane Horrocks as Sally. The director made it just as game-changing as the original—he stripped down the material, sat the audience at tables and let them order drinks, and was one of the first directors to cast actor-musicians to be both the ensemble and the band. Best of all, the production got the stamp of approval from John Kander. \"[Alan Cumming] is disgusting,\" the composer told Mendes with delight. \"He's right in your face.\"\n...And Wilder...\nWhen Roundabout Theatre Company wanted to bring the production to Broadway, Mendes insisted they find an honest-to-God nightclub. After two years, they found Henry Miller's Theatre (now the Stephen Sondheim), which had previously been a nightclub called Xenon, and before that, an X-rated movie house. Renamed the Kit Kat Klub, the rundown theater's gritty atmosphere was just the place for the in-your-face revival.\n...And It Paid Off\nCabaret opened on Broadway in 1998 (with some major changes from new co-director and choreographer Rob Marshall) and scooped up Tony Awards for Best Revival, for Cumming, for Natasha Richardson as Sally, and for Ron Rifkin as Herr Schultz. But when a construction crane fell on the Kit Kat Klub, the show had to temporarly close—that is, until Mendes kicked in the doors on the then-derelict Studio 54. \"In addition to its rich and varied history, [Studio 54] happens to be the most atmospheric, theatrically viable space that I've seen in New York,\" he told the Associated Press .\nIf You've Got It, Flaunt It\n21 years after he first put on his Emcee's dingy suspenders and nipple glitter, Cumming is returning to Broadway in the role that made him a star. \"It starts rehearsals the day after my 49th birthday,\" Cumming teased in The Aesthete . \"So I'll be entering my 50th year dancing my tits off and being a sexpot.\" Thank God, he says, for muscle memory!\nThe Toast of Mayfair\nWhen Cabaret announced its return to Broadway, the question on everyone's mind was, who will play Sally? Anne Hathaway and Emma Stone were rumored to be interested in the part, but in the end it went to stage newbie Michelle Williams. Williams admitted that being the new girl makes her \"feel like a baby\" in rehearsal, but she has a champion in Liza Minnelli. \"I’m excited to see what they will do with the show and am sure it will be great,” said Minnelli, calling the new star a \"wonderful actress.\" Come to the Cabaret, Michelle! In here, life is beautiful...\nSee Alan Cumming and Michelle Williams in Cabaret at Studio 54.",
"An Analysis Of\nReturn to New Line Theatre's homepage Return to New Line's Cabaret webpage\nbackground and analysis by Scott Miller\n The burgeoning political activism in the United States when Cabaret hit the stage in 1966 � and its growth by 1972 when the film hit theatres � as well as Hal Prince's desire to break through to a new kind of socially responsible musical theatre all conspired to make Cabaret one of the most fascinating stage pieces of the 1960s and a show that speaks to our world in a new millennium more now than at any time since it first opened, as evidenced by the smash hit Broadway revival. The singer Sally Bowles represents the people who kept their eyes shut to changes in the world around them, and the novelist Clifford Bradshaw represents the new (perhaps na�ve) breed of American activist who could no longer sit by and watch the government ignore the will of the people. Today, as activism at both ends of the political spectrum has experienced a renaissance in America, Cabaret as a cautionary morality play has tremendous resonance.\n Cabaret in its original form was a fascinating but flawed theatre piece. It was director Hal Prince's first experiment in making a concept musical (a show in which the story is secondary to a central message or metaphor), a form he would perfect later on with projects like Company, Follies, Pacific Overtures, Kiss of the Spider Woman, and other musicals. Early in the process of creating Cabaret, Prince had gone to Russia to see theatre and had witnessed a provocative, confrontational, rule-busting production at the Taganka Theatre. It was everything Prince had been looking for. He later said, �The Taganka Theatre was traumatizing (in a good sense).� He would forever more gravitate towards theatre that challenged audiences, that intentionally made audiences uncomfortable, that made an audience confront their world in all its contradictions and ugliness.\n Walter Kerr said in the New York Times in 1966 that Cabaret �opens the door to a fresh notion of the bizarre, crackling, harsh and the beguiling uses that can be made of song and dance.� Other writers and directors further developed the concept musical in the 1970s and 80s with shows like A Chorus Line, Working, Chicago, Nine, and others, but Cabaret paved the way. Cabaret's flaw lies in the fact that the concept musical was still in an embryo stage; Prince was traversing uncharted territory. The end product was ground-breaking and often shocking, but it was only half a concept musical. Believing that Broadway audiences in 1966 still needed a central romantic couple and a secondary comic couple (as in Oklahoma, Brigadoon, The Pajama Game, and others), Prince and his collaborators essentially created two shows, a realistic book show with traditional musical comedy songs, and a concept musical with songs that commented on the action and the central message of the show.\nWhen Bob Fosse made the film version of Cabaret in 1972, he jettisoned all the traditional book songs, and the piece became a full-fledged concept musical. In 1987, when Prince revived the stage version, the show's creators went back and revised the show again, putting back the homosexuality in the story, incorporating some improvements from the film version, trying things audiences had not been ready for in 1966. In 1993, Sam Mendes went even further with a production at London�s Donmar Warehouse, trimming the show�s fat, better focusing the show�s central metaphor, and creating yet another version that better integrates the two separate styles Prince first created. In Mendes� version (London, 1993; Broadway, 1998), the entire show was placed in the Kit Kat Klub, on the club stage, and the dialogue scenes became �acts� in the club. This better integrated the two parts of the show and eliminated the wall between actors and audience, placing the audience on three sides of the stage, only a few feet from the action, rather than across an orchestra pit, involving them in the action.\n Cabaret was based on several chapters from Christopher Isherwood�s somewhat autobiographical novel Goodbye to Berlin, and it seems that new versions of this story have always appeared at times of crisis in America. The novel appeared at the close of World War II; the non-musical stage version debuted during the McCarthy era; the stage musical opened during the Vietnam era; and the movie musical opened in the midst of the Watergate era. Each of these times has also been a turning point in regard to the social standing of American women and gays. Each subsequent version of this story has been braver, edgier, more explicit, and only now can it be told completely truthfully. Only now can Cliff be fully gay as Christopher Isherwood � the real Cliff � was. Only now can the Kit Kat Klub be as sexual, as decadent, as it really was. Only now, after musicals like Assassins and Kiss of the Spider Woman, are musical theatre audiences ready for the disturbing extremity that this story really demands.\n Since Cabaret first opened in 1966, people have described the show the same way: it shows how the Nazis used the decadence and moral decline of 1930 Berlin to come to power. But the accuracy of that description depends on how you define decadence. Berlin was like any big city in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Was it decadent for gay men and women to live openly? Was it decadent for women to live independently and to express their sexuality openly? Was sex outside of marriage decadent? Some people would say yes; others would disagree. By today�s standards, Berlin was quite progressive and liberal, but hardly Sodom and Gomorrah. In 1929, a bill legalizing consensual gay sex was passed in committee and brought to the floor of the German Reichstag, but it was tabled indefinitely when the economic panic that followed America�s Depression redirected the Reichstag�s priorities. In fact, Isherwood wrote, in Christopher and His Kind, that Berlin�s decadence was �merely a commercial �line� which the Berliners had instinctively developed in their competition with Paris.� Little did they know Hitler would later use their �line� against them.\n What�s most disturbing about the show today is that Cabaret shows how politicians in 1930s Germany used the same tactics as politicians in America in 2001. The Germans saw their country in economic and political trouble, due to crippling war debts from World War I and a deadlocked parliament. The Nazis decided that, like Harold Hill and the pool table in The Music Man, they had to find a scapegoat on which to pin Germany�s troubles. Their plan was to scare ordinary Germans with descriptions of rampant immorality and decadence so that the people would vote for the Nazis in hopes that the Nazis would return Germany to the Good Ol� Days. The Nazis found their scapegoat in the sexual freedom of the cosmopolitan big city Berlin. Throughout the history of the world, people in power have always sexualized their enemies, portraying the minority as sexually dangerous and destructive, convincing the masses that the �rampant� sexuality must be contained, and the Nazis had learned well from history. The truth is neither homosexuals nor women were responsible for Germany�s war debts or the deadlock in the parliament, but the truth is often less important than emotion and fear. What�s truly disturbing is to realize that right wing politicians in America use the same tactics today, blaming homosexuals (the only American minority it�s still acceptable to demonize) and sexual freedom in general for all America�s troubles. The only difference is that there�s no Adolf Hitler waiting to seize power.\nAt least not right now.\nThe More Things Change�\nThough we�d like to believe otherwise, political rhetoric hasn�t really changed all that much since Nazi Germany. On the subject of Christianity, Hitler said in a 1933 speech, �The Government of the Reich . . . regards Christianity as the unshakable foundation of the morals and moral code of the nation.� Similarly, in 1981, on The 700 Club, Pat Robertson said, �The Constitution of the United States, for instance, is a marvelous document for self-government by the Christian people. But the minute you turn the document into the hands of non-Christian people and atheistic people they can use it to destroy the very foundation of our society. And that's what's been happening.\" President George Bush (Sr.) said, �I don't know that atheists should be considered citizens, nor should they be considered patriots. This is one nation under God.\" In 1993, Randall Terry, Founder of Operation Rescue, said in The News-Sentinel (in Fort Wayne, Indiana), \"I want you to just let a wave of intolerance wash over you. I want you to let a wave of hatred wash over you. Yes, hate is good. . . Our goal is a Christian nation. We have a Biblical duty, we are called by God, to conquer this country. We don't want equal time. We don't want pluralism.\"\n On the subject of the Jews, a 1943 editorial by Ernst Hiemer, describing the (fictional) Jewish agenda, said, �Every Jew has the obligation to see that Christian churches are burned down and wiped out. The faithful must be insulted and the clergy killed.� In 1990, on The McLaughlin Group, Pat Buchanan echoed the same fear of Jews when he said, \"Capitol Hill is Israeli occupied territory.\" In 1991, Pat Robertson tried to scare us more when he said, \"Communism was the brain-child of German-Jewish intellectuals.\"\nThe Aryan Law, an early piece of Nazi legislation, said, �The Jewish people, once only tolerated, knew how to raise a hue and cry about discrimination and persecution, winning the sympathy of the world for the �poor Jews.� They increasingly infiltrated deep within our national organism, growing to have power over every single area of our national life.� More recently, Pat Robertson said, \"I've heard all this stuff about little Jewish kids being marred by having to say a prayer in Jesus' name. That's all you hear when you're with the liberals, the ACLU. But listen, we don't hear the liberals talking about what happened to Christian little children.\"\nOn the subject of race, the Nazi�s Aryan Law said, �In the long run, no idea is better suited to guarantee peace between nations than National Socialist racial thinking, which calls for the furtherance and maintenance of one's own race and one's own people, and supports similar efforts on the part of other nations.� In his 1990 book, Right from the Beginning, Pat Buchanan wrote, �In the late 1940s and 1950s . . . race was never a preoccupation with us, we rarely thought about it . . . There were no politics to polarize us then, to magnify every slight. The �Negroes� of Washington had their public schools, restaurants, bars, movie houses, playgrounds and churches; and we had ours.�\n On the subject of communism, Hitler said in a 1933 speech, �Communism with its method of madness is making a powerful and insidious attack upon our dismayed and shattered nation. It seeks to poison and disrupt in order to hurl us into an epoch of chaos. . . Beginning with the family, it has undermined the very foundations of morality and faith and scoffs at culture and business, nation and Fatherland, justice and honor.� In March 2000, on The 700 Club, Pat Robertson said, �Ladies and gentlemen, the ACLU, you must remember, was founded by a group of people, three of which were key members of the Communist International. The key mover of the ACLU said he wanted to make America into a workers' state � read that communist. And they have had communists on their board until they voted them out and then they changed their rule and let them back on again.�\nOn the subject of the role of women, Hitler said, at a 1936 women's rally at Nuremberg, �For us the woman has always been the loyal companion of the man in work and life. People often tell me: You want to drive women out of the professions. No, I only want to make it possible for her to found her own family and to have children, for that is how she can best serve our people!� He went on to say, �Do not deceive yourselves! There are two separate arenas in the life of a nation: that of men and that of women. Nature has rightly ordained that men head the family and are burdened with the task of protecting their people, the community. The world of the woman, when she is fortunate, is her family, her husband, her children, her home.� In 1992, televangelist Pat Robertson said, \"[The] feminist agenda is not about equal rights for women. It is about a socialist, anti-family political movement that encourages women to leave their husbands, kill their children, practice witchcraft, destroy capitalism and become lesbians.\" Also in 1992, Robertson said, \"I know this is painful for the ladies to hear, but if you get married, you have accepted the headship of a man, your husband. Christ is the head of the household and the husband is the head of the wife, and that's the way it is, period.\"\n On the subject of homosexuality, the Nazi Party called homosexuality �a deviation from normal sexual behavior . . . to the detriment of the natural increase in population.� The Nazis said that sexual relations must �serve the reproductive process.� In 1983, Pat Buchanan wrote in The New York Post, \"The poor homosexuals � they have declared war on nature, and now nature is exacting an awful retribution.\" In 1992, Joseph Gudel wrote, in the Christian Research Journal, �I believe that homosexuality is anatomically aberrant, psychologically deviant, and morally bankrupt.� In 2000, right wing radio talk show host �Dr.� Laura said, \"I call homosexual practices deviant. If you're gay or a lesbian, it's a biological error that inhibits you from relating normally to the opposite sex.� In October 2000, the Pope said, �anything other than a heterosexual union is a step backwards for civilization.� Just as all Jewish teachers in Germany were fired in 1933, the Religious Right in contemporary American is fighting to have gay men and women prohibited from teaching in public schools as well.\n In August 2000, Pat Buchanan unwittingly made his own connection between his ideas and those of the Nazis. He said, �Rampant homosexuality [has been] a sign of cultural decadence and moral decline from Rome to Weimar Germany.\" Buchanan agreed with the Nazis that gay Germans in the period preceding the Third Reich were a problem that had to be �corrected.�\nThe �culture wars� are not new to contemporary America. They were fought just as hard, and with the same rhetoric, in Nazi Germany. In 1935 in Germany, the Institute for the Study of the Jewish Question published a report on popular entertainment, which said, �The sexualization of reality is an expression of the Jewish spirit. The Jew Freud traces all mental processes back to sexual stimulation.� The report concluded that German cabarets were the primary purveyors of this �Jewish perversion.� Similarly, in a September 1993 speech to the Christian Coalition, Pat Buchanan declared, �Our culture is superior because our religion is Christianity and that is the truth that makes men free.� Bill Bennett wrote in the Weekly Standard in August 1999, �Now is the time for identifying and ostracizing the country's cultural polluters.�\nWith hundreds of thousands of Americans watching Pat Robertson�s TV show The 700 Club, listening to religious radio stations, receiving mailings from the Christian Coalition, and attending fundamentalist churches, the influence of religious extremists cannot be underestimated. Though many Americans today would argue that the rhetoric of Pat Robertson, Jerry Falwell, and their cohorts is benign, it�s important to note that the anti-Semitism in Germany started in small, seemingly innocuous ways, and grew over time into the Holocaust. In the early 1930s, many average Germans, believing the claims that German Jews were responsible for many of Germany�s problems, began to avoid their Jewish friends. Signs appeared in grocery stores declaring that Jews were not welcome. Most non-Jews stopped patronizing Jewish-owned businesses. By 1938, sixty percent of businesses owned by Jews in 1933 had gone out of business. Anti-Jewish legislation was labeled with positive, patriotic sounding names, like the �Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor,� presaging the recent anti-gay legislation passed in the U.S. Congress, the �Defense of Marriage Act.� Like American politicians today, the Nazis created fictional �attacks� on German culture and dressed up their own attacks as �defenses.�\nSo Cabaret continues to have great resonance. Perhaps political propaganda never really changes. It always demonizes the minority, paints a picture of imminent destruction, then promises a return to the normalcy of a time (that never really existed) when things were simpler and less scary. Director Hal Prince said about the original production, �It was only after we�d come by a reason for telling that story parallel to contemporary problems in our country that the project interested me.� And that philosophy still stands. It�s only compelling, only shocking, only powerful because we can see today at least some of what Cliff could see back then. \nDeutschland\n1930. Weimar Germany was in trouble. Due to the war debts, rampant inflation, and a bickering, multi-party parliament, the country was in economic and political ruin. There was political dissension everywhere. The people, particularly the conservative middle class, were unhappy. Adolph Hitler finally figured out that the way to take power was through propaganda � telling the people what they wanted to hear. (And is that any different today?) Hitler's ultra-conservative Nazi party began a war of propaganda against the standing government. He promised an end to the depression, to political corruption and incompetence, to moral decay. He declared war on popular culture, which he portrayed as decadent, obscene, and anti-German. He attacked Jews, homosexuals, feminists, and artists for ruining the country.\nThough cabarets in Berlin had been somewhat regulated before the Nazis, the new r�gime held up cabaret performances as a perfect example of the decadence and moral decay of Berlin. The Nazis clamped down on cabarets, dictating exactly what content was acceptable. Though some cabarets were respectable enterprises, the 1930 German film The Blue Angel, with Marlene Dietrich, offers a unique glimpse into what the lower form of German cabaret (like Cabaret�s Kit Kat Klub) was really like, with tiny stages, unattractive women in revealing clothing, social and political parody numbers, sexual innuendo, clowns, drag numbers, animal acts (echoed in Cabaret with �If You Could See Her�), and rowdy, drunken audiences. In fact The Blue Angel captures exactly the Nazi view of cabarets; in the film, a school professor gets involved with a cabaret performer and, as a result, he loses his job, his respectability, and his dignity, and he ends up touring with the cabaret, selling dirty pictures of the woman who is now his wife.\nHitler and the Nazis championed the family unit, traditional roles for men and women, children, and traditional �Christian� values. (Ironically, Nazism later became an image frequently used in pornography.) Hitler promised to \"save\" Germany from the terrible predicament it found itself in. In Cabaret, Ernst echoes the Nazi's promises when he tells Cliff that the Nazis will be the builders of a new Germany, just as today�s religious leaders talk about building a new �Christian America.�\nWith hindsight, it's now possible to see that Hitler promised and attacked almost all the same things that many political candidates in America have promised and attacked in recent U.S. elections, things that many politicians and religious leaders still promise and still attack. In the 1930s, the Nazis told middle class, hard-working German that the Jews were only one percent of the population and yet controlled the government and had all the money. In the 1980s and 1990s, religious right leaders in America began telling Americans the exact same things about gay men and women. The Nazis claimed Jews were spreading disease throughout Germany, just as today�s religious extremists claim gays are spreading AIDS (even though the vast majority of people with AIDS worldwide are heterosexuals). German Jews were portrayed as abnormal, depraved, and immoral, the same stereotypes used today against American gays. Both German Jews in the 1930s and American gays at the end of the twentieth century have been called anti-Christian, anti-family, criminal, and immoral. Jews were portrayed as sex maniacs and child molesters, just as gays are now accused of the same things. The Nazis had learned well that the best way to attack the minority was to sexualize them to the mainstream, as was done to the Jews in 1930s Germany, to blacks in 1950s America, and to gays in contemporary America.\n Politicians and religious leaders across America still echo the themes of Nazi propaganda, declaring that our country is in a state of moral decay and political disarray, that our culture is disintegrating, that movies, TV, and pop music are full of gratuitous sex and violence, that mainstream religion is under attack. These parallels make the world of 1930 Berlin that much scarier, and they make it that much easier to see why normal, upstanding German citizens could support the Nazi party. People were desperate for change, for a quick fix, for salvation from the things they perceived as deadly to their nation and to their way of life. It's doubtful that anyone like Hitler could take over America today, but the fact that there are clear parallels to the current political climate in our country make Cabaret more frightening and important today than it was even when it was written. If we ignore history, we are doomed to repeat it. \nIt Could Happen Here\n One of the show's central messages is that It Could Happen Here. At the beginning of the show, in the original 1966 production, there was a giant mirror onstage facing the audience. The implication was that the people of Germany, who allowed the Nazis to take power, were very much like us, just ordinary people who found their country in trouble and looked for someone to fix things, to offer easy solutions. If we had lived in 1930 Berlin, the mirror suggests, we too would have been cajoled into believing the Nazis could save the country. It also says that we � the populace � are as much to blame for such horrors as corrupt politicians. Whatever happens in our country, we allow to happen.\n Most of the leading characters in Cabaret represent an archetype. The Emcee is the personification of unfettered sexual freedom. He is the movie industry in contemporary America, as well as the recording industry, television, and tabloid journalism. He makes extreme sexuality appealing, entertaining, inviting. Sally Bowles is the self-involved, head-in-the-sand young person, looking only for the next party, constant gratification, and complete freedom from responsibility. She refuses to think about politics and social issues because it gets in the way of a good time. She uses sex and alcohol to hide from the real world. She represents both the �decadence� that the Nazis fashioned into successful propaganda, as well as the passivity that allowed their meteoric rise to power. Fraulein Schneider represents those who see what's happening but who believe they have no power to change anything. She doesn't like it, but resigns herself to the fact that she is powerless. She is about survival. Herr Schultz is foolishly optimistic; he believes so completely in the intrinsic goodness of humanity that he cannot believe that Jews will be expelled or persecuted in their own country. Cliff represents morality and social conscience. He sees what happening (though not until pretty late in the game) and he refuses to accept it. He says to Sally, �If you're not against all this [the Nazis], you're for it � or you might as well be.� The audience wants to see themselves in Cliff, but in reality, most of us are either Fraulein Schneider or Sally.\n America's political climate in 1966, when Cabaret opened on Broadway, was just as explosive as 1930 Berlin. Despite the civil rights bill that the U.S. Congress had passed in 1964, race riots were happening all over the country � in Harlem in July 1964, in Watts (Los Angeles) in August 1965, in Cleveland and Chicago in July 1966, as well as in Atlanta and other cities. Malcolm X was assassinated in February 1965. Martin Luther King Jr.'s first march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama took place in March 1965. Anti-war demonstrations began on the campus of the University of California-Berkeley in 1964, and continued throughout the 60s across the country. The first anti-war march on Washington was held in May 1965. U.S. troops launched their first full-scale combat in Vietnam in July 1965. Hogan's Heroes, a television sitcom about a German P.O.W. camp, debuted in 1965. The University of Mississippi's first black student was shot in June 1966, the same month that students marched on Washington again, this time for voting rights. The heavily political Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour debuted on NBC in September 1966, and went on to become the only television show canceled because of its subversive political content. Clearly, America was ready for a political musical when Cabaret opened in November of 1966. While the show was running, the anti-war, concept musical Hair opened in 1967, and TV's Laugh-In debuted in 1968, with its outrageous brand of social and political satire.\n Another example of the parallels between 1930s Germany and 1960s America was articulated by Jean Ross, Isherwood�s real world model for Sally Bowles, who said in an 1975 interview, �We were all utterly against the bourgeois standards of our parents� generation. That�s what took us to Berlin. The climate was freer there. I suppose nowadays you�d call us hippies.�\n Also, though it may seem hard to believe now, details of the Holocaust were only just beginning to come out to the public at the time of the original production of Cabaret. Throughout the 1950s, very few people had talked about the concentration camps, perhaps partly out of trauma, partly out of needing time for healing, and partly out of survivor�s guilt. It wasn�t until the early 1960s that people started writing about what had happened in Germany. Some historians and psychologists believed that guilt over the Holocaust is a big part of what fueled the political activism of the 1960s. It gave Holocaust survivors and their children a mechanism to act against injustice in a way they couldn�t during World War II. One Jewish American said, �We were going to be active where our parents� generation had been passive. Then we could tell our parents: We learned when we were children that massacres really happen and the private life is not enough.� \nBoth Sides Now\n Cabaret the musical looks at two cultural phenomena in pre-war Germany. First, the sexual freedom celebrated in cabarets, open homosexuality, a new feminism, and other trends, gave a certain segment of the population (like Cliff and Sally in Cabaret) a kind of independence they had not experienced before; and they were so enraptured with this new world, that many were happily distracted and unaware of what was happening politically. Self-delusion was rampant. Christopher Isherwood wrote, in Christopher and His Kind, that he �knew only one pair of homosexual lovers who declared proudly that they were Nazis. Misled by their own erotic vision of a New Sparta, they fondly supposed that Germany was entering an era of military man-love, with all women excluded.�\n It�s important to note that many Germans did not even vote in the elections that brought the Nazis to power � just as most people in America do not vote today. And significantly, Hitler did not come to power through a vote of the people. The Nazis actually lost votes in the Reichstag in the election before Hitler took over, but the German president appointed Hitler chancellor, in hopes of bringing the still powerful, rogue Nazi party under some sort of control. But then the Nazis pressured the Reichstag into passing the �Enabling Act� which gave Hitler unlimited power. This allowed the German people to deny responsibility for Hitler being in power. They could claim that they didn�t even vote, or if they did, they never voted for Hitler. One of the most fascinating things about Cabaret is that we don�t see a swastika until the end of Act I, we don�t hear the word �Nazi� until Act II, and we never hear the name �Hitler� during the whole evening, all this even though the whole show is about how Hitler and the Nazis were able to come to power.\nThe second phenomenon is that many people (like Herr Schultz in Cabaret) simply couldn't believe that anything so terrible could happen to loyal Germans; who could've dreamed before Hitler's rise to power that anyone would've orchestrated the systematic extermination of millions of Jews and homosexuals? Most Jewish men refused to leave Germany, despite their wives� pleading. The men were often more educated and didn�t think their wives �understood� Germany as well as they did. They couldn�t bring themselves to give up their businesses, to give up their connections, to be rejected by the country for which they had fought in World War I. Because German men tended to be more connected to and involved in culture outside the home, they felt an even deeper connection to Germany. One former judge told his wife, �The German people, the German judges, will not stand for much more of this madness.� One women remembered that she knew so many �decent Germans� that she never thought the Nazis could get a foothold because of the �moderate character� of the German people. It�s important to understand that Herr Schultz represents many, many real German Jews, who could not fathom that the Nazis could orchestrate something as horrific and far-reaching as the Holocaust.\nThe �mixed� marriage between Herr Schultz and Fraulein Schneider was also a common thing in Germany before the Nazis. But the Nazis criminalized sexual relations and marriage between �Aryans� and �non-Aryans.� In 1938, a state superior court in Germany allowed a man to divorce his wife only because he found out she had had an affair with a Jewish man in 1932, before they were married. After the Nazi takeover, �Aryan� women who married Jews were forced to walk through the city with shaved heads and signs proclaiming their �crime� of �race defilement.� Because any association with a Jew could lead to trouble or even imprisonment for an �Aryan,� the majority of gentiles broke off relationships � even family relationships � with Jews, to protect themselves. Many flew the Nazi flag specifically to negate the shadow of past relationships with Jews. In many cases, German citizens whose family members planned to marry Jews, would threaten to report them to the Gestapo, to avoid trouble for the rest of the family.\nIs there a parallel situation in America today? Yes, though it�s far less dramatic. In February 2001, former U.S. Republican congressman Steve Gunderson wrote, �I�m struck by the conflict many Republicans in Congress feel regarding gay issues. They want to support us personally � but they fear us politically because they may face a hostile, antigay home constituency.� The Republicans Gunderson describe don�t fear for their lives or their families, only for their political careers, but like many Germans in the 1930s, they end up practicing prejudice not because they believe in it but because they�re afraid not to practice it.\nFraulein Schneider�s decision in Cabaret to break off her engagement with Herr Schultz is not just soap opera. She has a business to run. She has to maintain an image of respectability. This happened in Germany far too often. People like Fraulein Schneider were frequently punished and even sent to prison camps merely because they were married to Jews. (Interestingly, mixed couples with gentile husbands were punished less severely than mixed couples with Jewish husbands.) Perhaps Cabaret gives Fraulein Schneider too much credit in foreseeing this danger in 1930, but the danger was real. Isherwood wrote about the real life model for Fraulein Schneider: �Like millions of others, she had to go on living in Germany and making the best of it, no matter who was in power. She would remain what she essentially was, a sweet, muddled victim of her rulers � guilty only by association with them � no more and no less a Nazi than she had been a communist.� \nBi, Bi, Birdie?\nThrough the many incarnations of the story � Christopher Isherwood�s book Goodbye to Berlin (1939), John Van Druten's play I Am a Camera (1951), Henry Cornelius� film of the same name (1955), the stage version of Cabaret (1966), its movie version (1972), and its three revised stage versions (1987, 1993, 1998) � the Isherwood character (Cliff or Brian in Cabaret) has been variously straight, gay and bisexual. Isherwood himself was gay, but because of societal restraints, earlier versions made his character straight. The 1966 stage version of Cabaret kept him straight; while the movie made him a gay man who decides to be straight and later ends up bisexual; and the two revivals made him gay. The gay subtext that underlines all these versions parallels the outsider status of Sally and all the people at the Kit Kat Klub. They live outside society's norms, outside the accepted rules. They are marginalized and they create their own insular community as homosexuals have done for decades. The Emcee in Cabaret reinforces this theme of any and all sexualities.\nIn the original version, where Cliff was straight, he represented the norm against which the extremity of Sally and Nazism are measured. He was the outsider in this world precisely because he was the ultimate insider elsewhere � a straight, white male. In later versions, as Cliff became a member of a sexual minority, he lost that status, and by default we, the audience, became the norm against which to measure the characters in the show. But Cliff remains the emotional and moral center of the story. We still see it all through his eyes, the eyes of a non-German.\nCliff also mirrored the changing face of America in 1966. Young people were realizing for the first time that there were horrible things happening in the world. They were waking up, realizing that they had a responsibility to speak up and register their dissatisfaction. It was a new age of political activism. The first line of the title song, asking what the point was in sitting home doing nothing, was a question young people across America were asking themselves. Demonstrations were breaking out on college campuses everywhere. People were marching on Washington. Cliff's growing awareness of the Nazis' presence and the implications of their politics portrayed the growing political awareness of America.\nBut this new political awareness among young people brought with it a naivete and an over-simplification of issues. For many young people this was their first Fight for What�s Right, and they jumped into the fray without really understanding the full complexity of what they were fighting for. Passion won out over complete understanding. Cliff's immaturity and his many contradictions and hypocrisies give him that kind of naive, slightly ridiculous moral outrage that only a twenty-five-year-old can muster. He is just like so many college kids, then and now, who discover politics and find themselves suddenly outraged over injustices about which they actually know very little. After all, Cliff himself tells Ernst he doesn�t want to know who or what he�s smuggling for. Cliff knows he�s working (indirectly) for a political party but he wants to stay blissfully ignorant. But then once he finds out Ernst is a member of the Nazi party, suddenly Cliff becomes political. He lectures Sally in Act II (�Don�t you see? Either you�re against all this or you�re for it.�) but he conveniently forgets that he actually helped the Nazis by smuggling for them. In fact, he takes the same moral posture that the Nazis take � that only his morality is the right one, that all others are wrong. Extremism in any form is dangerous, and Cliff is perhaps even more an extremist than Ernst. At the end of the show, when he insists that Sally leave Berlin with him, Cliff is making a moral decision for himself, but can he make it for Sally as well? If he dictates her morality, isn't that exactly what the Nazis are trying to do?\nCliff is also something of a hypocrite, but that too can be chalked up to immaturity. In his song �Why Should I Wake Up?� the fact that he�s �drifting� is a romantic, positive thing. Yet just a few minutes later, after he finds out Sally�s pregnant, he decides the fact that they are �drifting� is something that should be remedied. In the song, the idea of �waking up� is a bad idea. In Act II, he screams at sally to wake up.\nCliff begins the story no more aware than anyone else. In Act I, he says everyone�s having such a good time that if they were in a movie, something horrible would have to happen to them, but he has no idea how right he is. He�s too na�ve to notice that when he meets Ernst on the train, Ernst has no interest in him until Cliff pretends to have �smuggled a little� himself. Once Ernst sees Cliff can be useful, he�s suddenly Cliff�s best friend, immediately doing him favors so that Cliff will owe him. Later, Cliff agrees to smuggle for Ernst, asking Ernst not to tell him who's he smuggling for. Cliff is happy just being an observer, not a participant. In the original novel the narrator says, �I am a camera, with its shutter open, quite passive, recording, not thinking. Someday, all this will have to be developed, carefully printed, fixed.� Some recent productions have opened the show with those sentences.\nAt the party at the end of the first act, Cliff starts to �wake up� and gives up his passive role as only an observer. He finds out he has been drawn into Nazi politics without knowing it, just as many Germans were. Now he�s involved whether he likes it or not. He no longer merely records. He interprets. People he cares about are at risk. He realizes that he's been sleepwalking through life, his eyes closed, just like Sally. But though Cliff eventually wakes up, Sally does not. When he demands that Sally return to America with him and leave the powder keg that Germany has become, she refuses. He orders her to pack and therein makes a fatal mistake. Sally is a woman who deeply cherishes her independence; Cliff's attempt to force her into doing as he says only makes her more resolved to stay. He forces her to choose between family life � at which she thinks she'd fail � and the exciting, dangerous, potentially lucrative night life of Berlin.\nWhen he begins to write his book at the end of the show, he mentions the three main elements of the Nazis' rise to power � the Kit Kat Klub and the Emcee, examples of apathy and the �decadence� the Nazis will use to illustrate the downfall of Germany; Germany itself, crippled by political, social, and financial collapse; and Sally, one of the people who are unwilling to think about politics, to see what's happening, to take a moral position and stand up for they believe. The flashbacks that end the show are Cliff's thoughts swimming around in his head, falling into a kind of logical order so that he can put them down on paper. Though he is running from the Nazis, he is finally taking his stand by telling the story.\nInterestingly, Cliff�s two songs, �Why Should I Wake Up� and �Don�t Go� (added for the 1987 revival and now �optional�) don�t sound like the rest of the score. They�re both closer to a traditional 1960s Broadway sound and they don�t seem to match the dark, minor, German sound of the other songs. Even Sally�s 1920s flapper sound in �Don�t Tell Mama� and �Perfectly Marvelous� retains the dissonant, minor quality of the more German sounding numbers, and her final number �Cabaret� is as German sounding as �Wilkommen� � in fact these two songs even share accompaniment patterns. And Sally�s two songs added for the film and later stage versions, �Mein Herr� and �Maybe This Time,� fully invest her with the torchy, minor sound of German cabaret. But making Cliff�s music different was a conscious choice. Cliff himself does not fit into German life and philosophy. He is an outsider and therefore his music must be outside as well. He sings a verse of �Perfectly Marvelous� (and Sally�s verses of this song are actually her speaking in Cliff�s voice, so there�s an argument to be made that this is his song as well) but �Perfectly Marvelous� is the least German sounding of Sally�s songs. Some would argue Cliff�s songs disrupt the unity of the score, and though this may be true to a degree, it would be wrong to give Cliff the same sound as the others. The only other option is to leave Cliff as a non-singing role (as the movie did), but in a musical, songs give a character weight. Cliff is the moral and narrative center of the show, and to leave him without music would diminish his importance. \nA Perfectly Marvelous Girl\nSally Bowles functions as the connection between the two worlds of Cabaret. She is a part of the world of the Kit Kat Klub (note the initials), and a part of the real world that includes Cliff, Fraulein Schneider, Herr Schultz, and Ernst. She is a little girl playing dress-up, making up stories, trying to be sexy and shocking, never really being too successful at either, always performing her sexiness, putting quotation marks around �sexy.� Isherwood once said to playwright John Van Druten, who dramatized Goodbye to Berlin, �She�s a little girl who has listened to what the grownups had said about tarts, and who was trying to apply those things.� In fact, though some stage versions of the show use the songs �Mein Herr� and �Maybe This Time� from the movie, those songs don�t really work for Sally as she�s written on stage. �Mein Herr� is not the song of a little girl; it�s the song of a worldly wise woman. �Don�t Tell Mama� is much more Sally Bowles, the child-woman who still cares too much about what her mother thinks. And �Maybe This Time� is far too romantic for the stage Sally. She�s not mature enough for these sentiments. In the stage musical, she doesn�t get a song about love for a very good reason. She doesn�t understand love and has probably never experienced mature love. Songs in musicals express emotion, and Sally is not an emotional woman. It�s no accident that she only gets three songs � �Don�t Tell Mama,� a playful club number about sex, �Perfectly Marvelous,� essentially a self-involved con job on Cliff, and �Cabaret,� the manic, tragic result of her carelessness.\nThere are hints throughout the stage and film versions that Sally�s vast sexual experience, her many sexual conquests, might be exaggerations or even outright fabrications. In Isherwood�s book Christopher and His Kind, he writes about discussions of the play I Am a Camera with playwright John van Druten and Julie Harris, who played Sally. �John Van Druten and [I] discussed with her the possibility that nearly all of Sally�s sex life is imaginary; and they agreed that the part should be played so that the audience wouldn�t be able to make up its mind, either way.�\nAlso, logically speaking, Sally shouldn't be too good a singer; she's supposed to be a second-rate performer who'll never make it out of the third-rate Kit Kat Klub. Judith Newmark wrote in the St. Louis Post Dispatch that Sally is more pose than talent onstage and more pose than heart offstage, and that perfectly captures this deliciously complex character. That's how Sally is portrayed in the stories on which Cabaret is based. Unfortunately, that creates a practical problem � how do you put a second-rate singer in a leading role in a musical? In the original Broadway production, Hal Prince cast Jill Haworth specifically because she wasn't a great singer, and the critics blasted him for it. In Bob Fosse's movie version, he cast Liza Minnelli, who turned in an amazing performance, yet we could never believe that this astounding singer was stuck in anonymity in a seedy little night club.\nAs an extension of her little girl persona, Sally�s game playing is an essential part of her character, the part that guarantees that her relationship with Cliff won�t work out. And we see this from the beginning. When Sally and Cliff first meet face to face in the Kit Kat Klub, two small moments speak volumes about Sally. First, she doesn�t really get interested in Cliff until she finds out he�s a novelist looking for �something to write about.� It�s only when she realizes she might be the subject of a novel that she finds Cliff worth exploring and starts asking him questions. Second, he exposes her game playing later in the same conversation:\n Sally: I say, am I shocking you, talking like this?\n Cliff: I say, are you trying to shock me?\nThis is when Sally loses interest. Cliff won�t play the game and what�s worse, he won�t let her play the game either. If there isn�t going to be a game, she�s bored and goes looking for a game elsewhere. After Cliff�s line exposing her game, she says only one more line then exits. The flirtation is cut short and Cliff is left wondering what just happened. This scenario will play out over and over again. Cliff repeatedly exposes Sally�s games over the course of the show and in every case she either shuts down or leaves. Only games can hold her attention, and only if she�s in control of the games.\nWhat makes Sally such a bizarre leading character is that she doesn�t change or grow. In all drama � books, plays, movies � leading characters have to learn something over the course of the story. They have to change in some way. But Sally Bowles doesn�t. In a 1937 interview, Isherwood said, �It seems to me that Sally, without the abortion sequence, would just be a silly little capricious bitch. The whole idea of the story is to show that even the greatest disasters leave a person like Sally essentially unchanged.� Sally tells Cliff in Act II that you can't really stop things from happening and that you can't really change people. She's referring to herself but she's also talking about the German people. The Nazis will take power no matter what anyone tries to do to stop them. She is finally moving from ignorance to the beginnings of awareness, but she will end up more like Fraulein Schneider than Cliff. She tells Cliff that he's an innocent, and in a way, she's right; he still believes that you can fight for what you believe in and make a difference in the world.\n Sally's big number in Act II, �Cabaret,� has become a pop standard outside the show, but in context it is a decidedly unpleasant song. Sally is going on stage at the club to sing about living life to the fullest, after losing the man she loves, deciding to pursue a career that will never happen, and possibly after deciding to have an abortion (it�s unclear exactly when she makes that decision). Cliff can't stay in Germany anymore, but Sally has to stay in order to follow the dreams that will never be realized. She is a tragic character, self-deluded and self-destructive. And really, neither of Sally�s choices � either full, unrelenting domesticity or extreme and dangerous eroticism � is realistic for her. Either path leads to destruction for her. Sally can�t have the baby because in her mind, her mother is all mothers and she doesn�t want to be that � boring, smothering, anti-sexual �as her mother is portrayed in I Am a Camera and in the song �Don�t Tell Mama� in Cabaret. (Isherwood later wrote of his own mother in these terms.) In the 1993 London revival the song �Cabaret� became much more painful and more dramatic than in earlier versions, a primal scream of pain, an angry, frightening howl of despair, that closes Sally�s story in hopelessness. \nA Bizarre Little Figure\nDirector Hal Prince had seen a dwarf emcee at a club in Germany once, and that was the inspiration for Cabaret's Emcee. The Emcee represents German popular entertainment, metropolitan nightlife, the newfound sexual freedom that the Nazis would exploit in their propaganda. The Emcee is Berlin, in all its glamour and danger and wildness. In Isherwood�s book Christopher and His Kind, he writes that �It was Berlin itself [I] was hungry to meet.� When Cliff starts writing his book on the train leaving Berlin at the end of Cabaret, the Emcee is mentioned before Sally, giving him even more weight. In the original production, the Emcee was onstage during many of the book scenes, observing the action, a device Prince would use again in Company and Sweeney Todd. The Emcee gets twice as many songs as Sally, as well as both opening and closing the show. If the show's concept is the central character, he is certainly the personification of that concept. He lies (�Even the orchestra is beautiful...�) and shows us the horrific truth through his lies. He's charming but also dangerous. His behavior is completely uncontrolled; he has no boundaries, no conscience, no rules � not unlike Hitler. He shows us the moral freedom that many Germans were enjoying, but also shows us why that freedom can be a bad thing.\nThe Emcee pretends to be apolitical but most of the club numbers are political and social satire. Many of the cabarets in Germany at that time included biting political satire in their shows. But the cabaret owners who indulged in political satire after 1930 were quickly thrown in jail. The Nazis publicly stated that the cabarets in Berlin were responsible for losing the war in 1918 and for the �decadence� that was destroying Germany. Obviously, a handful of clubs and theatres in one city could not have had such an effect, but this stance was necessary to justify Hitler�s censorship of the cabarets and his banishment of Jews from cabaret stages.\nWhen the Emcee welcomes us at the beginning, it is unsettling precisely because it is too perky, too happy, like old-fashioned musicals but distorted. Prince used the kind of brainless, happy, musical comedy conventions of the 20s and 30s to illustrate the danger in ignoring the real world. Hollywood in that era put on the same happy face, asking us to forget the war, the Depression, the death, the poverty. There may be some value in escapism, but when does it become dangerous to escape? When do we do ourselves a disservice by forgetting the horrors of the world? The Emcee tells us to leave our troubles outside, but in reality, those troubles are already inside, pervading every moment of the show. We already know what will happen in Germany during the 1930s. The Emcee tells us the girls and the orchestra are beautiful when we can plainly see that they are garish, vulgar, scary � some of the �girls� are actually men in drag. He looks us straight in the eye and tells us to enjoy ourselves as he presents portrayals of immorality, prejudice, hatred, and self-delusion.\nWhen he repeats his welcoming speech at the end of the show, it is even more frightening now; he's still perky even after we've watched several lives utterly destroyed � and we know this is only the beginning of the horror for some of these characters. At the very end, the Emcee briefly reprises �Willkommen,� perhaps an ironic welcome to the new Germany Ernst and the Nazis are building, but the Emcee doesn't finish the final phrase; the song stops, unfinished, and he disappears. We know the story is not over. Herr Schultz will undoubtedly be put in a concentration camp and murdered. We�ve already seen a brick thrown through his shop window in Act II, a sinister foreshadowing of the 1938 Kristalnacht riots, a horrific night when the Nazis smashed Jewish shop windows, looted and burned synagogues, and took tens of thousands of Jews to concentration camps. And yet the Emcee is now happy to have helped us �forget� our troubles.\nAs the show ends, is the Emcee saying goodbye to us or Cliff, or both? Or is he saying goodbye to the good times in Germany? It�s interesting that in the opening song, �Wilkommen,� the Emcee repeatedly delivers his message in German, French, and English (for example, �Wilkommen, bienvenue, welcome.�). But here at the end of the show, he says goodbye only in German (�auf wiedersehen�) and French (�� bient�t�). There is no English goodbye. The melody doesn�t end and neither does the lyric. The Emcee doesn�t finish his farewell. The English �goodbye� isn�t articulated, perhaps because it belongs to Cliff/Isherwood, who won�t be finished with Berlin until he writes his novel, which will be titled Goodbye to Berlin, finally finishing the Emcee�s farewell. But the question remains: is the title of the novel referring to Isherwood leaving Germany or to the fact that the old Berlin, a place of excitement and freedom, was being destroyed and would never return? \nFraulein Schneider and Herr Schultz\nFraulein Schneider and Herr Schultz are in some ways a traditional musical comedy couple in this very untraditional musical � and also the primary romantic couple � yet in keeping with the tone of the show, they are left without a happy ending. Still worried about audience expectations in 1966, the show's creators turned Cliff and Sally into a mostly traditional musical comedy couple (though they are less so in the revised versions), with the older lovers as the second (only somewhat) comic couple. Fraulein Schneider is described in the stage directions as indestructible. In some ways, this is true, though by the end of the show, her heart, her love has been destroyed. Her first song, �So What,� shows us her ability to get past almost any obstacle, to take life as it comes, but this philosophy has a sour side. The older couple has two songs. �It Couldn't Please Me More� accompanies Herr Schultz's gift of a pineapple, a very expensive, extravagant gift, to Fraulein Schneider (a moment echoed in The Blue Angel when a sea captain brings Marlene Dietrich a pineapple as a gift). They are older and wiser than Sally and Cliff, so their material needs are few, but their emotional needs are every bit as substantial as the younger couple's. Later, Herr Schultz is caught in Fraulein Schneider's room and is forced to pretend they're engaged to save her reputation � a stock comic situation. They decide it's maybe not such a bad idea, and they sing �Married.�\nSimilar in nature to �Somewhere That's Green� from Little Shop of Horrors, these songs are so effective and so charming because we're touched by the simplicity of their love. Merely being together is all they need to be happy; and it is that simplicity that makes it so much more tragic when they are forced to cancel their engagement due to the prejudice sweeping through Germany. The show's creators have set up a traditional musical comedy love story, specifically to have it destroyed by the malevolence always lying just under the surface of the show, just as the new rules of concept musicals shattered the musical comedy conventions in Cabaret. Though Cliff can leave Germany, Schneider and Schultz can't. Schneider's song, �What Would You Do?� is a companion piece to �So What;� but here her philosophy of simply surviving no longer has the same appeal it did at the beginning of the show. Now that she has had love, simply surviving is no longer enough. As they did in most of their musicals, songwriters Kander & Ebb wrote old-fashioned Broadway tunes for completely unconventional, morally and emotionally complex situations. It�s this incongruity that lends each moment its peculiar power. \nThe Importance of Being Ernst\n Ernst Ludwig is a fascinating and important character in Cabaret. When we meet him, on the train carrying Cliff to Berlin, he seems to be a charming, jovial, friendly guy. It�s important that the audience loves him, that he is the most non-threatening character in the show, so that at the end of Act I, when we find out he�s a member of the Nazi party, it�s as upsetting for us as it is for Cliff. We have to share Cliff�s disillusionment and sense of betrayal. Among the messages of Cabaret is the idea that not all Nazi party members were monsters. Ordinary, decent Germans bought into the rhetoric of the Nazi party, some because they feared repercussions, some to better their social position, some because they needed to feel pride in their country that was falling apart, and some because the Nazi�s hateful, aggressive rhetoric didn�t pop up over night � the Nazis were brilliant in the way they introduced their ideas very gradually, very discreetly, into the German culture. If Ernst is played as a �dark� character from the beginning, if clues are given to the audience that Ernst may not be a nice guy, the impact of his party membership is diluted, and the reality of 1930s Germany is lost. Ernst may not be a particularly honorable character, but he is real, and that is what�s most disturbing.\nThe song �Tomorrow Belongs to Me� further reinforces this point. It�s used twice in the show. First, it�s performed by performers in the Kit Kat Klub, whom the script describes as handsome, well-scrubbed, and idealistic. The song comes after a scene in which the romance between Fraulein Schneider and Herr Schultz is firmly established; it has also been established earlier that Herr Schultz is Jewish. Knowing what we do about pre-war Germany, we know there is trouble on the horizon. As if to reassure us of the dangers that lie ahead, �Tomorrow Belongs to Me� illustrates the sincerity and self-righteousness of the people who will follow the Nazis, the people who believe the Nazis are their only hope for saving Germany. Kander and Ebb have really stacked the deck with this song to make it sound as wholesome and healthy as possible. The first two verses are filled with lyrical themes � nature, awakenings, the future, children. As the lyric becomes less pastoral and more nationalistic, the orchestra joins in, with the french horn and guitar prominent, adding a rustic, bucolic sound. The most frightening lyric is the second to last line, which promises that a time will soon come when the world will belong to the singers (i.e., to Germany). On one level this can be interpreted as a deep connection to nature; on another level, it refers to Hitler's desire to conquer the world. The love of nature is transformed into fanatical nationalism, one of the most dangerous forces in history, a force that still today motivates �ethnic cleansing� and wars around the globe.\nThen, at the end of Act I, at the engagement party, Fraulein Kost sings this song again to keep Ernst from leaving the party. With only an accordion accompaniment, the song still sounds pretty and innocent. Ernst joins her, with a swastika now prominent on his sleeve; if the subtext of the song wasn't obvious earlier, there can be no mistake about it now. Soon everyone at the party � except for Schneider, Schultz, Sally, and Cliff � is singing proudly about the Fatherland. Like the earlier version, this rendition moves up a key for each verse, increasing the dramatic impact. (Considering the Nazis' official position on immorality, it's ironic that the song is started by a prostitute.) At the end of the song, the Emcee appears onstage to underline the menace of the lyric, and as he disappears, the lights go out.\nThe important point the song makes is that the people of Germany were not rallying around a party committed to killing; they only knew that the Nazis promised prosperity and the salvation of Germany. In the film version, Brian and Max are sitting in a beer garden out in the country, when a young blond boy begins singing �Tomorrow Belongs to Me.� Slowly the camera pans down to the swastika on his arm band. The people in the beer garden smile at his youth and his love for his country. Two waiters start singing with him, then one by one, the onlookers stand and join in. There is pride in their faces, determination, fierce patriotism. As each verse moves up a key, the crowd becomes more and more impassioned. These are not murderers; they believe they are patriots. They don't know the Nazis will soon be practicing genocide. People today often ask how the German people could have been so easily seduced by Hitler. The answer is that they loved their country and didn�t listen closely enough to the Nazis propaganda. At the end of the scene in the movie, Brian and Max are getting in their car to leave and Brian says to Max, �Do you still think you can control them?� It is a deeply disturbing scene to watch mainly because these are simple, good people who have no idea what the Nazis have planned and what the future holds for their beloved Germany. \nKost Effective\n Fraulein Kost is a fascinating character who is too often played as a stereotype, there just for laughs about sailors and sex. But she�s more than that. She is a survivor like Fraulein Schneider. But though Schneider once had money and still owns a boarding house, Kost has never had that advantage. Her only option (at least in her mind) is to sell herself. She�s not just a hooker; she�s someone who had very few, if any, other options. Would she be in this line of work if there weren�t an economic crisis? Who knows? But playing her as a one-dimensional �type� dilutes the impact of Germany�s economic problems in 1930. She is a rich, complex character who is rarely given her due.\n One way to give her the depth she deserves is to assign her the German verse that has been inserted into the song �Married� in recent revivals. It gives her a point of view on love, marriage, and the future. It helps explain her almost desperate attempt to keep Ernst at the engagement party and it tells us that perhaps she needs love as much as money from her sailors. \nComment Songs\nThe score to Cabaret has two kinds of songs � comment songs and book songs. The comment songs are those performed in the Kit Kat Klub (and in the original production, sometimes in front of a light curtain). They are diegetic, meaning that the characters are conscious of the fact that they're singing. They work in a night club, so the act of singing is part of the action of the story. The book songs are the kind of regular musical comedy numbers that you find in most traditional musicals, in which characters express their thoughts and feelings through the artificial language of singing. The book songs are not realistically motivated; if these characters were real people in real life, they would not be singing; and in the world of the story, the characters aren't aware of the fact that they're singing. Traditional musicals usually use only book songs. When Curly and Laurie sing �People Will Say We're in Love� in Oklahoma!, the characters don't know they're singing. When Arthur sings �How to Handle a Woman� in Camelot, he's not aware that he's singing. In the latter case, we're hearing his thoughts; the song is an internal monologue. The film version of Cabaret cut all the show's book songs (unless you count �Tomorrow Belongs to Me�) and only used the realistically motivated comment songs. Because of this, there is debate over whether or not it's still really a musical, technically speaking. The 1993 London revival solved this problem of stylistic schizophrenia by playing the conventional book scenes on the nearly empty club stage, in effect, making every song and all the dialogue scenes club acts as well. It was the first production of the show that really gave the musical a sense of unity it hadn�t had before.\nThe first song in Cabaret, �Wilkommen,� functions as both a comment song and a book song. It welcomes us both to the Kit Kat Klub where much of the action will take place, and also to Cabaret, the musical. The Emcee is addressing the audience in the Kit Kat Klub while he also addresses the real audience. Using the opening song this way prepares us for the two different uses to which songs will be put in the show. The next comment song is �Two Ladies,� positioned just after Cliff has decided to let Sally move in with him. The song presents the Emcee and two female roommates, clearly illustrating the humor and perceived immorality of co-habitation. The song works better in the film in which it describes Sally, Brian, and Max's threesome, a situation more like the situation described in the song. The song also loses part of its punch in the revised versions of the show in which we already know Cliff is gay; although we will later find out they have slept together. This song may be a conscious homage to Trude Hesterberg�s actual German cabaret number �Particularly Refined Ladies,� which is similar in content.\nLater in the show, after Cliff accepts a job smuggling for Ernst and his unnamed political party, the scene shifts to the Kit Kat Klub, and the Emcee begins another comment song, �The Money Song.� The song in this spot since the 1987 revival is actually two songs � �Sitting Pretty� from the 1966 stage version and �Money, Money� from the film. This new hybrid begins with the Emcee telling us that, though everyone else in his family is starving (as most Germans were at the time), he's got all the money he needs. The reason? He sells girls (and perhaps himself), the obvious implication being that Cliff is prostituting himself for a buck. The song then goes on to say that money makes the world go around. When you're poor, neither love nor religion makes a bit of difference; only money can put food in your mouth and a roof over your head. If you're lonely, money can buy companionship. If you're overworked, money can buy a vacation. In the minds of the people of Germany, only money can solve their problems. For Cliff and Sally, now expecting a baby, money is more important than ever. An end to the depression was one of the Nazis' biggest promises to the German people. �The Money Song� is a testament to the fact that people will do almost anything � including abandoning their morals � for money. \nGorilla My Dreams\nIn Act II, scene 2, Fraulein Schneider, unnerved by the events at the engagement party, comes to tell Herr Schultz she has reconsidered and will not marry him. Though she doesn't say it outright, we know she has a great � and legitimate � fear of anti-Semitic acts of violence that would be perpetrated against them both. As she leaves the stunned Herr Schultz, the scene returns to the Kit Kat Klub where the Emcee enters with a gorilla in a dress. He sings, �If You Could See Her.� The song describes the blossoming romance between the Emcee and the gorilla and the prejudice they encounter whenever they go out in public; if we could only see her though his eyes, he pleads, we would understand their love. The audience laughs along with the ridiculous premise of the song, especially during the dance break. At the end of the song, the Emcee stage whispers the shocker: �If you could see her through my eyes, she wouldn't look Jewish at all!� The show's writers have caught us. We easily accepted the fact that a man can't possibly fall in love with a gorilla, just as most Germans easily accepted the fact that a gentile can't possibly love or marry a Jew, or as many people today easily accept the fact that it's unnatural for two men or two women to fall in love. In the film version, the Emcee delivers a short speech midway through the song; he asks if it's a crime to fall in love, and asks why can't the world live and let live. The sad truth is that sometimes in our mixed-up world, it still is a crime for some people to fall in love. There will always be people who want to control other people's behavior. This song is about perception and preconceptions, and about the inherent absurdity of any kind of prejudice. It's meant to make the audience very uncomfortable, and it does. It worked well enough in 1966 that the creators reluctantly softened the last line to appease the many audience members who were infuriated by it. The lyric was changed back for the revivals.\nLike �Willkommen� and �Tomorrow Belongs to Me,� the song �Cabaret� is used both as a comment song and a book song. It's ironic that Sally sings this song of happiness and contentedness just after Cliff has been beaten senseless by some Nazis. But soon, the song changes from a book song into a commentary song. This is the attitude will allow the Nazis to win the elections. People would rather think about happy things, having fun, enjoying life. Politics, the depression, immorality, the downfall of Germany, these are not topics people like Sally want to think about. Ironically, life in Germany will soon not be a cabaret. Millions will be killed, war will ravage the country, Hitler will commit suicide and Germany will surrender. To the Kit Kat Klub audience, Sally's song is delightful. To the real audience, with the knowledge of what will happen in Germany, the song is terribly disturbing. Subtextually, the lyric also partially describes the social activist mood of 1966 America, the refusal to sit at home doing nothing.\nBut �Cabaret� is more. The centerpiece of the song, the story about Elsie, is Sally�s direct response to Cliff, her mother, and anyone else who has criticized her lifestyle. Sally has no doubt read romance stories, which at that time still romanticized the idea of dying tragically young. Sally not only believes that she has to have �several passionate affairs,� but she must also die dramatically and tragically at too young an age, in order to give credibility to her image of herself as a woman who�s Bigger Than Life. The Elsie story is Sally�s justification for her endless party of a life; and Elsie�s status as �the happiest corpse I�d ever seen� is, in Sally�s mind, a perfectly convincing response to Elsie�s (i.e., Sally�s) neighbors� who believe that �that�s what comes from too much pills and liquor.� Cliff has rejected her lifestyle but now she has the stage. She will tell her side of the story. The tragedy is that she probably doesn�t really even believe it anymore. Life isn�t a cabaret anymore for her; her life is in ruins. It�s not clear if she�s had the abortion already by the time she sings this song, but either way, it�s on her mind. Maybe she�ll bounce back this time, maybe she won�t, and it�s that declaration of something even she doesn�t really believe that gives this song an underlying sadness, despite the manic music and optimistic lyrics. In fact, several recent productions have played this song as an actual nervous breakdown for Sally, with her literally screaming the lyrics by the end of the song.\nBut there�s one more thing going on in this song. In a way, this is a very public (though perhaps subconscious) working out of her decision about the abortion. Does she have the baby and enter into the dreary world of domesticity, like her friend Sybil � metaphorically sitting alone in her room � or does she abort the baby and continue her lifestyle of parties, alcohol, drugs, and sex � the tasting of the metaphorical wine, the celebrating of life as a cabaret. She decides in this song that she will continue her wild life, which means she must abort the baby. The show has set up two friends of Sally�s, two opposite role models from which Sally must choose. Her school chum Sybil came to �a bad end� by falling in love, getting married, and having babies. Elsie, Sally�s friend from Chelsea, ended up �the happiest corpse� Sally had ever seen. By the end of the show, Sally has chosen to be like Elsie. And by rejecting Sybil, she rejects Cliff and their child. It�s after performing this song in the club that she stays out all night, seeing the doctor who aborts her baby. The recent trend to play �Cabaret� as a breakdown makes even more sense with the abortion in mind. \nIn the Beginning�\nOne of the clever, usually overlooked devices the score uses is connecting songs and characters through introductions. The introduction of �Don�t Tell Mama� echoes the introduction of �Wilkommen,� connecting these two club numbers. The introduction of �Perfectly Marvelous� is an instrumental reprise of �Don�t Tell Mama,� clueing us into the fact that Sally is performing for Cliff, and also suggesting that just like dancing in a club, living with Cliff is something of which Sally�s mother would not approve. There�s even a second quote of �Don�t Tell Mama� here in the underscoring in the middle of the song.\nThe introduction to �Tomorrow Belongs to Me� quotes �It Couldn�t Please Me More,� connecting the two songs, making it clear that �Tomorrow� is commenting on the wholesomeness of Schneider and Schultz�s relationship, a wholesomeness that will be turned into horror. The introduction to �Why Should I Wake Up?� is a quote of �Perfectly Marvelous,� showing us that Cliff has bought into Sally�s world view, that he�s enjoying the crazy distraction of her living there, and that her con has been successful. The introduction to �Married� also quotes �It Couldn�t Please Me More,� connecting these two songs about Schneider and Schultz�s romance. It�s interesting that when �It Couldn�t Please Me More� is used as dance music at the fruit shop party, it�s introduced by a musical accompaniment pattern that will be used later for �If You Could See Her.� It�s an almost unnoticeable device, connecting Schneider and Schultz�s romance to the celebration, but also to the very unpleasant Act II comment song that will introduce the idea of anti-Semitism into the relationship.\nAnd finally, the introduction and the final instrumental tag in �Cabaret� echo the introductions to �Wilkommen� and �Don�t Tell Mama,� but this time the chords are much more dissonant, much harsher, and also more manic, more out of control. Sally hasn�t learned anything, and her life has spun out of control, which her accompaniment illustrates. Again, it may not be consciously noticed by the audience, but they will feel that though this sounds like Sally�s earlier music, it also sounds uglier. \nWhat Would You Do?\n The question remains: why produce a thirty-five-year-old musical? The answer is simple. Because it still matters. Because there are some lessons in life so important we must revisit them from time to time.\n What does Cabaret have to teach us in 2001? That it�s not okay to ignore what�s going on around us, that we cannot allow our world to be less than it should be, that we should never keep quiet, that it�s important to participate, that we have a responsibility to each other and to our community, that any discrimination, any indignity, any prejudice, no matter how slight must be brought out into the light of day and condemned.\n What would have happened in Germany in the early 1930s if more people had voted? What would have happened if people like Sally Bowles had paid attention to what was happening in the Reichstag? What would have happened if people like Fraulein Schneider had stood up and said loudly and decisively that they will not accept intimidation, that they will not be bullied, that they will not go along in the name of self-preservation? What would have happened if the people of Germany had listened more closely to the Nazis and then stood up and denounced Adolf Hitler for the madman he was?\nWould things have been different? Who knows?\n But there was some moment, before the point of no return, when the Germans could have gone down a different road and saved the world from the horrors that should not have been inevitable.\n Cabaret is about that moment, a time when it wasn�t yet too late, when Germany wasn�t yet locked into the path that would lead to the murder of millions of Jews. But the people of Germany couldn�t see what we see. They didn�t know how their choices, their fear, their apathy would lead to bigger things. People like Fraulein Schneider and Fraulein Kost were busy just trying to survive. People like Sally Bowles were busy having too good a time.\n The extermination of the Jews started small, in tiny, daily indignities, in little, nearly unnoticeable acts of prejudice, in seemingly innocent jokes, in the words people chose. Could the same thing happen today? Of course it could. Right wing political leaders in America today say pretty much the same things the Nazis said about gays, women, family, religion, culture, education, and patriotism. It may not seem dangerous right now, but it didn�t seem dangerous in Germany in 1930 either.\n We have an obligation to learn from what happened in Germany. We have an obligation to make different choices. If we don�t do it today, it may be too late tomorrow. \nOther Resources\nThe vocal selections (from the stage and film versions), and the full piano vocal score (the 1966 stage version) have all been published. The original script is not available but the script of the 1998 Broadway revival is available in an attractive coffee table book. The original cast recording is available, as well as the 1998 revival cast album and the film soundtrack. After 1987, the song \"Don't Go\" replaced \"Why Should I Wake Up\" and \"I Don't Care Much\" was added in the second act. \"Meeskite\" was cut. And \"Sitting Pretty\" was absorbed into the new medley, \"The Money Song.\" The only complete recording of the score is a 1999 studio cast recording with Jonathan Pryce, Maria Friedman, Judi Dench, and lyricist Fred Ebb as Herr Schultz. This recording contains the entire original score, plus all the songs added for the film and the revivals.\nThe most valuable sources for background information will be history books on Weimar Germany and the rise of the Nazi party. One fascinating book that will offer great insights into the material is Linda Mizejewski's Divine Decadence: Fascism, Female Spectacle, and the Makings of Sally Bowles, which discusses every version of the Sally Bowles story, including the novel, play, movie, stage musical, and movie musical. Another great book is Peter Jelavich�s historical study Berlin Cabaret. Also, Ute Lemper has recorded an album, called Berlin Cabaret Songs, of songs from German cabarets that were banned by the Nazis.\n_____________________________________",
"Cabaret (1972) - IMDb\nIMDb\nThere was an error trying to load your rating for this title.\nSome parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later.\nX Beta I'm Watching This!\nKeep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.\nError\nA female girlie club entertainer in Weimar Republic era Berlin romances two men while the Nazi Party rises to power around them.\nDirector:\nBob Fosse\nWriters:\nJoe Masteroff (based on the musical play \"Cabaret\" book by), John Van Druten (based on the play by) | 2 more credits »\nStars:\nFrom $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video\nON DISC\na list of 25 titles\ncreated 24 Feb 2011\na list of 47 titles\ncreated 28 May 2015\na list of 25 titles\ncreated 11 Jan 2016\na list of 31 titles\ncreated 9 months ago\na list of 40 titles\ncreated 4 months ago\nSearch for \" Cabaret \" on Amazon.com\nConnect with IMDb\nWant to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.\nYou must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.\nWon 8 Oscars. Another 27 wins & 15 nominations. See more awards »\nVideos\nDirector/choreographer Bob Fosse tells his own life story as he details the sordid life of Joe Gideon, a womanizing, drug-using dancer.\nDirector: Bob Fosse\nTwo youngsters from rival New York City gangs fall in love, but tensions between their respective friends build toward tragedy.\nDirectors: Jerome Robbins, Robert Wise\nStars: Natalie Wood, George Chakiris, Richard Beymer\nMurderesses Velma Kelly and Roxie Hart find themselves on death row together and fight for the fame that will keep them from the gallows in 1920s Chicago.\nDirector: Rob Marshall\nThree friends struggle to find work in Paris. Things become more complicated when two of them fall in love with the same woman.\nDirector: Vincente Minnelli\nEdit\nStoryline\nCambridge University student Brian Roberts arrives in Berlin in 1931 to complete his German studies. Without much money, he plans on making a living teaching English while living in an inexpensive rooming house, where he befriends another of the tenants, American Sally Bowles. She is outwardly a flamboyant, perpetually happy person who works as a singer at the decadent Kit Kat Klub, a cabaret styled venue. Sally's outward façade is matched by that of the Klub, overseen by the omnipresent Master of Ceremonies. Sally draws Brian into her world, and initially wants him to be one of her many lovers, until she learns that he is a homosexual, albeit a celibate one. Among their other friends are his students, the poor Fritz Wendel, who wants to be a gigolo to live a comfortable life, and the straight-laced and beautiful Natalia Landauer, a Jewish heiress. Fritz initially sees Natalia as his money ticket, but eventually falls for her. However Natalia is suspect of his motives and cannot ... Written by Huggo\nDid You Know?\nTrivia\nThe original Broadway production of \"Cabaret\" opened at the Broadhurst Theater on November 2, 1966, ran for 1165 performances and won the 1967 Tony Award for the Best Musical. Joel Grey recreates his role in the movie for which the won the 1967 Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical. See more »\nGoofs\nAs Max drops off Brian and Sally packs for the African trip, Brian's shirt changes style and colour. In Max's car his shirt is blue with a rounded collar but, by the time he enters the apartment, it is white with a pointed collar. See more »\nQuotes\n[on the pronunciation of \"phlegm\"]\nBrian Roberts : P H is always pronounced as F, and, uh, you don't sound the G.\nNatalia Landauer : Then why are they putting the G, please?\nBrian Roberts : That's, that's a very good question, but rather difficult to explain."
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Flamenco dancer Joaquin Cortes hit the headlines in 1996 over his relationship with which supermodel?
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"Joaquín Pedraja Reyes \"Joaquín Cortés\" (born 22 February 1969) is a Spanish classically trained ballet and flamenco dancer.\n\nBiography\n\nJoaquin Cortés is a Spanish flamenco dancer. A native of Córdoba, Cortés showed interest in dancing from an early age. Cortés and his family moved to Madrid in 1981. Soon after moving to Madrid, he began to take formal dancing lessons and studying seriously.\n\nIn 1984, he was accepted as a member of Spanish prestigious national ballet company. He traveled the world with the Spanish National Ballet, performing in important venues such as the Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center) of New York and the Kremlin Palace in Moscow. During his stint with the Spanish National Ballet, he also became a principal solo performer known for his phenomenal stamina and athleticism.\n\nDesiring more creative control, Cortés formed the Joaquín Cortés Flamenco Ballet company and launched his first international tour 'Cibayí' in 1992. The formation of Cortés' own company allowed him to diverge from purist ballet and create his own fusion of flamenco, ballet and modern dance. In 1995, in addition to being featured in two international films- 'La flor de mi secreto' (The Flower of My Secret) and Carlos Saura's 'Flamenco', Joaquín Cortés embarked on what is often considered his most successful venture, 'Pasión Gitana' (Gypsy Passion). 'Pasión Gitana' marked the beginning of Cortés' recognition for not only his prowess as a dancer, but also as a choreographer and artistic director. In 1999 Cortés was the subject of a documentary film and he launched a successful tour of 'Soul' across North and South America. In the 1990s Joaquín Cortés gained notoriety for his close relationships with high-profile celebrities such as Naomi Campbell, Giorgio Armani and Mira Sorvino.\n\nContinuing into the millennium, Cortés' focus shifted from dancing to choreography and artistic direction. He continues to dance in a limited capacity live on stage, in film and television. In 2000, landed a role in the film 'Gitano' (Gypsy) and again in 2004 in 'Vaniglia e cioccolato' (Vanilla and Chocolate). In 2001, he also made a guest appearance on Jennifer Lopez's concert in Puerto Rico. In 2004, Cortés was involved in the international tour of 'De Amor y Odio' that took him to England, Portugal, Thailand and New York, among other places. 2007 marked the beginning of Joaquín Cortés most recent spectacle, 'Mi Soledad.' On 15 May 2007 he performed as a guest dancer in a high-profile semi-final segment on ABC's \"Dancing with the Stars.\"\n\nCortes is also the visual inspiration for the character Vamp from the Metal Gear video game series.\n\nShows\n\n* Cibayí\n* Pasión Gitana\n* Soul\n* Live\n* De Amor y Odio\n* Mi Soledad\n* Unleashed (2009)\n\nFilmography\n\n* La flor de mi secreto (1995) — Antonio\n* Flamenco (1995) — himself\n* Gitano (2000) — Andres Heredia\n* Vaniglia e Cioccolato (2004) — Carlos"
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"Naomi 'lashed out over fears of being left ... Eddie Murphy and Spanish flamenco dancer Joaquin Cortes. ... NFL star Julian Edelman 'dating' supermodel ...",
"Flamenco : a style of ... popular dance forms in the world today is Joaquin Cortes. ... talked a lot about his relationship with supermodel Naomi ..."
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"Naomi Campbell facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Naomi Campbell\nSources\nWith looks that some have described as exotic—her grandmother was a Chinese native of Jamaica—Naomi Campbell has become a familiar figure on the covers of leading American and European fashion publications. She has appeared in Cosmopolitan, Vogue, and Elle, and was the first black woman ever to appear on the cover of the French edition of Vogue. Not content with modeling alone, Campbell has broadened her career to include singing, acting, and a variety of business ventures.\nCampbell was born on May 20, 1970, in Streatham, London, England . Her father, a Jamaican immigrant who was part Chinese, left the family before she was born. Her mother, Valerie Campbell, was born in Jamaica but grew up in London. A modern ballet dancer, Valerie spent much time traveling throughout Europe with her dance troupe, so a nanny was hired to help raise Naomi and her brother. Like her mother, Campbell was also interested in ballet. At age ten, Campbell was accepted to London’s prestigious Italia Conti Stage School to study ballet. She also attended the London Academy of Performing Arts. During this time, Campbell landed bit parts in two films: Quest for Fire (1981) and Pink Floyd’s The Wall (1982).\nDiscovered in Shopping Arcade\nWhen she was 15, an agent discovered Campbell in a shopping arcade at Covent Gardens, which Campbell frequented after school. Campbell described the encounter to George Wayne in Interview: “I was just hanging out, and this woman comes up to me and says, ’I’m a modeling agent.’ I didn’t believe her, but I took her card home and gave it to my mother. And then I saw an interview of her in Tatler, so I knew she was legitimate. After that I started pleading with my mother to let me go see her. At the end of the school year, I did. She took a picture of me in my school uniform …. then she sent me to a photographer who was working on an assignment for British Elle in New Orleans , and he booked me.”\nSigned to the Elite Modeling Agency, Campbell was soon working with some of the biggest names in the fashion industry, including Isaac Mizrahi, Calvin Klein, and Azzedine Alaia. She described in Interview some of her favorite fashion photographers: “I like working with Herb Ritts, and I do very much like working with [Francesco] Scavullo. He makes me feel like a woman. Herb makes you feel very innocent. Steven [Meisel] makes you feel like a character. When you work with him he’ll give you\nAt a Glance…\nBorn on May 22, 1970, in London, England; daughter of Valerie Campbell (a ballet dancer). Education: Attended London Academy of Performing Arts, c. 1985.\nCareer: Model, 1986-; appeared on London stage in The King and /; film appearances: Quest for Fire, 1982; The Wall 1982; Cool as Ice, 1991; The Night We Never Met, 1993; Miami Rhapsody, 1995; Girl 6, 1996; Invasion of Privacy, 1996; Trippin’, 1999; Prisoner of Love, 1999; Destinazione Verna, 2000; television guest appearances: The Cosby Show, 1988; The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, 1990; albums: love and Tears, 1994; Babywoman, 1995; author (with ghostwriter), Swan, 1994; co-owner, The Fashion Café, beginning 1995.\nAddresses: Agent —International Creative Management, 8942 Wilshire Blvd., Beverly Hills, CA 90211.\npostcards and books to look at and study. He makes me look different in every picture.”\nEarning more than $1 million a year, Campbell’s assignments have taken her to many locations around the world. For one of her most exciting—and harrowing—photo shoots, she found herself, standing atop a volcano in Lanzarote, Spain—in heels. Her face was emblazoned on the French, Italian, American, and British editions of Vogue in the late 1980s. In 1988, she made a guest appearance on The Cosby Show.\nOne reason Campbell was so highly sought after is what many in the fashion industry have praised as her natural modeling ability. “She’s one of the most delightful girls I’ve ever worked with, one of my favorite models,” exalted fashion photographer Francesco Scavullo said in Harper’s Bazaar. “No one else has such an amazing body. She makes clothes come alive.” Fashion coordinator Audrey Smaltz also commented in Harper’s Bazaar on Campbell’s magnetism on style show runways: “She doesn’t realize how wonderful she is…. She has terrific body language—most models don’t—and can translate this into whatever she’s wearing.”\nExpanded Career With Music and Acting\nIn the early 1990s, Campbell began to focus more on her other interests. In addition to appearing in Vanilla Ice’s film Cool as Ice (1991), she also contributed vocals to a track on the soundtrack. She then recorded two albums of her own: 1994’s Love and Tears and Babywoman (1995). Campbell also recorded “La, La, La Love Song” with Japanese singer Toshi, and the song reached number one in Japan . In addition, she appeared in several music videos, including Michael Jackson’s “In the Closet” video and George Michael’s “Freedom.”\nIn 1994 Campbell published a novel. The ghost-written Swan presents the story of a successful supermodel who has decided to quit modeling. The novel was a critical disappointment. Jonathan Van Meter of Vogue called the book “a laughingstock.”\nShe commented about her hopes to expand her acting career in Interview: “You can’t learn it all. As they tell you, acting is reacting. So it’s all about going through life, having experiences.” She won a small role in The Night We Never Met (1993), and in 1994 played a model in Robert Altman’s Pret-a-Porter (Ready to Wear). The following year, she had parts in To WongFoo, Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar and Miami Rhapsody, which starred Sarah Jessica Parker and Mia Farrow. She also showed talent in a cameo in Spike Lee’s Girl 6 (1996). Campbell continued to make guest appearances on such television shows as The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air and New York Undercover, in addition to a cameo appearance on the British comedy series Absolutely Fabulous.\nCampbell continued to model, earning fees of $10,000 a day. She was reportedly paid a six-figure sum to appear in Madonna ’s book Sex, which featured erotic photographs, and she selected all of the pictures for another photo book called simply Naomi, which consisted of favorite shots of herself taken by top photographers. Naomi’s proceeds were donated to the Red Cross, for use in Somalia relief efforts.\nA bonafide supermodel with several films behind her, Campbell had risen to megastardom. Tabloids and gossip columns could not print enough about her personal life. She has been linked to Mike Tyson, Robert DeNiro, who Campbell initially denied dating but later revealed that they had a four-year relationship, and flamenco dancer Joaquin Cortes. Campbell was also briefly engaged to Adam Clayton, a member of the band U2. The rumor mill has also suggested romantic connections with Sylvester Stallone, Sean “P. Diddy” Combs, and Gabriel Byrne.\nOpened Fashion Café\nCampbell’s next venture was the restaurant business. In 1995 she, along with fellow models Elle MacPherson, Claudia Schiffer, and Christy Turlington, and Italian restaurateur Tommaso Buti, launched the Fashion Café. The restaurant and coffee house first opened in New York City, and was situated in Rockefeller Center. Patrons entered the restaurant through a door shaped like a giant camera lens and serving staff carried cuisine down a catwalk. The decor included a collection of fashion memorabilia, from Madonna’s famous Jean-Paul Gaultier bustier to one of Elizabeth Taylor’s wedding gowns. Branches in London, Jakarta , Barcelona, Mexico City, New Orleans, and Manila soon followed.\nBy 1997, however, Turlington had pulled out of the company, and the next year, investors accused the Fashion Café of mismanagement. The New Orleans and Barcelona franchises were shut down, and Buti resigned after selling his stake in the firm. New management was called in to restore order, however, and the business continued at other locations. The New York branch, however, was later closed and the London restaurant was placed in receivership in 1998. Buti, accused of defrauding investors, was arrested in 2000 and charged with wire fraud, conspiracy, money laundering, and transportation of stolen property.\nDeveloped Reputation for Being Difficult\nThroughout her career, Campbell has developed a reputation for being notoriously difficult to work with. Her temper reportedly possessed a short and fiery fuse. She has also been known to be perpetually late to assignments or appointments. In addition, she has earned a reputation for making selfish demands, such as insisting on being the first and last to appear on the runway at fashion shows. It was this difficulty which supposedly led to her temporary dismissal from Elite. Other reports, however, indicated that she resigned and was later hired back.\nDuring a film shoot in September of 1998 for Prisoner of Love, according to Joe Warmington in the Toronto Sun, several crew members called Campbell “a ’nightmare’ to work with,” and one anonymous crewman called her “a spoiled child.” In addition Georgiana Galanis, a Canadian assistant who had worked for Campbell for only nine days, claimed the model grabbed her by the throat, assaulted her with a telephone, and punched her in the shoulder twice. Campbell was arrested and charged with assault causing bodily harm.\nCampbell did not attend the February of 2000 court hearing, but pleaded guilty in absentia to the lesser charge of assault. The court gave her an absolute discharge, which meant that she did not have to serve jail time and that she would not have criminal record in Canada . Galanis filed a civil suit, and an undisclosed settlement was reached out of court.\nAware of the problems caused by her incendiary temper, Campbell took steps to learn how to control her anger. In 1999 she spent four weeks at the Cottonwood Center in Tuscon, Arizona . While at the clinic, Campbell shared a room with three other patients, and learned several anger management techniques. Part of what drove her to seek help was Campbell’s fear that her anger was having a damaging effect on her relationship with Flavio Briatore, a businessman from Italy who Campbell began dating in 1999.\nCampbell has given much of her time to charitable works. She has worked with the Dalai Lama rasing money to build kindergartens for poor communities. In February of 1998, she was involved with a fund raising event in Johannesburg , South Africa , for the Nelson Mandela Children’s Fund. Campbell continued to work with the Children’s Fund, developing a close friendship with Mandela.\nLaunched Signature Fragrance\nThe next step in Campbell’s ever-diversifying career was the development of her own line of fragrances. Produced by Cosmopolitan Cosmetics, her first perfume, Naomi Campbell, hit stores in Japan, Germany , the United Arab Emirates , and Australia in the fall of 1999. U.S. stores welcomed the fragrance to their shelves in June of 2000.\nCampbell was involved in every aspect of the production process. “I didn’t want to just put my name on something, like I did with the Fashion Café,” she told WWD. “I wanted to be involved with my fragrance every step of the way, and that meant committing myself in every way—to the promotion, to the formulation of the scent, to everything.” Not only did Campbell work with Givaudan Roure to create the perfume, but she also worked with Thierry de Baschmakoff to design the bottle and outer packaging.\nNaomi Campbell was only the first in a whole line of fragrances. Campbell’s second fragrance, Naomagic, was released in the fall of 2000. According to European Cosmetic Markets, this follow-up was “said to free the magical attraction of a woman.” Campbell turned to her favorite flower, the lily of the valley, for inspiration in creating this scent. The design for the flacon containing the perfume was also inspired by two stones that she has always carried in her handbag: a rock crystal for energy and a stone talisman for good luck.\nWith the success of these fragrances, Campbell planned to expand her line to include cosmetics, candles, and perhaps even skin care products. “I’m not doing this because I’m forced to financially,” she told WWD. “Instead, I’m doing it because it touches me. It makes a statement about my sense of smell to the world.”\nIn February of 2000 Campbell was still in demand as a model. However, she decided to reduce the number of runway shows she appeared in. “I find it really stressful,” she told the South China Morning Post. Besides, there was only so much time in a day for the model/actress/entrepreneur, and she had several goals yet to accomplish. “Oh God , there’s a lot more,” Campbell said in her book Naomi, as quoted in the African News Service. “I’ve got motherhood to achieve, marriage and family life. That for me would be a lot more than I’ve achieved in my career. That’s something I would really love to do in my life.”\nContemporary Theatre, Film and Television, Vol. 31, Gale 2000.\nNewsmakers, Gale, 2000.\nAfrica News Service, March 11, 2001.\nCosmetics International, October 10, 2000, p. 11.\nEntertainment Weekly, April 4, 1995, p. 6.\nEuropean Cosmetic Markets, October 2000, p. 420.\nHarper’s Bazaar, March 1990; June 1992, p. 90.\nIndependent, October 21, 1998, p. 7.\nInterview, May 1990; February 1998, p. 56.\nJet, May 31, 1993, p. 5; November 16, 1998, p. 63; February 21, 2000, p. 53; March 6, 2000, p. 37.\nMaclean’s, March 24, 1997, p. 12; February 14, 2000, p. 9.\nMademoiselle, February 1989, p. 122.\nNation’s Restaurant News, December 18, 2000, p. 4.\nNewsweek, June 18, 2001, p. 62.\nNew York Times Magazine, November 24, 1996, p. 60.\nPeople, June 11, 1990, p. 44; December 30, 1991, p. 82; November 23, 1998, p. 132.\nPeople Weekly, January 20, 1997, p. 37; September 8, 1997, p. 45.\nRestaurants & Institutions, February 1, 2001, p. 21.\nSouth China Morning Post, December 13, 1999; February 3, 2000.\nToronto Sun, December 13, 1998, p. 4.\nVanity Fair, December 1990, p. 194.\nVogue, March 1999, p. 438.\nWWD, June 16, 2000, p. 6.\nOnline\nAmazon.com, http://www.amazon.com (July 16, 2001).\nFashion Café, http://www.fashion-cafe.com (January 5, 2000).\nInternet Movie Database, http://us.imdb.com .\n—Michael E. Mueller and Jennifer M. York\nCite this article\nSnow White, The Chiffy Kids: All in a Good Cause, Children's Film Foundation, 1978.\nSnow White, The Chiffy Kids: Slimderella, Children's Film Foundation, 1978.\nQuest for Fire, Twentieth Century-Fox, 1982.\nThe Wall, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer/United Artists, 1982.\nSinger at first club, Cool As Ice, Universal, 1991.\nFrench cheese shopper, The Night We Never Met, Miramax, 1993.\nModel, Pret-a-Porter (also known as Ready to Wear), Miramax, 1994.\nHerself, Catwalk (documentary), Arrow, 1995.\nKaia, Miami Rhapsody, Buena Vista, 1995.\nGirl, To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything, Julie New-mar, Universal, 1995.\nHerself, Unzipped, Miramax, 1995.\nGirl number 75, Girl 6, Twentieth Century-Fox, 1996.\nCindy Carmichael, Invasion of Privacy, Trimark, 1996.\nSecond attendant, An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn (also known as Burn Hollywood Burn), Buena Vista, 1997.\nHerself, Beautopia (documentary), Film Manufacturers/Fox Lorber/Hit & Run Productions, 1998.\nNaomi, Trippin', October Films, 1999.\nTracy, Prisoner of Love, Sterling Home Entertainment, 1999.\nDestinazione Verna, 2000.\nHerself, Black and White, Screen Gems, 2000.\nHerself, Ali G Indahouse (also known as Ali G in da House and Ali G Indahouse: The Movie), Universal Focus, 2002.\nSales assistant, Fat Slags, Entertainment Film Distributors, 2004.\nJennifer, Karma, Confessions and Holi, 2006.\nGo Go Tales, 2006.\nSimone, New York Undercover (also known as Uptown Undercover), Fox, 1995.\nHerself, Fashiontrance, Style Network, 2002.\nFashion Mix, Style Network, 2004.\nTelevision Appearances; Specials:\nFirst Person with Maria Shriver, NBC, 1992.\nSports Illustrated: Swimsuit '92, HBO, 1992.\nFallen Champ: The Untold Story of Mike Tyson (documentary), NBC, 1993.\nThe Look (documentary), PBS, 1993.\nInside Victoria's Secret (also known as Christmas Dreams and Fantasies: The Making of the Victoria's Secret Holiday Catalogue), Showtime, 1994.\nDie schoensten frauen der welt—Karen Mulder, 1995.\nDie schoensten frauen der welt—Carla Bruni, 1995.\nDie schoensten Frauen der welt—Naomi Campbell, 1996.\nThe 107th Tournament of Roses Parade, 1996.\nSports Illustrated: Swimsuit '97, 1997.\nFashion Kingdom: Naomi Campbell (documentary; also known as Naomi Conquers Africa), VH1, 1998.\nHost, Miss Universe 2001, CBS, 2001.\nIntimate Portrait: Naomi Campbell, Lifetime, 2001.\n(Uncredited) Herself, Cleavage (documentary), Arts and Entertainment, 2002.\nHerself, Monstrous Bosses and How to Be One, BBC, 2002.\nElvis Lives, NBC, 2002.\nThe Victoria's Secret Fashion Show, CBS, 2002, 2003, UPN, 2005.\nWhen Supermodels Ruled the World (documentary), VH1, 2003.\n101 Biggest Celebrity Oops, E! Entertainment Television, 2004.\nThe Rise of the Celebrity Class (documentary), BBC, 2004.\nShowbiz Hissy Fits, Channel 4, 2005.\nTelevision Appearances; Awards Presentations:\nThe 24th Annual NAACP Image Awards, NBC, 1992.\nPresenter, The 1994 MTV Music Video Awards, MTV, 1994.\nThe 1996 World Music Awards, ABC, 1996.\nPresenter, The 68th Annual Academy Awards, ABC, 1996.\nThe 1997 MTV Video Music Awards, MTV, 1997.\nPresenter, The 1998 VH1 Fashion Awards, VH1, 1998.\nPresenter, The 1999 World Music Awards, ABC, 1999.\nThe Orange British Academy Film Awards, E! Entertainment Television, 2000.\nMTV Europe Music Awards 2003 (also known as MTV Europe Music Awards Edinburgh 03), MTV, 2003.\nThe 34th NAACP Image Awards, Fox, 2003.\n2003 Vibe Awards: Beats, Style, Flavor, UPN, 2003.\nPresenter, The 2004 MTV Video Music Awards, MTV, 2004.\nPresenter, The 2004 MTV Europe Music Awards, MTV, 2004.\nSave the Music: A Concert to Benefit the VH1 Save the Music Foundation, VH1, 2005.\nHerself, Out of Africa: Heroes and Icons (documentary), BBC, 2005.\nTelevision Appearances; Episodic:\nGood Morning Britain (also known as TV-am), ITV, 1986.\nJulia, \"The Birth,\" The Cosby Show, NBC, 1988.\nJulia, \"Cyranoise Bernington,\" The Cosby Show, NBC, 1988.\nHelen, \"Kiss My Butler,\" The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, NBC, 1990.\nHarry Enfield and Chums, BBC, 1994.\nHi-Octane, Comedy Central, 1995.\nHerself, \"Jealous,\" Absolutely Fabulous, Comedy Central, 1995.\nHost, Saturday Night Live (also known as SNL), NBC, 1997.\nModel, E! Entertainment Television, 1997.\nHerself, \"The Game People Play,\" For Your Love, The WB, 1998.\nHerself, \"Stjernernes sexliv,\" SexOrama, 1999.\nSo Graham Norton, Channel 4, 2000.\nHerself, \"Wetten, dass …? aus Graz,\" Wetten, dass …?, 2000.\nHerself, Esti showder, 2000.\nHerself, Tout le monde en parle, 2000.\nV Graham Norton, Channel 4, 2002.\nHerself, \"Wetten, dass …? aus Leipzig,\" Wetten, dass …?, 2003.\nLena Savage, \"Asslane,\" Fastlane, Fox, 2003.\nHerself, \"Naomi Campbell,\" Revealed with Jules Asner, E! Entertainment Television, 2003.\nTinseltown TV, International Channel, 2004.\nHerself, Parkinson, BBC, 2004.\n\"Tyra's Last Walk,\" The Tyra Banks Show, UPN, 2005.\nHerself, \"Big Money Under the Tents,\" Fashion in Focus, NYC TV, 2005.\nHerself, Le grand journal de Canal+, 2005.\n\"Naomi Campbell,\" Tyra Banks, UPN, 2005.\nHerself, Corazon de …, 2005.\nHerself, \"The Newest Designer for Tommy Hilfiger Is …,\" The Cut, CBS, 2005.\n\"Sisterhood,\" The Tyra Banks Show, UPN, 2006.\nStage Appearances:\nAppeared in a London production of The King and I.\nRECORDINGS\nLove and Tears, 1994.\nBabywoman, Epic, 1995.\nThe single \"La, La, La Love Song,\" recorded with Japanese singer Toshi, reached number one in Japan.\nVideos:\nHerself, Models: The Film (documentary), 1991.\nHerself, The Best of \"So Graham Norton,\" 2000.\nHerself, Rhythm City Volume One: Caught Up, BMG Distribution, 2005.\nHerself, Before, During, and \"After the Sunset\" (documentary), New Line Home Video, 2005.\nMusic Videos:\n(Uncredited) Herself, U2: Numb, Island Videos, 1993.\nHerself, \"In the Closet,\" Dangerous: The Short Films (also known as Michael Jackson—Dangerous: The Short Films), 1993.\nHerself, \"Freedom '90,\" Ladies & Gentleman: The Best of George Michel, Epic Music Video, 1999.\n\"Numb,\" U2: The Best of 1990–2000, Universal Music & Video Distribution, 2002.\nU2: Love Is Blindness, 2003.\nJay Z featuring Pharrell, \"Change Clothes,\" 2003.\nAlso appeared in Madonna's \"Erotica\" and Notorious B.I.G.'s \"Nasty Girl.\"\nWRITINGS\n(With ghostwriter) Swan, Heinemann, 1996.\nNonfiction:\nNaomi, photographs selected by herself, with commentary by leading fashion designers, Universe, 1996.\nFeatured in the book Sex, by Madonna.\nOTHER SOURCES\nContemporary Black Biography, Vol. 31, Gale Group, 2001.\nNewsmakers 2000, Issue 2, Gale Group, 2000.\nSt. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, St. James Press, 2000.\nPeriodicals:\nEssence, September, 2003, p. 144.\nHarper's Bazaar, December, 2003, p. 194.\nInterview, May, 1990.\nJet, February 21, 2000, p. 53.\nPeople, June 11, 1990.\nSources\nDeemed “the reigning megamodel of them all” in Interview magazine, London-born Naomi Campbell is one of the world’s most in-demand and highly paid models. Campbell earns over $1 million annually; for a single day’s work she can bring in upwards of $10,000. With looks that some have described as exotic—her grandmother was a Chinese native of Jamaica— Campbell is a familiar figure on the covers of leading American and European fashion publications. She has appeared in Cosmopolitan, Vogue, and Elle, and holds the distinction of being the first ethnic woman ever to appear on the cover of the French edition of Vogue.\nOne reason Campbell is so highly sought after is what many in the fashion industry have praised as her natural modeling ability. “She’s one of the most delightful girls I’ve ever worked with, one of my favorite models,” exalted renown fashion photographer Francesco Scavullo in Harpers Bazaar. “No one else has such an amazing body. She makes clothes come alive.” Fashion coordinator Audrey Smaltz also commented in Harper’s Bazaar on Campbell’s magnetism on style show runways: “She’s doesn’t realize how wonderful she is…. She has terrific body language—most models don’t—and can translate this into whatever she’s wearing.” Designer Azzedine Alaia, one of Campbell’s personal favorites, calls her “a little marvel.”\nThe daughter of a modern ballet dancer, the brown-eyed brunette Campbell entered modeling when she was fifteen and a student at London’s Academy of Performing Arts. An agent discovered her in a shopping arcade of Covent Gardens, which Campbell frequented after school. Campbell described the encounter to George Wayne in Interview: “I was just hanging out, and this woman comes up to me and says, I’m a modeling agent.’ I didn’t believe her, but I took her card home and gave it to my mother. And then I saw an interview of her in Tatler, so I knew she was legitimate. After that I started pleading with my mother to let me go see her. At the end of the school year, I did. She took a picture of me in my school uniform … then she sent me to a photographer who was working on an assignment for British Elle in New Orleans , and he booked me.” Superstar model Christy Turlington, a close friend of Campbell’s, first met the teenage hopeful at the agency where Turlington was working. “She was wearing her school uniform,” Turlington related to Elizabeth\nAt a Glance…\nBorn May 22, 1970, in London, England ; mother was a ballet dancer. Education: Attended London Academy of Performing Arts c. 1985.\nModel, 1986—. Appeared on London stage in The King and /, in films Quest for Fire and The Wall, both 1982, and on television series The Cosby Show.\nSporkin in People. ’The next time I saw her, a few months later, she was on her own in Paris , dancing until 4 a.m.”\nCampbell has worked with some of the biggest names in the fashion industry. She described in Interview some of her favorite fashion photographers: “I like working with Herb Ritts, and I do very much like working with [Francesco] Scavullo. He makes me feel like a woman. Herb makes you feel very innocent. Steven [Meisel] makes you feel like a character. When you work with him he’ll give you postcards and books to look at and study.\nHe makes me look different in every picture.” Campbell’s assignments have taken her to many locations around the world. For one of her most exciting—and harrowing—photo shoots, she found herself, standing atop a volcano in Lanzarote, Spain—in heels.\nCampbell’s future may hold more than modeling. She has an ambition to act; prior to her modeling career, Campbell appeared on the London stage in a production of The King and I and in two 1982 movies, Quest for Fire and Pink Floyd’s The Wall. More recently she played the character of Julia on NBC-TV’s The Cosby Show. Campbell hopes to expand her acting career and appears confident that the jet-set life of an international model is ample preparation. She remarked to Wayne: “You can’t learn it all. As they tell you, acting is reacting. So it’s all about going through life, having experiences.”\nHarper’s Bazaar, March 1990.\nInterview, May 1990.",
"Naomi 'lashed out over fears of being left on the shelf' | Daily Mail Online\nNaomi 'lashed out over fears of being left on the shelf'\nLast updated at 09:00 27 October 2006\nNaomi Campbell lashed out at an aide because she felt overwhelmed with desperation at her disastrous love life, friends claimed.\nThey spoke of her heartache after the 36-year-old model was released on bail following a night in police cells.\nMiss Campbell was arrested on Wednesday on suspicion of causing actual bodily harm after a woman went to Belgravia police station in London with blood-red scratches down both cheeks.\nThe model was taken to the same police station for questioning.\nShe slept off jet lag for 12 hours before being released. She was later bailed until December.\nThe outburst was apparently linked to Miss Campbell's concern that she could be left on the shelf as she approaches the end of her modelling career.\nYesterday friends said Miss Campbell's mother had been putting pressure on her to settle down.\nValerie Campbell was diagnosed with breast cancer last year but is now thought to be clear of the disease.\n\"Since that time, her mother has been on at her more and more to settle down and stop her wild ways,\" a friend said.\n\"Valerie has been with her just this week actually – they have been spending a lot of time together.\"\n\"She has been telling her that she should be married by now since she cannot carry on modelling forever.\"\n\"She has been telling her that she needs to make a relationship work and as a result, she has got incredibly bitter about the whole thing.\"\n\"So she has been in quite a bad state – she feels the clock is really ticking for her.\"\n\"Her temper and her general mood has been quite changeable, if you like – as a result.\"\nThe friend said the fact that fellow model Kate Moss had apparently found happiness with junkie boyfriend Pete Doherty had added to Miss Campbell's woes.\n\"Naomi so far hasn't got that and it's a source of much bitterness and jealousy. She’s been pretty unlucky in love recently.\"\nAnother friend said Miss Campbell was even more on edge because she was jetlagged after a flight from Australia.\n\"She just lost her temper over a seemingly silly and ridiculous thing. This incident wasn’t something that had been building up.\"\n\"There was no history, no reason behind it, no feud.\"\n\"It was a bit like road rage really – when someone pulls in front of you and you get angry on the spur of the moment and just react without thinking.\"\nMiss Campbell’s love life has been notoriously stormy.\nPrevious boyfriends have included Robert De Niro, Sylvester Stallone, Eddie Murphy and Spanish flamenco dancer Joaquin Cortes.\nShe had a two-year relationship with multimillionaire Formula One boss Flavio Briatore and was once engaged to U2’s Adam Clayton.\nA spokesman for Miss Campbell insisted there had been a \"misunderstanding,\" but he would not be drawn on what it involved.\n\"Once police have investigated we're sure this will be resolved satisfactorily,\" he added.\nIt is the ninth time in eight years that Miss Campbell’s employees or associates have accused her of violent or abusive behaviour.\nShare or comment on this article\nMost watched News videos\nSorry we are not currently accepting comments on this article.\nBing\n \nFemail Today\n'She slayed that performance': British girl, 7, stuns viewers of Filipino talent show with an absolutely perfect impersonation of Taylor Swift\nAaron Rodgers' chiropractor dad speaks out to confirm he has not spoken to his NFL star son in over TWO YEARS after he started dating Olivia Munn\nTwinning! 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Sherri Shepherd worried her wig would come off during fake snake gag on To Tell the Truth During the ABC panel game show\nGetting pizza all over her frock, 'shooing away' a waitress and interrupting interviews: Nicole Kidman's 'bizarre behavior' at the Golden Globes revealed\nKatie Couric eyes comeback: Former Today host aiming to get back on network TV when her $10m Yahoo contract expires later this year\n'Thanks for being an optimist': Dax Shepard shares sweet and funny throwback from nine years ago with his wife Kristen Bell Fond flashback\n'I left the hospital looking 5 months pregnant': Peta Murgatroyd says 'real life' means female bodies don't just shrink back into shape\nThe Kate effect! Duchess of Cambridge helps to send sales soaring for some lucky fashion labels Business booming after royal mom wears brands\nThe family jewel! Sophie Simmons is red hot in off-the-shoulder dress as she steps out with her famous parents Gene and Shannon and her brother in Bel Air\nShe's got some front! Blac Chyna puts on a VERY busty display as she's joined by Rob Kardashian at her first club appearance since having baby Dream\nWhat would Hermione say? Rupert Grint is worlds away from Harry Potter as he dices with the law and visits strip clubs in racy trailer for new TV series Snatch\nReady to pop! A very pregnant Tori Spelling, 43, takes her four kids out for a day of go-karting fun She's expecting her fifth child at age 43 \n'I don't want to be at the center of attention': Amanda Seyfried opens up about her upcoming wedding to Thomas Sadoski as she stuns on Vogue Australia cover\nWorking the night shift! Keri Russell and Matthew Rhys film evening scenes for The Americans in New York The real-life couple are shooting together \nChurch time! Gwen Stefani, 47, is a model mom in plaid as she attends worship services with her three sons Quality family time\nShirtless Olly Murs dives into the sea in carefree video during Barbados break... amid mum's secret heartache about his estranged twin The British singer\n'Mom and baby are doing great!' Armie Hammer and wife Elizabeth 'overjoyed' after welcoming their second child 'Social Network' actor \nBrooklyn Beckham cuts a glum figure as he heads out for a solo pizza lunch... while former flame Sonia Ben Ammar is given roses by a mystery admirer \nFresh faced! Amber Rose shares a rare make-up free selfie as she reclines on a white pillow in stunning Instagram snap Looking great\nSecrets of David Bowie's final album cover are revealed by the designer who says there are features that even the late singer was unaware of \nSinger Ella Henderson flaunts her womanly curves in plunging ruffle bikini during sun-soaked trip to St. Lucia The 21-year-old beauty soaked up the sun\nBella Hadid marks Victoria's Secret debut by getting wings tattooed onto her ankle... after her ex The Weeknd hooks up Selena Gomez Had a tough few days\nPeep show! Ireland Baldwin wears sexy negligee without underwear for sizzling photoshoot The 21-year-old beauty held some sultry poses\nPICTURE EXCLUSIVE Kourtney Kardashian, 37, wears a sheer bra for late-night rendezvous with former flame Justin Bieber, 22 The May-December duo\n'It melted my foot!' Ed Sheeran was left unable to walk and needing a skin graft after treading in a boiling geyser on break from spotlight Left with an horrific injury \nFashion's most unlikely It-girl: YSL's latest muse is a rock guitarist with a VERY quirky style who hates Instagram and is tipped to take 2017 by storm\nRoman holiday! Doting mom Christina Ricci enjoys day of sightseeing in Italian capital with son Freddie, 2, and husband James The 36-year-old actress\nMariah Carey, 46, dazzles in statement gold shearling jacket as she steps out for dinner with toyboy beau Bryan Tanaka, 33, and daughter Monroe, 5\nWet 'n' wild! Alessandra Ambrosio displays her flawless physique in very tiny black bikini as she enjoys a dip in the sea in Brazil\nTaboo subject? Tom Hardy confirms he'd like to play James Bond... as he awkwardly dodges question about Daniel Craig's replacement Several names in frame\nPretty Iris Law, 15, is the perfect blend of her famous parents Jude and Sadie Frost as she promotes Burberry's new lipstick line in first ever global campaign\nJustin Bieber reaffirms love for Arsenal FC by rocking a red and blue team jacket at low-key dinner in LA ahead of upcoming Purpose tour dates\nPICTURE EXCLUSIVE Kristin Cavallari relaxes in a bikini as she hires a yacht to celebrate Jay Cutler's 30th She has three young children\n'I will forever win. I get to come home to you': Pregnant Ciara's husband Russell Wilson pays gushing tribute to 'love of his life' after losing NFL game\n'I've damaged my body too much!': Tom Hardy reveals he's paying the price for bulking up for film roles Actor's drastic physical transformations \nJaden Smith dons wetsuit and goes surfing with a female friend as he continues family break in Hawaii... days after social media 'meltdown'\nGeorge Michael was embroiled in a planning battle to stop a developer knocking down a mansion at the bottom of his garden to build apartments\nPlayful dad James Corden and his wife Julia enjoy sweet day out at local park with excitable son Max and daughter Carey in Malibu\nBrandi Glanville continues to show off plumped pout as she wears lingerie-inspired bodice with Porsha Williams in NYC Looking foxy \nAriana Grande showcases her slender pins in sexy Instagram to promote her Dangerous Woman Tour Shared the sultry shots on social media \nAll three of Status Quo rocker Rick Parfitt's wives plan to say a last farewell at his funeral on Thursday Past and present loves paying tribute\nOne piece wonder! Kelly Bensimon, 49, flaunts her figure in sexy black one piece with hip side cutouts Proves you don't need a bikini to look sexy\n'He's lost his mind': Kenya Moore sobs after finding out that her home and car were vandalized - and then blames her ex-boyfriend on RHOA\n'It's a big reality check': Bryan Tanaka feels heartbroken as James Packer visits Mariah Carey on reality show Love triangle\nShe just can't change her spots! How Kate Moss has been wearing the same leopard print and LBD outfit combination for more than FIFTEEN YEARS\nBikini babe Taylor Hill flaunts toned tum and enviably slender legs during Mexican getaway... after revealing she eats '3,000 calories a day'\nBillionaire Russian oligarch spends $4MILLION hiring Sir Elton John and Mariah Carey for his 19-year-old granddaughter's wedding\nParis Jackson 'seriously considering' taking acting role in TV show Star after talks with director Lee Daniels Trying something new\nLindsay Lohan cuts a laidback figure in all black ensemble and chic orange handbag as she continues her Italian adventure in Milan Ciao bella \nGirls' shopping trip! Katie Holmes takes daughter Suri Cruise to children's clothing store in LA Spent some quality time with her children \nEXCLUSIVE: Meghan's half-brother 'is going through a pretty rough time' as he apologizes after getting arrested for drunkenly putting gun to his girlfriend's head\nAuthor Barbara Taylor Bradford says not calling each other 'bad names' and never shouting are key to a happy marriage Been wed for 53 years\nAre Ellen DeGeneres and wife Portia de Rossi moving to Australia? Talk show host and actress request an inspection of a $5.8 mansion down under\nTop of the crops! Suki Waterhouse goes braless as she shows off her midriff in Beverly Hills Was spotted on a leisurely walk \nThat's some loud material, girl! Lourdes Leon takes after fashionista mother Madonna as she steps out in eclectic furry coat and checked pants\nNew Year, new hair! Little Mix's Jesy Nelson channels her inner Ginger Spice as she debuts fiery red locks Switched up her raven locks \nBet he won't give her a speeding ticket! Jessica Alba meets diehard fan cop who has her face tattooed on arm Actress met the strong arm of the law \nShe's back! Kim Kardashian is her old self again as she sits astride a buggy and poses with a falcon on Dubai modelling shoot Posing up a storm\nThe gang's all here! High School Musical co-stars Vanessa Hudgens and Ashley Tisdale reunite for brunch before watching a basketball game\n'Mariah's filled with regret over James': Carey has 'reached out' to ex-fiance Packer to help her brand recover after New Year's Eve lip-syncing saga\nBikini-clad Billie Lourd holds hands with Taylor Lautner on sunshine break after the death of mother Carrie Fisher In mourning for her mother and grandmother\nRevenge body! Bella Hadid flaunts her model figure as she joins sister Gigi for boxing workout after ex The Weeknd hooks up with Selena Gomez\nGame night! Katie Holmes takes lookalike daughter Suri, 10, to a LA Lakers game The 38-year-old actress filled her shopping cart with essentials \nLooking bootyful! Kim Kardashian shows off her shapely rear in a form fitting white dress in Dubai She's officially back at work\nMoving on! Amber Heard looks happy and relaxed with girl friends as she's seen in public for first time since divorce from Johnny Depp finalized\nSound familiar? Homeland is back in New York for season six with a President-Elect who's hostile to the CIA as show makes allusions to Trump\nBlac Chyna only has eyes for Rob Kardashian as the couple pack on the PDA for a flight to NYC The pair looked besotted at JFK airport on Sunday\nJessica Simpson cuts a stylish figure in a denim jacket as she jets into LAX alongside husband Eric Johnson and daughter Maxwell, 4 She appeared refreshed \n'Cultural understanding': Nick Cannon explains his reason for wearing turbans on The Ellen DeGeneres Show Symbolic gesture \nRonnie Wood's twin girls, their mother and Emma Bunton join Geri Horner for her baby shower Star-studded showing at the ex-Spice Girl's party\nBaby and me! Olivia Wilde snuggles her newborn protectively as she enjoys a brisk walk in frosty Brooklyn Daughter Daisy is just three months old\nBenedict's parents, a very famous Viking and a nod back to the 'classic' series: Did YOU spot the 'Easter eggs' hidden in last night's Sherlock finale?\nSound familiar? Homeland is back in New York for season six with a President-Elect who's hostile to the CIA as show makes allusions to Trump\nHome sweet home! Demi Lovato arrives back in USA wearing gray tracksuit and baseball cap after volunteer trip to Kenya Outspoken activist \nLeslie Mann looks ravishing in red as she debuts her movie The Comedian at Palm Springs International Film Fest Wowed in red \n \nDON'T MISS\nShe's off the rails! Kendall Jenner dons velvet conductor hat as she steps out with BFF Hailey Baldwin in NYC Enjoyed some quality time together \n'There's a million different ways to please yourself': Fifty Shades Of Grey star Jamie Dornan says S&M doesn't 'float his boat' - but he's been to a dungeon\nAlec Baldwin takes relaxing stroll with wife Hilaria and their sons hours after another biting impression of Donald Trump on SNL Pair sipped on coffees\nSunday Funday! Julianne Hough steps out in fluffy white jacket with striped shirt and blue jeans in Hollywood She's usually seen in her beloved active wear\n'They were a tough two months but I cherish them': George Michael's boyfriend reveals details of the star's stint in rehab in Byron Bay Treatment was 'tough'\nThey make beautiful music together! Jessica Biel thanks husband Justin Timberlake for help with original score for indie film The Book of Love \n'Exciting news!' Ashley Williams, 38, takes to Twitter to announce she's expecting her second son and then debuts her bump at an event\n'A brotherhood beyond basketball': Lamar Odom spends time with NBA pals after leaving rehab and finalizing divorce from Khloe Kardashian\nA boy's best friend! Madonna shares candid snap of her son David Banda resting with their puppy Olga Sweet picture shows him relaxing at home\n'When your son's the pilot': Supermodel Elle Macpherson enjoys a private plane ride of a very different kind with 18-year-old Flynn at the controls\nFrom a swimsuit model to childhood sweethearts: Meet the WAGS cheering on the world's biggest tennis stars at the Australian Open 2017\nRevealed: Kim Kardashian told police how masked thug grabbed her while she was NAKED under bathrobe during $10m Paris robbery \nGoing strong! Patrick Dempsey and longtime wife Jillian look in-sync as jet into Los Angeles...after calling off divorce Enjoying reconciliation\nParis Hilton flaunts her slender waist and endless legs in gold-embroidered LBD as she attends Milan Men's Fashion Week Is making a comeback\nHer big fat Greek wedding! Katie Holmes' Jackie Kennedy is romanced by shipping tycoon Aristotle Onassis in After Camelot trailer\nKaty Perry debuts dramatic blonde dye-job as she surprise Orlando Bloom with a secret 40th birthday bash in Palm Springs Surprising her beau \nPrince George 'WON'T attend the same school as his father as Kate and William opt for smaller, more discreet pre-prep closer to Kensington Palace' \nElizabeth Hurley, 51, looks incredibly youthful in blue midi dress with cross-shoulder detail as she attends Milan Men's Fashion Week Wowed in Italy \n'I will be ok!' Priyanka Chopra updates fans on Twitter after dangerous fall on Quantico set left her with concussion Was hospitalized after nasty incident \nPacking up! Anti-Trump protesters plan demonstration outside the New York City home of Ivanka Trump and Jared Kushner to 'Help Ivanka Move' \n'I'm a human vacuum cleaner!' Jessica Biel jokes she survives on son Silas's leftovers by 'shoveling the last few bites off his plate' It's all she gets!\nMeghan meets Kate: Prince Harry 'has introduced his girlfriend to Duchess of Cambridge at Kensington Palace' Also met Charlotte \nWant some presidential neighbors? House just one block away from the Obamas and Ivanka's future homes in a DC suburb hits market for $5.75m\n'She's like my wife!' Amanda Peet describes relationship with BFF Sarah Paulson as 'intense and visceral' after THAT Golden Globes red carpet kiss\nHello YELLOW! It lit up the red carpet at the Golden Globes and Emma Stone's dress in La La Land made quite a splash, now you can brighten your wardrobe\n'No greater blessing than family!' Ciara's boy supports stepdad Russell Wilson's team... while his birth father Future backs the other side\nPrince William will give up his career as a helicopter pilot to become a full-time royal - but still won't do as much as his 68-year-old father \nHidden Figures counts up $20.5 million as it holds on to top spot at the box office for a second weekend True story about three black mathematicians \nThe Queen and Prince Philip are joined by Lord Snowdon's son as they attend church at Sandringham - just two days after the royal photographer's death\nMoving Swift-ly on? Giggling Tom Hiddleston is spotted bidding farewell to a mystery brunette during evening stroll back in London Taylor Swift's ex\nMy nerve-shredding odyssey to adopt my little girl: As Nicole Kidman's new movie highlights India's orphanages, one mother shares her story\n'I'm not talking about pee-pee': Alec Baldwin mercilessly mocks Trump over Russian golden shower scandal with stream of bathroom humor jokes on SNL\nZoe Saldana says 'cocky and arrogant' Hollywood actors 'bullied' Donald Trump during the election Words of support from the actress \nWrestling legend Jimmy 'Superfly' Snuka dies aged 73 days after murder charge was dropped over death of his ex-girlfriend He had stomach cancer\n'He wants to be emperor': How Mark Zuckerberg 'quotes Greek legend' to Facebook staff as friends say he is primed to run for president in 2024\n'People need to see a new side to pregnancy': Pregnant lesbian hits out at online bullies who criticized her for looking 'masculine' and wearing 'boy clothes' \nHow to dress like a grown up: Dry January should apply to clothes shopping too! Your wardrobe is a team - all items must work together to survive\n'She is smitten': Amber Heard said to be besotted with billionaire Elon Musk... as she prepares for 'new chapter' following Johnny Depp divorce\n'We are beautiful the way we are': Photographer captures images of 40 'real' women in their underwear in bid to change perceptions \nDressed down Kylie Jenner giggles as she enjoys a night out at a burger joint with boyfriend Tyga Kylie proves she's a cheap date\nPJ-clad Jessica Alba kisses husband Cash Warren at his birthday bash The 35-year-old Golden Globe nominee puckered up\nMaking a stellar appearance! Nicole Richie snuggles up in star-spangled unicorn onesie at pyjama party Celebrating Cash Warren's 38th birthday \n'Pajama jammy jam!' Kourtney Kardashian cuddles up to Kim's bestie Chrissy Teigen at Cash Warren's star-studded PJ party Best of friends\nLawyer turned Instagram star Pia Muehlenbeck's hilarious shots reveal what REALLY happens when models try and get the perfect beach shot \nHow to look as good as the French in lingerie: The secret's a whole new way of thinking about your body shape In Paris, lingerie is not just underwear \nA royal faux pas? The Crown's Matt Smith spotted smoking 'suspicious looking cigarette' outside a London pub while on a night out with pals \nAmanda Seyfried shows off her bump in a grey sweater on outing with fiancé Thomas Sadoski She confirmed her first pregnancy in November\n'Back in action': Yolanda Hadid shares behind the scenes shot as she joins daughter Gigi on Tommy Hilfiger shoot Sneak peek\n'Spray tan lyfe!' Ashley Graham strips down to her bikini as she flaunts her freshly tanned figure The plus-size stunner is a positive body image activist\nCelebs celebrate the closure of Ringling Bros. circus with PETA activist Pamela Anderson claiming victory that the 'saddest show on earth' is finishing after 146 years \n Couples reveal what changed most after they moved in together (and their sometimes bizarre ways of making their relationships work) \nIt's Kueen Kim! Kardashian is treated to a dance display as she gets the royal welcome in Dubai She is doing a make-up tutorial in the Middle East\nLewis Hamilton turns heads in bright yellow hoodie while arriving at LAX... as Mercedes is set to clarify its position on Valterri Bottas' proposed switch \nAlways camera ready! Jennifer Lopez turns shopping trip into a modelling shoot as she poses against a wall She's always camera-ready\nTamara Ecclestone shares cute pictures of her daughter Sophia, 2, showing off her skiing skills before enjoying a pony ride in Gstaad F1 heiress\nNip and tuck with Dr Tracy Mountford: Is there such a thing as a non-surgical eyelift? Often, a surgical eyelift or a brow lift (or a gives the most long-lasting result\nThree generations of Beckham! David returns to Old Trafford with son Cruz and dad Ted as the trio watch Manchester United take on Liverpool Soccer game outing\nPJ-clad Jessica Alba plays beer pong at husband Cash Warren's birthday bash The 35-year-old Golden Globe nominee shared a clip\n'Disclaimer: I am not Deadpool!' Meet the OTHER Ryan Reynolds, a 29-year-old mayor of a tiny village in upstate New York He's not the actor\nBeefcake in Milan! Paris Hilton cosies up to muscle-bound models at Plein Sport runway show The reality TV icon turns 36 next month\nBare-faced beauty! Chloe Moretz keeps it casual in ripped sweatshirt and leggings The 19-year-old actress proved she doesn't need make-up or fancy clothes\n'Do you love her and do you know she wants to marry you?' How President Obama's advice for marital bliss brought together two grooms \nHow YOU can shift your midlife middle! FEMAIL meets the trainer who says she has the secret, especially if you hate the gym, and promises results in SEVEN days\nJudy Garland slashed her own throat with a razor in the grip of chronic drug addiction, reveals her ex-husband Sid Luft once found her semiconscious\nAnguish for George Michael's family as police hunt for more visitors to star's home before his death and former lover reveals addiction to COCA-COLA\n'You just don't feel sexy!' The Hills star Audrina Patridge dishes on her love life after birth of baby daughter Kirra Motherhood secrets\nBrad Pitt looks relaxed as he hangs out with Sting and Chris Cornell at star-studded EB disease benefit in Malibu Saturday night in California\nThrill seeker! Ariel Winter squeals with delight as she takes her niece to Disneyland on her sixth birthday She was treating her niece to a day out\nWealthy Chinese and Russian couples snap up replicas of Princess Diana's sapphire and diamond engagement ring Orders have soared\nHunky dory: Hollywood heartthrobs Chris Hemsworth and Matt Damon catch up over dinner in LA with Chris' wife Elsa Pataky Outside LA's Catch \nPlaid to see you! Pregnant Natalie Portman covers her large baby bump in a stylish checked jacket as she goes for leisurely park stroll\nHe doesn't do things by halves! Rocco Ritchie can't contain his laughter as he breaks his skateboard in two while out and about in London\n'Thanks Uncle Snoop!' Miley Cyrus poses by a marijuana bar at weed-themed birthday party for boyfriend Liam Hemsworth Was a 'joint' shindig \n'Mariah's filled with regret over James': Claims Carey has 'reached out to ex-fiance Packer to help her brand recover after lip-syncing saga'\nHow Melania Trump dazzled her way to the (very) White House: Glamorous Slovenian has been rehearsing for years to become America's First Lady\nBlac Chyna in the red? Star threatened with lawsuit for $3million in 'unpaid fees' as 'longtime managers' claim she 'cut them out' of lucrative deals\nSome helping hands! Blac Chyna heads to the mall with TWO nannies to help look after son King Cairo and baby Dream Family shopping trip \nKim Kardashian's former bodyguard breaks his silence on Paris robbery and says he's 'not avoiding anything' about the heist or WHY he was sacked\nHeard what James said? Pierce Brosnan looks stern during press conference... after chatshow host Corden labels him 'rudest' celebrity\nBottoms up! Kirsten Dunst flaunts her toned pins and perky derriere in skintight denims as she hides her jaw-dropping engagement ring in LA\n'Observe the moment you feel truly happy': Chloe Lattanzi pens inspirational quote while flaunting cleavage after $415,000 Barbie doll transformation\nSpellbinding! Jessica Biel shows off her shapely legs in cut-out skirt as she attends premiere party for Just Add Magic Married to Justin Timberlake\nLindsay Lohan cuts a chic figure in a quirky dog print co-ord as she enjoys a night out with a male friend in Milan With Italian reality star Tommaso Zorzi\nChristina Milian flaunts her ample cleavage in a saucy ensemble as she parties with BFF Karrueche Tran Heading out to Bootsy Bellows on the Sunset Strip\nLove is in the air! Matthew McConaughey looks casually cool in a stylish camel coat as he and wife Camilla Alves jet over to New York City At the airport\nLily James cuts a concerned figure as she talks on the phone...after boyfriend Matt Smith is spotted 'smoking suspicious cigarette' Downton Abbey actress\nPiers Morgan will interview former Ukip leader Nigel Farage on Life Stories... and declares that it will be the 'best TV' viewers have ever seen\nFun for all the family! Vanessa Paradis and new boyfriend Samuel Benchetrit appear downcast as they take Lily Rose Depp for a day of shopping in Paris\nRun Daniel, run! James Bond star Craig makes a dash for it through the busy streets to make it to the New York Theater in time for his performance in Othello\nFrom hidden nursing clips to leggings that expand over your baby bump: Mumpreneur designs range of active wear especially for pregnant women\n'Happy birthday, Uncle!' Chris Hemsworth's four-year-old daughter makes a cute card for uncle Liam as the actor celebrates turning 27 Messages poured in \nSylvester Stallone's daughters Sophia, 20, and Sistine, 18, sizzle in black ensembles alongside their mother Jennifer at star-studded Dolce & Gabbana party\nSuki Waterhouse flaunts her tanned and toned physique in a skimpy bikini as she jogs along the beach in Mexico Went for a run\nYoung model admits Crohn's disease has 'torn apart' her life - as she says the debilitating illness has caused her to lose her social life, car and even her career\nTina Fey pays tribute to Carrie Fisher as she appears in hologram form on Saturday Night Live Admits she was 'nervous' about the gig\nLisa Rinna, 53, sizzles in skintight leather trousers alongside her model daughter Delilah, 18, as they dine in LA The former Days Of Our Lives actress \nVictoria Beckham 'takes legal action to block Spice Girls reunion'... as Geri Horner announces she's leaving GEM to focus on her family\nWoman in white! Zoe Kravitz keeps it crisp at Elle's Women in Television event as she displays her svelte figure in an all-white ensemble from tip to toe\n'He's our little mascot': Dev Patel reveals the close bond he developed with eight-year-old Sunny Pawar on the set of Lion Lot of love\nCandace Cameron Bure showcases new darker auburn locks in plunging gown at Hallmark party The actress showcased her stunning new hair \n'Falcons got Future!' Ciara's ex pops up on the sidelines as her husband Russell Wilson plays losing NFL game A photo emerged on Twitter \nOrange you glad she came! Shailene Woodley sizzles in vibrant statement coat at star-studded Elle's Women in Television bash\nProgress report! Justin Bieber checks in on protégé Madison Beer over dinner at trendy Catch LA The Baby singer wore a Supreme sweatshirt\nMake-up free Kate Hudson bundles up in all black with red cap as she steps out with Kurt Russell in Beverly Hills Almost Famous star opted for comfort \n'It's an uphill struggle': Sienna Miller reveals she hasn't filmed a movie for a year claiming there 'aren't many great roles for women'\nWhite hot! Hailey Baldwin shows off her taut tummy wearing white mesh in stunning retro swimsuit shots Flaunted her fabulous physique \nJulianne Hough puts her abs on display in red sports bra as she and brother Derek hit the gym Are a pair of very toned siblings",
"Материал (7 класс) по теме: дополнительный материал для 7 класса | скачать бесплатно | Социальная сеть работников образования\nПредварительный просмотр:\nCLUBBING IN BRITAIN\nGoing to nightclubs, or ‘clubbing’as it is called, is very popular in Britain. From the age of about 15 young people like to go clubbing at the weekend. Usually friends meet in the evening and go to apub or a cafe, or just sit at home and chat. Then, late in the evening after 10 pm they travel to the centre of the town and wait in a queue outside the nightclub. The clubs are usually special buildings with a big space inside for dancing. There is a bar of course, and often a special room with chairs and sofas where it is less noisy. This is for people who are tired of dancing. They can rest here for a while. Some clubs only play one kind of music, but most have different music on different nights. If you want to go to a club you need to know what kind of ‘night’ the club is offering. For example, if you like ‘Hip-Hip’ then you probably don’t want to go to a ‘Disco’ night.\nCLUBBING IN BRITAIN\nGoing to nightclubs, or ‘clubbing’as it is called, is very popular in Britain. From the age of about 15 young people like to go clubbing at the weekend. Usually friends meet in the evening and go to apub or a cafe, or just sit at home and chat. Then, late in the evening after 10 pm they travel to the centre of the town and wait in a queue outside the nightclub. The clubs are usually special buildings with a big space inside for dancing. There is a bar of course, and often a special room with chairs and sofas where it is less noisy. This is for people who are tired of dancing. They can rest here for a while. Some clubs only play one kind of music, but most have different music on different nights. If you want to go to a club you need to know what kind of ‘night’ the club is offering. For example, if you like ‘Hip-Hip’ then you probably don’t want to go to a ‘Disco’ night.\nCLUBBING IN BRITAIN\nGoing to nightclubs, or ‘clubbing’as it is called, is very popular in Britain. From the age of about 15 young people like to go clubbing at the weekend. Usually friends meet in the evening and go to apub or a cafe, or just sit at home and chat. Then, late in the evening after 10 pm they travel to the centre of the town and wait in a queue outside the nightclub. The clubs are usually special buildings with a big space inside for dancing. There is a bar of course, and often a special room with chairs and sofas where it is less noisy. This is for people who are tired of dancing. They can rest here for a while. Some clubs only play one kind of music, but most have different music on different nights. If you want to go to a club you need to know what kind of ‘night’ the club is offering. For example, if you like ‘Hip-Hip’ then you probably don’t want to go to a ‘Disco’ night.\nCLUBBING IN BRITAIN\nGoing to nightclubs, or ‘clubbing’as it is called, is very popular in Britain. From the age of about 15 young people like to go clubbing at the weekend. Usually friends meet in the evening and go to apub or a cafe, or just sit at home and chat. Then, late in the evening after 10 pm they travel to the centre of the town and wait in a queue outside the nightclub. The clubs are usually special buildings with a big space inside for dancing. There is a bar of course, and often a special room with chairs and sofas where it is less noisy. This is for people who are tired of dancing. They can rest here for a while. Some clubs only play one kind of music, but most have different music on different nights. If you want to go to a club you need to know what kind of ‘night’ the club is offering. For example, if you like ‘Hip-Hip’ then you probably don’t want to go to a ‘Disco’ night.\nПредварительный просмотр:\nCONCERT REVIEW\n Have you ever been to a rock concert? I went to one last Saturday at Pinecrest, a public park near Bath, and it was fantastic. It was an all-day event with six different bands, including The Runners, my favourite group. It was only nine o’clock in the morning when I got there, so I watched as they set up the speakers for the sound system. One of the men working there even asked me to help, so I ran over and gave him a hand.\n The concert started at eleven o’clock, and since I had helped earlier I was allowed to sit at the edge of the stage. I was almost close enough to touch the performers. The best part of the concert for me was when The Runners appeared. I couldn’t believe it when Eddie Eason, The Runner’s lead singer, walked out holding his silver guitar. I felt very excited to be so close to my favourite singer. Everyone started clapping. Eddie stopped right in front of me, leaned over, and told me to enjoy the show. Then he started singing all of his hits. We all joined in with him and danced to the music. The rest of the concert was wonderful, and everybody had a great time. Walking home, I felt exhausted, but also delighted that I had had the chance to see my favourite band and talk to Eddie in front of five thousand people.\nPOP STYLES\n The Blues: traditional black American music. ‘Blue’ means ‘sad’, and many blues songs are about how hard life is.\n Gospel: originally sung by African slaves. The happy, emotional songs are still heard in churches in the southern USA.\n Rhythm and Blues: black workers in the USA moved from farms to the cities. They mixed the blues with gospel and played it electric guitars – this became ‘rhythm and blues’.\n Country and Western: the music of poor white Americans in the 1930s and 1940s. It is still the most popular music in the southern USA.\n Rock and Roll: white teenagers in the 1950s discovered rhythm and blues, but many radio stations would not play ‘black’ music. Elvis Presley was one of the first singers to mix rhythm and blues and country and western. The result was ‘rock and roll’. \n Rock : a style of popular music that developted from rock and roll.\n Soul: a mixture of gospel and rhythm and blues. Some styles are named after the record label(e.g. ‘Motown’) or they may be given other names such as ‘funk’ or ‘disco’. The most successful soul artists are probably Stevie Wonder and Michael Jackson.\n British Beat: The Beatles in the 1960s mixed rhythm and blues, rock and roll, and soul music. The new style was ‘beat’ music. Groups used drums, bass and two guitars with vocal lead and harmony.\n Heavy Metal: a style based on blues and rhythm and blues, but with the electric instruments so they are loud.\n Reggae: this started in Jamaica and is a mixture of music from African roots and rhytjm and blues. Bob Marley made it popular.\n Rap: in the 1980s DJs in American clubs began half singing and half talking over instrumental records. This is called ‘rap’. West American speech rhythms survive in rap.\n Classical : formal music that people have enjoyed for a long time and is of a very high standard.\n Flamenco : a style of traditional Spanish guitar music for people dancing the flamenco.\n House : a style of popular music with a strong rhythm and drum beats.\n Irish folk : traditional music from Ireland.\n Jazz : popular music from African-American musicians that has many styles from gentle sad tunes to strong rhythms. \n Salsa: a style of popular music and dancing from Cuba with lots of rhythms. \nПредварительный просмотр:\nBallet\nBallet began in Italy and France during the Renaissance and is still an important art form in Western culture. In Europe, dancers like the Hungarian Rudolf von Laban, also tried different ballet forms.\nFolk Dance\nFolk dance is usually traditional and performed by members of a community of nation, for example, the Balkan Kolo, English morris dance, and North American square dance. Folk dances are usually group dances that are taught by one to another. Today, well-known folk dances are often performed for audiences, for example, the Irish Riverdance.\nPopular Dance\nPopular or social dances often come from folk dances, although they are usually popular for only a short time. Until the eighteenth century, social dances were only held in palaces or the homes of aristocrats. However, in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, social dancing became more popular. Ballroom dancing, which was a formal dance in a large room, became popular in Europe and North America. Central European folk dances, such as waltz and polka, changed and became the most popular examples of ballroom dances.\nIn the United States the mixing of immigrant cultures produced new forms of dance, such as square dancing and tap dancing. Before the First World War, new ballroom dances came to Europe and America< for example, Fox Trot, Tango, Rumba, Cha-cha. The Argentine Tango was made internationally popular by Carlos Gardel through his songs and films.\nFrom the start of the twentieth century, African-American rhythm and movements also became part of popular social dance: in the 1920s the Charlston; in the 1930s the jitterbug; and then the rock’n’roll dances of the 1950s.\nDancing in couples returned in the 1970s and 1980s with ‘disco’ music. The acrobatic form of solo dancing began in the poorer parts of large American cities.\nПредварительный просмотр:\nDANCE\nAll people dance, because the human body is made to move. The world offers an exciting variety of dances!\nWHAT IS DANCE?\nOur bodies can twist, jump, stretch, and turn. Dance blends these movements together, usually with music.\nWHY DO WE DANCE?\nPeople around the world dance for different reasons and in different ways. Some dances can express feelings like sadness, anger, or joy. Other dances can tell a story.\nDance may sparkle as an art form, as ballet does, and be performed for an audience. Ballet dancers train for years to learn to leap and turn across a stage.\nPeople may dance as part of an important ceremony, even as part of theirreligion. Some cultures honor their ancestors through dance. Dancesmay celebrate important events, such as a birth, graduation, or marriage.\nA dance might be used to help work go faster, as in the Japanese rice-planting dance.\nIn some cultures a shaman, or healer, might dance to cure an illness.Some societies use dance to reach a state of trance so the dancers canperform acts of strength or courage, such as dancing on hot coals.\nDANCING FOR FUN\nWe may gather together and dance simply for fun. Many countries have group dances—folk dances—that are passed down through generations. Social dances encourage two people to dance together. These dances come and go: A new dance may be very popular one year, and out of fashion the next. In the 1800s, couples glided through a waltz or polka. Young people kicked up their heels doing the Charleston in the 1920s. Teenagers spun and swung to the 1940s jitterbug. Couples did not even have to touch hands for the 1960s dance craze, the twist. Disco dancing, popular in the 1970s, and today's hip-hop are also social dances.\nHOW LONG HAVE PEOPLE DANCED?\nDance probably has been around about as long as people have. Cave paintings thousands of years old show what look like dancing figures. Dancers appear in the art of ancient Egypt and Greece. Through dance, societies asked their gods for good crops or bravery in battle. Hundreds of years ago the Christian church frowned upon dancing. But farmers and villagers still danced for fun. Many of these dances developed into folk dances. Ballet grew out of dances at the royal courts of France and Italy in the 1500s and 1600s. Drama, acrobatics, and music are combined with dance in many cultures. People added make-up, costumes, and masks to turn dance into theatre. These performances tell a story using movements rather than words.\nHOW WILL DANCE CHANGE IN THE FUTURE?\nDance constantly changes. People seek new forms of expression. Cultures borrow from one another, and from the past. Latin American dance blends Spanish and Native American styles. African and Asian dances influence dance in Europe and North America. Like our ancestors long ago, we dance for important ceremonies. And like our ancestors, we also dance for the joy of movement, to express our emotions, and to share music and fun\nПредварительный просмотр:\nFLAMENCO\nWhen you hear or read the word ‘Spain’, what comes first to your head? Well, for a great many peole Spain means bullfights, toreadors, Don Quixote and the passionate rhythms of flamenco.\n That is for peole outside Spain. For those who live there flamenco is part of the culture of Andalusia, not of Spain in general. Gypsy music, traditional Andalusian folk songs and Arab melodies from Spain’s Moorish past have all played a part in creating this unique sound. The first flamenco schools appeared in Seville in the late 1700. Early flamenco was purely vocal accompanied only by rhythmic clapping of hands, but soon the guitar became the core component. The sound of the guitar, the improvisation of the singer and the dramatic movements of the dancers – all these combined together make an unforgettable show. Flamenco doesn’t need a stage. People dance it when they have something to celebrate, wherever they are – at home, in a cafe, in the street ... But the dance requires skill and understanding.\n Flamenco show is a must for every tiurist visiting Spain, and as a result it was so often performed by dancers, who knew very little about the dance, so often imitated and so stereotyped, that true flamenco became something rare and difficult to come by. Top-quality performances could be seen only at flamenco festivals held throughout Andalusia in summer.\n But in the 1980s flamenco reinvented itself and a new style – new flamenco – was created by a younger generation of flamenco artists, who used not only traditional music, but jazz, pop and South American melodies.\n One of the artists who helped to make flamenco one of the most popular dance forms in the world today is Joaquin Cortes. “The sexiest Spanish icon since Antonio Banderas”, as thepress describes him, is the most popular flamenco dancer today.\n He was born in Cordoba in 1969 into a gypsy family, and at the age of 12, moved to Madrid where he began his dance training. He joined the Spanish National Ballet when he was 15 and quickly rose to the ranks of solo artist. In 1996 he burst onto the international dance and music scene with his show Gypsy Passion. Since then he has toured all over the world with his company, performing at New York’s Metropolitan Opera House, London’s Albert Hall and the Kremlin’s Congress Palace in Moscow.\n Joaquin Cortes is a celebrity, people recognise him in the street6, he dances before royals and he is often seen at parties with models and stars. One of his friends is Giorgio Armani, who dresses Joaquin not only for his offstage appearances, but makes costumes for his shows. Joaquin tells him how the clothes are going to be used, how they have to move and Giorgio does the sketches. With his looks, his mane of black hair and Armani clothes it’s no wonder Joaquin is often called a sex symdol. He says ,however, that when he sees himself in the mirror, he thinks: “Well, I’m sort of okey, but there are thousands of better-looking people walking down the street.”\n A few years ago the press talked a lot about his relationship with supermodel Naomi Campbell, then there were rumours about him and Jennifer Lopez. But Joaquin likes to keep his private life private. He is single although he adores children and wants to get married and have a very big family. He is still waiting for the right girl to come along. And meanwhile he makes his own choreography, he dances, he tours the world with his company. Once he said that he would retire at 33, but when the deadline was approaching he decided he still had a lot to do and he has plenty to occupy his time at present – new plans, new shows, new dances.\nПредварительный просмотр:\nJAZZ\n A new type of music called jazz was developed by black Americans at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, jazz is still one of the most distinctly American art forms. The first jazz was played by black Americans in the dance halls of New Orleans in the early 1900s. Today, jazz remains a popular musical style not only in the United States but also in countries all over the world.\n The story of jazz is one of a musical form totally unlike any before it, even though jazz grew out of music that had existed for centuries. Jazz was not learned in schools. Many of its creators could not even read music. Early jazz often was not performed in formal concert halls with quiet, seated audiences like other music. Instead, jazz shows were outdoor events during which people marched, moved about, or sometimes rode in horse-drawn wagons.\n The immigrants brought many musical traditions together in America, but this alone did not account for the rise of jazz. Jazz needed the American environment and the experience of a special group of people – the slaves – to give it shape.\n What made jazz different? It was experimental music that broke away from traditional musical forms. While it used the musical scales, melodies, and traditional instruments of the Europeans, it was not meant to be played as written. In fact, very little jazz was written. Jazz was a highly personal music that focused on individual interpretation and rhythm. The jazz musician had the freedom to compose and reshape the music according to his or her feelings. The freedom to change and experiment with the music while playing it – known as improvisation – is a main ingregient of jazz.\n It took time for jazz to grow in a distinct musical form, but this happened around the turn of the century. New Orleans had considerable influence on the development of jazz. It was a city full of music and good times influenced by several cultures – Spanish, French, Anglo-American, and African-American. Dances, parades, parties, shows, and banquets were common events that attracted many musicians. Music could be heard all day long. French dance music, Spanish rhythms from the Caribbean, religious music, blues, slave work songs, and opera all mingled. This atmosphere created an ideal place for jazz to grow.\n But the inspiration for jazz came mainly from music, the feelings – in short, the history – of blacks in America. Black slaves were denied the chance to practice their African customs in America, and most were denied the opportunity to an education. So they found other ways of self-expression. Music was a large part of this, and it developed into distinct styles. Blues and ragtime were the forerunners of jazz, and by the early 1900s, this new and recognizable style of music was being played by bass bands throughout the streets of New Orleans.\n The popularity of jazz in New Orleans began to fall in 1917. Many bars closed down. Musicians, out of work, began to leave the city. Some took Mississippi riverboats northbound. During the 1920s, Chicago became the new centre for jazz. Other musicians traveled from California to New York, and even went on to Europe. As jazz spread, it gained popularity and developed new forms. Jazz musicians have continued to improvise, and because of this, jazz music has continued to change and evolve (развиваться) .\n Jazz means different things to different people, and even the most enthusiastic jazz fans are sometimes unable to agree on what jazz is or how it should sound. But all agree that jazz is a truly American art form.\nПредварительный просмотр:\nMUSIC\n We hear so much music in a week that we may not even notice some of it. Some days, you may hear a school band or orchestra or hear music in a church. You may hear music from records and tapes, or hear on the radio. You hear music during TV shows and movies. People make their own music, too. Whenever you hum or whistle a tune, you are making music. Classes and choirs sing together. Many boys and girls study to become good musicians. They may take singing lessons or learn to play a musical instrument. In some ways, music is a language. People use it to express moods and feelings. Some music is happy, and some is sad. Some is serious, and some can make people laugh. Many popular songs are love songs.\n Everydody likes music: some people enjoy classical music, others are fond of popular music. But are all of them good listeners? One of the most important things is to learn to be a good listener. Only then can one learn to understand music. You may say:’It’s very easy! We hear lots of sounds around us.’ But hearing is not listening. Are you really listening to music on the radio while working, before leaving for school or after coming home? I think not, because our ears take in many other sounds besides the music, such as the noises from outside, conversation, or a baby’s crying.\n To be a good listener means to listen to music without doing anything else. And that’s not very easy. One has to sit still and concentrate on listening. At last it will become a habit. That’s one thing. The other is to read about composers whose music we are interested in, about their works, about conditions under which those people had to live and create. People often say:’I often go to concerts, as I like music very much.’ They may go to a concert of chamber music, attend a symphony concert, a piano, a violin or a choir concert. It’s all the same to them. Does it mean that they love music or they understand it? And what about you?\nWOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART\n W.A.Mozart was one of the most amazing musicians who ever lived. At the age of only 5 years he was playing concerts all by himself on the harpsichord – an instrument that is something like a piano.\n His father, Leopold Mozart, was also a musician and composer. He took his talented young son to many cities in Europe and arranged for him to play for kings and nobles. For part of the year, father and son travelled. The rest of the year, they were at home in Austria with Wolfgang’s mother and sister.\n Mozart soon began to write music as well as play it. By the time he was 8, orchestras were playing his compositions. He spent the rest of his life playing and composing music. He wrote more than 40 symphoniies for orchestras to play. He also wrote operas, including ‘The Marriage of Figaro’, still one of the most popular in the world.\n Mozart had many disappointments and never earned a very good living. He died in 1791, when he was only 35 years old.\nQUESTIONS\nMany people like music. But are all of them good listeners?\nIs it difficult to learn to be a good listener?\nDo you think a person really loves music if he enjoys all kinds of concerts equally?\nWhat kind of music do you like – classical, popular or chamber music?\nWhat can help you to understand the music of a certain composer?\nHow often do you listen to music? Do you often go to music concerts?\nWho’s your favourite composer? What do you know adout him,\nWhat is your favourite orchestra or pop group?\nDo you play a musical instrument? Are you good at it? Do you like music lessons? Why?\nHave you got any records? Are they expensive? What records do you collect?\nПредварительный просмотр:\nMUSIC\n We hear so much music in a week that we may not even notice some of it. Some days, you may hear a school band or orchestra or hear music in a church. You may hear music from records and tapes, or hear on the radio. You hear music during TV shows and movies. People make their own music, too. Whenever you hum or whistle a tune, you are making music. Classes and choirs sing together. Many boys and girls study to become good musicians. They may take singing lessons or learn to play a musical instrument. In some ways, music is a language. People use it to express moods and feelings. Some music is happy, and some is sad. Some is serious, and some can make people laugh. Many popular songs are love songs.\n Everydody likes music: some people enjoy classical music, others are fond of popular music. But are all of them good listeners? One of the most important things is to learn to be a good listener. Only then can one learn to understand music. You may say:’It’s very easy! We hear lots of sounds around us.’ But hearing is not listening. Are you really listening to music on the radio while working, before leaving for school or after coming home? I think not, because our ears take in many other sounds besides the music, such as the noises from outside, conversation, or a baby’s crying.\n To be a good listener means to listen to music without doing anything else. And that’s not very easy. One has to sit still and concentrate on listening. At last it will become a habit. That’s one thing. The other is to read about composers whose music we are interested in, about their works, about conditions under which those people had to live and create. People often say:’I often go to concerts, as I like music very much.’ They may go to a concert of chamber music, attend a symphony concert, a piano, a violin or a choir concert. It’s all the same to them. Does it mean that they love music or they understand it? And what about you?\nPop music in Britain and the USA\nThe 1950s It was the decade that rock 'n' roll really started in the USA, with singers like Chuck Berry and Elvis Presley, and bands like Bill Haley and the Comets. There were some amazing haircuts, too! \n The 1960s In Britain, this was the decade of the Beatles and the Rolling Stones. In America, the Beach Boys (surf music) and Bob Dylan ('protest' folk music) were huge. Other big names in the UK were Pink Floyd and Cream, and in the USA, The Doors, Jefferson Airplane and the Grateful Dead. This was the hippy period - men often wore their hair long, and flared jeans and incredibly bright shirts and jackets were popular.\nThe 1970s In Britain, punk rock began with the Sex Pistols. They sang songs about anarchy and destruction and called for rebellion. They shocked people by using bad language and insulting the Queen. In those days many teenagers had brightly coloured hair and piercing. Heavy metal started up, with bands like Aerosmith, AC/DC and Kiss. The 1970s were also the period of the first 100% electronically produced disco music.\nThe 1980s Bands like U2 and REM started in the 1980s. Then hip hop completely changed the music scene with bands like The Beastie Boys and Public Enemy. Some groups played synth-pop, which was music, played on electronic instruments called synthesizers. Depeche Mode and the Pet Shop Boys were very successful at this time.\nThe 1990s Techno music was started by DJs in the USA, where rock music was still popular. Brit pop was played by two successful bands, Blur and Oasis, who shared the number one spot for years. Rave, house, trip hop, garage music - all different kinds of dance music - made their way into British parties. Boy bands and girl bands like The Backstreet Boys, The Spice Girls and 'N Sync started to appear. \n THE EARLY 2000s Boy bands continue to do well, and Robbie Williams' style of music makes him a hit. Indie music is played by guitar bands like Travis and Coldplay, and solo singers like Britney Spears and Jennifer Lopez have become popular."
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Which Italian fashion designer was murdered on the orders of his ex-wife?
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"Legendary Italian fashion designer Giorgio Armani was born on 11 July 1934 in Piacenza. His career began as an assistant designer for Nino Cerruti, but he left in ...",
"Steps of the Miami Beach mansion of Italian fashion designer Gianni Versace, ... was arrested and charged with ordering his murder earlier ... Order by . newest; oldest;"
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"Italian Fashion Designers - Our Top Six Selection\nItalian Fashion Designers\nWhen compiling a list of top Italian fashion designers, we stopped counting when we reached 60. Here are our picks for the most recognized names in the field today, in alphabetical order:\n1. Armani\nLegendary Italian fashion designer Giorgio Armani was born on 11 July 1934 in Piacenza. His career began as an assistant designer for Nino Cerruti, but he left in 1970 to work as a freelancer. With a partner, Sergio Galeotti, he established the Armani label four years later.\nIn the 1980s Armani began designing for numerous Hollywood names, which catapulted him to international fame. In 2001, Forbes named him the most successful Italian fashion designer and estimated his net worth at $1.7 billion. Armani was the first designer to ban models with a body mass index (BMI) under 18. He has designed uniforms for various sporting events and has recently opened a restaurant in New York City.\n2. Dolce & Gabbana\nDomenico Dolce, born in 1958, near Palermo, Sicily, and Stefano Gabbana, born in 1962 in Milan, began as a couple, but separated in 2005. Unlike others in a similar situation, they were able to continue their business partnership and achieve outstanding success with their sleek and stylish clothing designs.\nThey have utilized their celebrity connections to great effect at their runway shows but have been dogged by legal wrangles, including a 2009 tax evasion charge. By 1997, their annual turnover was £400 million, and it topped £597 by 2005, making them one of the most financially successful Italian fashion designers.\n3. Ferré\nBorn in Legnano on 15 August 1944, Gianfranco Ferré originally graduated as an architect in 1969 but began designing accessories a year later. He started his own company in 1974 and launched his first women's collection in 1978, followed by his first men's collection in 1982, and his first couture collection in 1986. Ferré became Stylistic Director of Christian Dior in Paris from 1989 to 1997.\nSophisticated white shirts have become the symbol of his personal signature in fashion design. His label offers several lines of men's wear, plus an underwear line, a sports line and a range of fragrances. His range of licensed products now includes shoes, stationery, luggage, home furnishings, perfumes and timepieces. Ferré won a number of prestigious awards during his career, including the L'Occhio d'Oro for Best Italian Fashion Designer six times. 70% of Ferré sales are achieved in export, with the US being the biggest market. Ferré distributes in exclusive boutiques worldwide.\nFerré died on June 17, 2007. On June 25 of 2008 the company entered into a worldwide joint venture with Dubai-based GIO Developments. The first project will be erected in Dubai. GIO Developments will oversee the real estate, construction, management and operations aspects of the projects, while Gianfranco Ferré will oversee content, design and style. \n4. Prada\nPrada was founded by Mario Prada as a leather goods shop in Milan, Italy. After his death in the mid-1950s, Mario's daughter-in-law ran the company for almost twenty years, succeeded by her daughter, Miuccia Prada, in 1970.\nMiuccia, born Maria Bianchi on 10 May 1949, had a Ph.D. in Political Science but with her husband, Patrizio Bertelli, set about expanding Prada's product line. In 1979 she released a set of backpacks and totes, followed by a nylon tote. A shoe line was released in 1984, the classic Prada handbag in 1985, and a women's wear collection in 1989. Prada's popularity skyrocketed and it became identified with affluent working women who held demanding jobs. Men's ready-to-wear collections were launched in the mid-1990s. Prada's originality made it one of the most influential Italian fashion designers, and the brand became a premium status symbol in the 1990s.\nIn 1983, Prada began expansion across continental Europe and the US and later Japan. The company went on an ultimately unsuccessful merger and purchasing spree which slowed in the 2000s. Prada manufactures its wares in Italy, apparently keeping labor costs down by using Chinese laborers at the plants. Prada, along with Calvin Klein and Gucci, is known for the practice of casting new models to walk exclusively in their runway shows. An exclusive or opening spot in a Prada show is among the most coveted bookings in the modeling world.\n5. Valentino\nValentino Clemente Ludovico Garavani, best known as Valentino, was born on 11 May 1932 in Voghera, Lombardy. Valentino became interested in fashion while in primary school when he apprenticed under his aunt Rosa and local designer Ernestina Salvadeo. At 17, he moved to Paris and studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts and at the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne. Later he apprenticed to Jacques Fath, followed by Balenciaga, Jean Desses and Guy Laroche. In 1959 he decided to return to Italy and set up in Rome.\nValentino's international debut took place in 1962 in Florence. His first show was a huge success and his designs were suddenly in demand. In 1966, he moved his shows from Florence to Rome, and by the mid-1960s he was considered the undisputed king of Italian fashion designers. In 1964, Valentino met Jacqueline Kennedy, who helped make him a sought-after designer in the USA. Throughout the 1970s Valentino spent considerable time in New York City. 1989 marked the opening of the Accademia Valentino, in Rome, for the presentation of art exhibitions. In 1998 Valentino and his partner Giancarlo Giammetti sold the company to HdP, an Italian conglomerate controlled, in part, by the late Gianni Agnelli, the head of Fiat. \nValentino and Giammetti are renowned for their extensive collection of art. Valentino owns villas and apartments around the world, all boasting an extensive array of art pieces. He also spends much time on T. M. Blue One, his 152-foot yacht. Valentino: The Last Emperor, a feature-length documentary on the designer, premiered at the 2008 Venice International Film Festival. The film had its North American premiere at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival and became the highest-grossing documentary debut of 2009.\nTo celebrate the 45th anniversary of Valentino's career, a fashion extravaganza took place in Rome in July 2007. During the festivities, the Mayor of Rome announced that the site of the Valentino museum would be a building in via San Teodoro. In 2007 Valentino announced that he would retire after his final Haute-Couture show in Paris. It was presented at the Musée Rodin on January 23, 2008. Valentino was presented with the Medal of the City of Paris the following day for his services to fashion.\n6. Versace\nGianni Versace (December 2, 1946 – July 15, 1997) was an Italian fashion designer and founder of Versace, an international fashion house which produces accessories, fragrances, makeup and home furnishings as well as clothes. He also designed costumes for the theatre and films.\nGiovanni (Gianni) Versace was born in Reggio di Calabria, Italy, on December 2, 1946, where he grew up with his older brother Santo and younger sister Donatella, along with their father and dressmaker mother, Francesca. Versace began his apprenticeship at a young age, helping his mother find precious stones and gold braid for embroidering dresses. He studied architecture before moving to Milan at the age of 26 to work in fashion design. In the mid-1970s, his knits drew the attention of headhunters at Genny and Callaghan. Versace presented his first signature collection for women at the Palazzo della Permanente Art Museum of Milan. His first menswear collection followed in September of the same year. The first boutique was opened in Milan's Via della Spiga in 1978. He was influenced by Andy Warhol, Ancient Roman and Greek art as well as modern abstract art.\nVersace was shot dead on July 15, 1997, aged 50, on the steps of his Miami Beach mansion as he returned from a morning walk. \nDonatella Versace\nDonatella Versace (born 2 May 1955) is Vice-President of the Versace Group and Chief Designer of the Versace fashion line. She owns 20 percent of the entire stock market assets of the company. In the mid 1970s, Donatella followed her older brother, Gianni, to pursue knitwear design in Florence. Donatella had planned to work for her brother in Public Relations, but she was more valuable to Gianni as a \"muse and critic\".\nDonatella was the first designer to use notable celebrities to wear her clothing on the catwalk and in other public media such as advertisements. Donatella soon proved to be the public relations giant within the Versace label and spread its name throughout Europe and the United States. In July 1998, a year after Gianni Versace was killed, Donatella mounted her first couture show for the Versace Atelier at the Hôtel Ritz Paris. She now oversees the production of a dozen collections each year, but is equally famous for her celebrity friends and extravagant parties. \nBranching into other fields, the company created the grand, luxurious Palazzo Versace resort on the Gold Coast of Australia. Another Versace development, the world's tallest hotel, the Burj al-Arab in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE), features a large collection of Versace furniture and beddings in its expensive and lavish rooms. Plans for the Palazzo Versace Dubai were announced in May 2005. While the Versace Group is not as financially robust as it was in its earlier and peak stages, the Versace Group has publicly made clear that Donatella and Allegra Versace will hopefully bring new life to the Versace label.",
"Fashion designer Versace shot dead: from the archive, 16 July 1997 | From the Guardian | The Guardian\nShare on Messenger\nClose\nThe fashion guru and tycoon Gianni Versace , founder of one of haute couture's most flamboyant and renowned empires, was shot dead outside his villa in Miami Beach yesterday morning in what police believe was a carefully planned murder.\nThe chief of Miami Beach police, Richard Barreto, said: \"I believe that he was targeted,\" but refused to confirm a rumour that a contract had been put out on Versace's life.\nBy last night, the FBI had launched a huge manhunt for the killer, a white male in his twenties who walked up and shot Versace twice in the head at point-blank range. The designer was opening the gate to the villa after returning from buying an Italian newspaper at a favourite local restaurant, the News Cafe.\nOnly days ago, Versace, aged 50, was being showered with praise for his latest collection at the Paris show, acknowledging applause from the catwalk flanked by supermodels.\nYesterday, there were pools of blood on the pavement outside his elegant villa after the shooting at 9am.\nMr Barreto indicated that the handgun used in the murder had been sent for examination. Asked if there was anyone else in the villa at the time of the murder, he said: \"My information is that he was alone.\" He refused to comment on a local rumour that there had been an unspecified \"incident\" involving Versace outside his home two nights ago.\nAn eyewitness, Eddie Biachi, said: \"There were two shots fired in his head. The police came very fast; they were trying to help him, revive him.\"\nA surgeon, Phillip Villanueva, said Versace had been shot in the back of the head.\nAl Boza, a police spokesman, said Versace had been opening the gate to his home on Ocean Drive when he was approached by a \"white male, aged about 25, wearing a grey T-shirt, black backpack and black shorts, and a white hat ... who shot him at point-blank range\".\nLocal television reports said the man's clothing had been dumped in a nearby garage and had been recovered for analysis by police.\nWitnesses said the killer got into a vehicle which looked like a taxi. The driver has not been found.\nThere were three theories last night: a killing by a jealous, obsessed maniac; a contract killing, either the result of a love affair or professional relationship turned sour; or by the Mafia or some other criminal mob.\nThere had been no sign of any overt threat to Versace, at least none that was recorded by police in the United States or Italy .\nThe nature of the murder suggests that the killer either knew Versace personally or had \"staked him out\".\nVersace, the first of Italy's leading designers to confirm that he was gay, went into the fashion business 25 years ago, setting up his own house with his sister Donatella. There had been tensions recently over succession within the vast company.\nDespite becoming more reclusive, Versace was a popular figure on the social circuit of Ocean Drive's \"beautiful people\" and entertained his friends frequently and in style.\nHis elegant, three-storey mock-Spanish villa was a landmark on the fashion circuit, although in a quiet stretch of Ocean Drive, away from the hotels and the famous Art Deco strip.\nVersace had clothed the world's best-known women, including Princess Diana, who \"relaunched\" herself recently as a glamour queen in Vanity Fair magazine wearing a dress from his latest collection. She said yesterday she was \"devastated\" by the news of his death.\nIn Versace's native Italy, the news provoked disbelief and concern over what could emerge from the police inquiry. The Milan fashion business is pivotal to the success of one of the world's biggest textile industries and its good name has been sullied twice recently.\nLast May, Versace's brother, Santo, was convicted of bribery along with two of Italy's leading designers. In 1995, Maurizio Gucci, of the luggage-to-frocks luxury goods dynasty, was shot dead outside his office in Milan. His wife, Patrizia Reggiani Martinelli, was arrested and charged with ordering his murder earlier this year. As Versace acknowledged in an interview two years ago, there have been rumours - vigorously denied by the family - that the company founded to market his creations had underworld links. In 1995, the Independent on Sunday paid substantial damages for what it admitted were libels about his business practices.\nYesterday, many Italians noted privately that the shots to the back of Versace's neck were typical of an underworld hit.\nFellow designers expressed incredulity. \"The news of Gianni Versace's death has left me in a state of shock,\" said Giorgio Armani. \"My reaction is one of revolt against such an unnatural and violent death.\"\nVersace's murderer, Andrew Cunanan , shot himself in the head when cornered by Miami police in a houseboat three miles from the murder scene. The gun he used was the same he shot Versace with eight days earlier. He had killed four other men in a killing spree which had started in April 1997."
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How old was George Gershwin when he died?
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"George Gershwin (; September 26, 1898 July 11, 1937) was an American composer and pianist. Gershwin's compositions spanned both popular and classical genres, and his most popular melodies are widely known. Among his best-known works are the orchestral compositions Rhapsody in Blue (1924) and An American in Paris (1928) as well as the opera Porgy and Bess (1935).\n\nGershwin studied piano under Charles Hambitzer and composition with Rubin Goldmark, Henry Cowell and Joseph Brody. He began his career as a song plugger, but soon started composing Broadway theatre works with his brother Ira Gershwin, and Buddy DeSylva. He moved to Paris intending to study with Nadia Boulanger, who refused him, where he began to compose An American in Paris. After returning to New York City, he wrote Porgy and Bess with Ira and the author DuBose Heyward. Initially a commercial failure, Porgy and Bess is now considered one of the most important American operas of the twentieth century.\n\nGershwin moved to Hollywood and composed numerous film scores until his death in 1937 from a malignant brain tumor-- glioblastoma multiforme. \n\nGershwin's compositions have been adapted for use in many films and for television, and several became jazz standards recorded in many variations. Many celebrated singers and musicians have covered his songs.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life\n\nGershwin was born of Russian and Ukrainian Jewish descent. His grandfather, Jakov Gershowitz, had served for 25 years as a mechanic for the Imperial Russian Army to earn the right of free travel and residence as a Jew. He retired near Saint Petersburg. His teenage son, Moishe Gershowitz, worked as a leather cutter for women's shoes. Moishe met and fell in love with Roza Bruskina, the teenage daughter of a furrier, born in Vilnius. Bruskina moved with her family to New York due to fears of an increasing anti-Jewish sentiment in Russia; once re-settled, she Americanized her first name to Rose. Moishe, faced with compulsory military service in Russia, followed Rose as soon as he had the means to. Upon arrival in New York, Moishe Gershowitz used the first name Morris. Moishe (Morris) settled at first with a maternal uncle in Brooklyn: a tailor named Greenstein, where he worked as a foreman in a women's shoe factory. When Morris and Rose married on July 21, 1895, they were 23 and 19, respectively. At some time between 1893 and 1898, Moishe (Morris) Gershowitz changed his surname to Gershwine – even possibly at, or around, the time of his marriage to Roza.\n\nThe first child to the new couple was Ira (given the name 'Israel'), on December 6, 1896. It was about that time that Morris moved the family to Brooklyn, to a second-floor dwelling at 242 Snediker Avenue. George Gershwin was born at the new residence on September 26, 1898; his birth certificate bears the name Jacob Gershwine, with the surname being commonly pronounced 'Gersh-vin' by the predominantly expatriate Russian and Yiddish community. George was named after his late grandfather (the Russian army mechanic). However, although the common American practice was to give children two names—a first and a middle name—he had no other name but 'George'. Years later, George changed the spelling of his surname to 'Gershwin' after he became a professional musician; subsequently, other members of his family followed suit.\n\nGeorge and Ira lived in many different residences, as their father changed dwellings with each new enterprise with which he became involved. Mostly, the boys grew up around the Yiddish Theater District. They frequented the local Yiddish theaters, with George occasionally appearing onstage as an extra. \n\nAfter Ira and George, two more children were born to the family: Arthur (1900–1981), and Frances (1906–1999).\n\nGeorge lived a usual childhood existence for children of New York tenements - running around with his boyhood friends, roller skating and misbehaving in the streets. Remarkably, he cared nothing for music until the age of ten, when he was intrigued by what he heard at his friend Maxie Rosenzweig's violin recital. The sound, and the way his friend played, captured him. His parents had bought a piano for lessons for his older brother Ira, but to his parents' surprise, and Ira's relief, it was George who spent more time playing it. Although his younger sister Frances Gershwin was the first in the family to make a living through her musical talents, she married young and devoted herself to being a mother and housewife - thus surrendering any serious time to musical endeavors. Frances, having given up her performing career, did however settle upon another art: painting, as a creative outlet. Painting had also been a hobby George briefly pursued. Arthur Gershwin followed in the paths of George and Ira, when he also became a composer of songs, musicals, and short piano works.\n\nWith a degree of frustration, George tried various piano teachers for some two years, before finally being introduced to Charles Hambitzer by Jack Miller, the pianist in the Beethoven Symphony Orchestra. Until his death in 1918, Hambitzer remained Gershwin's musical mentor and taught him conventional piano technique, introduced him to music of the European classical tradition, and encouraged him to attend orchestral concerts. At home, following such concerts, young Gershwin would essentially try to play, at the piano, the music that he had heard - completely from recall, and without sheet music. As a matter of course, Gershwin later studied with the classical composer Rubin Goldmark and avant-garde composer-theorist Henry Cowell, thus formalizing his classical music training.\n\nTin Pan Alley\n\nOn leaving school at the age of 15, Gershwin found his first job as a \"song plugger\" for Jerome H. Remick and Company, a Detroit-based publishing firm with a branch office on New York City's Tin Pan Alley, where he earned $15 a week. His first published song was \"When You Want 'Em, You Can't Get 'Em, When You've Got 'Em, You Don't Want 'Em\". It was published in 1916 when Gershwin was only 17 years old and earned him 50 cents. His 1917 novelty rag, \"Rialto Ripples\", was a commercial success, and in 1919 he scored his first big national hit with his song, \"Swanee\", with words by Irving Caesar. Al Jolson, a famous Broadway singer of the day, heard Gershwin perform \"Swanee\" at a party and decided to sing it in one of his shows. \n\nIn 1916, Gershwin started working for Aeolian Company and Standard Music Rolls in New York, recording and arranging. He produced dozens, if not hundreds, of rolls under his own and assumed names (pseudonyms attributed to Gershwin include Fred Murtha and Bert Wynn). He also recorded rolls of his own compositions for the Duo-Art and Welte-Mignon reproducing pianos. As well as recording piano rolls, Gershwin made a brief foray into vaudeville, accompanying both Nora Bayes and Louise Dresser on the piano. \n\nIn the late 1910s, Gershwin met songwriter and music director William Daly. The two collaborated on the Broadway musicals Piccadilly to Broadway (1920) and For Goodness' Sake (1922), and jointly composed the score for Our Nell (1923). This was the beginning of a long friendship; Daly was a frequent arranger, orchestrator and conductor of Gershwin's music, and Gershwin periodically turned to him for musical advice.\n\nIn the early 1920s, Gershwin frequently worked with the lyricist Buddy DeSylva. Together they created the experimental one-act jazz opera Blue Monday, set in Harlem. It is widely regarded as a forerunner to the groundbreaking Porgy and Bess. In 1924, George and Ira Gershwin collaborated on a stage musical comedy Lady Be Good, which included such future standards as \"Fascinating Rhythm\" and \"Oh, Lady Be Good!\". They followed this with Oh, Kay! (1926); Funny Face (1927); Strike Up the Band (1927 and 1930). Gershwin gave the song, with a modified title, to UCLA to be used as a football fight song, \"Strike Up The Band for UCLA\". \n\nThe Gershwin brothers created Show Girl (1929); Girl Crazy (1930), which introduced the standards \"Embraceable You\", debuted by Ginger Rogers; \"I Got Rhythm\", and Of Thee I Sing (1931), which was the first musical comedy to win the Pulitzer Prize for Drama; the winners were George S. Kaufman, Morrie Ryskind, and Ira Gershwin. \n\nEurope and classical music\n\nIn 1924, Gershwin composed his first major classical work, Rhapsody in Blue, for orchestra and piano. It was orchestrated by Ferde Grofé and premiered by Paul Whiteman's concert band in New York. It proved to be his most popular work.\n\nIn the mid-1920s, Gershwin stayed in Paris for a short period of time, during which he applied to study composition with the noted Nadia Boulanger, who, along with several other prospective tutors such as Maurice Ravel, rejected him. They were afraid that rigorous classical study would ruin his jazz-influenced style. Maurice Ravel's rejection letter to Gershwin told him, \"Why become a second-rate Ravel when you're already a first-rate Gershwin?\" While there, Gershwin wrote An American in Paris. This work received mixed reviews upon its first performance at Carnegie Hall on December 13, 1928, but it quickly became part of the standard repertoire in Europe and the United States. Growing tired of the Parisian musical scene, Gershwin returned to the United States.\n\nIn 1929, Gershwin was contracted by Fox Film Corporation to compose the score for the movie Delicious. Only two pieces were used in the final film, the five-minute \"Dream Sequence\" and the six-minute \"Manhattan Rhapsody,\" which in expanded form was later published as the Second Rhapsody. Gershwin became infuriated when the rest of the score was rejected by Fox Film Corporation, and it would be seven years before he worked in Hollywood again.\n\nOpera\n\nGershwin's first opera, Blue Monday, is a short one-act opera which was not a financial success and has received only limited performances. Gershwin's most ambitious composition was Porgy and Bess (1935). Gershwin called it a \"folk opera\", and it is now widely regarded as one of the most important American operas of the twentieth century.\n\"From the very beginning, it was considered another American classic by the composer of 'Rhapsody in Blue'—even if critics couldn't quite figure out how to evaluate it. Was it opera, or was it simply an ambitious Broadway musical? 'It crossed the barriers,' says theater historian Robert Kimball. 'It wasn't a musical work per se, and it wasn't a drama per se – it elicited response from both music and drama critics. But the work has sort of always been outside category.\" \n\nBased on the novel Porgy by DuBose Heyward, the action takes place in the fictional, colored neighborhood of Catfish Row, Charleston, South Carolina. With the exception of several minor speaking roles, all of the characters are African-American. The music combines elements of popular music of the day, with a strong influence of African-American music, of the period, with techniques typical of opera, such as recitative, through-composition and an extensive system of leitmotifs. Porgy and Bess contains some of Gershwin's most sophisticated music, including a fugue, a passacaglia, the use of atonality, polytonality and polyrhythm, and a tone row. Even the \"set numbers\" (of which \"Summertime\", \"I Got Plenty o' Nuttin'\" and \"It Ain't Necessarily So\" are well known examples) are some of the most refined and ingenious of Gershwin's compositions. For the performances, Gershwin collaborated with Eva Jessye, whom he picked as the musical director. One of the outstanding musical alumnae of Western University in Kansas, she had created her own choir in New York and performed widely with them. The work was first performed in 1935; it was a box-office failure in the middle of the Great Depression. The musical has since been recognized as one of the greatest musical and theatrical compositions of the 20th Century.\n\nLast years\n\nAfter the commercial failure of Porgy and Bess, Gershwin moved to Hollywood, California. He was commissioned by RKO Pictures in 1936 to write the music for the film Shall We Dance, starring Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. Gershwin's extended score, which would marry ballet with jazz in a new way, runs over an hour in length. It took Gershwin several months to compose and orchestrate.\n\nGershwin had a ten-year affair with composer Kay Swift, whom he frequently consulted about his music. The two never married, although she eventually divorced her husband James Warburg in order to commit to the relationship. Swift's granddaughter, Katharine Weber, has suggested that the pair were not married because George's mother Rose was \"unhappy that Kay Swift wasn't Jewish\". Oh, Kay was named for her. After Gershwin's death, Swift arranged some of his music, transcribed several of his recordings, and collaborated with his brother Ira on several projects. \n\nIllness and death\n\nEarly in 1937, Gershwin began to complain of blinding headaches and a recurring impression that he smelled burning rubber. On February 11, 1937, Gershwin performed his Piano Concerto in F in a special concert of his music with the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra under the direction of French maestro Pierre Monteux. Gershwin, normally a superb pianist in his own compositions, suffered coordination problems and blackouts during the performance. He was at the time living with his brother Ira, and Ira's wife Leonore in a rented house in Beverly Hills while they worked on other Hollywood film projects. Leonore Gershwin began to be disturbed by George's mood swings and his seeming inability to eat without spilling food at the dinner table. She suspected the onset of mental illness and she insisted he be moved out of their house to lyricist Yip Harburg's empty quarters nearby, where he was placed in the care of his valet, Paul Mueller. The headaches and olfactory hallucinations continued, and on June 23, after an incident in which Gershwin tried to push Mueller out of the car in which they were riding, Gershwin was admitted to Cedars of Lebanon Hospital in Los Angeles for observation. Tests showed no physical cause and he was released on the 26th with a diagnosis of \"likely hysteria.\" His troubles with coordination and mental acuity worsened, and on the night of July 9, Gershwin collapsed in Harburg's house, where he had been working on the score of The Goldwyn Follies. He was rushed back to Cedars of Lebanon, where he fell into a coma. Only at that point did it become obvious to his doctors that he was suffering from a brain tumor. Leonore called George's close friend Emil Mosbacher and explained the dire need to find a neurosurgeon. Mosbacher immediately called pioneering neurosurgeon Dr. Harvey Cushing in Boston, who, retired for several years by then, recommended Dr. Walter Dandy, who was on a boat fishing in Chesapeake Bay with the governor of Maryland. Mosbacher then called the White House and had a Coast Guard cutter sent to find the governor's yacht and bring Dandy quickly to shore. Mosbacher then chartered a plane and flew Dandy to Newark Airport, where he was to catch a plane to Los Angeles; however, by that time, Gershwin's condition was judged to be critical and the need for surgery immediate. An attempt by doctors at Cedars to excise the tumor was made in the early hours of the 11th, but it proved unsuccessful, and Gershwin died on the morning of July 11, 1937, at the age of 38.\n\nGershwin's many friends and fans were shocked and devastated. John O'Hara remarked: \"George Gershwin died on July 11, 1937, but I don't have to believe it if I don't want to.\" He was interred at Westchester Hills Cemetery in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York. A memorial concert was held at the Hollywood Bowl on September 8, 1937, at which Otto Klemperer conducted his own orchestration of the second of Gershwin's Three Preludes.\n\nGershwin received his sole Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song at the 1937 Oscars for \"They Can't Take That Away from Me\", written with his brother Ira for the 1937 film Shall We Dance. The nomination was posthumous; Gershwin died two months after the film's release. \n\nMusical style and influence\n\nGershwin was influenced by French composers of the early twentieth century. In turn Maurice Ravel was impressed with Gershwin's abilities, commenting, \"Personally I find jazz most interesting: the rhythms, the way the melodies are handled, the melodies themselves. I have heard of George Gershwin's works and I find them intriguing.\" The orchestrations in Gershwin's symphonic works often seem similar to those of Ravel; likewise, Ravel's two piano concertos evince an influence of Gershwin.\n\nGershwin asked to study with Ravel. When Ravel heard how much Gershwin earned, Ravel replied with words to the effect of, \"You should give me lessons.\" (Some versions of this story feature Igor Stravinsky rather than Ravel as the composer; however Stravinsky confirmed that he originally heard the story from Ravel.) \n\nGershwin's own Concerto in F was criticized for being related to the work of Claude Debussy, more so than to the expected jazz style. The comparison did not deter Gershwin from continuing to explore French styles. The title of An American in Paris reflects the very journey that he had consciously taken as a composer: \"The opening part will be developed in typical French style, in the manner of Debussy and Les Six, though the tunes are original.\"\n\nAside from the French influence, Gershwin was intrigued by the works of Alban Berg, Dmitri Shostakovich, Igor Stravinsky, Darius Milhaud, and Arnold Schoenberg. He also asked Schoenberg for composition lessons. Schoenberg refused, saying \"I would only make you a bad Schoenberg, and you're such a good Gershwin already.\" (This quote is similar to one credited to Maurice Ravel during Gershwin's 1928 visit to France – \"Why be a second-rate Ravel, when you are a first-rate Gershwin?\") Gershwin was particularly impressed by the music of Berg, who gave him a score of the Lyric Suite. He attended the American premiere of Wozzeck, conducted by Leopold Stokowski in 1931, and was \"thrilled and deeply impressed\". \n\nRussian Joseph Schillinger's influence as Gershwin's teacher of composition (1932–1936) was substantial in providing him with a method of composition. There has been some disagreement about the nature of Schillinger's influence on Gershwin. After the posthumous success of Porgy and Bess, Schillinger claimed he had a large and direct influence in overseeing the creation of the opera; Ira completely denied that his brother had any such assistance for this work. A third account of Gershwin's musical relationship with his teacher was written by Gershwin's close friend Vernon Duke, also a Schillinger student, in an article for the Musical Quarterly in 1947. \n\nWhat set Gershwin apart was his ability to manipulate forms of music into his own unique voice. He took the jazz he discovered on Tin Pan Alley into the mainstream by splicing its rhythms and tonality with that of the popular songs of his era. Although George Gershwin would seldom make grand statements about his music, he believed that \"true music must reflect the thought and aspirations of the people and time. My people are Americans. My time is today.\"[http://www.balletmet.org/Notes/GeorgeG.html \"George Gershwin\"] balletmet.org, (Compiled February 2000). Retrieved April 20, 2010\n\nIn 2007, the Library of Congress named their Prize for Popular Song after George and Ira Gershwin. Recognizing the profound and positive effect of popular music on culture, the prize is given annually to a composer or performer whose lifetime contributions exemplify the standard of excellence associated with the Gershwins. On March 1, 2007, the first Gershwin Prize was awarded to Paul Simon. \n\nRecordings and film\n\nEarly in his career, under both his own name and pseudonyms, Gershwin recorded more than one hundred and forty player piano rolls which were a main source of income for him. The majority were popular music of the period and a smaller proportion were of his own works. Once his musical theatre-writing income became substantial, his regular roll-recording career became superfluous. He did record additional rolls throughout the 1920s of his main hits for the Aeolian Company's reproducing piano, including a complete version of his Rhapsody in Blue.\n\nCompared to the piano rolls, there are few accessible audio recordings of Gershwin's playing. His first recording was his own Swanee with the Fred Van Eps Trio in 1919. The recorded balance highlights the banjo playing of Van Eps, and the piano is overshadowed. The recording took place before Swanee became famous as an Al Jolson specialty in early 1920.\n\nGershwin recorded an abridged version of Rhapsody in Blue with Paul Whiteman and his orchestra for the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1924, soon after the world premiere. Gershwin and the same orchestra made an electrical recording of the abridged version for Victor in 1927. However, a dispute in the studio over interpretation angered Paul Whiteman and he left. The conductor's baton was taken over by Victor's staff conductor Nathaniel Shilkret.\n\nGershwin made a number of solo piano recordings of tunes from his musicals, some including the vocals of Fred and Adele Astaire, as well as his Three Preludes for piano. In 1929, Gershwin \"supervised\" the world premiere recording of An American in Paris with Nathaniel Shilkret and the Victor Symphony Orchestra. Gershwin's role in the recording was rather limited, particularly because Shilkret was conducting and had his own ideas about the music. When it was realized that no one had been hired to play the brief celeste solo, Gershwin was asked if he could and would play the instrument, and he agreed. Gershwin can be heard, rather briefly, on the recording during the slow section.\n\nGershwin appeared on several radio programs, including Rudy Vallee's, and played some of his compositions. This included the third movement of the Concerto in F with Vallee conducting the studio orchestra. Some of these performances were preserved on transcription discs and have been released on LP and CD.\n\nIn 1934, in an effort to earn money to finance his planned folk opera, Gershwin hosted his own radio program titled Music by Gershwin. The show was broadcast on the NBC Blue Network from February to May and again in September through the final show on December 23, 1934. He presented his own work as well as the work of other composers. Recordings from this and other radio broadcasts include his Variations on I Got Rhythm, portions of the Concerto in F, and numerous songs from his musical comedies. He also recorded a run-through of his Second Rhapsody, conducting the orchestra and playing the piano solos. Gershwin recorded excerpts from Porgy and Bess with members of the original cast, conducting the orchestra from the keyboard; he even announced the selections and the names of the performers. In 1935 RCA Victor asked him to supervise recordings of highlights from Porgy and Bess; these were his last recordings.\n\nA 74-second newsreel film clip of Gershwin playing I Got Rhythm has survived, filmed at the opening of the Manhattan Theater (now The Ed Sullivan Theater) in August 1931. There are also silent home movies of Gershwin, some of them shot on Kodachrome color film stock, which have been featured in tributes to the composer. In addition, there is newsreel footage of Gershwin playing \"Mademoiselle from New Rochelle\" and \"Strike Up the Band\" on the piano during a Broadway rehearsal of the 1930 production of Strike Up the Band. In the mid-30s, \"Strike Up The Band\" was given to UCLA to be used as a football fight song, \"Strike Up The Band for UCLA\". The comedy team of Clark and McCullough are seen conversing with Gershwin, then singing as he plays.\n\nIn 1945, the film biography Rhapsody in Blue was made, starring Robert Alda as George Gershwin. The film contains many factual errors about Gershwin's life, but also features many examples of his music, including an almost complete performance of \"Rhapsody in Blue\".\n\nIn 1965, Movietone Records released an album MTM 1009 featuring Gershwin's piano rolls of the titled George Gerswhin plays RHAPSODY IN BLUE and his other favorite compositions. The B-side of the LP featured nine other recordings.\n\nIn 1975, Columbia Records released an album featuring Gershwin's piano rolls of Rhapsody In Blue, accompanied by the Columbia Jazz Band playing the original jazz band accompaniment, conducted by Michael Tilson Thomas. The B-side of the Columbia Masterworks release features Tilson Thomas leading the New York Philharmonic in An American In Paris.\nIn 1976, RCA Records, as part of its \"Victrola Americana\" line, released a collection of Gershwin recordings taken from 78s recorded in the 1920s and called the LP \"Gershwin plays Gershwin, Historic First Recordings\" (RCA Victrola AVM1-1740). Included were recordings of \"Rhapsody in Blue\" with the Paul Whiteman Orchestra and Gershwin on piano; \"An American in Paris\", from 1927 with Gershwin on celesta; and \"Three Preludes\", \"Clap Yo' Hands\" and Someone to Watch Over Me\", among others. There are a total of ten recordings on the album. At the opening ceremony of the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles, \"Rhapsody in Blue\" was performed in spectacular fashion by many pianists.\n\nThe soundtrack to Woody Allen's 1979 film Manhattan is composed entirely of Gershwin's compositions, including \"Rhapsody in Blue\", \"Love is Sweeping the Country\", and \"But Not for Me\", performed by both the New York Philharmonic under Zubin Mehta and the Buffalo Philharmonic under Michael Tilson Thomas. The film begins with a monologue by Allen: \"He adored New York City ... To him, no matter what the season was, this was still a town that existed in black and white and pulsated to the great tunes of George Gershwin.\"\n\nIn 1998, two audio CDs featuring piano rolls recorded by Gershwin were issued by Nonesuch Records through the efforts of Artis Woodhouse; and entitled Gershwin Plays Gershwin: The Piano Rolls. \n\nIn October 2009, it was reported by Rolling Stone that Brian Wilson was completing at least two unfinished compositions by George Gershwin for possible release in 2010. Brian Wilson Reimagines Gershwin was released on August 17, 2010. The album consists of ten George and Ira Gershwin songs, bookended by passages from \"Rhapsody in Blue\", along with two new songs completed from unfinished Gershwin fragments by Wilson and band member Scott Bennett.\n\nBaseline Studio Systems announced in January 2010 that Steven Spielberg may direct a biopic about the composer's life; 32-year-old American actor Zachary Quinto was named for the leading role of George Gershwin. \n\nCompositions \n\n Orchestral \n* Rhapsody in Blue for piano and orchestra (1924)\n* Piano Concerto in F for piano and orchestra (1925)\n* An American in Paris for orchestra (1928)\n* Dream Sequence / The Melting Pot for chorus and orchestra (1931)\n* Second Rhapsody for piano and orchestra (1931), originally titled Rhapsody in Rivets\n* Cuban Overture for orchestra (1932), originally entitled Rumba\n* March from Strike Up the Band for orchestra (1934)\n* Variations on \"I Got Rhythm\" for piano and orchestra (1934)\n* Catfish Row for orchestra (1936), a suite based on music from Porgy and Bess\n* Shall We Dance (1937), a movie score feature-length ballet\nSolo Piano\n* Three Preludes (1926)\n* George Gershwin's Song-book (1932), solo piano arrangements of 18 songs\nOperas\n*Blue Monday (1922), one-act opera\n*Porgy and Bess (1935) at the Colonial Theatre in Boston\nLondon Musicals\n* Primrose (1924)\nBroadway Musicals\n* George White's Scandals (1920–1924), featuring, at one point, the 1922 one-act opera Blue Monday)\n* Lady, Be Good (1924)\n* Tip-Toes (1925)\n* Tell Me More! (1925)\n* Oh, Kay! (1926)\n* Strike Up the Band (1927)\n* Funny Face (1927)\n* Rosalie (1928)\n* Treasure Girl (1928)\n* Show Girl (1929)\n* Girl Crazy (1930)\n* Of Thee I Sing (1931)\n* Pardon My English (1933)\n* Let 'Em Eat Cake (1933)\n* My One and Only (1983), an original 1983 musical using previously written Gershwin songs\n* Crazy for You (1992), a revised version of Girl Crazy, written and compiled without the participation of either George or Ira Gershwin.\n* Nice Work If You Can Get It (2012), a musical with a score by George and Ira Gershwin\n*An American in Paris, a new musical on Broadway (2015)\nFilms for which Gershwin wrote original scores\n* Delicious (1931), an early version of the Second Rhapsody and one other musical sequence was used in this film, the rest were rejected by the studio\n* Shall We Dance (1937), original orchestral score by Gershwin, no recordings available in modern stereo, some sections have never been recorded (Nominated- Academy Award for Best Original Song: They Can't Take That Away from Me)\n* A Damsel in Distress (1937)\n* The Goldwyn Follies (1938), posthumously released\n* The Shocking Miss Pilgrim (1947), uses songs previously unpublished\n\nLegacy\n\nEstate\n\nGershwin died intestate, and his estate passed to his mother. The estate continues to collect significant royalties from licensing the copyrights on his work. The estate supported the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act because its 1923 cutoff date was shortly before Gershwin had begun to create his most popular works. The copyrights on all Gershwin's solo works expired at the end of 2007 in the European Union, based on its life-plus-70-years rule.\n\nIn 2005, The Guardian determined using \"estimates of earnings accrued in a composer's lifetime\" that George Gershwin was the wealthiest composer of all time. \n\nIn September 2013, a partnership between the estates of Ira and George Gershwin and the University of Michigan was created and will provide the university's School of Music, Theatre, and Dance access to Gershwin's entire body of work, which includes all of Gershwin's papers, compositional drafts, and scores. This direct access to all of his works will provide opportunities to musicians, composers, and scholars to analyze and reinterpret his work with the goal of accurately reflecting the composers' vision in order to preserve his legacy. \n\nAwards and honors\n\n* The Congressional Gold Medal was awarded to George and Ira Gershwin in 1985. Only three other songwriters, George M. Cohan, Harry Chapin and Irving Berlin, have had the honor of receiving this award. \n* A special Pulitzer Prize was posthumously awarded to Gershwin in 1998 \"commemorating the centennial year of his birth, for his distinguished and enduring contributions to American music.\" \n*The George and Ira Gershwin Lifetime Musical Achievement Award was established by UCLA to honor the brothers for their contribution to music and for their gift to UCLA of the fight song \"Strike Up the Band for UCLA\". Winners have included Angela Lansbury (1988), Ray Charles (1991), Mel Torme (1994), Bernadette Peters (1995), Frank Sinatra (2000), Stevie Wonder (2002), k.d. lang (2003), James Taylor (2004), Babyface (2005), Burt Bacharach (2006), Quincy Jones (2007), Lionel Richie (2008) and Julie Andrews (2009).\n* George Gershwin was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame in 2006.\n\nNamesakes\n\n*The Gershwin Theatre on Broadway is named after George and Ira. \n*The Gershwin Hotel in the Flatiron District of Manhattan in New York City was named after George and Ira.\n*In Brooklyn, George Gershwin Junior High School 166 is named after him. \n\nBiopics\n\n*The 1945 biographical film Rhapsody in Blue starred Robert Alda as George Gershwin."
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"CHECKUPS; Gershwin Diagnosis: It Ain't ... WHEN George Gershwin died in 1937 at ... and the bravura of Gershwin's left-handed piano playing makes a 15-year ..."
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"Music: Death of Gershwin - TIME\nMusic: Death of Gershwin\nGoogle+\nWhen Composer George Gershwin crumpled in Hollywood last fortnight, doctors called it overwork. Last week, when he collapsed again they found a cystic tumor growing fast in his brain. Doctors at Hollywood's Cedars of Lebanon Hospital sent a hurry call to Dr. Walter Edward Dandy, great brain surgeon at Johns Hopkins. Gershwin sank so fast they had to operate before Dandy could get there. Next morning at 10:35 a. m., while his brother Ira watched over him, George Gershwin died. Serious musicians joined pluggers and crooners to mourn the 38-year-old composer who...\nTo continue reading:",
"George Gershwin - the American composer - in a nutshell.\nFamily\nBorn: Jacob Gershowitz, Brooklyn, New York, 26 September 1898\nFather: Morris (Moishe) Gershowitz - changed his name to Gershvin soon after arrival in USA from St Petersburg, Russia\nMother: Rosa Bruskin, Russian immigrant\nSiblings: Older brother: Ira, younge brother Arthur, younger sister Frances\nPartner: Kay Swift (10 year affair)\nChildren: none (though there may be an allegedly illegitimate son Alan )\nDied: 11 July 1937, Hollywood, California\nCause of Death: Brain tumor\nGrave: Westchester Hills Cemetary, Hastings on Hudson, New York (see findagrave )\nIra: George's elder brother, eventually became his lyricist for many of his most successful works. You can read more about him at gershwinfan.com\nArthur: His younger brother. Also a composer but his day job was as a stockbroker. More at Wikipedia\nFrances: George's kid sister (Frankie) was also very musical and was the first of the siblings to earn money from it. She was a gifted painter and died in 1999 at the grand old age of 92. Read more at her New York Times obituary.\nGershwin plays 'I've got Rhythm'\nGershwin - the man\nAs a boy George was quite a handful. He was full of energy and liked sports and playing more than classes.\nHe loved jazz and ragtime music and taught himself to play the piano. He was however fortunate in later having teachers who not only taught well the techniques but also encouraged and nurtured his taste of classical and jazz music.\nHe also loved art and became a talented painter, like his sister Frankie. He spent a lot of his earnings on building a valuable art collection.\nHis composing output was prolific, it is said he wrote six songs a day.\nHe was very popular and sociable, always in demand at parties for his piano playing.\nHe was tall, dark and handsome - and intelligent. The ladies loved him and he loved the ladies. He had several affairs but the steadiest was the ten years with Kay Swift, also a composer, who after he died helped Ira on various projects.\nMoney: In 1905 the Guardian newspaper researched and published a compose 'Rich List'. Gershwin was the top earner. Read the article here .\nHe died without having made a will.\nWorks\nplus hundreds of songs and six film scores\nSummertime - Porgy & Bess \nBrief Biography and Career\n1910 -Age 12 : A piano was bought for Ira, but it was George that used it most.\n1913 - age 15: dropped out from school. Got first job as a performer/song plugger in New York's Tin Pan Alley.\n1915 - age 17: First published song: \"When You Want 'Em - You Can't Get 'Em\"\n1919 - age 21: First nationally successful song: 'Swanee' popularised by Al Jolson\n- worked for various music publishers arranging and recording piano rolls for automated pianos.\n- with lyricist Buddy DeSylva wrote 'Blue Monday' a jazz opera considered a precursor to 'Porgy & Bess'.\n1924 - age 26: George and his brother Ira as lyricist produced the musical comedy 'Lady Be Good' (which included 'Fascinating Rhythm')\n- composed 'Rhapsody in Blue' his first classical (and most popular) work. It was premiered by Paul Whiteman's concert band.\n1930 - age 28: stayed a few months in Paris where he met with Ravel, Stravinsky, Prokofiev and Milhaud. He asked Ravel for lessons but he apparently replied 'You should give me lessons'. While there he started work on 'American in Paris'.\n1934 - age 36: hosted his own radio show for NBC 'Music by Gershwin'\n1935 - age 37: completed 'Porgy & Bess'\n1936 - age 38: commissioned by RKO to compose score for 'Shall We Dance'\n1937 - age 38: collapsed in Hollywood while working on the score of 'The Goldwyn Follies'. Died following surgery on his brain tumor.\nHonours:\n1932: Pulitzer Prize for the musical comedy 'Of Thee I Sing'\n1937: Oscar nomination (George and Ira) for 'Best Original Song: 'They Can't Take That Away From Me' from the film 'Shall We Dance'\n1985: Congressional Gold Medal to George and Ira.\nRhapsody in Blue\nQuotes\n- Life is a lot like jazz.. it's best when you improvise.\n- True music must repeat the thought and inspirations of the people and the time. My people are Americans and my time is today.\n- Why should I limit myself to only one woman when I can have as many women as I want?\n- \"I frequently hear music in the heart of noise.\"\nAn American in Paris NYSO in Korea\nLinks - where to go for more information",
"CHECKUPS; Gershwin Diagnosis: It Ain't Necessarily So - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nHealth |CHECKUPS; Gershwin Diagnosis: It Ain't Necessarily So\nSearch\nCHECKUPS; Gershwin Diagnosis: It Ain't Necessarily So\nBy ERIKA KINETZ\nContinue reading the main story\nWHEN George Gershwin died in 1937 at the tragically early age of 38, his doctors said he had been suffering from a fast-growing malignant brain tumor. But a pathologist in Louisiana has come up with another diagnosis -- that the tumor may have been slow-growing and treatable, even with the technology of the time.\nIn a recent paper in The Journal of Medical Biography, Dr. Gregory D. Sloop, an associate professor of pathology at the Louisiana State University School of Medicine in New Orleans, bases his conclusion on photographs of microscope slides taken from Gershwin's brain -- including one that had been overlooked for decades -- and on descriptions of the composer's final illness.\nDr. Sloop says the slides show tumor cells that lack the shape and characteristics of a malignant tumor. And he says the duration of Gershwin's neurological symptoms -- at least three and a half years -- makes an aggressive tumor unlikely. ''You don't live that long with the bad ones,'' he said in an interview.\nWhen he was 23, Gershwin began complaining of vague abdominal pain and constipation. Doctors found no physical basis for the complaints and told him the illness was in his head. He eventually sought psychotherapy.\nBut in early 1937, his behavior turned bizarre. He tried to push his chauffeur out of a moving car, smeared chocolates on his body, complained that he smelled burning rubber and forgot his own music at a performance.\nAdvertisement\nHe received little sympathy. ''There were people who said of him that he was an attention-seeker,'' said Hershey Felder, the creator and star of ''George Gershwin Alone,'' a Broadway show. ''They thought he was just making antics.''\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nOn June 23, Gershwin was admitted to Cedars of Lebanon Hospital in Los Angeles, complaining of debilitating headaches. He refused a spinal tap, a painful procedure that was commonly used to diagnose brain tumors, and was discharged with a diagnosis of ''most likely hysteria.''\nLess than a month later, he was taken back to the hospital, unconscious. In the right temporal lobe of his brain, surgeons found a cyst filled with an ounce of dark yellow fluid. They removed it, but it was too late. The pressure had begun to bear down on his brain stem, which controls functions like heart rate, respiration, temperature and consciousness, forcing part of it outside his skull. He died on July 11.\nNot everyone agrees with Dr. Sloop's diagnosis. Dr. Allen Silverstein, an associate clinical professor of neurology at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York , who has also written about Gershwin's illness, says he doubts the tumor was longstanding. The temporal lobe can control motor function, he said, and the bravura of Gershwin's left-handed piano playing makes a 15-year-old tumor in the right hemisphere unlikely. About Dr. Sloop's interpretation of the slides, Dr. Silverstein said, ''I honestly think he's quite wrong.''\nBoth doctors agree, however, that Gershwin's terminal suffering was organic rather than psychosomatic. If his doctors had realized this in the weeks before his death, the composer would probably have lived longer. Whether he would have written another ''Rhapsody in Blue'' is another question."
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"title": [
"Music: Death of Gershwin - TIME",
"George Gershwin - the American composer - in a nutshell.",
"CHECKUPS - Gershwin Diagnosis - It Ain't Necessarily So ..."
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